Rebuilding Anatolia after the Mongol Conquest: Islamic Architecture in the Lands of Rūm, 1240-1330...

27

Transcript of Rebuilding Anatolia after the Mongol Conquest: Islamic Architecture in the Lands of Rūm, 1240-1330...

Rebuilding Anatolia after the Mongol Conquest,VODPLF�$UFKLWHFWXUH�LQ�WKH�/DQGV�RI�5ƈP������²����

Patricia Blessing6WDQIRUG�8QLYHUVLW\��86$

Blessing book.indb 3 8/15/2014 11:16:19 AM

��3DWULFLD�%OHVVLQJ�����

$OO� ULJKWV� UHVHUYHG��1R�SDUW� RI� WKLV�SXEOLFDWLRQ�PD\�EH� UHSURGXFHG�� VWRUHG� LQ� D� UHWULHYDO� V\VWHP�RU�transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.

3DWULFLD� %OHVVLQJ� KDV� DVVHUWHG� KHU� ULJKW� XQGHU� WKH� &RS\ULJKW�� 'HVLJQV� DQG� 3DWHQWV� $FW�� ������ WR� EH�LGHQWLϮHG�DV�WKH�DXWKRU�RI�WKLV�ZRUN�

Published by Ashgate Publishing Limited Ashgate Publishing CompanyWey Court East 110 Cherry StreetUnion Road Suite 3-1)DUQKDP� � � � � %XUOLQJWRQ��97�����������6XUUH\��*8���37� � � � 86$England

www.ashgate.com

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data$�FDWDORJXH�UHFRUG�IRU�WKLV�ERRN�LV�DYDLODEOH�IURP�WKH�%ULWLVK�/LEUDU\

The Library of Congress has cataloged the printed edition as follows:%OHVVLQJ��3DWULFLD���5HEXLOGLQJ�$QDWROLD�DIWHU�WKH�0RQJRO�FRQTXHVW���,VODPLF�DUFKLWHFWXUH�LQ�WKH�ODQGV�RI�5ࡃP��������������E\�3DWULFLD�%OHVVLQJ��������SDJHV�FP������%LUPLQJKDP�%\]DQWLQH�DQG�2WWRPDQ�VWXGLHV������ Includes bibliographical references and index.��,6%1��������������������KDUGFRYHU�������,VODPLF�DUFKLWHFWXUH��7XUNH\������0RQJROV��7XUNH\��+LVWRU\������7XUNH\��+LVWRU\��7R��������,��7LWOH��

��1$�����%�����������������'�������GF��� ����������

,6%1� �������������������KEN�

Blessing book.indb 4 9/4/2014 9:37:38 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

Contents

/LVW�RI�LOOXVWUDWLRQV� YLL/LVW�RI�SODWHV� [L$FNQRZOHGJHPHQWV� [LLL/LVW�RI�DEEUHYLDWLRQV� [YLL1RWH�RQ�WUDQVOLWHUDWLRQ� [L[0DSV� [[L

,QWURGXFWLRQ��5HIUDPLQJ�WKH�ODQGV�RI�5ࡃP� �

�� $�FDSLWDO�ZLWKRXW�UR\DO�SDWURQDJH��.RQ\D������²������ ��

�� $�FDSLWDO�RI�OHDUQLQJ��7KUHH�PDGUDVDV�LQ�6LYDV������²������ ��

�� 2Q�WKH�,ONKDQLG�IURQWLHU��(U]XUXP������²������ ���

�� 6PDOO�FLWLHV�LQ�D�JOREDO�PRPHQW��7RNDW��$PDV\D��$QNDUD������²������ ���

(SLORJXH� ���%LEOLRJUDSK\� ���,QGH[� ���

Blessing book.indb 5 8/15/2014 11:16:19 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

�$Q

DWROLD

�LQ���

����MX

VW�EH

IRUH�W

KH�0

RQJR

O�FRQ

TXHVW

��3KLO

LS�6F

KZDUW

]EHUJ

��0HUL

GLDQ�0

DSSLQ

J

Blessing book.indb 21 8/15/2014 11:16:20 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

�$Q

DWROLD

�DURX

QG���

����3

KLOLS�

6FKZ

DUW]E

HUJ��0

HULGLD

Q�0DS

SLQJ�

Blessing book.indb 22 8/15/2014 11:16:20 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

�0D

MRU�WU

DGH�U

RXWHV

�LQ�$Q

DWROLD

�DQG�,

UDQ��F

�����

���3K

LOLS�6F

KZDUW

]EHUJ

��0HUL

GLDQ�0

DSSLQ

J

Blessing book.indb 23 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

,QWURGXFWLRQ��5HIUDPLQJ�WKH�ODQGV�RI�5ɫP

7KLV�ERRN�LV�D�VWXG\�RI�,VODPLF�DUFKLWHFWXUH�LQ�$QDWROLD��URXJKO\�SUHVHQW�GD\�7XUNH\��DIWHU�WKH�0RQJRO�FRQTXHVW�RI�WKH�UHJLRQ�LQ������������7KH�FRPSOH[�VKLIWV�LQ�UXOH��population movements, and cultural transformations that took place at the time DϸHFWHG�DUFKLWHFWXUH�RQ�PXOWLSOH�OHYHOV��:KHQ�WKH�0RQJRO�HPSLUH�EURNH�XS�LQWR�IRXU�distinct, if interdependent, realms (the Ilkhanate, the Golden Horde, the Chaghatay .KDQDWH��DQG�WKH�<XDQ�G\QDVW\��EHJLQQLQJ� LQ� WKH�����V��$QDWROLD�EHFDPH�SDUW�RI�the Ilkhanid realm with its center in Tabriz in western Iran.1�%HJLQQLQJ�ZLWK� WKH�conquest of Anatolia by Mongol armies in the middle of the thirteenth century, and ending with the decline of the Mongol Ilkhanid Empire centered in Iran in the 1330s, this book considers how the integration of Anatolia into the Mongol world system transformed architecture and patronage in the region.

Traditionally, this period has been studied within the larger narrative of a progression from Seljuk to Ottoman architecture, in the context of a historiography that privileges Turkish national identity. Only in recent years has a critical body of scholarship emerged that establishes a new framework for medieval Anatolia, with D�IUHVK�YLHZ�RI�WKH�XQGHUO\LQJ�KLVWRULRJUDSKLFDO�LVVXHV�DQG�QDWLRQDO�QDUUDWLYHV��%\�HVWDEOLVKLQJ�D�SDUWLFXODU�VHQVH�RI�SODFH��PHGLHYDO�$QDWROLDQ�DUFKLWHFWXUH�UHϰHFWV�WKH�complexities of the region in this particular historical moment and discredits the VWDQGDUG�QDUUDWLYH�RI�D�XQLϮHG�G\QDVWLF�VW\OH��6HHQ�LQ�WKLV�FRQWH[W��$QDWROLD�DSSHDUV�both as a distinctive geographic entity with features particular to this region and as a place closely connected to larger neighboring territories such as the Caucasus, northern Syria, and western Iran. Studying the architecture of medieval Anatolia within the wider context of the Mongol imperial umbrella, I will show that, far from being a singular, isolated case, it is an integral part of a broader framework that reaches beyond the borders of modern Turkey to include Iran and the Caucasus republics of Armenia and Georgia.

According to the established narrative, the fragmentation of Anatolia into small principalities (EH\OLNV� LQ� 7XUNLVK�� LQ� WKH� FRXUVH� RI� WKH� ODWH� WKLUWHHQWK� DQG� HDUO\�fourteenth centuries came directly after two centuries of Seljuk rule that began in

1� )RU�DQ�RYHUYLHZ�RQ�WKH�G\QDVWLF�KLVWRU\�RI�WKH�,ONKDQLGV��VHH��5HXYHQ�$PLWDL��´,O�.KDQLGV��L�� Dynastic History,” in: (QF\FORSDHGLD� ,UDQLFD, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-G\QDVWLF�KLVWRU\��DFFHVVHG����1RYHPEHU�������

Blessing book.indb 1 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ወᅵᄽዼᇹቈᅡᇹቨᇀ�႐ቨ႐ዧኂቈᇹ႐�႐ᆦዧᅵወ�ዧᇖᅵ�በኂቨᇀኂቈ�ᅐኂቨዅዼᅵዘዧ2

the late eleventh century. Yet a closer examination of the historical context shows that this fragmentation is actually the result of a process that began earlier, with the weakening of Seljuk rule at the hands of the Mongols in the second half of the thirteenth century. At the architectural level, political events rarely resulted in stylistic changes that can be directly associated with particular shifts in power. Rather, the processes were more complex, involving not only changes in rulership but also, even more importantly, the development of cultural networks between Anatolia and surrounding regions. Another essential factor in the discussion of local and cross-regional styles is the prevailing mobility of workshops, with craftsmen from various areas and regions traveling to those sites where patronage was available, in particular in the early thirteenth century.

7KHVH�FUDIWVPHQ��ZKR�FDPH�WR�$QDWROLD��DW�ϮUVW�PRVWO\�WR�WKH�6HOMXN�FDSLWDO�RI�.RQ\D��IURP�UHJLRQV�DV�IDU�ϰXQJ�DV�QRUWKHUQ�6\ULD��,UDQ��DQG�&HQWUDO�$VLD��EURXJKW�with them skill-sets and design principles that, over time, were adapted to locally DYDLODEOH�PDWHULDOV��1HZ�GHVLJQV�DQG�WHFKQLTXHV�HPHUJHG�IURP�WKH�V\QHUJLHV�FUHDWHG�ZKHQ�VNLOOHG�ZRUNHUV�IURP�GLϸHUHQW�UHJLRQV��ZLWK�YDULRXV�VNLOOV�DQG�NQRZOHGJH�RI�materials such as stone, stucco, tile, and wood, gathered in new workshops together with local craftsmen. The imported and local forms were the basis for highly skilled work, shaping architecture that is stylistically diverse, just as the historical context of Anatolia that produced it is complex. Therefore, stylistic analysis and close observation of monuments is useful in understanding the presence of the same RU�UHODWHG�ZRUNVKRSV�RQ�GLϸHUHQW�EXLOGLQJ�VLWHV��HYHQ�WKRXJK�WKH�ZULWWHQ�VRXUFHV�hardly ever address craftsmen and their work practices.

The few signatures of builders, stone-carvers, and carpenters that can be found on buildings and mosque furniture in medieval Anatolia show the diverse origins RI�FUDIWVPHQ��EXW�GR�QRW�WHOO�XV�DQ\WKLQJ�DERXW�ZRUNVKRS�VWUXFWXUH��1RU�GR�WKH\��LQ�PDQ\�FDVHV��H[SODLQ�WKH�SODFH�RI�D�FHUWDLQ�ϮJXUH�ZLWKLQ�WKH�FRQVWUXFWLRQ�SURFHVV��$V�,�ZLOO�GLVFXVV�IXUWKHU�LQ�&KDSWHU����WKH�LGHQWLϮFDWLRQ�RI�GLϸHUHQW��LI�VLPLODU��VLJQDWXUHV�ZLWK� RQH� �KLVWRULFDOO\� QRW� RWKHUZLVH� GRFXPHQWHG�� SHUVRQ� VW\OL]HG� DV� D� PDVWHU�builder is problematic. It suits a tendency in the history of Islamic art to look for builders and craftsmen who can be named, perhaps following a Renaissance model LQ�ZKLFK��DW�OHDVW�VLQFH�9DVDUL��WKH�DUWLVW�DQG�KLV��UDUHO\�KHU��ELRJUDSK\�DUH�FHQWUDO�2 ,�ZLOO�HVFKHZ�WKH�DWWHPSW�WR�DWWULEXWH�PRQXPHQWV�WR�D�VSHFLϮF�PDVWHU�EXLOGHU�RU�architect, and rather pay attention to the ways in which close stylistic analysis can show how, in medieval Anatolia, workshops moved from one city to another, from RQH�EXLOGLQJ�VLWH�WR�WKH�QH[W��DQG�KRZ�GLϸHUHQW�VXE�JURXSV�RI�WKH�VDPH�ZRUNVKRS�could be employed on several parallel construction projects. Thus, the attention paid to details of decoration and construction will allow me both to challenge the myth of the master builder and to demonstrate that several, distinct workshops could collaborate on one and the same building site. Moreover, this will also allow me to reevaluate the relationship between patrons and workshops. We will see that the notion of exclusive employment of one workshop for a singular patron at one time (perhaps related to the extensive evidence for imperial workshops in the

2 See, for instance: Leo Ary Mayer��,VODPLF�$UFKLWHFWV�DQG�WKHLU�:RUNV��*HQHYD��$��.XQGLJ�������

Blessing book.indb 2 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ᇹቨዧወኂᅡዼᅐዧᇹኂቨ��ወᅵᆦወ႐በᇹቨᇀ�ዧᇖᅵ�ቈ႐ቨᅡዘ�ኂᆦ�ወጇበ 3

VL[WHHQWK�FHQWXU\�2WWRPDQ�HPSLUH��GRHV�QRW�DSSO\�LQ�WKLUWHHQWK�FHQWXU\�$QDWROLD��The same workshop could work for the sultan and one of his notables in Konya �DV�VKRZQ�LQ�&KDSWHU�����ZKLOH�LQ�6LYDV��D�SDWURQ�IURP�$QDWROLD�DQG�RQH�IURP�,UDQ��GHVSLWH�WKHLU�GLϸHUHQW�SROLWLFDO�DϲOLDWLRQV��FRPPLVVLRQHG�WKH�VDPH�ZRUNVKRS�IRU�SDUWV�RI�WKH�EXLOGLQJV�WKH\�KDG�FRQVWUXFWHG��DV�ZH�ZLOO�VHH�LQ�&KDSWHU�����7KXV��HYHQ�WKRXJK�KLVWRULFDO�HYHQWV�LQϰXHQFHG�ZKR�ZDV�DEOH�WR�FRPPLVVLRQ�PRQXPHQWV��ERWK�LQ�ϮQDQFLDO� DQG�SROLWLFDO� WHUPV��� DQG�PDGH� D� FHUWDLQ� FLW\�PRUH� RU� OHVV� DWWUDFWLYH�for the highly mobile workshops of the time, they did not necessarily determine architectural style. As I will show throughout this book, the integration of Anatolia LQWR�WKH�0RQJRO�HPSLUH�IRVWHUHG�ORFDO�VW\OHV��LQϰXHQFHG�PXFK�PRUH�E\�WKH�FRQWLQXHG�SUHVHQFH�DQG�PRELOLW\�RI�GLϸHUHQW�ZRUNVKRSV��DQG�WKHLU�XVH�RI�ORFDO�WHFKQLTXHV�DQG�materials, than by the political realities of the day. At the same time, patterns of patronage profoundly changed because of the political and economic shifts of the SHULRG��DϸHFWLQJ�WKH�W\SHV��VFDOH��DQG�ORFDWLRQ�RI�WKH�PRQXPHQWV�WKDW�ZHUH�EXLOW��

Hence, while challenging the assumption that an exclusive correlation between DUFKLWHFWXUH��DQG�LWV�VW\OH��DQG�D�JLYHQ�SROLWLFDO�SRZHU�H[LVWV��,�VKLIW�DWWHQWLRQ�WR�WKH�monuments themselves, using them as crucial sources for the cultural and economic dynamics of the time. Within this framework, monuments are points of reference IRU� ODUJHU� VRFLR�FXOWXUDO� GHYHORSPHQWV� WKDW� DUH� WLHG� WR� D� VSHFLϮF�SODFH��$QDWROLD��DQG�WR�VSHFLϮF�VLWHV�ZLWKLQ� LW��QDPHO\�WKH�FLWLHV� LQ�ZKLFK�WKHVH�PRQXPHQWV�ZHUH�built. The idea of a geography of art, with its attention to cross-regional networks, is SDUW�RI�WKH�EURDGHU�DWWHPSW�WR�PRYH�EH\RQG�D�QDUURZO\�GHϮQHG�JHRJUDSKLFDO�XQLW�3 7KH�WHUP�´ODQGV�RI�5ࡃPµ�LQ�WKH�VXEWLWOH�RI�WKLV�ERRN�URRWV�P\�VWXG\�LQ�WKH�FXOWXUDO�JHRJUDSK\�RI�WKH�UHJLRQ³SDUW�5RPDQ�E\�ZD\�RI�%\]DQWLXP��SDUW�,VODPLF�E\�ZD\�RI�WKH�$UDELF�WHUP�IRU�WKH�%\]DQWLQH�UHDOP��´5ࡃPµ�UHIHUV�DW�RQFH�WR�5RPH��%\]DQWLXP��DQG�$QDWROLD�ZKLOH�WKH�DGMHFWLYH�´5ࡃPҸµ�FDQ�PHDQ�*UHHN��%\]DQWLQH��$QDWROLDQ��RU�Ottoman—to name just a few of a whole range of nuances.4

