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UNDP is the UN’s global development network, advocating for change andconnecting countries to knowledge, experience and resources to help peoplebuild a better life. We are on the ground in 166 countries, working with themon their own solutions to global and national development challenges. As theydevelop local capacity, they draw on UNDP’s people and its wide range ofpartners.

World leaders have pledged to achieve the Millennium Development Goals,including the overarching goal of halving poverty by 2015. UNDP’s networklinks and coordinates global and national efforts to reach these Goals. Ourfocus is on helping countries build and share solutions to the challenges of:

• Democratic Governance• Poverty Reduction• Crisis Prevention and Recovery• Energy and Environment• Information and Communications Technology• HIV/AIDS

UNDP helps developing countries attract and use aid effectively. In all ouractivities, we encourage the protection of human rights and the empowermentof women.

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REGIONAL HUMANDEVELOPMENTREPORTPromoting ICT for Human Development in Asia:Realizing the MillenniumDevelopment Goals

Published for the United Nations Development Programme

ELSEVIERA Division of Reed Elsevier India Pvt. Ltd.2005

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ELSEVIERA division of Reed Elsevier India Private Limited 17A/1, Lajpat Nagar IV,New Delhi-110024Telephone: 91-11-26447160Facsimile: 91-11-26447156Website: www.asiaelsevier.com

ISBN: 81-8147-225-X

© United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) – 2005

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system ortransmitted in any form without written permission of the publisher.

Academic Press, Butterworth-Heinemann, Digital Press, Focal Press, Morgan Kaufmann, NorthHolland, Pergamon are the Science and Technology imprints of Elsevier.

Printed and bound in India

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iii

Team

Regional Centre, ColomboAsia Pacific Regional HDR Initiative (APRI)Anuradha Rajivan, Ramesh Gampat, AchilaImchen, Kalpana Choudhary

Regional Centre, BangkokAsia Pacific Development InformationProgramme (APDIP)Shahid Akhtar, James George Chacko

Principal Consultant: C.P. Chandrasekhar

Research Coordinator: Indrajit Banerjee

Editorial Team: Anuradha Rajivan, Ramesh Gampat, Elena Borsatti, Achila Imchen, Susan Howes

Peer Reviewers: Ashok Jhunjhunwala, Shoaib Sultan Khan, Zulkarimein Nasution, RohanSamarajiva, Mohan Man Sainju

Design and Layout: Elsevier, A division of Reed Elsevier India Pvt. Ltd.

Photographs: Amit Khullar, Gabriel Accascina, Mongolia UN Country Team, UNDP Indonesia,UNDP Mongolia

Country Studies

China: Wensheng Wang (Lead Researcher), with inputs from Yingjie Wang, Jinqiao Chen, DanielWang Dexiang, Hua Zhu

India: C. P. Chandrasekhar (Lead Researcher), with inputs from Kiran Karnik, Simran Kumar

Indonesia: Surjadi Slamet (Lead Researcher), with inputs from Widyastuti Soerojo, WatiHermawati, Pandji S. Choesin, Sukma Setiabudhi, Achie S. Luhulima, Agung Hardjono, Gi-SoonSong

Malaysia: K.J. John (Lead Researcher), with inputs from Lim Kheng Joo, R. Ramachandran, RaslanAhmad, Ramesh Nadarajah Kumar, Chong Sheau Ching, Denison Jayasooria, Mohd. AsrulSulaiman, Teh Oh Gim, Surendran Balan, Tew Swee Tong

Mongolia: S. Enkhjargal (Lead Researcher), with inputs from: N. Erdenesaikhan, G. Pagva, D.Jargalsaikhan, T.S. Tsolmon, Toshiya Nishigori

Pakistan: Tariq Banuri and Mosharraf Zaidi (Lead Researchers), with inputs from Erika Spanger-Siegfried, Khalid Ali, Shoaib Zaidi and others

Sri Lanka: Chanuka Wattegama (Lead Researcher), with inputs from Nalaka Gunawardene,Hasitha Wickremasinghe, Sunanda Deshapriya Karunaratne, Thushara Senaratne, PrageethSampath Karunatilake, Sharanga Nanayakkara

Thailand: Chadamas Thuvasethakul (Lead Researcher), with inputs from: Parichart Siwaraksa,Kasititorn Pooparadai, Wandee Krichanan

Vietnam: Tran Minh Tien (Lead Researcher), with inputs from: Nguyen Thanh Phuc, Quach TuanNgoc, Bui Thu Ha, Nguyen Quynh Anh, Truong Tung, Vu Quoc Huy, Vo Anh Dung, Hoang DuongTung, Nguyen Xuan Hai

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vPromoting ICT for Human Development in Asia 2004: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals

Foreword

Communications for Goodness’ Sake

Sir Arthur C. Clarke

Mine was the first household in Sri Lanka to have a working television set — two years before myadopted country commenced terrestrial transmissions in 1979. The Indian Space ResearchOrganisation (ISRO) donated a 5-metre dish antenna that enabled me to receive signals from com-munications satellites placed over the Indian Ocean. It was a crowd-puller for several weeks: every-one from cabinet ministers and civil servants to school children wanted to see pictures coming infrom the skies.

Today, television rules how Sri Lankans work, dine and socialise. And when an important cricketmatch is being broadcast live, I have to look hard to find any signs of life on the streets of Colombo.

Even if the novelty of images from the skies has completely worn off, debates on their social andcultural impact continue. In the early days, I was often approached by people who were concernedabout what satellite television might do to local cultures, traditions and values. Some of us who sufferfrom information overload find it difficult to imagine its even deadlier opposite: information starva-tion. I get annoyed when I hear arguments – usually from people who have been educated beyondtheir intelligence – about the virtues of keeping happy, backward people in perpetual ignorance.Suchan attitude seems like that of a fat man preaching the virtues of fasting to a starving beggar.

Every TV programme has some education content: the cathode ray tube (and now the plasmascreen!) is a window on the world; indeed, on many worlds. Often it’s a very murky window, but I’vecome to the conclusion that, on balance, even bad TV is preferable to no TV at all.

In the mid 1970s, I was associated with the world’s first systematic attempt to transmit educa-tional television programming directly to villages. The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment(SITE) involved 2,400 villages in six Indian states, and used a leased American communications satel-lite to beam television programmes carrying information on family planning, crop production,healthy living and other practical matters that can raise the quality of life – and often save lives.

Working with the indefatigable Dr Yash Pal and his dynamic team gave me valuable insights onhow developments in communications can produce tangible benefits for large numbers of ordi-nary people. Soon after SITE ended, I wrote, “One of the most magical moments in Satyajit Ray’sexquisite Pather Panchali is when the little boy Apu hears for the first time the aeolian music of thetelegraph wires on the windy plain. Soon, those wires will have gone forever; but a new generationof Apus will be watching, wide-eyed, when the science of a later age draws down pictures from thesky – and opens up for all the children of India a window on the world.”

Those experiments with the ‘schoolmaster satellite’ now seem to belong to a completely differ-ent age. Much has happened since, particularly in the 1990s when commercial satellite televisionproliferated, opening up fierce competition in the skies over India. Many millions of dishes havebloomed across the subcontinent, and tens of millions of modern-day Apus are now growing uptaking satellite television, mobile phones and Internet for granted.

But we have to acknowledge that the communications revolution has bypassed tens of millionsof others in many parts of the world.We are reaching the point in our technological evolution whenwe can – and must – commit more time and resources to solving the problems of poverty, depriva-tion and inequality.

I discussed some of these concerns while addressing the UN General Assembly 20 years ago,during the World Telecommunications Year 1983. I suggested that the ‘A telephone in every village’would be one of the most effective social stimulants in history, because of its implications for health,weather forecasting, market information, social integration and human welfare. I added,“Each newtelephone installation would probably pay for itself, in hard cash, within a few months. I would liketo see a cost-effectiveness study of rural telephone systems for the developing countries of Asia,Africa and Latin America. But the financial benefits, important though they are, might be insignifi-cant compared with the social ones.”

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viPromoting ICT for Human Development in Asia 2004: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals

When I spoke my mind from that famous podium in New York, I did not imagine how quickly mywords would be illustrated by actual developments. Just as satellite television swept across theglobe during the 1980s, the Internet spread rapidly in the 1990s. Virtually everything we wish to doin the field of communications is now technologically possible. The key limitations are financial,legal, social and political. In time, I am sure, most of these will also disappear, leaving us with onlylimitations imposed by our own morality.

And making the right choices and investments is indeed a hard task.There is a danger that techno-logical tools can distort priorities and mesmerise decision-makers into believing that gadgets can fix allproblems.A computer in every classroom is a noble goal – provided there is a physical classroom in thefirst place. A multimedia computer with Internet connectivity is of little use in a school with leakingroofs – or no roof at all.The top priorities in such cases are to have the basic infrastructure and adequatenumber of teachers – that highly under-rated, and all too often underpaid, multimedia resource.

We must therefore take a few steps back from the digital hype and first try to bridge the ‘AnalogueDivide’ (to coin a phrase) that has for so long affected the less endowed communities in developingcountries (and even in some developed ones). Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs)should be part of the solution, not the only solution.

We need to ensure that ICTs are not only accessible but are also affordable. I have seen howsome Sri Lankan schools have all the hardware and software and yet can’t use the Internet —because they can’t afford the phone bill. I was appalled to hear some years ago that about a third oftransistor radios in the developing world are not used – because their owners can’t buy new bat-teries. (This inspired British inventor Trevor Bailey to develop the wind-up radio).

Our big challenge, therefore, is to get ICTs to solve real life problems without creating any newones. In the early part of the last century, Mahatma Gandhi proposed a simple test for the effective-ness of any development activity: find out how the last man would be affected by it. We shouldadapt this as a test for ICTs in development: how will the last man, woman and child be reached,touched and transformed by these marvellous communication tools?

This Regional Human Development Report is a pioneering attempt to examine how ICTs can beused effectively to bring about such development and social change. It is no coincidence that it cov-ers the Asia-Pacific region – home to the world’s largest television audience, and where mobilephones and personal computers are among the fastest selling consumer electronic products. Usingthe United Nations’ eight Millennium Development Goals as a benchmark, the Report presents theexperience of nine Asian countries.

There is no single formula for success; each country has to define what works best within therange of options and technologies available. Such decisions and choices have to be made quicklyand resolutely as the development needs are vast and urgent.

The information age has been driven and dominated by technopreneurs – a small army of‘geeks’ who have reshaped our world faster than any political leader has ever done. And that was theeasy part. As this Report shows, we now have to apply these technologies for saving lives, improv-ing livelihoods and lifting millions of people out of squalor, misery and suffering.

In short, the time has come to move our focus from the geeks to the meek.

Sir Arthur C. ClarkeColombo, Sri Lanka

[A well known writer of science fiction, Sir Arthur C. Clarke has long advocated the appropriate use ofinformation and communications technologies for development. He was the first to propose the conceptof the geostationary communications satellite in 1945, and one of his short stories inspired the WorldWide Web. He has lived in Sri Lanka since 1956 and was, until recently, Chancellor of the University ofMoratuwa, Sri Lanka.]

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viiPromoting ICT for Human Development in Asia 2004: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals

PrefaceThe Regional Human Development Report on Promoting ICT for Human Development: Realizing theMillennium Development Goals, is a first-time attempt to systematically assess the role and impact ofInformation and Communication Technologies (ICTs) on human development in Asia. Initiated joint-ly by UNDP’s Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme (APDIP) and Asia-Pacific RegionalHuman Development Reports Initiative (APRI), the Report makes a significant contribution to ourunderstanding of the potential and challenges of using ICTs to achieve human development goals.The Report covers nine countries in Asia: China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia, Pakistan, SriLanka, Thailand and Vietnam.

This timely effort comes in the wake of an increasing global acceptance of ICT as a tool to fightpoverty, especially in the developing world. Ambitious ICTs infrastructure initiatives and develop-ment strategies and programmes on ICT are being widely launched across Asia. While the advan-tages of ICT for development are enormous and rightly acknowledged, it has become equallyimperative to recognise that benefits of ICTs are not evenly distributed. Many sections of societiesin developing countries of Asia have been barely touched by the opportunities of the informationage. It is this digital divide that needs to be urgently bridged today.The gap in opportunities occur-ring across and within countries due to differences in starting points, inaccessibility to technologyand knowledge exchange, lack of infrastructure and inhibiting social and cultural factors, needs tobe overcome.There is also the gap in relevant content that addresses the concerns of the worst off.

This Regional HDR is a major step towards bringing this to the centre of the development debate.The Report’s unique approach lies in its use of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to meas-ure and monitor the impact of ICTs on human development. Its comparative study across the ninecountries in Asia highlights both qualitative and quantitative linkages between ICTs and humandevelopment and the channels through which the linkage effects occur.

The Report provides a clear documentation of the different levels of achievement of human devel-opment from the perspective of the MDGs and effective ICT use towards achieving them in the ninecountries of Asia. Country-specific experiences, and cross-country comparisons capture the richvariety of ICT initiatives in the region, as well as their successes and failures. Conscious efforts areneeded to level playing fields for harnessing the use of ICT for human development in the region.

The possibilities of using ICT towards realizing MDGs are numerous. A future in the information andcommunications age that not only includes the poor, but also provides them with increasing oppor-tunities and choices for a better life, however, will not occur automatically. The role of governmentswill continue to be central in deployment and facilitation of ICT initiatives. Civil society groups areemerging as important stakeholders, particularly to complement the efforts of governments. Thetrend of deregulation of ICT industries is also increasing the role of industry in ICT. The challenge isto channel this for human development initiatives. Effective partnerships among stakeholders, asthe Report emphasizes, is also key to any successful ICT initiative towards human development. ICTis only a tool.The success of harnessing this tool effectively is dependent on the commitment of thestakeholders to the realization of the MDGs.

The battle for poverty and MDGs will be won or lost in parts of Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. ThisReport, therefore, is a timely analysis on the potentials of ICT as a tool and the role it can play inachieving these goals and enhancing human development.

Hafiz A. PashaUN Assistant Secretary GeneralUNDP Assistant Administrator and Regional Director for Asia and the Pacific

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viiiPromoting ICT for Human Development in Asia 2004: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals

AbbreviationsABU Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union

AIDS Acquired Immuno-deficiency Syndrome

AIOU Allama Iqbal Open University (Pakistan)

AKDN Aga Khan Development Network

ANMs Auxiliary Nurse Midwives

APSWAN Andhra Pradesh State-Wide Area Network

ARBEC ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation

ARI Acute Respiratory-tract Infection

ARPANET Advance Research Projects Agency Network

ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations

BAPPENAS National Development Planning Agency (Indonesia)

BMI Body Mass Index

BPO Business Process Outsourcing

CAPART Council for Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology (India)

CASH Community Access to Sustainable Health

CAT Communications Authority of Thailand

CCTV China’s Central Television Network

CDMA Code Division Multiple Access

CENWOR Centre for Women’s Research (Sri Lanka)

CGIAR Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research

CME Continuing Medical Education

CPP Caller Party Pays

DAGS Demonstrator Applications Grants Scheme (Malaysia)

DANIDA Danish International Development Agency

DEPDC Development and Education Programme for Daughters and Communities Centre(Thailand)

DFID Department for International Development (UK)

DHQ District Headquarters

DISK Dairy Information System Kiosk

DLF Distance Learning Foundation (Thailand)

DM Method Division by Mean Method

DSP Digital Signal Processing

ECG Electrocardiogram

EDI Electronic Data Interchange

EFL Environmental Foundation Ltd. (Sri Lanka)

EMR Electronic Medical Record

EPPO Energy Policy and Planning Office (Thailand)

ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

FdP Foundation du Present

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ixPromoting ICT for Human Development in Asia 2004: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals

FIVIMS Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping Systems

FOOD Foundation of Occupational Development

FTP File Transfer Protocol

GCR Global Competitiveness Report

GDLN Global Distance Learning Network (Indonesia)

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GEM Gender Empowerment Measure

GIS Geographical Information System

GISTDA Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency (Thailand)

GoI Government of India

GPPNs Global Public Policy Networks

GREAT Gender Research and Training

GSD-List Gender and Sustainable Development List

GSM Global System for Mobile communications

HDI Human Development Index

HDR Human Development Report

HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus

HPI-1 Human Poverty Index

HTML Hyper Text Mark-up Language

HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

ICT Information and Communication Technology

ICT4D ICT for Development

IDRC International Development Research Centre (Canada)

IDU Intravenous Drug User

IIM Indian Institute of Management

IIT Indian Institute of Technology

IMR Infant Mortality Rate

INSAT Indian National Satellite

ISP Internet Service Provider

ISRO Indian Space Research Organization

IT Information Technology

ITeS IT-enabled Services

ITU International Telecommunicaters Union

IUCN World Conservation Union for International Union for the Conservation of Natureand Natural Resources

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

KADO Karakoram Area Development Organization (Pakistan)

KMVS Kutch Mahila Vikas Sangathan

KNP Kirthar National Park (Pakistan)

LAN Local Area Network

LHP Lifetime Health Plan

LSPs Local Service Partners

MACTCS Mutually Aided Cooperative Thrift and Credit Societies

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MANAGE National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (India)

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

MEERP Maharashtra Emergency Earthquake Rehabilitation Project

MICT Ministry of Information and Communications Technology (Thailand)

MoH Ministry of Health

MMR Maternal Mortality Rate

MCPHIE Mass Customized/Personalized Health Information and Education

MOSTEC Minister of Science, Technology, Education and Culture

MPH Ministry of Public Health

MPS Making Pregnancy Safer

MRO Mandal Revenue Office

MSSRF MS Swaminathan Research Foundation (India)

NAC National AIDS Commission (Indonesia)

NACO National AIDS Control Organization (India)

NHDR National Human Development Report

NASSCOM National Association of Software and Service Companies (India)

NECTEC National Electronics and Computer Technology Centre (Thailand)

NER Net Enrolment Rate

NFHS National Family Health Survey

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NITA National IT Agenda (Malaysia)

NITC National IT Council (Malaysia)

NITF National IT Framework (Malaysia)

NOCs Network Operation Centres (Thailand)

NRS Nari Raksha Samiti

NSSO National Sample Survey Organization (India)

ODA Official Development Assistance

OSS Open Source Software

OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

PCDOM Primary Care Doctors’ Organization of Malaysia

PCO Public Call Office

PDA Personal Digital Assistant

PDS Public Distribution System

PEN Pakistan Educational Network

PLI Poverty Level Index

PNS Primary Health Care Network Services

POP Post Office Protocol

PPP Purchasing Power Parity

PROPER Programme for Pollution Control, Evaluation and Rating (Indonesia)

PTCL Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited

PTV Pakistan Television

RE Method Range Equalization Method

RDA Recommended Dietary Allowance

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xiPromoting ICT for Human Development in Asia 2004: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals

RHDR Regional Human Development Report

RMB Renminbi

Saathii Solidarity and Action Against the HIV Infection in India

SDC Swiss Agency for Development Corporation

SDNP Sustainable Development Networking Programme (Pakistan)

SEAMEO Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization

SIBIS Statistical Indicators Benchmarking the Information Society

SKS Swayam Krishi Sangam

SMART Self-Monitoring and Reporting Tool (Pakistan)

SME Small and Medium Scale Enterprise

SRS Sample Registration Survey

STI Sexually Transmitted Infection

TAI Technology Achievement Index

TAO Tambon Administration Organization (Thailand)

TB Tuberculosis

TEENET Thailand Energy and Environment Network

THIS Total Hospital Information System

TKTI Tim Koordinasi Telematika Indonesia (Coordinating Team for ICT Development inIndonesia)

TOT Telephone Organization of Thailand

TPCPC Telecommunications and Post Cultural Point for Communes

TRAI Telecom Regulatory Authority (India)

UGC University Grants Commission (India)

UIN Universal Internet Number

UMNO United Malays National Organization

UN United Nations

UNESCO UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNICEF UN Children’s Fund

UNFPA UN Population Fund

UNCSTD United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

VARP Virtual Academy for Food Security and Rural Prosperity

VJR Virgin Jungle Reserves

VSAT Very Small Aperture Technology

YASHADA Yashwantrao Chavan Academy of Development Administration (India)

WANs Wide Area Networks

WLL Wireless in Local Loop

WIRC Women’s Information and Research Centre (Mongolia)

WHO World Health Organization

WWF World Wildlife Fund for Nature

WWW World Wide Web

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xiiPromoting ICT for Human Development in Asia 2004: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals

ContentsOVERVIEW 1

CHAPTER 1 Human development in Asia: milestones and challenges 9

Human development advance: some evidence 9

CHAPTER 2 Asia’s march towards the Millennium Development Goals 21

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger 23Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education 27Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women 30Goal 4: Reduce child mortality 35Goal 5: Improve maternal health 37Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases 39Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability 43Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development 46Some implications 47

CHAPTER 3 ICT for enhancing human development: potential and promise 51

CHAPTER 4 Status of ICT diffusion and the digital divide in Asia 67

Internet connectivity 75The threat of many digital divides 77Factors influencing the digital divide 78Content 80Socio-economic factors and the digital divide 81Policy 81

