Reading Architectural Carvings and Designs in Asian Context

Travel of the Carved Wood: Reading Architectural Carvings and Designs in Asian Context

Seethal C. P.1 1. Department of Art History, Kala Bhavana, Visva Bharati University, Santiniketan,

Birbhum, West Bengal – 731 235, India (Email: [email protected])

Received: 23 July 2019; Revised: 30 September 2019; Accepted: 29 October 2019 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 7 (2019): 507-522 Abstract This paper focuses the material culture and various possibilities of commerce conduced in the art history of Asia through a study on major architectural-wood carving traditions survived in different parts of the continent. It talks about geo-cultural ecological similarities and relationships of those places while mapping its locations, inquiring it's connecting points and reasons which results in revealing a trajectory and a core evidence for a trade heritage. This trajectory of carved wood follows particular designs or patterns of common interest and thus cross-cultural in nature.

Keywords: Asian Art, Art History, Wood Carving, Tradition, Travelling Designs, Trade, Culture

Introduction: The Asian Context The early scholars of Asian art looked at Asia as a whole, considering many similarities in traditions and correlational facets in art and culture. The characteristic feature that defines 'Asia as a whole' generally is the ornamented cultural surface, with a core interior of traditionalism in life, spirituality and religion. On the other hand, in the political context of the early twentieth century, Pan-Asianism as an ideology emerged to unite Asian-people against Western colonialism. The scholars of the time spoke of the glory of Asia/east and its religious supremacy. Soon after, the scholarships parallel to the making of nations tended to emphasise independence and was involved in curating nationality. Meanwhile, the history and culture of open-ended horizons of border lands or peripheries cut against that nationalised ideology. This paper is trying to look at the cross-cultural similarities of wood culture in those open-ended horizons where woodwork as part of architecture remained alive.

Materiality, Design and Culture Timber is an inevitable material in human history. The survival of wood carving traditions is sustained by various factors: such as; geography, ecology, type of wood, nature, seasoning techniques, tools, skill, scientific knowledge, subjectivity and economy. The aforementioned factors inevitably made use of wood relatively

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impermanent in construction for many regions. The change of natural environment, political environment, power-equation towards the material Stone and metal, and the matter of permanency over maintenance issue, might had replaced the broader use of woodwork in architectural constructions with stone, metal and other available long-lasting materials in that respect. But the places like Kerala, Nepal, Himalayas and southeast Asian countries were continuously using wood as their preferred architectural and sculptural material for the initially mentioned factors. There are several design junctures and overlays of similarities in between these material-evolutionary phase. Ancient Greece revived the Egyptian carpentry and followed the techniques used in constructing wooden temples, when they shifted to stone. Such form is called petrified carpentry (Watkin, 2005). The evidence for such transition from wood to stone irrespective of the parallel evolutions of material usage due to several factors can be seen in some motifs of stone-carvings in south Asia; which had functional aspects in their origin of the designs while being in wood format. That kind of petrified carpentry is explicitly visible in its structural design-composition at Ajanta and other Buddhist caves in India (Figure 1). Also, these Buddhist sites upholds ancient mural paintings, where references to wooden structures and pagodas are seen (Figure 2). These designs retained their form even after it replicated through stone material. In case of Karnataka, the jain temples, mainly the super structure design in South Canara and that of Kerala architecture are similar in its architectural wood works (Figure 3). Forms get carried over from one medium to another due to functional, technical, aesthetic, symbolic and ritual factors throughout the history. Thus, the parallel existence and transition of wood, stone, and metal carried on exchanging of its designs, motifs and techniques in different times, places and contexts.

Figure 1: Illustration of Kondana Cave Interior

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Figure 2: Ajanta Cave mural showing reference to wooden structure and Pagoda type

Figure 3: Illustration of Saavira Kambada Basadi Jain Temple in Moodabidri,

South Canara


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Figure 4: Showing similarity in the narrative design strategies; a. Wood carving on panels around sanctorum of Kaviyur Mahadeva Temple, b. Stone Carving around

sanctorum of Kandiyur Mahadeva Temple

Figure 5: Design of a type of silk known as “veerali pattu” typically seen in Kerala

Mural-painting tradition, Mattanchery Dutch Palace

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Figure 6: Typical design pattern of guardian figures of quarters (dikpalas) on ceiling on