7KH� WHUP� ´ODQGV� RI� �Pµࡃ5 WKXV� DOOXGHV� WR� FRUH� FRQFHSWV� WKDW� DUH� DW� LVVXH�throughout this book: mobility, frontier, and geography. During the period of the Mongol conquests, which began in Central Asia in the 1220s and rapidly moved on to Iran, Anatolia, despite its frontier character, initially became a comparatively attractive destination for refugees, including scholars and craftsmen. When the Mongol armies reached Anatolia in the third decade of their conquests, however, WKH�UHJLRQ·V�SRVLWLRQ�DV�D�IURQWLHU�ZDV�UHGHϮQHG��,W�ZDV�QRZ�DOVR�DW�WKH�ZHVWHUQ�HGJH�of the Mongol realm, and no longer exclusively a borderland between Christianity and Islam. The notions of frontier and frontier culture are essential to any study of PHGLHYDO�$QDWROLD��HVSHFLDOO\�DIWHU�&HPDO�.DIDGDU·V�LQϰXHQWLDO�ERRN�RQ�WKH�JHQHVLV�

3 Thomas DaCosta Kaufmann, 7RZDUGV�D�*HRJUDSK\�RI�$UW, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2004.

4� 6LEHO�%R]GRОDQ�DQG�*�OUX�1HFLSRОOX��´(QWDQJOHG�GLVFRXUVHV��VFUXWLQL]LQJ�2ULHQWDOLVW�DQG�QDWLRQDOLVW�OHJDFLHV�LQ�WKH�DUFKLWHFWXUDO�KLVWRULRJUDSK\�RI�WKH�¶/DQGV�RI�5XP·�µ�0XTDUQDV�������������²��� &HPDO� .DIDGDU�� $́� 5RPH� RI� 2QH·V� 2ZQ�� 5HϰHFWLRQV� RQ� &XOWXUDO� *HRJUDSK\� DQG� ,GHQWLW\� LQ�the Lands of Rum,” 0XTDUQDV� ��� �������� �²���� IRU� VWXGLHV� LQYROYLQJ� FXOWXUDO� JHRJUDSK\�� VHH� DOVR��'HQL]�%H\D]LW� �HG���$W� WKH�&URVVURDGV�RI�(PSLUHV³��WK²��WK�FHQWXU\�(DVWHUQ�$QDWROLD��3URFHHGLQJV�RI� WKH�,QWHUQDWLRQDO� 6\PSRVLXP� KHOG� LQ� ,VWDQEXO�� �WK²�WK�0D\� ������ 3DULV�� 'H� %RFFDUG�� ������ 6X]DQ� <DOPDQ��´%XLOGLQJ�WKH�6XOWDQDWH�RI�5XP��5HOLJLRQ��8UEDQLVP�DQG�0\VWLFLVP�LQ�WKH�$UFKLWHFWXUDO�3DWURQDJH�RI�¶$OD�DO�'LQ�.D\TXEDG��U������²������µ�3K'�GLVVHUWDWLRQ��+DUYDUG�8QLYHUVLW\�������

Blessing book.indb 3 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ወᅵᄽዼᇹቈᅡᇹቨᇀ�႐ቨ႐ዧኂቈᇹ႐�႐ᆦዧᅵወ�ዧᇖᅵ�በኂቨᇀኂቈ�ᅐኂቨዅዼᅵዘዧ4

of the Ottoman Empire and its JKč]Ҹ culture.� The latter term, related to the JKD]č �0XVOLP�ZDUULRUV·�HϸRUWV�WR�VHFXUH�WHUULWRULHV�IRU�WKHLU�RZQ�SURϮW�DV�PXFK�DV�IRU�,VODP���ZDV�HVVHQWLDO�WR�WKH�LQLWLDO�6HOMXN�FRQTXHVW�RI�$QDWROLD�LQ�WKH�ODWH�HOHYHQWK�century, but also later on, when the relationship between urban and rural, and sedentary and nomadic, milieus was a constant renegotiation.

7KH�UHJLRQ·V� LQKHUHQW� LQVWDELOLW\�� DORQJ�ZLWK� WKH�ϰXLG� LGHQWLW\�DQG�PRELOLW\�RI�its populations is essential to understanding Anatolia, which experienced constant upheaval, dotted with occasional islands of stability, throughout the Middle Ages. <HW�D� IURQWLHU� LV�QRW� MXVW�DQ�HPSW\�DUHD�ZDLWLQJ� WR�EH�ϮOOHG��5DWKHU�� LW� UHSUHVHQWV�D�VSDFH� LQ�ZKLFK�QHZFRPHUV� �EH�WKH\�FRQTXHURUV�RU�UHIXJHHV��DQG� ORFDOV�KDYH�WR�negotiate the terms of politics, religion, and culture. Along these lines, Engseng Ho, in his insightful study of the genealogies of VD\\LG�families (the Arabic term for IDPLOLHV�WKDW�FRXQW�WKHPVHOYHV�DPRQJ�WKH�GHVFHQGDQWV�RI�WKH�3URSKHW�0XєDPPDG��in medieval and early modern Yemen, and of the Yemeni diaspora in Southeast Asia, evoked the frontier as a concept not of emptiness, but of cultural exchange.� Thus, frontier lands are not WHUUDLQ�YDJXH, devoid of human settlement and culture, vague ERWK�LQ�FKDUDFWHU�DQG�LQ�WHUPV�RI�WKHLU�ODFN�RI�VSDWLDO�GHϮQLWLRQ��5DWKHU��WKH�IURQWLHU�LV� D� IURQWLHU� RQO\� IRU� WKH� FXOWXUH� WKDW� HQWHUV�� ZKHUHDV� IRU� WKH� SHRSOH�V�� DOUHDG\�present, it remains what it always was: their home.

In the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries, the Seljuk court of Konya SURYLGHG�D�IHZ�GHFDGHV�RI�UHODWLYH�VWDELOLW\��VHH�0DS�����DOORZLQJ�IRU�JUHDW�WHFKQLFDO�feats and aesthetic accomplishments in architecture in the early decades of the thirteenth century. The city was under constant construction, in particular during WKH� UXOH� RI� ¶$Oč·� DO�'ҸQ� .D\TXEčG� �U�� ���²���� ����²����� ZKR� UHVWRUHG� WKH� 6HOMXN�capital to its glory after the temporary threat of conquest during the Third Crusade LQ������� This period of Seljuk consolidation and centralization, when Konya was the capital and focus of patronage together with the surrounding region, has received the most scholarly attention, and is also the focus of the most extensive FRQWHPSRUDU\�FKURQLFOH�RI�6HOMXN�UXOH�LQ�$QDWROLD��,EQ�%ҸEҸ·V�DO�$YčPLU�DO�¶DOč·L\\D�IҸ�¶O�¶XPࡃU�DO�¶DOč·L\\D.�

1HYHUWKHOHVV��WKH�SUHYDOHQW�IURQWLHU�FXOWXUH�RI�WKH�UHJLRQ�VXEWO\�DϸHFWHG�WKHVH�projects: the architecture remained the result of combining and shifting styles, eclectically bringing together seemingly disparate elements. In keeping with the IURQWLHU�FKDUDFWHU�VR� LQWULQVLF�WR�WKH�UHJLRQ·V� LGHQWLW\��WKH�EXGGLQJ�RI�D�UHODWLYHO\�centralized Seljuk realm did not immediately result in a stylistic unity directly linked to the royal patronage. If such a unifying tendency was visible to some extent in the 1220s, the Mongol takeover a mere two decades later put an end to it, privileging local styles instead. It is this later period, from the 1240s to the 1330s, that is the

� Cemal Kafadar, %HWZHHQ� 7ZR� :RUOGV�� 7KH� &RQVWUXFWLRQ� RI� WKH� 2WWRPDQ� 6WDWH�� %HUNHOH\�� &$��8QLYHUVLW\�RI�&DOLIRUQLD�3UHVV��������

� Engseng Ho, 7KH�*UDYHV�RI�7DULP��*HQHDORJ\�DQG�0RELOLW\�DFURVV�WKH�,QGLDQ�2FHDQ��%HUNHOH\��&$��8QLYHUVLW\�RI�&DOLIRUQLD�3UHVV��������2Q�IURQWLHU�FRQWH[WV�LQ�PHGLHYDO�,VODPLF�DUW�DQG�DUFKLWHFWXUH��VHH�� )�� %DUU\� )ORRG�� 2EMHFWV� RI� 7UDQVODWLRQ�� 0DWHULDO� &XOWXUH� DQG� 0HGLHYDO� ´+LQGX�0XVOLPµ� (QFRXQWHU, 3ULQFHWRQ��1-��3ULQFHWRQ�8QLYHUVLW\�3UHVV�������

�� )RU�PRUH�DERXW�WKLV�SDWURQ��VHH��<DOPDQ��´%XLOGLQJ�WKH�6XOWDQDWH�RI�5XPµ��6X]DQ�<DOPDQ��“Ala al-Din Kayqubad Illuminated: A Rum Seljuq Sultan as Cosmic Ruler,” 0XTDUQDV���������������²���

� Primary sources are discussed in the eponymous sub-section below.

Blessing book.indb 4 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ᇹቨዧወኂᅡዼᅐዧᇹኂቨ��ወᅵᆦወ႐በᇹቨᇀ�ዧᇖᅵ�ቈ႐ቨᅡዘ�ኂᆦ�ወጇበ �

focus of this book, which aims to paint a multifaceted picture of the patronage and architecture that emerged in several key cities in central Anatolia during this period �VHH�0DS�����

7KLV� DWWHQWLRQ� WR� VSHFLϮF� SODFHV� LQ� SDUWLFXODU� KLVWRULFDO�PRPHQWV� KDV� OHG�PH�to move beyond the study of one single category of monuments, either religious RU�¶VHFXODU·��WR�WKH�H[WHQW�WKDW�WKH�ODWWHU�WHUP�LV�YDOLG�IRU�WKH�SHULRG�VWXGLHG�KHUH��Thus, while many studies of the architecture of medieval Anatolia focus on one type RI�PRQXPHQW� �PRVTXHV��PDGUDVDV�� RU� FDUDYDQVHUDLV�� IRU� LQVWDQFH��� ,� KDYH� FKRVHQ�instead to concentrate on particular cities and to study the extant monuments from the period discussed here. The monuments in and of themselves say a lot about patterns of patronage from the 1240s to the 1330s, the decades that I focus on. If hardly any mosques are discussed in this book, it is because most mosques in Anatolia were built quite soon after the Seljuk conquest, throughout the twelfth century. Madrasas, on the other hand, were popular objects of patronage throughout the thirteenth century, and particularly after 1240, for reasons that are further discussed in Chapters 1, 2, and 3. Similarly, many monuments (various called NKčQTčKs, ]čZL\DV��RU�GHUYLVK�ORGJHV��UHODWHG�WR�WKH�ULWXDO�DQG�GDLO\�QHHGV�RI�6XϮ�FRPPXQLWLHV�ZHUH�EXLOW�LQ�WKLV�SHULRG��7KH\�UHϰHFW�WKH�UHOLJLRXV�PLOLHX�RI�WKH�WLPH��LQFOXGLQJ�WKH�UHODWLRQVKLS�EHWZHHQ�6XϮV�DQG�XOHPD��GLVFXVVHG�SDUWLFXODUO\�LQ�&KDSWHUV���DQG����� At the secular level, caravanserais were important for the functioning of trade networks ever since Anatolia was integrated into the broader Islamic world and, clearly, the monuments commissioned by the Seljuk sultans in central Anatolia in the 1220s and 1230s continued to function into the fourteenth century. At the same time, shifting trade routes that came with the increased connections to Iran and WKH�%ODFN�6HD� UHJLRQ� IURP� WKH�����V� �GLVFXVVHG� LQ�&KDSWHU���� RQZDUGV� OHG� WR� WKH�construction of caravanserais in north-eastern Anatolia, a region that was never central during the apogee of Seljuk rule. Here, the economic integration of Anatolia into the Ilkhanid realm can be seen best, just as it is in the Ilkhanid coins minted in the region in the early fourteenth century and in tax inscriptions applied to monuments at the same time.

This leaves the question of palaces, a type of monument that I do not discuss in this VWXG\�IRU�ODFN�RI�HYLGHQFH��1RQH�RI�WKH�6HOMXN�SDODFHV�DUH�IXOO\�H[WDQW��WKH�RQHV�WKDW�KDYH�EHHQ�H[FDYDWHG��PRVW�QRWDEO\�WKH�SDODFH�RI�.XEčGDEčG��ORFDWHG�RQ�DQ�LVODQG�LQ�/DNH�%H\ߞHKLU��GDWH�WR�WKH�����V�DQG�HDUOLHU���1RWKLQJ�UHPDLQV�RI�WKH�PDQVLRQV�WKDW�WKH�SRZHUIXO�SDWURQV�RI�WKH�����V�WR������SUHVXPDEO\�KDG��7KH�,ONKDQLGV��ZLWK�WKHLU�center in Iran, had no interest in building palaces in Anatolia, a fact owed also to the peripatetic nature of the court, still rooted in a nomadic lifestyle.10 Summer and ZLQWHU�FDPSV�H[LVWHG�LQ�GLϸHUHQW�SDUWV�RI�WKH�,ONKDQLG�UHDOP³RQH�RI�WKH�VXPPHU�FDPSV��$OčWčJK��ZDV�LQ�IDFW�ORFDWHG�LQ�WKH�YLFLQLW\�RI�/DNH�9DQ�LQ�HDVWHUQ�$QDWROLD�11

�� .DWKDULQD�2WWR�'RUQ��́ %HULFKW��EHU�GLH�*UDEXQJ�LQ�.REDGDEDG�2NWREHU������µ�$UFKlRORJLVFKHU�$Q]HLJHU���������������²�����.DWKDULQD�2WWR�'RUQ�DQG�0HKPHW�gQGHU��´%HULFKW��EHU�GLH�*UDEXQJ�LQ�.REDGDEDG��2NWREHU�������µ�$UFKlRORJLVFKHU�$Q]HLJHU���������������²����5�oKDQ�$U×N��.XEDG�$EDG³6HOoXNOX�6DUD\�YH�dLQLOHUL��,VWDQEXO��7�UNL\H�ԭߞ�%DQNDV×�.�OW�U�<D\×QODU×�������

10� &KDUOHV� 0HOYLOOH�� ´7KH� ,WLQHUDULHV� RI� 6XOWDQ� gOMHLW��� ����²���µ� ,UDQ�� -RXUQDO� RI� WKH� %ULWLVK�,QVWLWXWH�RI�3HUVLDQ�6WXGLHV��������������²����

11� 0HOYLOOH��´7KH�,WLQHUDULHV�µ����

Blessing book.indb 5 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ወᅵᄽዼᇹቈᅡᇹቨᇀ�႐ቨ႐ዧኂቈᇹ႐�႐ᆦዧᅵወ�ዧᇖᅵ�በኂቨᇀኂቈ�ᅐኂቨዅዼᅵዘዧ�

7KXV�� WKH�PRQXPHQWV� SUHVHQWHG� LQ� WKLV� VWXG\� UHϰHFW� WKH� W\SHV� RI� EXLOGLQJV� WKDW�ZHUH�LQ�SDUWLFXODUO\�LQ�GHPDQG�DW�DQ\�JLYHQ�WLPH�LQ�D�VSHFLϮF�ORFDWLRQ��RIWHQ�RZLQJ�to a particular local context. Hence, as I will argue throughout this book, medieval Anatolia has to be treated as a place in which architecture is closely tied to local dynamics and workshops, much more so than to the broader imperial dynamics of Mongol, and later Ilkhanid, rule. At the same time, the historical, economic, and FXOWXUDO�FRQWH[W�GLG�DϸHFW� WKH�G\QDPLFV�RI�SDWURQDJH��PRYHPHQWV�RI�ZRUNVKRSV��DQG�ϮQDQFLDO�PHDQV³FRQGLWLRQV�WKDW��LQ�WXUQ��WUDQVIRUPHG�DUFKLWHFWXUH��

The study of the architecture of empire, and of architecture as the expression RI�DQ�HPSLUH·V�DVSLUDWLRQ�WR�XQLI\�LWV�UHDOP�LQ�RQH�FXOWXUDO�DQG�VW\OLVWLF�VSKHUH��LV�RI�FRXUVH� MXVWLϮHG� LQ�PDQ\�FDVHV��HVSHFLDOO\� IRU� WKH�HDUO\�PRGHUQ�HPSLUHV�RI� WKH�Islamic world, including the Ottomans and Safavids. The architecture of Ilkhanid Iran and of Mamluk Egypt and Syria during the Middle Ages—in particular the way in which these two dynasties competed for monumentality—can also be seen in terms RI�XQLϮHG��HPSLUH�ZLGH�EXLOGLQJ�FDPSDLJQV�12 In the case of medieval Anatolia, as I will demonstrate in detail throughout this book, architecture became increasingly localized under the Mongol imperial umbrella—an observation that pertains to patrons of various categories, including the Ilkhanid governors. Seen in this light, medieval Anatolia is no longer an isolated unit that developed its own idiosyncratic architectural styles. Thus, as I argue, the region emerges as part of a larger network of economic and cultural exchange that included Iran and the Caucasus. Though the dynamics of Ilkhanid patronage evolved in various directions they nevertheless remained connected to the overall system of the Mongol empire as a site for the exchange of commodities, as Thomas Allsen has argued.13