CHAPTER 5 ICT and the MDGs: An index based on empirical regularities 85

Recent initiatives and limitations of existing data sources 85Rationale for selection of indicators 87Component indices on different aspects of ICT development and an aggregate index 88In brief 93

CHAPTER 6 National ICT policies for human development 97

National policy framework 97Reducing cost 102e-Governance 103

CHAPTER 7 ICTs and eradication of poverty and hunger 107

ICTs and agricultural development 110ICTs and employment 112ICTs and access to credit 113ICTs and the improvement of government services for the poor 113ICTs and poverty mapping 116Supportive measures 116

CHAPTER 8 The role and use of ICTs in education 121

Potential benefits 121Policies, investments and initiatives 123Use of ICTs in distance learning and non-formal education 126

Chapter 9 ICT, gender equality and empowerment in Asia 135

Assessing the status of women 135The use of ICT in women’s education 136The use of ICTs to generate employment opportunities 138

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The use of ICTs for women’s social and political participation 140The use of ICTs by women’s advocacy groups 140Challenges in implementing ICT projects for empowering women 143The Way Forward 143

CHAPTER 10 ICTs and health 147

Telemedicine 148ICTs in healthcare education and training 150ICTs in hospital and healthcare administration 151ICTs for the management of patient/health information 152The use of ICTs in public education and awareness 152ICTs and the prevention of diseases 154Using ICTs for surveillance of HIV/AIDS and other diseases 156ICTs for information exchange and networking 156Challenges to adopting ICTs in healthcare 158

CHAPTER 11 ICTs and environmental sustainability 163

GIS and remote sensing techniques 164GIS as a tool against natural calamities 166The use of environmental databases 166ICTs for better monitoring of environmental violations 167ICTs and energy consumption 169Using ICTs to empower slum dwellers 170Challenges and lessons 170

CHAPTER 12 ICTs and global partnerships in Asia 175

ICT partnerships involving the private sector, civil society and global organizations 175Collaboration using ICTs in higher education and research 177Global Public Policy Networks (GPPNs) 177

CHAPTER 13 Conclusions and policy implications 181

ICT and poverty alleviation 183ICTs and education 183ICTs and the gender divide 184ICTs and health 185ICTs and sustainable development 186ICTs and partnerships for development 187

SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS

Foundation for capacity-building for knowledge societies 52Robin Mansell

Using ICT for human development 56M.S. Swaminathan

ICTs and MDGs: Efficiency and equity 68Bruno Lavin

ICT and global poverty 109Muhammad Yunus

The Virtual University: a key component of the Pakistan Education and Research Network 122Atta-ur-Rahman and Naveed Malik

BOXES

1. Digital vs. analogue 22. The eight Millennium Development Goals 42.1 Relationship between human development capabilities and the MDGs 223.1 Computers for the masses in Thailand 55

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xivPromoting ICT for Human Development in Asia 2004: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals

3.2 ICT enhances productivity and raises income: DISK in Gujarat 573.3 Capacity building in the Karakorams: KADO 583.4 The popularity of online schooling 596.1 ICT for human development is embedded in Thailand’s Constitution 987.1 Malaysia’s TaniNet 1117.2 India’s TARAhaat 1137.3 India’s Swayam Krishi Sangam (SKS) smart cards 1147.4 Indonesian government’s online projects 1147.5 India’s Gyandoot: a model network 1157.6 Information and action for food security 1168.1 India: An example of efforts to integrate ICT in education 1268.2 Thailand’s SchoolNet 1278.3 India’s Countrywide Classroom project 1298.4 Pakistan’s Functional Education Project for Rural Areas 1308.5 Mongolia’s Gobi Women’s Project 1319.1 “A Million Homes On The Internet” project in Shanghai 1379.2 e-Homemakers in Malaysia 1399.3 Shirkat Gah and the World Wide Web for women 141

10.1 TelMedPak.com: pioneering telemedicine in Pakistan 14810.2 The Handy Vaid project in India: using ICT for consultation 15310.3 India’s Samuha: support for people with HIV/AIDS 15711.1 India’s water system management at Mirzapur 16511.2 China’s national environment databases and management systems 16712.1 Intel’s ‘Teach to the Future’ programme 17612.2 The International Television Trust for the Environment (TVE International) 177

Tables

1 Countries covered by the Regional Human Development Report 41.1 Region-wise HDI trend from 1975 to 2001 101.2 Economic growth and income poverty reduction 111.3 Trends in the HDI from 1975 to 2002 111.4 HDI and indicators 121.5 Human Poverty Index (HPI-1) and indicators 151.6 Gender-related Development Index (GDI) and indicators 161.7 Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) and indicators 172.1 Percentage of population below US$ 1 (PPP) per day consumption 232.2 Children under five moderately or severely underweight, per cent 262.3 Proportion of population below minimum dietary energy consumption 26 2.4 Net enrolment ratio in primary education 272.5 Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 and reaching grade 5 282.6 Progress towards MDG 3 by nine Asian countries 312.7 Progress towards MDG 3 by nine Asian countries 322.8 Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector 332.9 Children under-five mortality rate 362.10 Infant mortality rate 372.11 Maternal Mortality Ratio per 100,000 live births 382.12 Progress towards MDG 7 by nine Asian countries 454.1 Global telephone penetration rates (2002) 674.2 Global diffusion of ICTs 704.3 Top 15 countries in Internet usage 704.4 Increase in ICT expenditures of nine Asian countries in years 1995 and 2001 714.5 Technology and infrastructure data profile in years 1997 and 2002 724.6 Per capita annual telecommunication investment (US$) 734.7 Main telephone lines per 100 inhabitants 734.8 Cellular mobile telephone subscribers per 100 inhabitants 73

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xvPromoting ICT for Human Development in Asia 2004: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals

4.9 Percentage of main lines in urban areas 754.10 Share of largest city in main telephone lines 754.11 Public pay phones per 100 inhabitants 764.12 Internet diffusion in selected Asian countries in 2002 764.13 Technology Achievement Index (TAI) for selected Asian countries in the year 2001 784.14 Networked Readiness Index (NRI) 2004 of selected Asian countries 794.15 Digital divide in Internet use across regions of the world in years 1998 and 2002 794.16 Differences in regional diffusion of ICTs in the year 2002 (Cost (US$)) 794.17 Internet retail pricing 2003 and number of ISPs in selected

Asian countries in the year 2001 795.1 Component indices showing different aspects of ICT development

and the aggregate index as obtained by RE method for nine Asian countries 905.2 Component indices showing different aspects of ICT development

and the aggregate index as obtained by DM method for nine Asian countries 917.1 Summary of ICT uses for eradication of poverty and hunger 1087.2 Poverty and types of ICT intervention 1178.1 Opportunities and benefits associated with the use of ICTs in education 1248.2 Paradigm shift in teacher’s role 13110.1 Types of organizations, their objectives and types of knowledge 155

Figures

1.1 HDI values and GDP indices 2002 134.1 Malaysia’s direct exchange line (DEL) penetration rate 744.2 Malaysia mobile phone penetration rate 744.3 Mongolia’s telephone and mobile density per 100 people 754.4 Tele-density growth of the past 10 years in Sri Lanka 758.1 The value of ICT to education 125

Notes 189

Bibliography 191

Glossary 197

Appendices

Appendix I 201Appendix II 205Appendix III 207

Country Fact Sheets

China 208India 211Indonesia 214Malaysia 217Mongolia 220Pakistan 223Sri Lanka 226Thailand 229Vietnam 232

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Overview

Even though in someareas the first-ordercausal relationsbetween ICT use andthe realization of theMDGs is limited, thegrowth-inducing effects of ICT use can indeed be substantial

MD

Gs

Developing countries the world over havemade the widespread use of Information andCommunication Technologies (ICTs) a centralfeature of their development agenda. To thatend, they have devised policies aimed at pro-moting the use of information technology fordevelopment; radically altered their communi-cations polices; invested massively in strength-ening and extending their ICT infrastructure;and launched numerous e-governance initia-tives. Conviction that ICT use can accelerate thepace and improve the quality of development isstrong.

The United Nations (UN) too sets great store bythese technologies. The UN ICT Task Force(2003) had concluded that ICTs can act as ahuman development enabler, and have thepotential to enhance the contribution of otherpolices aimed at achieving the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs) set by theSeptember 2000 Millennium Summit. ICTs,wisely deployed, can potentially impact almostevery sector, making development budgets, pri-vate sector investments and commitments fromdevelopment partners go that much further interms of cost effectiveness, impact and reach.This is bound to increase the effectiveness ofnew and more responsive solutions in the fieldsof health, education and related MDG focusareas. Even though in some areas the first-ordercausal relations between ICT use and the real-ization of the MDGs is limited, the growth-inducing effects of ICT use can indeed besubstantial. And inasmuch as increases in percapita income contribute to human develop-ment, the realization of the MDGs is furthered.

However, it must be recognized that the poten-tial of ICTs and the promise they hold for devel-

oping countries can, at times, be exaggerated.The use of ICTs for development between 1995and 1997 was examined by the Working Groupon IT and Development of the United NationsCommission on Science and Technology forDevelopment.1 It noted that despite the posi-tive impacts experienced in industrialized coun-tries and certain sectors of many developingnations, evidence showed that there were manypeople, especially in the least developed coun-tries, whose lives had been barely touched byICTs. There were also many whose lives werebeing negatively affected by their exclusionfrom the global information society or by thesocial or economic dislocations that can accom-pany the introduction and diffusion of thesetechnologies.

This Regional Human Development Report(RHDR) on Promoting ICT for HumanDevelopment in Asia: Realizing the MillenniumDevelopment Goals is an attempt to holisticallyassess the role that ICTs can play in advancinghuman development in Asia. The objectives ofthe Report are to:

● explore the relationship between ICTs andhuman development using the MDGs asthe framework for assessment

● assess the status of ICT use and diffusion inAsia

● identify relevant ICT indicators that can beused to quantify ICT-MDG correlates to con-struct composite indices that could help inranking countries

● map experiences of harnessing these tech-nologies for human development in theAsian region

● recognize and identify the limitations toapplying ICTs to further human development

11

Summary Ch01-05 4/8/05 12:04 PM Page 1

2 Promoting ICT for Human Development in Asia: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals

and the possibility of widening the digitaldivide, and

● draw lessons from multi-country experi-ences for identifying policy directions.

According to one definition2 “ICTs are basicallyinformation-handling tools – a varied set ofgoods, applications and services that are usedto produce, store, process, distribute andexchange information. They include the ‘old’ICTs of radio, television and telephone, and the‘new’ ICTs of computers, satellite and wirelesstechnology and the Internet.” More specifically,the division between old and new technologies

in the broad area of ICT can be seen as thatbetween those based on analogue devices andon digital devices (Box 1). Seen in this way, itshould be clear that there is a new digital com-ponent even to technologies such as the radio,television and telephone.

Technology being digital has important impli-cations. In particular, it permits a greater degreeof interactivity and has superior multimediacapabilities, thereby substantially enhancingcommunication possibilities. Moreover, devel-opments in digital technology have significantlyreduced costs of data storage, manipulation and

“ICTs are basicallyinformation-handling

tools – a varied set ofgoods, applications and

services that are usedto produce, store,

process, distribute and exchange

information. . . .”

Analogue and digital are alternative means of capturing and representing events and phenomena.The principal difference between them is that while analogue representations are continuous,digital representations consist of discrete and discontinuous data or events. An exampleconventionally used to illustrate this is the difference between digital and analogue watches.Digital watches go from one value to the next without displaying all intermediate values. Ineffect, they display only a finite number of times of the day. In contrast, analogue watches, withhands that move continuously around the clock face, not only touch the numbers one through12, but also the infinite number of points in between. However, there is no limit to how accurateyou can make digital technology. For example, if you wanted your clock to display time in 100thsof a minute, you could do that.

Computers are digital machines because, at their most basic level, they can distinguish betweenjust two values, 0 and 1, or off and on. As opposed to this, analogue devices are those in whichcontinuously variable physical quantities such as electrical potential, fluid pressure or mechani-cal motion are represented in a way analogous to the corresponding quantities in the problemto be solved.1

“Bits have always been the underlying particle of digital computing, but over the past 25 yearswe have greatly expanded our binary vocabulary to include much more than just numbers. Wehave been able to digitize more and more types of information, like audio and video, renderingthem into a similar reduction of 1s and 0s”.2

A digital photograph, for instance, consists of an array of dots that are either black or white. Fromafar, the viewer does not see the individual dots (the digital form), but only lines and shadingwhich appear to be continuous. Although digital representations approximate analogue events,they are useful because they are relatively easy to store and can be manipulated electronically.

Digital representation often involves converting analogue to digital, and back again. The musicon a compact disc itself exists in an analogue form, as waves in the air. These sounds are thentranslated into a digital form that is encoded onto the disk. When you play a compact disc, theCD player reads the digital data, translates the data back into a voltage wave that approximatesthe original analogue waveform, and sends it to the amplifier and eventually the speakers.

There are many advantages associated with digital representation. A bit has no size or weight.It gives us an accurate way to represent data, an easy way to mechanically store and manipulatethat data, and it can travel at the speed of light. Two other advantages of digital technology are:the representation does not degrade over time and the digitized information can often becompressed.3

Box 1 Digital vs. Analogue


3Overview

transmission, while increasing the potential ofthe technology. This Report broadly followsUNDP’s definition and, while accommodatingboth the roles of old and new technologies,focuses on the role of digital technologies.This is partly because older technologiesmake fewer demands on user skills and areconsidered to be ‘skill independent’, whilenewer technologies are far more ‘skill depend-ent’. Users need more education or training intheir use, especially to exploit the potential ofinteractivity. The skill dependence associatedwith new technologies makes their diffusionamong disadvantaged sections more difficult,necessitating a coherent policy environmentcomplemented by effective partnershipsbetween public and private sectors and civilsociety.

Since our concern here is with the use of ICTsfor advancing human development, such diffu-sion is indeed crucial. Despite a long record ofeconomic growth and improvement in livingstandards across the globe, the incidence ofsuch development has been extremelyuneven. Large parts of the developing worldare still characterized by the persistence ofpoverty, hunger and malnutrition, ill-healthand disease, and illiteracy and unequal accessto skills and knowledge. Of the 4.9 billion peo-ple in developing countries, in 2000 around 1.1billion lived on less than US$ 1 a day (1993 pur-chasing power parity (PPP)† US$), more than950 million were illiterate, 1.2 billion lackedaccess to an improved water source, and2.7 billion lacked access to basic sanitation.Nearly 104 million boys and girls in the primaryschool age were out of school, while 11 millionchildren under age five died each year frompredictable causes – equivalent to more than30,000 children a day.3

The growing consensus on the need to urgent-ly deal with each of these forms of deprivationstems from the pressure to improve social indi-cators or the belief that an education, goodhealth and a reasonable livelihood for all arejustifiable ends in themselves. It is also a recog-nition that progress on each front has implica-tions for other areas and that holistic humandevelopment is, in the final analysis, a prerequi-site for sustainable growth.

In Asia too the record of growth and humandevelopment has been mixed. The region ishome to the erstwhile miracle countries, whichhad experienced dramatic growth rates over along period prior to the Asian financial crisis of1997. Many have also recovered from the crisissince and are recording creditable rates ofgrowth. Meanwhile, China continues with itsmore than two-decade long boom and India isshowing signs of delivering sustained high ratesof growth. The two most populous nations ofthe region are now leading the Asian economicdrive.

Not surprisingly, human development mappingin Asia has reflected overall progress over thelast two decades. Yet in many countries in Asiaand among sections of the population even in the relatively better-off countries, humandevelopment continues to pose a significantchallenge, putting a blemish on otherwise com-mendable achievements. The persistence ofincome poverty, hunger, low levels of adult lite-racy, preventable diseases and poor healthcareas well as significant gender inequalities reiter-ates the need to place human development atthe core of national and international develop-ment agendas.

However, it has been evident for some time nowthat collective action on a global scale is crucialwhen choosing to deal with the alarming levelsof poverty, hunger and deprivation.Commitment to such collective action was wonat the historic UN Millennium Summit held inSeptember 2000, where Member States of theUN agreed to work together to eradicate pover-ty, promote human dignity and equality, andachieve peace, democracy and environmentalsustainability. The Millennium Declarationissued at this Summit demonstrates the com-mitment of world leaders to collectively worktowards a global partnership for improving thehuman condition.

A concrete contribution of the Declaration wasthe global consensus on the eight specificallyidentified MDGs to the realization of which 191UN Member States have pledged themselves.The Goals are time-bound, most of which are tobe achieved by the year 2015, taking 1990 as thebase year (Box 2). Associated with each MDG are

Besides analysing theextent of and the constraints to ICTdiffusion, this Reportstudies the specificways in which thetechnology has beendeployed in efforts thatcan contribute torealizing the MDGs indifferent areas

† A method of measuring the relative purchasing power of different countries’ currencies over the same type ofgoods and services.



specific targets, totalling 18, to be monitoredthrough 48 specific indicators (Appendix 1). Bytranslating the objective of advancing humandevelopment into these time-bound goals,targetsand indicators, the Millennium Declaration helpeddirect the energies of the international communi-ty as well as build the constituency for a globalmovement to advance human development.

Given this focused agenda, this Report uses theMDGs as the framework to analyse the way inwhich ICTs can be harnessed to promote humandevelopment. Besides analysing the extent ofand the constraints to ICT diffusion, it studiesspecific ways in which the technology has beendeployed in efforts that can contribute to realiz-ing the MDGs in different areas. Many of theseapplications are in the nature of pilot projects –experimental in character, small in scale anduncertain in terms of sustainability. Yet theyprovide the material to assess the role that ICTscan play as well as the models that, if successful,need to be scaled up.

The Asian region is particularly well placed toharness and strategically deploy ICTs for devel-opment as it is home to some of the fastestgrowing ICT markets, and has the fastest growthof ICT industries in the world. However, the digi-

tal divide, both between Asian countriesand within them, reveals the enormousdisparities in ICT access, connectivity andskills. This divide can be a major hurdle inthe effective application of ICTs for over-coming the human development chal-lenge.

Teams of experts commissioned exclu-sively for this project prepared ninedetailed country studies on the theme(Table 1). The nine countries – China,4

India,5 Indonesia,6 Malaysia,7 Mongolia,8

Pakistan,9 Sri Lanka,10 Thailand11 and Vietnam12

– are spread over the three distinct sub-regionsof South Asia, South East Asia and East Asia, pro-viding a rich and diverse canvas. Each countrystudy provides extensive qualitative documen-tation on the specific uses of ICTs across theMDGs for promoting human development.†

Since this Report is based on an examination ofsuch projects in a wide variety of contexts inAsia, it has a rich material base on which to buildits arguments and its policy suggestions.

A separate statistical exercise, aimed at identify-ing key ICT indicators relevant to and availablefor Asia, was undertaken to complement thecountry studies. Indicators were selected withthe intention of collating such data on ICT useand diffusion as could help in formulating andcomputing composite aggregate indices thatquantitatively capture the role of ICTs in humandevelopment in individual countries. The find-ings of the RHDR are thus informed by an inter-esting combination of a qualitative analysisfrom the nine countries and a quantitativeexploration.

Chapter 1 maps the performance of the Asia-Pacific region, and especially the nine countriesthat are the focus of this study, on the humandevelopment front so as to identify the distance

Even though Asia’srecord is better than

the average for developing countries as

a group, there are substantial divergences

between Asian countries and within

each of them

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hungerGoal 2: Achieve universal primary educationGoal 3: Promote gender equality and empower

womenGoal 4: Reduce child mortalityGoal 5: Improve maternal healthGoal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other

diseasesGoal 7: Ensure environmental sustainabilityGoal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

Box 2 The eight Millennium Development Goals

Region Countries Number

South Asia India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka 3South East Asia Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam 4East Asia China and Mongolia 2Asia 9

Table 1 Countries covered by the Regional Human Development Report

† In all instances where specific reference to a source is not provided, the relevant reference is the concerned coun-try study, available with the respective country office of the UNDP.


5Overview

that must be travelled to ensure a minimallybetter life for all. Even though Asia’s record isbetter than average for developing countries asa group, there are substantial divergencesbetween Asian countries and within each ofthem.This has implications for the use of ICT foradvancing human development and realizingthe MDGs. While, on the one hand, the humandevelopment shortfall and the potential forusing ICTs to ensure progress encourages thepromotion of the technology as a tool forhuman development, the inequities that a lowlevel of human development entails raises thepossibility that ICT use could be accompaniedby a widening digital divide, on the other. Theneed for a nuanced policy stance to deal withthese complexities is obvious.