Gopuramandapa, Poornathrayeesa Temple, Tripunithura

In Kerala, wood continued to be used side by side with stone through exchanging same technical and functional knowledge. "Arayum Nirayum", a structural design formed out of wood locking principle while arranging wood panels in a way, was present in the old domestic constructions at Kerala, is now seen in a refined form with even different materials. Also carved design strategies irrespective of their material such as wood, stone and metal seen around sanctorum are copies in many cases. One such example of comparison given here is the carvings of neighbourhood temples of Kaviyoor Mahadeva Temple and Kandiyoor Mahadeva Temple in southern Kerala (Figure 4).

Case Study of Kerala Kerala is a place where this transition and parallel exchange of material culture happened in multiple ways. Wooden works as super structures and structural wood carvings are preserved and maintained as a regional identity. Art historian Stella Kramrisch comments on this respect; "The Kerala idiom is seen typically in their wooden constructions and wood carvings"(Kramrisch,1953).


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Diversity in culture, tradition, religion, history and polity defines every portions of this large geographical Asiatic-sphere. Kerala being a coastal region well connected with the greater Asian trade from times in antiquity to the present, retains motifs or designs of diffusive nature in structural wood carvings and sculptures. The vernacular culture continuously absorbed the designs and techniques from a far asian loci. The interlocking methods and principals in the super structure and ceiling of a traditional wooden temple in Kerala is similar to the pagoda construction techniques of China and Japan. Veeralipattu (a type of Silk) a typical design symbolically represented in the Kerala mural painting tradition, evidently recalls our silk trade (Figure 5). The parallel journey of trade and culture might have resulted in exploring the concept of cardinal directions in Art which can be seen as a common subjectivity for carvers throughout South Asia. The conventional way of describing a location using cardinal directions would have been a key element for a maritime navigator. Symbolically represented Dikpalas (Guardians of quarters/cardinal directions) in the carved wooden ceilings found at almost every medieval temple in Kerala (Figure 6).

Figure 7: Map showing places having architectural wood carving tradition and heritage holding similar wood culture, forms trajectory of carved wood on ancient

crossways of the world

This research on wood carving traditions began from a village in Kerala, author's native and then it was difficult to find exact boundary lines for this wood culture in the present political border lines of the State or in India, while the visual traces continued to extend till the Mediterranean Basin on one side and Southeastern Asia on the other side. The Mapping of the trajectory of carved woods which hold noticeable similarities in its design culture results in the connectors at ancient Crossways of the world, reminding our trade history since ancient times. The map drawn by the author (Figure

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7), marks the areas of ancient port cities, mountain regions and islands located on the ancient-medieval trade routes (maritime as well as land) which also possessed of big hard trees like teak, cedar, rose wood, etc. Considering South Indian wood culture on the map, formed a naturally distinctive geographical plateau of the area, which can be defined as "Malabar Coast". Malabar Coast as a unit; from south of Goa to Kanyakumari on India's southern tip. The research focus on the possibilities of travelling designs based on its multi-cultural trade histories. The uniqueness found in parallel wood carving traditions of the narrow coastal plains of this area between the Western Ghats range and the Arabian Sea; also ancient wood carvings found in places like Greek, Ethiopia, Syria, Malabar coast, Srilanka, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Burma, Borneo and East China... having cultural similarities in its design; which reveals striking interactions across cultures in the ancient and medieval sea trade route. This inquiry and observation conform the research problem.

This is not a coincidence for a cultural diffusion! Very clearly it shows some trade communication along with continuing wood carving tradition of comparable culture among similar geographical and climatic regions. The reason might be the mixture of naturally favourable conditions of ecological and cultural backgrounds; Ocean currents meeting at Malabar Coast. It held its position as its absorption point of west and far-eastern maritime trade which uses its identity. Obviously in this situation, Malabar Coast was managing far eastern and European trade by politically placing these two categories in different port cities without letting the mixing together (Dey, 2015). This managing act gifted them with the value differences that helped in trade.