7KH�UHYLWDOL]DWLRQ�RI�WUDGH�QHWZRUNV�UHϰHFWHG�WKH�LPSDFW�RI�HFRQRPLF�UHIRUPV�LQWURGXFHG� XQGHU� *Kč]čQ� .KčQ� �U�� ���²����� ����²������� DIWHU� KLV� FRQYHUVLRQ� WR�Islam.14 These networks, visible on the ground in the rare remains of caravanserais built in Armenia and western Iran in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, were connected to those in Anatolia, where the Seljuk sultans had already begun to establish an infrastructure for trade in the 1220s. While the Seljuk network of caravanserais was particularly strong in the region of Konya, and in connecting WKH�SRUWV�RI�WKH�0HGLWHUUDQHDQ�WR�WKH�%ODFN�6HD��LW�VKLIWHG�HDVWZDUGV�DIWHU�WKH�0RQJRO�conquest.�� Throughout this period, Sivas remained a hub for commerce due to its location at the intersection of trade routes, and it continued to rise in importance in the second half of the thirteenth century. The Ilkhanid investment in these trade

12� *�OUX� 1HFLSRОOX�� ´&KDOOHQJLQJ� WKH� 3DVW�� 6LQDQ� DQG� WKH� &RPSHWLWLYH� 'LVFRXUVH� RI� (DUO\�Modern Islamic Architecture,” 0XTDUQDV� ��� �������� ���²���� %HUQDUG� 2·.DQH�� ´0RQXPHQWDOLW\� LQ�Mongol and Mamluk Architecture,” $UW�+LVWRU\�����QR���������������²����

13 Thomas Allsen, &RPPRGLW\� DQG� ([FKDQJH� LQ� WKH�0RQJRO� (PSLUH�� D� &XOWXUDO� +LVWRU\� RI� ,VODPLF�7H[WLOHV��&DPEULGJH��&DPEULGJH�8QLYHUVLW\�3UHVV�������

14� *HRUJH�,RDQ�%UúWLDQX��5HFKHUFKHV�VXU�OH�FRPPHUFH�JpQRLV�GDQV�OD�0HU�1RLUH�DX�;,,,H�VLqFOH, Paris: 3��*HXWKQHU��������9LUJLO�&LRFLOWkQ��7KH�0RQJROV�DQG�WKH�%ODFN�6HD�7UDGH�LQ�WKH�7KLUWHHQWK�DQG�)RXUWHHQWK�&HQWXULHV��/HLGHQ�DQG�%RVWRQ��%ULOO�������

��� $QGUHZ�&�6��3HDFRFN��´%ODFN�6HD�7UDGH�DQG�WKH�,VODPLF�:RUOG�GRZQ�WR�WKH�0RQJRO�3HULRG�µ�LQ�� *�OGHQ� (UNXW� DQG� 6WHSKHQ�0LWFKHOO� �HGV��7KH� %ODFN� 6HD�� 3DVW�� 3UHVHQW� DQG� )XWXUH�� SURFHHGLQJV� RI�WKH� LQWHUQDWLRQDO�� LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\�FRQIHUHQFH�� ,VWDQEXO����²���2FWREHU�������/RQGRQ��%ULWLVK� ,QVWLWXWH�DW�$QNDUD�DQG�,VWDQEXO��,VWDQEXO�7HFKQLFDO�8QLYHUVLW\����������²���

Blessing book.indb 6 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ᇹቨዧወኂᅡዼᅐዧᇹኂቨ��ወᅵᆦወ႐በᇹቨᇀ�ዧᇖᅵ�ቈ႐ቨᅡዘ�ኂᆦ�ወጇበ �

V\VWHPV��WKURXJK�UHPRQHWL]DWLRQ�DQG�IRVWHULQJ�%ODFN�6HD�WUDGH��FRQQHFWHG�$QDWROLD�ZLWK�WKH�FDUDYDQVHUDL�QHWZRUN�RI�,UDQ��VHH�0DS�����&LWLHV�OLNH�(U]XUXP��RQH�RI�WKH�FDVH�VWXGLHV�LQ�WKLV�ERRN��EHQHϮWWHG�IURP�WKHVH�QHZ�RSSRUWXQLWLHV��� Thus, while trade and caravanserais are secondary to this study that focuses on the urban centers that emerged and were reshaped during the period under investigation here, they are nonetheless an important part of the background for this transformation.

Anatolia, from Seljuk to Mongol rule

$� GHWDLOHG� LQWURGXFWLRQ� WR� HYHQWV�� KLVWRULFDO� ϮJXUHV�� DQG� VRXUFHV³QHFHVVDU\� IRU�understanding the complex historical context of the period—is provided below and referenced throughout the following chapters. The initial conquest of Asia Minor by Turkic forces arriving from Iran began under the command of the Great Seljuk VXOWDQ�$OS�$UVODQ��U�����²��������²�����LQLWLDWLQJ�WKH�,VODPL]DWLRQ�RI�$QDWROLD��:KHQ�$OS� $UVODQ·V� IRUFHV� EHJDQ� WR� PRYH� LQWR� $QDWROLD�� WKH� %\]DQWLQH� HPSHURUV� ZHUH�struggling to hold on to the eastern parts of the region.���1HYHUWKHOHVV��WKH�GHIHDW�RI�5RPDQRV� ,9�'LRJHQHV� �U������²����DW�0DQ]LNHUW� �0DOD]JLUW���DQG�WKH�HPSHURU·V�captivity and subsequent death, came as a shock, even though recent research VXJJHVWV� WKDW� LW� PD\� KDYH� EHHQ� WKH� FXOPLQDWLRQ� RI� WKH� %\]DQWLQHV·� JUDGXDO� ORVV�of control over much of Anatolia, which had begun as early as the 1040s.�� These conquests caused considerable upheaval as power constantly shifted back and IRUWK�EHWZHHQ�WKH�6HOMXNV�DQG�WKH�%\]DQWLQHV��DV�ZHOO�DV�EHWZHHQ�WKH�7XUNLF�JURXSV�DQG�WKHLU�7XUFRPDQ�DϲOLDWHV��� Though a fragile peace was achieved occasionally, WKH�%\]DQWLQH�GHIHDW� DW� WKH�EDWWOH�RI�0\ULRNHSKDORQ� LQ� ����� ����� IRUFHG�0DQXHO�,�.RPQHQRV��U������²����WR�FHGH�ODUJH�SDUWV�RI�FHQWUDO�DQG�HDVWHUQ�$QDWROLD�WR�WKH�Seljuks.

Over the following decades, military leaders who had initially come to the region with the Great Seljuk armies progressively conquered large parts of eastern and central Anatolia, and began to establish their own proto-states based on complex

�� Wolfram Kleiss, .DUDZDQHQEDXWHQ�LQ�,UDQ��%HUOLQ��'LHWULFK�5HLPHU�9HUODJ��������YRO�������²���DQG�)LJV�����������'RQDOG�1HZWRQ�:LOEHU��7KH�$UFKLWHFWXUH�RI�,VODPLF�,UDQ³WKH�,O�.KDQLG�3HULRG, Princeton, 1-��3ULQFHWRQ�8QLYHUVLW\�3UHVV�����������DQG�FDW��QRV�������������

�� The standard historical survey of the period in English remains Claude Cahen, 3UH�2WWRPDQ�7XUNH\��D�JHQHUDO�VXUYH\�RI�WKH�PDWHULDO�DQG�VSLULWXDO�FXOWXUH�DQG�KLVWRU\�F������²������WU��-��-RQHV�:LOOLDPV��/RQGRQ��6LGJZLFN��-DFNVRQ��������VRPH�IRRWQRWHV�ZHUH�UHFRQVWUXFWHG�SRVWKXPRXVO\�IURP�&DKHQ·V�QRWHV� IRU� D� )UHQFK� HGLWLRQ�� &ODXGH� &DKHQ�� /D� 7XUTXLH� SUp�RWWRPDQH�� 9DULD� 7XUFLFD�� ,VWDQEXO�� '×Y×W�0DWEDDF×O×N�YH�<D\×QF×O×N��������7KH�PRVW�UHFHQW�(QJOLVK�HGLWLRQ�LV�D�WUDQVODWLRQ�RI�WKH�)UHQFK�YHUVLRQ��Claude Cahen, 7KH�)RUPDWLRQ�RI�7XUNH\��WKH�6HOMXNLG�6XOWDQDWH�RI�5ࡃP��HOHYHQWK�WR�IRXUWHHQWK�FHQWXU\, tr. DQG�HG��3�0��+ROW��+DUORZ��(QJODQG��DQG�1HZ�<RUN��/RQJPDQ��������,Q�7XUNLVK��WKH�VWDQGDUG�ZRUN�LV��Osman Turan, 6HOoXNOXODU�]DPDQ×QGD�7�UNL\H�¬VL\DVv�WDULK�$OS�$UVODQ·GDQ�2VPDQ�*D]L·\H������²����, eighth HGLWLRQ��,VWDQEXO�¬gW�NHQ�¬������ϮUVW�SXEOLVKHG�LQ�������

�� Andrew C.S. Peacock, (DUO\� 6HOMࡃT� +LVWRU\³$� QHZ� LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ�� /RQGRQ� DQG� 1HZ� <RUN��5RXWOHGJH�����������RQ�WKH�WUHDWPHQW�RI�WKLV�EDWWOH�LQ�PHGLHYDO�$UDELF��3HUVLDQ��DQG�*UHHN�VRXUFHV��see: Carole Hillenbrand, 7XUNLVK� 0\WK� DQG� 0XVOLP� 6\PERO³7KH� %DWWOH� RI� 0DQ]LNHUW, Edinburgh: (GLQEXUJK�8QLYHUVLW\�3UHVV��������

�� Turkic: generally, Turkish-speaking; Turcoman: term used to designate nomadic groups of 7XUNLF�KHULWDJH�WKDW�ZHUH�RIWHQ�GLϲFXOW�WR�FRQWURO�IRU�WKH�6HOMXN�UXOHUV�

Blessing book.indb 7 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ወᅵᄽዼᇹቈᅡᇹቨᇀ�႐ቨ႐ዧኂቈᇹ႐�႐ᆦዧᅵወ�ዧᇖᅵ�በኂቨᇀኂቈ�ᅐኂቨዅዼᅵዘዧ�

relationships between the dynasty and Turcoman tribes.20 The Seljuks and Danishmendids proved to be the most successful in establishing their autonomy at the head of independent proto-states. The Danishmendids had held Sivas since the ODWH�HOHYHQWK�FHQWXU\�DQG� WRRN�RYHU�0DODW\D� LQ������������HYHQ� IRUJLQJ�DOOLDQFHV�with Crusader forces against the Seljuks. Weakened by its division into three SDUWV� LQ� ����� ������ WKH� 'DQLVKPHQGLG� SULQFLSDOLW\� SURJUHVVLYHO\� ORVW� LWV� ODQGV� WR�WKH�6HOMXNV��XQWLO� LWV� ODVW� VWURQJKROG��0DODW\D�� IHOO� LQ�����������21 In Erzurum, the 6DOWXNLGV�ZHUH�WKH�ORFDO�UXOHUV�IURP�����������WR������������D�WLPH�GXULQJ�ZKLFK�WKH\�ZHUH�LQ�FRQϰLFW�ZLWK�ERWK�WKH�QHLJKERULQJ�'DQLVKPHQGLGV�DQG�WKH�NLQJGRP�RI�Georgia. Eventually, the Seljuks vanquished them, too.22�7KH�0HQJ�FHNLGV�LQ�'LYULОL�persisted until the mid-thirteenth century because they had acknowledged Seljuk sovereignty, and even outlived the Mongol conquest.23

The initial period of Muslim rule in Anatolia was characterized by rivalries between various local rulers. In terms of patronage, these rulers established the basic infrastructure of a Muslim proto-state in their respective regions, with the IRXQGDWLRQ� RI� )ULGD\� PRVTXHV� DQG� PDGUDVDV�� 7KH� 'DQLVKPHQGLGV� LQ� WKH� UHJLRQ�of Tokat and Sivas, the Saltukids in the region of Erzurum and Erzincan, and the �Pࡃ5 6HOMXNV� LQ� WKH� UHJLRQ� RI� .RQ\D� HDFK� VWDUWHG� FRQVWUXFWLRQ� SURMHFWV� DLPHG�at establishing such an infrastructure. At this stage, local styles and customs of EXLOGLQJ��VXFK�DV�WKH�XVH�RI�VWRQH�PDVRQU\��SHUVLVWHG��HYHQ�DV�IHDWXUHV�DSSURSULDWH�IRU�PRVTXHV��VXFK�DV�SUD\HU�QLFKHV�DQG�PLQDUHWV��DQG�FHUWDLQ�IRUPV�RI�GHFRUDWLRQ��VXFK� DV� JOD]HG� WLOH� PRVDLF�� ZHUH� LPSRUWHG�� SUREDEO\� WKURXJK� WKH� PLJUDWLRQ� RI�craftsmen from Iran and Syria, as is documented by signatures in some cases. The locally available stone, for instance, had an impact on decoration: a softer limestone in the region of Sivas allowed for more subtle and plastic carving, while in the basalt of Erzurum, decoration remained closer to the surface of the wall and included motifs such as blind arches to provide rhythm, a feature seen already in the Armenian churches of the region.

As the Seljuks in Konya began to expand their realm, they did so at the expense of the Danishmendids, Saltukids, and other smaller rivals, slowly adding large sections RI�FHQWUDO�DQG�HDVWHUQ�$QDWROLD��IURP�.RQ\D�WR�(U]XUXP��WR�WKHLU�WHUULWRULHV��1HZO\�FRQTXHUHG� FLWLHV� ZHUH� ϮUVW� VHFXUHG� ZLWK� WKH� FRQVWUXFWLRQ� RI�PLOLWDU\� VWUXFWXUHV�VXFK�DV�ZDOOV�DQG�FLWDGHOV��ϮQDQFHG�E\�WKH�6HOMXN�VXOWDQV�DQG�WKHLU�DPҸUs. After the FRQTXHVW�RI�6LQRS�LQ������������ LQVFULSWLRQV�UHIHUULQJ�WR�WKH�YLFWRULRXV�VXOWDQ��DV�well as to the DPҸUs involved in the construction project, were placed on newly

20 Peacock, (DUO\�6HOMࡃT�+LVWRU\�������²���21� ,UqQH� 0pOLNRϸ�� ´'čQLVKPHQGLGV�µ� (QF\FORSDHGLD� RI� ,VODP, second edition, http://

UHIHUHQFHZRUNV�EULOORQOLQH�FRP�HQWULHV�HQF\FORSDHGLD�RI�LVODP���GDQLVKPHQGLGV�6,0B������DFFHVVHG����)HEUXDU\�������7XUDQ��6HOoXNOXODU�]DPDQ×QGD�7�UNL\H�����²���

22� *DU\�/HLVHU��́ 6DOWX֛�2JKXOODU×�µ�(QF\FORSDHGLD�RI�,VODP, second edition, http://referenceworks.EULOORQOLQH�FRP�HQWULHV�HQF\FORSDHGLD�²RI�LVODP���VDOWXNRJKXOODUL�6,0B������DFFHVVHG����-DQXDU\�2013; Turan, 6HOoXNOXODU�]DPDQ×QGD�7�UNL\H�����²���)DUXN�6�PHU��´6DOWXNOXODU�µ�6HOoXNOX�$UDߞW×UPDODU×�'HUJLVL��������������²����

23� &ODXGH� &DKHQ�� ´0HQJ�ɥHN� �0DQJࡃGM DN��µ� (QF\FORSDHGLD� RI� ,VODP, second edition, http://UHIHUHQFHZRUNV�EULOORQOLQH�FRP�HQWULHV�HQF\FORSDHGLD�RI�LVODP���PHQJXFHN�6,0B������ DFFHVVHG����)HEUXDU\�������2\D�3DQFDURОOX�VXJJHVWV�D�ODWHU�GDWH��EDVHG�RQ�WKH�ODWHVW�0HQJ�FHNLG�LQVFULSWLRQ�IRXQG�RQ�WKH�FLWDGHO�RI�'LYULОL�DQG�GDWHG������������2\D�3DQFDURОOX��́ 7KH�0RVTXH�+RVSLWDO�&RPSOH[�DW�'LYULОL��$�+LVWRU\�RI�5HODWLRQV�DQG�7UDQVLWLRQV�µ�$QDGROX�YH�dHYUHVLQGH�2UWDoDО���������������

Blessing book.indb 8 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ᇹቨዧወኂᅡዼᅐዧᇹኂቨ��ወᅵᆦወ႐በᇹቨᇀ�ዧᇖᅵ�ቈ႐ቨᅡዘ�ኂᆦ�ወጇበ �

built towers and walls to mark Seljuk rule.24 Similarly, after the second conquest of $QWDO\D� LQ������������ WKH� IRUWLϮFDWLRQV�ZHUH�UHSDLUHG�DQG�PDUNHG�ZLWK�HODERUDWH�narrative inscriptions celebrating the victory.��

Once the Seljuks had removed most of their rivals and could make investments in relative security, their patronage expanded. They established a dense network of caravanserais along trade routes and either restored or founded mosques and some madrasas. A style connected to the Seljuk patronage slowly emerged, yet an LPSHULDO�DUFKLWHFWXUH�ZDV�QHYHU�IXOO\�UHDOL]HG��7KH�LQKHUHQW�ϰXLGLW\�RI�WKH�FXOWXUDO�milieu, along with the mobility of participating craftsmen, certainly contributed WR�WKH�HSKHPHUDO�DQG�XQVWDEOH�QDWXUH�RI�WKLV�VW\OH��7KH�0RQJRO�LQYDVLRQV�LQ������1243, followed by the progressive integration of Anatolia into the Mongol realm, interrupted the development of a Seljuk royal style and led instead to an emphasis on local patrons, workforces, materials, and styles.

