DOCUMENT.RESOME

RD 10 167 SE 035 848

..ADTHOP Stoltzfus, Lo a Chr., Ed.TITLE Working for C1 an Water, 1: Citizen Havibboks. An

InformatiOn pro am for Advisory Groups.fNSTITUTION Ohio" State Univ Columbus, Ohio. Information

Reference Center for Science, Mathematics, andEnvironmental Education.,: Pennsylvania State Univ.,Middletown. Capitol Campus.

SPONS AGENCY Office of -Water Program Operations (EP'A)', Cinoinnati,-Ohio.-National Training and ,Operational TechnologyCenter.

PUB DATE o 81

CONTRACT EPA-CT- 900980-01NOTE 111p.; For related documents, seft SE 035 849=850.

Contains photographs which may riot reproduce well..AVAILABLE FROM Information.Reference Center (ERId/IRC),'The Ohio

State Univ., 1200 Chambers Rd.,, 3rd Flccr, Columbus,OH 43212 ($6.00). ..1*

EbPS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.'r n7SOPTPTORS *Advisory Committees: *Citizen Partiqipation:

Role: Community Planning: *Facility Planning: .

Municipalities: *Water Pollution: 'Water RescurcesIDENTIFIERS Ccostruction Grants: Waste Water Treatment; *Water

Quality

ABSTRACT 16

Presented is aterial'from an informaticn programdesigned to help citizen advisory groups and local officials improve'decision-makirg in water quality planningi This program is aimed athelping people focus on-essential issues ind questions.ty providingmaterials suitable for persons with non - technical backgrounds.-Thefollowing chapters are includedta,(1) Role of Advisory Groups; (2),,

POlic Participation: (3) Facility Planning in the ConstructionGrants Program: 14) uticipal Wastewater Processes, An Overview: 5)

Municipal Wasterifter Processes, detail: and (6) Small" Syste.ms.,Thevolume contains reading material and selected references. (CO)

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;6****16****;**********4***********4************************************* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *-

* from the original document. *

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An Information Program

-_ u.ft. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATORNATIONAL INSTITLJF OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

4--4 CENTER (ERIC)

X This document has been regrpduced asrpcprved horn the person 'Dr 'birgangationongtngtingMinor changes have beep ',lade to improve

c-N.1 rep,oduct.".tyPoints °N.Itev. or oponorts stated In this documerit do not rtecessartiv represent official N IE

Postoon or poky

for Adviory Groups

Working-for

Clean Water

1Citizen Handbooks

Project DirectorCharles A Cole

Project Co-DirectorE Bannon Buskirk Jr

Editor'Lorna Chr Stoltzfus

The Pennsylvania State UniversityThe Capitol Campus

Institute of State and Regional AffairsMuklietown PA 17057

Published bySMEAC Information Reference ('enter

College Of EducationThe Ohio t.ate University

1200 ChambArs Road. Room 310COLUMBUS, ON 43212

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Phnto CreditsEns tronmental Prow% (Jon m

PennVack lAatershed AssociationUSDA ScuiConser%ation Sur% u c5enna Department of Ens wonrnt ncal lb iIIf('Mines Engmee.ring IncBarbara 'reiman

S Department of 'AgricultureE Drannon Buskirk, JrEPA Documerica (Belinda Bain.

Hope Alexanter Donald &miners hiL S Forest Serice

t_ C L Stoltzfus \l,fg IncJohn Gratz

S Department of Interiorcar of Miamisburg Parks and

Recreation DeptRa% PfortnerSpringbrook Regionall(Nater (ter laniation ( enter

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This information program was financed withfederal funds from the I., S Ens ironmentalProtection Agency under CooperativeAgreement No C1'9009140 01 The informationprogram has been rev iewed b% theEns ironmenta/ protection Agent% and approstsf

piji.A.cFt,nri 4 rsprna not mends thatthe contents necessanl% reflect the stews andpolicies ot the Environmental Protection tgenc%nor does mention of trade name- or Lorimer; lalproducts constitute endorsement orrecommendation for use

Materials in this publication were prepared pursuant to agrant by the CS Ens iron mental Pt otec tion Aire2c to ThePenn.ykanta State Iirmersit% Mate/ ials cited ate notend wed h% the S Environmental Protection Agency norThe Ohl State LnivergIO,The EPA n for mation Dissemination Protect %purism ed by

the S nvit on men tal Protection Agency. Office of Watethogram jjj perattons, Notional Training and Opet ationalTechnolvizy Center, Cininnati, Ohio, and the College ofEducation and the School of Natural Resout c es, The OhioState (*nivel sits' i

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Preface$.

This information program is based' on the_ assumption that the reader already has a

basic knowledge acid awareness of tieimportant life-sustaining role that wirerplays in the biological,. cherwcal, andphysical cycles on the planet'Earth If thereader desires this kind of information..vour'local reference librarian can recommendbooks that discuss thg topic

* * * * * * * * * * * *Worlungfor Clean Watet is an

information prpgrarn designed to help /.."citizen advisory groups anlocarofficialsimprove decision-making in water qualityplanning The idea simplethe morepeople-know about a ub.ject, the betterprpared they are to make workable andpractical decisions in.,naeeting communityneeds This program is aimed at helping \people focus on essential'issues andquestion by providing inateiials-suital.,lefor persons with nentechnicil b4Egroundsilthough this material was cone and

developed with the advisory group memberin mind, it is useful for many other trainingsituatipns Persons benefiting from thesewater quality management educationalmatenal will be local, state, and federalemployees. pubhc,achool and collegestudents. and wastewater treatmentauthority, members. The materials have

'.already been used for these groups andwere,found to provide an excellent

rtm.roduction-to the subject.These niatenals include handbooks.

a iovisual presentations Islidetape or 16film), and instructor guides. The

a iovisual preSentations highlight majoris ues and impcirtgint aspects of each topic

e'handbooks elaborate on these points,provide additipnal detailed information, andinclude examples of how other communitieshave dealt with water quality and

wastewater.treatment issues The instructorguides give suggestions in hqw to hold aninfor?nation session inclading guideddiscussions on local topics of concern andsome problem-solving exercises

This volume is one of a series of three'which contain the citizen handbook .materials The eighteen topics discussed inthe individual -handbooks are chapters in .

this three-volume set The chapter topicsare

Role of Advisor4GroupsPublic ParticipationFacility Planning in the ConstructionGrants ProgramMunicipal Wastewater ProcessesOverview

\,. Municipal Wastewater Process,es DetailsSmall Systems

. Innovative and Alternative Technologies

handConservation and Reuse

hand Treatment1Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

Envirop&ntal AssessmentFinancial ManagementMultiple UseluduArial PretreatmentWastewater Facilities Operation and

anagementUrban Stormwater Runoff

'Nonpoint Sourc Pollution Agriculture,FOrestiy and MiningGroundwater ContaminationThe matenal in each chapter is not

designed to make techbical experts out ofthe readers lipweyer, the chapters docontain.essential facts, questions toconsider, advice op how to deal with issues,and clearly-wntten technical backgroundmaterial In short, each chi Ater proindesinfofmation, that wit!, help advisory groupmelibbers and local officials to better fulfilltheir roles 4 ,

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Each chapter contains matenal adttessedispecifically to advisory group members; thisinformation is printed in boldface type.There are often boxed-in sections ofmaterial containing examples, lists ofadvantages and disadvantages, questionsaddresied to local community needs, andpthePAoseful information. Two sections ofmaterial common to all chapters are casestudies which are found on pages tintedgray and a "Need More Information?"section contairuktg annotated resource_materials with information on hoW to ,obtain them. In addition, a glossary ofterms is provrded at the end of eachvolume

If you would like more informationabout the program, copies of handbooks,'instructor materials, or audiovisual aids, ,

contact the EPA InformationDis'semination Project for price lists arrental information.EPA Information Dissemination Prefect1200 Chambers Road, Room 310Columbus, OH 43212

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Acknowledgements

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Of course a project of this magnitudecannot be completed without the help ofmany people Those persons helpful in4anous phases of writing this publication.presenting instructor training workshopsacross the country. vdor developing theaudiovisual presentations include Dr DavidA Long and Dr John B Sesbitt, College ofEngineering, Perin State University ProfIrving Hn,c1 and Dennis'AV Auker, tInstitute of State and Regional Planning,Penn State University, Dr Robert ASimko and Dr John H Joseph. Penh StateUniNesity. Capitol Campus A special_thanks to D'r Thaddeus II Fowler, DrGlann.0 'Markle. and Dr J HowardJohnston of the Teachers College,University of Cincinnati, who coordinatedthe instructokraming workshops in the tenEPA regions

The following persons have 'contributednumeroUS ideas and suggestions that arereflected in this tinal publication- BarryJordan, EPA Projecl Officer, Office ofVater Programs Operations. and members

ofthe acCasory team for this project iT)avidElkinton, State of West Virginia, SteveFnshman, Michele Frome. and JihnHammond, private citizens; Joan Jurancich.Stg/te of California, Richard Heatheringt,on,E;PA R4gion 10. 'Rosemary Henderson, EPA.Region 6, George Hoessel, EPA Region 3,George Neiss, EPA Region 5: Ray Pfortner,EPA Region 2, Paul Pmault. EPA Region 1:Earlene Wilson, EPA 7. Dan Burrows, BenGrytctko. Robert Hardaker, and Steve!Water, F,PA.Headquarters.,

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Much appreciation is extended to DonnaKasaniwsky and Bob Flanagan of the EPAOffice of PubhcAwareness for theInvaluable graphics design and supportthey provided-for this project Also it was apleasure to work ith Charles Speers, whoprovided n2ost of t e artwork

Other persons wh played important rolesin this project inclu Tess Startom, Ann

I Kirsch, Jan Russ, Pat Rodkey, and SandraRobbins, typists, Corinne Bert', DaveBrinjac, Fran Costanzi, Kathy DeBatt,Michael Lapano. Bert Marinko, MikeMoulds, and Terry Switzer, studentassistants; Martin McGannzSmith andDesign Associates, illustrators, Mitzi Dell,._printing services, James tr Lukens, V.photographer and Ay coordinator. GeorgeW Hughes, sound specialist. Georgb Otto,graphic artist. James Canelos, instructionaltechnologist 'Special thanks also to theGettysburg Advisory Group. thePennypack WaLershed Association. and thic-Swatara Water Pollution Control AuthorityThe type was set by Batsch Company,thanks-to Bob Hillegas and Carol Young forcourteous, efficient service And, mostimpottant, thanks to our families (Sandyand Shari Cole. Carol and Martha Buskirk,and Gary Lakerfr their patiende, support.and inspiration - .

The three- volume series was'completed and published by the SMEACInformation Reference Center at The tOhio State UniyerAity obert W. HoNst

-and Chester E all coo dinatedpublication activities.

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VOLUME 1

CHAPTER 1 ROI,E OF ADVISOAY GROUPSIrt inf Hand and Dennis kJ' Auker .*

This chapter discusses the role of advisory groups in public participation Basic issuesconcerning why advisory groups exist, who should be the members, what they shoulddo,how they /should organize, and how they can assess their effectiveness are included a

CHAPTER 2 PUBLIC PARTICIPATIONF DrannQn Buskirk, Jr, Dennis ti Auker and An trig;

V hat is public participation and why is:it important, are addressed this chapterPrinciples. as well as techniques. for successful public participatioq ptograrns are pre-sented The role of advisory groups in helpfng tode% elop successful cfrograms is stressed

CH APIAR 3 FACILITY PLANNING IN THE.CONSTRUCTION GIL\TITS PROGRAMCharles A Cole ant E Drannon Buskirk. JrAn overvirv% of conSlruction grants process_is gi% en Citizen inyol% eme.nt in the six majorsteps of facility planning is discussed in detail Suggestions on areas of possible concernfor .local communities are noted

CHAPTER 4 MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER OCESSfS OVERVIEW'Lorna (lir Stoltzfus E Drannon Buskirk, )r and John fr 3.'esbittAn overview of 'what sewage is and how it is treated to remove various pollutants' ispresented in thi; chapter The discussions include the collection and tranroport§.tion ofsewage and the disposal of effluent and sludge Information isiltiven on how to'plan and

yo, evaluate possible treatment process-Cholces

CHAPTER 5 MU,NIOPAL WASTEWATER PROCESSES:DETAILSThisB Nesbitt and Charlet A Cole

This chapter describes in detail the various sewage and solids treatment Processes Thesewage processes include preliminary. prirriary. secondary, and dchanced stages Treat-ment of the solids includes thickening. stabilization, dewatering, and ultimate disposal.The advantages and disadvantages for %arious, processes-are listed throughout the text

CHAPTER SMALL SYSTEMSCharles A ColeThis chapter addresses the various options ay ailable for disposal of wastewater fromlow:density housing arks The types of smali_wast,gwater systems for onsite and clustertreatment include the septic tank as well as many. coagntional and innovative variationsOptions for sewage collection and transport for small communities are also discussed

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VOLUME 2

CHAP-174R 7 INNOVATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIESCharles A ColeGuidelines for identifying innovativ and alternative techfloologies as defined by the EPAare presented The criteria used for classification are discussed in detail Several lists ofexamples are included

CHATTER g WATER CONSERVATION AND REUSECharles A ColeReasons for conserving water, water us ,e, anti wastewater producKn are discussed.Various aspects of water conservation plans. Such as priciug strategies, public education,and water-saving devices. are (resented along vitt h things to consider when iipplemen Ling

the plan Suggestions for reuse and recycling of water are Nientioned-/,

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CHAt'TER 9 LAND TREATMENTr

This chapter addresse, "What is land treatment? When should it be considered'? What arethe advantages'?" Three categories of land treatment are discussed m detail. slow-rateirrigation. overland flow, rull rapid infiltration Siting frictors and cost-effectiveness ofland treatment are included in this discussion .-

CHAPTER 10 COSTEFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS ,

4E Draimon Buskirk, JrThis chapter dealiwith cost-effectiveness analysis Id it& objectiveS"The following proce-dures are discussed: preliminary analyses, monetary and monrponetary evaluation ofalternatives, mitigation of potenti4l problerhs, and plan selection

CHAPTER 11 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT lfilE Drannon Buskirk, JrEnvironmental considerations in facility and water quality management planning is thefocus of this chapter Types of environmental information included are the description-ofthe current and future environment, evaluation of alternatives, discussion of env ironmen-tal consequences. and ways to minimize adve'se environmental effects Public input Intoenvironmental assessment at various stages in the planning ,process are cited

CHAPTER 12 FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 177

Dennis. W Aukeaarld Irving HandFinancial management, such as the analysis and administration of the financial aspects ofwatet,4uality planning, construction, and gperations, is discussed A section'concernedwith how to pay for clean water includes dIcussions on fecierhl grant eligibility, fundingsources, and community and equity issues The impact of various institutionalarrange-ments and secondary tinpact of financial management are addressed

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VOLUME.,3.CHAPTER 13

CHAPTER 14

MULTIPLE USEE Drannon Buskirk. .1r /Opportunities in the multiple use of water and wastew ater -treatment plant grounds,buildings, and rights of way are discussed Planning strategies, implementaticin considerattbns. and funding sources are also presented

INDUSTRIAL PRETREATMENTJohn B Nesbitt -

This chapter discusses the three major options industry bias in treatment and disposal /industrial wastewaters One option is dealt with in detail pretreatment of industrialwastes which are then discharged to a municipal plant for final processing Pretreatmentregulations and program requirements are discussed An example ofOan industrial pre-treatment drdinance is included

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CHAPTER 15 WASTEWATER FACILITIES OPERATIONS AND MADIA'GEMENT 221David A LongThis chaPter iscusses the costs for operation and management 10 & Mi of wastewater

11/4,treatment fa4iihties. who pays for it, and why 0 & M of wastewater' treatment facilitiesmust be cons' ered There is mention of what indicates good 0 & M practices and a moredetailed section on factors found to cause poor plant performance

CHAPTER 16 URBAN STORMWATER RUNOFFRobert A SimkpUrban stormwater rpnoff is defined, examples are given, itstransportation is discussed,

.Ar and the seneusness of the problern is addressed How to plan for control of urban nonpointsource pqllution using structural apd nonstructural Best Management Practices and howto implement the plan through voluntary or regulatory control programs are the majortopics in this chapter

CHAPTER 17 NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION:Agriculture, Forestry and Mining

-E Drannon Buskirk, ,Irtionpoint source pollution is definedand examples are listed. A six-step planning sequenceis suggested for prevention and abatement of nonpomt source pollution. Separate discus-signs regarding plan implementation and-Best Management Practices are presented foragriculture, mining, and forestry

CHAPTER 18 GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATIONGleragisitv ig Miller. Inc and Charles A ('OleThe occurrence, importance. and chemical quality of groundwater reviewed in thischapter Types, sources, and underground movement of contaminants re discussed flowto pro% ide for protection of groundwater from pollution in water quail v management andfacility planning is the final topic

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Glossaryam

Absorption Field ified) type of 'absorption*.v -tem which use, a wide trench partially filledwith gra)el id crushed stone and covered withsod Piping distribute, treated-sewage eveiclythroughout the bed, for seepage into the ground

Act_ount Sheet a tatelc- for displaying impact..sent d,-y to fa. tIttat the comps -turn ot

altetn.oly'e-

Acid Mine Drainage a.atet with an acidicpH which diain- from working or abandoned

tle

Actuated Sludge waste solids that hatebeen at rated and :u ted to bacterial actiontuxes- for rerno)int: organic matter in ray.se7a..iere Bunn: se.ondary waste i.leatment

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Adsorption and accumulation ofrir -ui-(ditt( i the -urfaci an, th,r

Ad aloretn lax a tak imtkeed at a f*rceritof the pop. sit alye

anced Waste treatment treatmentproce,-e- tha can-increase waste rerno,a1Pa.\ eznel the or biological si,u.ic itinc hide- terra') i ot rauri rent- such a-

4r,d nitoga n and most usperviedsl

Aerattog -virtu ,r ea, at ovv,zer, through a-uh,tanco id, fit perfilication

Aeration tank- tank in which oxygenctruulate0 thrTugh wastewater ses an aid inpuroiraatIon

Aerobic D4estion breakdown of organicmaterial ta) bacteria in the presence Of Oxygen

Aerobic Treatment- treatment of wastewater,-irganims which are dependent on the

presence of oxyge n hteak down organicrnattcr

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Aeroclarifier --settling tank utili7ing thecirculation of oxygen through the v.atteytater toaid in purification and sedimentation

Alkalitu ,h,I,IfAcif( r w ith a pH above 7 0contains relati)el) few hydrogen .on, ascon)pared to an acid

. Alternative Wastewater TreatmentSystemsNariou- non-com enHonal methods ofcentral or community walewater treatment,,ludge treatment energy fecovery and nnsite

"sy,sternk that can ,,sve energy or cost ascomparAd to conventional treatment systermlthey are eligible for an additional 10 percentfecttral funding user cony entional systems

Ammonia Stripping process in which-gaseous ammonia is rrnoYed from water byagitating a waNr go- mature in the presenceof air

quactilturiam-growth of plants and animals inwater instkar f soil

Aquiferunderground bed r layer of earthgravel, or poroub stone tha serve, as aresersoir for groundwater

Aquifer Rechargeadding water to anaquifer eithe y spreading on the Aundsurface or chrec jection through wells)

Artesian war; confined uncle; lire'kurtbetween impel muable lay era ,.uch a, clay or-hale

bBest Management Practice iBMPitechnique which deal, Most effectlYely'v.ithgiten problem

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (HOD)amount of dissolved oxygen required bybacteria to decompose organic matter in watermeaTurc used todicate the amount of organicwaste, in water

Biodegradableeop4iie of tie in decomposcothrough the action of rnicrikagani-m,

BIONIISCc1 large otating plastic disc whichpros ides a surface area fur the attachment andgrowth microorganisms

tholocrocal Contactor a --ttle- ofc spaced loodisc, that pro)ide,,i,,,gesurface area for the biological remo),i1 oforganic pollutant, from yy,e-tevtatee

Boundary geographical area or the di gre of". stud) ,

Buffer Strip IZOrei- area of and which act,aL ti. afar ar'? =iet)treatment site arid the piddle

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Carcinogencancer7-Ing -ubstance

Catchitasinbasin located at the point where'a street Kuper discharge, into a -ewer catchesand retains /natter that would not pa,, readilythrough'the sewer .

Categorical Standards effluent standard,established for a particular industrial category

Centrifugationthe; ,eparat ion of sludgeparticle, from the liquid by a rApidly rotatingdrip

chemical Oxygen Dem d- measure of theequastlent amount o ygen iequiled to lo4akdawn organic and inorganic compounds inwater

... . ChemiCal Precipitation- treotment technique,-* y that utint, chemical, known as coagulant, toAmortize p ism. n, , of loans with intere-t oyes li

cause .4)1 id-i in the v.asteyyater to c lumpa period eel time. kgythr and settle-

. Aftaerobic Digestion breakdown of organic \.- mater.!I Fe, barter la no t he ah-nc of ostgen

Chlorine Contact Chamber- tank in %shah .chlorine is added to treated wastewater pee thepurpose of clisinfeciam

k where ....lid- .11eremoved from v.'.1,tv...itt r

Cluster Systemcommunity form of onsiti-despusal, in which effluent horn se\cialindividual septic tank., n traospor td to acential location for d sposal

Coagulationoddit chemaol-lime or elum to clump together v,lyd- inwastewater'', that they settle out hettei

Coliform Bactel is --limit, ta foliuJ u. ihtintestinal tracts of human- and e mai-Indicator of fecal pollution

Collection Line or t'ollector Sewer ,ey.er-including lateral, sulirnains,and main-

Combined Sewer --drainage -)-teru thatart re. birth ,uwage and storm- de, or,Iff

conmainutor de% ice that cab he- and ,hi ed-large object, in the Iv. wastewater inletsewage treatment plant

ompost,ing- niottrial hiolowc it breakdown eh.organic material in the presence of .1.11humus like material I, do, end product

Computer Modchngt he prow avian ing if

trromputer to use it Idled input data for anal', -or probli m yds. mg -1.1(h program- can prety.L,Lt.eYent- -uch a, --tormv.atet rurinfTAid pollobonloading

Conditio ng- treatment of -Judge withohcernactl, or heat ,o that the water m.y bereadily separated

Connection Charge one'time fee c hat gedto orooertY owners for .t..k4 pr itilege ofconnecting to a central sewer -N4t.em

onsultation--an exchange eef trey., bet v. eengm.ernmental agencies and intere,tedaffected person, or organmitrons invokescommunication technique, such as advisorygroup, and public hearing,

Contamination presence of undesii ablesuh,tances of biological inorganic or organiccomposition

Cc,t- Effectiveness Analyst'.--Ceferminationof whether a project or technique is worthfunding, both monetary and nonmonttaryfactor, ate MY Felted

Criteria- -guideline, for makirlg.

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dDecreasing Block Kate Structurecost ofwater to consumer Incrtra,e, as consumptionincrease,, but-at a decreasing rate

Deep-Well Injection pumping MO qualitt,treated wettlev.ater in4 the groundwater table

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Delphi Survey-panel of expertsindependently moving towards consensusthrough responses to rounds of questions

Demography--statisticatudy.of populations

Denitrification-anaerobic biologicalconxersion of nitrates Into nitrogen gas

Deprecilition Costs-those costs associatedth, loss of xalue for capital inxestraents

(Per a period oaf time due primarily to aging

1Detention basin for collecting;tormwaieo runoff until the particulates pickedtip ry. rain water hose settled

Dow atering-,eparation of water from sludgein ilium pre-sure or drying processes

Digester-closed tank where wastewatersludge t- broken down by Intense bacterialaction

Direct Ihschorge-disch.jrge of an industrialw iste other than to a puhl.iLly.,wned treatment...tics

Disinfectant- chemical such as chlorine thatflOpried to the wastewater to kill bacteria

Dissolved Solids-total amount of extremelyall olganic-and.morgedlic material contained

n water material capable of passing through arate, paper

Dosing rank- receptacle in septic systems forima. Klieg large flow rates for a short time,x at her than a trickle all thetime A do-sing.tank fills to a certain leseland then flushes bys,phon ,,c .n

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Easement-- a right of was granting the use ofi and lot 'certain period of time

Ecology study of relatainships betweenoan Isms Aral their surroundings

1e:cosy's/ern -the Interaction of-organisms withdolor .1T% ironment-Efflux-int -treated er untreated VI,rstewaterdi-charged into the environment

Electrodialyse.-- process }ij j'which electricityand a membrane separate mineral salts fromsew.. r

Environment surroundings, including all!Ring lal tarn !Ring factors

.,nvironmental Assesament-a documentprepared tr., the EPA on its assessment of theirripac - of prr posed projects

Environmental Impact Statement(ElSv etetallen analysis of potential

itraimenral mpacts of a proposed protect It,pierea when 1 he EPA determines that a

prole: t Ma% 1,1,e significant adverse, ens cronmentai reflect s 0A- is highly controversial

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Environmental InformationDocument-report done by the granteedescribing t?e environmental effects ofproposed wastewater Projects

Environmental Review-the Process by whichthe EPA Identifies andevaluates impacts uponthe environment

Erosion-the wearing away of land surface bywind or water

Eutrophication-nutrient 'enrichment of abody of water producing excessive growths ofaquatic plants that deteriorate the water

' environment

Eval3otranspiration Systems-systems whichdepend on evaporation and transpiration lossof water frilm plants) for wastewater disposal

fFacility 12011 Plannlitg-planning localwastewater collection treatment and disposal .

facilities, the number refers to 'section 01 theCleanWater Act

Filtration-process of passing wastewater, through a granular bed or fine screen forremoving suspended matter that cannot beremoved by sedimentation

\-Financial M anagement-the planning andadministrative process by which financialresources are used in their rrtlist effectpe

/Manner .

Five -Year Frequency Storm-storm of acertain degree of severity .that is expected. tooccur on an average of every five

garsFIFet.RtiStrueteerp-unit price orwater is,constant no matter how much is consumed

Flonciplain-.a nearly flat plain along thecourse of a stream that is naturally sttiect toflooding at high water

Force Main-sewer pipe under pressure frompump to maintain thejlow of sewage usedwhere gravity flow is not feasible

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General Obligation Bond-financial bondwhich is usually paid for by the community byraising taxes

Gravity Sewer-collection system which relieson gravity to transport wastewater from homesto a central treatment or disposal facility

Greenwax,-another namelfor "buffer zone

(eywater-hathing, wa§hing, and kitchenwastewater which is no Jonger potable, but ranhe filtered and used for other purposes

Grit Chamber-a where sand, cinders,and small stones are reinoved from wastewaterhysettling

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Grit Removal-a stage of prunary treatmentduring whtcand, cinders, and small stonesare removed rom wastewater by settling out

Groundwater -water lying Reidy, the stittac'of the earth

ess-p operty of water that tend; toca scaling and mefficienruse Of soap,gen airy Caused by the-mineral.calcium andmagn slum

Heavy Metals-metallic elements such asmercury, chromium, cadmium arsenic, andlead with high molecular weights The candamage living thiligk at low concentrations andtend to Accumulate in the food (ham .

Holding Tank-tank used for stor mgwastewater prior to treatment u-calls used .1-an :11ternati e for onsite problent area-

Horticulture -science of grow mg flov.er-fruit,' and vegetables

House Gonnection -sewer that catIracr-,wastewarler from the house to a collectionsystem.

Hydraulic Overload-situation when awastewater treatment plant is unable tandle

rie'the large flow of water eoteng -

Hydrologic Cycle-the flow of water throughthe air, land, and liquid enironments

Hydrology--the !ciente dealing with theproperties, !elec.., and geographical distributionof water ,

Impact Mitigation-the les.e_ning of theeffect, of a project on the em.uotiment

Implementajion Cost-thecost to thecommunity resulting from the use of selectedmitigation measures

Incompakble Waste-a waste that will11 upset a treatment works, 21 pass through atreatment works and cause a pollution plobleiti,.31 be removed in the treatment works, butinterfere with thadisposal of the sludge fromthe treatment works

Increasing Block Rate Structure±eost ofwater to consumer increases as consumptionincreases, and at an increasing rate, altoknown as a penalty structure

IndustrinrClosed Loop-the treatment andUreuse of waters user:Gin production within stn

hdustrial plant so that no water leaves the\plant ,

Industrial Pretreatment- treatment ofindustrial wastes before disCharge to amunaine er system

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Industrial Waste Ordinance--a+ommoninstrument of legal authority for enforcingpretreatment programs

Ipequitiesinjustices or unfairneslies.

infiltration seepage of effluent through the.ground to the water table, or groundwater

' leaking into cracked or broken sewers

Infilteationytft Inflow lUD leakage ofgrotuld and surface water into sewers

Infiltration-Percolation LandTreatmeittthe application of treatedwastewater onto land to aw it to percolatedownward through the soil'in order to removenutrients such as phosphorous and nitrogen

inflow,urface water that gets into the sewersystem from Itorm drains, downspouts, andsump purnr. s often during periods of rainfall

Influentthe raw wastewater entering asewage treatolent plant or in more generalterms the, flow entering some process unit

Innovative and Alternative Treatmentanonconventional, cost or energy-saving systemfor treating wastewater, it may qualify for anincrease in the federal grant share by 10percent from 75 to 85 percent

Innovative Waste TreatmentSystems--systems that, through new ideas andtechniques, significantly reduce costs or use ofenergy, improve control of toxic materials,improve operational reliability, or result insome other public benefit

inorganic substances such as metals orminerals that do not contain carbon

Insoluble --material that cannotbe dissolvedin a liquid

Interceptor Sewercentral sewer pipe whichcarries flows from the collector sewers in adrainage basin to the point of treatment ordisposal of the wastewater

Intrusion Barrierpr'actice such as injectinggrountilltater with effluent in coastal areas toforce back intruding salt water

Ion Exchangeexchange of one ion nowaterfor another, specifically, exchanging ammoniumnitrogen for sodium or calcium

Irrigationapplication of water to vegetationto improve its production

j k 1("Joint Treatmenttreatrient of both municipaland industrial wastes in a publicly-ownedtreatment wolt,-

Lagoona pond tontaining wastewater inwhich organic wastes are removed underaerobic or anaerobic conditions

Land Treatment process of applyingwastewater to the land for removal ofpollutants, sludgeithe solids removed fromwastewater) also may be disposed on land, butit is not called land treatment

Lateralthe small sewer serving individualstreets

Leachatewater flowing from the bottom orsides of dumps or landfills that containsmaterial dissolved from the materials stored inthe dump

Leachingprocess'by which sulTsrices aredissolved and carried away by water, or aremoved into a lower layer of soil

Legal Authoritystatutes, ordinances,contracts, or agreements through,Whichmunicipality enforces its pretreatmentprogram

Liaisona go -bets l to ensure concertedrtt saction between pa

Life -Line Rate Structure schedule providinga minimum basic amount of water at a ',mall

' cost to all people

Limiting Zoneground components such asimpervious clay, rock, or the water table, whichcan render an area unsuitable for onsite

sdisposal

Linear Parka parrwhich` is located along aroute, sucTi as a sewer right of way or astreamside easetnent

Loading Raterate at which pollutant/4accumulate in soil or surface waters

Local Pretreatment Programa procedurefor rekulating the discharge of industrial wasteto a publicly.-owned treatment works

Land Reclamation-- the reclaiming and reuseof wasteland, -swamps. marshes, and otherunused or wasted land for useful purposes, such .as cultivation or recreation

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Mainthe intermediate-sized sewersconnecting submains to plifints or interceptor

Metabolismprocess by which food is built upinto living protoplasm, and protoplasm isbroken down into simpler compounds with theexchange of energy

Methanea gaseous by-product of thebreakdown of organic matter in aerobicdigestion

Mitigation Measure - technique for correctingor minimizing adverse e ronmehtal impacts

Mitigative Coststhe costs resulting frothmeasures taken to lessen the impacts of aproject on the environment

Monetary Costscosts luch can be measuredin real dollars

Mounda type of.onsite disposal systemutilizing an absorption-field berflt on a bed ofsand

.Mound Systema type of onsite disposiklutilizing an\ehsorption bed of sand that isabove the natural grade of the soil surface

Multiple Useutilization of wastewatertreatment facilities for other functions ihaddition to wastewater treatment, such as forrecreational and educational purposes

nNitrificationconversion of "nitroggn-containing substances such as proteins into'nitrates by bacteria

Nitrogenouscontaining the elementnitrogen

Notificationinformation flow from thegovernmental agencies to interested or affectedparties, involves communication techniquessuch as fact sheets, n4vsletters, and seminars

NonpOint Sourcea contributing factorwater pollution that can't be traced to a specificspot, such as agricultural fertilizer runoff orconstruction sediment

Nonstructural littnagement Alternativesnonphysical approaches to pollution cdfitiolsuch as land use controls such as zoningordinances, improved urban maintenanceprograms, and construction activity schedulesOften more effective and less costly thanstructural alternatives

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NPDES Permit permit for discharge of amunicipal or industrial waste issued by theEPA or state regulatory agency

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Onsite Disposaldisposal of wastewater on anindividual lot, usuallr by a septic tank

Onsite Redyclefiltered ancl/orchemically-treated water which flows from aholding tank back to the toilet for subsequentreuse

Onsite Systema self-contained system whichprovides both treatment and disposal ofwastewater on an individual lot

Opportunity Costa.--monetary value ofpotential benefits lost as a result of a waterquality action

Orgartio-Mattercarlxi-contaming substance

Organic Waste DischLgewaste normallycontaining oxygen-demanding carboncompounds

Overland Flowland application technique inwhich wastewater is sprayed onto gentlysloping ground Planted with vegetation

Oxidation Ponda natural or man -made pondwhere wastewater is processed through theinteraction of sunlight, wind, aquaticorganisms, and oxygen

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P9.Pathogen--disease-causing organism'

Pathogenic -disealik-causing

PCBs -- polychlorinated biphenyls, a group ofextremely persistent chemicals used inelectrical transformers and capacitors

Peak Demand Rate Stit4cture--increasesprice of water at high consumption periods,

ffey-,': of Ic%eling out :4 ater usaie

Per Capita Daily Consumptionamount'consumed per person per day .