Since the MDGs provide the framework forassessing the current and potential use of ICTfor development (ICT4D), Chapter 2 details themajor goals and targets set out in theMillennium Declaration and makes an assess-ment of progress in each area in the Asia Pacificregion as a whole, and the nine countries specif-ically studied for this Report. This helps definethe distance that remains to be travelled to real-ize goals in each of the areas, the areas in whichprogress is being made, and those regions andareas in which there are signs of stagnation andreversal. On that basis, the significance of differ-ent kinds of experiments with the use of ICT4Dcan be judged.

Chapter 3 offers a detailed discussion on theways in which the technology can be used tofacilitate human development advance. It identi-fies the different possible uses of the technologyin specific areas of human development andassesses its potential as an instrument to breakdown barriers to knowledge creation, dissemi-nation, participation, and economic opportunity.

Chapter 4 assesses the status of ICT diffusion inAsia in terms of the extent of cross-country andintra-country horizontal and vertical diffusion. Itnotes that while there is evidence of rapid pen-etration of ICTs, albeit from a low base, the levelof penetration and the regional spread of thetechnology are still limited in many countries.Thus, there are substantial variations in the rateof increase of ICT expenditure across the ninecountries chosen for study, though the variationis lower in terms of the level of ICT expenditurerelative to Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Thelatter figure does suggest a tendency towards

some degree of convergence within the Asianregion as all countries attempt to exploit thebenefits of the technology. Overall, however,from the point of view of the use of the tech-nology for human development purposes, itsdegree of penetration is uneven and far fromsatisfactory.

Chapter 5 reports an exercise that aims to iden-tify, collate and consolidate evidence of a kindthat permits an assessment of the impact of ICTon human development. Towards that end, it isnecessary not only to identify indicators of thestatus of ICT use, but also to analyse the natureof the interdependencies between indicators ofICT development and those reflecting humandevelopment concerns of the kind captured bythe MDGs. The chapter attempts to do this byusing empirical evidence from the nine Asiancountries to construct a composite index on theuse of ICT for development.The resulting indicespresent the relative position of the nine coun-tries in terms of development of ICT for theattainment of the MDGs.

By the late 1990s, all nine Asian countries hadput policy frameworks in place, seeking toaccelerate the pace of ICT development.Chapter 6 aims to examine the extent to whichthese frameworks are sensitive to human devel-opment concerns and the ways in which theyimplicitly seek to realize the MDGs by promot-ing ICT use.The evidence suggests that as Asiannations progressed, so did their understandingof using ICTs for human development. The zealto devise an appropriate policy framework was,therefore, also accompanied by a tendency toplace human development concerns at theheart of each nation’s ICT regulatory framework.

The experiences of the countries chosen forspecial study as the basis of this Report suggestthat, at a macro-level, ICT policy is indeed sensi-tive to human development concerns and seeksto use the technology in partnership with NonGovernmental Organizations (NGOs), donorsand the private sector. What needs to beexamined, therefore, is the degree to which thiseconomy-wide commitment is being translatedinto specific projects that advance specificMDGs.

Chapters 7 to 12 make an effort to arrive at suchan assessment in each MDG area by examining,in some detail, a selected set of experiments touse ICTs for development in the nine countries

The experiences of the countries chosenfor special study asthe basis of this Report suggest that, at a macro-level, ICT policy is indeedsensitive to humandevelopment concernsand seeks to use the technology in partnership with NGOs, donors and the privatesector



chosen for special study. While the experimentsare most often in the nature of pilot projectsand conclusions regarding their financial viabil-ity and sustainability cannot yet be drawn, thisanalysis does strengthen the view that thepotential of the technology is immense and thatthere are efforts underway to exploit thatpotential. Case studies of diverse experimentsalso offer some indication of the constraintsfaced in harnessing the technology for human

development, the pitfalls that can be encoun-tered in the process and the appropriate condi-tions and policies for exploiting the technology.

The lessons derived from these experiences arepulled together to yield an assessment of thedirection in which efforts to harness ICTs mustgo, with the objective of realizing the MDGs.That assessment is presented in Chapter 13,which concludes the Report.


Photo 4/8/05 11:33 AM Page 1

Photo: UN Country Team Mongolia

Photo 4/8/05 11:33 AM Page 2

Human development in Asia:milestones and challenges

Human development isdefined as the processof enhancing the capabilities of individuals so as toexpand their choices tolive the kind of livesthey value

MD

Gs C h a p t e r 1

Human development is defined as the processof enhancing the capabilities of individuals soas to expand their choices to live the kind oflives they value. While this does not precludethe pursuit of economic growth as a major goalof policy, it does require treating the quality oflife of people as the ultimate concern, and pro-duction and prosperity as a means to that end.1

As was made clear in the introductory state-ment to UNDP’s first Human DevelopmentReport released in 1990: “People are the realwealth of a nation. The basic objective of devel-opment is to create an enabling environmentfor people to enjoy long, healthy and creativelives.”

When stated in this form, the conceptremains wide in scope and amenable to vari-able interpretation. However, a broad agree-ment on some aspects of human develop-ment has evolved over time. The discussionhas also yielded a range of indicators andindices that capture, in summary form, specif-ic aspects of both the state of people’s capa-bilities and the quality of their lives. However,the concept of human development requiresa degree of simultaneous advance in all direc-tions. This is because the notion thatimprovements in various social indicators areinter-linked is implicit in human develop-ment as a concept. Literacy and educationare, for example, of intrinsic importance butalso of immense instrumental significance insocial development. Education, particularlyfemale education, has a fundamental influ-ence on attitudes to health, on health-seek-ing behaviour and therefore on health status.Similarly, there is evidence of a strong directcorrelation between life expectancy and liter-acy, and an inverse relationship betweeninfant and child mortality and the level of

maternal schooling. This is because, at givenlevels of income, schooling increases the abil-ity to improve nutrition; it contributes to theability to initiate earlier and more effectivediagnoses of illness, and to hygiene and theprevention of illness.

Advancing inter-linked goals of this kind sub-stantially increases people’s capabilities,enhances the choices that they have, and per-mits them to participate in, contribute to andbenefit from the process of development. Thisis, however, not to say that human developmentis just another term for social development. It is,in fact, “a holistic paradigm embracing bothends and means, both productivity and equity,both economic and social development, bothmaterial goods and human welfare”.2

The principal concern of this Report is to exam-ine how the use of ICTs can influence the effortto improve specific indicators of social develop-ment and thereby accelerate the pace of humandevelopment advance. The focus on ICTs isimperative because of their tremendous potentialto increase productivity, expand communicationpossibilities, build networks, ensure inclusionand facilitate delivery of services.This makes thetechnology an exceptional tool to enablehuman development policies, especially byenabling greater access to education andknowledge, health services and better liveli-hood opportunities in rural areas where themajority of the population lives.

Human development advance:some evidence

While the decade of the 1990s was marked bysignificant progress in terms of identifiedhuman development indicators across the

9



world including the Asian region, it was also adecade that appears to be characterized by asetback in human development advance. Givenchanges in methodology and revisions of databy international source agencies, there areproblems associated with comparing changesin the Human Development Index (HDI) valuesover time. But if such a comparison is made, theglobal Human Development Report 2003 noted,it appears that HDI values had fallen in that yearin 21 out of a sample of 113 countries withcomplete data. It also noted that while the1980s had seen the HDI value decline in fourcountries, the figure rose to 15 during the1990s. Factors explaining these declines varied,being attributable to lower incomes and failedeconomic growth in some countries or to thespread of HIV/AIDS, which lowered lifeexpectancy, in others.

However, the Asian region – both South Asia,and East Asia and the Pacific – was character-ized by improvements in HDI values over 1990-2002. This was in keeping with the overalltrend in developing countries, but contrary tothe situation in Sub-Saharan Africa wherereversals were observed in a significant num-ber of countries (Table 1.1). Further, as Table 1.2indicates, both in terms of the growth of percapita incomes and the pace of reduction ofpoverty, East Asia and the Pacific, and SouthAsia performed much better than otherregions of the developing world during the1990s. In fact, the evidence suggests that theincidence of poverty increased in all regionsother than Asia.

The average of the values of the HDI in the ninecountries taken up for study in this Report is alsohigher than elsewhere in the developing world.With the exception of Pakistan, all countriesbelong to the medium human development cat-

egory, though Malaysia is close to breaking intothe high human development category. Thispoints to the considerable differences betweenthese countries, reflected in a variation in humandevelopment values from 0.497 to 0.793, and HDIranks from 59 to 142 (Table 1.3). However, mostcountries are better than average performers onthe human development front when comparedwith other developing countries. Comparing theHDI values for the year 2002 for the nine countrieswith those calculated for all developing countriesput together, only India and Pakistan have a valuelower than the developing-country average. Infact, China, Malaysia, Thailand and Sri Lankarecord figures that are higher than even the aver-age HDI value for the world as a whole.The coun-try-specific human development indices alsoindicate that, in keeping with the overall situationin Asia,human development indices point to con-tinuous progress over the past two decades ormore in all nine countries.

Despite the positive picture the evidence (Table 1.3) paints with regard to Asia, there isample cause for concern. The first and obviouscause is the fact that close to two-thirds of theworld’s poor live in the Asia-Pacific region, withmore than 693 million people living on less thanUS$ 1 a day in 2000.

The second problem is that the record of povertyreduction across the region has been uneven.The Economic and Social Commission for Asiaand the Pacific (ESCAP) Survey of the Asia Pacific2002 argued:“The incidence of extreme povertyin East Asia, South-East Asia and the Pacificdeclined rapidly during the 1990s, from 28 to 15 per cent between 1990 and 1998. On thistrend-line basis and given sustained efforts, thegoal of halving poverty between 1990 and 2015would be within reach in East Asia and South East Asia. Progress in poverty reduction in South

The principal concernof this Report is to

examine how the use ofICTs can influence the

effort to improvespecific indicators of

social development andthereby accelerate the

pace of humandevelopment advance

Region HDI trend

Increased from 1990 to 2002 inEast Asia and the Pacific 13 out of 13 countriesSouth Asia 6 out of 6 countriesArab States 13 out of 13 countriesCentral and Eastern Europe and the CIS 11 out of 16 countriesLatin America and the Caribbean 23 out of 25 countriesSub-Saharan Africa 21 out of 35 countries

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2004, pp. 246-8.Note: The total number of countries mentioned for each region is the one for which data are available for 1990.

Table 1.1 Region-wise HDI trend from 1975 to 2002


11Human development in Asia: milestones and challenges

Asia has been slow,only 4 percentage points overthe same period, and thus the achievement ofthe above target remains doubtful. EasternEurope and Central Asia had very low povertyrates in the pre-transition period. Subsequently,those rates showed rapid increases in most of the1990s, especially in several countries in CentralAsia, which face great difficulties and thus have

little chance of achieving the goal of halvingpoverty with 1990 as the base year”.3

Thirdly, while it is indeed true that increases in percapita income in Asia did contribute to a declinein the incidence of poverty during the 1990s, inlarge parts of the developing world, the data suggest, growth of per capita incomes actually

Close to two-thirds ofthe world’s poor live inthe Asia-Pacific region,with more than 693 million people living onless than US$ 1 a day in2000

Region Growth in the 1990s Poverty reduction in the 1990s(annual per capita (percentage point

income growth) (%) reduction)

East Asia and the Pacific 6.4 14.9South Asia 3.3 8.4Latin America & the Caribbean 1.6 �0.1Middle East & North Africa 1.0 �0.1Sub-Saharan Africa �0.4 �1.6Central and Eastern Europe and the CIS �1.9 �13.5a

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2003, p.41.a Change measured using the US$ 2 a day poverty line, which is considered a more appropriate extreme poverty line for

Central and Eastern Europe and the CIS. For all other regions, the poverty line is US$1.

Table 1.2 Economic growth and income poverty reduction

TrendHDI rank (2002) in HDI

Country/ (out of 177 (1975 toRegion HDI values countries) 2002)

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002China 0.523 0.557 0.593 0.627 0.683 0.721 0.745 94 �

India 0.411 0.437 0.476 0.514 0.548 0.579 0.595 127 �

Indonesia 0.467 0.529 0.582 0.623 0.662 0.680 0.692 111 �

Malaysia 0.614 0.657 0.693 0.720 0.759 0.789 0.793 59 �

Mongolia NA NA 0.650 0.656 0.629 0.658 0.668 117 �

Pakistan 0.346 0.373 0.405 0.444 0.473 NA 0.497 142 �

Sri Lanka 0.613 0.648 0.674 0.698 0.719 NA 0.740 96 �

Thailand 0.613 0.651 0.676 0.707 0.742 NA 0.768 76 �

Vietnam NA NA NA 0.610 0.649 0.686 0.691 112 �

East Asia andthe Pacific NA NA NA NA 0.678a 0.722 0.740 — —

South Asia NA NA NA NA 0.452a 0.582 0.584 — —

All developing countries NA NA NA NA 0.565a 0.655 0.663 — —

World NA NA NA NA 0.724a 0.722 0.729 — —

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 1998, 2001 and 2004.NA: Data not available.a Indicates the median value achieved in the region or country group.Note: The last four rows are not strictly comparable across years as the data are taken from different Human Development Reports.TAI stands for Technological Achievement Index, which is a composite index designed to capture the performance of countries in creating and diffusing technology and in building a human skills base (UNDP, 2001).

Table 1.3 Trends in the HDI from 1975 to 2002



declined during the 1990s. But even here it wastrue that per capita incomes were increasing inabsolute terms. If, despite this, poverty wasincreasing everywhere excepting in East andSouth East Asia, it must be true that inequalitymust have been increasing during these years.Even in China and India, critics argue, the dataproperly interpreted point not just to an overesti-mation of the poverty decline, but also to anincrease in income inequality that is either damp-ening the pace or reversing the trend of povertydecline more recently.† Given the role of thesetwo populous countries in deciding global povertytrends, urgent action is obviously necessary.

Such controversies reflect the need to examinehuman development trends at the national leveland make cross-country comparisons to yield a

regional perspective. This Report, based on ninecountry studies, seeks to achieve precisely that.The experiences of these countries reflect con-siderable diversity, and permit the exploration ofa variety of factors that constrain or facilitatehuman development advance. It must be noted,however, that divergences in human develop-ment within the Asia-Pacific region as a wholeare far greater than that between the nine coun-tries chosen in this Report for special study, toillustrate and analyse the role that ICT can play inadvancing human development.

However,even among these nine countries, inter-country disparities are stark if we compare thehuman development indicators that enter intothe computation of the HDI, such as lifeexpectancy at birth, adult literacy rate, combined

The record of povertyreduction across the

region has been uneven

Table 1.4 HDI and indicators

Combined Adult primary,

literacy secondaryLife rate and tertiary

expectancy (age gross GDP HDIat birth 15 & enrolment per capita Life Rank (out

Country (year) above) ratio (%) (PPP US$) expectancy Education GDP of 177/Region (2002) (2002)a (2001-02)b (2002) index index index Value countries)

China 70.9 90.9c 68d 4,580 0.76 0.83 0.64 0.745 94

India 63.7 61.3c 55d 2,670e 0.64 0.59 0.55 0.595 127

Indonesia 66.6 87.9 65f 3,230 0.69 0.80 0.58 0.692 111

Malaysia 73.0 88.7c 70f 9,120 0.80 0.83 0.75 0.793 59

Mongolia 63.7 97.8c 70 1,710 0.64 0.89 0.47 0.668 117

Pakistan 60.8 41.5c,d 37d 1,940 0.60 0.40 0.49 0.497 142

Sri Lanka 72.5 92.1 65f 3,570 0.79 0.83 0.60 0.740 96

Thailand 69.1 92.6c 73d 7,010 0.74 0.86 0.71 0.768 76

Vietnam 69.0 90.3c,d 64 2,300 0.73 0.82 0.52 0.691 112

East Asia and the Pacific 69.8 90.3 65 4,768 0.75 0.83 0.64 0.740

South Asia 63.2 57.6 54 2,658 0.64 0.57 0.55 0.584

Developingcountries 64.6 76.7 60 4,054 0.66 0.71 0.62 0.663World 66.9 — 64 7,804 0.70 0.76 0.73 0.729

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2004.a. Data refer to estimates produced by UNESCO Institute for Statistics in July 2002, unless otherwise specified. Due to differences in methodology and

timeliness of underlying data, comparisons across countries and over time should be made with caution.b. Data refer to the 2001/02 school year, unless otherwise specified. Data for some countries may refer to national or UNESCO Institute for Statistics

estimates. Since data are from different sources, comparisons across countries should be made with caution.c. Census data.d. Data refer to a year other than that specified.e. Estimate based on regression.f. Preliminary UNESCO Institute for Statistics estimate, subject to further revision.

† See, for example, Sen (2002) and Bouche et. al. (2004)



primary, secondary and tertiary gross enrolmentratio, and GDP per capita. While Malaysia, SriLanka and China have relatively high values forlife expectancy at birth (over 70 years, which wasmuch higher than the world average of 66.9years), Mongolia, India and Pakistan fall short ofthese countries by 10 years with a far lower lifeexpectancy of just over 60 years (Table 1.4).

The cross-country comparison also reveals cer-tain features of relevance to the use and role ofICTs in advancing human development. Thus, inkeeping with the perspective underlying thehuman development framework, it is clear thata country’s performance in terms of the HDI isnot determined solely by its GDP. Some coun-tries, especially Sri Lanka, Vietnam andMongolia, have recorded a much better per-formance in human development terms thanappears warranted by their GDP levels relativeto the other countries (Figure 1.1). Hence, iffactors contributing to human developmentadvance are facilitated by the enabling environ-ment that the use of ICTs creates, investing in ITto design such an environment can helpadvance human development even if GDPgrowth does not keep pace with the diffusion ofICT. In this context, the fact that countries such

as India and Pakistan, which have the lowest HDIvalue among the countries in the nine-countrysample, record high ranks for certain ICT devel-opment indices (see Chapter 5) is heartening.

That having been said, we should be careful notto extrapolate this argument too far. Whetherthis ICT development can be sustained andtranslated into faster human developmentdepends on factors that constitute componentsof the HDI. Given the skill-dependence of thetechnology, an index of significance for ICTapplication and use is that relating to educationand literacy. Comparing adult literacy rates,defined as the percentage of literate peopleaged 15 years and above, across the nine coun-tries, shows that the differences are quitemarked (Table 1.4). In 2002, while five of thenine countries (China, Mongolia, Thailand,Sri Lanka and Vietnam) recorded literacy rates inexcess of 90 per cent and two others (Indonesiaand Malaysia) above 85 per cent, Pakistanrecorded the lowest rate at 41.5 per cent andIndia figured second last with 61.3 per cent.

In terms of the combined primary, secondaryand tertiary gross enrolment ratio, Pakistan’srecord was even poorer at 37 per cent, while

Some countries,especially Sri Lanka,Vietnam and Mongolia,have recorded a muchbetter performance inhuman developmentterms than appearswarranted by their GDPlevels relative to theother countries

Malaysia

Thailand

China

Sri Lanka

Indonesia

Vietnam

Mongolia

India

Pakistan

0.793

0.768

0.745

0.740

0.692

0.691

0.668

0.595

0.75

0.71

0.64

0.60

0.58

0.52

0.47

0.55

0.490.497

GDP Index

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

HDI Index

Figure 1.1 HDI values and GDP indices 2002

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2004



Thailand stands clearly above the rest with 73 per cent, immediately followed by Malaysiaand Mongolia (70 per cent). The other countrieshave enrolment ratios ranging from 55 per cent(India) to over 60 per cent (China, Indonesia,Sri Lanka and Vietnam).

As mentioned earlier, the newer computer andInternet-related technologies are moredemanding in terms of skills of users than oldercommunication technologies such as radio, TVand the telephone. This makes the relationshipbetween ICT and educational advance a two-way phenomenon. While ICT can be used as anenabling device to increase the spread andquality of education, ICT use itself can be con-strained or facilitated by pre-existing educa-tional levels which influence the skills of usersor their ability to develop new skills. This raisesthe possibility that ICT use may widen analready existing divide. To the extent that thebetter-endowed sections are more capable oftaking advantage of the new technology,inequalities will only increase.

Finally, the countries being considered are alsocharacterized by stark differences in GDP percapita (measured in terms of PPP US$). A higherper capita income makes it easier to mobilizeresources and finance investment in not justbasic infrastructure such as roads and electricity,but also in specialized ICT-related infrastructure.Malaysia has a high GDP per capita of US$ 9,120,which is even higher than the world GDP percapita figure of US$ 7,804, followed byThailand’s figure of US$ 7,010. China comes nextwith a much lower US$ 4,580 to be followed bySri Lanka (US$ 3,570), Indonesia (US$ 3,230) andIndia (US$ 2,670). Finally, Vietnam, Pakistan andMongolia constitute the lower end with GDPper capita at or below US$ 2,300.

Human deprivation indicators

The differential capabilities that stem fromthese factors can have significant implicationsfor the effectiveness of ICT as an enablinginstrument for advancing human develop-ment and realizing the MDGs, because of thestrong relationship between human develop-ment indicators and specific indicators of dep-rivation (Table 1.5). Malaysia and Thailand, thetop two performers among the nine in termsof the HDI, have the lowest incidence of poverty(less than 2 per cent) measured as the propor-tion of the population living below the incomepoverty line of US$ 1 per day. India records

the highest incidence (34.7 per cent), followedby Vietnam (17.7 per cent), China (16.6 percent), Mongolia (13.9 per cent), and Pakistan(13.4 per cent).