The geographical concentration of Seljuk patronage in the region around Konya before the Mongol conquest shows that the sultans operated comfortably where their domination was most secure, primarily in an area limited to the region VRXWKZHVW�RI�WKH�ULYHU�.×]×O�,UPDN��ZLWK�D�SDUWLFXODU�FRQFHQWUDWLRQ�LQ�.RQ\D��7KLV�city was the closest semblance to a capital, even though the sultan had residences in other locations, including in Sivas and Kayseri, as well as many smaller structures across Anatolia. To the south, the Taurus Mountains formed a natural boundary that was not easily crossed. The conquests of the port cities of Sinop and Antalya SURYLGHG�WKH�6HOMXNV�ZLWK�DFFHVV�WR�WKH�%ODFN�6HD�DQG�0HGLWHUUDQHDQ��D�VLJQLϮFDQW�boost to trade. Yet Seljuk hold always proved to be less stable in the eastern areas of Anatolia, giving these lands the character of a frontier shared by the Caucasus, Anatolia, and Iran. The richest foundations, in terms of the wealth of the architecture and of the related ZDTIs, are located within the zone around Konya, whereas only a little was built at the behest of the Seljuk sultans in the eastern cities of Erzurum and Erzincan.

During the most stable period of Seljuk rule in Anatolia, between 1200 and 1243, the region of Konya became a center of artistic production that attracted architects and craftsmen. Seemingly disparate stylistic vocabularies with roots in Iran, Syria, and Armenia were combined in new constructions with a degree of creativity that RIWHQ�GHϮHV�FDWHJRUL]DWLRQ��7KH�VW\OLVWLF�DQG�WHFKQLFDO�YHUVDWLOLW\�RQ�GLVSOD\�LQ�WKHVH�buildings shows that the patronage of the Seljuk court attracted some of the most VNLOOIXO� FUDIWVPHQ�� $W� WKLV� VSHFLϮF�PRPHQW� LQ� WLPH�� DQG� LQ� WKLV� VSHFLϮF� ORFDWLRQ��the conditions of patronage, in keeping with the imperial aspirations of the Seljuk sultans, fostered a level of creativity that was unrivaled in the wider region at that SRLQW��:KLOH� WKLV� SDWURQDJH� LQFUHDVLQJO\� VXSSRUWHG� D� XQLϮHG� DUFKLWHFWXUDO� VW\OH��

24� 5HGIRUG�� ´6HOMXTV� DQG� WKH� $QWLTXH�µ� ���²��� 7KH� LQVFULSWLRQV� DQG� WKH� FRQWULEXWLRQ�of individual DPҸUV� DUH� DQDO\]HG� LQ� GHWDLO� LQ�� 6FRWW� 5HGIRUG�� ´6LQRS� LQ� WKH� 6XPPHU� RI� ������ 7KH�%HJLQQLQJ� RI� $QDWROLDQ� 6HOMXN� $UFKLWHFWXUH�µ�$QFLHQW� &LYLOL]DWLRQV� IURP� 6F\WKLD� WR� 6LEHULD� ��� �����������²���

��� )RU�WKH�SDUWLFXODU�DWWHQWLRQ�WKDW�ZDV�SDLG�WR�IRUPXODWLQJ�LQVFULSWLRQV�HVWDEOLVKLQJ�WKH�6HOMXN�claim on Antalya after its second conquest by the Seljuks following four years of independence, see: Scott Redford and Gary Leiser, 9LFWRU\�,QVFULEHG³7KH�6HOMXN�)HWLKQčPH�RQ�WKH�&LWDGHO�:DOOV�RI�$QWDO\D��7XUNH\��$QWDO\D��6XQD�ԭQDQ�.×UDo�$NGHQL]�0HGHQL\HWOHUL�$UDߞW×UPDODU×�0HUNH]L����������²����

Blessing book.indb 9 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ወᅵᄽዼᇹቈᅡᇹቨᇀ�႐ቨ႐ዧኂቈᇹ႐�႐ᆦዧᅵወ�ዧᇖᅵ�በኂቨᇀኂቈ�ᅐኂቨዅዼᅵዘዧ10

this was not uniformly the case across Anatolia. Indeed, architectural style often took shape based on the dynamics of artistic creativity and structural possibilities, without being restricted by the mechanisms of imperial control and ideology.

In the late 1230s, the Mongol armies, advancing from Central Asia into Iran and further into the Middle East, reached Anatolia. Initially, their incursions were limited to occasional attacks on cities, along with diplomatic contacts demanding that the Seljuks submit to Mongol rule, pay tribute, and send emissaries to the Mongol Great .KDQ·V�FRXUW��7KHVH�GLSORPDWLF�HϸRUWV�FDPH�WR�DQ�HQG�ZLWK�WKH�GHDWK�RI�WKH�*UHDW�.KDQ�gJ|GHL� LQ������������ZKHQ�VXFFHVVLRQ� VWUXJJOHV�DPRQJ� WKH�0RQJROV�HQGHG�negotiations.��

'XULQJ�WKH�UXOH�RI�*KL\čWK�DO�'ҸQ�.D\NKXVUDZ�,,��U�����²��������²�����ZKR�ZDV�just a teenager at the time of his accession, the Seljuk realm appeared weakened and presented the Mongol armies with ample opportunities for more targeted attacks, which were now aimed at conquest rather than raiding.�� The city of Erzurum ZDV�WKH�ϮUVW�WR�EH�DWWDFNHG�DQG�FRQTXHUHG�LQ������������7KH�6HOMXN�FKURQLFOHU�,EQ�%ҸEҸ� GHVFULEHV� WKH� FRQTXHVW� LQ� WKH�GDUNHVW� WHUPV�� VXJJHVWLQJ� WKDW� D� ODUJH�SDUW� RI�the population was led into slavery or killed and parts of the city were destroyed, ZLWKRXW� KRZHYHU� LQGLFDWLQJ� ZKDW� EXLOGLQJV� RU� DUHDV� RI� WKH� FLW\� ZHUH� DϸHFWHG��� :ULWLQJ�LQ�WKH�����V��VHYHUDO�GHFDGHV�DIWHU�WKH�DWWDFN��,EQ�%ҸEҸ�PD\�KDYH�XVHG�WRSRL�about the destructive nature of the Mongol conquests, yet contemporary Armenian sources describe the event in similarly negative terms, suggesting that it was generally perceived to be traumatic.���,Q�WKH�VXPPHU�RI������������WKH�DUP\�RI�WKH�6HOMXN�VXOWDQ�ZDV�GHIHDWHG�DW�WKH�EDWWOH�RI�.|VHGDО��D�VLWH�ORFDWHG�EHWZHHQ�6LYDV�DQG�Erzincan.30 Anatolia was now under the authority of the Mongols, and the Seljuks were required to pay tribute to the Mongol Great Khan, though the sultan in Konya remained nominally in place.

Continuing their invasion of Anatolia, the Mongol armies moved on to Sivas, a FLW\�WKDW�RQO\�QDUURZO\�HVFDSHG�GHVWUXFWLRQ��$FFRUGLQJ�WR�,EQ�%ҸEҸ��WKH�NDGL�RI�WKH�FLW\��1DMP�DO�'ҸQ�RI�.×UߞHKLU��KDG�HQFRXQWHUHG�WKH�0RQJRO�*UHDW�.KDQ�LQ�,UDQ�LQ�KLV�youth and had received a SDL]H��SDVVSRUW�VKDSHG�OLNH�D�VKLHOG��DQG�\DUOLJK�(an edict RI�DXWKRUL]DWLRQ��IURP�KLP��$V�WKH�DUP\�XQGHU�%DLMX�1R\DQ�DGYDQFHG�WRZDUGV�WKH�city, the kadi went to meet him and presented his documents. The Mongol general agreed to plunder only one section of the city, ordering his soldiers to stop after

��� )RU� D� WUDQVODWLRQ� RI� ,EQ� %ҸEҸ·V� UHQGHULQJ� RI� DQ� RUGHU� RI� VXEPLVVLRQ� VHQW� WR� ¶$Oč·� DO�'ҸQ�.D\TXEčG�,�LQ������������VHH��6DUD�1XU�<×OG×]��´0RQJRO�5XOH�LQ�WKLUWHHQWK�FHQWXU\�6HOMXN�$QDWROLD��WKH�3ROLWLFV�RI�&RQTXHVW�DQG�+LVWRU\�:ULWLQJ�µ�3K'�GLVVHUWDWLRQ��8QLYHUVLW\�RI�&KLFDJR�����������²��

��� )RU�D�GHWDLOHG�DQDO\VLV�RI�WKLV�SHULRG��VHH��<×OG×]��´0RQJRO�5XOH�LQ�WKLUWHHQWK�FHQWXU\�6HOMXN�$QDWROLD�µ�����ϸ��2Q�*KL\čWK�DO�'ҸQ�.D\NKXVUDZ�,,��VHH��1HMDW�.D\PD]��$QDGROX�6HOoXNOX�6XOWDQODU×QGDQ�,,��*L\kV�·G�GvQ�.H\K�VUHY�YH�'HYUL��$QNDUD��7�UN�7DULK�.XUXPX�%DV×PHYL�������

��� 1čߙLU� DO�'ҸQ� DO�҇XVD\Q� E�� 0XєDPPDG� ,EQ� %ҸEҸ�� 'LH� 6HOWVFKXNHQJHVFKLFKWH� GHV� ,EQ� %ҸEҸ, tr. +HUEHUW�:��'XGD��&RSHQKDJHQ��0XQNVJDDUG�����������²���

�� See, for instance, the description in Kirakos Gandsakezi, ,VWRULMD�$UPHQLL, tr. into Russian by /�$��.KDQODULDQ��0RVFRZ��1DXND�����������²���7KH�DXWKRU��ZKRVH�QDPH�LV�WUDQVFULEHG�LQWR�(QJOLVK�as Kirakos of Ganjak, was a contemporary of the event who composed his text the same year that (U]XUXP��7KHRGRVLRSROLV�LQ�*UHHN��.DULQ�LQ�$UPHQLDQ��ZDV�FRQTXHUHG��DQG�ZKR�KDG�VSHQW�VHYHUDO�\HDUV�LQ�0RQJRO�FDSWLYLW\��-RKQ�$QGUHZ�%R\OH��´.LUDNRV�RI�*DQMDN�RQ�WKH�0RQJROV�µ�&HQWUDO�$VLDWLF�-RXUQDO�9,,,����6HSWHPEHU������������²�����

30� <×OG×]��´0RQJRO�5XOH�LQ�WKLUWHHQWK�FHQWXU\�6HOMXN�$QDWROLD�µ����²��

Blessing book.indb 10 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ᇹቨዧወኂᅡዼᅐዧᇹኂቨ��ወᅵᆦወ႐በᇹቨᇀ�ዧᇖᅵ�ቈ႐ቨᅡዘ�ኂᆦ�ወጇበ 11

three days.31 The Mongols then proceeded to Kayseri, conquering and burning down the city after a siege. The destruction subsequently continued in southeastern Anatolia and into northern Syria. Unable to resist the Mongol takeover any longer, the Seljuks were forced to submit to their rule.32

Internal troubles accentuated the political instability created by the Mongol DWWDFNV��7KH�VXFFHVVLRQ�VWUXJJOHV�DIWHU�WKH�GHDWK�RI�*KL\čWK�DO�'ҸQ�.D\NKXVUDZ�,,�LQ� ����� ����� SHUVLVWHG� IRU� \HDUV�� XOWLPDWHO\� ODUJHO\� GHFLGLQJ� WKH� IDWH� RI� $QDWROLD�XQGHU�0RQJRO�UXOH��$W�ϮUVW��*KL\čWK�DO�'ҸQ�.D\NKXVUDZ�,,·V�WKUHH�VRQV³¶$Oč·�DO�'ҸQ�.D\TXEčG�,,��¶,]]�DO�'ҸQ�.D\NčZࡃV�,,��DQG�5XNQ�DO�'ҸQ�4LOLM�$UVOčQ�,9³UXOHG�WRJHWKHU�XQGHU�WKH�DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ�RI�-DOčO�DO�'ҸQ�4DUDࠃč\�33�$IWHU�-DOčO�DO�'ҸQ�4DUDࠃč\·V�GHDWK�LQ������������WKH�DJUHHPHQW�GLVVROYHG�34 The prevailing chaos in Anatolia emboldened WKH�0RQJRO�JHQHUDO�%DLMX�1R\DQ�WR�LQYDGH�WKH�UHJLRQ�RQFH�DJDLQ��UHVXOWLQJ�LQ�WKH�GHVWUXFWLRQ�RI�SDUWV�RI�WKH�FLW\�ZDOOV�RI�.RQ\D�LQ������������,Q�WKH�FRXUVH�RI�WKHVH�HYHQWV��0X¶ҸQ�DO�'ҸQ�6XOD\PčQ�SHUYčQH·V�ULVH�WR�SRZHU�EHJDQ��� A few years earlier, LQ������������KLV�IDWKHU��0XKDGKGKDE�DO�'ҸQ�¶$OҸ�DO�'D\ODPҸ��KDG�QHJRWLDWHG�D�WUXFH�and tribute between the Mongols and the Seljuk sultans.��

,Q�����������¶,]]�DO�'ҸQ�.D\NčZࡃV�,,�VRXJKW�UHIXJH�ZLWK�WKH�/DVNDULG�%\]DQWLQH�HPSHURU�LQ�1LFDHD��ԭ]QLN���ZKHUH�KH�KDG�UHODWLYHV�RQ�KLV��HWKQLFDOO\�*UHHN��PRWKHU·V�side.���7KH�GHSRVHG� VXOWDQ·V�ϰLJKW�SRLQWV� WR� WKH�EURDGHU�KLVWRULFDO� FRQWH[W�RI� WKH�GHFDGHV� IROORZLQJ� WKH� VDFN�RI�&RQVWDQWLQRSOH�GXULQJ� WKH�)RXUWK�&UXVDGH� LQ�������ZKHQ�D�/DWLQ�HPSHURU�ZDV�LQVWDOOHG�LQ�WKH�%\]DQWLQH�FDSLWDO��7KLV�UHVXOWHG�LQ�WKH�GLVPDQWOLQJ�RI�WKH�%\]DQWLQH�(PSLUH��ZLWK�VHYHUDO�YHVWLJLDO�SULQFLSDOLWLHV�FODLPLQJ�LWV�OHJDF\³WKH�/DVNDULG�(PSLUH�RI�1LFDHD��WKH�.RPQHQL�LQ�7UHEL]RQG��DQG�0LFKDHO�'RXNDV·V�UHDOP�LQ�(SLURV����$IWHU�0LFKDHO�9,,,�3DODLRORJRV�UHHQWHUHG�&RQVWDQWLQRSOH�LQ� ������ WKH� QHZO\� UHVWRUHG� HPSLUH� WULHG� WR� ULVH� WR� LWV� IRUPHU� JORU\�� HYHQ� DV� WKH�Empire of Trebizond persisted. The latter ultimately survived longer than its PRWKHU�VWDWH��QRW�IDOOLQJ�WR�WKH�2WWRPDQV�XQWLO�������VHYHUDO�\HDUV�DIWHU�WKH�FRQTXHVW�RI�&RQVWDQWLQRSOH�LQ�������,Q�7UHEL]RQG��MXVW�DV�LQ�RWKHU�SDUWV�RI�$QDWROLD�GXULQJ�WKLV�SHULRG��WKH�IRUPDWLRQ�RI�D�ORFDO�LGHQWLW\��%\]DQWLQH�RI�VRUWV��LQ�WKLV�SDUWLFXODU�FDVH��

31� ,EQ� %ҸEҸ�� WU�� 'XGD�� ���²���� 1čߙLU� DO�'ҸQ� DO�҇XVD\Q� E�� 0XєDPPDG� ,EQ� %ҸEҸ�� 6HOoXNQkPH, WU��0�NULPLQ� +DOLO� <LQDQo�� VHFRQG� HGLWLRQ�� ,VWDQEXO�� .LWDEHYL�� ������ ����� %DU� +HEUDHXV� VLPLODUO\�indicates that Sivas surrendered and was only slightly damaged, whereas Kayseri resisted and was VXEVHTXHQWO\�VDFNHG��%DU�+HEUDHXV��7KH�&KURQRJUDSK\�RI�*UHJRU\�$E�·O�)DUDM��WKH�VRQ�RI�$DURQ��WKH�+HEUHZ�SK\VLFLDQ��FRPPRQO\�NQRZQ�DV�%DU�+HEUDHXV��EHLQJ�WKH�ϮUVW�SDUW�RI�KLV�SROLWLFDO�KLVWRU\�RI�WKH�ZRUOG� tr. from WKH�6\ULDF�E\�(UQHVW�$��:DOOLV�%XGJH�� WZR�YROV���/RQGRQ��2[IRUG�8QLYHUVLW\�3UHVV�DQG�+��0LOIRUG��������,,������

32� <×OG×]��´0RQJRO�5XOH�LQ�WKLUWHHQWK�FHQWXU\�6HOMXN�$QDWROLD�µ����²��33 Turan, 6HOoXNOXODU�]DPDQ×QGD�7�UNL\H�����²���34 Turan, 6HOoXNOXODU�]DPDQ×QGD�7�UNL\H�����²���� The SHUYčQH�(EDUZčQD�LQ�$UDELF� referred to high administrative positions under the Seljuks,

literally denoting a personal assistant to the ruler: Carole +LOOHQEUDQG�� ´0X¶ҸQ� DO�'ҸQ� 6XOD\PčQ�3DUZčQD�µ� (QF\FORSDHGLD� RI� ,VODP, second edition, http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/HQF\FORSDHGLD�RI�LVODP���PXLQ�DO�GLQ�VXOD\PDQ�SDUZDQD�6,0B������DFFHVVHG����1RYHPEHU������

�� Turan, 6HOoXNOXODU�]DPDQ×QGD�7�UNL\H�������&DKHQ��)RUPDWLRQ�RI�7XUNH\�����²���� Cahen, )RUPDWLRQ� RI� 7XUNH\�� ����� 5XVWDP� 6KXNXURY�� ´+DUHP� &KULVWLDQLW\�� 7KH� %\]DQWLQH�

,GHQWLW\�RI�6HOMXN�3ULQFHV�µ�LQ��$QGUHZ�&�6��3HDFRFN�DQG�6DUD�1XU�<×OG×]��HGV��7KH�6HOMXNV�RI�$QDWROLD��&RXUW�DQG�6RFLHW\�LQ�WKH�0HGLHYDO�0LGGOH�(DVW��/RQGRQ��,�%��7DXULV������������

��� 0LFKDHO� $QJROG�� ´%\]DQWLXP� DIWHU� WKH� )RXUWK� &UXVDGH�� %\]DQWLXP� LQ� ([LOH�µ� LQ�� 'DYLG�$EXODϮD� �HG��� 7KH� 1HZ� &DPEULGJH�0HGLHYDO� +LVWRU\�� &DPEULGJH� 8QLYHUVLW\� 3UHVV�� ������ &DPEULGJH�+LVWRULHV�2QOLQH��DFFHVVHG����1RYHPEHU�������'2,���������&+2/������������������

Blessing book.indb 11 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ወᅵᄽዼᇹቈᅡᇹቨᇀ�႐ቨ႐ዧኂቈᇹ႐�႐ᆦዧᅵወ�ዧᇖᅵ�በኂቨᇀኂቈ�ᅐኂቨዅዼᅵዘዧ12

clearly emerged in architecture.�� The Seljuk struggle for power took place amidst YDULRXV�GLϸHUHQW�SULQFLSDOLWLHV��ZLWK�DFWRUV�WKDW�LQFOXGHG�WKH�%\]DQWLQH�HPSHURUV��along with Crusaders, Mongols, and Mamluks.

,Q������������ZKLOH�5XNQ�DO�'ҸQ�4LOLM�$UVOčQ�,9�WUDYHOHG�WR�,UDQ�WR�DWWHQG�WKH�FRXUW�RI�WKH�,ONKDQ�+�OHJ���U�����²��������²�����¶,]]�DO�'ҸQ�.D\NčZࡃV�,,�VHL]HG�.RQ\D��8SRQ�KLV� UHWXUQ� WR�$QDWROLD� WKH� IROORZLQJ� \HDU�� 5XNQ� DO�'ҸQ�4LOLM� $UVOčQ� OHDUQHG� RI� KLV�GHSRVLWLRQ��DOWKRXJK�+�OHJ��KDG�DSSRLQWHG�KLP�WKH�VROH�VXOWDQ�RI�5ࡃP�40�%\�WKHQ��¶$Oč·�DO�'ҸQ�.D\TXEčG�,,�KDG�GLHG�RQ�D�PLVVLRQ�WR�SD\�WULEXWH�WR�WKH�*UHDW�.KDQ�LQ�Mongolia.41�$IWHU�SURORQJHG�ϮJKWLQJ�EHWZHHQ�WKH�WZR�UHPDLQLQJ�EURWKHUV��0X¶ҸQ�DO�'ҸQ�6XOD\PčQ�SHUYčQH called for support from Ilkhanid forces, and they intervened, GLYLGLQJ�WKH�6HOMXN�UHDOP�LQWR�WZR�VHFWLRQV��7KH�ULYHU�.×]×O�,UPDN�VHUYHG�DV�D�QDWXUDO�ERXQGDU\�EHWZHHQ�WKH�WHUULWRULHV�RI�¶,]]�DO�'ҸQ�.D\NčZࡃV�,,�WR�WKH�ZHVW��DQG�5XNQ�DO�'ҸQ�4LOLM�$UVOčQ�,9�WR�WKH�HDVW��WKH�IRUPHU�UHWDLQHG�.RQ\D��ZKLOH�WKH�ODWWHU�FKRVH�Tokat as his capital.42

+RZHYHU�� WKH� WHQVLRQV�EHWZHHQ� WKH� WZR�VXOWDQV�UHPDLQHG��߳čєLE� �č�)DNKU�DOࠃ$¶'ҸQ�¶$OҸ�EHFDPH�WKH�YL]LHU�RI�¶,]]�DO�'ҸQ�.D\NčZࡃV�,,��ZKLOH�0X¶ҸQ�DO�'ҸQ�6XOD\PčQ�SHUYčQH�WRRN� WKLV�SRVW� LQ� WKH�UHDOP�RI�5XNQ�DO�'ҸQ�4LOLM�$UVOčQ� ,9��(YHQ�DV� ¶,]]�DO�'ҸQ�.D\NčZࡃV�,,�WULHG�WR�QHJRWLDWH�D�UHFRQFLOLDWLRQ�ZLWK�KLV�EURWKHU��D�QHZ�0RQJRO�LQWHUYHQWLRQ� EURXJKW� DERXW� DQRWKHU� FKDQJH� LQ� HYHQWV�� 0X¶ҸQ� DO�'ҸQ� 6XOD\PčQ�SHUYčQH�RϸHUHG�߳čєLE�¶$ࠃč�)DNKU�DO�'ҸQ�¶$OҸ�WKH�SRVW�RI�YL]LHU�RI�DOO�RI�6HOMXN�$QDWROLD��RQ�FRQGLWLRQ�WKDW�KH�DFFHSW�WKH�UXOH�RI�5XNQ�DO�'ҸQ�4LOLM�$UVOčQ�,9��2QFH�WKH�GHDO�KDG�EHHQ�FRQFOXGHG��5XNQ�DO�'ҸQ�4LOLM�$UVOčQ�,9�HQWHUHG�.RQ\D�LQ������������ZKLOH�WKH�ϮJKW�DJDLQVW�UHYROWLQJ�7XUFRPDQ�WULEHV�FRQWLQXHG�IRU�DQRWKHU�\HDU�43�¶,]]�DO�'ҸQ�.D\NčZࡃV�,,�ϰHG�WR�&RQVWDQWLQRSOH��ODWHU�OLYLQJ�RXW�KLV�GD\V�LQ�H[LOH�LQ�WKH�&ULPHD��ZKHUH�KH�GLHG�LQ����������²���44

$IWHU� WKH� GHDWK� RI� 5XNQ� DO�'ҸQ� 4LOLM� $UVOčQ� ,9�� KLV� \RXQJ� VRQ� *KL\čWK� DO�'ҸQ�.D\NKXVUDZ� ,,,� �U�� ���²���� ����²���� ZDV� LQVWDOOHG�� ZKLOH�0X¶ҸQ� DO�'ҸQ� 6XOD\PčQ�SHUYčQH remained the GH�IDFWR ruler of Anatolia.���,Q������������D�FDPSDLJQ�XQGHUWDNHQ�E\�WKH�0DPOXN�VXOWDQ�RI�(J\SW��%D\EDUV�,��U�����²��������²�����UHVXOWHG�LQ�WLJKWHU�Ilkhanid control of Anatolia. During that same year, the Karamanids, a rising local dynasty from a city near Konya, conquered the former capital and installed a Turcoman leader, Cimri, who claimed Seljuk lineage, as sultan. The leader of the UHYROW��0HKPHG�E��.DUDPDQ��EHFDPH�&LPUL·V�YL]LHU���

7KH�0DPOXNV·�LQYDVLRQ�RI�$QDWROLD�ZDV�GLUHFWHG�DW�WKH�,ONKDQLGV��WKHLU�JUHDWHVW�political rival for control of the Levant.�� The Mamluk campaign was successful

�� Antony Eastmond, $UW� DQG� ,GHQWLW\� LQ� 7KLUWHHQWK�&HQWXU\� %\]DQWLXP�� +DJLD� 6RSKLD� DQG� WKH�(PSLUH� RI� 7UHEL]RQG�� %LUPLQJKDP� %\]DQWLQH� DQG� 2WWRPDQ� 0RQRJUDSKV�� YRO�� ���� $OGHUVKRW� DQG�%XUOLQJWRQ��97��$VKJDWH�������

40 Cahen, )RUPDWLRQ�RI�7XUNH\�����²��41 Cahen, )RUPDWLRQ�RI�7XUNH\������42� <×OG×]�� ´0RQJRO� 5XOH� LQ� WKLUWHHQWK�FHQWXU\� 6HOMXN� $QDWROLD�µ� ���²��� &DKHQ�� )RUPDWLRQ� RI�

7XUNH\�����²���43 Cahen, )RUPDWLRQ�RI�7XUNH\�����²���44 Cahen, )RUPDWLRQ�RI�7XUNH\�������� Cahen, )RUPDWLRQ�RI�7XUNH\��������� Cahen, )RUPDWLRQ�RI�7XUNH\�����²���� Reuven Amitai, 0RQJROV� DQG� 0DPOXNV�� 7KH� 0DPOXN�,ONKDQLG� :DU�� ����²����, Cambridge:

&DPEULGJH�8QLYHUVLW\�3UHVV�����������²����

Blessing book.indb 12 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ᇹቨዧወኂᅡዼᅐዧᇹኂቨ��ወᅵᆦወ႐በᇹቨᇀ�ዧᇖᅵ�ቈ႐ቨᅡዘ�ኂᆦ�ወጇበ 13

WR� VRPH� H[WHQW�� WKH� ,ONKDQLGV� VXϸHUHG� D� PDMRU� GHIHDW� LQ� WKH� EDWWOH� RI� (OELVWDQ��$EࡃOXVWD\Q���DQG�WKH�0DPOXN�DUPLHV�RFFXSLHG�WKH�FLW\�RI�.D\VHUL�LQ�FHQWUDO�$QDWROLD�IRU�VL[�PRQWKV��EHIRUH�D�ODFN�RI�SURYLVLRQV�IRUFHG�%D\EDUV�WR�DEDQGRQ�WKH�FLW\�DQG�retreat to Syria as winter approached.���%RWK�HYHQWV�SRVHG�D�GLUHFW�WKUHDW�WR�0RQJRO�UXOH��)HDULQJ�IXUWKHU�DWWDFNV�LQ�D�SROLWLFDO�FOLPDWH�ULIH�ZLWK�HVSLRQDJH�DQG�WUHDVRQ��WKH�,ONKDQLG�UXOHU�$EčTč�.KčQ��U�����²��������²����RSWHG�IRU�WLJKWHU�FRQWURO�RYHU�Anatolia. The administration became more closely connected to the Ilkhanid center in Iran than before; governors were appointed from Iran, and the Seljuk sultan was GHϮQLWLYHO\�UHGXFHG�WR�D�SXSSHW�UXOHU��

'XULQJ�WKRVH�\HDUV��WKH�WZR�PRVW�SRZHUIXO�ORFDO�ϮJXUHV�LQ�$QDWROLD�GLHG��0X¶ҸQ�DO�'ҸQ�6XOD\PčQ�SHUYčQH was executed on suspicion of conspiracy with the Mamluks in �������������ZKLOH�WKH�HOGHUO\�YL]LHU�߳čєLE�¶$ࠃč�)DNKU�DO�'ҸQ�¶$OҸ�SDVVHG�DZD\�LQ������������� Governors were dispatched directly from Iran and changed frequently. This tighter centralized control remained in place until the 1330s, when, with the decline of Ilkhanid rule, both appointed governors, including Eretna and his descendants in Sivas, and local actors began claiming independence.�� As the Ilkhanid dynasty itself JUHZ�ZHDNHU��HVSHFLDOO\�XQGHU�WKH�UXOH�RI�$E�6ࡃD¶ҸG��U�����²��������²�����FHQWUDOL]HG�control gradually began to slip away, and some local notables and Ilkhanid DGPLQLVWUDWRUV� EHJDQ� WR� JDLQ� LQGHSHQGHQFH�� %\� WKH�PLG�IRXUWHHQWK� FHQWXU\�� WKLV�UHVXOWHG�LQ�D�VLPLODU�VLWXDWLRQ�WR�WKDW�LQ�ZHVWHUQ�$QDWROLD�VLQFH�WKH�����V��VPDOO�ORFDO�principalities (EH\OLNV�� FRPSHWHG� IRU� SRZHU� LQ� WKH� DEVHQFH� RI� DQ\� VRUW� RI� FHQWUDO�control. Sources on this complex historical background are widely dispersed and SDUWLFXODUO\� GLϲFXOW� WR� UHODWH� WR� DUFKLWHFWXUH�� DV� EXLOGLQJ� SURMHFWV� RIWHQ� UHPDLQ�overshadowed by complex accounts of political interactions.

Primary sources

This study draws extensively on both chronicles and texts directly related to the monuments. The latter consist of inscriptions on the buildings and foundation documents (ZDTIҸ\DV�� WKDW� KDYH� EHHQ� SUHVHUYHG� LQ� VRPH� FDVHV�� 7KH� IRXQGDWLRQ�LQVFULSWLRQV�DQG�RWKHU�WH[WV�GLUHFWO\�Dϲ[HG�WR�WKH�EXLOGLQJV�DUH�WKH�PRVW�LPPHGLDWH�sources, since they are part of the structures and also narrate their histories. Essential sources for the study of inscriptions include photographs, personal

�� Cahen, )RUPDWLRQ�RI�7XUNH\�����²���� Amitai, 0RQJROV�DQG�0DPOXNV�����²������ $V� QRWHG� LQ� DQ� LQVFULSWLRQ� LQ� ߳čєLE� �čࠃ$¶ )DNKU� DO�'ҸQ� ¶$OҸ·V� WRPE� ZLWKLQ� WKH� 6DKLE� $WD�

&RPSOH[� LQ�.RQ\D�� (WLHQQH�&RPEH�� -HDQ� 6DXYDJHW� DQG�*DVWRQ�:LHW� �HGV��5pSHUWRLUH� FKURQRORJLTXH�G·pSLJUDSKLH�DUDEH�����YROV���&DLUR��,PSULPHULH�GH�O·,QVWLWXW�)UDQoDLV�G·$UFKpRORJLH�2ULHQWDOH������²�� (hereafter 5&($���QR�������

�� Whereas the EH\OLNs in western Anatolia are well studied, less work has been done on similar political formations in eastern Anatolia. As a result, a seminal early work on this topic is still being UHSULQWHG�WRGD\��ԭVPDLO�+DNN×�8]XQoDUߞ×O×��$QDGROX�EH\OLNOHUL�YH�$NNR\XQOX��.DUDNR\XQOX�GHYOHWOHUL�VL\DVv��LGDUv��I×NUv��LNWLVDGv��KD\DW��LOPv�YH�LFWLPDv�PXHVVHVHOHU��KDON�YH�WRSUDN��$QNDUD��7�UN�7DULK�.XUXPX��������)RU�D�PRUH�UHFHQW�VWXG\��IRFXVLQJ�RQ�WKH�SHULRG�DIWHU�������VHH��-�UJHQ�3DXO��́ 0RQJRO�$ULVWRFUDWV�DQG�%H\OLNV�LQ�$QDWROLD��$�6WXG\�RI�$VWDUčEčGҸ·V�%D]P�YD�5D]P,” (XUDVLDQ�6WXGLHV����QR���²�������������²���

Blessing book.indb 13 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ወᅵᄽዼᇹቈᅡᇹቨᇀ�႐ቨ႐ዧኂቈᇹ႐�႐ᆦዧᅵወ�ዧᇖᅵ�በኂቨᇀኂቈ�ᅐኂቨዅዼᅵዘዧ14

observations, the 5&($��DQG�0D[�YDQ�%HUFKHP�DQG�+DOLO�(GKHP·V�0DWpULDX[�SRXU�XQ�&RUSXV�,QVFULSWLRQXP�$UDELFDUXP (hereafter, 0&,$����

The ZDTIҸ\DV�DUH� OHJDO�GRFXPHQWV�ϮUVW�DQG� IRUHPRVW��HVVHQWLDO� IRU�HVWDEOLVKLQJ�the charitable foundations that provided for the maintenance and running costs of many monuments throughout the Islamic world. These documents are primarily useful in studying the functions of monuments and building programs, particularly where not all elements have been preserved. They provide insight into patronage and economic history, rather than into the structural aspects of the monuments. The GRFXPHQWV�PHQWLRQ�SURSHUWLHV�DVVLJQHG�WR�D�IRXQGDWLRQ��WKXV�UHϰHFWLQJ�DYDLODEOH�resources in urban real estate, cash, or arable lands. Some detailed documents even mention the location of these properties within a city or in the surrounding countryside, thereby allowing for a detailed reconstruction of now-lost sites, in terms of both their architecture and layout, and their daily functioning.