Percolationdownward flow or filtering ofwater through pores or spaces in rock or soil

Percolation Test--testfor measuring theability of :oil to permit downward flow orPermeahility of water '

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Penteabilitythe degree to which a,uh'tance is capable of being penetrated Ay',cater

PermeNble.--quality of an aquifer that permitswater to our through it

pHhydrogen ion concentration in a solution

Point Source Pollutionpollution that 1,di-charged from a single location such as apipe

Pollutant Loadingamount of pollutioncontrihuted by g:given pollution source over atime period

Polychionnated Biphenyls (PCBsta group -of toxic persistent Chemicals used in makingtransformers andsapacitors

Polyrnerrchernical compound consisting ofrepeating structural units

Ponding (Parking Lot, Itooflop) occurswhen a structure is designed so that rain waterwni collect within its boundanes and will existat a specific location at a controlled flowrate,rather than running off uncontrolled

Porosi open spades or cracks in rock thatmight fill with water

Precipitationprocess where chemicalscomhine Ito produce a compound that can beeasily relnovsd from a solutiontPresent Worththe sum of money that mustbe placed \on deposit at a givenanterest ratewhen theTroject construction begins to providefunds for he anticipated expenditures

Pressure Sewercollection sr tem in whichwastewater is pumped under pressure fromhomes IntUa central treatment or disposalfaiNity

Pretreatment treatment of an industrialwaste before \ discharge ,t0 al municipal sewersv,tem

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Pretreatment,Effluent Standardsconcentratidns or amounts of toxic chemicalsthat may be discharged to publicly-ownedtreatment works.

Primary Clarifiersedimentation-tank usedfor removing settleable solids during primarytreatment

Primary Impactan effect directly related toa program or a project such as noise associatedwith the construction of a wastewatertreatment plant

Primary Waste Treatmentfirst stage ofwastewater treatment, removal of floatingdebris and solids by screening and .sedimentation

Prohibited Wtisteswas not allowed to bedischarged to a publicly-owned treatmentworks

Public Participationinvolvement of citizensin the dyision making process

Pump "Aationfacility located along a sewerto maintain the flow of wastewater under .pressure

rRapid Infiltrationland application techniquein which wastewater is applied'to land and isallowed to percolate through the soil ang enterthe groundwater, thereby treating the -wastewater

Responsiveness Summary documentprepared by a planning agency indicatingbriefly to the public how.decislop maker, havedealt with the actions, comments, and opinionsnf thp nohhc

Retrofit Devicesmodificati6m, W be installedon existing eqUipment

Revenue bond financial bond which thecommunity ppys for through fees for the use of

facility f

Salinecontaining chemical salts, such assodium, potassium, and magnesium

Salt Water IntrusionLthe seepage ofsaltwater into.fresh groundwater, often causedby overpumping the groundwater

Sanitary Sewercollection system whichca les wasteWitter produced in home's and

stry, a separate collection 4ystem carries,wiser runoff

Sanitary Wastewaterrefers to wastewaterproduced in homes and industry, and separatefrom stormwater runoff

,Saturated Zonelayer helow the water tablewhere all cracks and pores a& filled withwater

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Secondary CI ersedimentation tankused for remo I of settleable solids and scum-created during secondary treatment

Secondary Impact effect indirectly causedby a progrIm or project, such as communitygrowth infused by wastewater treatmentfacilities

Secondary Treatmentmicrobiologicartreatment of wastewater to cbnsume brganicwastes usually in the preserice of oxygenFloating and settleahle solids, arid about 85percent of oxygen demanding suhstance,, andsuspended solids are remnii,ed Disinfection withchlorine is the final stage of secondarytreatinent.

Sediment Detention Basinstructuralfacility for temporarily storing stormwateirunoff, during which time sedintent isterrtGredby settling

Sedimentationa nonpoint source of pollutioncaused/when construction disturbs the soil andsediment is washed tom the construction siteAnd entereurhan stormwater, also moregenerally, the settling out of solids inwastewater or stormwater by gravity

Seepage Bedtype if absorption systemwhich usss 8 wide trench partially filled withgravel or crushed stone and covered with soilPiping chStributes treated sewage evenlythroughout the bed foi- 4eepage into, the ground

Sepaiate Sewercollection system which usesa sanitary sewer to carry only wastewater, anda storm sever to carry runoff from rainwAter

Septagethe solids collected in septic tanksover many Months of operation

Septage 'Pt eatment=treatment of the solidscollected in septic tanks over many months ofupe,ataor, .

Set Price Rate StrItctureeach group ofcustomers pays a set amount for any amount ofwater consumed

Sewer Interceptorpipe w ch carries flow,from the collector sewers i he drainage basin,to the point of treatment of disposal of thewastewater

Sewer Lateralsmall sewer pipes in the "."street to which the individual users connect

Silviculture a'phase of forestry dealing withthe eAtabhsh men t, development, and harvestingof trees

Sludgeconcentrated solicit removed fromsewage during wastewater treatment

Sludge Digesterheated tankWherewastewater solids can decompose biologicallyand the odors can be controlled

Soil Picallea graphic represetitation of soilcomponents

Soluble----material that can be dissolved in aliquid to form a homogeneous material,

,:'Special Assessment Boafinancial bondissutki to pay for public improvements wherespeciffic and direct heitAti. Pt 1,4 payment,tnrrn parties who benefit retire the bond,

spray Irrigation --the application of 'treated -effluent onto lir2ti ,praytng to provide

rigatoniit rigatoni

Stkbili2aUoncligestaki oftite organic oltdsin .I.udge so that thei, may be handled withoutcAu,ing a -nuiiiancic or health hazard

Step One Planning- initial planning ,cage forwater pollulion.contrid facilities eadmini,teied through the 1ore-portion Grantsr:(4,7,1111

Step Two Design (,rant- the ,eciond ,tage ofpommog wtic }...,Nutioimuntruiakrnathe 1, designed a, adtmnisterect inferthe leonstruc [ion (4ant, Program

Stream Ihvergencel-altering andor dixtdingthe flow of a ',hemp to reduce thre;frectsof hirh flow, nn the land surface -

1Stractural Management Alternative*--inoke physical entities for delaying. blocking,or trapping pollutant- A, compared tononstructural approache,, they are oftenexicknsh.e

StructursINethodsconstruction of physicalilIJ del ,ing block iny or trapping

pollutantsfr

Submain -.ewe!, connecting lateral, to main,

Subsident. Preventne--use of grocindwater,infection to preNrent 'oil from subsiding orsettling excessiAel,

...Supernatant the.relativek clear hgtitd that.form, on the top of the digested sluidge in thesecond tank of a two-stage anaerohic digestionprocess

Surface Wateraccumulations of water on topof the ground. ,uch a, Likes, streams, and thewean,

Suspended Solids (SS)tiny pieces of solidpollutants in sewage that caUse cloudines; ariareqihrey<al treatment to remove

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User Charge (Fee)prices charged to theconsumers of various public ,e? vice,

thickeningseparation of as much water a,possible from sludge by gravity al flotation

Teehniques .

TQl.al Dissilved Solids 1 cal amount ofdfssolved organic and inorganic matetialcontainectin water

fdxiF Chemical one,ubstancts. it appear,EPA

her of deadlyutlished by the

TranspirationlOss of water from plant,

Trickling Filter -a secondary treatmentnrocis, where wastewater seep, through a filmof microorganisms {{rowing on ,tone, 01 a,yrichetic medium A, the wasiev.iater hickle-ti.:ough the nfedia, the.microorgant,m,rnetdx.ilize most of the organic pollutant,

Turbiditycloudy condition in %ate! due to,':speeded silt qr organic matter

201 Plan - -local plan for wastewater tr itmentfictlities under the Constitution GranPr4ram of the EPA, the number refer, to asection of the,Clean Water Act

201 (Facilities) Planning--deal, with theplanning. designing, and construction of local ,wastewater,treatmetit facilities

24 Plan -reg;w r quality rntw section of :be

I, ,fate or areawide plan tutagement, the number rfer,Clean Water Act

208 (Water Quaiity Management)Plaontragwater quality planning with astate, regional, Of areawide scope prideguidance for individual 201 facility plans

Unit Processesindividual functjoning partsof a whole system

Unsaturated Zone--soil layers above thewater table, where water adheres to soilparticles and wt l not flow to a well

Vacuum Filter-2a cylindrical druid filipiwhich uses a vacuum to ::epai ate the solidsfrom the water .

Va uam Sr wercollec tion system in which ace ral vacuum source maintains a vacuum onsma I-dmmeter collection mains

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Wasteload Allocationthe maximumpollutant load that a facility is legallypermitted to discharge to a water body

Water Quality Management (208)Planninxplanning for the maintenance ofclean watt? at the and areawidelevel, .

Water Quality Standardlevels of pollutionpatameter, or stream conditions that must hemaintained to protecf desired uses of water

Water Rechargeadding water to an aquifereither by spreticling on the ground surface or bydirect injection through wells'

Watershed the land area that drains into a,treaiii or rl tt

Water, Table top surface of the groundwater

Wet Air dkidakion -ptoce-ss of breaking downsolid, in wastewater under conditions of hightempetaturecand pre,,ure

Wetlandslow lying land, which frequentlyhaste standing water on them, such as swamps,marshes, and meadow, Wetlands estientiallyare pollutant hap, m natural environments

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Ch\Ter 1

Role ofAdvi6ory _GroupsIrving Hand and Dennis W. Auker

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Will TheyLiken To Us?

must understand'what is expected of eachother There can be no hidden agenda.

Anyone who participates on an advisory,group will ask at some point Who caresabout what we say, and will they doanything about it This is an advisorygroup's most important concern. It is at theheart of key issues concerning the role ofadvisory groups

Why have an advisory grOup?

Who should be the members of`anadvisory group')

What should an advisory group do'

How should advikry group beorganized')

What makes an advisory groupgiorthwhile?

Thi. understanding of these issue. tv

they are dealt with will go a long way indetermining whether o)' not an advisorygroup is effective Air

There is no absolute guarantee for successin the work of an advisory group. However,the chancekor success are better if theadvisory group

H a balanced membership

ls interested and willing to devote thesec ry time

Understands what is expected of allparticipanta

This last point is especially important.Advisory groups need to realize their role,and the useful, things they can do to help

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Ihieve clean water goals. It is essentialat there is no confusion aboyt theirork.

From the outset the United StatesEnvironmental Protectiop Agency (EPA),the grantee who receives federal funds for

r). planning and constructing wastewatertreatment facilities, and the advisory group

Why Have an AdvisoryGroup?or -What the ham- I doing here'"

Public participation is as American asbaseball The "association" or "intereptgroup" is one important way Americansparticipate in making ptlic policyGrassroot.4 of gionzationb, publit. interest

'and consumer groups, and voluntaryservice drganizations all seekrepresentation on an equal footing withgovernmental and echnomut interestsAdvisory grouplcan serve this purpose

The last two decades have shown that thepublic splay an extremely importantrole in decision Making in both the publicand private sectors Public Participation iscomplex and often misunderstood. Notinherently "good" or "bad", it can helpthings to happen or it. can bring projects toa grinding halt.

Through water quality management .

planning we are now making progresstoward meeting our clean water goals.These actions affect everyone in some waytaxes or user fees, availability of Cleanwater for recreation, new wastewatertreatment facilities, effects on growthpatterns, and new political and statutoryrequirements. The people who will beliving with the, results should be involvedin the planning The advisorygroup is auseful way to get suFh involvement

Advisory groups serve three importantfunctions in water quality planning. Theycan assist in:

identifying the public's interest in cleanwater

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It's a Good Ideamaking diverse views known to decision

makers

taking local values Into account in thedecision-making process IClean water is a necessity of life We

S degradation at our own risk_How w go about achieving clean water interms of time, responsibilities, and the useof assets (money; manpower, and naturalresources) is important to the social,economic, and environmental well-being ofthe communitas well as the nation

Achieving clean water involves thegovernment., the private sector, .the peopleof an area, and special interests There aremany voices to be heard The forumprovided by the advisory group carrhelpharmonize these voices Into actions whichwill be of the greatest possible.benefit

A plan must fit the needs and conditiorfi of*the local area or community Ad% isorygroup members should be knowledgeableabout local issues, resources, and potentialconflicts

Resolving conflict, if it can be achieved atall, can often be accomplished through theuse of an advisory group Consensus is anachievable goal in an atmosphere of opencommunication and understanding

It's the LawSection 101 (e) of The Clean Water Act,statesPuhlit porta ipation in the detelopnlent reviqion, anden fort ement of arty regulation, qtandard, effluentlimitation, plan or program etahlv.hed by theAdminiqtro,for or any State under this Act ,hallprovided for, encouraged, and asqt.ded by theAdmino.trator and the States 1 he Administrator, in( oopemtton a rth the States, shut detelop and pu hliqhregulattorp, qpectliong minimum guideline, for puhlaparttetpation in quell processeh

The 1977 Clean Water Act and EPAregulations implementing the Act requirepublic participation when developing andcarrying out water quality managementplans Each state and yency conducting208 areatinde planning must have anadvisory committee Advisory commi eesare required in 201 facilities Plann4-1fcir large, compleic, or controversialprojects The EPA's Rules and Regulationsgovern the formation and functioning ofthese advisory groups

Who Should Be theMembers?There Should lie a balance ofrepresentative interests in the members*of an *I visory group. The EPA regulationsspecify.

Private citizens

Public -intefest groups

Public officials

Representatives of organizations withsubstantial economic intere.ts in the planor project

Having such interests represented isimportant if a politically acceptable waterquality management system is to bedeveloped

Size of Membership

There is no magic number for the size of.4n advisory group It should not be sosmall as to be unrepresentative, or so largeas tdeecome unmanageable A dozenlike-minded people may make a verycongenial groupbut theyrecommendations and advice may hehighly suspect because they miry notrepresent a full range of communityInterests A group of fifty would havedifficulty in setting mutually agreeablemeeting dates, in organizing, and even

.greater difficulty in reaching consensus onan issue

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The size of the group should bedeterminedon _a case-by-case basis by the complexityof the job to he done and the number ofinterested people Time, interest, and apertinent agenda are theingredients for an advisory group thatexpects to function successfully

Identification oNtembershipThe grantee is charged with t1 .

resporumbiltty of establishing an advisorygroup This agency must identify theprivate citizens, public interest groups,economic interests, and the public officialswho are interested in or who might beaffected By a project The agency must_make active efforts to inform people in hearea, and get suggestions for potentialadvisory group members These activitiesinclude-

Announcements to news media

Written notices to Interestedorganizations

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Public appearances

Direct cuntacts.,,

During its first meeting the advisory groupshould check to see if its membership ;isrepresentative. Are any relevantindividuals, organizatiqns, or interestsmissing)

What Should An AdvisoryGroup Do?The advisory gioup must- recognize thatthe primary sesppnsibility for decisionmaking in water quality management lieswith elected officials or their appointdesEven so, the role of an advisory group canbe extremely useful during tlie planningprocess It is essential that effly on awell defined important role isl'establishedfor the advisory group

Gives Advice

The respoRsibility of the advisory roup isto adt ;se 'his can be an importaUndertaking if several things happen,including

!he group does its homework inunderstanding the issues

The group develops practical, thoulit-outrecommendations_

The group achievesttriseyis4fri supportof its recommendations

' group establishes credibility throughits work

Remember, the role is to advise' An advisoris not expected to become a professional ora technician in water quality managementplanning Advisory groups may not be ableto offer, highly detailed and technicaljudgments However, they should have'enough technical knowledge and anunderstinding of local conditions toprovide-credible advice'about policymatters Actisory groups should make surethat the public's views and values are,communicated to the grantee.

,.While gaining competence in water qualityplanning, the advisory group shouldalways remember its responsibility Anadvisory group represents the public It isnot part of the staff Many advisory groupshave suffered when they inadvertentlyhave become rki 'extensions of the .grantees and the staff;

Water quality planning is done at several. levels 208 planning has a state, regional,and areawide scope The 201 deals withplanning, designing, and constructing localwastewater treatment facilities Althoughthese plans sometimes overlap, they arebasically compatible Local 201 facilityplanning issues are often addressed in 208

=planning State 208 planning documentsare correspondkngly used as aoInforinat nal resource in 201 facilityplanning

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201 IssuesWhat are the water quality problems'

Are the existing control facilitiesadequate'

What unique resources does the areahave that are worth protecting'

How large should a new facility be if it isto be cost-effective'

How much wastewater will thepopulation produce"

Where does industry fit into thefaciht,'-sizing picture'

What about commercial and indtistrialwastewater flows'

How is the total wastewater flowestimated'

IcIs it better to reduce flows 1,0 plan forgrowth.'

What geog-raphiclareas wirritie facilityserve"

Ate Miele QIIV art14,1-"aCii Ie ;',Crl. ICC areaoptions'

What are file-regional options",

208 IssuesWhat is the economy of the region, and

how will it develop').

VVhac will be the future population, andhow will it be distributed'

How significant is the rural or urbanstormwater runoff"

What future land uses are projected, andwhat existing laws and regulations apply"

How is the state and areawide waterquality management plan expected to beimplemented and operated"

What are the nonpoint sources ofpollution in the area'

How does water quality Managementplanning relate to other types of local,county, and areawide planning" How aredifferences resolved'

From such current and future issues the .advisory group-will select its agenda ofwork, always looeping in mind the overallobjectives And schedulelof the piolect Thisshould be done with a' clear understandingfrom the grantee as to vf;here the advisorgroup can be most helpful The groupshould determine if it has the resource, todeal with those responsibilities. and thendevelop a course of actin

Also the progress of the, project should htmonitored as it relates to the agenda of theadvisory group 'l's do this eflectielefforts must he macie.ta increase theunderstanding and competenc of thegroup members The training sessionsoffered by the EPA and the grantee can beof assistance

Makes Recommendations.The advisory group as lots public officialsin their final decision-makingresponsibilities It offers recomrrientitionsto these officials on the important issuesinvolved in water quality planning

Promotes Dialoguethe workings of the advisory group shouldencourage constructive coin-int:it-mat ion, andunderstanding among all parties "I his kindof "give and take- is extremel important_throughout the planning process It willhelp to develop

Mutual respect for arious viewpoints

A willingness to take all considerationsinto account

The ability to arrive at recommendationsthat serve the public interest

In order to promote clialogu, each memberhas the dual responsibility Of representingas clearly and accurately as possiblehis/her icleA. and of listening carefull tothe views of others Often this keyresponsibility is oyerlooked Howevereffective advisory groups have memberswho are good talker, and good listeners (

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.'Responsibilities of theGrantee

+-The granWe is expected to provide supportfir the activities of advisory groups, andconsider their recommendations. The EPAregulations address a numbr or theresponsibilities of the assisMd agency.

Establish advisory groups

Inform people in the affected area

Receivetruggpstions as to the make-up ofale advisory gibup

Provide information, technical skills, findstaff support

Carefully consider advisory group irecommendations aqd requests, andrespond to there` )

Transmit the advisory group srecommendations to the decision-rmakinferofficials

Involve the advisory group in a ppblicparticipation program

Communication is crucial to effective witerquality' planning and implementation A \liaison often conducts relationshipsbetween tilthgrantee and the advisorygroup The' effectiveness of the ha n canbe judged through a few questions M thisperson comfortable in working with peoplein an advisory group-agency relationship?Are the activities of the advisory grouprelevant and mutually agreeable? Are thefequeSts or recommendations`of theadvisory group repeiving reasonablyprompt consideration'? Is the a visorygroup receiving sufficient'suprfolqt?

Responsibilities of AdvisoryGr&tp Members

Bacon* knowledgeable of the needsand values of the community

Listen to the viewpoints of alladvisory group members

Atnd meetings ragularly

Take actions and eiresent findings to', the grantee

Help mobilize community support forwater quality management decisions

The advisory group interacts with manyagencies and rhterests

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How Should An AdvisoryGroup Be Organized?An advisory group should determine thedetails of its own organization. Timeshould not be wasted m establishing anelaborate structures Time should be spentdealing with activities that the groupdetermines are important

Chooye OfficersMinimal orpnization should tnclac,achairperson and vice-chairpersontemporary leader may be chosen for thefir-I few meetings After the members havebecome better acquainted with each other.permanent officers may be elected Officersshould serve a specified term tone or twoyears) add be eligible for re-election

The group may also wish to Piave asecretary and or treasurer Since the

, grantee may provide recording and supportsemoes, this consideration depends uponrthe given situation

Egtablish By-LawsThe advisory,'gzioup.may establt,h its ownby-laws and miles of procedure, or may usesomething which is more formal andgenerally recognized such as -Robert'sRules of Order'' The group Should not getboed dower snlietermininfformll trde fled' procedurei so that the reallyimportant.matters can be accomplishedwithout delay

Schedule Mevf1etings and AketidasA regular sched" ale for meeting& should beestablished as soon as possible However,this determination may -be,delayed untilthe membership is' relatisely certain(perhaps aftet the first two Meetings) It isan important decigion where busy people\are involved, and conflicting schedules canbring last irimute'complications

Meetings should be scheduled, asnecessary, and have an agenda Theyshould be announced as far in adince aspossible ar)d should be open to the publicAnnpportunity for the public to commentsboirld 4 provided at each meeting

Regular attendance at meetings should beexpected A policy concerning the numberof acceptable consecutive absences by amember'should be estab hed If a membermist'more than the ccepted number, 1.9

he/she should be requested to reconsiderparticipation ors the advisory group

Set Budget/

The financial resources needed for theadviSory group actin ales should bedetermined jointly by the grantee and Owadvisory group ThiscoUld include .

technical assistance and payment forreasonable out-of-pOcket expenses sucheducational materials and field trip,Provision can be made for these needs in'the budget of the grantee with the /agreement of the EPA

Appoint SubcommitteesDepending on how the advisory group

ishesto proceed, subcommittees may heestablished to investigate and developrecommendations on specific issuesTechnical assistance may be pros ided if thegroup desires expert advice from someoneother than the grantee nr its consfiltant

Similarly, information should be sougXtthefrnm rPplitahlem-rplp and itztZ.rPct,, In

community 'NY,: will help to insure thatadvise to the grantee take, into accountevery appropriate resource andconsideratior4

Recomme tions" made to the decision '-makers shouTh he made th4ough theadvisory group, not subNmmittees Olf the

-.group Subcommittees should makewrecommenciation), orify. to the advisory

groli as a whole

T7ke Action '414

As fully as possible, adVisory group actionsshould express the consensusof themembers Depending on the situation, -unatttrhous actions may or may not beachievable. Gaining a significant .

consensus, not just a simple majority,should be a general objective

The advisory group is4 forum It providesan,opPortunity for the presentation ofwidelanging views and judgments ttprovrdes the opportunity for argument,debate, and the resolution of conflicts Itprovicles the opportunity to hear the fact,.to become aware of individual concerns.and to appreciate thetembtional climatethat may bear on an issue

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Present FindingsThe preparation of various memoranda andshort reports kresenting the views andfindihgs arepapt of the group'sresponsibilities' Just as important, theseactivities should be visible tall partiesinvolved through meetings. pkess releases,and other efforts This will help thecommunity to glein an understanding aboutwater quality issues, and how thecommunity might best deal with them Thework of the advisory group should helpprovide a sound basis for taking actions

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What. Makes An Advi ry.Group Worthwhile?What happens to ther.ecommendati8ns ofadvisory groups' The answers given to thisquestion-reflect the usefulness of the.group

Are the recommendations simply i ored'Are they listened to and t n ratio lizedaway? Do they generate q tion's whichrequire further considerate Nand response.perhaps including a modification of the,recommendations? Are therecommendations folldwed? Every advisoryvoup pould periodically Answer thesequestions Simply put, the group'srs-commendations should be monitored Ifthe recommendations othe..advisory group.are being ignored or are not being followedin any significant way, members shoulddetermipe why this is happening Theimmediate reaction should not be'one ofhurt feelings and rejection

Attention should be directed to whether ornot the advisory group is dealing with theright issues Perhaps the issues simply arenot important-to the community or to thedecision makers If this is the case theadvisory group must decide whether toconvince the community and decisionmakers of the importance of the issues, ormodify the .vork.program to addressdifferent issues

Additionally, the Adviso4 group shouldattempt to determine its credibility does ithave credibility? if not, why not? does themembership reflect the community? is thework regarded as meaningless? is thegroup perceived as being under someone'sthumb, and therefore highly suspect?ti

The group can strive to make its efifortsworthwhile by

Developing a program that is importantto the community end decision makers

Being certain that recommendations arewell thought.out 3

Being persistent in folloWing up onrecommendations

Being protective of the reputation of theadvisory group' .. ,

F.'o 1...s.part the grantee should

Ske that the advisory group has staffsupport and access to inforrnatign '

See that the advisory group plays a rolein the overall public participation program

q,,:,... that -,4,!ce .r1,1 reccramen,l^t:ons ofthe advisory group are carefullyconsidered

R,emeMbet, the advisory group is just oneelement of a larger public participationeffort The time and effort undertaken inadvising the grantee can mike a big,difference in realizing the maximumbenefitfrom y,ater quality management_planning

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Public InformatioQa114aring Meeting Workshop

the rah group 1. one 6f many public paracipahr opportunities.

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Case Study

Can an Advisory Group Make ADifference?Gettysburg, Pennsylvania

IntroductionIrr the summer of 1979 the Gettysburg MunicipaAuthority s Advisory Group held its first meeting threeyears after the Gettysburg 201 Wastewater ManagementFacilitiei, Plan had been completed and approved by thePennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources'

Fhe complexities of designing a water qualitymanagement system which meets with public approvalhad again become a seemingly impossible task Theuncoord.11nated and sometimes contrary goals of state,local, acid federal agencies became apparent The resultwas the halt of facilities planning, with the processreturning to preliminary planning IniStep One' andpreparation of an enNizt.Tilielital Impact statement 2

The specific circumstances surrounding this Case areindeed unique The basic problems, however, arse repeatedin similar situations across the nation The question is, of

Can an ad% isory group make a difference"

BackgroundLocated in southcentral Perms,,y !virile, Gettysburg is most

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commonly recog4zecl for the Civil Whr battlefieldsurroundingthe, town_ Th wastewater.tre.atmentmktnt at

ttysburg became inadequate for the treatment of wastesI .e

n the 1960's In 1969 the Pennsylvania Department ofEnvironmental Resources (DER). informed the municipalauthq-ity that the plant was in vijiation of the state'sClearPStreams Law, and that correctrons had to be madeBy 1973 the additional pollution load placed on the systemby increa development and excessive stormwater ...,

infiltrationd rompted the DER to order a-construction banon new development until the situation could be improvedDuring this period it became obvious that a newore fitment plant was needed consultant was hired to Ibegin Step One planning for' new facility During thefacility plarining period fl-ow controls and waterconservation corrected the infiltration and overload 4

problem to the degree that the ban could be temporarilyhfted A qcliedule was developed -for conliructing newfacilities, but opposition to the plan mounted

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tie ArrangementIn the early-4170's regional facilities were favored byplanners Accordingly, the Getiysburg'Plan called for aregional plant what would serve not only Gettysburg butalso four townships surrounding Gettysburg Between1976 and 1978 the task of developing a mutual agreementbetween the townships and the GettysbUrg :MunicipalAuthority for service and financial arrangements wasundtrta n It was finally secured in 1978 During thesame od, the Authority worked with the NotionalPark Se ice to resolve the concern that futuredevelopment permitted or prompted 14 the sewage systemwould intrude on the beautiful historic surroundings of,the, ark .