Trade Heritage A trade centre is a commercial hub. It is not always necessarily made to a hub; by the creation of the community belonging to it. Malabar-Coast as a trade-cultural point of interest has its specific ecological backgrounds beneath its ancient trade histories. It is widely known from its recorded history of trading with different parts of the world since ancient past. From the traders and travellers sources, malabar coast was known as the Garden of Spices which also holds a trade history for Gold, Wood and Peacocks (Mookerji, 1912). "Cosmas Indicopleustes, the Greco-Egyptian merchant (AD 535) describes the pepper trade at the Malabar Coast and he says ports on the West Coast of India and Ceylon were the centres of commerce between China, Gulf of Persia and the Red-Sea region" (Tripati and Raut, 2006). It is that trade which brought several religions to this region like; Jainism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. It is worth noticeable that the first traces of almost all trade religion coming through sea are seen in Malabar Coast. And it is interesting that though these religions uphold different cultural power structures, they absorbed a Kerala idiom of wood carvings and super structures in their architectural heritage in the beginning. But religious identity consciousness made changes in the later architectural designs.

"According to Dr. Sayce, the famous Assyriologist, the commerce by sea between India and Babylon must have been carried on as early as about 3000 BC, when Ur Bagas, the


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first king of united Babylonia, ruled in Ur of the Chaldees. This is proved by the finding of Indian teak in the ruins of Ur. Mr. Hewitt is of opinion that this wood must have been sent by sea from some port on the Malabar Coast, for it is only there that teak grew near enough to the sea to be exported with profit in those early times" (Mookerji, 1912).

There is an example for local trade and guild evident from an inscription of 900 AD called Chokkur Rekha, which mentions vaniks, koothar (nangyar) and shilpins related with temple (Ramachandran, 2007). The important names in the inscription are Cheravar Nattuchettiyar, Valanchiyar, Chonadan as traders (vaniks), Perumthachan as shilpi (master carver), and chuzhiyililchittarayil nangayar as koothachi (dancer).

Figure 8: Illustrations comparing wood carving designs of Srilanka and Malabar Coast; a. Bhuta Mask of South Canara, b. Bhuta Mask of Srilanka and c. Bhuta Mask design on

gabled roof of Theyyam worship sanctorum (Madappura), Kannur

Mapping Trajectory of the Carved Wood The above-mentioned map (Figure 7) and the comparison of the wood carving designs, and styles of those marked sites disclose everything about the hypothetical legibility of this research paper. Travel of the carved wood occurs in an imagined circular path, initiates the exploration and survey from its centre; Malabar Coast, being a centre of the greater Asian trade through Indian Ocean (Tripati &Raut, 2006). The centre was visibly a diffusion centre for spreading distinctive art of wood carving through

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overseas and overland. We have typical cases of material trade and artisans travel since long back known from ancient trade histories, as some references had given above. Generally, Scholars consider South India as a single unit in many cases. After a number of preliminary surveys the author bound to consider Malabar Coast as a single unit in this research also considering similar geographical, ecological and climatic conditions, where south Canara and a few parts of Tamilnadu on southern tip of Indian mainland fastened with Kerala as seen on the map (Figure 7).

Figure 9: Illustrations comparing the similarity of wood works and architectural designs of Lakshadweep and Malabar Coast; a. Ujra Masjid Kavaratti, Lakshadweep, b.

Mishkal Mosque Kozhikode

Figure 10: Illustrations comparing gable and superstructure designs of architecture in Burma and Malabar Coast; a. Shwenandaw Monastery (Golden Palace, Buddhist

Monastery), Mandalay, Myanmar; b. Padmanabhapuram Palace, Kanyakumari

The testimony of rich wood culture in Malabar Coast which faces the Arabian Sea spread till the end of western ghats mountain ranges. One can spot Malabar Coast and Sri Lanka as the ancient and medieval centres of the Indian-ocean maritime trade affairs. They are similar in many ways, to be specific in moderate climatic conditions, landscape, with the proximity to the ocean, latitudinal closeness, of people, culture,


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and festivals. So that it is obvious in case with wood carving traditions, especially that of Sinhalese. For example, wooden-mask tradition of the two places are very similar in its origin, design, concept, function, and ritual aspects. For example, wooden mask of a Kolam performer from southern coast of Sri Lanka and wooden mask of a Theyyam or Bhuta performer from Malabar Coast are comparable. Also the traditional Bhuta (devil) form of the mask is symbolised and carved on gabled wood of the Madappuras (worship places) designed for initiating the Theyyam ritual (Figure 8). Lakshadweep Islands literally influenced by Kerala in its culture including wood works in their architecture. Most of the migrants in the islands are from Malabar Coast and old Sinhalese of Sri Lanka. Wood works on the gable and architectural designs of Mosques in Malabar and that of Lakshadweep are typically similar (Figure 9).