Some medieval Anatolian� ZDTIҸ\Ds have been published, often in a modern Turkish translation together with the original Arabic text.�� At times, only the Turkish translation is provided, making access to the original document even more crucial.���1RW�PDQ\�HQGRZPHQW�GRFXPHQWV�IURP�WKLUWHHQWK�DQG�IRXUWHHQWK�FHQWXU\�Anatolia have been preserved, and almost all of them have been published. Among the unpublished documents are some relating to small early fourteenth-century IRXQGDWLRQV��SUHVHUYHG�LQ�WKH�DUFKLYHV�RI�WKH�9DN×ϰDU�*HQHO�0�G�UO�О��LQ�$QNDUD��In most of these cases, the related buildings are no longer extant. In many cases, only later copies of�ZDTIҸ\Ds have survived, with dates ranging from the seventeenth to the early twentieth century.�� In the Yakutiye Medrese in Erzurum, a detailed

��� 0D[� YDQ� %HUFKHP� DQG� +DOLO� (GKHP� �(OGHP��� 0DWpULDX[� SRXU� XQ� &RUSXV� ,QVFULSWLRQXP�$UDELFDUXP�� 7URLVLqPH� 3DUWLH�� $VLH� 0LQHXUH�� &DLUR�� ,PSULPHULH� GH� O·,QVWLWXW� )UDQoDLV� G·$UFKpRORJLH�2ULHQWDOH�������

��� 0XDOOLP� 0HKPHW� &HYGHW�� ´6LYDV� 'DUߞߞ�LID·V×� 9DNϮ\HVL� YH� 7HUF�PHVL�µ� 9DN×ϰDU� 'HUJLVL I ����������²���ԭVPHW�.D\DRОOX��´7XUXPWD\�9DNϮ\HVL�µ�9DN×ϰDU�'HUJLVL��������������²�����$KPHW�7HPLU��.×UߞHKLU�HPLUL�&DFD�RОOX�1XU�HO�'LQ·LQ������WDULKOL�$UDSoD�0RОROFD�YDNϮ\HVL��VHFRQG�HGLWLRQ��$QNDUD��7�UN�7DULK� .XUXPX�¬ ������ $KPHW� 7HPLU�� ´'LH� DUDELVFK�XLJXULVFKH� 9D֛I�8UNXQGH� YRQ� ����� GHV� (PLUV�߸HUHI�HO�'LQ�$єPHG�ELQ�dDN×UFD�YRQ�6LYDV�µ�LQ��+DQV�/��*RWWVFKDON��:ROIUDP�YRQ�6RGHQ�DQG�*HUWUDXG�7KDXVLQJ� �HGV�� )HVWVFKULIW� +HUEHUW� :�� 'XGD³=XP� ���� *HEXUWVWDJ� JHZLGPHW� YRQ� VHLQHQ� )UHXQGHQ� XQG�6FK�OHUQ��:LHQHU�=HLWVFKULIW�I�U�GLH�.XQGH�GHV�0RUJHQODQGHV���������������²����2VPDQ�7XUDQ��´6HOoXNOX�GHYUL� YDNϮ\HOHUL� ,� ²� ߸HPVHGGLQ�$OWXQ�$ED� YDNϮ\HVL� YH� KD\DW×�µ�Belleten ��� �������� ���²����� LGHP, ´6HOoXNOX�GHYUL� YDNϮ\HOHUL� ,,� ²�0�EkUL]�·G�'vQ�(U�7RNXߞ�YH� YDNϮ\HVL�µ�Belleten� ��� �������� ���²����LGHP��´6HOoXNOX�GHYUL�YDNϮ\HOHUL�,,,�²�&HOkOHGGvQ�.DUDWD\�YDN×ϰDU×�YH�YDNϮ\HOHU×�µ�Belleten��������������²�����0��=HNL�2UDO��́ $KL�$KPHW�1DKFLYDQv�YDNϮ\HVL�µ�$QNDUD�hQLYHUVLWHVL�ԭODKL\DW�)DN�OWHVL�'HUJLVL III.3 ����������²���

��� 6DGL�%D\UDP�DQG�$KPHW�.DUDEDFDN��́ 6DKLS�$WD�)DKU�GGLQ�$OL·QLQ�.RQ\D�ԭPDUHW�YH�6LYDV�*|N�0HGUHVH�9DNϮ\HOHUL�µ�9DN×ϰDU�'HUJLVL��������������²����9DN×ϰDU�*HQHO�0�G�UO�О���$QNDUD��KHUHDIWHU��9*0������²��²���

�� All of these copies mention the thirteenth- or fourteenth-century date when the foundation was originally established. In some cases, the date of the copy is mentioned: the ZDTIҸ\D�of the Gök 0HGUHVH�LQ�6LYDV��9*0����²��²����ZDV�FRSLHG�LQ�������������7KH�ZDTIҸ\D�RI�WKH�+DVXP�%H\�=DYL\HVL�LQ�.D\VHUL��9*0����²��²����PLJKW�EH�D�ODWHU�FRS\�DV�WKH�QDPHV�RI�VHYHUDO�ZLWQHVVHV�FDUU\�WKH�WLWOH�´HIHQGҸ�µ�ZKLFK�LV�QRW�YHU\�FRPPRQ�EHIRUH�WKH�ODWH�ϮIWHHQWK�FHQWXU\��WKRXJK�LQ�$QDWROLD�LW�ZDV�XVHG�DURXQG������LQ�WKH�VHQVH�RI�´PDVWHUµ��VHH��,UqQH�0pOLNRϸ��´8Q�GRFXPHQW�$NKL�GX�;,,,H�VLqFOH�µ�LQ��5DRXO�&XULHO�DQG�5LND�*\VHOHQ��HGV��,WLQpUDLUHV�G·2ULHQW³+RPPDJHV�j�&ODXGH�&DKHQ��%XUHV�VXU�<YHWWH��*URXSH�SRXU� O·(WXGH�GH� OD�&LYLOLVDWLRQ�GX�0R\HQ�2ULHQW��������Q������$�FRS\�RI�D�QHDUO\� LGHQWLFDO�GRFXPHQW�SHUWDLQLQJ�WR�WKH�VDPH�EXLOGLQJ�LQ�.D\VHUL��9*0����²���²�����PLJKW�EH�HYHQ�ODWHU�VLQFH�the subsequent document in the same GHIWHU�LV�GDWHG������������

Blessing book.indb 14 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ᇹቨዧወኂᅡዼᅐዧᇹኂቨ��ወᅵᆦወ႐በᇹቨᇀ�ዧᇖᅵ�ቈ႐ቨᅡዘ�ኂᆦ�ወጇበ ��

excerpt from the ZDTIҸ\D is carved inside the building—a nearly unique case in Anatolia, as we will see in Chapters 2 and 3.��

There are few chronicles from medieval Anatolia, suggesting that much has either been lost or remains undiscovered in libraries.�� Charles Melville has argued that the very nature of Anatolian frontier culture initially made it a problematic place for writing history, and that references for a historical narrative only became available at a later stage, when the region gradually developed an identity distinct from the Persian historiography of Iran.��

One of the earliest Persian chronicles of the Seljuks that clearly shows the LPSRUWDQFH�RI�$QDWROLD�DV� WKH�QHZ�FHQWHU�RI� WKLV�G\QDVW\� LV�0XєDPPDG�E�� ¶$OҸ�E��6XOD\PčQ�DO�5čYDQGҸ·V�5čєDW�Xߙ�ߙXGࡃU�ZD�č\DW�XV�VXUࡃU��an account of the history of WKH�6HOMXNV�WKDW�IRFXVHV�RQ�WKH�UHLJQ�RI�5XNQ�DO�'ҸQ�ࠦXJKULO�,,,��U�����²��������²�����during which the author lived in Iran.���5čYDQGҸ�EHJDQ�WR�ZULWH�KLV�ZRUN� LQ������1202, as stated in the introduction to the manuscript. Writing after the Seljuks had GLVDSSHDUHG�IURP�,UDQ��5čYDQGҸ�WUDYHOHG�LQVWHDG�WR�.RQ\D�WR�GHGLFDWH�KLV�ZRUN�WR�WKH�6HOMXN�VXOWDQ�RI�5ࡃP��HYHQWXDOO\�DGGUHVVLQJ�LW�WR�*KL\čWK�DO�'ҸQ�.D\NKXVUDZ�,� �U�� ���²��������²���DQG����²��������²�����7KH�DXWKRU�GLHG�DIWHU������������� His history essentially covers the urban Persianate culture of Seljuk Anatolia.��

7KH�PRVW�ZHOO�NQRZQ�KLVWRU\�RI�6HOMXN�$QDWROLD�LV�1čߙLU�DO�'ҸQ�DO�҇XVD\Q�,EQ�%ҸEҸ·V�DO�$YčPLU�DO�¶DOč·L\\D� IҸ� ¶O�¶XPࡃU�DO�¶DOč·L\\D (“The most exalted orders regarding the PRVW�VXEOLPH�DϸDLUVµ���7KH�ZRUN�UHFRXQWV�WKH�KLVWRU\�RI�WKH�6HOMXNV�LQ�$QDWROLD�IURP�����������WR������������ZLWK�D�IRFXV�RQ�WKH�UHLJQ�RI�¶$Oč·�DO�'ҸQ�.D\TXEčG��U�����²��������²������ The only full manuscript is a facsimile, and it remains unedited.�� Sara 1XU�<×OG×]·V�UHFHQW�VWXG\�RI�0RQJRO�UXOH�LQ�$QDWROLD�LV�EDVHG�RQ�WKLV�PDQXVFULSW���

�� 5&($��QR���������� 0HKPHG� )XDG� .|SU�O��� 7KH� 6HOMXNV� RI� $QDWROLD�� WKHLU� KLVWRU\� DQG� FXOWXUH� DFFRUGLQJ� WR� ORFDO�

0XVOLP�VRXUFHV��WU��DQG�HG��*DU\�/HLVHU��6DOW�/DNH�&LW\��8QLYHUVLW\�RI�8WDK�3UHVV��������ϮUVW�SXEOLVKHG�DV��0HKPHG�)XDG�.|SU�O���´$QDGROX�6HOoXNOX�7DULKLQLQ�<HUHO�.D\QDNODU×�µ�Belleten�9,,������������²�����)RU�D�VWXG\�RQ�VXFK�DQ�XQHGLWHG�VRXUFH��VHH��$QGUHZ�&�6��3HDFRFN�� $́єPDG�RI�1LОGH·V�DO�:DODG�DO�6KDIҸT and the Seljuk Past,” $QDWROLDQ�6WXGLHV��������������²����

��� &KDUOHV�0HOYLOOH�� ´7KH� (DUO\� 3HUVLDQ�+LVWRULRJUDSK\� RI�$QDWROLD�µ� LQ�� -XGLWK� 3IHLϸHU� DQG�6KROHK�$��4XLQQ��HGV��+LVWRU\�DQG�+LVWRULRJUDSK\�RI�3RVW�0RQJRO�&HQWUDO�$VLD�DQG�WKH�0LGGOH�(DVW��6WXGLHV�LQ�+RQRU�RI�-RKQ�(��:RRGV��:LHVEDGHQ��+DUUDVVRZLW]�����������²��

��� )RU�WKH�3HUVLDQ�WH[W��VHH��0XєDPPDG�E��¶$OҸ�DO�5čYDQGҸ��7KH�5čєDW�Xߙ�ߙXGࡃU�ZD�č\DW�XV�VXUࡃU��EHLQJ�D�KLVWRU\�RI� WKH�6DOMࡃTV��HG��0XєDPPDG�,TEčO��(�-�:��*LEE�PHPRULDO�VHULHV��QHZ�VHULHV��YRO�����/RQGRQ��/X]DF��&R���������0XєDPPDG�E��¶$OҸ�DO�5čYDQGҸ��5čKDW�XV�VXGࡃU�ZD�č\DW�XV�VXUࡃU�IҸ�WčUҸNK�DO�GDZODK�DO�VDOMࡃTҸ\D��WU��,EUčKҸP�$PҸQ�DO�6KDZčULEҸ��¶$EG�DO�1D¶ҸP�0XєDPPDG�҇XVD\Q�DQG�)X·čG�¶$EG�DO�0X¶ࠃҸ�DO�߳D\\čG��&DLUR��'čU�DO�4DODP��������0XєDPPDG�E��¶$OҸ�DO�5čYDQGҸ��5kKDW��V�VXG�U�YH�k\HW��V�V�U�U��*|Q�OOHULQ�UDKDWH�YH�VHYLQo�DOkPHWL���WU��$KPHG�$WHߞ��$QNDUD��7�UN�7DULK�.XUXPX�%DV×PHYL�������

��� &DUROH�+LOOHQEUDQG��´5čZDQGҸ��0XєDPPDG�E�� ¶$OҸ�µ�(QF\FORSDHGLD�RI� ,VODP, second edition, KWWS���UHIHUHQFHZRUNV�EULOORQOLQH�FRP�HQWULHV�HQF\FORSDHGLD�RI�LVODP���UDZDQGL�6,0B������DFFHVVHG����)HEUXDU\������� ´5kYHQGv��0XKDPPHG�E��$OL�µ�7�UNL\H�'L\DQHW�9DNI×� ԭVOkP�$QVLNORSHGLVL, ,VWDQEXO��7�UNL\H�'L\DQHW�9DNI×������²������YRO���������²��

��� &DUROH�+LOOHQEUDQG��́ 5čYDQGҸ��WKH�6HOMXN�FRXUW�DW�.RQ\D�DQG�WKH�3HUVLDQLVDWLRQ�RI�$QDWROLDQ�cities,” 0pVRJHLRV���²�������������²���

��� 2Q�WKH�OLIH�RI�WKH�DXWKRU��VHH��0HOYLOOH��´(DUO\�3HUVLDQ�+LVWRULRJUDSK\�µ����²����� ,VWDQEXO�� 6�OH\PDQL\H� /LEUDU\��$\DVRI\D�QR�� ������1čߙLU� DO�'ҸQ� DO�҇XVD\Q�E��0XєDPPDG�

,EQ�%ҸEҸ��DO�$YčPLU��¶O�¶$Oč·L\\H�IҸ� ¶O�8PࡃUL� ¶O�¶$Oč·L\\H��ed. $GQDQ�6DG×N�(U]L��YRO����$QNDUD��7�UN�7DULK�.XUXPX��������

��� <×OG×]�� ´0RQJRO� 5XOH� LQ� WKLUWHHQWK�FHQWXU\� 6HOMXN� $QDWROLDµ�� IRU� DQ� DVVHVVPHQW� RI� WKH�GLϸHUHQW�HGLWLRQV�DQG�WUDQVODWLRQV�RI�,EQ�%ҸEҸ·V�ZRUN��VHH��LELG�����²���

Blessing book.indb 15 8/15/2014 11:16:21 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ወᅵᄽዼᇹቈᅡᇹቨᇀ�႐ቨ႐ዧኂቈᇹ႐�႐ᆦዧᅵወ�ዧᇖᅵ�በኂቨᇀኂቈ�ᅐኂቨዅዼᅵዘዧ��

The text also exists in an abbreviated version, the 0XNKWDߙDU, which is more readily available and more widely used.��

0XVčPDUDW� ¶O�DNKEčU� ZD�PXVč\DUDW� DO�DNK\čU� E\� .DUҸP� DO�'ҸQ� 0DєPࡃG� E��0XєDPPDG�DO�$TVDUč\Ҹ���ϰ��FD��������LV�DQRWKHU�VRXUFH�RQ�WKH�0RQJRO�DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ�of Anatolia.�� The author held a position in the ZDTI� administration under the ,ONKDQLG�UXOHU�*Kč]čQ�.KčQ��U�����²���������²������LQ�$NVDUD\��D�WRZQ�WKDW�DVVXPHV�DQ�LPSRUWDQW�SODFH�LQ�WKH�FKURQLFOH��$W�WKH�WLPH�RI�ZULWLQJ��������������DFFRUGLQJ�to the author, Anatolia was fully integrated into the Ilkhanid realm, yet the lack of D�FOHDU�FKURQRORJ\�ZLWKLQ�WKH�ZRUN�RIWHQ�PDNHV�LW�GLϲFXOW�WR�IROORZ�WKH�HYHQWV��� In fact, the author rarely mentions dates, so his narrative is only intelligible to readers DOUHDG\�IDPLOLDU�ZLWK�PDMRU�HYHQWV��KLVWRULFDO�ϮJXUHV��DQG�FRUUHVSRQGLQJ�GDWHV��

The 0DQčTLE�DO�¶čULIҸQ�E\�6KDPV�DO�'ҸQ�$єPDG�$ϰčNҸ�FRQWDLQV�WKH�ELRJUDSKLHV�RI�0DZODZҸ�6XϮV�ZKR�ZHUH�DFWLYH�LQ�$QDWROLD����7KH�DXWKRU�ZURWH�WKH�ZRUN�IRU� ¶ǴULI�&KHOHEҸ��KLV�WHDFKHU�DQG�D�JUDQGVRQ�RI�-DOčO�DO�'ҸQ�5ࡃPҸ��� Since the author focused RQ�WKH�ELRJUDSKLHV�RI�UHOLJLRXV�ϮJXUHV��UDWKHU�OLNH�D�OLYHV�RI�VDLQWV��UDWKHU�WKDQ�RQ�history SHU�VH��LW�LV�RIWHQ�GLϲFXOW�WR�XQGHUVWDQG�WKH�FKURQRORJ\�RI�WKH�WH[W�ZLWKRXW�prior knowledge of the events.��� 1HYHUWKHOHVV�� UHFHQW� VWXGLHV� RI� WKLV� DQG� VLPLODU�WH[WV� KDYH� VKRZQ� WKDW�� GHVSLWH� WKHLU� VSHFLϮF� OLPLWV� DQG� ELDVHV�� KDJLRJUDSKLFDO�accounts can be fruitful sources for historical work on medieval Islamic societies, in that they provide an alternative perspective to that provided in chronicles of UXOHUV·�DQG�G\QDVWLHV·�DFKLHYHPHQWV��� At the same time, they need to be read with D�FULWLFDO�SHUVSHFWLYH�LQ�UHODWLRQ�WR�WKH�LGHDOL]DWLRQ�RI�6XϮ�WHDFKHUV�DQG�OHDGHUV�WKDW�LV�RIWHQ�FHQWUDO�WR�WKHLU�SUHPLVH�RI�HVWDEOLVKLQJ�D�SDUWLFXODU�PRYHPHQW·V�VSLULWXDO�JHQHDORJ\��7KH�OHWWHUV�-DOčO�DO�'ҸQ�5ࡃPҸ�ZURWH�WR�KLV�SDWURQV�RϸHU�D�FRUUHFWLYH�WR�WKH�HPSKDVLV�RQ�WKH�6XϮ�FRPPXQLW\·V�LQGHSHQGHQFH�IURP�SDWURQDJH�SRVWXODWHG�LQ�$ϰčNҸ·V�KDJLRJUDSK\��VLQFH�WKH\�VKRZ�KLV�LQWHUHVW�LQ�LQWHUDFWLQJ�ZLWK��DQG�EHQHϮWWLQJ�

��� ,EQ�%ҸEҸ��WU��'XGD��,EQ�%ҸEҸ��6HOoXNQkPH, tr. Yinanç.��� .DUҸP�DO�'ҸQ�0DєPࡃG�E��0XєDPPDG�DO�$TVDUč\Ҹ��0�VkPHUHW�·O�DKEkU�� WU��0�UVHO�g]W�UN��

$QNDUD�� 7�UN� 7DULK� .XUXPX� %DV×PHYL�� ������ .DUҸP� DO�'ҸQ� 0DєPࡃG� E�� 0XєDPPDG� DO�$TVDUč\Ҹ��0�VkPHUHW��O�DNKEDU³0RОROODU�]DPDQ×QGD�7�UNL\H�6HOoXNOXODU×�WDULKL��HG��2VPDQ�7XUDQ��$QNDUD��7�UN�7DULK�.XUXPX�%DV×PHYL�¬ ������.DUҸP�DO�'ҸQ�0DєPࡃG�E��0XєDPPDG�DO�$TVDUč\Ҹ��'LH�6HOWVFKXNHQ�*HVFKLFKWH�GHV�$֛VHUč\Ҹ��HGLWLRQ�DQG�VXPPDU\�E\�)LNUHW�,ߞ×OWDQ��/HLS]LJ��+DUUDVVRZLW]�¬�����

��� 0HOYLOOH��´(DUO\�3HUVLDQ�+LVWRULRJUDSK\�µ����²����� 6KDPV�DO�'ҸQ�$єPDG�$ϰčNҸ��$ULϰHULQ�0HQNLEOHUL��WU��7DKVLQ�<D]×F×��VHFRQG�HGLWLRQ��,VWDQEXO��

.DEDOF×��������6KDPV�DO�'ҸQ�$єPDG�$ϰčNҸ��7KH�)HDWV�RI�WKH�.QRZHUV�RI�*RG��0DQčTHE�DO�ਓčUHIҸQ��WU��-RKQ�2·.DQH��/HLGHQ��%ULOO�������

��� )ULW]�0HLHU�� $́ϰčNҸ��6KDPV�DO�'ҸQ�$єPDG�µ�(QF\FORSDHGLD�RI� ,VODP, second edition, http://UHIHUHQFHZRUNV�EULOORQOLQH�FRP�HQWULHV�HQF\FORSDHGLD�RI�LVODP���DϰDNL�6,0B������ DFFHVVHG� ���)HEUXDU\������

��� $ϰčNҸ��,EQ�%ҸEҸ��DQG�$TVDUč\Ҹ�DUH�H[DPLQHG�LQ�GHWDLO�DV�VRXUFHV�RQ�WKH�UHODWLRQV�EHWZHHQ�&KULVWLDQV�DQG�0XVOLPV��QRPDGV�DQG�VHGHQWDU\�SRSXODWLRQV� LQ��߸HYNHW�.�o�NK�VH\LQ� 6HOEVW��XQG�)UHPGZDKUQHKPXQJ�LP�3UR]HVV�NXOWXUHOOHU�7UDQVIRUPDWLRQ��$QDWROLVFKH�4XHOOHQ��EHU�0XVOLPH��&KULVWHQ�XQG�7�UNHQ� ����–���� -DKUKXQGHUW��� 9LHQQD�� 9HUODJ� GHU� gVWHUUHLFKLVFKHQ� $NDGHPLH� GHU� :LVVHQVFKDIWHQ��2011.

��� 6KDK]DG� %DVKLU�� 6XϮ� %RGLHV�� 5HOLJLRQ� DQG� 6RFLHW\� LQ� 0HGLHYDO� ,VODP�� 1HZ� <RUN�� &ROXPELD�8QLYHUVLW\�3UHVV��������.�o�NK�VH\LQ��6HOEVW��XQG�)UHPGZDKUQHKPXQJ�����²���DQG����²����$QGUHZ�&�6��3HDFRFN��´6XϮV�DQG�WKH�6HOMXN�&RXUW�LQ�0RQJRO�$QDWROLD��3ROLWLFV�DQG�3DWURQDJH�LQ�WKH�:RUNV�RI�-DOčO�DO�'ҸQ�5ࡃPҸ�DQG�6XOࠃčQ�:DODG�µ�LQ��$QGUHZ�&�6��3HDFRFN�DQG�6DUD�1XU�<×OG×]��HGV��7KH�6HOMXNV�RI�$QDWROLD³&RXUW�DQG�6RFLHW\�LQ�WKH�0HGLHYDO�0LGGOH�(DVW��/RQGRQ�DQG�1HZ�<RUN��,�%��7DXULV�����������²���

Blessing book.indb 16 8/15/2014 11:16:22 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ᇹቨዧወኂᅡዼᅐዧᇹኂቨ��ወᅵᆦወ႐በᇹቨᇀ�ዧᇖᅵ�ቈ႐ቨᅡዘ�ኂᆦ�ወጇበ ��

from, the ruling elite.���0RUHRYHU��WKH�OHWWHUV�DUH�FRQWHPSRUDQHRXV�ZLWK�-DOčO�DO�'ҸQ���PҸ·V�OLIHWLPH��XQOLNH�$ϰčNҸ·V�DFFRXQW�WKDW�ZDV�ZULWWHQ�VHYHUDO�JHQHUDWLRQV�ODWHUࡃ5

As far as sources written outside of Anatolia are concerned, there are several LPSRUWDQW�,ONKDQLG�WH[WV��¶$Oč·�DO�'ҸQ�¶$ࠃč�0DOLN�DO�-XZD\QҸ·V��G�������������7čUҸNK�L�-DKčQ�JXVKč�(+LVWRU\�RI�WKH�:RUOG�&RQTXHURU��GHWDLOV�WKH�0RQJRO�FRQTXHVWV�EHJLQQLQJ�with Genghis Khan and attempts to achieve a balance in his treatment of the DXWKRU·V�0RQJRO�RYHUORUGV�DQG�KLV�3HUVLDQ�FRPSDWULRWV����5DVKҸG�DO�'ҸQ�)D˂O�DOOčK�ࠦDEҸE·V� �G�� ����� ������ -DPҸ¶� DO�7DZčULNK� contains brief yet important insights on Anatolia.���7KH�VR�FDOOHG�OHWWHUV�RI�5DVKҸG�DO�'ҸQ��DWWULEXWHG�WR�WKH�VDPH�DXWKRU��RQ�the other hand, are an extremely problematic source as they may in fact be a later fabrication.���$O�4čVKčQҸ·V�FKURQLFOH�RI�WKH�UXOH�RI�WKH�,ONKDQLG�VXOWDQ�8OMč\Wࡃ�LQYLWHV�speculation about Ilkhanid patronage in Anatolia, or the lack thereof.�� Mamluk sources, both works that have been edited and ones available only as manuscripts, DUH�XVHG�LQ�JUHDW�GHWDLO�LQ�5HXYHQ�$PLWDL·V�VWXGLHV�RQ�WKH�FRQϰLFW�EHWZHHQ�0DPOXNV�and Ilkhanids, including the place of Anatolia within it.��

Travel accounts and geographical literature, ranging from the fourteenth to the twentieth century, provide descriptions of monuments and their state of preservation. One of the classics of travel literature in Arabic, the 5LєOD, which UHFRUGV�WKH�WUDYHOV�RI�LWV�DXWKRU�6KDPV�DO�'ҸQ�E��¶$EGDOOčK�0XєDPPDG�E��¶$EGDOOčK�DO�ࠦDQMҸ� LEQ� %DࠃࡃࠃࠃD� �G�� ����� ������ GXULQJ� WKH� VHFRQG� TXDUWHU� RI� WKH� IRXUWHHQWK�century, contains a section on Anatolia that praises the region for its gardens and the KRVSLWDOLW\�RI�LWV�$NKҸ�FRPPXQLWLHV��FRQIUDWHUQLWLHV�RIWHQ�DVVRFLDWHG�ZLWK�SDUWLFXODU�crafts.��� ,Q�҇DPG�$OOčK�0XVWDZIҸ�4D]YҸQҸ·V�1X]KDW� DO�TXOࡃE, written in the second quarter of the fourteenth century, Anatolia appears as one of the most impoverished SURYLQFHV�RI�WKH�,ONKDQLG�UHDOP��WKRXJK�WKLV�PD\�WR�VRPH�H[WHQW�UHϰHFW�QHJDWLYH�

��� -DOčO� DO�'ҸQ� ��PҸࡃ5 0HYOkQkQ×Q� 0HNWXSODU×�� HG�� $KPHG� 5HP]L� $N\�UHN�� ,VWDQEXO�� 6HEDW�%DV×PHYL��������-DOčO�DO�'ҸQ�5ࡃPҸ��0HYOkQk�&HOkOHGGLQ³0HNWXSODU��WU��$EG�OEkNL�*|OS×QDUO×��,VWDQEXO��ԭQNLOkS�YH�$ND�.LWDEHYOHUL�������

��� ¶$Oč·�DO�'ҸQ�¶$ࠃč�0DOLN�DO�-XZD\QҸ��*HQJKLV�.KDQ��WKH�KLVWRU\�RI�WKH�ZRUOG�FRQTXHURU, translated IURP�WKH�WH[W�RI�0LU]D�0XKDPPDG�4D]YLQL�E\�-�$��%R\OH��ZLWK�D�QHZ�LQWURGXFWLRQ�DQG�ELEOLRJUDSK\�E\�'DYLG�2��0RUJDQ��0DQFKHVWHU��0DQFKHVWHU�8QLYHUVLW\�3UHVV��������

��� 5DVKҸG�DO�'ҸQ�)D˂O�DOOčK�ࠦDEҸE�� -čPL¶�DO�7DYčULNK, edition of the Persian text with parallel 5XVVLDQ�WUDQVODWLRQ�E\�$�.��$UHQGV��WKUHH�YROV���%DNX��,]GDWHO·VWYR�$NDGHPLL�1DXN�$]HUEDLG]KDQVNRL�665��������5DVKҸG�DO�'ҸQ�)D˂O�DOOčK�ࠦDEҸE��-DPL·�X·W�WDZDULNK��&RPSHQGLXP�RI�&KURQLFOHV³$�+LVWRU\�RI�WKH�0RQJROV, tr. Wheeler M. Thackston, three vols., Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Department of 1HDU�(DVWHUQ�/DQJXDJHV�DQG�&LYLOL]DWLRQV�������

��� $��=HNL�9HOLGL�7RJDQ��´5HIHUHQFHV�WR�(FRQRPLF�DQG�&XOWXUDO�/LIH�LQ�$QDWROLD�LQ�WKH�/HWWHUV�RI�5DVKҸG�DO�'ҸQ�µ�WUDQVODWHG�DQG�ZLWK�DQ�LQWURGXFWLRQ�E\�*DU\�/HLVHU��LQ��-XGLWK�3IHLϸHU�DQG�6KROHK�$��4XLQQ��HGV��+LVWRU\�DQG�+LVWRULRJUDSK\�RI�3RVW�0RQJRO�&HQWUDO�$VLD�DQG�WKH�0LGGOH�(DVW³6WXGLHV�LQ�+RQRU�RI�-RKQ�(��:RRGV��:LHVEDGHQ��+DUUDVVRZLW]����������²�����6HH�/HLVHU·V� LQWURGXFWLRQ�RQ�SS����²��IRU�problems related to the source and references.

��� $Eࡃ�·O�4čVLP�¶$EGXOOčK�E��¶$OҸ�E��0XєDPPDG�O�4čVKčQҸ��'LH�&KURQLN�GHV�4čߖčQҸ��EHU�GHQ�,OFKDQ�gOПlLW�������²�������HG��DQG�WU��0DU\DP�3DUYLVL�%HUJHU��3K'�GLVVHUWDWLRQ��*HRUJ�$XJXVW�8QLYHUVLWlW��*|WWLQJHQ�������

�� Reuven Amitai, 7KH� 0RQJROV� LQ� WKH� ,VODPLF� /DQGV³6WXGLHV� LQ� WKH� +LVWRU\� RI� WKH� ,ONKDQDWH, 9DULRUXP�&ROOHFWHG�6WXGLHV�6HULHV��$OGHUVKRW��$VKJDWH��������$PLWDL��0RQJROV�DQG�0DPOXNV.