If one were to consider the data on the proba-bility at birth of people not surviving to theage of 40, there is some correlation betweenthis data and a country’s HDI ranking.Countries with less than 10 per cent of theirpopulation in the 2000-05 cohort who will notlive to the age of 40 are Malaysia (4.2 per cent),Sri Lanka (5.1 per cent) and China (7.1 percent). Pakistan (17.8 per cent), India (15.3 percent) and Mongolia (13.0 per cent) perform rel-atively poorly on this score. Thailand, Vietnamand Indonesia constitute the medium per-formers on this index, with around 10 per centof their population not likely to live till the ageof 40. It should be noted, however, thatThailand was ranked second in terms of HDIamong the nine countries considered.

Finally, India and Pakistan perform poorly inrespect of malnutrition, with the percentage ofchildren under five years of age who are under-weight for age placed at 47 per cent and 38 percent, respectively. Indices of this kind enter theUNDP’s Human Poverty Index (denoted as HPI-1for developing countries) (Table 1.5). Of the ninecountries covered in this Report, the HPI-1 rankfor Malaysia is not available. Of the rest,Thailandand China come out on top, with ranks of 22 and24 out of 95 countries. They are followed byIndonesia (35), Sri Lanka (36), Mongolia (38) andVietnam (41), with almost successive ranksaccording to this scale. India, ranked 48, andPakistan, ranked at a distant 71 as per the HPI-1,are again the laggards in the fight againstdeprivation.

The gender divide

The other danger is that rapid ICT diffusion anddevelopment, if unaccompanied by appropriatepolicies, could widen the digital divide leadingto different degrees of marginalization.Inadequate human development also implies ahigher degree of discrimination against particu-lar sections, such as women and indigenouspopulations. Thus, human developmentadvance cannot be registered without address-ing such divides. And as long as they remainunaddressed, any increase in the applicationand use of ICTs would be accompanied by aworsening of the digital divide as well.

Inadequate humandevelopment also

implies a higher degree of

discrimination againstparticular sections,such as women and

indigenous populations.Thus, human

development advancecannot be registered

without addressingsuch divides



Women are key agents of development andtheir equal participation in decision-makingprocesses is an essential precondition for equi-table and holistic development. Unfortunately,wide gender gaps remain a weak aspect ofhuman development in Asia. For example,Pakistan is not just a poor performer in terms ofmany human development indicators, but acountry in which the indicators for females areworse than those for males. For instance, the lifeexpectancy figure (Table 1.6), which is generallyhigher for females than males, is 60.7 years forfemales in Pakistan, lower than that for males(61.0 years). This compares poorly with the situ-ation in the other countries covered in thisstudy where, as expected, female life expectancyexceeds male life expectancy.

Similarly, a comparison of male and female litera-cy rates reveals a dismal situation in Pakistan andIndia,with high male-female gaps. In Pakistan thefemale literacy rate is only 28.5 per cent, which is

24.9 percentage points below the male literacyrate. In no country covered does the female liter-acy rate exceed the male literacy rate,although inMongolia the male-female gap is only 0.5 of apercentage point. The combined school enrol-ment ratio also reveals significant male-femalegaps, especially in India (14 percentage points),followed by Pakistan and Mongolia (12 percent-age points). It should, however, be noted that thecombined enrolment ratio for females exceedsthe male ratio in Mongolia, which perhapsreflects the effect of privatization of ownership ofanimals that results in male children being maderesponsible for herding. Malaysia and Sri Lankaare the other two countries where the combinedenrolment ratio for females is higher than that ofmales, although the gap is much narrower thanthat in Mongolia.

Discrimination with regard to education spillsover into the work sphere as well, where partic-ipation rates tend to be lower in the case of

While Asian nationshave madeconsiderable progresson the humandevelopment front,substantial divergences and manycritical challengesremain

China 7.1 9.1f 25 11 16.6 46.7 4.6 24 13.2India 15.3 38.7f 16 47 34.7 79.9 28.6 48 31.4Indonesia 10.8 12.1 22 26 7.5 52.4 27.1 35 17.8Malaysia 4.2 11.3f — 12 �2 9.3 15.5g — —Mongolia 13.0 2.2f 40 13 13.9 50.0 36.3 38 19.1Pakistan 17.8 58.5f,h 10 38 13.4 65.6 32.6 71 41.9Sri Lanka 5.1 7.9 23 29 6.6 45.4 25.0 36 18.2Thailand 10.2 7.4f 16 19i �2 32.5 13.1 22 13.1Vietnam 10.7 9.7f,h 23 33 17.7 63.7 50.9 41 20.0

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2004.* Refers to Human Poverty Index for developing countries.a Data refer to the probability of not surviving to age 40, multiplied by 100. They are medium variant projections for the period specified.b Data refer to estimates produced by UNESCO Institute for Statistics in July 2002, unless otherwise specified. Due to differences in method-

ology and timeliness of underlying data, comparisons across countries and over time should be made with caution.c Data refer to the most recent year available during the period specified.d Poverty line is equivalent to $ 1.08 (1993 PPP US$).e Poverty line is equivalent to $ 2.15 (1993 PPP US$).f Census data.g Data refer to year or period other than that specified.h Data refer to a year between 1995 and 1999.i Data refer to a year or period other than that specified, differ from the standard definition or refer to only part of a country.

Value(%)

Rank(out of

95coun-tries)

Nationalpoverty

line(1987-2000)b

US$ 2 aday

(1993PPP

US$)d

(1990-2001)b

US$ 1 aday

(1993PPP

US$)c

(1990-2002)b

Childrenunder-

weight forage (%

under age 5)(1995-2002)b

Populationwithout

sustainableaccess to an

improvedwater

source (%)(2000)

Adult illiteracy

rateb

(age 15& above)

(%)(2001)

Probabilityat birth ofnot surviv-ing to age

40 (% ofcohort)

(2000-05)aCountry

Table 1.5 Human Poverty Index (HPI-1)* and indicators

Population below incomepoverty line (%)

(HPI-1)



women and earned incomes often substantiallylower. The latter occurs because of discrimina-tion in the kind of jobs left open for women andpartly because of differential wages being paidfor similar work to males and females.

These forms of discrimination apply not just topoor or uneducated/illiterate women or to poorperformers in terms of the HDI. An importantindicator used in the Gender EmpowermentMeasure (GEM) is the proportion of seats in thenational parliament held by women. Going bythat measure, Sri Lanka is the worst performer,with just 4.4 per cent of parliamentary seats heldby women, followed by Indonesia, India and

Thailand. At the upper end, Vietnam is a clearleader with 27.3 per cent of parliamentary seatsheld by women followed by Pakistan and China(Table 1.7).

It should be obvious that, given the range offeatures and indicators that are the proximatedeterminants of the human development situa-tion, the ways in which ICTs can be used toadvance the human development agendawould be manifold. The information collation,storage and manipulation capabilities of thetechnology can be used to reduce the capitaland operating costs of programmes that helpimprove one indicator or another. That is, they

Given the range offeatures and indicatorsthat are the proximate

determinants of thehuman development

situation, the ways inwhich ICTs can be usedto advance the human

development agendawould be manifold

Combined gross

enrolment ratio

for primary,

Life Adult literacy secondary and Estimated Gender-related

expectancy rate (% tertiary level earned Development

at birth ages 15 and schools (%) income (PPP Index

Country (years) 2002 above) 2002a 2001/2002b US$) 2002c (GDI)

Rank

(out of

144

Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male countries) Value

China 73.2 68.8 86.5d 95.1d 64e 69e 3,571 5,435 71 0.741

India 64.4 63.1 46.4d 69.0d 48f 62f 1,442 3,820 103 0.572

Indonesia 68.6 64.6 83.4 92.5 64g 66g 2,138 4,161 90 0.685

Malaysia 75.6 70.7 85.4d 92.0d 72g 69g 5,219 13,157 52 0.786

Mongolia 65.7 61.7 97.5d 98.0d 76 64 1,316 1,955 94 0.664

Pakistan 60.7 61.0 28.5d,h 53.4d,h 31f 43f 915 2,789 120 0.471

Sri Lanka 75.8 69.8 89.6 94.7 66i 64i 2,570 4,523 73 0.738

Thailand 73.4 65.2 90.5d 94.9d 72f 74f 5,284 8,664 61 0.766

Vietnam 71.4 66.7 86.9d,h 93.9d,h 61 67 1,888 2,723 87 0.689

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2004.a Data refer to estimates produced by UNESCO Institute for Statistics in July 2002, unless otherwise specified. Due to differ-

ences in methodology and timeliness of underlying data, comparisons across countries and over time should be madewith caution.

b Data refer to the 2001/02 school year, unless otherwise specified. Data for some countries may refer to national or UNESCOInstitute for Statistics estimates. Because data are from different sources, comparisons across countries should be madewith caution.

c Because of lack of gender disaggregated income data, female and male earned income are crudely estimated on the basisof data on the ratio of the female non-agricultural wage to the male non-agricultural wage, the female and male sharesof the economically active population, the total female and male population and GDP per capita (PPP US$). Estimates arebased on data for the most recent year available during 1991-2000, unless otherwise specified.

d Census data.e Data refer to the 1999/2000 school year.f Data refer to the 2000/2001 school year.g Preliminary UNESCO Institute for Statistics estimate, subject to further revision.h Data refer to a year between 1995 and 1999.i Data refer to the 1998/1999 school year.

Table 1.6 Gender-related Development Index (GDI) and indicators



can make a given volume of expenditure gothat much further. They can also render finan-cially viable, programmes that may otherwisehave been unsustainable.

Given the commercial nature of these technolo-gies and the multiple opportunities they canprovide for gainful employment, varying fromproduction to service delivery, they coulddirectly increase employment and incomes, andtherefore increase the wherewithal available torealize a better quality of life.

ICTs’ capacity to render easier, more interactiveand cheaper communication could help deliver,at a relatively low cost, high quality services towider sections of the population, including tothose in remote locations who have hithertobeen marginalized from the system. They could,thus, help campaigns with objectives as variedas increasing access to education and medicaldiagnoses and treatment, reducing femaleinfanticide and improving sanitation or promot-ing universal immunization. These features alsohelp build networks of those who can formulate

policies, undertake campaigns and lobby forchange, whether they be civil society organiza-tions, political activists or even committed gov-ernment officials.

Initial conditions, available resources, conscious-ness and commitment would determine whichof these features would be used, in which areaand to what extent. However, use of the tech-nology seems inevitable, especially since thechallenges to human development areimmense. As argued in our brief survey above,while Asian nations have made considerableprogress on the human development front, sub-stantial divergences and many critical chal-lenges remain. This diversity and these persist-ing challenges provide the background for anexploration of the ways in which ICTs can beused as human development enablers, the con-straints to realizing the promise of these tech-nologies and the dangers of a widening divideas ICT application and use increase. It is on thebasis of such an analysis that policies to use ICTsto strengthen people’s capabilities, and widentheir choices, can be devised.

ICTs’ capacity to rendereasier, more interactiveand cheapercommunication couldhelp deliver, at arelatively low cost, highquality services towider sections of thepopulation, including to those who have hitherto beenmarginalized

Female legislators, Female professional Ratio of GEMSeats in parliament senior officials and technical estimated female Rank

held by womena and managersb workersb to male (out of Country (% of total) (% of total) (% of total) earned incomec 78 countries) Value

China 20.2 — — 0.66 — —India 9.3 — — 0.38 — —Indonesia 8.0 — — 0.51 — —Malaysia 16.3 20 45 0.40 44 0.519Mongolia 10.5 30 66 0.67 62 0.429Pakistan 20.8 9 26 0.33 64 0.416Sri Lanka 4.4 4 49 0.57 74 0.276Thailand 9.6 27 55 0.61 57 0.461Vietnam 27.3 — — 0.69 — —

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2004.a Data are as of 1 March 2004. Where there are lower and upper houses, data refer to the weighted average of women’s

shares of seats in both houses.b Data refer to the most recent year available during the period 1992-2001. Estimates for countries that have implemented

the recent International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-88) are not strictly comparable with those for coun-tries using the previous classification (ISCO-68).

c Calculated on the basis of data on estimated earned income in Table 1.6. Estimates are based on data for the most recentyear available during the period 1991-2001.

Table 1.7 Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) and indicators


Photo 4/8/05 11:34 AM Page 3

Photo: Gabriel Accascina

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Summary Ch02 4/8/05 1:53 PM Page 19

Among the principal contributions of thedeclaration adopted atthe Millennium Summitof the United Nations inSeptember 2000 wasthe delineation of a setof goals and time-bound targets that provide that much-needed focus to accelerate progresstowards the overallobjective

The most basic needs for human developmentare living a long and healthy life, being educat-ed, having a decent standard of living andenjoying political and civil freedoms to partici-pate in the life of one’s community. All of theserequirements were recognized by the MemberCountries of the UN, when they adopted theMillennium Declaration, which defined a set ofMillennium Development Goals and correspon-ding targets.

The human development concept is, no doubt,much wider in scope than can be captured bythe MDGs, but there are strong links betweenthe two (Box 2.1). The three key dimensions ofhuman development that are captured by HDI,namely a decent standard of living, educationand health (for which longevity is a proxy), areentirely consistent with Goals 1 to 7, whichfocus on eradication of poverty and hunger, andon improving healthcare and education.Progress on Goal 3, which focuses on genderequality and empowerment, is captured bygender-related indices, developed as supple-mentary indices for human development meas-urement. Thus, while the human developmentapproach has a broad thrust that advocatesexpansion of human choices, the MDGs are con-structed as goals and targets that provide a use-ful framework to monitor progress as well asbuild and widen the constituency for humandevelopment.

The MDG targets cover a majority of the mostcritical development challenges. These includea wide range of interrelated issues each ofwhich cannot be addressed in isolation. Apartfrom the eradication of poverty and hunger, thetargets deal with education (achieving universalprimary education), healthcare (eradicatingmajor diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria as

well as reducing child mortality and improvingmaternal health), gender equality and empow-erment of women, environmental sustainabilityand global partnerships for development.

From the point of view of this Report, which isconcerned with the use of ICTs to advance thehuman development agenda, the MDGs are auseful point of departure. Any effort to deployICTs for human development must specify theproblem to be dealt with, assess the infrastruc-ture and hardware requirements, developappropriate software and make the necessaryinstitutional/organizational adjustments. Thisrequires a clear identification of the task at handin each specific context. The goals and targetsprescribed under the MDGs spell out thehuman development agenda in a form that isappropriate to examining the ways in whichICTs can and have been deployed to realize thisagenda. Given these features of the MDGs andthe global consensus around them, this Reportspecifically explores how ICTs can serve as aninstrument to provide an enabling environmentfor realizing those goals and targets.

Even in Asia, which, as we have seen, is a betterperformer on average in terms of the HDI andwhere many nations are ahead or on track inrealizing the MDGs, a number of countries havea long distance to travel if those goals are to beattained. The global HDR 2002 categorizesprogress across indicators as ‘achieved’, ‘ontrack’, ‘lagging’, ‘far behind’ and ‘slipping back’.These assessments that have tracked the per-formance of countries in terms of MDG progressclearly show that there are remarkable dispari-ties between and within regions, with humandevelopment reversals seen in some cases insub-Saharan Africa, Central and Eastern Europeand the CIS. Even in countries where the record

21

Asia’s march towards the Millennium Development GoalsM

DG

sC h a p t e r 2



has been good on average, there are specificareas of poor performance that are cause forconcern. Thus even though most Asian coun-tries, including some of the poorest countries ofSouth Asia, show advances, the importance ofsustaining the effort to realize some or all of theMDGs remains.

The findings of this and many similar studieshighlight the difficulties faced by mostregions/countries, when they seek to registerall-round progress while trying to attain theirMDG targets. East Asia and the Pacific, on thewhole, has made remarkable progress in itsattempt to halve income poverty and is well ontrack towards the goals of reducing childhunger and achieving universal primary educa-tion. However, at its current rate of progress, itwill still not be able to meet the MDG targets forgender equality, reducing child mortality andproviding sustainable access to improved watersources and sanitation by the year 2015.

South Asia needs to make significant progressin almost all areas if it is to achieve its MDGtargets. While official figures suggest that Indiahas made significant progress towards reduc-ing income poverty, according to a ESCAP/UNDP study on the MDGs and poverty reduc-tion,1 the pace of poverty reduction has been

much slower in the other countries in theregion. Thus success in halving the number ofpeople who live on less than US$ 1 a day by theyear 2015 is not assured. Further, the regionlags far behind in the reduction of hunger andwill be able to reach its target in this area onlyafter 2100. South Asia is ‘on track’ for only twoindicators – reducing poverty and providingsustainable access to improved water sources.At its current rate of progress, South Asia willfail to reach the other goals by 2015; for exam-ple, the goals of achieving universal primaryeducation, gender equality and reducing childmortality are expected to be reached longafter 2020.

These differences were noted by theESCAP/UNDP study, which points out that thisregion is characterized by considerable differ-ences in achievement across countries. Thereport found that a few countries would meetall goals and even surpass them. On the otherhand, there would be some which would meetnone of the goals. The majority, however, wereexpected to fall in between, meeting somegoals not others.

The nine country studies on which this Report isbased highlight these differences across coun-tries. While Malaysia has completed its immedi-

This Report specificallyexplores how ICTs

can serve as an instrument or

provide an enablingenvironment for

realizing the Goals and targets

Key capabilities for human development

Living a long and healthy life

Being educated

Having a decent standard of living

Enjoying political and civil freedom toparticipate in the community life

Essential conditions for human development

Environmental sustainability

Equity – especially gender equity

Enabling global economic environment

Box 2.1 Relationship between human development capabilities and the MDGs

Corresponding Millennium Development Goals

Goals 4, 5 and 6: Reducing child mortality,improving maternal health and combatingmajor diseases

Goals 2 and 3: Achieving universal primaryeducation, promoting gender equality (espe-cially in education) and empowering women

Goal 1: Reducing poverty and hunger

Not a Goal but an important global objectiveincluded in the Millennium Declaration

Corresponding Millennium Development Goals

Goal 7: Ensuring environmental sustainability

Goal 3: Promoting gender equality and empow-ering women

Goal 8: Strengthening partnership betweenrich and poor countries

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2003, p. 28


23Asia’s march towards the Millennium Development Goals

ate tasks on many fronts, Pakistan and Indiatend to lag behind in a wide range of areas.Differences are visible in terms of the pace ofprogress. This has been fast in Vietnam, raisinghopes of success by target date 2015, but it hasbeen much slower, and in some areas almostnon-existent, in Pakistan and India.

In almost all countries, slow progress in manyMDG areas is the result of the inadequatespread of advances in the relevant area to all itsregions. With market signals encouraging con-centration of economic activity and govern-ments short of funds to reach out to remotelocations, geography becomes an unwittingbarrier to human development. A much-notedfeature of ICTs is that, besides directly enhanc-ing productivity in diverse activities from pro-duction to service provision, they substantiallyincrease the reach of individuals, organizationsand governments at extremely low costs. Thismakes the task of bridging the regional divide,especially that between well-endowed urbanareas and relatively remote locations, that mucheasier. However, the ability to exploit that poten-tial of ICTs rests on an adequate spread of therelevant infrastructure. If investment in the req-uisite infrastructure is inadequate or unevenlydistributed across space and segments of thepopulation, the introduction of ICTs couldaggravate existing divides.

Performance varied across the Goals as well. It isuseful, therefore, to follow progress as per eachGoal for the nine countries covered by thisReport, as a prelude to assessing the role that

ICTs can play in this area. A Goal-wise assess-ment of progress towards the MDG targets isalso a useful way of identifying the less-noticedbottlenecks to human development advance inthe region.†

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme povertyand hunger

This Goal relates to the most basic capabilitythat people must have, which is enough incomefor subsistence and access to sufficient food toensure the minimum nutritional intake. Theprincipal targets are to halve, between 1990 and2015, the proportion of people whose income isless than US$ 1 a day and those living in hunger.While there are many problems with the data,the evidence points to considerable success inAsia and the Pacific in the effort to reduceincome poverty. Over the 1990s, countries of the region as a whole are estimated to havereduced the incidence of income poverty from34 to 24 per cent.2 Although this left an estimat-ed 768 million people in the region living onless than US$ 1 a day, it represented strikingprogress.3 If this trend continues, realizing theGoal of halving poverty to 17 per cent by 2015should not be difficult.