Figure 11: Illustrations comparing the expressive nature of wood carving in Indonesia and Malabar Coast; a. Gatekeeper (Dwarapalaka), Kaviyur Mahadeva Temple, Kerala; b. Gatekeeper (Dwarapalaka), Hindu temple in Ubud, Bali, Indonesia; c. Narasimha,

Kaviyur Mahadeva Temple, Kerala

Figure 12: Comparing the superstructure, strut designs and carvings of Nepal and Malabar Coast; a. Changunarayan Temple, Bhaktapur, Nepal; b. Shukapuram

Dakshinamoorthy Temple, Edappal, Kerala

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Figure 13: Illustrations comparing wooden balcony designs of Gujarat and Malabar

Coast; a. Jain meeting hall, Patan, Gujarat; b. Padmanabhapuram Palace, Kanyakumari

Figure 14: Comparing wood carvings of Himalaya region and Malabar Coast; a, b, and c: wood carved narrative panels on the sanctorum walls of Hidimba Temple, Manali; d and e: wood carved narrative panels on the sanctorum walls of Thuravur Temple and

Kaviyur Temple respectively

Trade between India and Southeast Asia in the medieval times, was to reexport trade with Middle east from the ports of Western Coast of India on one side, and from Southeast Asia eastward to China and Japan on the other. Southeast Asia is cross cultural in every pinch of it where expanding the trade with India, especially taking the case of Malabar Coast, influences and similarities were the exchange of ideas and


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religious culture combined with their original culture. The mainlands and islands of Southeast Asia have their own rich and powerful traditions of Architectural-wood carvings, in which Bali, Cambodia, Burma, Laos, and Java have a shared design culture and craft with that of Malabar Coast and some other parts of India, obviously through trade and political relationships. Referring to some typical structural wood carvings from these places and the similarity of those with that of Malabar Coast is visible in the given visual comparisons here. Example of wood carving panel designs on walls fixed through locking principle, gable design, typical corner strut design of Buddhist monasteries in Myanmar (Burma), found similar to that of Hindu temples in Kerala (Figure 10). Interestingly some iconographical simulations in the narrative strategies of wood carvings in these places are noteworthy. The panel design is commonly seen around the sanctorum wall of temples of Kerala, especially in the districts of Ernakulam, Kottayam and Pathanamthitta. The iconography of valiant figures like Guardian carving (Dwarapalas), Narasimha, Garuda etcetera are treated in a unique stylised manner in Kerala. This expressive nature and dramatic quality are comparable with the such wood carvings of Bali, Indonesia (Figure 11). China, Korea and Japan have a shared wooden culture since long past. Recently Behl (2019), wrote a book exploring the cultural link between India and Japan, will add to the author's recent findings on the typical temple plan of Kerala and that of Nara period in Japan.

Figure 15: Illustration of book rest/Rehal

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Figure 16: Tracing and comparing the ancient wood carving strategy of symbolically depicting quarters/zodiacs/directions on ceilings in Ethiopia and the existence of that in Malabar Coast; a. Wood carved ceiling at Debre Damo Monastery of sixth century AD situated in a flat-topped mountain, Tigray, Ethiopia; b. Debre Damo Monastery; c. An early modern depiction of zodiac sign on ceiling of Kalpathooridam Paradevata Temple, Kozhikode; d. Symbolic figurative depiction of guardian of quarters on the

ceiling of Gopuramandapa of Poornathrayeesa Temple, Tripunithura

Certainly, in Nepal, there existed a well-developed wood carving tradition from the historical time. There is a special bond between Malabar Coast and Nepal. Priests from South Canara Coastal region and Kasaragod district have been serving in the Pashupatinath Temple at Kathmandu for so long, said to have begun at the time of Sri Shankaracharya. Both the places have some common religious belief and shared cultural traits and items. Wood craft found in the superstructures, struts and structural carvings of Nepal possess combined qualities of wood carvings from Gujarat and Malabar Coast. The example of Chaangunarayan temple at Nepal and Shukapuram dakshinamurthi temple at Kerala are juxtaposed for showing the similar way of the wooden struts are carved as part of architecture forming pagoda super structure in its functional and design aspects (Figure 12). Gujarat is another region which boasts of important port cities in the West Coast and splendid maritime heritage with West Asia, East Africa and the Far East. Thus, late Medieval Gujarat was visibly magnificent through its art of wood carving and stone carving parallels. Wood carvings designs of