��� 6KDPV�DO�'ҸQ�E��¶$EGDOOčK�0XєDPPDG�E��¶$EGDOOčK�DO�ࠦDQMҸ�,EQ�%DࠃࡃࠃࠃD��7UDYHOV�RI�,EQ�%DWWXWD��$�'������²������HG��%�5��6DQJXLQHWWL�DQG�&��'HIUpPHU\��WU��+�$�5��*LEE��ϮYH�YROV���&DPEULGJH��3XEOLVKHG�IRU� WKH� +DNOX\W� 6RFLHW\� DW� WKH� 8QLYHUVLW\� 3UHVV�� ������ 6KDPV� DO�'ҸQ� E�� ¶$EGDOOčK�0XєDPPDG� E��¶$EGDOOčK�DO�ࠦDQMҸ�,EQ�%DࠃࡃࠃࠃD��9R\DJHV�G·,EQ�%DWRXWDK��HG��DQG�WU��&��'HIUpPpU\�DQG�%��5��6DQJXLQHWWL��IRXU�YROV���3DULV��,PSULPHULH�QDWLRQDOH������²�����

Blessing book.indb 17 8/15/2014 11:16:22 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ወᅵᄽዼᇹቈᅡᇹቨᇀ�႐ቨ႐ዧኂቈᇹ႐�႐ᆦዧᅵወ�ዧᇖᅵ�በኂቨᇀኂቈ�ᅐኂቨዅዼᅵዘዧ��

topoi about the region.���7KH�URXJKO\�FRQWHPSRUDU\�0DPOXN�ZULWHU�,EQ�)D˂O�DOOčK�DO�¶8PDUҸ�PRVWO\�GHVFULEHV�WKH�SULQFLSDOLWLHV��EH\OLNV��RI�ZHVWHUQ�$QDWROLD��\HW�DOVR�includes a detailed description of one thirteenth-century caravanserai in the region of Kayseri.��

Later accounts, dating from the seventeenth to the early twentieth century can be useful for details of the monuments or the urban fabric that have since disappeared. Thus, the seventeenth-century 6H\kKDWQkPH� E\� (YOL\k� dHOHEv�� 2WWRPDQ� WUDYHOHU�SDU� H[FHOOHQFH�� contains descriptions of several central Anatolian cities, including Sivas and Erzurum, which will be used later.���)LQDOO\��WKH�UHOHYDQW�QLQHWHHQWK��DQG�twentieth-century travel diaries and accounts are too numerous to be named here and will be mentioned throughout the text whenever appropriate.

Armenian sources provide information on the Mongol conquest of the Caucasus, VRPHWLPHV� LQFOXGLQJ� FLWLHV� LQ� $QDWROLD� ZLWK� VLJQLϮFDQW� $UPHQLDQ� SRSXODWLRQV��VXFK�DV�(U]XUXP��.DULQ�LQ�$UPHQLDQ���� The chronicle of Grigor of Akanc describes the Mongol conquests.�� Kirakos Gandzakertsi was a prisoner of the Mongols and provides lists of vocabulary in Mongolian.�� Galstyan provides extracts, translated into Russian, from a number of Armenian sources relevant to the Mongol conquest.�� While Georgian sources are also pertinent to an understanding of relations between the Seljuks and the Caucasus, they are available in translation even less frequently than the Armenian ones.��

��� ҇DPG�$OOčK�0XVWDZIҸ�4D]YҸQҸ��7KH�*HRJUDSKLFDO�3DUW�RI�WKH�1X]KDW�DO�TXOࡃE�FRPSRVHG�E\�+DPG�$OOčK�0XVWDZIҸ�RI�4D]ZҸQ�LQ�������������HG��DQG�WU��*X\�/H�6WUDQJH��WZR�YROV���(�-�:��*LEE�0HPRULDO�6HULHV��YRO������SDUW���DQG�SDUW����/HLGHQ��(�-��%ULOO�DQG�/RQGRQ��/X]DF��&R�������²���

��� $єPDG�E��<Dє\č�,EQ�)D˂O�$OOčK�DO�¶8PDUҸ��'DV�0RQJROLVFKH�:HOWUHLFK��$O�¶8PDUL·V�'DUVWHOOXQJ�GHU�PRQJROLVFKHQ� 5HLFKH� LQ� VHLQHP�:HUN�0DVčOLN� DO�DEߙčU� IҸ�PDPčOLN� DO�DPߙčU, ed. and tr. Klaus Lech, :LHVEDGHQ�� +DUUUDVVRZLW]�� ������ $єPDG� E�� <Dє\č� ,EQ� )D˂O� $OOčK� DO�¶8PDUҸ�� $O�¶8PDUҸ·V� %HULFKW��EHU�$QDWROLHQ� LQ�VHLQHP�:HUNH�0DVčOLN�DO�DEߙčU� IҸ�PDPčOLN�DO�DPߙčU�� HG��)UDQ]�7DHVFKQHU��/HLS]LJ��2��+DUUDVVRZLW]�������

��� (YOL\k� dHOHEv�� (YOL\D� dHOHEL� 6H\DKDWQkPHVL—7RSNDS×� 6DUD\×� .�W�SKDQHVL� %DОGDW� ���� 1XPDUDO×�<D]PDQ×Q�7UDQVNULSVL\RQX��HG��<��'DОO×��5��'DQNRϸ��6�$��.DKUDPDQ��=��.XUߞXQ��QLQH�YROV���,VWDQEXO��<DS×�.UHGL�<D\×QODU×������²������)RU�D�SDUWLDO�WUDQVODWLRQ�RI�WKH�DFFRXQW�RQ�$QDWROLD��VHH��(YOL\k�dHOHEv��(YOL\D�dHOHELV�$QDWROLHQUHLVH�DXV�GHP�GULWWHQ�%DQG�GHV�6H\kKDWQkPH��HG��DQG�WU��.RUNXW�0��%XОGD\��/HLGHQ��%ULOO��������

��� )RU�D�VWXG\�RI�UHODWLRQV�EHWZHHQ�WKH�0RQJROV�DQG�$UPHQLD��UHO\LQJ�KHDYLO\�RQ�$UPHQLDQ�DQG� *HRUJLDQ� VRXUFHV�� VHH�� %D\DUVDLNKDQ� 'DVKGRQGRJ��7KH�0RQJROV� DQG� WKH� $UPHQLDQV� �����²�����, /HLGHQ��%ULOO��������%HORZ��RQO\�$UPHQLDQ�VRXUFHV�DYDLODEOH�LQ�WUDQVODWLRQ�DUH�OLVWHG��

��� *ULJRU�RI�$NDQF��´+LVWRU\�RI�WKH�1DWLRQ�RI�WKH�$UFKHUV��7KH�0RQJROV��E\�*ULJRU�RI�$NDQF��+LWKHUWR�$VFULEHG�WR�0DODN·LD�7KH�0RQN³7KH�$UPHQLDQ�7H[W�(GLWHG�ZLWK�DQ�(QJOLVK�7UDQVODWLRQ�DQG�1RWHV�µ�HG��DQG�WU��5REHUW�3��%ODNH�DQG�5LFKDUG�1��)U\H��+DUYDUG�-RXUQDO�RI�$VLDWLF�6WXGLHV����1R���²���'HF�������������²����

�� Kirakos Gandsakezi, ,VWRULMD�$UPHQLL.�� A.G. Galstyan, (UPHQL�.D\QDNODU×QD�J|UH�0RОROODU²;,,,�²;,9��<�]\×OODUD�DLW�HVHUOHUGHQ�DO×QW×ODU, tr.

ԭO\DV�.DPDORY�� ,VWDQEXO��<HGLWHSH�<D\×QODU×�� ������ ,�ZDV�QRW� DEOH� WR�REWDLQ� D� FRS\�RI� WKH�5XVVLDQ�original.

�� Andrew C.S. Peacock, “Georgia and the Anatolian Turks in the 12th and 13th centuries,” $QDWROLDQ�6WXGLHV���������������²���

Blessing book.indb 18 8/15/2014 11:16:22 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ᇹቨዧወኂᅡዼᅐዧᇹኂቨ��ወᅵᆦወ႐በᇹቨᇀ�ዧᇖᅵ�ቈ႐ቨᅡዘ�ኂᆦ�ወጇበ ��

Overview of the chapters

The focus of this book is on monuments built in the second half of the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, as Anatolia progressively became integrated into the Mongol imperial sphere. After royal Seljuk patronage disappeared, two new JURXSV�RI�SDWURQV�EHFDPH�DFWLYH�DW�D�KLJK� OHYHO�� WKRVH�DϲOLDWHG�ZLWK�WKH�0RQJRO�rulers, on the one hand, and those associated with the powerless Seljuk sultan, on the other.

Chapter 1, which focuses on a number of madrasas and a large mosque complex WKDW�ZHUH�EXLOW� LQ�.RQ\D� IURP�WKH�����V� WR� WKH�����V��H[DPLQHV�KRZ�WKHVH�QHZ�patrons used their projects to reshape the Seljuk capital, which was devoid of UR\DO� SDWURQDJH� DW� WKDW� SRLQW�� 7KHVH� SDWURQV� LQFOXGHG� -DOčO� DO�'ҸQ� 4DUDࠃč\� �G��������������D�SRZHUIXO�DPҸU�both before and after the Mongol conquest, and the WZR�PDLQ�YL]LHUV�LQ�WKH�����V�DQG�����V��0X¶ҸQ�DO�'ҸQ�6XOD\PčQ�SHUYčQH��G�������������DQG�߳čєLE�¶$ࠃč�)DNKU�DO�'ҸQ�¶$OҸ��G��������������$OO�WKUHH�SDWURQV�ZHUH�YHU\�active in Konya and also sponsored monuments in the surrounding region and in other cities, including Sinop, Sivas, and Kayseri. The focus on Konya shows how the transformations in patronage reshaped the Seljuk capital once the sultans themselves were no longer active as patrons of architecture. The addition of several madrasas, some located close to the citadel and the site of the mosque WKDW�¶$Oč·�DO�'ҸQ�.D\TXEčG�UHVWRUHG�LQ�WKH�����V��JLYHV�WKH�LPSUHVVLRQ�RI�D�6XQQL�UHYLYDO��KRZHYHU��LW�PD\�LQVWHDG�UHϰHFW�D�VWUHQJWKHQLQJ�RI�WKH�FROOHJH�VWUXFWXUH�LQ�a city already heavily marked by such institutions. At the same time, patronage IRU� -DOčO�DO�'ҸQ�5ࡃPҸ� �G�������������DQG�KLV�GLVFLSOHV�VXJJHVWV�D�UHOLJLRXV�PLOLHX�LQ�ZKLFK�XOHPD� DQG� 6XϮV�PRYHG� LQ� VLPLODU� FLUFOHV�� 7KXV��ZKLOH� WKH�QRWLRQ� RI� D�Sunni revival akin to that promoted by the Great Seljuks in Iran in the eleventh century and subsequently transferred to Syria in the twelfth century may not be entirely appropriate for Anatolia, a heightened interest in religious institutions was nevertheless apparent there. Whether this interest in the construction of institutions of Muslim learning was the result of fear of the largely non-Muslim Mongols remains a matter for debate. Subsequent chapters examine the construction of madrasas in other cities under diverse circumstances, opening the larger question of the role of institutions of religious learning in Anatolia.

Continuing in this vein of analysis, Chapter 2 discusses the construction of three PDGUDVDV�LQ�6LYDV�LQ�WKH�VDPH�\HDU�����������²����7KH�LQWHUYHQWLRQV�RI�FRPSHWLQJ�SDWURQV³LQFOXGLQJ�߳čєLE�¶$ࠃč�)DNKU�DO�'ҸQ�¶$OҸ��ZKR�IRU�WKH�ϮUVW�WLPH�FRPPLVVLRQHG�a monument further east in Anatolia, away from his focus on the region of Konya—created a college town teeming with the students and ulema who populated these institutions. The construction of two madrasas at the very center of the inner citadel, possibly on a former Seljuk palace site, transformed the urban fabric. The third madrasa, located near the outer citadel of Sivas, was central to the expansion RI�WKH�FLW\��DQG�WKXV�KDG�D�VLPLODU�HϸHFW�WR�WKH�FRPSOH[�RI�6DKLE�$WD�LQ�.RQ\D��ZKLFK�was built away from the citadel along a road leading in the direction of Karaman in �����������0RUHRYHU��6LYDV�SUHVHQWV�RQH�RI�WKH�IHZ�FDVHV�ZKHUH�D�SDWURQ�IURP�,UDQ�EHFDPH�GLUHFWO\� LQYROYHG� LQ�$QDWROLD�� WKH� IRXQGHU�RI� WKH�dLIWH�0LQDUHOL�0HGUHVH��

Blessing book.indb 19 8/15/2014 11:16:22 AM

© Ashgate Publishing Ltd

Proof C

opy

ወᅵᄽዼᇹቈᅡᇹቨᇀ�႐ቨ႐ዧኂቈᇹ႐�႐ᆦዧᅵወ�ዧᇖᅵ�በኂቨᇀኂቈ�ᅐኂቨዅዼᅵዘዧ20

6KDPV�DO�'ҸQ�-XZD\QҸ��G��������������ZDV�D�KLJK�RϲFLDO�RI�WKH�,ONKDQLG�FRXUW�DQG�FRPPLVVLRQHG�KLV�PDGUDVD�LQ�GLUHFW�FRPSHWLWLRQ�ZLWK�ERWK�6LYDV·V�6HOMXN�SDVW�DQG�߳čєLE�¶$ࠃč�)DNKU�DO�'ҸQ�¶$OҸ·V�QHZ�IRXQGDWLRQ�

In Chapter 3, this sense of integrating the past into a newly reformulated urban context emerges more strongly in an analysis of Erzurum at the very end of the WKLUWHHQWK�FHQWXU\�DQG�LQ�WKH�HDUO\�GHFDGHV�RI�WKH�IRXUWHHQWK�FHQWXU\��1RZ�ϮUPO\�under Ilkhanid rule, this city on the eastern edge of Anatolia saw the construction of several madrasas that all strongly refer to earlier monuments in the city. The earlier buildings were founded under Saltukid rule in the twelfth century, before WKH�6HOMXNV�GHIHDWHG�WKLV�ORFDO�G\QDVW\�LQ������������7KH�DUFKLWHFWXUH�RI�WKH�FLW\·V�,ONKDQLG�SDWURQV�� DPRQJ� WKHP�WKH�JRYHUQRU�RI�(U]XUXP�DQG�%D\EXUW�� LV� VWURQJO\�rooted in the urban fabric, with subtle reference to earlier monuments, while the foundations of the Ilkhanid rulers in Iran are hardly referenced at all. It becomes FOHDU� WKDW� $QDWROLD·V� LQWHJUDWLRQ� LQWR� WKH� ,ONKDQLG� UHDOP� KDSSHQHG� DW� WKH� ϮVFDO�DQG� HFRQRPLF� OHYHO�� GXH� WR� UHIRUPV� LPSOHPHQWHG� XQGHU� *Kč]čQ� .KčQ� DIWHU� KLV�conversion to Islam. Architecture, on the other hand, was allowed to go its own way. Madrasas were once again used as a way to bring new populations of students to the city and to reassert the hold of Islam, especially once the Ilkhanid rulers had FRQYHUWHG� WR� ,VODP³WKH� ϮQDO� VWHS� LQ� WKHLU� DFFXOWXUDWLRQ� ZLWK� 3HUVLDQ�VSHDNLQJ�0XVOLP� IDPLOLHV� VXFK� DV� WKH� -XZD\QҸV��ZKR�KDG�EHHQ� DW� WKH�KHOP�RI� WKH�0RQJRO�administration since the conquest of Iran in the 1220s.

)LQDOO\��&KDSWHU���GLVFXVVHV�KRZ�WKH�DUFKLWHFWXUDO�ODQGVFDSH�FKDQJHG�LQ�WKH�FLWLHV�of Ankara, Amasya, and Tokat as the Ilkhanid hold over Anatolia waned in the early fourteenth century. While Erzurum, as the gateway between Iran and Anatolia, continued to be a major site of patronage, local patrons in other cities were active on reduced scale. As the Ilkhanids felt their power slip away, they tried to tighten their hold over the region. As a result, no new generation of local elites emerged, and KLJK�OHYHO�SDWURQDJH�HϸHFWLYHO\�FROODSVHG��,QVWHDG��WKH�OHDGHUV�RI�ORFDO�6XϮ�DQG�$NKҸ�communities established ]čZL\Ds and mausolea, often built in strongly local styles and with endowments that included only properties within and in the immediate vicinity of the city where the monuments stood. These structures served as sites for communal activities among local Muslims and to tie lands in the immediate region to these foundations. In a time of political and economic instability, in particular beginning in the 1320s as the Ilkhanid realm became increasingly troubled, these local forms of patronage ensured the continuity of institutions and community life. ,I�DUFKLWHFWXUH�LQ�$QDWROLD�UHϰHFWHG�SROLWLFDO�FKDQJHV��LW�GLG�VR�PRVW�SRLJQDQWO\�IURP�WKH�����V�WR�WKH�����V��ZKHQ�WKH�LQFUHDVHG�ϮVFDO�SUHVVXUH�H[HUWHG�E\�WKH�,ONKDQLG�administration drained the region of resources—including, of course, those essential to major architectural projects.

Blessing book.indb 20 8/15/2014 11:16:22 AM