A DelayThe Authority was prepared in 1978 to apply for a StepTwo design grant I However, yet to be .signed was amemorandum of agreement between six groups TheMunicipal Authority, the DER, the li S EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA), the Pennsylvania Historical and,Mtiseum Commission, the National Park Service, and theCouncil on HjstoricPreservation

The Councitbn Historic Preservation in its draftmemorandum of agreement called for zoning to-preventunsightly development in townships adjacent to theservice area However, such zoning in the conservativefarm areas of-southcentral kennsylvania was impossible toachieve The CoUncil documented that a sigruficantadverse cultural impact could occu(without suchrestrictions on development A fall -sale environmentalirpact statement was ordered

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.A Nc7,7 Beginning and ail Advisory GroppW hat essentially happened at Gettystairg was that thegoals of one agency conflicted with the goals of other.,'interests Regional treatment plants often spurdevelopment In some areas this pattecn,,may be desirable.but in Gettysburg such developmeht would intrude on thenational park This plan conflicted with the goals of theCouncil on Historic Preservation Thus, theplanningreturned to the beginning of the Step One planningprixess

If an advisory group had l en in extence throughout thephoject 'could it possibly have made a difference in thefinal outcome' The answer would appear to bey,6'_Anadvisory group would have been itite,gtally Involved in thed,iscussions over mutual agreements among the federtM,state and local agencies Art advisory group, representingthe community as a whole, could have been,a unifyingforce in these discussions

hoGettysburg Ack-isory Group and ItsACtivities --,i

Fhe Gettysburg advisory group was formed in the summerqt 1079 in accordance with the EPA guidelines for publicparticipation Its task was to advise the MunicipalAuthority on. eyelopmern of a treatment system which ,,%could not on beAmpatible wit h-the'goals of state andfedora' age cies, but would also meet community gcyllsi -I

Membership ---.

the Get yshitig advisory gAup membership, as selectedby the . unicipal Aethoray, consists of the followingrepresentiltion

Private citizens v

Leaglie of Women Voters,

National Park Serb ice

Taxpayers Association

Histo eic Gett4ourg Adams Go my

Gettysburg Area Chamber of Commerce

Reel Merchants Association

Builders Association

Landlords of Gettysburg

Four pulinofficials from area i tounicipalities .

'sale concern over the ability of the commumil to afford ,aregional system

,haring of costs by the municipalities .n% I6

tne planning ana zoning-restrict-ions oist hi tinNational Park Service

the budding ban-implemented by th, e OE a n,end tipassibility of future bans if a tieatment far ill wasbuilt.witbm rearionahle tune

OrganizationAt the first monthly meeting 91 the group, administiresponsibilities, budget.tid schedulmwwere addressedInformational materia4, were distributed

At the second meeting the role of the ad% Csorcexplained by both the chairman of the MunicipalAuthority and the Public Participation f icordinatm ni theEPA A briefing abourth9 hisiorc of th,c pisnect wasgiven Following this discussion the group considered therole it wait expected to play One oh the concerns notedwas that the-ad% isor% group might find itself in thethankless role of being arbitrators between all the pari,es,involved

Aftr'the first two meetings the group still had not-,elected permanent officers However, during-the thirdmeeting a permanent chairperson was elected

InitiativesAfter dscus,sion of,organizationhal and rocedural midter-m tine second meeting. the group chose to hear a progressreport from the: re flsentatices of the consulting ikmpreparing the envi nmental impact statement if',1S1 forthe EPA It was, hoped that this report might help thegroup better understand its role Indeed, this did occui

/During the presentation it became obvious that the degietof investigation into.water supply was inadequate in theeyes of the advisory group The citizens in the advisoQ,group hre acutely aware of writer supply problems. as thehave seen many Of their neighbors wells ry Theadvisor) group suggested that the EIS nsult t take amore in-depth look at the wat problem %since it

ct ment 7n the fut re,n't, andjeopard e thestem

would potenreduce th needed siz the plcost-eflecroeness Of a regional s,

The advisoey group ended its cond meeting byrequesting the EPA Public Participation Coordinator todelay the public hearing sche led on ithe ETS until theadvisory group could analyze an mment publicly on theinformation being developed by the LI consultant Theyrequested that an agenda and pertin nt materials he

idistribut4d in advance of thelthird eting so that theywould have better oppittunity to pr are

Concern .

The initial meetings of theadvisorygrouprdeveloped a4liaiogue typical of newly formed organizations Suchquestitnis as Why are we here' and What can we pw;sthly

44)(wine( e' characte ed the feelings ot the new group Thisis not surprisin since the citizens sitting on this.achiscirygroup had witnessed the complex history surrecanding theprevious plan The proposed project had been c6ntroverstaldue i .,---

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What Does Gettysburg Mearrto You?At the beginning of the second meeting the group was II

struggling with -why are we here'''. By the end of the-meeting, thj' had made two significant-recommendationsThis was done even though ye group had nQ officers, andwas not sure of the,expectations of the federal and stateagencies The group took the initiative and appears tohave Persuaded those InvIDIved to take a close; look at thecomplexities of overall planning for the municipalvyastewater treinment facility The group also requestedan.opportunity to analyze and comment, on the EISinformation being developed before a public hearing washeld

At future meetings the group will be reviewing,evaluating, and commenting on the information beingdeveloped for the EIS Major areas Of concern include

Where ace the focal points of future growth in the -

Gettysburg area, and what implic Awns will they have inregard to planning this water poLution Nitro] project

What are the alternatives, incliding-innO;)rativetechnologies and multiple use option,, available formeeting the water quality goals' r

What a,he needs of the community and whatalternativ will he acceptable thecrimmunity''

How can the conirns of the interested parties beaddressed in a fair and equitable wav

During the third meeting the group coritinuen to reliewthe progress' of tkie environmental assessment beingdeveloped for the EIS The group had recommendations as,well as many questions,filr the consultant Preparing thedocument Although, it ivstilt unknown whether theadvisory group ran help in achieving a more feasible -

wastewater treatment system, it is c ar that they plan toask Worthwhile, but "sticky' quesfi r Such actions willlikely enchance the coordination among agencies andclarify,decisions 'made duriiig the planning process Thisatmosphere, alo;.chn he beneficial in helping to achieve

solution 'which compatible with the goalsof variousgames while meeting the needs of the community Itould appear that tae group:has now established its

identity, has-a definite idea about its role, and is ready tomake a significant contribution to ,the water qualitymanagement planning and decision- making prqcess

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Selected Resources .

Municipal Wastewqter Ma Bement Citizet; sA Guide to Fact lit$ Planning FRD-6,Publication Number EPA-430/0-79-006 Wfishington. DC U S Environmental ProtectionAgency,,Febrtiary 1979 263 pp

This handbook is designed to acquaint citizen leaders with important decisionsthat need to be made in.managing municipal. wastewater The book lists keydecision points throughout the planning process that are critical to the facilityplan and the community, identifies environmental., economic and socialconsiderations affecting these decisions; discusses, citizen input, and helpscitizens understand the legal' tools'to facilitate their involvement. It is a goodreference book It is available from General Services Administration t8FFS),Centralized Mailing Lists Service, Building 41, Denver Federl Center, Denver,(20 S0225 ,41.

Public Participation in Programs Under the Resource Conservation and Recoverythe-Safe Drinking Water Act land the Clean Water Act. Final Regulation's, T4tle 4(Y,Chapter I, Part 215 '''FeciPral Register, Vol 44, No A, Part V Washington, DC U AEnvifonmental Protection Agency, February.16, 1979 pp 10286-10297."

-- This document presentsehe -ales and regulations for public participationincluding the Clean Water Act of 1977 It deals with advisory groups in'detail,including both the responsibilities of the groups and the EPA ,.

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State and Local Assistance. Grants for Construction of Tieatment Works, Title 40,Chapter 1, Part35- Federal Register, Vol 44, No 23, Part VI, Washingtion, DC U SEnvironmental Protection Agency, Fqbruary 16, 1979 pp 10300-10304

This document presents the rules and regulations for public involvement in thewastewater treatment Construction Grants Program

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Need MoreInformation?

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Chaptir 2

PublicParticipationE Drannon Suskirk, Jr., Dennis Auker, andArving Hand

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Abraham Lincoln said in his GettysburgAddress that government is -of the people,by the people, and for`the people In theearly year4 of this nation, citizens had directaccess to government decision malting,through opp-ortunities such as the townmeeting The local government would takeno major actions unless approved by personsat the meetifig Through time, expandinggovernment and growing population havemarkedly diminished direct citizeninvolvement in decision making Democracy11.,, representation has become the majorgoeraing modeAn effective represerttative democracy isdependent upon officials knowing andresponding to the needs and views of thecitizens Unfortunately, in many areas a,communication gap exists between thepeople and their public servants In an -

effort to improve t situation, publicparticipation is-no Mandated in such lawsas the Clean Water tct to reduce the gap

NIL between citizins and government

This handbook is not an in-depth guideon public participation techniques. Thepurpose of this handbook is tointroduce advisory group members tosome general principles about citizeninvolvement, as well as to outline thethings an advisory group'can do tohelp make public participationprograms effective.

Public POrticipation inNanningIn rrCany cases pver the years, water qualityphinning has not generated a great deal ofpublic involvement This fact is notsurprising; however, given the widespread

cynicism and apathy in our society withregard to government programs Inaddition, wastewater management does notusually excite most citizens Unfortunately,this lock of interest and involvement enleads to inappropriate plans and fact itiesIn many cases these planning proposalseither lack support and are ignored, orthey generate "last,Yriinute- controversyand opposition In the end the public paysfor the delays and mistakes not only interms of tax dollars, but also in terms ofundesirable environmental, econornic,.andsocial impacts

Fortunately, there are good examples of howpulAc involvement has contributed toworkable and acceptable solutions to waterquality problems These situations showthat steps can be taken to improve citizenparticipltion in water quality planning

Public participation is not easy and doesnot guaranta that the goals of ii programwill be met 'However, both the positive andnegative experiences with publicparticipation'show that if citizen support isneedl to implement propoted project, thecitize :4 must somehow he Involved in theproject's planning

Good-planning an lead to the selection ofthe not effective and efficient water qualitymanagement alternative, but requires morethan just professional,or technicalcompetence It must provide for'anintegration af-a community'sconomic,social, environmental, and political valuesin decision making Such values can only heincorporated through a stgruficant effort toinvolve the public in all stages_ of theplantrrng process

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be a discussion of purpose of a particulgrproject and what is to be accomplished Thespecific objtives of a pyoject will determinAdthe schedule and elements of the publicparticipation program.

Legal Requirements4'

The Clean Water Act of 1977 in SectiOn 101states 8

Public participation in the development, revision, andenforcement of any regulation, standard, effluentlimitation, plan or program established by theAdministrator or any State under this Act shall beprovided for, encouraged, and assisted by theAdministrator and the States The Administrator, incooperation with the States, shall develop and publishregulations Specifying minimum guidelines for publicparticipationtn such processes

This mandate not 'only applies to facilityplanning (Section 201), but also to the WaterQuality Management Program (Sections 208and 106), the Clean Lakes Program (Section

314), and the National PollAtion DischargeElimination System (Section 402).

The term the public" in a general sense (means all of the people. HoWever, there are(visually a number of segments of the publicwhich can be identified for specific projectsor programs Water quality advisorycommittees are required to havemembership from four broad categories.

.15rrisite citizens, members of public interestgitups such as environmental and civicorganizations, public officials such as electedrepresentatives and civil servants, andrepresentatives of organizations withsubstantial economic interests such asdevelopers These four categories can also beused as eguide for the overall publicparticipation program to ensure that across section of the public is represented ordirectly involved.

As mandated by the Clean Water Act, theUnited States Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA) has issued regulations to Ifurther define the public's role in waterquality planning These regulations setstandards for several EPA programs These'general regulations deal with: agencyresponsibilities, informational matcpals,time schedules, legal requirements, publichearings, public meetings, advisory groups,and the forms of consultation with thepublic Individual program regulationsimplement these general standards by

establishing specific requirements Theregulations for wastewater treatmentfacility planning and for water qualitymanagement planning are of particularinterest to advisory groups

Facility planning regulations call for eitherIlasic or full.scale public participation .programs. Facility development in theConstruction Grants Program proceedthrough three stages. Step One (planning),Step Two (design), and Step Three(construction).All projects at the Step Onestage must meet basic minimumrequirements for public involvement Tomeet the public participation requirementsa grantee must develop a public informationprogia'm designed to bring about publicinvolvement in the earliest stage of thedecision making The agency must also havea program for consulting the publicthroughout the facilities planning process,including the selection of the professionalengineer It must incLude an outline of thepublic participation program in the plan ofstudy submitted with a Step One grant Amore extensive public participation workplan must be submitted at a later date Thework plIft and a fact sheet about the projectmust be distributed to interest o s andindiyi e agency m consult iththe public when and futuresituations are being assessed, and when palternatives are being evaluated It must \hold a public meeting when alternatives are,largely developed, but before a plan isselected. It also must hold a public hearingto discuss the recommended alternatives .prior to the adoption of a facility planResponsiveness summaries which documentcitizen comments and agency responses toactivities such as plan evaluations, publicmeetings, and publicheanngs also must bedone, Finally, the agency must include anevaluation of the effectivenesi of the publicparticipation program in the facility plansubmitted for final approval

All projects must meet basic publicparticipation' program requirements. A moreintensive public involvement effort isjustified for complex or significant projectssuch as those that need advanced wastetreatment or require an eat vironnientalimpact statement In these situations, EPA

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regulations call for a full-scale program withadditional participation elements andresponsibilities

The grantee must lure or designate a publicparticipation coordinator who is responsiblefor carrying out the public participationwork plan. The grantee must hold a publicmeeting early in the facility planningprocess at the time when current and futuresituations are being identified (instead ofwaiting until the alternatives are largelydeveloped). The grantee also is expected toestablish) an advisory group shortly afteracceptance of the Step One grant award, andto provide technical training...for advisorygroup members and local officials. The EPAestimates that approximately 30 percent ofStep One projects will trigger a full-scaleprogram.

Water Quality ManagementPlanning

-The Water Quality Management (WQM)program was originally. set up to developcomprehensive plans for state and regionalwater quality management; one goal ofwhich was to provide an umbrella underwhich local facility planning is carried outHowever, since this initial phase of WQM ismostly complete (most initial WQM planshave been approved by EPA), the focus of theprogram has changed. Over the years it hasbecome apparent that inadequate attentionhas been given to the study of nonpointsource.pollution problems and solutionsTherefore, the WQM program now addressesspecific nonpoint source pollution problemslb areas such as agricultural runoff, urbanstormwater runoff,and groundwatercontamination. The concerns of WQMadvisory groups are also reflecting thischange in emphasis.

Some similarities exist between the facilityplanning and WQM program requirements4pr public participation These Includegeneral provisions for information,consultation, public participation workprogramsDosponsiveness summaries, andbalanced advisory group membership inaddition, WQM regulations set publicparticipation requirements which relatemore specifically to WQM grantees

All WQM grantees tire required to establishand maintain a citizen advisory group, animportant part of public participation in

planning activities WQM advisorygroups advise on goals and prioilities, reviewand comment on grant applications andwork progranis; assist with publicparticipation, consult with tite agencythroughout the planning process, submitcomments; raise issues, and monitor WQMactivities

Additional public involvement actions arealso required Early in_each stage of theWQM process (which includes thedevelopment or revision of WQM plans,state strategies, annual work programs. andState/EPA Agreements) each agency mustnotify the public about the proposed goalsand scope of proposed actions and must-schedule opportunities for consultation withthe public and the advisory group Eachagency must also establish a continuingprogram of providing information including,

.w ere appropriate, fact sheets explainingpr posed actions in layman's terms More

cifically, WQM agencies are required tohold a public hearing on draft WQM plansorplan revisions and a public meeting on draftannual work programs Responsivetesssummaries documenting citizen commentsand Agency response must be prepared aftereach meeting or hearing

All public participation activities, includingthose of the advisory group, should beintepated into WQM planning activitiesand reflected in the work program fOr eachactivity. In addition, a separate publicparticipation work program must beprepared and be made available to thepublic Work program requirements arediscussed in detail later in this handbook

More Than a Seebf Recidirements

In considering the public participation ne sfor a project, there is room for flexibilit ndcreativity Each project is different, anevery community has resources-it can d awupon in carrying out a public involveme tprogram The advisory group is one of thesere&urces

When developing a community involvementpi ograni, the following Opera] principlesshould be kept in mind.

A good program entails careful planning,even kefore the project formally begins

As decisions are made, citizens`must getfeedback on)iow their concerns and viewshave influenced these decisions

Participation activities must he keyed toimportant decision points in the project

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Program Impiimen LionRegulations of the EPA lequire that

agencies shell conduct a continuinprogram for public information andparticipation in the development andimplementatiOR" of water quality plans anprograms This ?orktanuing program Iiiktwmain elements information giving(notification, and information receivingcvsultation) They are the essence ofeffective citizen involverneTtwerboth ./ftnecessary for dialogue between partied

All public participation techniques areeither information giving or informationreceiving For example, fact sheets,newsletters, and seminars basically conveyinformation fiorn the planning agency to thepublic Other approaches such as publicmeetings, surveys:, and advisory groupsfacilitate information flow in the otherdirection

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Choice of Appropriate Techniques

Public participatiori activities are not donefor their own sake, or merely to meet theletter of the law They must serve somepurpose in the project Choosing appropriatetechniques depends upon the objectives ofthe stage in the planning process. Theseobjectives include tasks such as clanfyingproject issues, identifying problems, anddeveloping sorutions The overall purpose ofpublic participation activities is to improi,eand support decision making. This can onlyhappen if public participation techniquesare linked closely to key decision points andproject objectivet

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Public participation techniques can helpmeet program objectives to varying degreesHowevaS some may be counter-productive ifthey are used at the wrong time- Thesituation is similar to a mechanic using ahammer for a'task dcaiie better with awrench As an example, consider thepractice of using only public hearings in thepubtic participat n process Public hearingsare designed to ewe formal testimonywhich will meet: egal requirements They .normally occur shortly before final decisions

are made There is little two-way interactionbetween the agency holding thc'beering,and those whoparticipate..Thug, formalpublic hearings should notbe.used if theobjectie 1, to ha, ,e give -and -takediscussions with citizens An effective pubicparticipation pr;Igram is likely to require iseveral techniques

The general rule is that no one techniqueworks best all of the time. Adirisorygroups should make sure that theplanning agency doein't fall victim tolimited or over-used techniques.

rChoosing appropriate techniques dependsupon tbe objectives at various stages in theplanning process, and other considerations.Altihough WQM and facility planning havethekr unique aspects, they have similarplirfining elements. They include

Ide ntifying problems

Establishing goals and objectives

Compiling data

Developing and evalut,ralternatives

Selecting a plan

Implementing and rep sing a plan

Both types of public participation techniquesinformation giving afid information

receiving are used with each planningelement, but emphasis may vary because ofchanging ol 'teat ves For example, the initialstages invoiNP identifying real needs andproblems. and collecting data on existingand future situations Information gibingapproaches such as fact sheets and newsreleases can interest the community aboutthe project, and start to establish on-goingsupport

Other techniques are.srso availableConsultation activities can be used tocommuKicate the opinions and values of thepublic to. the planners In fact, theseinformation-receiving activities arerequired prior to the selection ofalternatives Advisory groups, meetings,and workshops are possible consultationactivities

Wisconsin Several public participation

eused in facility planning in

iNilwau Faced with a 1 5 billion dollarproject, the city initiated a large-scale publicinformation program to make the citizensaware of the wastewater problem and

'potential solutions. The program involvesthe extensufe use of local newspapers,spetiker bureaus, and workshops designedto gibe people experience in the facilityplanning process

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`Later in the planning process, alternativesare developed and evaluated. At this stage,instead of determining needs and problems,clarifying project issues and tradeoffsbeconies more important. Information-giving techniques such as briefings,seminars, and responsiveness summariesmay prove .usefill. Consultation or informa-tion-receiving techniques such as publicmeetings, Ittrveys, workshops, andadvisory groups can be quite helpful at thisplanning stage However, Bch of thesetechniques is not suitable for everyobjective. Therefore, a combination oftechniqueS may be necessary to meet all theobjectives.

The proble/ m remains in selecting the-besttechnique at the right time Objectives, ofcourse, furnish some guidance, but otherfactors must also be considered Aspects ,

such as the specific strengths andweaknesses of individual techniques, theirrequirements in money and time resources,personnel who will h,ave to administer thetechniques, and the likely receptivity of thecommunity to certain techniques areother important considerations

Resources and Con4nunity Attitudes

Financial resources, staff resources,administrative abilitiet, and attitudes allplay an eftremely important role inestablishing an effective public participationprogram

PublicTarticipation techniques

Notification(Information Giving)

Newsletters

News Releases

Fact Sheets F

Brochures

Briefings

Seminars -

Consultation(Information Receiving)

Radio or TV Announcements

Responsiveness Summanes

Telephoncotletlines

Summaries of Reports

Advisory Groups

Public Meetings

-Public Hearings

Task Forces

Surveys

Workshops

Interviews

Review Groups

Rferendums

Phone-in Radio Programs

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All public participation programs costmoney. If good public involvement ietrulydesired, adequate funds must be allocated.Of course, available financial resources areseldom plentiful. If funds are scarce it iseven more important that 't e advisorygroup help the grantee selec the techniquesfor the program thatare most cost effectiveLocal knowledge can help the agency 'determine the least costly way of getting thepublic involved. Local resources and existingcommunication networks should be usedwherever possible It is possible to have aneffective public participation program:without imposing heavy financial burdenson the corrimunity.

Staff respurces, including availabilityand techAical competence, influence thesuccess of programs. Theadvisorygroup should urge the planning agencyperiodically to assess the publicparticipation program by doing thefollowing:

Determine whether pu.lieparticipation needs are 'being met

Assess the effectiveness of thetechniques being used

Ask whether alt legal requirementsare being met

Determine whether work tasks arebeing accomplished in an orderly andeffective manner

Assess the ability to keep track ofanagement and budgeting for thehniques being used,

terrnine if there is sufficientsupervision of technical staff.

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The advisory group should becontinuously informed pf developmentsin the public, participatibn p am: Inorder to play an effective role, theadvisory group can designate anindividual or subcommittee to work tclosely with the agency publicparticipation staff.

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Community attitudes, although lesstangible than.finaneial resources or staffinlities, are no less important In this

context_what is perceived, even if erroneous,is as important as what is real For example,'a__Delphl survey is a powerful technique forreaching consensus. However, because thetechnique involves a pariel of experts, It maynot be supporte(by community residentswho may resent the presence of experts andtheir inputs

Advisory groups can help the planning:agencies stay attuned to what area

v residents feel about elethent, of thepublic p 'cipation program.

.,These m. rs such as choice of techniques,impleme tion resources, and community

,attitudes'are best dealt with together .

through the puhlir ciarticipation,workplan

Public participation Workpl

The EPA public participation regulatWish a mechanism 'through which the

nning agency can deliberately planahead, and choose 0411c participation

hniques to 5,2.chine' schedule andectives of the project This mechanism

is a public participationJworkplan Theworkplan is required inboth facilityplanning and water quality managementprogramN Advisory groups are to beconsulted in the development of theworkplah The workplan must contain

/he following Information

A proposed schedule for publicparticipation activities to impact majordecisions, incluchn'g consultation pointswhere responsiness summaries arerequired

An identification of consultation andnotificiition techniques to be used

The segments of the public targeted forInvolvement,

Staff contacts and budget resou'rces to bedevoted to public particijatio.i

The coordination of facility and WQMpublic participation.

e The workplan is intended to serve as apublic information document on the project

le Because the workplan links public - _

participatiTi activities to specific decisionsand schedtMes, citizens are able to use the

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workplan to gain a better understanding ofwhat to expect from a project. The workplanshould build piiblic participation ac$'itiesinto the projectOn developing a workplan,therefore, the grantee must match objectivesat various stages of the process withappropriate techniques The knowledge andexperience oC,the advisory group membersshout be used'to assure that the publicparricipation program outlined in theworkplan makes sense for the community

Vermont. In the towckof St George it was 0necessary to involve residents of a trailer parkin wastewater facility planning, even thoughthey would not be connected to the newsewage collection system This involvementwas necessary because the citizens made upa substantial portion of the voting public,and at some later time the homes of these,persons may be connected to the new sewage4ystem However, since the project wouldnot directly affect the homes of thesecitizens, it was unlikely that publicparticipation techniques such as publkhearings and public .meetings would beeffective Therefore, other techniques werechosen The project workplan for St Georgecalls for the distribution of informationalflyers, survey questionnaires, and personalfollow-up visits by members.of the advisorygroup

The workplan must he of sufficient scope and,'detail to set-we as a basis for judging theadequacy of proposed public participationactivities It also 'lust be a working guidefor ng out the activities For example,r ther thansimply. mentioning thatconsultation- will take place at a specific

point, the workplan should indicate thekinds of techniques that will be used forinforming the public and consulting with thepublic, the purpose and target audience ofeach attivity, publicity methods,descnptions of products such as fact sheets,approximate completion dates, and plan orproject objectives.

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1Questions for evaluiting a publicparticipation program and workplaninclude

Do the proposed activities meet theregulatory requirethents?

. Is theril a good balance betweeninformation - giving (notification) techniquesand infcrmationTeceiving (consultation)techniques?

Do the techniques match project andoperational objectives? .. Will the proposed public participationtechniques reach' all of the target publics?

Does the prograrn.relate to key decisionpoints in the planning process?

Are sufficient finaneial andadministrative resources allocated toaccomplish the public participationobjectives?

Does the workplan provide for adequatefeedback to the public about its informationand opinions?

Water quality planning agencies have'flexibility in developing the workplan

contents, and the detail necessary formanaging effective public participation Forexample, although the regulations do notrequire it, many. WQM agencies willcontinue to requirese'parat workplans foreach problem-solving project involving 208grants TheArey is adaptability Plannersmust adjust workplans to fit changingsituations. All that is required is that'agencies and their advisory groups remain ,sensitive to the needs of public participation,

Ap and stnve towards common -sense publicparticipation programs.

Public ruselingsare a type a( public participant's.

Main PointsThrough citizen involvement, publicparticipation aims at improving Waterquality plans by reducing costs and avoidingundesirable economic nvirorunental, andsocial impacts. Public p cipation is not aguarantee of resolving co icts. The goal ofpublic participation is to improve decisionmaking, and to develop solutions that people'can livy with.

There are three general principles for.commuruty involvement- ( 1 ) a good publicparticipation program entails' care _

planning, even before a project fo lybegins, (2) participation activities ust. bekeyed to important decision points n theproject, 43) as decisions are made, citizensmust get feedback on hOw their actions andopinions have influenced the decisions.

Public participation techniqUes basicallyaccomplish one of two functions inforseLi-----7-""--,giving (notification) or informationreceiving (cons tenon) Their use dependsupon the object es associated with different'stages in the arming process, and otheroonsideratio such as resourcerequiremen and probable community

-receptivity

The advisory group, itself one type of publicparbicipation, should provide informationarid recommendations which will help aplanning agency Tun a successful publicparticipation program For 201 facilityplans, all full-scale public participationprograms have advisory groups Some basicprograms also use informal advisory groupsAll water quality management prkgramshave advisory groups

As mandated by the Clean Water Act, theEPA has estliblisiied public participation'regulations dealing with agencyresponsibilities, time schedules, Lnformationmaterials, public meetings and Narings,advisory groups, and other forms of citizeninvolvement. Project workplans are themechanism for bi-mging together the diverseaspects of public participation programs.Advisory groups can:help developworkplans, and'assist in assuringcommon-sense public participation

`programs.

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Case Study

Many Forins of Public Participation

Pennypack Creek, Pennsylvania

ar

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4

This case study involves th'ree municipaJities nearPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania Pennypack Creek. which is atnbutary of the Delaware River, runs through a green belt,which is the only undeveloped area; left adjacent toPhiladelphia

In the early 1970's, the litistpopulous of the municipalities,Bryn Athyn, applied for a grant to build a spray imgationtreatment system About the same time, two neighbonngtownships +Abington and Lower Moreland) applied forfunding to extend -an existing sewer interceptor line alongthe Pennypack, and transport wastewater to a Philadelphiatreatment' plant The regulatory agency indicated it wouldnot fund two separate systems in the same Servicearea Thethree communities would have to agree on one system

Bryn Athyn was adamant on having the othermunicipalities join its spray irrigation system Bryn Athynand The Pennypack Watershed Association, a pnyateconservation group, thought the interceptor plan wasundesirable for several reasons

Exportation of water from the central watershed

Onsite systems and small package plants that wererecharging the Pennypack Creek watershed would bephased .out

Lower Moreland treatment plant, whith is a principalsource of pollution, would becoriR the sole source of flow intothe headwaters of the creek

Differing opinions among the three municipalities led thePennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources to?lady spray irrigation and other alternatives The studiessupported the desirability of spray irrigation, b4;14.4.Athyn had to get the two townships tai agree,, subs atewhy the state should force the two 'townships to join thesystem

34

Public Participation Activities. /

The Pennypack Watershed iation and Bryn Athynundertook many public participation efforts in order toincrease public understanding!

Established a citizen advisory group for responsiblesewage planning

Prepared information leaflets about project facts

Solicited signatures, of local citizens on petitions

Developed a mailing list and mailed pertinenteducati&al information

Identified who would be affected directly by the projectand contacted them

J. Held small public meetings in neighborhoods to discussthe facts

Brought the wastewater issue into the elections for theLower Moreland Township Board of Commissioners

Held a public hearing at which proponents of sprayirrigation turned out in large numbers to support the

project

Following a public hearinf, the state recommended a grantfor the spray irrigation system However, the Townships ofLower Moreland and Abington still favor the interceptor,and have appealed the state's decision in the courts

Significance

The Renhypack Watershed Association in conjunction withBryn Athyn used an extensive public participation processIt consisted of many techniques to help them win grassrootssupport for the alternative

21

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No

Lessons to Learn

In order for die Pennypack Watershed Association and BrynAthyn to develop a treatment facility which they thought

.would,he most beneficial to thQommunity, it was necessaryto develop public understanding of,,the issues' Threeobjectives had to be metI. Communicating project information to the general public

2. Identifying and informing.potentially-affected parties

3 Providing opporttuuties for the issues to be discussed

22

'4

Five diffdent public participation techniques' were used tomeet these objectives

' Citizen advisory group gave vlsibilitf to the effort, andbrought citizens directly into the planning process

An information program educated the public about thetechnology and the real issues

Personal contacts provided interaction with many citizens

Neighborhood publicmeetings helped.to.inform andinvolve other citizens

A well-attended public hearing culminated the effort, andprovided a formal opportunity, for comment on the project.

The Permvpack Watershed Association andtrynthus, were successful in developing public support for theproject by using a combination of public participationtechniques It is very unlikely that they would have been assuccessful if only one or two techniques had been used.