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strut support along with balcony at Padmanabhapuram Palace and that of typical jain hall of sixteenth century carving in Patan, Gujarat are similar (Figure 13). Himalayan mountain ranges with thick cedar forests, are known for their native wooden architecture. The place also has the wood culture survived as part of architecture tradition which is similar in a few aspects; such as panel designs on walls, narrative strategies on that and super structure with that of Malabar Coast (Figure 14). Mountain ranges for its climatic conditions demand wood in their domestic architecture.

Now considering the enquiry of Middle East, the ancient trade was splendid in all sorts with Malabar Coast. They share some cultural traits and items still used in both places such as typical wooden carved book rest called Rehal by Arabs and typical designs of the carved wooden doors (Figure 15). Tracing the trade relation and cultural traits between Malabar Coast and Egypt and East Africa through wood carvings-culture is a beautiful challenge. Especially Kush Empire and Aksumite Empire was known for its ancient trade of iron (Reade, 2009). As types of chisels are instrumental for carving-evolution, the place discovers a typical design pattern for the typical subjectivity (symbolism of cardinal directions) found preserved on carved wooden ceiling of Debre Damo monastery in Ethiopia dated back to sixth century AD (Claessen, 1978). The author discovers the wood carved ceilings preserved in that monastery and finds comparable similarity with its design, subjective and narrative strategy of typical wood ceilings of temples in Malabar Coast in the survey (Figure 16). As stated earlier symbolic representations of guardians of quarters on ceiling seems to be a clue for sea trade in addition to other significations of it.

Antiquity and Continuity Scholars haven't looked closely at the architectural wood carving tradition in a connected way and always tend to avoid wood carvings, because of the perishable nature of wood. But the fact is that in sustainable circumferences, and ancient knowledge of seasoning techniques, it got preserved in particular monuments or places in the world. First point in my study on Malabar Coast Wood carving tradition is its antique past and continuity. Similar to Kerala, even in Nepal, there was not much concern about the dating and chronological importance of its wood carvings. Until recent times, it was believed that the oldest still existing wood carvings in Nepal date from AD 1100-1200. But the intensive research carried out by an American historian, Mary Shephered Slusser in the years 2004-2008 led to new findings. The investigations of old wooden sculptures through the method of radiocarbon dating unveiled surprising results: The oldest still existing wood carvings in Nepal were dated between AD 500-600, many others were dated between AD 600-1100 (Meyer, 2017). Such an attempt of carbon dating of an old house known for a local myth Parayi petta panthirukulam of Mezhathur Agnihotri's Illam (Thrithala Vemancheri Mana), was held in Kerala in 2012. Then it was found that the wood beam used in that age-old house is 1400 years old. There are disputes over this inference of arguing antiquity of more than thousand years of a wooden piece thinking that wood is generally perishable, despite considering seasoning techniques and weather insulations.

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However, the most interesting distinguishing feature of architectural wood carving tradition in Malabar Coast is its diffusive nature. Another thing is continuity of this tradition sustained by various factors-mentioned in the beginning of this paper. Unlike India, Malabar Coast boasts its uniqueness in all one classic-historical religious architectures and carvings while sharing a common tradition. From the first human beings finding wheels in the tree trunks or boats in the shape of logs, timber and the possibilities of carved wood inspired ancient cultures to travel.

Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Prof. R. Sivakumar, Dept. of Art History, Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, for his invaluable guidance and Anudev. M, for his genial support. Thanks, are also owed to the Department of Archeology, University of Kerala and Indian Art History Congress, for the opportunity, the author had in presenting this paper at the International Conference on Asian Art held in December 2018. Thanks to UGC for the fellowship and financial aid.

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Reading Architectural Carvings and Designs in Asian Context

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