Progress appears to have been particularlyremarkable in the case of the most populouscountries of the region, which are also home tothe largest share of the world’s poor. Going bythe PPP US$1-a-day consumption definition ofthe poverty line, it appears that China,Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Thailand

Even in Asia, wheremany nations are aheador on track in realizingthe MDGs, a number ofcountries have a longdistance to travel if the Goals are to berealized

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

China 33 — — 28 — — 17 — — 18 — 17 —India 42 — — 42 — — 42 — — 35 — 35 —Indonesia — — — 17 — — 14 — 26 15 7 — 8Malaysia — — 0 — — 1 0 — — — — —Mongolia — — — — — 14 — 27 — — — —Pakistan 48c 25 34e — — — 7a — 13b — — — —Sri Lanka 4 — — — — 7d — — — — — —Thailand — — 6 — — — 2 — 0 2 2 — —Viet Nam — — — 15 — — — 18 — — — —

Note: The years presented are those for which data are available for the countries selected in the period 1990-2004. a 1996-97; b 1998-99; c 1990-91;d 1995-96; e 1992-93Source: World Bank, http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp, accessed in March 2005

† The discussion that follows is based on the country studies prepared as the basis for this Report.

Table 2.1 Percentage of population below US$ 1 (PPP) per day consumption



would be meeting the MDG in this area, whilethe others are performing less well and are like-ly to miss the target. Figures for Pakistan arecharacterized by dramatic fluctuations thatraise doubts regarding the data.

However, there are problems involved in usingan international poverty line based on PPP esti-mates. Using the official, national poverty line,equivalent to less than a quarter of a dollar perday or RMB 625 (US$ 75) per year, China’s ruralpoor decreased dramatically from 250 million in1978 (30.7 per cent of the rural population) to85 million in 1990 (9.4 per cent of the rural pop-ulation), and then to 29.2 million in 2001(3.2 percent of the rural population). China has alreadyachieved the target of halving its poor. Whileusing a standard international poverty line ofUS$ 1 per day yields a substantially greaterabsolute number of poor people, the trend inreduction of poverty is still impressive.

Even in India, the official National SampleSurvey Organization’s (NSSO’s) 55th Round sur-vey results relating to 1999-2000 point to a sub-stantial decline in poverty in comparison with1993-94. The figures indicate that povertydeclined by 10 percentage-points, from 35.97per cent to 26.10 per cent between 1993-94 and1999-2000. This was not only much larger thanthe 2.9 percentage-points reduction during theprevious five-year period from 38.9 per cent in1987-88 to 36 per cent in 1993-94, but alsomeant that while the number of poor hadincreased from 307 million in 1987-88 to 320million in 1993-94, that number had fallensharply to 260 million by 1999-2000.

However, the 55th Round, rather than leading tounanimous recognition of the major gains reg-istered on the poverty reduction front, has ledto controversy with some arguing that a changein methodology adopted in that Round hadsubstantially contaminated the data. Accordingto Abhijit Sen4: “Although it is now the officialposition that poverty declined very substantial-ly between 1993-94 and 1999-2000, this is aclaim which is vitiated by serious problems ofcomparability. Different recall periods wereused in the 50th (1993-94) and 55th (1999-2000) Rounds of the National Sample Surveyand this has led to two sources of non-compa-rability. First, the 55th Round used only a 365days recall for clothing, footwear, durable goods,education and institutional medical care,whereas the available 50th Round results for

these items are by a 30 days recall. Secondly,while estimates of consumption of food, paan,tobacco and intoxicants had been collectedusing only a 30 days recall period in the 50thRound, all respondents were asked both the 30 days and 7 days questions in the 55th Round.Since a 7 days recall is known to elicit a substan-tially higher consumption estimate for food etc.,the presence of this question in the 55th RoundConsumption Survey might have affectedresponses to the 30 days question.”

Following the controversy, some analysts placedthe estimate of poverty incidence for 1999-2000at around 33 per cent.The latter makes the paceof poverty reduction the same during the twofive-year periods 1987-88 to 1993-94 and 1993-94 to 1999-2000. Taking the rate as indicated bythe official poverty figures, India is well on theway to realizing the MDG in this area. Povertywould have stood at 35.06 per cent in 1990-91and would fall to just 3.06 per cent by 2015-16,which is way below half. The goal of halvingpoverty would be achieved as early as 2004-05.On the other hand, if the rate of reduction sug-gested by the independent estimate is takeninto consideration, poverty would touch 22.38per cent in 2015-16, which is close to 4 percent-age points “short” of the MDG target.5

There are some countries where the record isunambiguously positive. Malaysia has an out-standing record on poverty eradication. TheMDG target does not appear relevant here. Acomprehensive and aggressively intervention-ist policy adopted by the government resultedin reducing the incidence of poverty from 49.3per cent of the households in 1970 to 7.5 percent in 1999. Currently, the focus of povertyeradication is on addressing pockets of povertyin remote areas and among the indigenousOrang Asli and other Bumiputera minorities inthe states of Sabah and Sarawak.

Similarly, Sri Lanka has undoubtedly achieveda great deal in reducing poverty sinceIndependence. These gains are reflected inimpressive human development indicatorswhich distinguish Sri Lanka from other low-income countries. Another striking case isVietnam, which has reduced the proportion ofpeople living on less than US$ 1 (PPP) a dayfrom 50.8 to 9.6 per cent in the 1990s. Giventhe differences in the per capita income levelsof these success stories, there is reason tobelieve that a concerted effort at poverty

A much-noted feature of ICT is that,

besides directly enhancing productivity

in diverse activitiesfrom production to

service provision, theysubstantially increase

the reach of individuals,organizations and

governments atextremely low costs



reduction can have significant effects. It is thisexpectation that makes the use of ICT relevantto directly contributing to or facilitating povertyreduction.

However, a positive picture gives no room forcomplacency as the experiences of Indonesiaand Thailand suggest. During the period ofhigh economic growth in Indonesia, the gov-ernment had managed to reduce the inci-dence of poverty significantly. The total num-ber of poor people dropped from 54.2 million(or 40.1 per cent of the total population) in1976 to 22.5 millions (or 11.3 per cent) in 1996.During the period of the financial and eco-nomic crisis in 1997-98, the rupiah exchangerate plunged from 2,500 to 15,000 against theUS dollar; consequently, the prices of essentialsrose substantially. This resulted in an increasein the total number of poor people to 47,974million (or 23.43 per cent) in 1999. As the econ-omy stabilized and improved, poverty statisticsalso improved. The total number of poor peo-ple dropped to 38.4 million (or 18.2 per cent) in 2002.6

Similarly, the percentage of Thailand’s popula-tion under the national poverty line steadilydeclined from 32.6 per cent in 1988 to 11.4 in1996. The economic crisis reversed this trend;15.9 per cent of Thais were classified as being“poor” in 1999, revealing the vulnerability of the marginal groups. In 2001, as the country was moving out of the crisis, 13 per cent or 8.2 million people still lived under the povertyline.7

The country studies also point to instanceswhere progress has been extremely slow. InMongolia, the Living Standard MeasurementSurveys (LSMS) conducted in 1995 and 1998showed that the poor and very poor constitut-ed 36.3 per cent and 35.6 per cent of the pop-ulation, respectively. This amounts to an annu-al decline of less than a third of a percentagepoint, suggesting that if current trends persistthe MDG in this area will not be realized. Aneven more disconcerting case is Pakistan,where trends in rural poverty point to signifi-cant increases between 1987 and 1998, risingfrom 18 per cent to 35 per cent; while urbanpoverty has risen more gradually from 15 to 21per cent.The rural trend has driven the countryoverall to a nearly 15-point increase in poverty(from 17 to 31 per cent of the population) dur-ing this time frame.8 It would seem at first

blush that Pakistan is losing ground withregard to MDG 1.

Thus the nine countries studied as part of thisproject corroborate the substantial inter-country and intra-country variations in the paceof progress toward Goal 1 of the MDGs. Whilethis illustrates the potential for progress in thelow achievers, it also indicates the distance thatremains to be travelled. The country studies alsoillustrate the possibility of individual countriesthat register substantial progress in povertyreduction slipping back. Thus ICT needs to beharnessed not merely to contribute to and facil-itate poverty reduction, but also to constantlymonitor poverty trends and alert policy makersof likely or actual reversals of past achievements.

Poverty is the product of economic processesoccurring at a variety of levels – local, nationaland international. Existing social and economicrelations structure the impact of external factorsand determine who will have access to subsis-tence and livelihood opportunities as well asaccess to education and assets, which can help toincrease these choices. In the medium term, suc-cess depends on changes in these areas but ICTscan be used to ameliorate poverty in many ways.

Thus, ICTs can be used to increase access tomarket information, reduce transaction costs forpoor farmers and traders, and facilitate thedevelopment of alternative marketing strategies.Micro-finance institutions in rural and urbanareas, which support these agents and activi-ties, could benefit from the use of ICTs.They canalso increase the efficiency, competitivenessand market access of developing country firms,particularly small and medium scale enterprises(SMEs). ICTs can also enhance the cost effective-ness and reach of government services,enhance the provision of public services with apro-poor focus (e-government) and facilitatedevelopment of integrated solutions. Finally,ICTs can facilitate poverty mapping and moni-toring, help evaluate the impact of povertyreduction strategies and mediate enhancedsupport to the poor.

The battle against hunger

The mixed picture on the poverty reductionfront is supported by similar evidence withregard to reduction of hunger. Across the Asia-Pacific region, over the 1990s, the proportion ofunderweight children fell only from 35 to 31 percent, making the pace of reduction inadequate

The nine countriesstudied for this Reportcorroborate thesubstantial inter-country and intra-country variations inthe pace of progresstoward Goal 1 of theMDGs



to realize the MDG in this area.9 This is alsotrue of the proportion of people who couldnot ensure food intake adequate to meet min-imum calorie requirements, which fell from 20to 16 per cent over the 1990s.10 According tofigures from the global HDR 2002, with respectto the target for the “percentage of under-nourished people”, while six out of nine coun-tries covered in this study are ‘on track’, India is‘far behind’ and Mongolia is categorized as‘slipping back’. Data are not available forMalaysia.

Pakistan’s experience suggests that progresstowards realizing the target of reducing hungerand malnutrition can be stymied if the overallpoverty alleviation effort is lagging. Two keyindicators are used to measure progress in thisarea: the prevalence of underweight children(under five years of age) and the proportion ofthe population below a minimum level ofdietary energy consumption.

In the past, Pakistan had made modestprogress in lowering the number of malnour-ished children. While in 1978, nearly half (49per cent) of all children under five years of agewere malnourished, the figure dropped steadi-ly, if slowly, to 40 per cent in 1990 and 38 percent in 1995.11 UNICEF data suggest that thefigure had not changed by 2002 (Table 2.2).Further, the Pakistan Human ConditionReport12 states that malnutrition in childrenunder five years of age stood at 42 per cent in1998. In human terms, this translates into 10million malnourished children, two-thirds ofwhom are stunted, 40 per cent underweight,

and nearly 10 per cent wasted. Clearly, theseare unacceptable levels. This situation has aris-en because ground on poverty reduction, ingeneral, is being lost. According to FAO meas-ures used for the World DevelopmentIndicators database, nearly a quarter of thepopulation in Pakistan lacked the necessarycalorie intake for a reasonable subsistence in1990, as did 20 per cent in 2001 (Table 2.3).

As has been repeatedly stated, hunger and mal-nutrition are not the result of inadequate foodavailability. Thus, although Thailand is one of the top producers and exporters in the worldfood market, 18 per cent of its population, or 11.5 million people, are undernourished, and 19 per cent of children under five are under-

ICTs can be used toincrease access to

market information,reduce transaction

costs for poor farmersand traders, and

facilitate thedevelopment of

alternative marketingstrategies

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1999 2000 2001 2002

China 19.1 — — — — 10.0 — —India — — — 53.4a,b 47.0c,d — — —Indonesia — — — — 26.4 — — 26.1Malaysia — — — 23.3 — — 12.4 —Mongolia — — 12.3e — — 12.7 — —Pakistan — 40.4f — — — — — 38.0h

Sri Lanka — — — — — 29.4g — —Thailand — — — 18.6 — — — —Vietnam — — — — — 33.1 — —

Note: The years presented are those for which data are available for the countries considered in the period 1990-2002. a Data for 1992-93; b Age groupis 0-47 months; c Data for 1998-99; d Age group is 0-35 months; e Age group is 0-48 months; f Data for 1990-91; g Age group is 3-59 months; h Data for2001-02Source: UNICEF estimates, http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp, accessed in March 2005

Country 1991 1996 2001

China 17a 12b 11c

India 25a 21b 21 c

Indonesia 9a 6b 6c

Malaysia 3a 2b 2c

Mongolia 34a 46b 28c

Pakistan 24a 19b 20c

Sri Lanka 28a 26b 22c

Thailand 28a 21b 20c

Vietnam 31a 23b 19c

Note: The years selected in the period 1990-2004 arethose for which data are available for the nine countriesconsidered. a 1990-92 average; b1995-97 average; c2000-02averageSource: FAO estimates, http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp, accessed in March 2005.

Table 2.3 Proportion of population below minimum dietary energy consumption

Table 2.2 Children under five moderately or severely underweight, per cent



weight. Although ICTs may not be able to have adirect impact (as in the case of education) byway of increasing food supply and reducinghunger, they can have an impact through a vari-ety of related processes. ICTs can decrease thevulnerability of deprived people and improvepoverty mapping, particularly in times ofdrought and famine. The effectiveness andimpact of development programmes in theaffected regions can be increased through theuse of ICTs. More generally, ICTs can assist in mit-igating poverty and hunger by providing sys-tems that improve the provision of public servic-es and enhance access to government pro-grammes (e-government) for the poor. Forexample, ICTs can enhance the effectiveness,reach, functioning and transparency of publicdistribution and related systems, as illustrated bythe Right To Know initiative in Rajasthan, India.By providing market and price information theycould improve the efficiency of markets, andthereby help reduce the cost of access to food.Lastly, ICTs help to facilitate research and devel-opment, and information sharing on agriculturalfarm extension technologies and approaches,development of effective seed technologies,etc., particularly those that can work to enhancefood security and subsistence.

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

The target of ensuring, by 2015, that childreneverywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to

complete a full course of primary schooling isimportant for human development. Having aneducated workforce is the key to future nationalprosperity, and a basic requirement in that direc-tion is for all children to be enrolled in primaryschool. Net enrolment† in the Asia-Pacific regionhas remained static at about 93 per centbetween the early and the late 1990s.13

However, in this area, the limited data availablesuggest that country level achievements havebeen significant. According to UNICEF data,China, Malaysia and Vietnam are significant per-formers in the target pertaining to the indicator‘net enrolment ratio’, though there are marginalreversals of past achievement. China andMalaysia are also close to achieving the targetfor the indicator ‘proportion of children reachinggrade 5’, closely followed by Sri Lanka andThailand (Tables 2.4 and 2.5).

National figures suggest that progress in somecountries has indeed been remarkable. The netprimary school enrolment rate (NER) in Chinawas reportedly raised from 98 per cent in 1990to 99 per cent in 2000. Meanwhile the NER ofsecondary schools was raised from 75 per centin 1990 to 95 per cent in 2000. Youth above 15 years of age received 7.85 years of educationin 2000, which was much longer than the 5.33years estimated for 1983.14

However, the picture is not the same every-where. India’s record on the educationaladvancement front after five-and-a-half

ICTs can assist inmitigating poverty andhunger by providingsystems that improvethe provision of publicservices and enhanceaccess to governmentprogrammes (e-government) for the poor

1990 1998 1999 2000 2001

China 97.4 — — 92.8a 94.6India — — 83.8 83.3 82.8Indonesia 96.7 91.1a 91.9 92.1Malaysia 93.7a 97.4 99.1 96.9 95.2Mongolia 90.1a 89.4 90.6 90.0 86.6Pakistan 34.7a — — 59.1a —Sri Lanka 89.9a 99.8 — — —Thailand 75.9a 79.6a 84.2a 86.8a 86.3Viet Nam 90.5a 96.7 96.3 95.4 94.0a

Note: a UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) estimation.Source: UNESCO, http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp, accessed in March 2005.

† Gross enrolment ratio is the ratio of total enrolment, regardless of age, to the population of the age group that offi-cially corresponds to the level of education shown. However, what matters is the net enrolment ratio, which is theratio of the number of children of official school age (as defined by the national education system) who are enrolledin school to the population of the corresponding official school age.

Table 2.4 Net enrolment ratio in primary education



decades of Independence is indeed poor. Theslow rates of improvement in literacy and edu-cation for both men and women remain majorfailures of the Indian development process.India still contains the largest number of illiter-ate people in the world, and also the largestnumber of illiterate women. According to theCensus of India, the literacy rate did rise from43.57 per cent to 52.21 per cent between 1981and 1991 and touched 65.38 per cent in 2001.Further, the literacy requirement is set so lowthat, in most cases, being literate would be inad-equate to be competent enough to becomedigitally literate. A minimum of school educa-tion would be a prerequisite beyond a point.Here too the picture is dismal. To quote thePublic Report on Basic Education in India15, “atthe time of the 1991 Census and the NationalFamily Health Survey (1992-3):

● half of the country’s population (61 percent of women and 36 per cent of men,aged seven and above) was unable to readand write

● only 30 per cent of all adults had complet-ed eight years of schooling, and

● one-third of all children aged six to 14 years(about 23 million boys and 36 million girls)were out of school.”

India’s record on the education front, while indi-cating progress, shows that much remains to bedone. School enrolment ratios show a signifi-cant increase across India, although there is sub-stantial evidence from micro studies and othersurveys that these are typically overestimates.Gross enrolment ratios measure the ratios oftotal enrolment, regardless of age, to the popu-lation of the age group that officially corre-

sponds to the level of education shown. Thesewere close to or at 100 per cent throughout the1990s. However, what matters is the net enrol-ment ratio, which is the ratio of the number ofchildren of official school age (as defined by thenational education system) who are enrolled inschool to the population of the correspondingofficial school age.

Here, though there have been some signs ofimprovement, the Education For All goal is faraway. According to National Family HealthSurveys (NFHS) of 1992-93 and 1998-99, theproportion of children in the six to14 age groupattending school rose between these two peri-ods from 62.6 to 75.7 per cent in rural India and82.4 to 87.6 per cent in urban India. This impliesthat in the latter period more than one in everyfive children in the six to 14 age group was notattending school.

Further, the proportion of pupils startinggrade 1 who reach grade 5, or persistence tograde 5 (measured as percentage of cohortreaching grade 5), is estimated at a virtuallystagnant 59 per cent in 1993 and 60 per centin 1998. Official figures of the drop-out rate for1997-98 in the Class I-V category was 39.38per cent, in the Class I-VIII category was 54.14per cent and in the Class I-X category was69.33 per cent.16 Thus there appears to be lit-tle progress towards achieving the goal of afull course of primary schooling for childrenby 2015.

To deal with this kind of problem, Indonesiarecently revised the law of compulsory primaryeducation that changed the mandatory periodfrom six to nine years. However, compulsory

The target of ensuring,by 2015, that childreneverywhere, boys and

girls alike, will be ableto complete a fullcourse of primary

schooling is importantfor human

development. Having an educated workforce is

the key to futurenational prosperity

1990 1998 1999 2000

China 86.0 97.3 — 98.0a

India — 62.0 59.0 —Indonesia 83.6 — — 89.2Malaysia 98.2 — — —Mongolia — — — —Pakistan — — — —Sri Lanka 94.4 — — —Thailand — 94.1a — —Vietnam — 82.8 85.7 89.0

Note: a UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) estimation.Source: UNESCO, http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp, accessed in March 2005.

Table 2.5 Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 and reaching grade 5



education there is not the same as in the west-ern world where the law ensures that the gov-ernment would have to guarantee that allschool-age children attend school. Indonesia isunable to provide such a guarantee due to alimited education budget. Thus the decision todeclare nine years of compulsory educationappears more relevant from the point of viewof encouraging the State to pay more seriousattention to education by allocating a largershare of the budget to that sector. In the inter-im, the management of primary education ismuch better in affluent regions than in thosewith little or no resources and potential. Inremote areas that have no basic infrastructuresuch as service roads and utilities, the condi-tion of primary education is barely adequate atbest.

In Malaysia the national education system rec-ommended by the Education CommitteeReport of 1956 stipulated that every child be given a place in primary school. Based onthese recommendations, primary school feeswere abolished in 1961 and the school-leavingage was raised to 14 years. Basic education wasextended to include not only the primary levelbut also three years of lower secondary school-ing during the First Malaysia Plan (1966-70). Theintroduction of a comprehensive education sys-tem in 1965 raised the years of school-level edu-cation to 15. Free education for children right upto the upper secondary level was introducedduring the Fourth Malaysia Plan (1981-85) andthis extended free universal education fromnine to 11 years.