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1

41Y

Case Stud

Water Hotline

Bartow, Florida

The Central Florida Regional Planning Cc(uncil has

--i

responsibilities as a water,guality management i WQM)agency In at) effort to involve the public in the WQMprogram, this agency installed a telephone alert systemcalled -Waterline Citizens in a three-county area couldbring cases of discharge violations, and health or gafetyhazards in surface waters to the attention of the WQM stall

The Waterline was a direct telephone line manned by ananswering service all the time. Calls received on theWaterline wereiaetuniedby the staff within twenty-four

'hours tweekelidi excepted) Based upon these calls athorough examination of problems was conductedOut-of-town callers could call collect

The Waterline received about ten calls per week One case"concerned a shopping mall next to Lake Parker in the city ofLakeland An anonymous Waterline call reported that themall maintenance company was dumping parking lotsweepings on the lakeshore TheWQM staff reported thesituation to the Florida Department of Environmental\Regulations iFDER) It took two visits from FDER officials,and the threat of courk action to force the company to cleanup the dumping pile

Siicnific ance

The Waterline had two areas of significance One was theImpact of calls from intividuals. The dumping casegenerated city officials' interest in the WQM program forthe first time The response to this technique showedLakeland officials that the water,quality managementprogram could help to solve local problems

i

In general, the Waterline gave citizens a direct line ofcommunication to the WQM staff k algO gave the staff asense of public priorities and issues, and helped to identifynew problem areas The Waterline could be maintained .

indefinitely at small expense

TheCentral Florida Regional Planning Council. by usingthe Waterline, met five important public participation

' needs These needs included

Increased public awareness

' Identified problems

Increased agenc, responsivenesg

Communicated information

Achieved at relatively low cost

The Waterline technique,helpted to make the agen6y directlyresponsive to public concerns Problems were identified bymaking it easy for those familiar frith water problems tocommunicate their concerns to the appropriate,agencyInformation was communicated by establishing a directperson-to-person, two-way information (lbw between the/public and the water quality management agency The costof manning the phones was low compared to the costs oftechniques such as public heanngs and surveys

The Waterline techricrie worked well at achieving ceobjectives However, it would not be as useful in meet'other objectives, such as clarification of issues o archconsensus

36

23

Public Pirticipation Technique's

A

Benefits Drawbacks

Advbsory Groups

An achisory group consists of a group ofcitizens who gie advice to an agencydeveloping a plan

Trand f

information to communitytes feedback

Formulates solutions

Clarifies goals, objectives, and issues

Increases accessto representatives ofvaried interests

Time-consuming participation

Some group members may dominate

()11up may feel like a rubber stamp

Group may have difficultyestablishing credibility

Group can become relied u n as solepublic participatioffiechn;qu

Public Information Programs

Public information programs arecarried out on s continuing basis Pressreleases, mailings, advertisements,displays, radio and televisionpresentations, films, and legal noticesare involved-

Communicates basic information

Reaches a large number of citizens

One-way communication

Can appear as -public relations"propaganda

Does not by itself constitute a publicinvolvement program

OpenInformatiop Meetings

013en information meetings presenttohnical or programmatic elements toa genera' audience before or during thelife of a project. Audiovisualpresentations, briefings, and seminarsare types of information meetings

Conveys information withopportunity for immediate publiccomment

Identifies problems and recommendscourses of action

Presents opportunity to answercitizen qUestions

4

Limitations on time which can bespent discussing issues

Domination of some participants

Often needs experienced and skilledstaff to run effective meetings

Difficulty in conveying technicalinformation at a meeting

Public Hearings

Public hearings include a formalagency presentation, citizenpresentation, and'an official record ofthe proceedings Public hearings.arerequired in most governmentaldecision making

24 .

Provides forum for citizens to gaininformation or challenge decisions

Lives opportunity for formal,-official" comments

One-way communication

Vocal minorities may dominate

Technique may appear as a tokeneffort

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Benefits

r

Drawbacks

w

Task Forces

The task force aids in solving specificproblems. It is usually linked to a largeongoing participatory body such as ana visory group. ,

4

Focuses attention on specific issues

Can develop recommendations inshort time .

Promotes group interaction amongdifferent interests

May not represent the publicadequately

Sometimes requires a,lot of stafftime

i

Surveys,..

Surveys can range from personalinterviews to telephone and mailquestionnaires.

Provides direct contact with public

Reaches a larger number of peoplethan are usually involved in projects

Can promote interest in aproject

Usually does not give opportunity forin-depth discussion

Personal and telephone interviewsuse up a lot of-staff time

Unless carefully planned, surveysusually do not generate a significantresponse

Citizen 'trainingOr

1.

---Training is normally pr ed throughshort courses, wor ops, and gamingsimulations.

Gives citizens.a betterunderstanding of technical issues

Better equips citizens to advise onprojects

Enhances perspectives on projecti objectives, decisions, and constraints

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Reaches only a relatively \fewcitizens

Mfficult to plan and run effectivetechnical training program f r citizens

May take on the appearan4 of "busywork" \

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(

Selected Resources

Need MoreInformation?

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Advisory 'Coihmission on Intergovernmental Relations. Citizen Participation in theAmerican Federal System Washington, DC. 1980.

This doctiment addressed the importance of public participation and why it willincrease in importance in the future. Single copies may be ordered free of chargefrom the Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, Washington, DC20570. The document may be ordered in quantity at cost from the Superintendentof Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402

"Grants for Water Quality Planning, Management, and Implementation "federal-Register,Vol. 44, No. 101, Part II, Washington, DC U.S Environmental Protection Agency, May 23,1979, pp 30016-30042

A

This document contains the rules and regulations for public participation in theWater Quality Management Program. copies of the Federal Register are availablethrough libraries Contact your local reference librarian

"Public Participation in PrOgrams`under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, theSafe Drinking Water Act and the Clean Water Act, Final Regulations, Title 40; Chapter 1,Part 25 Federal Register, Vol. 44, No. 34, Part V Washington, De U S EnvironmentalProtection Agency., February 16, 1979. pp. 10286-10297

r The implementing regulations which address the legal responsibilities of thefunded agency and the advisory group in relation to public participation Your localreference librarian will be able to tell you how to obtain copies of the FederalRegister.

Rastatter, Clern L , ed Municipal Wastewater Management Citizen's Guide to FacilityPlanning. FRD-6 Washington, DC U.S environmental Protection Agency, Office of WaterProgram Operations, January 1979 263 pp

A publication prepared by the Conservation Foundation, Washington, DC, whichprovides a selected and extended discussion of activities pertinent to theresponsibilities and work of advisory groups. It includes discussion on publicparticipation This publication can be obtained by writmg to General ServicesAdministration (8FFS), Centralized Mailing Lists Services, Building 41, DenverFederal Center, Denver, CO 80225. Be sure to mention the FRD num-Mr and thetitle of the publication

39

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V

Rastatter, Clem L., ed. Municipal Wastewater Management. PublicInvolveinent ActivitiesFRD-7 Washington, DC U S.. nviiimrpental Pkotection Agency, Office ofWater

Prokram Operations, January 1979 125 pp

This document was developed for a trainingprogram on citizen involvement inwastewater facilities planning. It consistsof several parts facility planning, andpublic involvement. The latter part consists of public participation requirementsunder, the Clean Water Act, EPA' regulations, public participation program

"element4., public participation tools, implementation issue; and the rewards ofp blic involvement in facilities planning. This publication i§ available from the

neraI Services Administration (8FFS), Centralized Mailing Lists Services,Building 41, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225 Include the FRD numberand the title of the publication

"State and L;acal Assistance, Grants for Construction of Treatment Works, Title 40, Chapter1, Part 3E" Federal Register, Vol. 44, No 23, Part VI, Washington, DC U S. EnvironmentalProtection Agencxeebruary 16, 1979 pp 10300-10304

This document presents the rules and regulations for pUblic involvement in theWastewater 'treatment Conduction Grants Program Your local referencelibrahan will be able to tell yo ON to obtain copies of the Federal Register

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',Chapter 3

Facility Planning in theConstruction Grants ProgramChar 1, A Cole and E Drannon Buskirk, Jr.

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Facility, Planning andConstruction Grants

Let's face it. A sewage plant lacks theappeal of a new park or public library.Must peopie have interest in sewageuntil it poses a threat to the community orfamily This concern nay be a healthproblem, a public nuisance, or even highertaxes.

Construction Grants Process:A Summary

Why does a community take the steps tobuild or improve sewage treatmentfacilities? There are several possiblereasons.

1 _

Voluntary community action to developor improve pliblic facilities

Voluntary action to remove a publicnuisance or community problem .

Compliance with local or other publichealth codes ,.

Compliance with federal pollution controlregulations or state water qualitystandards

Compliance with a court order.

While local desires or public healthconsiderations may be factors, mostcommunities /leve° deal with sewagetreatment for two-reasonA The FederalClean Water t of 1977, and State Water

ality Sta ards.

Through the Glean Water Act, Congressa e President have established a

al goal of waters suitable for fishingwimming The Act requires at leastdary treatmbrft for all publicly-owned

ages systems (Secondary treatmentg nerally removes 85 percent of BOD and

suspended solids). BOD, called biochemicaloxygen de d, and suspended solids aremeasures ofEnforcement of tothrough the Nationa

ution strength.regulations is ensured

lution DischargeElimination System (NPD ) that requirespermits for all wastewater discharges.

States determine how much pollutioncan enter a water body by establishingwater quality standards These standardsare based on the potential uses of thewater body. In order to meet and maintainthese standards; limitations are placed onindustrial and municipal discharges. Theselimitations often determine the type oftreatment facilities which must be builtand the level of treatment which must beachieved.

The events or conditions which cause acommunity to look at its wastewaterproblemsgo a long way towarddetermining the outcome. For thisreason, the advisory group shouldunderstand from the outset why thecommunity is developing a wastewaterfacility plan.

The GrantsNo matter what initiates the planning,most communities wan a federal grant tohelp pay for new or u aded treatment,facilities. These gra are availablethrough the Const tion Grants ProgramThree main Bove ental bodies are

trnction grants process.They are the local agency, the stateagepcy, and the United StatesEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA).

involved in the

42

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29

)

I

1-1Como letion time

2 years

1,12 years

1/2 year

1 year

,

Recognition oftreatment need

Y.Preapgfication stage

1Facility planning/ .

Design

1Bidding

IConstruction

The construction grants processcan take two to ten yeqrs Theaverage ts about fit e years

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Advsory group tnpJt

Advisory group input

Operation - .

7.0

How does a community get* grant`'First comes the preapplicatton stage Themunicipality seeks to have its projectplaced on the state -priority list," which isa statewide ranking of proposed projects inorder of their importance. In ranking theprojects the state follows an approvedprocedure involving several factors,including .

Severity of the pollution problems

' Number of people affected ,Need to preserve high-quality water

bodies .

National prioritiesAvailability of federal grants and local

funds

4

""...../

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If the state agency determines that theproject deserves high priOrity and the EPAapproves, the community becomes eligiblefor federal funding. The next job for mostmunicipalities is to select a qualifiedengineering-planning consultant, if one is .

not already involved.

Choosing a qualified consultant is acrucial decision since the firm will conductmost of the planning. In addition totechnical competence,hthe consultantshoild be able to demonstrate flexibility,and show sensitivity for local concerns

The municipality and consultanthneetinformally with state and EPA official ina preapplication conference to reviewreqfiirements for submitting a gradtapplication. The municipality andconsultant then pepare a plan of studydescribing the nature of pollutionproblems, the study tasks, and costs forconducting this work The community nextsubmit's a plan of study along with anapplication for a-Step 1 planning grant tothe state and the EPA. The applicationcontains several items, including-

An explanation of how the corfimunitywill finance the local share of the projectcost

1

Name of an authorized representative toact on behalf of the municipality

The state and EPA both-review the plan ofstudy and the application Upon approval,The EPA awards a Step 1 grant; whichcovers 75 percent of the planning costSome states provide additional assistanceThe town then enters' the facility planiiingstage and becomes a grantee.

Planning' Staget

Good planning of wastewateAreatmentfacilities means more than just technicalfxpertise. It means taking into accountcommunity characteristics, social vaPues,environmental concerns, and *ncialcapabilities People must work together toincorporate these from the beginning.

. 43

The facility planos afl'actual documentthat is submittitto the stateenvironmental agency and td EPA. Its ---

objective is to develop a cost-effectivesolution to the pollution control problem. Itmust balance the desired degree ofpollution control against economic, social,and environmental costs. The facility planhas to provideanswers to many questionsSome of the rn'irr important ones are

' What are the plans for efficient operationand management of the system9

Does the facility plan accurately defineand verify the extent of the problem'

How does the project fit tnto the waterquality management plansor the regionor area e , 208 plannine

Does the project call for a reasonable.feu age collecting and treatment reserve, oris there an excess caPaette

' Public Participation

Public involvement early in the project,especially in the planning stage, is tieg bestway of dealing with,these questions, and,ultimately, gaining public support forfinancing new or rehabilitatedfacilities

Public participation makes good sense formany reasons

rporating public values

ing in better facility plans

nsunng reasonable cosfs

added community benefitsHow will the reserve capacity affect Bnngingcommunity growth' Resolving controversies

What are the project's imp,acts (''environment'

What is the plan for mitigating a erseenvironmental impaets946

Is the project cost - effective' hat is, willit achieve the needed degree ofiollutoncontrol at the least cost in morklindadversenvironmental effects?

How will the projeCt financed9 Whatwill be theTinancial past on thecommunity and indi ual households'

Has a fair user ch e system beenestablished to pay for plant operation andmaintenance'

I

Gathering public support

Specific public participation reqw ementsfor facility planning are cpvered Tater inthis handbook

4

Grantee

Application

Step 1grant 4

C onsulldril

31

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Design Stagelt

When the facility plan is compleled it isbent tothe s for approval. It is thensubmitted to tie EPA for a Step 2 grantfor design of the facility The EPA reviewsthe facility plan to determine, among otherthings, whether significant adverseenvironmental impacts willzpsult from theproject If the EPA determines that_suchimpacts exist, an environmental impactstatement (EIS) must be prepared If nosignificant impacts will result, thEPA

, will issue a finding of no'swnificant impact,(FNSI) and will approve the facility planA Step 2 design grant is then awarded

When the Step 2 grant is awarded, theconsultant prepares detailed engineeringplans and specifications The communityalso has several tasks It must establishuser charges a system Of fees to pay forthe operation, maintenance, andmanagement costs of the facility It must .make arrangements for° payment of ihelocal share of the construction costs Itmust prepare plans for the operation of thefacility, including, if necessary, industrialpretreatment of wastewater When theseplans are complete, the grantee submits

them to the state and the EPA-for review

Construction Stage

if the designs'and specifications receivJstate and EPA approval, the ,granteg nowenters the construction stage 4 Step 3federal grant will often pay 7percent ofthe eligible construction costs of-the project(86 percent the project qualifies as aninnovative-fr alternative approach). Snmeistates provide additional grant assistancefor planning, design, and construction Thecommuntty then advoitises for bids for theconstruction ivork in accordance with local \r)ordinances:state laws, and EPAregulations. If the successful bidder'squalifications meet EPA, requirements. thecontract is awarded

The construction begins an the facility.While 6oristructien continues, a manual fo-.

Step

3grant

the operation andj

maintenance or efaciitx is¢repared -When const ion iscompleted the state and the EP conductfinal inspections The EPA then manes a .final audit

Finally comes the operation andmanagement of the facility This ispossibly.the most difficult part of theproject and is often overlooked Everymeasure should be takes to be sure thatthe-community can live with whateverfacilities are built Qnce the construction iscompleted, EPA grant assistance ends Thecommunity Must pay 140 percent of alloperation and management costaos

These three stages .from the beginningof Step 1 to the end of construction canrequi seven years or more racilitypla ing alone takes 17 to 36 months It

dependsypofi the size and complexity ofthe projec

Advisory groups should watch thatplanning proceeds with a minimum ofdelays. In theseinflationary.times thisis crucial.

45

Facility Planning and theA4visory GroupThe communit;'must seek adequate publicinVolvenientthroughbut the facilityplanning procees. I

Public Participation program'

All.Step 1 (facility plannnig) projects mustmeet certain basic requirements for publicnivolvement. However, small projectsinvolving minor sewer rehabilitation orminor upgrading are exempt from mostpublic participation requirements. Wherepublic participation lanecets'ary, thegrantee

Dev ilkpos a public information program inthe earl phases of decision malung

-

,Has a program for consulting the publicthroughout the facilities planning process,including the selection of the engineeringconsultant if feasible- t ,

Includes an outline of the publicparticipation program in the plan of studyaccompanying the Step 1 grant A moreextensive public participation work planmust be submitted no later than 45 daysafter the Step 1 award

Distnliutes the work plan and fact sheetsto interested groups and individuals

Consults with the public whenassessment of current and future situationsund alternatives are being evaluated .

Holds a public meeting when the costeffectiyeness of the alternatives itidetermined, but before any plan is selected

Holds a public hearing to discuss therecommended alternatives prior toadoption of a facility plan

Includes an evaluation of theeffectiveness of the public participationprogram in the facility plan.

Complex,cOntroversial, or significantprojects justify more intensive pilblicinvolvement. The EPA RegionalAdministrator orders a full-scale publicparticipation program when the project,warrants an environmental impaastatement, acWanced waste treatment isinvolved, or the Administrator determinesthat more active public participat4on isneeded.

r-A

In addition tomeeting the requirements ofthe basic publiCfparticipatioitprograrn, a.grantee wfth a full-scale program:

Hires or designates a coordinatiir to carryont'thenublic participation workplan ,

Holds apublic.meeting (instead ofgeneral-consultations) early in the facilityplanning process at the time when cuirentad futuie situa6ons are being identified; 4and initial- alernatives are being screened

Establishes an advisory group shortlyafter acceptance of the Step 1 grant award

Plapning Steps.

The facility planning process has severalplanning steps. On the surface these stepsmay appear sequential, but, in fact, theyare intertwined Decisions must beconstantly reevaluated as new informationbecoqies availableThe major steps are

-1 Assessing the current situation

2. Assessing the future situation

3 Identifying alternatives

4 Conducting envifonmental assessment

5 Making cbst-effectiveness analysis

4

6 Selecting the plan

The advisory group should play animportant role in the publicparticipation program, which continuesthrough all of theseotePs. Many aspects of the

commuluty's future must beconside4d during the planningprocess

33

AsseEising''' the Current Situation

Public involvement is crucial in the firststep Information overlooked ormisinterpreted may substantially affect theoutcome of the facilities planning processThe severity and extent of existingproblems should be verified.

During this stage the agency gathersinformation on the planning area:institutions, population, and environmentalaspects such as water quality Data also isneeded on ekisting wastewater flows,treatment systeps. and the performancesof these treatment systems. One specialconcern is environmental consequences ofinfiltration and,inflow (Ln Infiltration andinflow are surface and groundwaters thatget into the sewer systems Is it cheapermore cost-effective! to'provide treatmentcapacity to compensate for excessive LI, oris 'it better to repair the sewer system"

Advisory groups should watchcarefully the assessment of the currentsituation. They will want to be Store,that the data is accurate, that daiscollection methods are thorough, andthat operation and management ofexisting, facilities are adequate, Beforegoing any further, the community `/should know what the problems areand what is causing them.

Advisory Group Questions:Current Situation _

Do water quality problems reallyexist?

ft What are they?Are the existing facilities sufficient?Is the soil adequate for onsite

disposal?What unique resources does the

community have that are worthprotecting?

How does the areawide 208 planrelate to the facilities plan?

Assessing the Future Situation

Assessment of the future situation is oftenthe most difficult part of facility planning.and probably has the most impact on thepldnrung process The advisory group ismade up of a cross section of residents 'hoknow the community For this reason theadvisory group can play an Important rolein discussing the community's futureProjections about the future are uncertain.and even the experts admit that someguess work is involved. This importantstep in facility planning can benefit fromthe expeipence and knowledge of athisor>group members. 111/

A whole series (44 issues must be addressed'.

How is the future population estimated"

How much wastewater will thepopulation generate"

What is the basis for estimating eh e totalwastewater flow?

How does the facility relate to othercommunity objectives such as recreationalopportunities"

How does industry affect the size of thefacility"

felt better to Seek reduced flows throughwater conservation, or to build reservecapacity for growth"

What geographic areas will the facilityserve"

What are the projected land uses

Each of these Issues has a major Impact onthe facility -They warrant more detailedanalysis and advisory group discussion

Population Estimates

Sewage collection and treatment facilitiescan turn bullish population fqrecasts intoself-fulfilling prophesies 'Manycommunities have nearly gone bankruptbecause of oversized and und sed

'wastewater treatment plan Suchfacilities create economic press res tospread around the cost by adding moreusers In addition to unwanted growth, inthe early years the users essentially paythe tab for nonexistent population Toavoid paying for more wastewatertreatment capacity than is actually needed.the advisory group should be sure thatreasonable projections are made

34 4

Assumptions or calcula ns Should not beaccepted without caref consideration anddiscussion

The EPA gives special attention to thisimportant Issue Guidelines to thecoat- effectiveness analysts regulations givethe procedures for using populationprojections in both 208 areawide and 201fact l ties planning

Wasteatec Generation

The future need for sewage treatmentcapacity isiietermined by multiplying thetotal population times the estimatedwastewater % olume per person The largepopulation. can magnify small errors.inper capita P.Ztrmate.: Recent studies showpertapita sewage flows in the range'of50-60 gallons per day .gpcd) The commonestimate of 1041 gpcd includes flows due toinfiltrauon and inflow, and small amountsfrom cortnmycial establishments Thead% isor. grfup should ask for yerificatifinof the flow. 1

Induqtruil Contribution

Joint treatment of industrial and domesticwastes produces economies Of scale andsometimes improved operations However.these wastewater mixtures tan makebiological sewage treatment processes lesseffective The also can contain substancesthat cause problems in sewers, sludges, orland treatment systems

Since industrial wastes may upset,damages wastewater treatment plants, theEPA has issued general standards for thepretreatment of these wastes. The EPArequires each federally-assisted agency toadopt industrial waste ordinances andequitable user charges

Industrial waste flows should be assessedto ensure that the treatment capacityreserved for industry is adequate but notexcessive.

Water Conservation

The EPA requires the community toconsider wastewater flow reductions instudying various planning alternatives Asa minimum the grantee must assess

Flow reduction methods for existingresidential, commercial, and industrialsources

Future flow reductions achieved throughchanges in local ordinances, codes, pricestrategies, and public informationprograms

Sewer Service Area

The service area is determined by thecommunt,y with the advice of theengineering consultant. Regional plantshave been favored in past years since theyappeared to offer ease in regulation,monitoring, and economies of scale fortreatment This has not always proveki tobe the case Also, considering that 70percent of the money for wastewaterpollution control is spent on'the collectionand transport of wastes, moving sewagefrom one spot to another may not be costeffective'

Small-scale treatment alternatives,including individual septic, systems, areregaining prominence in vlater qualityplanning The issue of sewer pipe size andservice area thus likkrtremely important

Sewer Issue

Advisory groups should be interestedin sewers because sewers:

Cost 70 percent of water pollutioncontrol expenditures

Are usually not fundable with federalmonies, but can cost more than $50 perfoot!

Affect future land uses and landvalues

Spur development into areas

Affect future growth of tOe .

community

Can have adverse environmentaleffects.

48 es%

35

There are three basic types of sewers-Interceptor sewers, collector sewers, andlateral sewers. The interceptor sewers err-

/ large pipes that gather waste fromneighborhoods and communities Theirlocation can determine where newneighborhoods are built, where industrywill locate, and where new commercialdevelopment will occur. Without carefulplanning, interceptors can lead to

-unwanted development and suburbansprawl Interceptor sewers are eligible for75 perceefederal grantsThe potential for unwanted growthassociated with Jan interceptor sewer was sogreat in the Gettysburg, PennsylLania,

, facility plan that the EPA ordered workstopped and an entronmental impactstatement prepared

Collector sewers pick up sewage fromwithin the neighborhood Itself Collectorsewers for new communities generally arenot fundable. Lateral sewers, the hookupsfrom the homes to the collectors, are noteligible for 114ieral grants

The funding policies of the EPA andstates, however, are often complex andconfusing. Advisory groups should beaw of those which relate to theparOcuLir situation and identify theportion of the collection system thatwill have to be paid for with 100percent local funds.

I

7

Most costs of a sewer system arise from 4acquiring rights of way, laying pipes, andbuilding pumping stations It cots little

more to install a luge diameter sewerthan a small one There is a strongtemptation ti?..build reserve or growthcapacity into the system. Growth capacityand location of sewers thus are ofenormous importance to manycommuipties. The advisory group can seethat the issues are fully evaluatecidinddiscussed

Total Row Estimates

Daily average wastewater flow is oftenused for the design of treatment works Itis based op expected futtze population, percapita waste contributiorE, industrialflows, commercial flows, reasonableinfiltration and inflow estimates, and, theimpacts of water conservation,_From atechnical perspective it is easy to design aplant after the design flow is chosen.

unfortunately, much more effort oftengoes into the design of processes ratherthan the more important matter ofdesign flow predictions. The advisorygroup sbould see that this does notoccur. An advisory group should placeconsiderable emphasis on the designflow estimate!

Identifying AlternativesAdvisery Group Questions:Future Situation

How much growth is projected?Are projections consistent with

community goals and land use plans?What per capita flow projections are

being used? _

Are wastewater flow projectionsaccurate?

Where will interceptor sewers belocated?

What parts of the commanity.will beserved by sewers?

)Vhat are the environmental_effects of new sewers?

There are many was to c lect and treatwastewater However. gi n all thelimitations of water qu ity standards,regional service area, d cost I

effectiveness, the com unity may find thatonly a few alternatives exist

As-the number of options diminishes,the selection of the treatment processesbecomes more a matter of anengineering and economics choice. Thisis why the early work in identifying theproblem and assessing the current andfuture situations becomes so important'to the advisory group. Nevertheless,the advisors 'can still emphasizeprocesseR that appear the mosteconomically and environmentallysound.

36 ir

fir

C

Some of the basic options include

Na FacilityAre new or upgraded facilities reallyrequired to solve existing environmentalproblems? This basic question should be

Mered before any other options areued. The performance of existing

facilities may possibly be improved as analternative to constructing new facilities.Recycling or pretreatment may reduceindustrial waste loads Water conservationmay reduce residential flows Otherconsiderations exist.

Conventional Wastewater TreatmentAlternativesConventional wastewater treatmentsystems deliver wastewater to a centraltreatment facility,..subject the wastewaterto a senes of treatnient processes. anddischarge the effluent into surface watersIf operated properly, conventionaltechnologies can produce effluents of highquality, although sometimes at high costThese processes are usually time-provenand dependable.

Advanced Wastewater Treatment OptionsDo water quality problems really requireadvanced wastewater treatment' Advaneedwastewater treatment methods may doublethe cost of treatment as compared tosecondary methods With Land applicationas a notable exception, they ofte' consume,large amounts of energy and chemicals,and produce excessive volumes of wasteby-products called sludges

Waste Treatment and Reuse of PurifiedWaterWater resources are becoming increasinglymore limited andior expensive to develop.As the cost goes up, the reuse- of treated

t wastewater becomes more attractive Reusecurrently occurs as industnal cooling orprocess waters, recreational water supplies,and agricultural 'irrigation In Lubbock,Texas, where irrigation water is scarce, 15mgd of secondary effluent is applied to2,300 acres of wheat, barley, oats, rye,cotton, and sorghism An aquifer createdby the effluent over the decades is now usedto supply recreational lakes

One option'ts not to build a ja.cilay

Another option is to build a coavenlional treatment plant

Adsory Group Questions:Al e rnatives

Is a full range of alternativesconsidered, including small-scaleoptioni; as well as the centraltreatment facilities?

Is land treatment seriouslyconsidered?

Is operation Eind management takeninto account?

Is sludge handling and disposalaccounted for? /

Are there-opportunities to relycle' or reuse treated wastewater?

How much treatment capacity isrequired?

Are i,linovative and alternativetechnologies considered?

Is the plan compatible with the 208areawide plan?

50

It .

37

I

7.4 .11116;.4

"X

Constructum of onsite treatment systems is also an optionfiJ Oil.

Another option is land application

1Better operation and management of the existi facility is an option

38

i:riall System- Waste Treatment andDisposalOnsite treatment systems to collect andcontrol wastewaters include septic tanks,maunds, holding tanks, small aerobictreatment plants, or other onsite and,smallprocesses serving residences or comniercialegiablishments. The onsite alternative isbecoming increasingly attractive since theClean Water Act provides federal grantfunds for onsite treatment works in certainsituations

Conventional Treatment and LandApplicationWastewater is processed in the

..

conventimak-manner at the primary orseconcriiri treatment level However, theeffluent is applied to the land, notdischarged into surface waters Federal law/*quires the specific consideration of landapplication as an alternative Landtreatment is a good consideration foradvanced waste treatment Some statesrequire secondary treatment before .application, which placed lanortreatment .at a severe economic disadvantage to

-.conventional methods except for advancedwaste treatment requirements.In Muskegon County, Michigan, 6.300 acresplanted mostly with corn are irrigated bysecondary effluent from a 43 million,gallons per day ( mgdi wastewater prbject

Sludge ManagementSludge management and disposal is amajor problem' Unfortunately, the.pollutants removed from wastewater do notvanish They become an obnoxious .

matenal called sludge The cost of sludgetrsa/ment often equals the cost of sewaget atnient It, therefore, is d vital part ofthe analysis of every treatment system.Advanced wastewater treatment sludgesadd to the problem Some land treatmentprocedures do not produce sludge.

Operation and MesnagementOperation and management is a majorconcern of both existing and new treatmentfacilities The EPA has found that manyfacilities do not meet water quality limitsbecause they are not operated properly.Operation and roanagement are extremelyimportant in facility planning. These costsmust be borne.4ely by the locality

Other Considerations .The EPA guidelines also call for a fewother considerations in the selection ofalternatives M tters such as constructionstaging schedul , and multiple useopportunities for pen space and recreationare taken pito account` .

Conduetin Eint.jylionmentalAssessme

Environmental aspects of different sewagemanagement alternatives are assessedduring the facility planning. Both theprimary and secondary impacts associatedwith various alternatives are addressed.

The primary effects are those that directlyrelate to location, construction, andoperation of the project For example;impactson a streamirom the effluent aredirect effects Secondary effects are indirector induced by the project, such as changesin population, economic growth, and landuse

A grantee has to prepare an environmentalinformation document, which is used in thefacility planning, and is submitted to theEPA The EPA then reviews it todetermine whether or not to prepare a fullenvironmental impact statement (EIS) AnEIS must be prepared if

The facility plan will induce significantdevelopment and changes in land use

The treatment works is located onproductive wetlands or will affectendangered species

The treatment works will have asignificant adverse effect on public lands,and recreational or histonc opportunities

The treatment works will have asignificant adverse effect on air or waterquality, noise, andior on fjsh and wildlifehabitats

The effluent limitations for pretreatmentare insufficient to protect present or futurewater uses

The treatment works will.causesignificant social dislocations, or will

adversely affect significant amounts_ofagricultural land

To save time EIS's are often conductedconcurrently with facility planning EIS'sare prepared for only abotit five percent ofthe construction grant projects.

The advisory group can help identifypotential impacts at the local level. Itshould see that the environmental

information has adequate public andgovernmental review. The federalrequirements are quite specific and

,tiisnshould be consulted.

Advisory Group Questions:Environmental Effects

What are the existing and futureenvironments without the project?

Has an enyironmental, social, andeconomic edaluatioq of wastetreatment alternatives been made?

Have all environmental impacts beenidentified and thoroughly disc4ped?

Making Cost:EffectivenessAnalysis

The final selection of the wastewatertreatment alternative is based upon acost-effectiveness analysis It is a methodof determining how well a treatmentsystem achieves its objectives in terms ofoverall costs, including economic, social,and environmental costs This may notsound very interesting, but it is important.Except for ceftain innovative andalternative projects, the EPA can only fundthe most cost-effective solution The mostcost-effective wastewater managementsolution is the one with the lowest overallmonetary costs (including capital,operation, management, mitigation, andopportunity costs over a 20-year period)without significant adverse nonmonetaryeffects such as environmental or socialdrawbacks

Capital costs are eligible for federal grants,but operation and management costs areborne completely by the municipality. Thecosts of mitigating adverse environmental_effects, and the costs associated withopportunities lost because of the project,are also figured into the analysis Besidescosts there are offsetting revenues. Forexample, the revenues from the sale ofwastewater or organic sludge to farmers, orthe value of crops grown on public landwith land application of the wastewater gointo the calculations

Another area of costs is important tolocalities, but do not enter thecost-effectiveness analysis. This matterfinance concerns how the communitywill pay for its share for planning, design,and construction costs It is not a subjectthat is ignored until the end of the process.Indeed, the means of local finance such astaxes, and user feesmust be fully discussedin the facilities plan

52 '39

The advisory groxip is not expttcted toperform detailed cost calculationsNevertheless, it can probe the costsand offsetting revenues that go into thebottom line dollar value. Even moreimportant, however, is the review foroverriding environmental and socialconsiderations. The advisory groupalso should see that the full meaning ofthe local financial Arrangements, suchas household charges, are realized bythe community.

Advisory Group Questions:Cost Effectiveness

Which sewage treatment alternativehas the least monetary cost Withoutoverriding environmental and socialdrawbacks?Akre the environmental and socialeffects adequately assessed?

ROL FA STIES

-nom, cosr,.5.022.92

st.i.Aog OF PHILIONT - FUNDS $635.043 $4.158,53

NATERPYCIUM.OFFICE -- GRANT $3.88Z.51.1

DS EN

ITY

VIRONMENTALPROTECTION

AGENCY

N. *Ogg,- moon foie Amesosnumos

- *Oar385.194

N.tout Iv; OF ENVIRONMENTALCONSERV"

N

Mali It CAREY; GOVERNOR --- GRANT 245,798

Sign showing cost of water pollution control facilities for Philmont, NY

40

Selecting the Plan

All the activity in facility planningculminates in the selection of a preferredalternative. Before the final choice is madethe number of alternatives has alreadybeen reduced. This initial screeningeliminates certain options from furtheranalysis.

The advisory group should be sure' atevery stage that there are valid reasonsfor dropping alternatives. Theramifications and tradeoffs of allalternatives should be evident.

The local' agency (the grantee) isresponsible for making the final decision.The basis for this decision is the sum totalof facility plannipg.

This includes the technical work of theconsultant and the advice of the advisorygroup and Other residents of thecommunity. Some final questions for theadvisory group are:

Does the final choice meet the initialgo s and objectives?

,Wi lve the community's problem for

the least cost and with the least adverseeffects?

SummaryAn important point to remember is thatfacility planning accounts for only fivepercent of the construction grant dollarsspent. however, this small amount directshow the remaining 95-percent will be spentin design and construction. The need forgoal planning and the consequences ofinadequate planning should be evident.

The advisory group can incorporatethe values and ideas of communityresidentAnto the facility planningproceski, thereby ensuring a better finalsolution at reasonable costs to thecommunity.

53

Case 'Study

Choosing the AlternativeSoutheastern United States .'

Thu, caw .tutly IA adapted from Rastattei C L . ed MunicipalWastewatei. Management Citizen's Guide.to Facility Planning FRD-6,Washington DC U S Environmental Protection Agency. Office of WaterProgram Operatton,, January 1979. 2 64pp

This is the actual case of a small town in the Southeastthat has no public management of wastewater The -circumstances and facts about tile town's facility planshow how treatment alternatives are evaluated

The town's population is 3,150 A water district provideswater service to 436 people through 170 water meters, ofwhich 150 are located in the town itself The districtincludes 19 small businesses, one factory, and anelementary school. The distnct desires to providesewerage service It has prepared a 20-year wastewaterfacilities plan, and has applied to the EPA for grant.assistance

The planning area israbout 2,300 acres. Overflowing septic<-"-- tank systems are the only-source of wastewaters

discharges There are no known point sources ofwastewater effluent About 20 percent of the homes arelocated on soils with very`low permeability, whichprobably accounts for the occasional failures of the septictanks '

The area's population is relatively stable: The districtcurrently has a moderate growth rate, adding about fourcustomers a year The factory, however, plans to expandPopulation is expected to grow by 50 to 100 perceht in thenext 20 years ,

The district sees a public. wastewater system as a keyingredient for future growth and improvements, and as aremed forthe current health hazards and environmentalpollute n

Some wastewater management alternatives wereinitially rejected. Upgrading existing-facilities more .than 130 septic tanks and pit privies, inadequatelydesigned and poorly maintained was consideredimpracticable, because the impermeable soils wereunsuitable for onsite disposal systems.

Regional solutions were much too costly. The nearestexisting treatment facility is 17 miles away. The capitalcosts of sewers, force mains, and pumping stations todeliver the district's small flow to the regional plantwould exceed $1 million, nine ti s the cost of any localalternative

54

Monetary Evaluation}

The district analyzed the complete spectrum of wastetreatment alternatives. Four were evaluated in detailMonetary, costs were determined for them:

Alternative No. 1. A conventional gravity sewer system,with a central treatment-facility The least expensive typeof treatment woule be an oxidation lagoon, followed by aninfiltration-percolation land treatment system Another ,option aerated reactor tanks followed by soilinfiltration-percolation was rejected asslightly,moreexpensive

Alternative No. 2. Similar treatment process,.but mostof the sewer system would employ effluent sewer's In thisapproach wastewater solids are removed by septic tanksand stored near each source Only the liquid effluent fromthe septic tanks is pumped to the_ central treatment site.The effluent sewer system consists of interceptor tanksand siphons or heavy duty sump pumps, with smalldiameter plastic pipes carrying the effluent to a centraloxidation pond for additional treatment

Alternative No. 3. This alternative would involve theuse of short stretches ef effluent sewer isimiltt _to sewersin Alternative No. 21, but the septic tank efflEent wouldbe tamed directly to a subsurface disposal site Theeffluent would be disposed in 22 separate community sitesNew individual disposal systems also would be providedfor an additional 22 customers. All onsite and offsitewastewater facilities would be publicly-owned andmanaged, including septic tanks, sewers, and treatmentdisposal facilities. Services to the elementary school and tothe factory, would 'be an option that would not affect therelative costs of the four alternatives, but could reduce theaverage charges4ieercustomer Even without the schooland industry sharing the costs, the user costs for thisalternative would be significantly lower than for the othertwo options User costs were esWnated to be just 58percent of those required for Alte }native No. 2, *whileconstruction costs were about 2,1 petcent lower thanAlternative No. 2, and 42 percent lower than AlternativeNo. 1

Alternative No.,4. ..ehis approach would consist ofonsite disposal for all of the 144 customers included inAlternative No p. Serious problems of design andimplementation caused this alternate to be rejected

41

(

-

Lary Costs of Four Alternatives

v

SewersTreatmentDisposal

Total

1

A/ternative4 3 4

$390,100"81,600

53.900$525,600

$246,900812053.100

$382,400 $302,700 $268,300

By avoiding the cots of sewer construction andmaintenance, Alternative Nb. 4 would have th; lowestcapital and operating costs However, alatt 20 percent ofthe existing structuies are located on s¢ "is that severely -limit onsite disposal

The, next leastIpstly option would be Alternative No 3,'the conimunity tsubsurfac%disposal system It would be 11percent more expensive than No 4 sIowever, the cost

Alternative No 3 probably would be moreac'etkt e..there were fewer uncertainties inconstruc and operation

Nonrnetary Evaluation

Sinee the water district would operate wastewaterservices, and it is an organization knOwn to and generallysupported by local users, it probably would satisfactorilyimplement Construction, operation, maintenance, andfinancial management. The fourth alternative would beparticularly difficult to implement since 20 percent of thehomes are located on soils with rgyepermeabilityGenerally, none of the alternatifes has any overwhelmingadvantage for implementation.

Cost-Effectweness Atelysts0

Monetdry costs, environmental effects, implementationfeasibility, and other factors are considered together inco ffectiveness analysis _Alternative No 2 wascon dered better than No 1 The second alternatiCere ves70 percent of the! suspended solids and 5 percentof,B014 in the interceptor tanks, reduces the organic loadin the sewer, and reduces the environmental effects ofaccidental discharges from the sewer system AlternativeNo 3' was cqjpsidered ecologically sound since accidentalSewer discharges are minimized, and nutrients are

,ereturned to the land

4All four alternatives would meetthe effluent criteria, andsatiSft other environmental criteria-,In the /dualfacilities plan theltnpronmental effects w e qualitativelyevaluated in detail, and then rated wit umbers from 1hest / to 4 worst i ,

'Alternative Nos 1 and ould'Iiave larger erosion losses-because of the constru ion of conventional gravity sewersystems, lagoons. and an infiltration basin AlterdativeNo ,2 would have less erosion and disturb earns lessthan No 1 because small iSameter essure sewers arenot buried as deep as conventional gravity sewers These

'alternatives also would produce significantly more noise ,because of sewer constructio

As for developmental-effects, cohventionalsravity sewerscould stimulate slightly more growth and rillkw industrywhere excess sewerage capacity exists Thus, AlternativeNo I would have greater potential for seepridai-y impactsthan options Nos 2. 3, and 4 Howevert this is a ruralcommunity, and other factors such as labor suppry andtransportation influence growth as much as-sewerservices affect growth Thus, all alternatives would haveonly slight secondary impacts .

Implementation

MI alternatives couldibe iwater district Alternativtechniques Therefore, the

lemented legally by the .

os 3 and 4 are less ccilinmori.could require additional time

for local, state, and federal approvals However, sinceAlternatives Nos 1 and 2 may requir trained operators,and require more local funds, potent% users may objeCtto the user ferges

42

Alternatives Nos 3 and 4 alga avoid the need to detreatment facilities to meet changins standards f uentdischarges to surface w rs Alternative No :3 i zessystem complexity and r uces 0 &M Costs Alte es No 73 and 4 also pegmit plapni of com unity. expan sincestrip growth could be encour d by onventional sewersAlternatives Nos 3 and 4 %Out roduce odors, whileodors intly occur from a treatment faci

In gentral, the enviionmentab effects did not differ greatlyfor the four alternatives, partly because of the small size,of the proteqs, the lack of sensitive environmental.,features, and the relatively slow sate of growth "1.

Plcm,Selectiou

Public hearings were field on the alternatives after thecosts and effects of each were predicted Generally.Alte ive No 3 was preferred due to lower total cost IS

anclAimplicity of operation The cost of communitywastewater, management was thought to be about equal tothe cost of.privately maintaining and replacing existing \septic tank systems about $7 per month for an averageuser charge, By Contrast, the conventional sewers andcentretreatment were expected to cost $15 per month

Alternative No. 3 was selected.bv the community andfunded by the EPA

...

.7

5 5

\k,

Selected Resources

Deese, P L. id J. F. Hudson. Planning Wastewater Management Foci lilies for SmallCommunities Draft. Cincinnati, OH- Municipal Erivronmental Research Lab , Office ofResearch and Development, U.S Environmekal Protection Agency, July 1979 141 pp.

This manual presents a set of procedures for planning wastewater managementfor small communities and is directed at areas with populations less than 10,000persons. Part 1 gives an overview of the plarming process an4 is most useful forthe advisory group Part 2 is a technical reference showing details using casestudies. This manual can be obtained from ORD,Publications Center 'forEnvironmental Research Information U.S EPA, 26 West St. Clair Street,Cincinnati, OH 45268 4

Rastatter, C L , ed Municipal Wastewater Management Citizens Guide to F:acilPlanning FRD-C, Washington, U S. Environmental Protection Agency, OfTA1WofWater Program Operations, Jathiary 1979. 263 pp

A publication prepared by the Conservation Foundation, Washington, DC,'- provides a selected and extensive discussion of activities pertinent to the. responsibilities and work of advisory groups It includes clijkussion on publi

o participation This publication can be obtained from General ServicesAdministration (8FFS), Centralized Mailing Lists Services, Building 41, DenverFederal Center, Denver, CO 80225

Rastatter, C L , ed Municipal Wastewater Management Public Involvement ActivitiesGuide FRD-7, Washington, DC U S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of WaterProgram Operations, February 1979. 125 pp

This handbook was prepared by the Conservation Fotndation for use in atraining program to acquaint citizen leaders with the important decisionOthatare made in planning of wastewater facilities It condenses the Citizen's Guide toFacility Planning It is available from General Services Administration (814FS),Cogutralized Marling Lists Services, Building 41, Denver Federal Center, Denver,CO 80225

Additional guidance is available from the Facilities Requirement Ditision (WH-595 U.S.Environmenial Protection ency, 401 M Street, S.W, Washington, DC 20460. Ofparticular interest is a ref ce document called Facility Plannaeg which EPA publishesyearly It contains, gui ce for preparation of facility plans receiving an EPA Step 1grant in that part iscal year Copies of all applicable regulations and suriOnariesofall applicable pr requirements and program operations memoranda are included. Itdefines all requirements clearly in one document-

, ..

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Need MoreInformation?

11

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43.

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Chapter 4

Municipal WastewaterProcesses: Overview

p

44- Loma-Chr. Stoltzfus, E., Drannon Buskirk, Jr., and John B Nesbitt

1

The Problem Doesn'tDisappear .

Decisions made by society years ago stillhaunt us today How do we get nd ofunwanted material' Easy Dump it inwater Yes, dilution in water allows thewaste to be quickly and easily transportedaway Dilution aloffensive, Out of sightmind'

s the waste lessell) means out of

Or does it'',

Current lytie have many waste removalsystems designed to operate in this way,and have developed a lot of sophisticatedtechnology to go along with it Miles ofpipe lie under our cities to collectwastewater an carry it somewhefe "out ofsight" Conventional systems are not allthat bad They Can be remarkablydependable Most can produceenvironmentally cceptable wastewatersSome operate for decades beyond theirintended life spani

However, because o high costs and otherdrawbacks localities re turning to variousnonconventional met ads of wastewatermanageinent.,Some murnties haveinadequate sewage col on, treatment, ordisposal These commu ities have a choicewhether to continue wi similar' adequatefacilities, or to try some ing different

1

Sewage: Pollutant orResource?Sewage presents both problems andopportunities,

The construction of wastewater treatmentfacilities historically began out of concernfor waterborne diseases Most organisms insewage are harmless to humans, butd.ease- causing bacteria and viruses arepresent Industrialization has created other.hazards toxic substances such aspesticides. heavy metals, and evenradioactive materials

Sewage also contains nutnents such asorganic, carbon-containing sub4ances thatresult from living things, and inorganicmatter such as nitrogen compoundsInorganic matter does not come from livingthings, but from minerals These materialsare not problems at low levels, but at highlevels they can. degrade water qualityThese materials serve as nutrients forbacteria and algae,,which can deplete anddissolve oxygen irt lakeS and streams Asbacteria feed on organic matter, oxygen isconsumed in direct proportiOn to theamount of organic matter present Suchorganisms cause a biochemical oxygendemdkd (B9Di, The measurement of BUDrepresents the amount of this kind oforganw matter present in water Excessivegrowth of aquatic plants may also resultfrom nutnents

Thus concentration us well as kinddetermines whether Asubstance is apollutant or a resource

589)

45

Removal of PollutantsSewage is more than 99.9 percent purewater. This amounts to about tseo drops ofWaste An a quart of clean water Becausethis small amount of pollution can eiuse alot of trouble, dirty waters must be cleanedbefore being discharged into rivers andlakes This is neither an easy task nor aninexpensive one

So, what sorts of things are found in this0.1 percent waste in sewage? How are wegoing to remove them? The ways ofremoIng pollutant:, depend upon theirbiological, chemical, and physicalproperties

Wastes in water exist in all three states ofmatter gases as as ammonia, liquidssuch as oils, and solids such as feces orsediment in chunks of various sizes Thephysical state of a pollutnt has a directbeanng on the selection of wastewatertreatment proCesses

PhysicalScreeningSettlingFliteringAdsorptionFiotation

,Wethod, ,v,a0,1:f p;1111lianiS (Ornhill hil:110g1C(11, Chemical, andph,aareipproache,

46

Large Solids

In wastewater treatment pollutantsonerally are removed according to sizeLarge ,c-hunks of solids get removed lltstMaterials such as sticks and rags can beremoved by passing the wastewaterthrough a screen. Another approach is tocollect the large objects. grind them up,and return them to the wastewater forfurther processing A way to deal withfloating objects is to skim them off

'Small Solids

Wastewater-often containsgravel, grit, andsand in runoff from streets One removalmethod is to allow the particles to settlenaturally This can be done by putting thewastewater in a basin where the watercurrent slows slightly, giving the small butheavy solids time to settle with the help ofgravity

Suspended and DisisoWed Particles

Other small organic particles are not as..heavy as the gravel, grit. and sand Theyremain suspended due to the movement ofthe water Given more time and lessagitation, these particles will settle aswell This process is called sedimentationand produces a clearer (clarified)wastewater

Organic Pollutants

Removal of the smallest organic suspendedsolids is often done by biologicalorganisms Three types of treatmentalternatives are often used The tricklingfilter, activated sludge, and landtreatment In a trickling filter a film ofmicroorganisms grows on stones or asynthetic medium The wastewater isallowed to trickle through these materials,and the microorganisms metabolize ordigest most of the organic pollutants In anactivated sludge system, the organisms aresuspended in wastewater with air blown into provide oxygen and to enhance mixingThe third alternative is called the 'livingfilter," where Wastewater is applied toland, and is punfiqd by the'naturalbiological, chemical, and physical processesof the soil

53

After biological treatment, some smallsuspended organic particles still remain.Most can be removed by filtrattok througha fine screen with small openings, or adeep bed of sand

Dissolved organic matter can be removedboth by biological treatment and by,activated carbon adsorption. a wocess inwhich the pollutants adhere tokhe carillonparticles

Inorganic Pollutants

Inorganic pollutants such as phosphorusare usually dissolvedin water Dissolvedmatenal is generally in the form of tinycharged particles called ions These ionscan be removed by vanous means,including precipitation Precipitation .

really Just changing the conditions so as tomake the material insoluble in waterOnce the solubility is altered,-thepollutants can be removed bysedimenthtion or filtration Precipitationcan be carried out by adding certainchemicals to the wastewater 4

Another way is ton exchange In thisprocess .4 more desirable ion is substitutedfor the undesirable pollutant Ammonianitrogen may be removed from wastewaterin this fashion%

Two other approaches, electrochalysts andreverse osmosis, use membranesaln

trodialysis the ionic compounds,sually salts. are forced out of the water by

t e action of an electric field In reverseo mosis, clean water is forced through am brane, leaving the dissolved solidsbehind

Dozens of other treatment processesctxtstAll are based upon three types ofmechanisms Biological, chemical, andphysical acitons These removal approachescan he combined in many thfferent t:Alys toclean up particular kinds of wastewaterMost are patterned after `natural methods ofwater purification It's ,lust that the methodsare accelerated in tune, and concentrated inspace to keep up with our huge volumes ofwastewater

Wastewater Treatment Mechanisms

Type

Physical

Chemical

Biological

Function

ScreenSettleFilterAdsorptionFlotation

Select ert

Precipitation

Oxidation

Metabolism

Example

Bar rackSedimentationSand filter.Carbon columnSludgethickeningElectrodialysis

PhosphorusremovalOdor, controlDisinfection

TricklingfilterActivatedsludgeSeptic tankLand treatment

For addztional Information see the glos,ary and the prIgram unit entztledMunicipallWastewater Processes Details

Things to ConsiderThe advisory group can ask questi nsthat, in effect, direct the scope of w tee"duality pigming. A fewepertinentwestions should be iThked early theplanning process:

What assumptions are the plannersusing from the outset? Are theyapproprjate?

What are the reasons for using aparticular removal concept climate,experience ofengineering consulting

'Arm, reliabili,iy, nature or amount ofwastewater?

Are the basic design principleswell-suited to the particular problem athand?

What are the existing facilities? Arethese a bpnstraining factor inconsidering methods?

60 47

Before and After TreatmentAny considerations of municipalwastewater process shouX1 also include alook at what happeni4 before, and whathappens after the removal of pollutantsWhere the wastewater comes from, andhow it is collected and transported have adirect bearing on the kinds andconcentration of pollutants that must beream:wed from the wastewater Also, thedisposal of products left after treatmentshould be considered in the selection oftreatment processes

Collection of Wastewater

First of all, how is wastewater collected sothat it can be treated9 In central treatmentsystems wastes from homes, businesses,and, sometimes, industry are carried bywater through pipes called seweti whichlead to the treatment plants Wastewateris transported by conventional gravitysewers, and other methods such aspressure or vacuum sewers

Although gravity sewers have a goodrecord for dependability and efficiency,they have drawbacks In addition to beingexpensive, they may disrupt theenvironment They can require deepexcavations that cause extensive dust,erosion, and sedimentation problemsOdors rn%y also be a problem where flatterrain contributes to the slow flow ofsewage Because gravity sewers typicallyfollow natural drainage paths, theirconstruction may disturb nearbywatercourses They also may overflow intoadjacent watercourses from time to time

Other methods of transporting wastesinvolve the use of small diameter vacuumor pressure sewers These systems arerelatively new and are used only on asmall scale. They are likely to have greateroperational, maintenance, and energy coststhan gravity sewers, but cost much less toinstall.

Modified onsite disposal systems also mayuse small diameter sewers Wastewaterfrom several conventional septic tanks canbe transported by sewers to a commondisposal area (absorption field)

t'

48

rain,f,t twa It s,

SeparateSewerSystem

Types of Sewer Systems

There are two basic types of sewer systemscombined and separate Combined

sewers carry both water polluted,by humanuse,.and water polluted as it runs offrooftops, streets, and land duringrainstorms, snow melts, or other forms ofprecipitationSeparate sewer systems have two sets ofsewer pipes One system called sanitarysewers carries only wastewater fromhomes, businesses. and industries Aseparate system carries rainwater pollutedby dirt and other contaminants into pipesthat are known as storm sewers Theseseparate storm sewers empty directly intowater courses

Combined sewers are common in the oldercities of the eastern United States_ About1,600 communities with a total populationof 31 million persons have combinedsewers One problem which plagues thesesystems is how to accommodate the largequantitites of wastewater during and afterrainstorms When storms occur,'thetreatment plant often is overloaded It isthen necessary to have some of thewastewater bypass the plant, and flow intothe receiving surface waters withouttreatment If part of the increased load ofwater were not diverted, the treatmentplant would be hydraulically overloaded,and the purifying processes would notfunction properly for a long period of timeAt times like this some wastewater` gett,treated and some gets dumped into

waterways as raw sewage Treatmentplants generally are designed toaccommodate only dry weather flows. plusa small portion of the stormwater Specialfacilities may be constructed to treat excessflows during storms where such flowscreate pollution problems Separate holdirktanks and equalization basins for storingwastewater are possible remedies Anotherapproach. but costly. is the separation ofsanitary and storm sewers The cost forthis alternative around the country wouldbe, millions of dollars However, thismethod for stormwater pollutionabatement facilities may be eligible forfederal funds irthey are, the most effectivemeans of protecting surface waters

Seuer Funding

Sewer funding is complex Eligibility forEPA funds mainly depends upon the typeof sewer. installation situation, and statepriorities

Sewer systems are composed of piping,pump stations. manholes, and associateditems The pipes consist of houseconnections. collectors, interceptors, andforce mains House congections carrywastewater from the house into the sewersystem The cost of house connections mustbe borne completely by the homeownerThe wastewater flows from these pipes into(Dile( for sewers New communities. ornewly developed areas of existingcommunities, must bear the entire cost ofthe collectors Only communities in

existe or wastewater systems two-thirdscompleted before October 1972 can qualifyfor collector sewer funding In many states, (7however, collector sewers do not receive a,sufficiently high priority to receive anyfunds

The main conveyance pipe which gatOrsflows from the collectors and transports thewastewater to the treatment plant is calledan interceptor Depending on the terrain, aforce main may be necessary to carrywater, under pressure, from a pump stationtc the treatment plant. Interceptors, forcemains, and pump stations are all fundableby the-EPA which will pay 75 percent of

.the cast on all eligible items However.only 25 percent of state allocations can bespent on pipe-related projects such asinterceptors and pump stations

The community, of course, must pay for allconstruction costs not cotered hr federal orstate funding The local users also must padfor operation and management costs fromthe time the sewers are completed

In addition to costs, the importantconsiderations in wastewater collection andtransport systems inclucie the size of theservice area. and service areacharacteristics such as soils and populationprojections. This last concern population

is crucial in determining the sizes ofboth sewers and treatment facilities Whilethe sizes must be adequate, they must notexceed reasonable future needs Otherwise.unwanted costs and undesirabledevelopment may' occur

Gravity Sewers

AdvantagesDependable

Have low energy and maintenanceneeds

DisadvantagesRequire deep excavationsOften built along streams and lakesUsually more environmentally

disruptive than other sew,'alternatives

21/4

ow

49

Home

Busine:-

Inaustry

Disposal of Effluent and Sludge

No matter how good the treatment is, allthe pollutants are never taken out of thewastewater These pollutants leave thetreatment facility in two ways There isthe treated liquid called effluent Therealso is a liquid mixture called sludge.which contains solids that have beenremosed from the wastewater

Effluent

Before it leaves the treatment plant, theeffluent is treated further to kill anydisease - causing bactena This is usuallydone by disinfeCting the water withchlorine Then the effluent can be eitherdiluted through discharge into surfacev;aters, applied to land for agriculturalproduction. recreational use, orgroundwater recharge. placed incontainment ponds to evapordte. or reusedas process or cooling water for industry orutilities The use and the cost of thisreclaimed water depend on the degree ofwaste reunoyal needed, and the asailabilityof alterrrate water sources

The quality of the effluent which leasesthe plant is of primary importance in theprotection of the receiving water Thisquality is measured by several factors

50

E+1,k,er-T"ouvc,'

C -1p

SC 'a

Organic matter (biochemical oxygendemand and suspended solids)

Nutrients (ammonia and phosphorus)

Conform bacteria (fecal organisms('

Toxic materials

The concentration of these substancesdetermines the quality of the effluent, andrepresents the efficiency of the treatmentplant

Sludge

Sludge is akin to the tail that wags the dogin many municipalities Proper disposal ofsludge is necessary to complete effectivewaste treatment It is a mushroomingproblem that demands larger portions ofwastewater treatment funds every yearSludge handling may make up half Iihecost of stwewater treatment ;

Sludge is largely tater 190-95 percent/The solids are separated by celnrifuges,filtration, or drying beds Final sludgedisposal methods include burying', burning,composting, and direct land applicationHdwever, these methods are not withouttheir own problems Incineration can resultto air pollution and generates ash thatitself must be disposed Expensive energysupplies also may be consumed in theburning process, although new dewatenng,methods can minimize this problem Goodengineering design and operation,can result in facilities that meetenvironmental standards -

however,

/

..(

..

10

......

MP

Composting and direct land applicationalso have mixed benefits. Energy andnutrients may be obtained from sludge, buttoxic agents such as-heavy metals anddisease-causing organisms also may bepresent. Indeed, since *Judge contains,concentrated pollutants, it must be disposed*with care Whether or not sludge is aresource or a problem depends upon itscontents, processing, and the market forcompost Sludge diSposal becomesmucheasier-and less expensive if heavy metalsand toxic materials are kept ou't ofmunicipal wastewater This cart beaccomplished through an effectiveindustrial pretreatment program

Sludges. must be evaluated with theleast -risk method of disposal chosen foreach community There i--4,no such thing asan alternative without risk

Questions about Sewersand SludgesQuestions to ask about "before andafter treatment" include:

Where does the wastewater comefrom, and has thought been given toreducing this quantity of water?

How is the stormwater runoff*controlled, collected, and treated?

How is sew As,pilected andtransported?

If new sewersare they to be b

ire necessary, where9

What are the ,effluentislu e disposaloptions and their rela c sts?

How will the disposal techniques

rffectthe environment?

Do the choices fit in with the valuesof the community?

t environmental 'Standards mustfor the effluent and sludge?

virfConstructwn of a sewer system

IP

64

ft

.

51

intfuerttPrimary

treatmentSecondarytreatment

Advancedwaste

treatment

1 ijry

Solidsdisposal

Disinfection(if required) Effluent

-7

52

What Happens at theTreatment Plant?Traditionally, the stages of wastewatertreatment were designated as primary,secondary, and tertiary. but the definitionof tertiary was unclear Therefore, tertiaryis now referred to as advanced wastetreatment since there is a lot of overlap inwhat certain processes can accomplish

Primary Stage

This process, mainly mechanical, removessolids which either settle or float At bestsuspended solids can be xeduced by 60percent and the BOD by 35 percent at theprimary stage

Basically this process invblves passing thewastewater through a screen or bar rack toremove large floating solids Instead of a

Floyd

screen, some treatment plants use agrinder to shred large pieces of solidmaterials Next, the wastewater flows intoa grit chamber where sand, cinders, and-small stones settle out Suspendedare then removed in a ..elanentation.tankcollecting on the bottom as raw sludgePrimary treatment is a rather coarseprocedure Only the large chunks ofwastes and solids that either float or settleare removed The process has little effectuporlfiriely suspended and solublepliltitants They must be removed at otherlevels of it atment

Secondary Stage

By adding secondary treatment to theprimary proceSses, more than 85 percent ofthe BOD and suspended solids areremoved Under controlled conditions,biodegradable organic wastes are confkrted

Bar ru k

PrtrnarI ,,gage of oyi,,tco(Iter,trea' Intent 65

SE.I1 f e, ,

-N

s.

Into carbon dioxide and water bymicroorganisms in an accelerated processsimilar toOat whiclikoccurs in a naturalstream

Two common types of secondary treatmentare the trickling filter and the actwa

'sludge processes A trickling-filter isof stones or synthetic material throughwhich the wastewater passes after primarytreatment Bacteria and other organismson the stones, consume most of the organicmatter in the wastewater as it tricklesthrough the bed In the activated sludgeprocess_4erated wastewater andmicroorganisms are held together forseveral hours in a basin

Other approaches to secondary treatmentare the oxidation pond or lagoon, carrouselaeration, rotating biological contactor,actuated buifi(ter, and land treatmentOxidation ponds or lagoons that are notartificially'aerated offer a low energy andpperatronal cost alternative where land

.,Pare is available, Complexity of operationis low for ponds as it islorland treatmentThese approaches are also biological in

'nature, and provide an adequateenvironment for the breakdown of,Solubleorganic materials Miny of these processes.1.4,1th'uriusual names simply provide surface

areas onto which the microorganisms -

attach, or create suitable. conditions fOrgrowth

'me secondary treatment is a biologicalprocess it is effective mainly for removinbiodegradable wastes Care must be tainot to introduce substances that are t isor damaging to the microorganisms.

Most regulatory agencies require that thefinal step in secondary treatment bedisinfection to kill any pathogenic bacteriaand viruses Disihfection is usuallyaccomplished by adding chlorine toaccomplish the required kill

Secondary Treatment ProcessesBob and si,,m-nded tiolydS fi,mo/ at,

Trickling FilterActivated SludgeOxidation Pond, or LagoonCarrousel AerationRotating Biological Cetactor

.