As a result of these changes, enrolment ratesfor primary education rose from 53.2 per centin 1970 to 98.8 and 97.7 per cent in 1990 and2000, respectively, for ages six to 11. For sec-ondary education (ages 12-18), the figure rosefrom 47.1 per cent in 1980 to 52.0 and 59.3 percent in 1990 and 2000, respectively. Increasesin the number of primary schools (4,443 in1970 and 7,231 in 2000), the student-to-teacher ratio (31.5 in 1970 and 19.0 in 2000)and the number of primary school students(617,406 in 1970 and 2,933,877 in 2000) haveall contributed to early achievement of theMDG target.17

Sri Lanka now enjoys a high literacy rate, whichis 91.6 per cent overall, 94 per cent for men and89 per cent for women. The school enrolmentratio is also higher than that in most develop-

ing countries. Both these features bring SriLanka on par with developed countries. In1996-97, 20.7 per cent of the population hadhad some sort of tertiary education whileabout 35 per cent had completed secondaryschooling and another 35 per cent primaryschooling. The percentage of the population,which had never had any formal education, wasonly 8.6 per cent – a sharp decrease from 41.8 per cent in 1953.18

Thailand too has a high rate of literacy forthose in the 15-24 age group. ESCAP/UNDP19

reports that in 2002 the literacy rate forfemales was 98.5 per cent and for males ashigh as 99.5 per cent.20 Until recent reform, sixyears of primary schooling was compulsory inThailand. Consequently, Thailand has achie-ved nearly universal primary education since1995. However, despite the high enrolmentrate, the retention ratio within the educationsystem gradually declines throughout theschooling years. Only 80 per cent of thoseClass 1 students who enrolled in the year1990 have reached the last year of primaryschooling. Just over 60 per cent of those stu-dents have continued further to the last yearof lower secondary education. And less thanhalf of those students attended upper sec-ondary school.21

Vietnam’s primary education enrolment rateshave also increased considerably to over 90per cent.22 This is especially impressive giventhe country’s low level of income. Still, thereare a number of underlying qualitative short-comings that would need to be redressed tofully meet this MDG. Almost one-third of chil-dren do not complete grade 5. Moreover, 70per cent of drop-outs are girls, reflecting theirtraditional roles and obligations at home. Inaddition, primary school pupils spend lessthan half the normal school day in class.Disparities in both quantity and quality of pri-mary education widen as poor families areunable to top up schooling hours on a privatebasis. Furthermore, net primary enrolmentrates in the 12 weakest performing provincesare more than 20 percentage points lower onaverage than in the 12 best performingprovinces. Whereas Ho Chi Minh City achievesa net enrolment rate of over 90 per cent in pri-mary education, Binh Phuoc, hardly four hoursdown the road, scarcely achieves 50 per cent.Such disparities increase further at higher lev-els within the education system.

Besides inadequateprogress towards theMDG in some cases,most countries arecharacterized by poorprogress in rural areasand specific remotelocations. Poverty is animportant determinantof educationalattainment



In other cases, performance has been poorand there are even signs of reversal of earlierachievement. In Mongolia, which has a cred-itable literacy rate that stood at 96.5 per centin 1989 and 97.8 per cent in 2000, the netenrolment ratio in primary and secondaryschools of children in the age group eight to15 fell from 93.5 per cent to 86.5 per cent.23

Similarly, in terms of enrolment in primaryeducation, Pakistan shows a relatively poorperformance, lagging behind countries at sim-ilar income levels by as much as 20 per cent.Much of this lag is accounted for by the gen-der gap: 40 per cent fewer girls attend primaryschool in Pakistan than in similar countries.Thus, the challenge in Pakistan in meeting thisGoal is to increase overall primary schoolenrolment and, in doing so, to close the enrol-ment gender gap.

In recent years, however, national figures sug-gest that the country has lost ground on enrol-ment, with overall net enrolment droppingduring the 1990s from 46 to 42 per cent. Notsurprisingly, the decline was more abrupt inrural areas than urban. Interestingly, the per-centage of females enrolled, while significantlylower than males in terms of overall enrolment,dropped out less than male enrolment duringthis same period (e.g., from 31 to 30 per cent inrural areas, compared to a decrease in maleenrolment from 50 to 43 per cent).24 Smallgains and losses at the margins aside, Pakistanhas a formidable task ahead in bringing net pri-mary enrolment to 100 per cent by 2015. Seenagainst this background the UNICEF figure,though low at 59 per cent in 2000, is reassuring(Table 2.4).

In sum, besides inadequate progress towardsthe MDG in some cases, most countries arecharacterized by poor progress in rural areasand specific remote locations. Poverty is animportant determinant of educational attain-ment. Even in those countries where primaryschooling is free, expenses are still incurred forpurchasing items such as books, equipment anduniforms. The most deprived families may alsorely on their children not only to contribute tothe family income but also to attend to domes-tic work and child care. Young girls are particu-larly vulnerable to pressures to drop out ofschool for this reason. In addition, families haveeven less incentive to send their children toschool when the schools may be poorlyequipped or staffed.

These factors notwithstanding, there is ade-quate cross-country evidence to suggest thatsupply-side adjustments can substantially influ-ence educational achievement. This makes therole that an enabler like ICT can play in an areasuch as education quite significant. It can do soby improving the delivery and administration ofeducational services by providing wider accessto educational material, and improving thequality of content and pedagogy. Given theability of ICT to provide access to quality educa-tional resources at low cost over a wide geo-graphical area, its role is obvious. It can not onlyhelp boost the effort at providing education,but can help reach it to the marginalized, irre-spective of their location. Above all, it can servethese purposes by reducing the cost of provi-sion of educational services as well as improvingquality – two features that may keep childrenback at school and stem the rise in the drop-outrate as the years of schooling increase.

In fact, education is one area where ICTs havebeen shown to have the most impact. However,countries should not begin with pre-conceivednotions of educational applications (distancelearning), but focus on content, solutions andcapacity development. One objective should beto improve the efficiency and effectiveness ofeducational administrators, authorities andenablers through the strategic application ofICTs and through ICT-enabled skill develop-ment. The technology can also be used to sup-port teacher training, learning and capacitydevelopment.Finally, ICTs can be used to broadenthe availability of quality educational materialsand resources.

All of this depends on cost reduction, an issuediscussed later. ICTs can enable the realizationof MDGs only if they provide cost effective toolsthat can be used in adequate measure. Thisrequires efforts in both developed and develop-ing countries and the forging of partnershipsbetween public and private sectors.

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

An area where progress has been disconcert-ingly slow across the region is gender equity.The crucial target for this goal is the eliminationof gender disparity in primary and secondaryeducation, preferably by 2005, and at all levels ofeducation no later than 2015. In terms of pri-mary education there is still some way to go in

There is adequatecross-country evidenceto suggest that supply-

side adjustments cansubstantially influence

educationalachievement. This

makes the role that anenabler such as ICT can

play in an area likeeducation quite

significant



the Asia-Pacific region. The data collected byESCAP/UNDP25 for 46 of the 58 countries in theregion point to the persistence of moderate orsevere disparities. Overall, countries have per-formed modestly in terms of female gross enrol-ment ratios for both primary and secondaryeducation.

However, the picture in countries such asPakistan and India is far less encouraging.Although literacy rates have increased in the1990s for both males and females, the gendergap in 1999 continued to be quite high, with lit-eracy rates for males being 58.3 per cent and forfemales 33.5 per cent.26 The problem is com-pounded by the lack of access by women toeducation; women constituted only 28.9 percent of the student body in the 26 public sectoruniversities, and there were only 10 vocationalcolleges for women out of a total of 172 inPakistan.27

Associated with India’s unsatisfactory progresson the literacy and education fronts, are sub-stantial gender differentials in even the modestachievements that have been recorded.The per-centage of females among pupils at the primaryeducation stage rose from 41 in 1990 to 43 in1992, stagnated at that level till 1996 and rose to45 in 1998. This is a pace of change where thelikelihood of the realization of the MDG target isclose to nil. The proportion of females amongsecondary school pupils stagnated at 37 percent between 1992 and 1995 and then rosemarginally to 38 per cent in 1998, where itremained even in 1998. Drop-out rates too tendto be much higher for girls than for boys.

Typically, by middle school the ratio of girl toboy students falls sharply, especially in ruralareas.28

What is more, the ratio of illiterate female tomale 15-to-24-year-olds remained stagnant at1.6 from 1990 to 2001. Female literacy rates aremuch lower (with the illiterate proportion usu-ally between 50 and 70 per cent) amongScheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes, as wellas among certain minority groups.

However, the experience in other countriesleads one to be optimistic. In the case of China,improvement through the 1990s had ensuredthat in 2000, the ratio of primary school girls toboys increased to 91 per cent, and the ratio insecondary education to 85 per cent. However,rural and minority girls have much less of anopportunity to receive a full primary educationand an even lower probability of completingsecondary education. Further, in 1999, theaverage duration of education for men andwomen was, respectively, 8.1 years and 6.6years. On the literacy front, between 1990 and1999, the ratio of female adult illiteratesdeclined by 10 percentage points. However,the ratio of female adult illiterates is, at 22 percent, higher than that for male adults by 9 per-centage points.29

China, like India, reveals a wider gender gap insecondary rather than in primary education(Tables 2.6 and 2.7), though China is ‘on track’and India is rated as ‘far behind’ in maintaininggender equality. China has room for improve-ment in this area although the ratio rose from

ESCAP/UNDP data on 46out of 58 countries inthe region point to thepersistence ofmoderate or severedisparities in femalegross enrolment ratios

Country Achieved On track Lagging Far behind Slipping back

China ●

India ●

Indonesia ●

Malaysia ●

Mongolia ●

Pakistan (NA)Sri Lanka ●

Thailand (NA)Vietnam ●

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2002.NA: Data not available

Table 2.6 Progress towards MDG 3 by nine Asian countriesGoal 3: Promote gender equality and empower womenTarget 4: Eliminate gender disparity in all levels of education Indicator 9: Female gross primary enrolment ratio as % of male ratio



0.71 in the early 1990s to 0.82 in the late 1990s.Malaysia and Sri Lanka are categorized as‘achieved’ while Vietnam is ‘on track’. In the caseof Pakistan and Thailand data were not available.

In Indonesia, the expansion in the educationsystem has benefited women, particularly afterthe government introduced the policy on com-pulsory basic education till nine years and abol-ished the payment of primary school fees. At theprimary school level, enrolment of girls andboys is equal. The proportion of illiteratewomen aged 10-44 years decreased from 7.6per cent in 1996 to 5.3 per cent in 1999, whilethat of illiterate men fell from 3.8 per cent in1996 to 2.7 per cent in 1999.30

The most striking case is Mongolia, where thereare far more girls than boys enrolled in second-ary education, with the enrolment ratio of girlsto boys at 1.11.31 Also male enrolment rates,particularly at the higher grades, have declinedmore sharply than female rates. This could berelated to the privatization of ownership of ani-mals, when more boys were required to under-take herding. In 2000, the number of boys drop-ping out was 42,078, which amounted to 61.7per cent of total drop-outs. However, girls’ sec-ondary school enrolment rate, although high, isstill below the target of 95 per cent.32 The tran-sition has had a sharp impact on enrolmentrates for girls and boys, eroding the achieve-ments in the previous period.

In Thailand, thanks to the expansion of the for-mal and non-formal education system, and thecompulsory education decree covering nine

years of schooling, girls and women haveenjoyed equal opportunities, and have evenoutperformed boys and men in various ways. In2000, the ratio of girls to boys was 0.93 at theprimary level and 1.01 at the secondary level.33

This pattern of gender equality is observedacross all regions including the poverty-strickenNortheast, and some Muslim-dominatedprovinces in the South. There are also morewomen than men in public universities. Theratio had increased steadily over the pastdecade to 1.15 in 2001. The numbers are morestaggering in private universities that havebecome an important provider of higher educa-tion. The female-to-male enrolment ratio was1.51 in 2000, while the female-to-male graduateratio was 1.70. Gender equality was alsoobserved in youth literacy (aged 15-24).34 Theratio of female-to-male literate youth was 0.97.Women accounted for 53 per cent of the smallproportion (2 per cent) of illiterate youth. Thereis, however, more illiteracy among both menand women and more gender imbalance inolder groups. The most disadvantaged group iswomen over 60. One in three women over 60 isilliterate, compared with one in five for men.

In Vietnam, gender disparities in education aresignificant but smaller than in countries withsimilar levels of economic development.However, while net enrolment rates for primaryeducation are nearly equal between boys andgirls, access to lower and upper secondaryschool for girls remains significantly lower thanthat for boys. Girls also account for 70 per centof all drop-outs, which must be redressed toachieve greater equality.35

Participation of womenin decision-making at

the nationalparliamentary level is

less satisfactory: this istypically below 10 per

cent in most developingcountries in the region


China ●

India ●

Indonesia ●

Malaysia ●

Mongolia ●

Pakistan (NA)Sri Lanka ●

Thailand (NA)Vietnam ●

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2002.NA: Data not available

Table 2.7 Progress towards MDG 3 by nine Asian countriesGoal 3: Promote gender equality and empower womenTarget 4: Eliminate gender disparity in all levels of education Indicator 9: Female gross secondary enrolment ratio as % of male ratio



Finally, Malaysia ranks among the top in theworld in terms of the ratio of females-to-malesin primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Infact, Malaysia has more than achieved the tar-gets in the MDG area of eliminating gender dis-parity in primary and secondary education wellbefore the preferred 2005 timeline. It has alsoalready achieved the goal of parity at the terti-ary education level where the targeted timelinefor the MDG goal is 2015.

Women’s participation in work

Data on the proportion of women who areactively involved in wage employment in thenon-agricultural sector is scarce. Available datasuggest that, despite substantial differences inlevels, the proportion of women engaged inwage employment is on the rise. By 2002, theshare of women is estimated to be, despite theincrease in the 1990s, as low as 8.9 per cent inPakistan, followed by India with 17.3 per cent.Vietnam and Mongolia top the list, with 51.4 percent and 49.4 per cent, respectively (Table 2.8).

Less satisfactory though is the participation ofwomen in decision-making at the national par-liamentary level: this is typically below 10 percent in most developing countries in the region.A notable exception is Vietnam, where the pro-portion of women in the national parliamenthas increased significantly from 18 per cent inthe early 1990s to 26 per cent in the late1990s.†36 It needs to be noted, however, thatwomen’s representation in parliaments andlocal governments does not necessarily reflectempowerment in the full sense of the term.There is substantial evidence of proxy represen-

tation in political structures, as the decision-making usually lies in the hands of male partyworkers. However, once women come to occupythese positions, they can be supported in waysthat empower them over time. ICTs can play amajor role here, such as through the provisionof access to information and analysis relating toissues that fall in their ambit of decision-making.

In China, women constituted 47 per cent of thetotal work force in 2000. Further, 39 per cent ofworking women were employed in the non-agricultural sectors. In addition, contrary totrends elsewhere, 36 per cent of all governmentofficials and 20 per cent of all entrepreneurswere women.37

However, income gaps between men andwomen continued to widen.The Second Surveyof the Social Status of Women conducted in2000 in China showed that during the secondhalf of the 1990s, although the income ofemployed women greatly increased, incomegaps compared with men grew wider. The sur-vey showed that the average monthly incomefor men in Shenzhen was 5,098 Yuan (approxi-mately US$ 616), while that for women was2,947 Yuan (US$ 356).Thus, the monthly incomeof men was 1.7 times higher than that ofwomen. In Hefei, the average monthly incomeof men was 847 Yuan (US$ 102), while that ofwomen was only 616 Yuan (US$ 74).

The status of women in the administrative andpolitical fields has also improved steadily inChina. Almost all the provinces, autonomous

Available data suggestthat, despite substantialdifferences in levels,the proportion ofwomen engaged inwage employment (non-agriculturalsector) is on the rise

Country 1990 1995 2000 2002

China 37.7 38.7 39.1a 39.4a

India 12.7 14.4 16.6 17.3Indonesia 29.2 29.0 31.7 29.7Malaysia 37.8 35.9 36.7 37.7Mongolia 47.5 47.0 48.5 49.4Pakistan 6.6 7.5 7.4 8.9Sri Lanka 39.1 44.0 46.0 37.3Thailand 45.3 44.0 46.1 46.7Vietnam 45.2 48.7a 50.7a 51.4a

Note: a Imputed values prepared using statistical models.Source: ILO, http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp, accessed in March 2005.

Table 2.8 Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector

† Figures in this paragraph are from the United Nations, Common Database: Millennium Indicators Database(UNESCO, ILO, IPU).



regions and municipalities have female officialsin government and the proportion of femaleofficials had reached 36.2 per cent of the total.Despite the progress in women’s social andpolitical participation, the level of women’sparticipation in national and social decision-making is still low. In 2000, the proportion offemale leaders in provinces and municipalitieswas 8 per cent, marking an advance of just 2percentage points since 1995.

In India, figures from the NSSO reveal that thepercentage of women in the 15+ age groupwho were either working in a casual, principaland secondary status or seeking or available forwork fell from 44.4 per cent in 1983 to 42 percent in 1993-94 and 38.5 per cent in 1999-2000.This was not only far greater than the fall from87.1 to 85.4 and 83.5 per cent, respectively, inthe case of men, but was due to a much sharperfall in rural than in urban areas.

Within the category of paid employment, gen-der differentials in wages are lower in India thanelsewhere in Asia, including, in East and SouthEast Asia. However, in recent times those differ-entials appear to be widening in both urbanand rural areas.Thus, besides general worseningof conditions of employment, gender-based jobsegregation, which ensures that women findwork at the lower end of the skill and value-added spectrum, appears to have played a role.

In Indonesia, the labour force participation rateof females aged 10 and above was 45.6 per centin 1999 and that for males 73.5 per cent.38

According to the global HDR 2002, the share ofemployment in the agricultural sector in totalemployment (1995-2001) for men and womenwas almost equal, with the figure for women at42 per cent and that for men at 41 per cent. Inthe case of the industrial sector, the employ-ment share in total was only 16 per cent forfemales, while it was 21 per cent for males. Theservice sector’s contribution to total employ-ment was higher for women (42 per cent) thanfor men (39 per cent). However, two years ofsevere economic crisis (1997-99) had affectedwomen adversely. According to a NationalDevelopment Planning Board Study,39 about17.8 per cent of the total population lived belowthe national poverty line. Almost half of the poorwere women.

Although, in 2001, Indonesia had its first femalePresident, the number of women in positions of

policy- and decision-making in the governmentremains low. There were only two women cabi-net ministers in the government as of April2003. In the parliament also the number ofwomen representatives remained low. In 2002,only 8 per cent of members of parliament werewomen. In 2004, only 8 per cent of members ofparliament were women.40

The figure for women in wage employment inthe non-agricultural sector has held steady at36 per cent in Malaysia for the past decade,indicating room for some measures to increasetheir participation in the industrial economy.The female labour force participation rate hasstagnated at around the mid-40 per cent level.However, close to 60 per cent of women out-side the labour force have at least upper sec-ondary education or above and a significantnumber of women, including those with terti-ary education, opt out of the labour force start-ing at the relatively young age of 45+ years. Inthe political arena, the proportion of seats heldby women in the national parliament amountsto slightly more than 10 per cent of elected rep-resentatives.41

In Mongolia, women’s share in employment iswithin the ideal range but has fallen since 1989,as a result both of the decline of industry andindustrial employment, and women’s sharewithin the sector. The privatization of herds,housing and state enterprises has overwhelm-ingly benefited men rather than women.Women have had to find alternative means ofsurvival, usually through self-employment inthe informal sector. Their representation indecision-making is also very limited. As of 2000,women held 11.8 per cent of the seats in parlia-ment, and 4.5 per cent of the speakerships ofaimag and capital citizen’s khurals, andaccounted for 12.9 per cent of their members.Similarly, 13 per cent of the speakers of soumand district khurals, and 25 per cent of theirmembers, were women. Except for one vicecabinet secretary, one vice minister and oneambassador, there are no women ministers oreven aimag governors. Sixteen per cent of theheads of departments within line ministriesand 3.3 per cent of soum and district governorsare female.42

Fundamental rights of women in Pakistan arecurtailed through a combination of discrimina-tory laws, cultural practices and social exclu-sion. The situation was further aggravated by a

Throughout the region arange of measures is

required to reduce gender inequality,

varying from creationof employment

opportunities specifically for women

to reforming socialpractices that work

against them



controversial suite of “Islamic laws” introducedduring General Zia’s military regime (1977-88),which have sanctioned discriminatory treat-ment of women.