Activated BiofilterLand Treatment

Trukltng filter for breakdown of organic wasteg

66

t

A

54

-01 Advanced Waste Treatment

The pressures are mounting on our wastetreatment systems. As we become moreurbanizedf wastes concentrate faster thanthe local environment can assimilate them.Every year industp, creates new productswhich also becomrpolluthnts. Ourdemands for larger quantities of waterfurther aggravate the problem. Todaywater must be used over and over in avariety of ways. This increasing need toreuse water calls for better wastetreatment Advanced methods of treatingwastes satisfy some of these needs

When secondary levels of treatment arenot adequate to protect the quality ofsensitive water bodies, more advancedprocesses must be used Treatment beyondthe conventional primary and secondarystages can remove most gf the pollutantsnitrogen, phosphorus, non-biodegradableorganic matter, and heavy metals as wellas BOD and suspended solids However,the costs often are very high

Combinations of chemical, physical, and afew biological techniques accomplish thisadditional removal of pollutants Examplesof conventional advanced treatment .processes are chemical precipitation toremove phosphorus, chemical reactions toremove nitrogen, coagulation and filtrationto extract additional, amounts (If suspendedsolids, and activated carbon to adsorborganic compounds that cause unpleasanttastes or odors or are not biodegradableHowever, the increasing appearance ofhazardous substancessuch a,spolychlorinated biphenyTs (PCBs) andsynthetic chemicals is challenging eventhese advanced processes New approachesto wastewater flow reduction andtreatmen are needed A relatively old,p ocess, and treatment, is becoming moreand more viable as an alternative toconventional advanced waste treatmentprocesses

V:

,ry

Advanced Waste TreatmentProcesses

Phosp orus RemovalCoagulati dim tationLand treatmen

'Nitrogen Remo ValBiological nitrification-denitrificationAmmonia strippingIon exchangeBreakpoint chlorinationLand treatment

BOD and Suspended SolidsRemovalCoagulation-sedimentationFiltrationMicroscreeni ngLand treatment

Non-biodegradable OrganicMaterials RemovalActivated carbonLand treatment

.Advanced techniques are not a cure-all forour wastew4er problems. Many requirechemicals that are expensive to purchaor create residues tha difficult todispose Some approach very energy.intensive, Many advanced techniques arerelatively new, and may not be time-testedThe benefits of advanced waste treatmentmust be weighed against the costsCommunities must carefully consider theneed for advanced waste treatment

0

.4

'Concerns about AdvancedWaste TreatmentMuch thought needs to be done beforeplanning advanced wastewatertreatment (AWT) systems. The advisorygroups can contribute by keeping thefollowing questions at the forefront ofthe discussion: a

Have community options such aswastewater flow reduction andchanged water uses that will diminishthe neerj for AWT been explored?

Is AWT really needed to meet surfacewater quality standards?

Has land treat nt been consideredas an alternative to conventional AWT?

Can the community afford theon-going chemical and energy expenseof AWT?

Are there sufficient disposal sites inthe area for increased ..4tucle 4:ke toAWT?

Will the treatment facilities havecompetent personnel for dealing withthe complex AWT processes?

Type.of

treatment

0

Efficiency of Treatment Processes(Percent of Pollutant Removed from Domestic Wastewater)

PollutantPrimaryTreatment

St't Onda /1Treatment

1d(arrrrStr e(ilment

BOD

SuspendedSolids

Nutrientst Nitrogen,phosphorus)

25-30

60-65

85-95

85-95,

Mammal Minimal

90-99

90419

-

Increased removal efficiencies are achievedat increasing costs The elimination of thelast 15 percent of major pollutants fromwastewater is several times more costlythan the removal of the initial 85 percentIndeed, wastewater clean-up does not comecheap

An advisory group can play a key rolein identifying tradeoffs between the

koegree of ;Pollutant removal and the

neary and environmental costs.

Cents per 1,000 gallons

25 50

Treatment bewaid the mutat(cal,' nearly double(' the (m4 m

75 100 1978

Secondary treatment

+ Phosphorusremoval

+ Filtration

+ Nitrogen removal

+ Carbon adsorption

0 265 525 7 90

Dollars per month per home

68

1

10 50

55

Ma.

11.

41)

ti

1. Planning QuestionsAdditional questions thr advisorygroups include:

Are local environmental Valuesreflected in the final choice?

Are alternative and innovativetechnologies as well as multiple uses oftaeatment facilities considered?

Will the level of sophistication of thetreatment processes create problems infinding qualified people to operate andmaintain the plant?

If the wastewater treatment facilityhas other uses such as reereation, willfunding still be obtainable?r ill the removed pollutants createflre environmental problems atanother place or time?

Does the plan permit revisions fori

increased flows, wastewaterreclamation, or water reusein thefuture?,

Achlgory group partuvatIon In fruilitu, planning

56 9

Room for ImprovementAlternative or innovative was tewat1treatment technologies may possibly-besubstituted for conventional treatmentprocesses. These may save energy,operating or construction costs, or offersome other advaptages. Anothercost-saying approach is to impr ye theefficiency of conventionalfaciliti through\ 'design changes or improved o ti ns andmany merit nch measures fnay avoidthe -heed for expensive new facilities.

Another approach involves the equalizationof sewage flows The,flow of wastewatercorresponds to our daily activities. Thisroutine sets a pattern of peaks and valleysof sewage flow and strength The purpose.*of flow equalization is to dampen thesevariations, and to permit the treatmentfacilities to operate at greater efficiencies,rather than constantly trying to adjust tochanging flows. Large basins for collectingand storing wastewater are useti td achieveflow equalizaticin ,

Treatment facilities may be usedeffectively for multiple uses such asenvironmental education Experience hasshown that both the facility operations andeducational experiences are improved bythis useIt may be surprising to learn that treatmentplants do not'always achieve the resultsthey are supposed to Studies show thatthese can be deficiencies in design orequipment, but inadequate operations andManagement (O&M I can also he at faultThe principles of wastewater treatmentprocesses are few and simple, but thetechnologies that use these principles arecomplicated Many proces.sep, espeCiallyThose of advanced waste treatment, requireconsiderable operator training Sincecommunities pay the entire cost of O&M,some localities take funding short cuts inmaintenance and operator training. Plantoperations suffer as a result Welltrainedand paid operators are essential to facilityoperations and management

Wastewater treatment facilities arecommunity resources tliat, must be plannedin coordination with development ofreM, of the community Plants that becomeprematurely glverloaded are victims or poorplanning Similarly, plants that are toolarge for a community do not, operateefficiently, Mal the costs of operation fallon the few user,

e

Selection of ProcessesNe array of treatment processes is

extensive A major portion of facilityplanning involves choosing one of them

Over a hundred different techniques,options, and processes exist for wastewatertreatment In determining the best solutionto a wastewater problem, thesealternatives should be evaluated carefullyin light of specific local conditions Amongthe factors that should be considered are

_Wastewater amount and characteristics(domestis, commercial. industrial uses)

Effluent requirements

Env ironmeutal effects

Public acceptance

Resource consumption

Sludge handling

Process complexity. reliability, andflexibility .

Implementatio2 capability

Monetary costs

The biittorii line for most people is howmuch a system costs Both nonmonetaryand monetary costs are involvedEnvironmental, social, a a indirect effects .

such as land developmen are the principalnonmnnet-ary cpbsideratio s Monetarycosts consist mainly of c. oltal, operations,replacement, and manage ntexpenditures The etsts shou bepresented in a form that has e. ning forthe taxpayet. Such as dolla . householdper year Thesqcost-' ' y foroperations. areIncreasinl. .pidly due toescalating energ

0

Total Energy Consumption InWastewater Treatment SystemsTreatment Le?.el Eiectrwav Fuel

,Thou sand Ku iv1r, ( Aldhun Btu

Treatment Higher than Secondary

BUD, 10-20 mg/L; SS,'5 mg/L, TotalPhosphorus, 1 mg/L

Independentphysical-chemical

Activated sludgeplus chemical clarificationand filtration

Advanced Treatment

BUD, 1 mg -L, SS, 1 mg/LTotal Phosphorus, 0 1 mgil.Total Nitrogen, 3 U mg/L

Land treatmentActivated sludge

plus nitrification.denitrification,chemical clacification,and filtration

1,781

_ 2,301

2,701

3,477

72,47 "

2.6..278

U

48,430

I 'Ito( requu-e-rent, u 3 millzonyal Ion per dal plant Im tudln4; Indy, treywrement, ht%ititti 1.97q

ti

70

J57

58

Main PointsWhether or not a substance is a pollutantor a re-ource-clepends upon its nature,concentration, and location

Basic biological, chemical. and physicalmechanisms are imoked in remw.ingpollutahts from i,astem,ater Usuall thelarger floatingand suspended particles areremoved first The remalik sus'pendedmaterials come second The dissolvedsubstances, v.herelnecesary, are extractedlast

Pollutants generally are separated b.%processes that operate in three stage.primary, secondary, and ack anced Thetotal cumulative removal of pollutantsincreases through this series of ,t1;2;e-Hov.ever, costs also increase markedlyespecial4N from the econdary through the

....advanced waste treatment stage

Current treatment practice:-, are heint.;improed through approiches such a- flo,kequalization, comprehensive planning, andefficient operations and maintenance

t'orsidpation, ot,her thantreatment thecolleCtion of o.astev.ater and the disposalof %%ae, effluent,tlif sludge affect thechoice of v.astev.aterTh-,atment methods"f he disposal of sludge can he especiallytroublesome

l'he selection o treatment processes isbased upon ma ol the :Lime factors thatare u,sed else« he in facilities planningv.astev.ater characteristics, effluentrequirements, rnonetar costs, sludgehandling, process reliahilith and flexibility,implementation capahility and publicacceptance

t.t, are the main concern.fa4o-t peoplen -elecurg treatment procej;e,his handbook provide- background

information Another unit entitled,Ifiinic (pal t% a 'tea a ter Proc:es,,,es2i% specific information on comparing 'and ealuatmg ariou. v,a-ztewatertreatment alter nati%

.410rs,4111..

Wastewater treatment (mild, under (omtruf trrai

1

it

t.

IIP

Selected Resources

Colistruetton Costs for-Wastewater Treatment Plants Publication NumberEPA-4309-77-013 Washington, DC U S Envirotninental Protection Agency, January1978 125 pp

This document presents information which can be used to determine thealternate municipal wastewater treatment process schemes that will meetspecific effluent guidelines Procedures and information which can be used indetermining the cost of each alternative are also given This publication rs .

available as MCD-37 from General Services Administration, Centralized MailingList Services, Building 41. Denvir Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225

Ikm iron mental Pollution Control Alternatues Municipal. Wastewater PublicationNumber EPA-625 5-76-012 Washington, DC U S Environmental Protection Agency,May 1976 79 pp Order #5012 (Note Xn updated (Anon is in press at time of thiswriting

This document is an evellent non-technical discussion of available municipalwastewater treatment processes It describes the processes, gives costs andenergy requirements, and discusses their efficiency, advantages, anddisadvantages The discussion in this handbook is based upon this document Itis available from Technology Transfer. U S Environmental Protection Agency,Cincinnati, OH 45268

Innotatue and Alternatue Technology'Assessment Manual MCD-53 Washington. DCS Ens ironmental Protection Agent, September 1978 388 pp

Fhi, document contains fact sheets for 117 diffren t wastewater treatmentprocess variations Each fact sheet describes the process and its modificationsand discusses technology status, applications, limitations, equipmentmanufacturers last only), environmental impact, and references. Flow diagrams,capital costs, and operating costs are also given It is available from GeneralSersices Administration, Centralized Mailing List Services, Building 41, DenverFederal Center, Denver, CO 80225

Primer on ri'ci,tittater Treatment MCD-65 Washington, DC U S EnvironmentalProtectihn Agency. Fall 1980 26 pp

This booklet is a vastly reduced version of the above publication Although itdoe, not gise details such as the advantages of specific treatment process, it isValuable as a brief overview of major water quality concerns and treatmentoptiohs It is available from General Services Administration, CentralizedMailing List Services, Building 41, Denser Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225

72II

OP.

Need MoreInformation?

-

7 3A

S

Chapter 5

Municipal WastewaterProcesses: DetailsCharles A Cole and John B Nesbitt '

Communities may save 40 percent of theirlocal wastewater treatment costs by usingalternative or Innovative technologies Thisis an attractive incentive, but many ofthese communities will still chooseconventional modes of treatment. Why') Itis because most are dependable, and theyproduce wastewater that, isenv nmentally acceptable

Ala r method cetireattnent is chosen,the task is the same the separation ofpollutants f mainly solids , but alsodissolved materials) from water Thisseparation is accomplished by biological,chemical, and physical methods Mostapproaches are patterned after MotherNature's methods of water purification, butare accelerated and are concentrated tokeep up with our huge volumes ofwastewaterM --Although the principles of the treatmentprocesses are simple, the technologies canbe comph6ated Understanding thesetechnologies is made more difficult by thetechnical language In which the processesare sometimes discussed When anadvisory group discusses wastewatertreatment options, it must be familiar withthe requirements and limitations of theseprocesses. An understanding of treatmentprocesses can begin by following the path

of a drop of wastewater as it travelsthrough treatment facilities

A Drop of WastewaterUpon entering a treatment plant, awastewater drop and billions like itusually flows through a series ofpreliminary processes screening, gritremoval, andior shredding These processeseither remove the coarse materials fromthe wastewater, or make them smaller forfurther treatment The drop thenundergoes a stage of primary treatmentDuring this treatment phase, solids thatfloat or settle are separated from thewastewater

Some pollutants that remain are removedby secorytreatment processes Thesemethods u ally involve biologicaltreatment Orrinisms, mainly bacteria,through their metabolic functions convertthe pollutants into forms which are easierto remove from wastewater secondarytreatment is now required as a minimumfor all wastewaters

The drop may undergo aduarwed wastetreatment for the removal of substances notordinarily taken out at other stages oftreatment Dissolved nutrients and some

If "old -4 Pumiutreatrt

rSecondary IeafrtrsItceedi 4treatment trtment

-\*Solids

disposal

Disinfectionfir required)

74

Categorter of no tea titertreatment proce,%eN

61

organic materials are removed witadvanced treatment. These advancedprocesses may follow previous stages, orthey may be used instead of them. Ascompared to other options, advanced wastetreatment is costly-

Waste materials that are removed by thetreatment proce go to facilities forhandling solids 'I' materials, calledsludge, are ultima y disposed of by landapplication, inciner tion, or other means

Before the treat drop is discharged into alake or stream, t may be disinfected toreduce the risk of disease The drop thenreturns to the natural water cycle It maycollect impurities and immediately undergotreatment. or it may not appear inwastewater again for centuries

The number of treatment processes and thedegree of treatment usually depe upon

iv,/ld

the uses of the receiving waters reatedwastewaters discharged into a smallstream used for a domestic water supplywill require a considerably higher level oftreatment than wastewater discharged intowater used solely for transportationEffluent criteria are thus established foreach wastewater treatment facility Twoprincipal criteria for assessing theeffiripncips of many wastewater treatmentprocesses are the removal of suspendedsolids and BOD Many solids serve as foodfor organisms present in the sewage Asorganisms such as bacteria feed on organicmatter ,carbon-contaltiolg substarkes;,oxygen is consumed in direct proportion tothe amount of nutrients present Theseorganisms use a biochemical oxygendemand (MD) The measurement of BODthus represents the amount of organicmatter present in water.

.Effluent requirements are only one fattorto be considered in selecting wastewatertreatment alternatives Others include

Wastewater characteristics

Environmental effects

Resource requirements(energy and chemicals)

Monetary costs

Sludge.handling and disposal

Process reliability and flexibility

Primary Treatment

Primary wastewater treatment removesthose pollutants which will eitheraccumulate on a screen or settle Thescreen removes large floating iPleects suchas rags and sticks that may clog pumpsand small pipes The debris removed fromthe screen is usually buried in andfill

Some 'plants use a device own as acomminutor, which Ines the functionsof a screen and a nder This deviceshreds the solid material in thewastewater The pulverized matterremains in the wastewater to be removedlater in a settling tank

After the wastewater has been screened orcomminuted, it passes into a grit chamber

C where cinders and small stones areallowed to settle to the bottom A gritchamber is highly important for cities withcombined sewer systems It removes thegrit or grarel that washes off streets orland during a storm and ends up attreatment plants This material is usually

tothJentPrimary

treatmentSecondarytreatment

4IP

Advancedwaste

treatment

Solidsdisposal

Disinfection(if required)

0. Effluent

62

taken from the tank, washed, and buriedin landfills near the treatment plant

After the screening and gritcremoval, thewastewater still contains su pended solidsSome can be removed from the sewage in asedimentation tank or primary clarifierWastewater flow; through the tank veryslowly During a two-hour period, thesuspended solids gradually sink to thebottom This mass of settled solids is calledraw primary sludge It is removed from theprimary clarifier tank by mechanicalscrapers and p-rnps, an-1 is transferred tosludge processing operations Floating

-nvterials such as grease and oil, rise totlfe surface of the sedimentation tankwhere they are collected by asurface skimming system They areremoved from the tank for furtherprocessing usually to a sludge digeste

to primary treatment only the hew. lerparticles are removed The eery finesuspended solids and dissolved substance-are taken out in subsequent treatmentoperations

Secondary Treatment

the major purpose of secondary treatmentis to remove the BUD -causing substance,that escape primary treatment, and toremove more of the suspended solids Inmost cases the secondary processesfunction by biological means They aredesigned to provide the propersurroundings fortthe breakdo,An of o,ganicmaterials by microorganisms A .ariety ofapproaches are u-ed to establish a growth

PrInlar UHlea. utPr trvut,,, pit

t

AdvSncedwaste

treatment

Primaryrimarytreatment

Solidsdisposal

DisinfectionOf required)

r-

76 6

Tru khnk Tiltvr

64

environment These secondary processesusually supply oxygen, andror providesurfaces on which the microbes can growSome possibilities include

Trickling filter

Activated sludge tank

Oxidation pond and lagoon

Rotating biological contac

Activated biofilter

Aquaculture

Land treatment

Land treatment of effluent h gainedconsiderable popularity in recent yearsWastewater with at least primarytreatment is applied to vegetated soilsBiological, chemical, and physical actionsremove contaminants from the.water Landtreatment is discussed in more detail inthe section on advanced Wastewatertreatment

Trickling Filter

A tru kling filter consists of a bed of coarsematerials, such as rocks, slats, or plastics,over which wastewater is applied byrotating pipes or fixed nozzles.

As the wastewater trickles through thebed to underdrams, microbial growthoccuren the surface of the materialsMicroorganismb consume most of theorganic matter in the sewage. However,the microorganisms sloughed off the filtersurfaces result in suspended solids in thewastewater Thus. the flow from the

trickling niter is passed through asedimentation basin which collects thesesolids by allowing them to settlesedimentation basin is referred to assecondary clarifier or a final clarifier, todifferentiate it from the sedimentationbasin used for settling at the primarytreatment phase Solids from this clarifierare further treated in the sludge handlingoperation

Rock trickling filters have performed wellfo'r decades In recent years other materialshave found increased use, such as plasticrings, corrugated plastic sheets, andredwood slats These materials offer alarger surface area for the growth ofmicrobes, and more open space for air flov,than rock They also weigh less so it ispossible to construct a taller filter bed thatuses less land area than a rock filter

A typical overall efficiency of a municipal,_wastewater trickling filter treatment plant

is about 85 percent removal of BOD andsuspended solids, which corresponds toabout 30 milligrams per liter of each in thefinal effluent Trickling filters has.e longbeen a povlar treatment process

Trickling FilterAdvantage%

Simple process and equipment

Responsive to variable pollutantloads

Minimal operator skills

Minimal plant maintenanceLow energy requirements relative to

activated sludge

Disadvantages

Vulnerable t, cold 'weatherReduce treatment efficiency in

v;inter

ti

Activated Sludge

The activated Sludge process is a biologicalwastewater treatment technique in whicha mixture of wastewater and biologicalsolids (microorganisms and wastes) isagitated and aerated The biological solidsare subsequently separated from thetreated wastewater A portion of thesesolids is returned to the aeration process asit is needed As the microorganisms growand are mixed with the air, the individualorganisms clump together to form anactiNe mass of microbes called activated.ludge

In the conventional activated sludgepiotess the wastewater flows continuouslyInto an aeration tank where air mixes theactivated sludge with the wastewater, andsupplies the oxygen needed for themicrobial growth The mixture from theaeration tank flows to a secondary clarifierwhere the actriiated sludge is settled Mostof the settled biological sludge is returnedto the aeration tank to continue rapidbreakdown of the organic materialsBecause more activated sludge is producedthan can be used in the process, some of

yActivated SludgeAdvantage.

Treats vanous wastewatercompositions

Meets various effluent standards

Compared to trickling filterhigher quality of effluent, slightlylower capital costs, and smallerland area requirementIhgadvantages

Need for careful operational controls

High energy requirements

the returned sludge is separated for finaltreatment and disposal In conventionalsystems the wastewater is typicallyaerated for 6-8 hours in long, rectangularaeration basins. Air is introduced either byinjecting it near Yhe bottom of the aerationtank, or by mechanical mixers located atthe surface

Many vanations of this conventionalsystem have improved the processperformance These variations depend onadjustments in treatment time, method ofaeration, or in use of pure oxygen ratherthan air Approaches known as contactstabilization, extended aeration, and ditchoxidation are all variations of the basicprocess

Actuated -duck.,

Return sludge

78L__ 65

Y

kr.tdat!orr

Oxidation Pond and Lagoon'

Large, relatively shallow basins used fortreating wastewater through theinteraction of sunlight, wind, algae, andoxygen are called oxidation ponds, lagoons,or stabilization ponds. They are one of themost common treatment systems. Theyaccount for about one-third of all secondarytreatment plants in the United States.About 90 percent of the ponds are used Intowns with less than 10,000 people (1million gallons per day treatmentcapacity). Primary processes are sometimesused for the pretreatment of wastes, butthis added cost is usually not justified.

The most critical factor in this processinvolves the supply of oxygen If oxygen isinsufficient; acceptable treatment will notoccur To eliminate the dependence ofalgal-produced oxygen and to reduce thearea required by the ponds, aerationequipment is sometimes used to supplyoxygen Such a system is called an aeratedlagoon Air can be supplied by acompresSor that injects air into the pondthrough tubing on the pond bottom, or bymechanical aerators installed at thesurface of the pond Aerated ponds aretypically about one-fifth the size of aconventional oxidation pond Aeratedlagoons arc usually followed by a secondsettling pond A pond can often accomodate15 to 60 days of wastewater flows Inconventional ponds, sludge is removed bydredging

66

Oxidation ponds usually meet secondarytreatment requirements for the removal ofBOD. However, they occasionally fail tomeet secondary requirements forsuspended solids removal because of thealgae in the pond effluent. Effluentsuspended solids requirements for pondshave been;celaxed in most states becauseof this algae concentration.

Oxidation Pond

Advantages

Ease in construction, operation, andmaintenance

4Low construction costs

Minimal equipment maintenanceEffective remoall of dee-Me:causing

organisms

Disadvantages

Large space requirement forconventional pond

Weed problems and dike failures

j)ifflculty in meeting effluentrecinrements dueto algae

Complex operations and high costs ifalgae removal is required

Rotating Biological Contactor

This process, also sometimes called thebuKlisc or rotating biological surface,consists of a series of closely-spaced plasticdiscs mounted on a horizontal shaft. Theyare rotated while about one-half of theirsurface area is immersed in wastewater

Pxygemis absorbed onto a filo ofwastewater on the discs. Thee devicesprovide a surface for the grOwth ofmicroorganisms. As the microbes becomedislodged, they are 'kept in suspension bythe moving discs As the treatedwastewater flows from the reservoir belowthe discs, it carries the suspended growthsto a settling basin for removal

79

Rotating Biological Contactor

Advantages

No recycling of sludge

Minimal maintenance onmechanical equipment

Higher pollutant removal thantrickling filter

As compared to activated sludgeless susceptible to upset and washout,and fewer process decisions byoperator

Disadvantages

Needs to he protected from weatherby covers

Reduced efficiency in cold climates

No long-term operating experiencein US

Acti1ated Biofilter

This process combines features of both thetrickling filter and activated sludgesystems The process retartulates both theeffluent and the settled sludge from thesecondary clarifier thus creating a mixedliquid The trickling filter media used inthis system is made up of redwood slats.Oxygen is supplied by the splashing of thewastewater between layers of the redwoodslats, and by the movement of thewastewater across the layerof microbesattached to the slats Supplementalaeration is sometimes provided in anaeration tank between the filter andclarifier

Activated Biofilter

Adv antages

Stable operations and minimalprocess upsets

Improvement of activated sludgeefficiency

As compared to a trickling filterneeds less area, and is morevulnerable to cold temperature,

Disadvantage

Requirement for supplementalaeration

I

Aquaculture

Aquaculture is the growing of plants oranimals in water Aquacultural systems forwastewater treatment include both naturaland artificial wetlands and other systemsthat usually involve the production ofalgae and other plants The naturalwetlands suitable for treatment mayclosely resemble a bog. Water hyacinth, alarge fast-growing plant, is foundthroughout the South, and is being usedfor waterwater treatment The growingplants have a high capaaity for using bothnutrients and organic matter in thewastewater

Aquaculture

laAdvantages

Low energy requirements

Low capital and operating costs

Useful for polishing effluents

Possible plant by-products

Disadvantages

Climate-limited to southern U S

Requires large land areaToxic materials may affect plants

Secondary TrettmentConsiderationsMost secondary .wastewater treatmentprocesses are well developed, but choosingtechnologies for a facility-cannot be done ina supermarket fashion Many differentfactors must be considered, includingprocess benefits and drawbacks Forexample, a trickling filter can save energy,but it may cost more for constructionCapital, energy, chemicals, and land costscan be traded off, depending on particularprocesses

so

In evaluating treatment alternatives,various considerations can be taken intoaccount. They include capital cost,operation and management costs, energyrequirements, land requirements,treatment reliability, climate impact,operator simplicity, response to shockloads, effects of toxic materials, and sludgeproduction

In planning a wastewater treatmentfacility several parties work together,including the grantee, the consultant,and the advisory group. Difficulttechnical decisions have to be made.

A potential for conflict exists. Ascpmmunity representatives, theadvisory group must see thatcommunity concerns enter thediscussion. Although the advisorsusually have no water quality training,they must communicate with theconsultants on technical matters.Questions must be asked without

unrealistic second-guessing. Inselecting treatment processes thefollowing questkons need answers?..

What ip the source of wastewater,"andcan the quantity of water-I,;e reduced?

Can the community afford to pay forand operate parlictliar processes?

What are the reasons for using aparticular pollutant remotal schemeclimate, experience of the consultants,process reliability, monetary costs,suitability to the problems of the area,or what?

Does the plan permit futuremodifications and additions to thesystem?

Are innovative or alternativesolutions as well as multiple usesconsidered?

Do the choices fit in with the valuesof the community?

How will the treatment alternativesaffect the environment?

Evaluation of Secondary Treatment Alternatives\-.tern

Conventional actuatedsludge

Pure oxygen activated;Judge

Rock trickling l'lterPlastic trickling filter

Activated biofilter

Rotating biologicalcontactor

Oxidation pond withfiltration

Aerated lagoon withfiltration

Land treatmentPreferred Rating

Treatm, ntHeliandrh

M

H

H

H

M

M

H

H

H

H

Lam! CapitalRequirement Requirement

M

I. H M

M M L

L vI L

M ML H

H

H

H

L

L L

NI

L L

UperatrngCost

ClimateImpact

H L

H L

NI

M

M

L H

M H

M H

L L

NI

M

M

SludgeProduf ton

H

H

M

M

MM

L

L

L

L

Retail, e Hating, High If Med, II In Al Lim

NA() per( rITII rf II/01 (II of RCM

fi8

a

81

r '-410-.541-

a

Primarytreatment

Secondarytreatment waste

Advanced--+.treatment

Solidsdisposal

Disinfection(if required) Effluent

Advanced ProcessesConventional secondary processes do notremove all pollutants Some that remainmay be of major concern Processes areavailable to remove these additionalpollutants Besides solving tough pollutionproblems. these processes unprove theeffluent quality to the point where it isadequate for many reuse purposes Theymay convert what was ongi9allywastewater Into a valuable resource toogood to throw away, such as the reuse ofof 'ay industries

In the past the advanced processes wereoften called "'tertiary wastewatertreatment" or just advanced wastewatertreatment They can be subdivided into"'advanced secondary wastewatertreatment" and "advanced wastewatertreatment" categories However, thefollowing sections describe availableadvanced processes without dividing theminto their two separate classifications

Phosphorus Removal

Phosphorus is one of the components ofwastewater that can seriously disrupt theecylogical balance of our waters To meetwker quality standards, many cities are

required to reduce phosphorus to lowconcentrations in wastewater dischargesPhosphorus is not removed to any .

appreciable extent in conventional primaryor secondary treatment HoWever. it can beremoved by relatively minor modificat,onsto existing municipal wastewatertreatment facilities Phosphorus removalprocesses involve

Chemical precipitation

Biological removtil

Land treatment

In the chemical precipitation processes,chemicals called coagulants substancessuch as aluminum sulf*ate (alum), lime. orferric chloride are added to thewastewater These substances cause theso in the astewater to coagulate andclump er so as to settle faster If theproper amount of coagulant is added, italso converts the phosphorus in thewastewater into an insolubte form that canbe removed by settling Appoximatelv 90percent of the phosphorus and suspendedsolids, and an additional amount. of theBOD normally present in a secondaryeffluent can be removed throughprecipitation

82

, or.

9

*

Chen:lc.al coagulation

4

ti

The necessary amount of coagulant variesamong localities, depending o thecharacteristics of t* wast ater beingtreated. Large amounts o chemicals areusually required for the imum removalof phosphorus, while a muc mailerquantal), may be adequate fo ustsuspended solids removal

Chemical Precipitatilm

AdvantagN

Removal or BOD, phosphorus.,ancL.suspended solids

Simple process controls

AO Improved reliability of secondarytreatmentIlliknificant separation of metals.

becteria, and viruses

Disadvantages

High cost -

. Large quantities of chemical sludgefor disposal

Some chetnicals Idlum, ferricchloride) are not reusable 1

Increase in wastewater dissolvedsolids

Vratiested full-scale dperations(biological removal

In biological removal, a modified activatedsludge process ig operated so that. themicrobes take up the required amount ofphosphorus The phosphorus is thenseparated'from the activated sludolle in astRpping process These actions removephosphorus from the wastewater, andeither significantly reduce or eliminate thechemicals required for precipitation Thi,removal of BOD and suspended solids isequivalent to. or better than. the results ofthe con'rentional activated sludge processBiolog,ical removal may he the mosteconomical process for phosphorus removalother than land treatment However,cost-effectiveness analysis will make thesedeterminations on a case-by-case basis

AThe kind treatment process 111' anotheroption for phosphorus removal Landtreatment involv0 puffing wastewater

9nto land rather than discharging-it Intolakes.and streams Phogphorus and othernutrients are separated from the water bygrowing- plantt: or sail processes as thewater pdsses through.