A telling statistic, which reflects the adverseratio for life expectancy as well as cultural biastowards male children is the overall ratio of menand women in the population. In contrast tomany other countries, in which women out-number men in the total population, the genderratio in Pakistan in 2000 was, at 108:100, infavour of men. Not surprisingly, the femalelabour force participation rate of 13.7 per cent isfar below the 70.4 per cent participation rate formen, and the proportion of women in the non-agricultural work force has consistentlyremained below 9 per cent.43

While basic gender development indicators aresatisfactory for Sri Lanka, the empowerment ofwomen still remains a challenge. The femalelabour force participation rate in 2001 was 32.4per cent, while the rate for males was 66 percent. The total labour force of Sri Lanka by theend of 2001 consisted of 33.5 per cent womenand 66.5 per cent men. Fifty-two per cent ofworking women (as compared with 37.8 percent of working men) are involved in the agri-culture and fisheries category, crafts and relatedwork. Interestingly, while nearly 10 per cent ofworking women are professionals, the corre-sponding percentage for men is less than half ofthat. Notwithstanding this, only 1.5 per cent ofthe working women are in the senior official ormanager category, whereas 2.2 per cent ofworking men are at this level. Among the seniorofficials and managers in Sri Lanka’s public andprivate sectors, 25.6 per cent are women and74.4 per cent are men.44

Though Sri Lanka currently has a woman headof state and had the first woman prime ministerin the world in 1960, the number of womenseeking election to public office remains low.Parliamentary seats held by women as a per-centage of the total number of seats was 4 percent in 2000 – a decline from 4.8 per cent in1994.There was only one woman cabinet minis-ter in the government as of April 2003 and sheheaded the ministry of women’s affairs.

Empowerment is also the weakest link in theoverall gender situation in Thailand. Over the1990s, the percentage of women in the nationalparliament increased from 2.23 per cent to just

9.57 per cent in 2001.Thailand has a rather highlabour participation rate, and that rate is higherin the non-agricultural sector. Women workersplay an important role in manufacturing, wheredocile and disciplined workers are sought forthe assembly lines. These women earn onlyaround four-fifths of the wage paid to theirmale counterparts. Similarly, while women con-stitute a large part of the work force in the pub-lic sector, they have only 14.19 per cent of high-level management positions.45

In Vietnam, the socio-economic situation ofwomen appears to have improved substantiallyover the last 10 years. Female representation inVietnam’s National Assembly is high relative toother countries, with women comprising some25 per cent of delegates in the 11th Legislatureof the National Assembly. At the provincial level,at the turn of the decade, the number of femalerepresentatives in People’s Councils was signifi-cantly lower than that for men, though therewere significant variations across provinces. Inprovinces like Tuyen Quang, Dong Nai and SonLa nearly one-third of representatives werefemale, while in others such as Tra Vinh andKhanh Hoa the figure was below 10 per cent.

Thus, it is clear that throughout the region arange of measures is required to reduce gen-der inequality, varying from creation ofemployment opportunities specifically forwomen and ensuring equal pay for equal workto changing mind-sets and reforming socialpractices that work against giving women anequal position in the economic, social andpolitical mainstream. The use of ICTs for realiz-ing the MDG in this area must be assessed interms of its ability to influence outcomes onone or more of these fronts.

To cite some obvious applications, ICTs candeliver educational and literacy programmesspecifically targeted at poor girls and women,using appropriate technologies in both formaland non-formal educational settings (e.g., pub-lic access centres). In addition, such technolo-gies can be used to influence public opinion ongender equality through information and com-munication programmes using a range of ICTs.

Goal 4: Reduce child mortality

With regard to the goal of reducing under-fivemortality, the region as a whole appears to be‘on track’ to achieving the target of reducing

With regard to the Goalof reducing under-fivemortality, while theregion as a wholeappears to be on trackto achieving the targetof reducing the rate bytwo-thirds, there arestill millions of children dying beforereaching five



the rate by two-thirds. However, there are stillmillions of children dying before reaching fivebecause of significant inter-country disparitiesin achievement. Of the 44 countries for whichdata were available, ESCAP/UNDP46 projectedthat only 18 will succeed, while 26 will fall shortof the goal.47 Of the nine countries that are thefocus of this study, HDR 2002 categorizedIndonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia, Sri Lanka andThailand as ‘on track’ towards achieving thisgoal, while India and Vietnam were lagging.Pakistan and China were categorized as ‘farbehind’. In 2003 Pakistan had the highest under-five mortality rate (103), ‘far behind’ its 2015 tar-get of 42 per 1,000 live births (Table 2.9). Chinawas also similarly placed according to thisassessment.

In fact, in China, rapid improvements in health-care before 1990 gave hope that mortality ratesof under-fives could be cut by two-thirds in thefollowing 25 years. However, the experiencesince then points to the persistence and widen-ing of rural-urban differentials as a result ofwhich the rural mortality ratio is three timeshigher than the urban. This could affect its real-ization of the MDG in the area.

The experience in India is similar. Evidencefrom the Registrar General’s SampleRegistration Surveys (SRS) suggests that,while Infant Mortality Rates (IMRs) havedeclined over time, the rate of decline hasdecelerated over the 1990s. This problem ismore pronounced among girls. The IMR formales fell by 26 per cent between 1981 and1991 (from 110 to 81 per 1,000) but only by 12per cent over the subsequent decade, to 71per 1,000.48 The deceleration in the rate ofdecline of infant mortality among girls over

the two decades was even sharper, with therate of improvement falling from 27 per centto 10 per cent, such that the female IMR was72 per 1,000 in 2001. Of course, this concealsthe extent of female foeticide which is likely(if anything) to have brought down femaleIMRs. Even by the mid-1990s, of the more than25 million children born every year, close to2.5 million were expected to die before theywere one year old and another 1.2 millionbefore reaching the age of five. A major causeof morbidity is, of course, malnutrition. Nearlyone out of every two children was malnour-ished on both weight-for-age and height-for-age bases. More than a third of women wereundernourished as per the Body Mass Index(BMI) and over a half of ever-married womenand three-fourths of children suffered fromanaemia.

Indonesia recorded a 30 per cent decline over15 years in IMR. The figure fell from 65 deathsper 1,000 live births in 1982-87 to 46 per 1,000live births in 1992-97. During the same period,under-five mortality declined at a faster rate (39 per cent) from 95 per 1,000 live births to 58 per 1,000 live births.49 In 2003 UNICEF-WHOdata indicate that infant and under-five mortal-ity rates stood at 31 and 41 per 1,000 live births,respectively.

With free access to pre-natal care, infant andchild mortality rates in Sri Lanka are significantlylower than elsewhere. This achievement is pri-marily due to the educational levels of womenwho are the primary care-givers of children. Agender and health survey carried out in 1997discovered that in 93 per cent of the cases sur-veyed, mothers made decisions regarding thehealth of children.

Even in an area wherethe effort to realize the

MDG is less difficult,such as the Goal of

reducing childmortality, and wheresome countries havealready achieved the

target, there are manywho are slipping or

falling far behind

Country 1990 1995 2000 2003

China 49 46 40 37India 123 104 94 87Indonesia 91 66 48 41Malaysia 21 12 9 7Mongolia 104 89 75 68Pakistan 130 118 108 103Sri Lanka 32 25 20 15Thailand 40 34 29 26Vietnam 53 44 30 23

Source: UNICEF-WHO, http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp, accessed in March 2005.

Table 2.9 Children under-five mortality rate



In Mongolia, UNICEF-WHO figures estimatedthat infant and under-five mortality rates fell sig-nificantly in the last decade. IMR declined from74 in 1990 to 56 per 1,000 in 2003, while theunder-five mortality rate declined from 104 per1,000 in 1990 to 68 in 2003 (Tables 2.9 and 2.10).

In Vietnam too, under-five child mortality rateshave been reduced significantly from 53 per1,000 live births in 1990 to 23 per 1,000 livebirths in 2003. Similarly, IMRs have beenreduced from 38 per 1,000 live births in 1990 to19 per 1,000 live births in 2003. However, region-al disparities are enormous. IMR for the 12 weak-est provinces is of the order of 60 per 1,000 livebirths, which is more than thrice that of the 12best performing provinces (17 per 1,000 livebirths). The number of children dying beforeone year of age in a province like Kon Tum is, onaverage, eight times higher than in Ho Chi MinhCity. In addition, malnutrition also remains aserious problem. One-third of all children underfive are underweight.

Finally, Malaysia is either close to realizing thetarget or is ‘on track’ in this area. The child mor-tality rate per 1,000 live births was 21 in 1990and 7 in 2003 and the infant mortality rate 16and 7, respectively.

The implications of the above description ofthe experience with reducing child mortalityshould be clear. Even in an area where the effortto realize the MDG is less difficult, where manycountries are ‘on track’ to realizing the Goal andsome have already achieved the target, thereare many who are slipping or falling far behind.The majority of children who die before turningfive do so because of a combination of malnu-trition and preventable diseases such as diar-

rhoea and measles. Very similar factors seem toexplain current levels of infant and under-fivemortality. The Indonesia Demographic HealthSurvey 1997 showed that almost half (47 percent) of infant deaths occurred in the firstmonth of life (neonatal deaths), and over two-thirds (71 per cent) of those happened in thefirst six days, the cut-off point for early neonataldeath. The Indonesia Household Health Survey2001 showed that perinatal complicationsranked first among the causes of infant deaths(34.7 per cent) followed by acute respiratory-tract infection (ARI) (27.6 per cent) and diar-rhoea (9.4 per cent). The leading causes ofunder-five mortality were ARI (22.8 per cent),diarrhoea (13.2 per cent) and nervous systemdisorders (11.8 per cent). Neonatal and infantmortality rates are significantly associated withfactors determined by the socio-economic sta-tus of mothers, such as their health, nutritionalstatus and their access to healthcare from preg-nancy through the postnatal period. Two of thethree major causes of child mortality wererelated to communicable diseases. Low birthweight, nutrition and immunization status andinfluencing factors such as the status of hous-ing, sanitation, clean water supply and health-care increase child susceptibility to infectiousdiseases.50

Goal 5: Improve maternal health

In the case of maternal mortality, where the goalis to reduce the rate by three-quarters between1990 and 2015, data to properly assess trends isnot available.However,ESCAP/UNDP51 concludedthat there appears to have been very littleprogress in the 1990s. Across the Asia-Pacificregion, it is still common for women to die of childbirth-related circumstances, due to

Across the Asia-Pacificregion, it is still commonfor women to die ofchildbirth-relatedcircumstances, due tohaemorrhage, sepsis,puerperalcomplications,obstructed or prolongedlabour, anaemia andlack of access to health facilities

Country 1990 1995 2000 2003

China 38 37 32 30India 84 74 68 63Indonesia 60 46 35 31Malaysia 16 11 8 7Mongolia 74 67 60 56Pakistan 100 93 85 81Sri Lanka 26 21 16 13Thailand 34 29 25 23Vietnam 38 32 23 19

Source: UNICEF-WHO, http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp, accessed in March 2005.

Table 2.10 Infant mortality rate



haemorrhage, sepsis, puerperal complications,obstructed or prolonged labour, anaemia andlack of access to health facilities. Teen pregnan-cies due to early marriage, inadequate childspacing and high parity births combined withdeliveries at the hands of untrained birth atten-dants and poor hygiene, all contribute to avoid-able maternal mortality. In many Asian countrieswhere women have a low status, the ability ofwomen to negotiate for control over their ownbodies even within marriage cannot be takenfor granted.

Data for this MDG is difficult to obtainbecause estimating Maternal Mortality Rates(MMRs) requires current information on thenumber of deaths of women of reproductiveage and the cause of death. Registration sys-tems needed for such information-gatheringare inadequate in most countries in the Asia-Pacific region. Given the lack of reliable data,the tracking of trends in MMRs becomes aformidable challenge.

However, the available evidence suggests thatin China the MMR dropped from an estimated95 per 100,000 live births in 1990 to 56 in 2000(Table 2.11). The proportion of births attendedby skilled health workers in hospitalsincreased from 45 per cent in 1990 to 66 percent in 2000. However, as usual, these nationalfigures mask the great contrast between ruraland urban areas. In the urban areas, bettereconomic growth led to medical services forwomen and good access to emergencyobstetric care.

In India, maternal mortality claimed 570 livesfor every 100,000 live births in 1990. MMR forthe country as a whole was estimated to havedeclined to 440 per 100,000 live births in themid-1990s. But available estimates seem tosuggest that this rose to 540 in 2000.52 Thusthe slow decline of maternal mortality inIndia appears to have been reversed duringthe second half of the 1990s. Once again,there are significant rural-urban differentials,with the rural rate estimated to be nearlydouble the urban rate.

A part of the reason for the slow decline andeven reversal of maternal mortality is that thenutritional problems associated with effectivechild-bearing remain significant and wide-spread. Poor nutrition for girls during adoles-cence (and resultant anaemia and inadequate

calcium intake) contributes to future obstetricrisk and also affects the reproductive process.While the all-India average intake of calories issubstantially below the RecommendedDietary Allowance (RDA) for both men andwomen, the largest deficits are in the case ofpregnant and lactating mothers. This can con-tribute to foetal loss, low birth weight anddeath during infancy. Deficiencies of micro-nutrients are rampant: not only calcium forpregnant and lactating women, but iron,riboflavin and vitamin C for all women.

The MMR for Indonesia was reported to be 650per 100,000 live births during in 1990, 470 in1995 and 230 in 2000. Despite the significantdecline, the 2000 figure is still high relative tothat which prevails in China, Malaysia andThailand. In response to the continued highMMR and its slow rate of progress, the Ministryof Health had adopted a number of strategicpolicies. The most recent one was the NationalStrategy for “Making Pregnancy Safer” (MPS)2001-2010 that set the target of MMR for 2010

Progress in dealing withHIV/AIDS and infectious

diseases like malariahas also been

disappointing in theAsia-Pacific region.HIV/AIDS has been

spreading rapidly overthe last 15 years, with

the number in theregion infected as of

end 2001 placed at 7 million

Country 1990 1995 2000

China 95(5) 60(5) 56(5)India 570(1) 440(5) 540(4)Indonesia 650(1) 470(6) 230(1)Malaysia 80(3) 39(5) 41(5)Mongolia 65(3) 65(1) 110(2)Pakistan 340(1) 200(1) 500(1)Sri Lanka 140(3) 60(5) 92(5)Thailand 200(1) 44(5) 44(5)Vietnam 160(1) 95(1) 130(1)

Source: WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA World Bank, MillenniumIndicators Database 1 No national data on maternal mortality available.

Estimates derived from model.2 Data derived from vital registration: countries with good

death registration and good attribution of cause ofdeath.

3 Data derived from vital registration: countries with gooddeath registration but uncertain attribution of cause ofdeath.

4 Data from household surveys or census.5 Data derived from the Reproductive Age Mortality

Study. This method involves identifying and investigat-ing the causes of all deaths of women of reproductiveage.

6 Data derived from the direct sisterhood method adjust-ed estimates: The direct sisterhood method is a variantof the sisterhood method – a survey-based techniquethat obtains information by interviewing respondentson the survival of all their adult sisters

Table 2.11 Maternal mortality ratio per100,000 live births



at 125 per 100,000 live births. The MPS strategyhas three key messages:

● all deliveries should be handled by trainedhealth providers

● every obstetric and neonatal complicationshould receive adequate services, and

● every woman at reproductive age shouldhave access to means of prevention ofunwanted pregnancy.

In Mongolia, maternal mortality per 100,000 livebirths appears to have increased since the mid-1990s, though the level in 2000 was better thanin some other countries studied. Approximately60 per cent of the maternal mortality occurredin rural areas. This high mortality is caused byseveral factors, among which is the lack of infor-mation and knowledge about pregnancy andchildbirth among both women and men. Inrural areas, a member of a family living underthe poverty line gets food with 1,587 calories oraround two-thirds of the required daily calorieintake. This negatively affects women’s healthleading to anaemia and antenatal, delivery andafter-delivery complications. For example,mothers living above the poverty line died fromabortion or ectopic pregnancy, while mothersliving below the poverty line died from seriouscomplications at later stages of pregnancy, sep-sis and haemorrhage.

Maternal health in Pakistan among poorwomen is an issue of particular concern.Antenatal and childbirth care by trained staffreaches only 29 per cent of the population.Estimates for the annual number of maternaldeaths vary widely, with studies from the mid-1990s reporting approximately 25,000, to morerecent press reports of 30,000 in only the coun-try’s second-largest province, Sindh. Each yearover 375,000 women suffer from pregnancy-related complications. Contraceptive use is low,with estimates varying from 12 to 29 per cent.Available estimates suggest that MMR stood at340, 200 and 500, respectively, in 1990, 1995and 2000.

As compared with these cases and due to thewide availability of healthcare, maternal mortal-ity is low in Sri Lanka: it was as low as 65 per100,000 live births in 1995 and an estimated 92in 2000. The use of prenatal services is almostuniversal in Sri Lanka. Surveys have indicatedthat around 99 per cent of mothers receivesome prenatal care. Delivery rarely takes place

at home, with 95 per cent of births now takingplace in medical institutions. Both factorsexplain the relatively lower levels of maternalmortality.

In Thailand, the reported MMR fell sharply dur-ing the first half of the 1990s and stood at 44 per100,000 live births in 2000. Health coveragewith four antenatal visits was 83.4 per cent in1995 and the coverage of deliveries attended byhealth personnel or a trained healthcare workerwas 97.9 per cent in 2001. Among pregnantwomen, the incidence of anaemia was 13.4 percent in 1995, and was targeted to be reduced toless than 10 per cent by 2000 in the EighthNational Plan of Action on Public Health.

Available data suggest that MMRs in Vietnamhave been reduced from an estimated 160deaths per 100,000 live births in 1990 to 130per 100,000 live births in 2000, due partly tothe decline seen during the first half of the1990s. Thus, while some progress appears tohave been achieved over the past decade,the trend appears disconcerting. Here again,significant regional disparities prevail. Morethan 40 per cent of women in rural areas stilldeliver at home, often without professionalhealthcare assistance, compared with only 7per cent in urban areas. Similarly, the MMR inthe isolated areas of the Central Highlands isestimated to be more than four times higherthan the national rate. This is due, in largepart, to inadequate access to essentialobstetric care, lack of infrastructure in remoteand mountainous areas and lack of basicknowledge on maternal healthcare at thehousehold level.

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS,malaria and other diseases

Progress in dealing with HIV/AIDS and infec-tious diseases such as malaria has also beendisappointing in the Asia-Pacific region. HIV/AIDS has been spreading rapidly over the last15 years. The number of those infected in theregion as of end-2001 was placed at 7 million,including 1 million who had become infectedin that year alone.53 On the other hand, “old”diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis arealso on the increase with signs of strong drugresistance. The first target associated with thisGoal is to halt and begin a reversal of thespread of HIV/AIDS by 2015. The extent of theproblem is enormous in the more populous

Since HIV/AIDS tendsto be concentratedamong certainvulnerable groups andsegments of thepopulation, ICTs,including radio andtelevision, can play amajor role in targetingthese groups



countries. For example, in China, the preva-lence rate among adults may be relatively lowat 0.1 per cent, but this translates to around850,000 people and infections have been onthe rise. Similarly in India, a prevalence rate of0.6 per cent means that 4 million people areinfected.54 In Indonesia, infections have beenrising among drug users, sex workers and menwho have sex with men. However, the case ofThailand is an encouraging example: highprevalence rates have been brought undercontrol through State action. Comprehensivemeasures have been taken, including the dis-tribution of anti-retroviral drugs to HIV-posi-tive pregnant women.