83

Land TreatmentAdvantages

Recycling of nutrients such asphosphorus, nitrogen, and organic,mutter

Irtcreased crop production 'Recreation and open spke potentialRetention %if water in waN-sheaf

it No chemical-sludge

1)isadvan es

Scarci suitable sitesRefativelyiarge land requirementsSeasonal operation may be 011'1

necessary in colder, Mimatesr'sr

Alk

4

I

Filtration

The process of passing wastewater througha granular bed such as fine sand andorcoal to remove suspended matter is calledfiltration Modern wastewater filters areoften made up of a mixture of two or threediffercint materials icoa1, sand, and garnetare commonly used) of varying sizes anddensities The: materials form a

"multunedia filter which i oa.rse at theupper surface and becomeslillormly finerwith depth Efficient filtration of achemically-treated effluent can reducesuspended solids to almaratjgro andphosphorus to 0 1 mg L,pr less

Wastewater is passed downv.ard through,the filter until the filter becomes doggedwith material removed from thewastewater The filter is then cleaned byre%ersing the flow called backwashing:The backwasliwater is then returned tothe head of the treatment facility

ros(reening ts another type of filtrationicroscreens are cylindncal drums

c vered by a metallic filter fabric Theyr ate slowly in a tank with twocompartments, so that water enters a drumfrom one end and flows out through thefiltering fabric The waste solids areretained on the -surface of the rotatingscreen These solids are flushed from the

Filtrati9riAdvantages

, Control of suspended solids insecondary effluent

Additional removal of phosphoruvand suspended solids incoagulation-sedimentation processes

Increased treatment reliability

Easily automated and time:tested

Minimal operator attention

Minimal space requirenients

Dt4advantage

Processing of backwash wastes

Carbon Adsorption

Even after secondary- treatment,coagulation-sedimentation, and filtration,,ante organic materials that are resistantto biologic;() breakdown will remain in theeffluent One rernoVal method for thismateliai invoIrs activated carbonAdo:cited carbon is a finely-ground carbon

screen and collected in a hopper or trough with a very large surfko area Organic "inside the drum for return to the secondary contaminants are removed by adsorption,tieaiment 'plant ?ylicroscreens can usualLY----v.hich is the attraction and accumulation ,reduce the suspended solids concentrationin activated sludge effluent from20-25 mg L to 1!5-10 mg L

Via Itoni:c1 fitter

of one substance (waste) on the surface ofanother (carbon) After the adsorption,c4pacity has beets reached, the carbon canbe restored by heating it in-a turnace`at atemperattire 4uffictently high to drive pffthe adsorbed materials

Activated carbon is utilized in two forms,powdered and granular The powderedcarbon is mixed with the wastewatvr forseveral minutes to allow adsorption to .

occur It en is remov by settlitigusually wi the assista e of a coagulaniThe carbo adsorption is achieved bypassing thp wastewater through longcolumns or beds of the carbon

a

V

0

.1

L./

71

t.

- 72

T-;

1

Treatment preceding carbon ad rption canbe varied, depending on the d red finalefflueavality Carbon adsorption oftenfollows p \mcesses such as secondarytreatment, coagulation( egitckentation, andfiltration By combining the& processes, acolorless, odorless, sparkling-clear effkbentcan be prodticed It can be free of bacteriaand viruses, and can contain a BOD of lessthan 1.mg L and an organic concentrationof less than 10 mg L This water quality issuitable for many put poses

Another approach called independent ,physical-chemical treatment also use,carbon In this method biological sewililatyprocesses are eliminated altogetherCarbon is the sole mearp9 of removingorganic substances The raw wastewater isusually coagulated and settled (and'sometimes filtered1 before it is passedthrough the carbon 4v.tens Fhi., approachproxides a degree of treatment better thanbiological .secondarytreatment followed byrro-hoz.) adsorption The approach f; usefulin meeting temporaryttreatmentrequirements or in cases where spaceyer limited The process is usually mocoli-tly than the biological secondat'yprocesses

Carbon AdsorptionAdvantage,.

. ,

Removal of organic materialspassing through biological secondary*fa ratInelit pi otesse,

Accommodates wide variations inflows, wastewater duality. andconcentrate of materials

Minima s e requirementcarbon process

Needs minimal space

Inadtantage

Relatively expensixe

High energy requirement for tarbonregeneration

Equipment a carbon regeneration,and reuse_r, ill- suited for small plantsand requ'les very careful operatorcontrol

4

Nitrogen Control

Nitrogen plays a fundamental role in theaquatic environment However, if excessiveamounts of nitrogen are discharged intowaterways, serioul pollution problems canresult During coentional biologicalwastewater treatment, almost all thenitrogen in the wastewater is convertedinto ammonia and, or nitrates Al#houghammonia in wastewater has low °waxfor humans, it can consume efissolvedoxygen in the receiving water, damageaquatic life, corrode copper fittings.increase the chlorine requirements fot,disinfection On the other hand. nitratik athigh coneentlations may by.toxic tomfants

Ammonia nitrogen can be reduced inconcentration or removed from wastewater-by several- p.roces,sett--es-pretstvissesr are-

Biological nitrification anddenitrification

Land treatment

Oittaocal-chemical methods such, asammonia stripping and ,etective ionexchange

Biologieal .Niitripcation and Denitriri«Ition

In this process nitrogen-co taming mattersuch as protein', broken v.n in twohio:ogical steps First, the rtrogenousmatter is converted into nit ates( nitrification )by providing xygen in theproper amount The nitrifica ion step asusually accomplished by using actuatedsludge a trickling filter, or a rotatingbiological contactor It may follow or becombined with secondary treatment for theremoval of BOD This action mayaccompany the biological conversion of thenitrates into nitroge4 gas idenitrificationiIn many cases. carrying out only the-nitrification step may be adequate to meeteffluent requirements

4

t

tr

e

New biological processes that accomplishnitrification, de-nitrification, and the ,

biological removal of Pho4horus have beenrecently developed and patented. However,cbiee processes have not yet been usedNtensively on a plant -size scale

The efficien*of biological nitrification isusually 80 to 90 percent conversion ofammonia to nitrate. The combinednitrifation-denitrification process canremove up to 80 percent of the totalnitrogen

Land Treatment

Land treatment of wastewaters can providemoisture and nutrients necessary for cropgrowth Wastewater usulfly containssubstantial amounts of nitrogen andphosphorti. that are useful for cropproduction The natural processes removethe nutritnts by plant growth, arid the wateiis returned to the hydrologic cycle' Thewastewater is treated on the sort by slowrate irrigation, overland flow, orinfiltration-percolation

4

Biological Nitrification

Athantagg

Design and upvi Men., fusecondary treatment pi-ocesses

Low sludge volumes

Minimal air tr water quality sideeffect,

Disadvantages

Large space requirements relativeto secondary treatment

Vulrierahle to upsets by toxtces. equipment failures, or

operator error

High energy usage

-Phvst«il-Lherrit«11 Methods

A process that removes gaseous a moniafrom water by agitating the wat gas .

mixture in the presence of air ailedailed ,

orn m(flnia ,trigptit..; Ammons trogen in .

0

se ondary efflue t. can be conve toammonia gas by raising the pH t high'alkaline) values The gaseous moniacan then be released bx passing the highpH effluent through a stnpping tower Theuse of lime permits the sinqtaneouscoagulation of suspended solids and theremoval of phosphorus, while at the sametime adjusting the pH for the strippingprocess et

t4kThe concentration of ammonia emittedfrom the tower is very low well belowodor. levels, and does not cause airpollution problems However, lime scalingand energy requirements make the processunattracti'e This type of system wasabandoned at the Lake Tahoe, California,advanced wastewoer treatment facility

Ammonia Stripping

Advantages

Simple technology

Minimal space requirements

Dm&antage,

Decreased efficiency in coldtemperatures

Inoperable in freezing conditions

Lime ,tiling in towerHigh electrical energy use

In celectwo idn ezchange, tmmonium ionsin solution are exchanged for sodium orcalcium ions The process operationresembles a water softener, except that thematerial being removed is ammoniumnitrogen rather than water hardness Thebed.;nust he regenerated periodically sothat its capacity to remove ammonia isrestored The process is very efficient Itcan remove 95-97 percent of the ammonianitrogen

a

er

4

4

Selective Ion &Change

Advantage

High removal efficiency

Immune to temperature variationiUseful fertilizer product

Controllable process

Minimal space requirements

Disadvantages

Complex equipment and operations

High capital eosin

Disposal of waste productt

..1

Concerns About AdvancedTreatmentMuch thought needs to be given to theplanning of advanced wastewatertreatment (AWT) systems .4The advisory group can contribute byasking the following questions at thestart of the discussions:. Have community-wide options suchas wastewater flow reduction andchanged water uses been explored thatwill diminish the need for AWT?

Is AWT really needed to mee urfacewater quality standards?

Has land treatment been ,considered ,as an alternative to AWt?

Can the community afford theon-going chemical and"energy expenseof A WT?

Are there sufficient disposal sites inthe area for AWT sludge?

Will the treatment facilities havecompetent personnel for dealing withcomple)LAWT processes?

Will the community's welfare beendangered if an AWT process fails?What recourse will the communityhave?.

Evaluation of Advanced Treatment Alternatives

1--1whtot:s,,ttraPtiovhorus Remova]

Chertiical precipitationBiological removalLand treatment

Nitrogen ControlNitrificationAmmonia steppingIon exchangeLand treatment

Organic Matter RemovalCarbon adsorption'

Preferred Rating:

H

NI

MHH

LInt

LH

LH

14'H

(r,,t

LM

MH

EntRO-'1,1111,,,n, ;,,t

M HM M

MHL

_M

MFt:HL

L

HLH

H

L L L

,

ebritb v h'wting, ,11 H ifrrftu n %1 I, rte

Influent

Disinfection

. Primarytreatment

AdvancedSecondary _or wastetreatment treatment\

Solidsdisposal

Sludge HandlingThe last step in a treatment plant issometimes the addition of a disinfectant tothe treated wastewater to kill pathogenicdisease-causing bacteria and virufs This

process differs from sterilization, which isthe killing of all living organisms ,Theaddition of chlorine gas or some otherchemrcai form of chlorine is the 'processpiost commonly used for wastewaterdisinfection in the United States Thewastw.vettErr-then flows into abasin, whereit is held for about 30 minutes to allow thechlorine to react with the pathogens Someconcern about the formation of chlorinationbviproducts,as potential carcinogens exists,Uut the use chlorine has proven to be avery et e means edisinfecting bothv.astew_ and water supplies

Many European countries use ozone ratherthan Chlorine for disinfection Ozone is anenergetic form of oxygen that readilyreacts with many substances In theUnited States, ozone generators are usedto purify air, among other uses

Disinfection(if required)

In purifying wastewaters another problemis created sludge handling The sludgeis made of matenals separated from theraw wastewater It consists primarily oforganic substances and solids such ii, theprecipitates produced in some advancedtreatment Whatever the wastewaterprocess, there is always something thatmust be burned, buried, treated for reuse.or disposed of in some way

ir

Ei'c4pt when land treatment is used,her degrees of wastewater treatmentally result in larger amounts of sludgeI must be handled The ratisfactory

treatment and disposal of sludge can be the:,Ingle moat correpiea arid e(r,tiv uperutturt illa conventional wa tvdter treatmentesystem Without s dge treatment, even thebest wastewater treatment process isincomplete .

The basic operations of sludge treatmentare

Conditioning

Thi ning

Stabilization

Dewatenng

Disposal

8s

110

0 Effluent

75

influentPrimary

treatment

lk

Secondiry _w( Advancedtreatment waste

treatment

Solidsdisposal

Disinfection(if required)

(fluent

a

Althougit various combinations ofequipment and proces,e- are used intreating t ha,u. Alternato.

The ultimate depo,itory of sthe sludge inaterials could be either land,air nr water Current pnliries rhsanurage

Idisposal practices such as ocean dumping1 Air quality considerations require air

pollution equipment as part of the sludgeinrnetation process so that sludge cannotbe discharged into the air Thus, the sludgein some form eventually will be returned tothe land

Sludge Conditioning

Several methods of coralitiolorn.? ,Iticigt, tonase the separator of theare available The principal ways involveChemicals, or heat and pressure,

Chemical coagulants such as ferricchloride, lime pr organic polymer, arecommonly used -Ash front incinerated.

,sludge has also found use as a cNichtioningagent These substantts are mixed withthe sludge just ahead of the thickening ordewatermg processor Chemical sludgeconditioning is used at hundreds ofmunicipal treatment plants

I

Another conditioning approach 1, to heatthe sludge ,it hi ,h tempelature, andpre,ure, Under these condition, muchIikP those of a pressure cooker, waterbound in the solids- is released

Another method involves the application ofheavy closes of chlorine to the Mudge Thisis-a relatively- new approach Because ofthe acidic effects of the chlorine, it also5tabilizVhe organic sludge,

Sludge Thickening

After the sludge has been conditioned it 1,often thickened before turther processingThickening is usually accomplished in oneof two way,

Solids are floated to the top of the liquid

Solids are allowed to settle to the bottom

The goal is to remove aF, much water aspossible before the final dewatering ordisposal of the sludge

-47 N

hdritrwi ,h1( iing

Flotation Thickening

Advantage

Separation of light particles ofactivated sludge from wastewater

Dt.adv antages

Compressed air requirements

Control difficulties .

In tiotritton thu kening, air under pressureis injected into the sludge to float solids tothe top of liquid The process typicallyincreases the solids content five timesGrat itN. thickening. essentially asedimentation pr9cess similar to those

hich _occur in allisettling tanks, allowssolids V) settle to the bottom Gravitythickesing also can increase primary.sludge fsolids by five times The current'trend is towards using gra,.ity thickening,for priMary sludges. and flotationthickening for activated sludge Thethicke'ned product& are then blended forfarther pi oces,ing

Gravity ThickeningAd' antage

Simple,operation

Disadvantages

Occasional odor problems

s Difficulty in separation of lightparticles

-10 A',11, t-

e

(im ttu thu kening

Small, rotating drum screens have beenintroduced recently for thickening sludgeThese screens are similar to a largekitchen strainer Polymer-conditionedsludge is fed to the inside of the djumWater passes through the screen and isreturned to the wastewater, treatmentprocess The thickened sludge falls fromthe open end of the strainer

Sludge ScreeningAchantagp

Smell ,p requirements

Di sad,. an to

Require careful operationalcontrol,

Sludge Stabilization

Sludge stabilization biologically breaksdown the organic solids so that they aremore stable .less odorous and lessputrescible, are easier to dewater, andhave less mass If the sludge is to bedewatered and burned, stabilizationnormally is nut used Many municipalplants do not use incineration Instead theyrely on sludge digestion to stabilize theorganic sludges before final disposal Twobasic processes are inuse anaerobicdigestion, and aerobic chgestion

Anaerobic digestion involves thebreakdown of solids in an environmentthat is devoid of oxygen Most modernanaerobic digesters use tanks in atwo-stage process In the first stagebiological digestion occurs The secondstage is used for storing and concentratingthe digested sludge The second-operationmay be an open tank, an unheated tank, ora sludge lagoon As the organic solids arebroken down by anaerobic bacteria, liquidsand gases are formed A relatively clearliquid, called S ernatant, can bewithdrawn and recycled to the treatmentsystem Methane and carbon dioxide alsoare formed Thesdigester gas containingmethane is'a usable fuel Iris usedprincipally for heating the first digestion

9

41,

7t

7

tank. It" also can be used for boiler andinternal combustion engines that are, inturn, used for pumping sewage, operatingblowers, and generating electricity. Anefficiently operating anaerobic digesterconverts about 50 percent of the organicsolids to liquid and gaseou*Sorths

Anaerobic Digestion

Advantages

Production of a useful by-product,methane

Reduces the final volume of sludgefor dispbsal

Disadvantages

Sensitise to variations in amountsof sludge and toxic materials

fribc-Feageint-safetv requirements

Results in a supernatant with highconcentration of pollutants that mustbe treated

.4-robti thge,twn is accomplished byInjecting air into the organic sludges Itsmost extensive use has been in relatiYeksmall activated sladge plants HoweYer itis receiving increased attention for largerfacilities For example, the MetropolitanDenYer Sewage Disposal District usesaerobic digestion for sewage flows over1()0 mgd Solids reduction efficienct. issimilar to the anaerobic processes

Aerobic Digestion

Ad'. outages

Stable operation. not sensitlYe toupset

Results in relatiYely cleansupernatant.--

[Nadi antages

Requires considerable amount ofelectricity

Difficulty in thickening solids b..gravity settling

(;eneratee, no useful product such asmethane

91

Sludge Dewatering

Water may be extracted froM sludge byvarious approaches

Sandbecg

Vacuum filters ,

- CentrifugesPressure filters

The most widely used method of sludgedewatering involves drying the sludge onsandbeds. These beds are especiallypopular in small plants because of theirsimple operation arid maintenance Theusually consist of a layer of sand placedover gravel Sludge is drawn from thedigester. placed on the sandbed. andallowed to stand until it is dried bydrainage and evaporation In good weatherthe -^ltds can be concentrtedwithin six weeks At that time, the sludgewill resemble moist soil Sandbeds aresometimes enclosed by gia ingreenhouse-type structures to protect thesludge from rain, and thus shorten thedrying period This arrangement is also aform of solar heater

As the number of secondary treatmentfacilities grow, the use of more compactand more efficient mechanical-dewateringsystems is increasing These ssterninclude vacuum filter,. centrifuges, an,cfpressure filters'

Sandbed DewAeringAdvantages

Simple optionLow energy usage

Disad,. outages

High pace requirementVulnerable to weather

tiit

A tat uum filter consists of a cylindricaldrum covered with a filter medium orfabric, which rotates partially submergedin vat of conditioned sludge' A vacuum isapplked inside the drum to extract water,

a, leaving behind the solids, called filter cake,on the filt'er medium Vacuum filtration ofsludge results in a sludge cake dry enoughfor disposal kb a landfill, or by applicationto the land as a relatively dry soilconditioner

Vacuum filtration is the most popularmechanical sludee-dewatering method formunicipalities, with over 1,500installations "hilt, this method requiresmore skilled operation than a drying bed,it has the advantages of occupying muchless space and being more controllable

Vacuum FiltrationAdvantages

Not Nuinerable to weather

Small space requirements

Disadv- antage.,/-

Skilled operation- requirements

High electrical energy consumption

( entrifuges are also a popular Means of*watering municipal sludges A centrifugeNeS centrifugal force to separate sludge

solids from the liquid Polymer, used fore sludge conditioning are also injected into

the centrifuge The solids are spun to theoutside of a bowl from which they arescraped The liquid is returned to the headof the facility for further treatment

CentrifugationAdvantages

4Minimal space needs

Large separati.onal forces for smallparticles

Not vulnerable to weather effects

Relatively odor-free operVion

Disadvantage

Extensive maintenancerequirements

Pressure filtration is also an effectivemeans of sludge dewatering that is findingincreased use in the United States Sludgeis dewatered by pumping it at highpressure through a filter or a belt runningbetween rollers A very dry sludge cdieresults Although popular in Europe forYear.-pi-esSure'filtration only recently hasundergone extensive use in the UnitedStates Interest has been spurred by recentimpro\ements in equipment However thecapital costs are high

Ultimate 'Disposal

Several option, exist for-the final disposalof sludge Sometimes it tan be used as a

aonditioner or low-grade fertilizer Italso may he burned or disposed of throughwet air oxidation

Fertilizer and Soil Conditioner

Municipal sltedge contains essential plantnutrients and useful trace elements Itthus has potential as a fertilizer or soilconditioner Before serving these uses, thesludge ikusually stabilized by digestion orsome other proce- to controlmicroorganisms and odors Afterstabilication, the sludge can be us-art as afertilizer or soil conditioner in sat eralalternative forms

Liquid sludge directly from thestabilization process

1)ewatered sludge

Dewatered and dried sludge

( omposted sludge

92 79

Many munivpalities apply liquid sludge tocroplands. This sludge is not used for rootcrops or crops consumed raw by peoplebecause of health considerations h isfrequently used for pastureland or corn,wheat, and forage crops Small towns oftenhaul the sludge in trucks that also spread .

the sludge on the land. Large cities usuallyfind pumping the sludge through pipelinesto the disposal sites to be the cheapestmethod of sludge transportation

To reduce the volume of material handled,dewatering is sometimes used beforeapplying the sludge to the land. In smalltreatment plants, sludge removed fromdrying beds is often stockpiled for use Pythe community or by local citizens Largercities may use mechanical dewateringsystems, with.the sludge cake hauled tothe disposal sites where it is plowed intothe ground

ft

ett

A

The drying of..dewatered sludge by heatfurther reduces the volume Several majorU S cities, including Houston andMilwaukee, dry their sludge for use as asoil conditioner

Sludge Reduction

If sludge use as a soil conditioner is .impractical. or if a land site is not suitablefor the disposal of dewatered sludge,communities may turn to the alternative ofsludge reduction Sludge reduction involvesdecreasing the mass of solids throughmethods such as incineration and wet airoxidation

Incineration completely evaporates tmoisture in the sludge. and burns theorganic solids to an ash To minimize theamount of fuel used, the Sludge muAt bedried as completely as possible beforeincineration Incinerators have theadvantage of small space Yequirements, butsuffer from long start -up periods complexoperations, and high energy costs°

9

4

.Incineration

Advantages

Almost complete destruction ofsludge

Small space requirement

Disadvantages

Nigh capital cost

nigh fuel cost

Extensive maintenancerequirements

Air pollution potential

The wet air oxidatiar process is based onthe principle that a substance capable ofburning can lie broken down in thepresence of very hot water under pressureThe oxidized solids and liquid can be'separated by seating, vacuum filtrationtcentrifugation

Wet Air Oxidation

Athantage

Very small space requirement

Disadvantages

High capital costHighly-skilled operators needed to

handle maintenance and safetypi oblerns

Produces highly polluted liquid thatmust be recycled or treated

a 3

I

Advanced Treatment Sludges

The chemical coagulation-sedimentationprocess in advanced waste treatmentproduces large volumes of chemicalsludges No other advanced proce.ss createsa significant sludge problem If lime isused as a coagulant, the sludge can bedewatered by the usual separationtechniques (vacuum filters, centrifuges,and filter presses' The sludge can then bepassed through an incinerator in a processcalled recalcining This process drives offwater and carbon dioxide, leaving behind areusable form of lime. This method reducesboth the amount of new lime that must bepurchased as well as the volume ofresidues for final disposal The lime sludgeis dewatZred and buried in cases wherereclicining is too expensive

If ..alts of iron or aluminum, such as alumor ferric chloride, are used as the coagulant.tic e chernic-.!- -t ^ririlat berecovered and reused for phosphorusremoval- These sludges, then, aredewatered, with the same alternatives fordisposal as the organic sludges fromsecondary treatment

Planning for SludgeDispoialIn facility planning, sludge disposal isoften ignored during the initialevaluation of wastewater treatmentalternatives a disastrous mistake.The monetary cost of sludge disposalabout equals the cost of treating thewastewater alone. Relevant questionsfor advisory groups include:

What effluent and/or sludge quality iserded for the long-term use ofiisposal techniques? 00

What are the sludge dispostl optionsand their related costs?

How will the disposal techniquesaffect the environment?

Does the choice match thepreferences of th, community?Land application is a good alternativefor shicige disposal. However, potentialhazards exist when jointindustrial.municipal treatment is used. Industrial

wastes may contain heavy metals orother toxic substances that limit thedisposal of sludge on land. Properly

a.,controlled sludge may be applied toland without problems developing. Theadvisory group may help locateavailable land disposal sites, and leadpublic discussion of the best method ofsludge disposal ror the community.

.10

Selection of ProcessesThe array of treatment processes isextensive A major portion of facility -

planning involves choosing one of them

Over a hundred different techniques,'options, and processes exist for wastewatertreatment In determining the best solutionto a wastewater problem, theseaiternauves should be evaluated carefuliNin light of speofic local conditions Amongthe factors that should be considered are

Wastewater amount and characteristicsdomestic commercial. and industrial uses'

Effluent requirements

Env ironmental effects

Public. acceptance

Resource consumption

Sludge handling

Process complexity, reliability, andflexibility

Implementation capability

Monetary costs

The bottom line for most people is howmuch a system costs Both nonmonetaryand monetary costs are involvedEnvironmental, social, and indirect effect,such as land development are the principalnonmonetary considerations Monetarycosts consist mainly of capital, operations,replacement, and managementexpenditures The costs 1:,houp bepresented in a form that has meaning forthe taxpayer, such as dollars per householdper year These costs, especially foroperations, are increasing rapidly due toescalating energy costs

(

81

Selected Resources

Need MoreInformation?

-*\

82

Environmental Pollution Control Alternatives Municipal Wastewater PubliNionNumber EPA-625/5-76-012. Washington, DC. U S Environmental Protection Agency,May 1976 79 pp Order Number-5012

Ttus document is an excelie 0-technical discussion of available municipalwastewater treatment processes. It describes the processes,.gives costs andenergy requirements, and discusses their eiency, advantages, anddisadvantages. It is available from CERI, Technology Transfer, U S.Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH 45268. Give the ordernumber and publication title when ordering

inn cative and Alternative Technology Assessment Manual MCD-53 Washington, DCU S Environmental Protection Agency, September, 1978 388 pp

This document contains fact sheets for 117 different wastewater treatmentprocess variations Each fact sheet describes a process and its modricatrons Itdiscusses technology status, applications, limitations, equipment manufacturers(list only). environmental impacts, and references. Process diagram:, and costsare also given It is available from the General Services Administration,Centralized Mailing List Services, Building 41, Denver Federal Center, Denver,CO 80223 Give the document number MCD-53 and the title when ordering

Proceedings from National Conferences on Shopping for Sewage Treatment Holt To Getthe Beg Bargain for Your Community or Home Draft Washington, DC U SEnvironmental Protection Agency. April and June 1978 120 pp

This do'cument is a collection of sipall papers presented at two conference, inDerier, CO, and Washington, DC The papers mainly pertain to wastewatertreatment technologies, and citizen Involvement in the facilities planningprocess Brief comments concerping other topics are also included It is availablefrom the Office of Water Program Operations, S Environmental ProtectionAgency, Washington. DC 20460

VanNote. Robert H et al A Guide to the Selection of Cost-Effective Wastea'ater TreatmentSygern Publication Number EPA-430 9-75-002 Washington. DC Office of WaterPrograms Operations, S Environmental Protection Agency. July 1975 229 pp OrderNumber PB-244-417 2BE

Thi, document pre,ents information v.htch can be used to determine thealternati%e municipal wastewater treaiment schemes that will meet specificeffluent guideline, Procedures and information which can be used indetermining the cost of each alter m.-.tr,,e are also given It costs $28 a copy, a 15percent discount is given for orders of 20 or more copies it can be, ordered fromthe National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield.VA 22161

4

Chapter 6

Small Systems1111) Charles A Cole

.I

Small is. BigWhat would you say if your homewastewater treatment system cost 00.0009That's the individual household cast ofsome recent municipal wastewatertreatment systems Even though thesesystems are largely subsidized by federalgrants; that's still a lot of money. Youwould probably answer that an onsite;y stem wouldn't cost that much and, if youlive in a community that is not denselydeveloped, you'd be right'

Annual neusehold sewer fees exceeding$200, $300, or even $500 occur in someshiall communities These high costs aredue to debt retirement ekpenses forextensive sewer collection systems, oroperation and management of sophisticatedtreatment plants They can lead to politicalupheavals, confrontations at publicmeetings, injunctions, suits, and refusals toconnect onto sewer systems

In addition to the potential for cost saving,there are also.many environmentalbeneflin of onsite treatment On iskeeping water in the local area aor rechargethe groundwater In addition to loweringwater and sewer bills, small systems canhelp to prevent urban-spraw.l, preserveprime farmland, conserve energy, and savematerials

In 1940 about half of the United Statespulation was sewered In 1977 theount had increased to 71 percent This

trend lvd people to believe that ongttesystems were antiquated In addition, poordesign, installation, and maintenance ofmany, onsite systems c4used. failures,However., the extremely large per capitacosts of many central syserms are causingcommunities to take a serious look atsmall-scale'sYdutions With proper

planning, design, construction. andmaintenance these systems can work undermany circurn4tances

Alternativeg

Small wastewatetlInstms May or may notbe appropriake, depending upon thecharacteristics of the communityTreatment alternatives include, but are notlimited to, approaches using septic tanksand soil absorption systems, aerobictreatment tanks, sand beds, sand mounds,evaporation and evapotranspiration beds,waterless toilets, onsite recycle systems,and cluster systems It.ernatives forcollecting and transpiting wastewatersare small-diameter gravity sewers,pressure sewers, and vacuum sewers

-T#Pese systems for small wastewater flowsmay qualify for federal grants underSection 201 of the Clean Water Act of 1977

frst, they nt.-v represent -Iterr-tzt..etechnologies which will increase the federshare of constrw.tion costs by ten percentfrom 75 to 85 percent States are requirto set aside two perint of the federalconstruction grant allotment to fundinnovative and alternative projects TheClean Water Act also requires states withrural populations of 25 percent or more to-set aside four percent of their constructiongrant allotment for small communities Inaddition to individutil treatment andalternative collection systems, septage(solids in septic tanks) treatment qualifiesas an alternate technology These optionsare eligible for a 1.5 percent cellpreference, meaning they can st 1 15times more than the most cost-effectiveconventionaYsystem and still receive 85percent federal funding Funding for anyof these individual or onsite-systems mustgo to a public organization

97

41

8f)

Septu tank u ithdhswption field

86

)

Common Small-SystemAlternatives

Onsite TechnologiesSeptic tanks and soil absorption

systemsAerobic treatment tanksSand filtersMound systemsEvapotranspiration bedsEva (oration bedsWaterless toilets and greywater

systemsOnsite recycle systemsCluster systems

IP

Septage Treatment and DisposalSeptage treatment

(Aerated lagoon, anaerobic-aerobicprocesses, composting-, chemicaltreatment)

Septage disposal(Land spreading, subsurfaceapplication, burial)

Collection and TransportGras ity sewersPressure sewersVacuum sewers

N

consists of a septic tank and soil absorptionfield The septic tank usually accompiishe*primary treatment or sedimentationabsorption field carries out the seco rytreatment and disposes of the waterHigher levels of treatment are gatried bythe use of sand filters, and are usuallymandatory for discharges into surfacewaters The following paragraphs look atthe septic tank, as well as other types ofonsite\and small community systems

Septic Tank and Soil AbsorptionSystems

Onsite and Small-Systemfiechnologies

- In homes each person on the average. venerates 50 to 70 gallons of Wastewater

pet- day This wastewater can he disposedof by either central treatment works or byonsite facilities

Onsite systems include treatment followedby disposal The treatment consists ofprimary, secondary, and sometimesadvanced stages similar to those of a

4 central facility The most prevalent onsitemethod is the septic system, which

Adsorption Field Trench)

Ude., avated

Household wastes pass from the house intoa large water-tight tank where solidsseparate from the liquid. The solids'sludge) that settle to the bottom decayover many months The remaining liquad(effluenti flows from the tank into anabsorption field (drainage bed), where it isdisposed of through perforated pipe, Soilbacteria decompose the organic wa,,tes leftin the liquid frfa proper!) operatingsygtem most pollutants are removed fromthcfwater before it seeps into thegroundwater or surface water This processis called leaching Systems which areproperly installed in good soils will operatesatisfactorily for twenty or more vears

Septic System Management

The primary considerations in deciding thelocation of an absorption field are bhe soilprofile (layers), limiting zone (flowbarriers), and soil permeability (seepagerate) The soil profile should be analyzedby a person knowledgeable in soil science

e soil should he neither too tight (day).r too porous (gravel) At the time of the

profile analysis. the limiting zones such asimpervious clay or rock should bedetermined Contamination of thegroundwater occurs if the effluent does notcome into contact with an adequateamount of soil In addition, if ithperviouslayers occur in the immediate vicinity ofthe absorption field, untreated sewage willnse to the surface and cause health ornuisance problems The perc orpercolation test is a popular way toevaluate soil permeability. but it alone isnot an adequate measure of site suitability

re

Some rules of, thumb are keep systems aininimun of 50 feet from surface water,100 feet from wells, and ten feet frombuilding and property lines. On parcelsthat have both wellsind septic tanks, aminimum lot size of Ane acre is oftenrkommendd, even with soils mostsuitable for onsite systems Site standardsarid codes vary among the states andlocalities

Design and Installation -

The size ofseptic tanks and absorptionfields depends on the number of persons'using the system The number of bedroomsis a good approximation Typically, afour-bedroom house has a septie-tank of1,000 gallons capacity The size of theabsorption field depends on the soil profile,limiting zone, and percolation rate Onethousand square feet of surface area istypical foi a four bedroom house and claysoils The field is usually at,least 23 inchesabove groundwater or the impervious zone,and is covered with at least six inches ofsoil During installation every effort musthe made to prevent compaction of the soilCompacted soil blocks or slows down theflow of wastewater into the soil

Operation and Maintenance

In many places the homeowner has theresponsibility of maintaining a septicsystem This pattern is changing, and if

. 4 septic systems are to qualify for federalfnnrisng, n puhlu hntly mutt apply for thpgrant and take the responsibility for theproper maintenance

The septic tank is p'enodicAlly emptied ofaccumulated solids The timing varies withthe use and amount of non-sanitary wastesthat are generated For example, garbagegrinders add considerable wastes andshould not be used The solids can clogthe absorption field of the r not properly

. removed from the tank Pu ng the septictank Is necessary, at least every two to fouryears One possibility for disposki,is anexisting sewage treatment plant ti(a7t isequipped to handle the extra load SeptageEras an extremely high organic content, andmay overload a plant or cause odorsSerious consideration should also be givento the separate treatment and disposal ofseptage Facilities to treat septage oreeligible for federal funding

System Rehabilitation

The surfacing of septic tank effluent on, ornear, an absorption field usually indicatesfailure of the field The effluent creates asoft spot and promotes vigorous plantgrowth Odors or a liquid stream from thefailed system may be present. Severalapproacheskr dealing with theseabsorption fie id failures include

Water conservation

Hydrogen peroxide treatment

New individual or communitabsorptionfield

Water conservation is the first approachConservation reduces the waste load on thesystem, as well as rests the bed At thesame time, pumping the septic tankremoves solids that contribute to cloggingAn empty septic tank provides several daysof rest for the absorption fie/c1 until thetank Fills up again

Another option involves hydrogen peroxidetreatment of the absorption field to remove

soil surface clogging However, thisalternative requires very carefulpreparation and analysis of the site Anadditional approach is to construct a newonsite absorption field, allowing the oldbed to rest and rejuvenate -The (rid bedthenjuily_be-alternated with the new oneon a periodic basis Dual absorption fields,euen for new houses, are used in mlocations such as Fairfax County, irginui

Aerobic Treatment Tanks

Aerobic treatment uses air to increase thebreakdown of organic 'matter by bacteriaIt depends on oxygen in contrast toseptic systems which, require rio oxygenAerobic treatment replaces the septic tank,and uses a smaller absorption bed Withfurther treatment, such as sand filtrationand disinfection, effluent from aerobic

i

CrGss +CClinri di:1g ril 77i 0/I an nh,orption field

99

p87

(terf.mir ,,,,t:tnirrit 11,111 u ithtun treat eat and divrio,atoption and(11,1nto Non unit or ,011uh.orption field ,

88

systems cin be discharged' into surfacewaters in some states. This optionprocesses wastewater similar to secondarytreatment at a central treatment plantAerobic systems hive costs for electricity,equipment, and maintenance In additioninstallation is two to three times more,costly than st.ptic systems

Mound Systems

Onsite dispdp1 is often limited byinadequate soils, shallow bedrock, orgroundwater In mound systems, two feetof sandy soil is placed over the original soilsurface An absorption/bed is thenconstructed on top, creating a mound Itthus is similar to subsurface absorptionbeds used for septic tank effluents It

Sand Filters r avoids a high water table or otherunfaorakile conditions Land mounds are

Kent from aerobic systems may be expensive to install, but provide treatmentcleaned using-sand asthe filter material sites where soils are inadequate ThisSeveral variations of sand filters include method is especially useful in areas of Newthe buried sand filter, the recirculating England and the northern Midwestsand filter, and the intermittent filter Theburied sand filter usually performs well,and requires minimal operation andmaintenance The recirculating andintermittent sand filters provide more evendistribution of the effluent onto the sandHowever, equipment with moving parts orsiphons is involved, which needs gOodmaintenance. Sand filters are alscr usedwith eff13.ient from septic tanks in somelocations

AW Au,T,ealn.en.

,ptor., A Sand Farg

t3 Atasnrpti, F

Evapotranspiration andEvaporation Beds'

()mote alternatives to subsurface disposalinclude evaporation and evapotranspirationFled, transpiration is the gi mg off of dplant s moisture through the leavest Pheyare options in areas where geological orphysical constraints occur, or groundwatercontamination is possible The beds arelined with plastic or other waterproofmaterial Water evaporates or transpiressince the plastic liner prevents itsdownward movement These beds are usedfor Aar-round residences in areas of thecountry where higlevaporation andtranspiration rates occur, such as theSouthwest Howeer, then are usable forsummer vacation homes in other palis ofthe country

MM.

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3- tP- p- ,,, 'PE n

Eitapotiarv,piration /led for ine u uh ,op-tic oraproba tank

ro

0

Waterless Toileto andGreywater Systems

Residential wastewater consists of toiletwastes tblackwateriand other wafflesgreywater) faiwever, some toilet syitems

do not use water to carry wastes Waterlesstoilets are gaihing acceptance forconstruction sites, commercialinstallations, resorts, and vacation homes ,

They are used increasingly in year-roundhomes However, widespread reside 'aluse lags brcause thethen toilets of equirechanges in the habits of users Some typescomposting toilets).prqduce humus or soil

conditioners Installation costs of mostwaterless toilets are low, but costs increasewhen a disposal system for the greywateris added Operational costs may be highdue to energy consumption ormaintenance Since 40 percent of

-residential wastewater originates from thetoilet, waterless toilets have muchpotential for water conservation

Greywater is low in organic and bacterialpollutants as compared to toilet wastesNevertheless, it can cause health andnuisance problems,and needs some son oftreatment and disposal Some statesrequire similar treatment and disposal for,both greywater and toilet wastewater

Qnsite Recycle Systems

Numerous water recycle alternatives are.114) possible in' the homy One type usesbathing and laundi-v wastewaters for

flushing toilets. AnotherOc eswastewater for landscape irptgationCommercial systems are available forspecial toilet and wash`basin installationsOnsite recycle systems reduce wastewaterflows byabout one-third

uluere ,,eteral hometreatment unti (11.1m.a1

share a «,inmon

Cluster Systems

A relatively\cent innovation is the'cluster system, a community form of onsite /disposal This.alternative is consideredwhere space. or soils are irrade ate foronsite absorption fields Sevearrangement.; are possible Th effluent.Ccom several 'houses is conveyed to a smallcentral treatment facility and absorptionfield -louses can have onsite septic oraerobic tanks, with` the effluent transportedto a common absorption field Clusters ahouses can also use other alternativesystems such as pressure and vacuumsewers and sewage treatment lagoonsCluster 7arrangements are a relativelyrecent development; However, they arebeing used in many locations.

I

atPrie I lei

101

I

$

/89

4

.Septage Treatment and Disposal

Solids (septage) removed from thetreatment tanks must be disposed ofsatisfactorily to prevent pollution andhealth hazards A common method in thepast has been to spread the septage onland New regulations often tequirepretreatment of the septage and controlaccess to the site during and after disposalby thit method Another approach involvesdumping the solids into a remote section ofa central collection system This practice isusually illegal Such irregular waste loadsupset some treatment processes, and maycause poor operation of the facilities

Present methods of disposal often utilize acentral treatment facility under controlledpractices The disposal processes includeaerated holding tanks and odor-contrn1systems The wastes are discharged to the .plant during low flow periods to cau eminimal impact on normal 1:N%lstewat rtreatment

Separate septage treatment facilities mayuse aerated lagoons. anaerobic-aerobicprocesses' chemical treatment, andcomposting In aerobic composting, septageis, mixed with dry organic matter tO,controlmoisture and to permit aeration

Manyi6tates today regulate septagehauling, treatment, and disposal

OnsiteSystem Costs'

th,

Septic tank -soil absorption fieldwith recyclesystern

Septicl tank-sand mound

tic tank - evapotranspirationh /ecycle system

Aerobic treatment-surface discharge

Aerobic treatment-soilabsorption system

Incinerating toilet withoutgreywater disposal

Composting toilet withoutgreywater disposal

Oil recirculating toiletwithout greywater chspoSal

1(

t WO. I II( I 1011

,,,t

$1,000'3,000$1 775

$3.900

IhuptIto.m.

.Nt

$ 10-15

$45

$4,900 $ 10).5$3,600

$2,700-5,700 $165-330

$1,700-5,500 $ 65-245

$ 600-1,000 $ 85-19 )

,$ 700-1,200 $98

$4,000-.6,000 $265

( d treftlfrient and -dr.posnl In I97,,t

90

4.

Onsite System Costs

Savings in operation and management0&11,1) costs are a major incentive for

installing onsite or small s)-stems TheO&M costs of sm411 systems are notinsificant, but they are usually cheaperthin Those of a central facility EastRyegate,Vermont, is a small community of14Q persons in the Connecticut RcrerValley In 1977 the annual O&M costs of aconventional central treatment .system Hereestimated to he a total of $6,100 Bycomparison, O &M cost estimates for smallsystems for the entire community, variedfrom $900 for onsite treatment to $2,000 forcluster systemsThe costs of the varibus onsite alternativesdepend upon the complex* of the systemsand the local conditions Averageconstruction costs in 1978 rainged from$8.00 for an inci rating toilet withoutgreywater dis , to $5.250 for an oilrecirculating toi Under syme conditiorls,small - system alternatives may be moreexpensive than a central treatment systemAnnual operation and management costsshowed even wider differences, from $12 to$265 Monetary costs, of course, must heassessed with environmental and socialconsiderations It is crucial to determinewhether the s- jests will work under theexisting conditions, and whether the titersof the .system can afford to properly operateand maintain them

Construction funding for a smallwastewater treatment system can comefrom local bonds, the Construction Grants

agi arn. the Farmers HOITICAdministration, the EconomicDevelopment Administration, theDepartment of Housing and tirloanDevelopment, the Community ServicesAdministration, and some state programs

Onsite disposal systems, including septage,treatment, are considered alternative ,tectinologies under the ConstructionGrants Program, and are eligible for 85percent federal funding Conventional .methods can qualify for only 75 percentfederal funds This increase for alternativetechnologies can reduce local costs by 40percent as, compared to.a conventionalsystemThe advisoby group should make surethat onsite Alternatives are beingadequately evaluated.

02.

In order to obtain federal funding, smallcommunities, Milk consider onsitetreatment and disposal, even if they arenot chosen'as the main, methods. Thisconsideration titkes place duringpreparation of the facility plan. Theadvispry groUp can play an importantrole in ensuring that small systemalternatives are examined. Even before

ivthe alternatives are evaluated, however,a very important, task is done: theidentification of problem areas in thecommunity.

Communities with problems fromexisting onsite disposal systems shouldnot atftomatically abandon the ,

malfunctipning systems. Often only ftfew onsite problems in a %Opoleresidential development will wronglylabel the area for central sewagetreatment. Many, onsite facilities can berenovated 'or rebuilt using federal grantfunds. An advisory group can be surethat the problems and needs areaccurately identified early in facilityplanning. Local, health officials andpublic records can be used to check ongroundwater pollution, health hazards,or\uuisances. Only after verifying theexte* of the problem shoJkl decisions bemade regarding the types of systems to beconsidered.

Program Management

In :iddition tokosts and site constraintskey factors are community attitudgs andlocal regulations Many localities do notefTect,,, eft, regulAe the Lyrist., uLtion aftdrnatnteria/e of onsite systems Otfiercommunities prohibit the use of innovati'.eapproaches such as recycle systems andwaterless toilets These policies must .

change if federal funds are to be usedThe advisory group must consider theseconstraints when evaluatingalternatives.

if onsite chsposal is chosen and federalconstruction funds are received, long-termoperation apd managentent must beprovided An institutional Ad'administrative structure must exist, ormust be set up to manage these systemsActual work can he accomplished bycontracts, or agreements with an adjacentcommunity or some other group However..it 1.-rthe grantee that must see thatadequate operation and' management areaccomplished An existing wastewatertreatment authority is the most ol-nious

Requirements of Onsiee Technologiest

1,117(Itit (11511 O & \Isits Costs

Septic tanks andsoil absorptionfields

Cluster systems M

Aerobic treatmenttanks

Sand beds

Mound systems

Evapotranspirationsystems

Waterless toiletsand grey watersystems

Onsite recyclesystems

tic L

H

het, 1 1, is t1 Metlitim 11() ct: apc,,IttInt fid inn no kk,n, n

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'tits 0( limuttitillteltitm

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choice Regardless of the type of 4ructure,public education must be included as partof the management

A permit pro arn is one way to controlseptic tanks and other small systemsPermits should cw.er the issues of siting,qesIgn,enstallattoR, inspection, andpumping P-o4.soanol-in key roles

blnicicr: tr.spcctcrft, and ,,,cptagchaulers should he trained and licensed

Finally, water conservation should he, encouraged, or better yet, mandated for

onsite disposal Water conservation permitsonsite disposal in many areas in whichnormal flows would create problems TheloCal and state regulatory agencies mayhave water conservation programs,requirements, or ordinances for onsitedisposalThe advisory group should explorethese possibilities during facilityplanning.

.103'.tt

4-

91

.

92

'to

Onsite Considerations inFacility Planning

What are the problem areas?

How severe are the problems'? IAsewage entering surface waters9 Isgroundwater pollution a problem?

Whet are the land use patterns')

What are the population projections?

Is repair or replacement a possibility?

What areas should be sewered, if any'

How will septage be treated'

What options exist for maintainingonsiteAreatment? 4

Are ordinances or health code changesneeded? Will these involve changes inlocal government?

What do the various onsite systemscost, particularly in relation to centralfacilities?

Sewage Collection andTransportWhen wastewater can not be treatedonsite, so type of sewer system must beused to frrisport the wastewater to aproper treatment'facility- The usualgravity sewers tranport sewageby simplypernhitting_wastewaters to flow dpwnslcipes Since the sewers drain allresidences, they must constantly drop inheight, utilizing sewage lift stations ifnecessary This can cause severeenvironmental damage during

\construction. Conventional sewers also are'very expensive to construct where highwater tables and rocky terrain exist Inaddition, conventional sewers often are noteligible for federa),funding

Sinall-Diaineter Pressure Sewers'.

Wide use of pressure sewers for pumpingflows from individual households is justbeginning, therefore experience is limited.ki the latter 1970's, the EPA sponsoreddetailed evaluations of pressure sewersystems in Albany, New York, Phoenixville,Pennsylvania,' Grandview Lake, Indiaiza,and Bend, Oregon Based upon thesestudies, funding for this type of system will .be provided through Section 201construction grants.,

System Description

A pressUre sewer system is the reverse of awater distribution system A v1/4 aterchstrrbutiot system has one pressure inlet

' and many outlets, while a pressure sewerhas many pressure inlets and one. outlet

if

It is not always necessary to use large )conventional gravity sewers There arethree alternatives for small communities

Small-diameter pressure sewers

Vacuum sewers

Small- diameter gravity sewers

a.

Two major types of small-diameterpressure systems are possible One, uses agrinder pump, and the other has.p septictank followed by an effluent pumpDifferences also exist in the design of thecollection pipe, and the amount oftreatment for the pollutants Neithersystem requires wily modification tohousehold plumbing

An installation withelut a septic tankinvolves a grinder pump to break downlar e solids, and sends the waste'thrbilgh

small-diameter sewer system Theapproach using a septic tank has only astandard sump pump

Both systems need a storage capacity of atleast 200 gallons for emergency use in caseof pump breakdown or electrical failure

3

Storage Tani,

Grtruler piemp instaWation for aye u ithpressure sewer q},Stetti

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Costs I .

i

Systems that use numerous pressilrfacilities with associated mechanicalequipment and electrical sensors needcareful maintenance The operation andmanagement 108,Mt-of the septic tanks,

Itepress rization units, and sewers areusu ly handled by a public agency/N.--Historical O&M cost information for'pressure systems is sparse Howeverepotentially large savings exist At eightdemonstration sites the savings for .

pressure sewers as compared toconventional sewers range from 24 percent

t. to a hefty 83 percent' These savlinv, ingeneral, result from reduced excavationcots The Albaty, Neu York, Phoenixcille,Penn.,y1Ania, and Grandcteu, Lake,Lrultarta, demonstration projects kept

. detuded records High initial maintenance4 was required until the problems were

ilyrked out Thereafter, minimal effortsWere Reeded Glidvidle-vld Park, Oregon, atown of 2,500 persons, found asmall-diameter pressure system to reduce .ot (lull annual estimated ensts by about 50percent compared to a gravity system

The environmental benefits of pressuresystems are great During installayaon,there is considerably less disturbance tothe residents. and Less disruption of theterrain Sewer overflows during operationsare less frequent compared to gravitysewers Infiltration and inflow, prevalentin conventional gravity sewer systems, arevirtually non-existent in pressure systrrnsThis can greatly reduce the amount of'wastewater which must be iribai.ed 6

6Storage Tank

PumpPiastIC P.Cke

Septa tank efflavni pump trwtallation for it.,eu ith a pres,,ute er

1

Small. Diameter PressureSewers

Advantagles

ff . No infiltr'ation or inflow

Low costs due to inexpensive plasticpipe and shallow installation depths

Suitability for hilly terrain, rockoutcrops; and high water tables

Useful where population density islow

Less disruption of terrain

DisadvantagesOperation and maintenance costs

because of grinders and pumps

Higher treatment requirements dueto concentrated wastes

,Advantages of Pressure Sewers

Pressure sewer systems are a viablealternative technology They should beconsidered by the grantee in anycost-effectiveness analysis of alternativewastewater management sy terns in ruraland suburban communities

Pressure sewers offer advantages overconventional gravity sewers in areas

Jwhere

rupuiatfuti densfty is iuw

_ Severe rocky conditions exist

High groundwater or unstable soilsprevail

t,. ep and;or varied terrain is present

The benefits of pressure sewers are lowercapital costs, fewer environmentaldrawbacks, and sigrolicanply shorterconstruction times as compared toconventional gravity sewers However,good management of the system after .

installation is an absolute necessity foreffective pressure sewers

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Vacuum Sewers

Vacuum sewers are another alternative forwastewater transport in smallcommunities. Vacuum collection systemswere patented in United States as early as1888. However, their first commercialapplication was in Sweden in 1959.Currently, several firms in the UnitedStates are marketing equipment forresidential systems. Modifiedgravity-vacuum systems are used inresidential developments near Alexandria,Virginia, Fort Myers,'Floru; la, andMathews Courthouse, Virginia

System Description

All vacuum systems depend on a centralsource that constantly maintains a vacuumon small-diameter collection pipes Airpushes the wastes into the vacuum lineeither at the disposal hxtute or at acommon gravity collection point in thesystem Some systems handle theblackwater (toilet waste) separately fromthe greywater (bathing, washing,Itndkitchen waste) A collection tank thenseparates the wastewater Qom the airWhen sufficient liquid accumulates in atank, a sewage pump delivers theaccumulated sewage to a treatment site

Vacuum toilets offer great potential forwater conservation The amount of waterused varies with each toilet mo%1 Theaveragewater needed for a vac m toiletis 0 4 gallon, or less thAnkten percent of'aconventional toilet

Systems have different pipe arrangements.Variations are necessary for uphill,downhill, or level runs Plastic pipe iscommonly used Because of the complexityof vacuum equipment. operation,andmanagement personnel must be highly'skilled A backup power supply is also anecessity

ValveCollection Tank

Central VaCUU,n Pump

( antra. Collet for P16e

ElentrYht4 of cr cacuum

Sewage Pump

To TreatmAntlisposal b

Costs

Costs, especially for operation,andmanagement, are still difficult to estimateEven with conventional systems, 60 . ,

dpercent or more of the cost of wastewatertrea is due to just collecting thesew ge. The estimated cost of a MathewsCou house, Virginia,'vacuum sewer systemwas 3 perc nt less than a concentionalg city sew system. A, addition, these coste. mates id not account for the value ofth Titer conserced 0? the tuctitim system

Vacuum, Sewers

AdvantagesLarge water savings with vacuum

toilets

Minimal infiltration and inflmv

Installation'ease

Low cost due to small} clianaetersewer pipes, and shallow installationdepths

itability for rocky terrain or highr table

Less disruption of terrim

DisadvantagesComplex vacuum equipment

Skilled operation and managementpersonnel nceded

Requirement of auxiliary powersupply

Absence of long-term,cost-effectiveness data

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Athuntages of Vacuum Sewers.

Vacuum sewers and pressure sewers havemany of the same advantages However;---.there are some basic differences Theadvaritages of vacuunSsewers overpressure sewers are

- Water conservation with use of'the4 aetrupi toilet ,

-/ Fewer maintenance problems withcentral vacuum systems as compared toindividual grinder pumps

Less chance for groundwatercontartnnation Leaks art unlikely sinceliquid is drawn into the system rather thanforced-out at a pipe rupture '

Small-Diameter Gravity Sewers

Small-diameter gravity sewers are aariation of conventional gravity systemsThey may be utilized Where the solids areremoved from the sewage prior totransport, using onsite septic or aerobictreatment tanks The effluent flows fromthe onsite faciluty are carried through -

small pipes (up to six-inch diameter) tdareas-for Mal treatment and disposal. Ascompared to the usual eight-inch sewers,the small-diameter pipes cost less Thesesystems are sometimes called effluent,ewers

Regulathry,Programs

The' United 'States EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA). in carrying ot--the mandate of the 1977 Clean Water Act,encourages alternatives to conventionaltreatment systems Small-diameter

:essure or gravity sewer systems, andtut uum systgins,are considered alttrnativetransport methods when utilized in smallcommunities.under 3,500 population, or in '.sparsely populated areas of largercommunities They qualify for an increasefrom 7,510 85 percent of the federal share ofplanning, design, and construction CostsThis is especially important becauseconventional sewers may be ineligible forfund, because of EPA and state policies

f

State and local agencies may limit orprohibit small- diameter presi,ur,e andgravity sewerssand vacuum sewersmust be contacted to determine thepertinent regulations when these systemsare evaluated during facility planning.

Advisory Group Involvement

The advisory group represents the,community's interests. These interestsinclude minimal costs of waste disposalsystems and maximum enviromnenta4benefits. When central treatmenkisnecessary, a large portion of the totalinvestment usually is due to thecollection system. The ack;isory groupthus should encourage the consultantto investiga.te small-diameter pressuresewers and vacuum sewers whereverpossible. They may be the mostcost-effective methods.of wastewatercollection and transport

The advisory group can lead the publicdisCussion about these systems.Important considerations-includeincreased federal funding for thesesystems and reduced constructionimpacts. The advisory'group must seethat the homeowners understand theneed for proper operation and..maintenance. Without proper upkeepthe systems rapidly fail. The advisorygroup should be sure that a thoroughand clear presentation of different .1costs for collection alternatives ispresented prior to the selection of agygtem.

4

iiSo i Abswpt."Treatment Et D1,1,

tSimill,thametet iv (1, thr sett et system

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, Coll on system Factors

Is the local topography suitable forgravity. sewers?

' 15o high groundwater, severe, rock,or unstable soils exist?

What are the relativeenvironmental drawbacks of gravitysewers versus the small-diametergravity or pressure sewers, andvacuum sewers?

Has adequate planning beeh madefilr operation and management of thesewage collection system?

Do state or locai rpgulations limitvacuum or small-diameter pressure orgravity sewers?

Taking federal funding eligibilityInto account, wh re the local costsfor conventioryt and alternativesewer systems.

Is the grantee aware that thesniatl-diaipeter or vacuum sewersqualify for 85 percent federal funds asalternative, technologies?

Is a listing of O&M possibilities forthe community included?

Are small-system options that canhe combined, even with conventionalsystems, to forma community wide ksolution ,included in the evaluatiqn? #

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Case Study

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Onsite Treatme nt and' ClusterDisposal

Fountain-Run, Kentucky ".

Adapted from ss (I I V Wa.tewater Treatment Svste rrtgllCommuhatu-, Proceec3ing, of Conference held Awl 1 14, 1977 rlieton, VA l rifled States Environmental, Protectiop L977 9ti pp-

,

Fountain Run, Kentucky, is a small town which dec ided..that reliance on individual' sewage disposal was hinderingcommunity development. The total population of the areawas 43J in 1975 Three quarters lived within the townlimits Lot sizes were fairly large, with the average lotcovering about one acre..

Households and businesses all used onsitedisposal Mosthad septic tanks, but a few used pit privys About 80percent of existing' waste sources were located on soilshaving good characteristics for subsurface disposal ofwastewater

Initially, the wastewater management planningconsidered only conventional sewers and centraltreatment Various treatment alternatives were examined"Simplicity of opfration ary g al Theconventional treatment1Mtany, lected was athree:cell oxidation pond lath land op lication of effluentThe estimated average mMhly costs de thecommunity realize that it could not affor such a system,even with federal assistance

Alternatives

The consultants next began considering alternatives; apartfrom the familiar conventional sewers The success of anexperimental sewer system installed near Mt. Andrew,Alabama, served as an initial inspiration for FountainRun Further encouragement was given by theDepartment of Health in Alabama Both cap4a1 andoperating costs for Fountain Run were projected to belower for this "'effluent sewer" system, as it was called,However, the average household bill was still highabout $13 per month'

Novittibta"

Average Monthly Sewage' Hill

_Rif)

It was then decided to dkvide thArvice L.,1Into smallsubareas, and to eliminate the central treatment facility,while utilizing effluent sewers and siabsurtilie dispos,i1Each residence would have a ?optic, tank andsmall-diameter gravity sewers to carry the effluent Thiapproach required al.areful evaluation of the location ofsoils most suitable for subsurface disposal, a* theidentification of factors which might restrgt sewagedisposal Costs were develo d for ,eptic tanks, dosing(release) tanks: effluent rs, and disposal system,Sve'i al combinations were tried before deciding on anefficient-arrangement Ultimately, four alternativesystems were evaluated The final system consisted of,22subarea (cluster, systems having two'or more users on'shared disposal fields, plus 22 onsite disposal systems

A

Alternatives

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71Iternative Systems,

Alternative

A

1)

Process Combination

A6entral system

Conventional sewersOxidation pond .Infiltration-percolation

r

dip

Central systemEffluent sewers ismall-diameter gravity)Oxidation pondinfiltration-percolation

Decentralized system

Effluent .ewersSubsurface disposal

Onsite systems

Septic tankSubsurface disposal

Public Participation

A public meeting was held to explain the alternatives tothe citizens The Distritt Board of Commissioners, afterlistening to community concerns, decided on AlternativeC. the effluent sewer system with community, subsurfaCedisposal Alternative D was not chosen, because of ageneral feeling that the cost savings would not justify thedisadtantages of\the option Alternatives A and B wererejected because of the high costs to the users

Design

The deigrl of the selected alters ive features a septictank and nosing tank at each location The effluentrikomthe dostnK tank discharges in a plastic sewer of 4-inchdiameter, and is carried to the subsurface disposal fieldsNoManholes are proposed Tor these sewers, but cleanoutfittings are inserted for flushing the lines to removesedimettt The dosing and septic tanks can storewastewa'ter for several hours in case of emergenciescaused by clogged lines

Mangement

The joint absorption becks are located on land owned by,the,Water District. Land prices are tow due to lowincomes and the absence of growth pressures. Accessibilityto the onsite systems is obtaiped by utility easementsHomeowners give the easements in exchange for a newsystem that is owned -end maintained by the public .

Conclusions

The community subsurface disposal concept proposed reis not a new idea, but it -has had little application Nprevious plans have included this particular mix of septictanks, small - diameter grayity sewers for effluentsubsurface disposal, and onsite disposal. This project waswader final design in 1980

Fountain Run, A eritwk; Subsurface Disposal Plan

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Alternatwes for timallWastewater Treatment $ystems Volumes 1, 2, and 3 EPATechnology Transfer Seminar Publication Cincinnati, OH EPA Technology Transfer,October 1977 90 pp , 98 pp , 31 pp

This three volume publication is an excellent reference on small systpmalternatives for agency personnel, consultants, grantees, and citizen advisersThere are a few introductory paragraphs on each topic with additional detailsuseful indecision making Volume 1 deals with onsite disposal, and septagetreatment and disposal Volume 2 deals with pressure and vacuum sewersVolume 3 covers cost - effectiveness analysis, includingTive carte histories Thisdocument is available as Order No 45238 from U S EPA EnvironmentalResearch InfOi-mation Center, lychnoLogy Transfer, 26 West St Claire Street,Cincinnati, OH 45268

Frome, M Rural Sewage Treatment in Vermont Books 1 and 2 Montpelier. VT Agencyof Environmental Conservation, July 1978 139 pp , 90 pp

Book 1, A Guide to the Alternatives,- is a comprehensikt review of sewagetreatment Vermont sewage treatment laws conventional septic systems,alternative on. to systems. waterless toilets, and water conseriyation devicesBook 2, A Planning Manual," presents a planning perspective in a series ofquestion4 and statements The questions help tekeril problems with onsitedisposal and the statemnts help solve the problems It is available from theVermont 208 Water Quality Pro-gram, Agency of Enkironmental ('onserk anon.Montpelier, 1)5602

In not atu e arc/ rnatu e 're( hnologN A ,,,-,-;:,77/erit .annul Di at t_ cop_ EPA -43U 9-78-009 Washington, lit' S Enklionmental Protection Agenck, Office ofWater Program Operations, 1978 :383 pp

(Ins comprehensive manual on innokatik e and alternatike technologies includes ,act sheets on 117 unit processes 'These fact sheets irultideprisite disposal

methods. small diameter pressure and kacutirn sew...is. and septage treatment .

The methodology by which small treatment systentirmay he considered for .

federal funding is also reviewed This report is available through the GeneralSerkices Administration, Centralized Mailing List SerNices. Building 41A,DerixerFederal ('enter, 1)en'er. CO 80225 Be sure to mention the title Of thepublication and the N1CD number

Planning li'u,,teteuter Management Emilitids gut Small Communities Cincinnati, OlfErik ironmental Protection Agency, July 1974 141 pp

This manual presents information and techniques for recognising and evaluatingwastewater management problems frequently faced by small communities It.also assists in planning the range of facilities tkhich will solke those problems,goring consideration to costs, community characteristics and growthmanagement It is designed to aid engineers and communities in evaluating andoperating various options of wastewater disposal This publication is availablethrough the t" S Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research andDevelopment, CincinnattOH 45268

Small Wastewater Syems, Alternatives Systems for Small Communities am! RuralAreas FRD-10 Wa.hington, I)(' NS Environmental Protection Agency, Office of WaterProgram Operations, 1980 8 pp

This fold-out brochure briefly describes options available for disposal ofwastewaterin small communities It contains nurnerods diagrams ofalternatives It is available from the General Service: Administration,Centralized Mailing List Services, Building 41, Denver Federal Center, Denver,CO 80225 Be ,sure to mention the title of the publication and the FRI) number

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Selected Resources

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