The second target is to halt the spread of malar-ia by 2015, and ensure the reversal of the inci-dence of malaria and other major diseases. Theneed to curb the spread of malaria has gainedurgency recently due to the malarial parasitedeveloping drug resistance and insecticidesbecoming less effective in controlling mosqui-toes. Another serious concern is the spread oftuberculosis (TB). In South East Asia alone thereare around 3 million cases reported everyyear.55

Information in this area is a real problem. Forexample, due to the lack of political and cul-tural openness, estimates of the number ofpeople living with HIV/AIDS in many countriesare uncertain. Social taboos of various kindsalso restrict the acknowledgement of AIDS.Yet, the evidence points to rapid spread. InChina, since the first detected case in 1985, theepidemic has been expanding dramatically.The Ministry of Health acknowledged thatthere were more than 1 million people livingwith HIV/AIDS in China in 2002 and warnedthat this number could increase to 10 millionby 2010 unless effective prevention measureswere taken.56

While perhaps not a nation-wide health prob-lem, malaria occurs in 22 provinces of China.Hainan and Yunnan are the most seriouslyaffected provinces accounting for more than50 per cent of the national total of reportedcases in 2000. These two provinces also havethe more dangerous falciparum form of malar-ia. The less severe vivax form of malaria occursin all 22 affected provinces. The reported24,000 cases per year are believed to be only10 per cent of an actual number of 240,000cases per year.57

In 2000, there were approximately 4.5 millionactive TB cases in China and 1.5 million had thehighly infectious smear-positive form of TB. Thenational prevalence rate of smear-positive TB in2000 was 122 cases per 100,000 persons, a mere9 per cent decline from the 1990 rate. TB isabout 50 per cent higher in the poorer central-western provinces compared to the wealthiereastern provinces. The incidence of TB is nearlytwice as high in villages than in the cities ofChina. It is clearly linked to poverty and to poor-er access to healthcare.58

In India, after hunger, the principal healththreats stem from some “old” diseases such ascholera, tuberculosis, malaria, kala-azar and,“newer” ones such as HIV/AIDS. Some of thesehave staged a comeback because of insecti-cide resistance among vectors, resistance toantibiotics and poor public health practices.Thus malaria, whose incidence was estimatedat 75 million cases and 0.8 million deaths in1947, and which had retreated to incidencelevels of 0.1 million cases and no deaths in1964, staged a comeback with 7 million casesin 1976. Though this incidence rate has comedown since, it has stagnated at around 2 mil-lion cases over the last few years ending with2001. In the case of kala-azar, endemic in thestates of West Bengal, Jharkand and Bihar, theofficial Economic Survey for 2002-03 reportsthat there has been no significant decline inreported cases and deaths due to inadequateinsecticide spraying operations and poor out-reach of diagnostic services. Inadequate publicexpenditure on health is an obvious problemhere. Kala-azar had virtually disappeared bythe mid-1960s, but returned in epidemic formby the late 1970s. In 1991, 77,100 cases werereported, with an estimated 5,000-7,000deaths. Similarly, recent estimates suggest thatthere are 1 million new cases of TB every yearand 300,000-500,000 deaths every year, eventhough the government claims that theRevised National TB Control Programme covers515 million people in 248 districts, making itthe largest public health programme againstTB in the world.59

The National Aids Control Organisation(NACO) reported the number of HIV infectionsin India at 5.1 million in 2003. The number ofHIV infections was 4.58 million in 2002, 3.97million in 2001, and 3.86 million in 2000. Withthese estimates, it is argued that while the epi-demic is still spreading in the country, there is

ICTs can be shown tohave an impact both

within the context of the formal

healthcare system aswell as in facilitatingknowledge-sharing,

awareness-raising andco-ordination. ICTs can

help in identifyingaffected populations

and individuals



no significant upsurge in the number of newinfections. In fact, in comparison to the 4.58million HIV infections in 2002, there has beenan increase of 0.52 million in 2003, as comparedto that of 0.61 million in 2002. However, the offi-cially reported number of new infections, at0.11 million in 2001, is still extremely high. Thecumulative number of actual AIDS cases wasreported at 48,933 as on 31 March 2003.60 Ofthese cases, 36,411 are males. With more than85 per cent of these cases identified as havingacquired the infection through sexual trans-mission, this rather than perinatal transmis-sion, use of blood products or of injectabledrugs, seems to be the principal means oftransmission in the country.

With the combined public and private expen-diture on health estimated at 5.1 per cent ofGDP, India spends more of its income onhealth than most other developing countriesand almost as much as many developed coun-tries. However, just 17 per cent is expenditureby the State, pointing to the predominance ofprivate expenditure in the total health expen-diture. The predominance of private outlaysimplies that public health initiatives to reducemorbidity due to common communicable dis-eases and nutritional deficiency would beinadequate.

A UNAIDS monitoring report released in 2001included Indonesia as one of the countries thatis experiencing explosive epidemics in differentpopulation groups.61 During the past few years,the country is experiencing new, rapidly devel-oping sub-epidemics of HIV in several provincesand communities, and now perceives HIV/AIDSto be a serious threat. Since the first case of AIDSwas reported in Indonesia in 1987, there hasbeen considerable debate on the extent oftransmission of HIV that would occur in the dif-ferent population groups across the country.Due to a lack of reliable statistics, the number ofthe infected is not known. Nonetheless, it hasbeen recognized that the social and behaviour-al environment in many parts of Indonesia hasfactors in common with countries that havealready experienced major epidemics ofHIV/AIDS.

According to the UNAIDS 2004 Report on theGlobal AIDS Epidemic, at the end of 2003 thenumber of adults (15-49 years) living withHIV/AIDS in Indonesia was estimated to be110,000, and the estimated number of AIDS

deaths was reported at 2,400. Given the cur-rent features of Indonesia’s social transition,the actual number of HIV sero-positive casesis probably far higher than the reported fig-ures although this number cannot be deter-mined with precision due to limitations in thehealthcare reporting and surveillance sys-tems. The challenges facing the HIV/AIDS pre-vention effort in Indonesia include a highlymobile population, vast unreported sexindustries, changes in social norms, low levelsof condom use, low awareness of preventivemeasures, an increasing number of intra-venous drug user (IDUs), and economic crisis(women in search for survival, increasingnumber of street children).

In 2003, Indonesia’s National AIDS Commission(NAC) revised the National HIV/AIDS Strategy,originally developed in 1993, as a result of theincrease in HIV infections over recent years and,just as important, to respond to the commit-ments made at the UN General AssemblySpecial Session on HIV/AIDS.

Among other diseases, malaria remains a majorpublic health problem in Indonesia.Malaria caseswere reported at 33 per 100,000 of the popula-tion. TB also continues to be a major killer thatranks third in the mortality list after cardio-vascu-lar and respiratory diseases and is the primarycause of death attributable to infectious diseasesin adults in Indonesia.62

Pakistan’s recorded experience of the HIV/AIDSepidemic began in 1986 when the NationalInstitute of Health in Islamabad conducted itsfirst HIV/AIDS test.63 Since then, of the3,136,000 tests conducted as of December2002, there have been 222 AIDS cases andanother 1,164 infected with HIV. UNAIDS andWHO data estimate a total of 78,000 cases, andthe Government of Pakistan’s National AIDSControl Programme reports 80,000. However,there is significant variance in the number ofreported cases of people living with HIV/AIDS.UNAIDS cites 210 reported cases of HIV/AIDS,whereas the government reported 231 cases ofAIDS and 1,942 cases of HIV. In 1996, estimatesof the total number of people with HIV/AIDS inPakistan ranged from less than 35,000 to over60,000. At that time, the number of reportedcases was 55.

The first case of AIDS in Thailand was detectedin 1984. Recent statistics (January 2003) show

The possibility of usingICTs for educatingpeople to adopt betterpractices and ensure immunization as well asto monitor the availability and qualityof social services tocombat such causes ofinfant and child mortality is also substantial



the prevalence of HIV/AIDS cases in Thailand tobe 285,517, of which 65,469 patients had died.64

The incidence of HIV infected patients rosesteadily to its peak level in the year 1998 (44.27cases in 100,000 of the population, after whichthe rate has declined each year to 14.56 cases in100,000 of the population in 2002.

The HIV/AIDS epidemic has a disproportionateimpact on children. The child mortality rate hasbeen estimated to be 13 per cent higher than itwould have been in the absence of AIDS. Anestimated 14,000 children under the age of 15years were living with the HIV/AIDS at the endof 1997, and 48,000 children have becomeorphans due to AIDS since the beginning of theepidemic.

The AIDS epidemic has hit Thailand very hard,with prevalence among some groups reaching50 per cent or more during the last decade ofthe 20th century. However, the Thai AIDS controlcampaign has achieved international recogni-tion as the first in the developing world to haltthe growing incidence of new cases of HIV and tosustain a steady decline. The current overallprevalence is about 2.2 per cent of the adultpopulation.

Although Thailand has succeeded in its malariacontrol effort over the past two decades, lead-ing to a considerable reduction in the incidenceand mortality rates, the disease is endemicalong the international borders, making it oneof the major public health problems in thecountry. During 1996-99, the incidence of malar-ia climbed from 1.5 to 2.1 per 1,000 in the pop-ulation.65 Most of the cases were found alongthe Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao borders withThailand. This was due to the high malariareceptivity in the border areas, particularly,Thailand-Myanmar, where the malarial parasiteis predominant because of the nature of thegeographical terrain. In addition, health facilitiesare inadequate and housing conditions andsanitation poor.

According to the WHO Global TuberculosisControl Report for 2003, Thailand is ranked 16thamong the 22 high-burden countries for tuber-culosis. Over the past 40 years, the incidence oftuberculosis had decreased until 1991 afterwhich it showed an upward trend. Currently,there are approximately 100,000 new TB cases(of all types) per year. Although mortality due totuberculosis has shown a declining trend from

1990 to 1994, the reported figure for smear-positive TB has increased from 34 per 100,000 to50 per 100,000 in the 12 years since 1990. Theresurgence of TB has been marked in areas ofHIV prevalence and HIV is the most importantepidemiological factor contributing to theincrease of TB in several parts of the country. It isestimated that approximately 1 million Thaishave been infected with HIV and in 2001, therewere 695,000 people living with HIV. Hence,there is a large pool of people that are at risk ofbeing infected with tuberculosis. Not surprising-ly, TB has become the number one killer of peo-ple living with HIV, many of whom are in the 20-35 years age group.

Of the communicable diseases, pneumonia isthe leading cause of death for children underfive years. In 1994, 16.72 deaths per 100,000 chil-dren under five years were reported. Acute diar-rhoea is also an important cause of death, witha rate of 1.56 per 100,000 children under fiveyears. Currently, the importance of malaria as acause of mortality has declined, with only 856deaths reported in 1995.

In Vietnam too, HIV/AIDS is a potentially explo-sive challenge. Projected cases had crossed50,000 at the turn of the decade and are nowrising exponentially. Experts fear the number isfar higher. Urban centres, tourist areas, provincesthrough which major highways pass and borderprovinces are the most affected. Quang Ninh,Hai Phong and HCMC all project more than 200HIV cases per 100,000 people, whereas the 12provinces least affected by HIV/AIDS projectless than 10 cases per 100,000 people. However,even in these latter provinces, the rate has beengrowing fast in recent years.66

Malaria remains an important public healthissue in the remote areas of Malaysia too.Approximately 70 per cent of cases occur inthe state of Sabah. According to WHO statis-tics, the incidence of malaria per 1,000 of thepopulation in the year 2000 was 0.559. Untilrecently, tuberculosis was kept under control.However, TB has re-emerged as a major dis-ease following the influx of migrant workersinto Malaysia. In the 1970s and 1980s, an aver-age of 10,000 TB cases was reported annually,but in 1999, the number of cases reportedwent up to 14,150.67

A total of 51,256 cases of HIV infection werereported between 1986 and December 2002.

The HIV/AIDS epidemichas a disproportionate

impact on children. Thechild mortality rate has

been estimated to be13 per cent higher than

it would have been inthe absence of AIDS



During this period, 7,218 AIDS cases werereported while the number of deaths caused byAIDS totalled 5,424. Malaysia has put in placespecific policies and programmes that will worktowards the MDG target of halting and begin-ning to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS by 2015.Given Malaysia’s pace in implementing theseprogrammes throughout the 1990s, it has beenacknowledged that it is likely that the MDG tar-gets will be achieved within the specified time,particularly with the current level of politicalcommitment towards wiping out HIV/AIDS.

Mongolia is unique amongst the countriesstudied. In 2003, it had only four officiallyreported cases of HIV detected in 1991, 1998,2001 and 2002 and acquired reportedlythrough contact with foreigners. However, thesituation is changing. The number of cases ofsexually transmitted infections has increasedsharply, consisting of 40.8 per cent of the totalnumber of infectious diseases reported in 2002.Between 48-52 per cent of the cases of sexuallytransmitted infections are among teenagersand youth below 25 years of age. Poverty, alarge adolescent and youth population, and theepidemic situation in border countries con-tribute to the potential growth of sexuallytransmitted infections and HIV/AIDS.The threatis great also because, despite high prevalenceof sexually transmitted infections, condom useis low in Mongolia.68

In these areas of health discussed above, ICTscan be shown to have an impact both withinthe context of the formal healthcare system aswell as in facilitating knowledge-sharing,awareness-raising and co-ordination. ICTs canhelp in identifying affected populations andindividuals.The possibility of using ICTs for edu-cating people to adopt better practices andensure immunization as well as to monitor theavailability and quality of social services tocombat such causes of infant and child mortal-ity is also substantial, as discussed later in thisReport. In particular, since HIV/AIDS tends to beconcentrated among certain vulnerable groupsand segments of the population, ICTs, includingradio and television, can play a major role intargeting these groups. This would helpempowerment of and advocacy by stakehold-ers and contribute to mitigation of impact inhealth emergencies.

ICTs can be used to enable governments, NGOsand the health establishment to increase access

to reproductive health, childcare and AIDS pre-vention information, by making available locally-appropriate content in local languages. Also,they are able to support the networking ofhealthcare workers, vulnerable groups and civilsociety organizations engaged in advocacyaimed at behavioural change. In addition, ICTscan facilitate intra-government co-ordination onhealthcare planning and service delivery. Theycan also enhance the delivery of basic and in-service training for health workers, and increasethe access of rural care-givers to specialist sup-port and remote diagnosis. Lastly, they canincrease mapping, tracking and information-sharing on HIV/AIDS and other infectious dis-eases, with a view to enhancing support in themost vulnerable regions and countries.

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

The environment refers not to a single entityor issue, but rather a range of economic andsocial resources and interactions that shapethe physical surroundings of human beings(water, air, soil, natural resources, plant andanimal species), possessing a number of possi-ble uses on which humans are dependent inall of their activities. Its centrality to the devel-opment paradigm is rooted in the concept ofsustainable development, which has beendefined as development that meets the needsof the present without compromising the abil-ity of future generations to meet their ownneeds.

While there seems little hope that the environ-mental degradation in Asia resulting fromdeforestation, industrial pollution, domesticwood burning and human waste can bereversed in the near future, progress is under-way in some countries to meet some targetsunder the sustainable environment head.Reforestation in some instances has been help-ful; for example, forest cover in China andVietnam appears to have increased slightly,between 1990 and 2000. However, losses inforestry continue to occur in countries such asIndonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.69

According to a senior government official,Pakistan’s economy suffers a loss of over US$ 1.8billion annually due to environmental degrada-tion.70 Pakistan’s environment therefore has a profile that is similar to many developingcountries, but far below the world average.

A variety of ITapplications – such asGIS – have long beenused to enhancesustainabledevelopment. The focusis now shifting to morepowerful mapping andmonitoring tools in thecontext of a networkedenvironment



The environmental indicators show deforesta-tion and freshwater resources to be two pivotalareas of concern. Freshwater resources, in par-ticular, present a major challenge to the formu-lation and implementation of viable policies,indicated by Pakistan’s position among the top20 per capita freshwater using countries in theworld, as well as the top 15 freshwater with-drawers in the world.

At present, the most pressing environmentalproblems in Thailand are forest degradation,water pollution and lack of effective waste man-agement, especially industrial and hazardouswaste. Air pollution was a serious problem inBangkok, but the situation has improved con-siderably due to the switch to lead-free gaso-line. Energy efficiency and carbon dioxide (CO2)emission are also becoming a concern as thecountry struggles to balance the need for fur-ther growth and to protect the national andglobal environment.

Deforestation is a problem everywhere leadingto desertification. Desertified lands in NorthChina total 334,000 square kilometres, of which176,000 square kilometres are alreadyencroached upon by sands and another 158,000square kilometres are at risk from potential sandencroachment. Desertification affects 212 coun-ties in Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, InnerMongolia, Hebei, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Ningxia,Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang, and other provinces.71

After a period of substantial deforestation,which still continues in some areas, around afifth of the land in India is under forest coverand has been so for the last two decade. It isestimated that dense forest cover has stabilizedat around 36 million hectares.

Indonesia is facing a major environmental chal-lenge as a result of forest fires, which havebecome a yearly problem in the islands ofSumatra and Kalimantan during the dry season.The fires result in the spread of dark clouds ofburnt particles that cover a wide area in a num-ber of provinces in Sumatra and Kalimantan, aswell as in the neighbouring countries ofSingapore and parts of Malaysia. The cloudshave caused health consequences such as lungand eye irritation problems, and hamper theoperation of air transportation due to lack ofvisibility. Once started, the fires are difficult toput out due to the vastness of the fire area, inad-equate personnel and equipment, and because

these provinces are sparsely populated and donot have a wide network of roads.

The fires, partly caused by land clearing forfarming by the indigenous people, are princi-pally the result of the activities of large forestconcession companies. Indonesia is a majorexporter of logs and wood products such as ply-wood and paper. Logging is therefore a majorindustry and source of employment inprovinces that have large tropical forests. Thewoods are inadequate to meet even the legalrequirements of factories with forest produc-tion concessions. In addition, illegal loggingflourishes to meet demands from these facto-ries and the international market. Unprocessedlogs are smuggled to meet internationaldemand. Illegal logging is done by local peopleand, occasionally, by foreigners along theIndonesia-Malaysia border.

In Malaysia forest management efforts havehelped marginally increase the permanentforest reserve to 14.33 million hectares in 2000from 14.29 hectares in 1995. Malaysia had alsocommitted itself to the International TropicalWood Organization’s Year 2000 objectivewhereby all timber in international trade mustbe from forests that are sustainably managed.Towards that end, Malaysia expanded thepractice of certifying timber from its forests.Reforestation programmes and the establish-ment of forest plantations enabled the per-centage of forested land to total land area toincrease from 58.9 per cent to 67.1 per centbetween 1990 and 2000. In addition, VirginJungle Reserves (VJRs) were established toserve as permanent nature reserves and natu-ral arboreta. Since their inception, a total of 87VJRs covering 23,002 hectares were estab-lished in Peninsular Malaysia.72

According to the information provided by theMinistry of Nature and Environment, 60,000hectares of forests in Mongolia have been lostbetween 1990 and 2000, of a total 18.8 millionhectares of the country’s forest resources. Morethan 7 million hectares of forest have been affect-ed by fires during this period. Wrong policies,poor enforcement; poor logging techniquesand infrastructure; and increased domesticdemand for fuel-wood and timber have com-bined to yield this outcome. Seventy per cent oftotal pastureland that feeds 25 million head oflivestock has been degraded due to inappropri-ate land use practices and climate changes.

The most seriousproblems regardingclean water access

arise in the rural areas,where millions lack

water from protectedsources



The sharp decline in natural forests – comprisingmainly dry mixed evergreen forest and rainforest– has been a major environmental concern in SriLanka as well. Once extensive and widespread,they have now been reduced to around 23.8 percent of the land area, and even these remainingforests have been severely degraded by exces-sive logging and encroachment. The forests aremostly State owned and are under the charge ofeither the Forest Department or the Departmentof Wildlife Conservation.

Thailand rapidly lost forest land in the pastdecades due to illegal logging, and the expan-sion of cash crop cultivation. Thanks to seriousefforts by various parties and a variety of meas-ures including a forest logging ban since 1989,forest land has expanded from 28 per cent ofthe total in 1990 to 33.4 per cent in 2000. During1991 to 2001, natural conservation and recre-ation areas, namely national parks, forest parks,wildlife conservation areas, no hunting areas,wildlife parks, botanical gardens and arboretahave also increased from 13.5 per cent to 17.6per cent of the total land area. However, duringthe first half of the 1990s, the country lost a sig-nificant amount of mangrove area due to com-mercial shrimp farming and coastal pollution.

In Vietnam, forest cover has begun to increase inrecent years, but still remains low at some 34 percent. At the same time, there is a high risk thatthe quality of reforestation is reducing biologi-cal diversity. The environmental treasure in Vietnam, including some 700 endangeredspecies, is at high risk of being lost forever

unless meaningful policy and institutionalactions are taken soon.

The next target in the environmental area is tohalve the proportion of people without sustain-able access to safe drinking water by 2015. It isestimated that, for Asia as a whole, urban watersupply coverage is 93 per cent but rural cover-age is only 75 per cent.73 Thus, the most seriousproblems regarding clean water access arise inthe rural areas, where millions lack water fromprotected sources. There has been someprogress in individual countries; for example, inIndia, rural coverage went up from 61 per centin 1990 to 79 per cent in 2000.74 However, basedon current trends, it is likely that the region as awhole will miss the target. Sri Lanka is the onlycountry that has ‘achieved’ the target whileChina is rated as ‘far behind’ and Vietnam is ‘lag-ging’ in terms of the share of the populationusing improved water sources (Table 2.12).

Water scarcity and deteriorating water quality,particularly in north China, increase the compe-tition between urban, industrial and agricultur-al consumers, and between upstream anddownstream users. Rivers, lakes and groundwa-ter are heavily polluted because most industri-al, municipal and agricultural sewage anddrainage waters are discharged untreated. Themain problems are regional disparities in wateraccess, improper water usage, water pollution,sinking ground water tables, coastal andmarine pollution, and discontinuous riverrunoff in some rivers in north China, such as theYellow River.

In all areas, an effort toraise consciousnesswith regard to alternative interventionpossibilities, bestpractices and a greaterdegree of monitoringare a must to ensureprogress. The role thatICTs can play here is obvious


China ●

India ●

Indonesia ●

Malaysia (NA)Mongolia (NA)Pakistan ●

Sri Lanka ●

Thailand ●

Vietnam ●

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2002.NA: Data not available.

Table 2.12 Progress towards MDG 7 by nine Asian countries

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

Target 10: Halve the proportion of people without sustainable accessto safe drinking water

Indicator 30: Population using improved water sources (%)



Water is the central environmental issue in Indiatoo, with major public health ramifications inthe form of the twin, related problems of safewater and sanitation. While organic and bacter-ial contamination of water can occur throughmany routes, inadequate sewage treatmentfacilities and improper disposal of industrialeffluents constitute the principal sources ofcontamination. There are large flows of untreat-ed municipal sewage and industrial effluentsinto the main water bodies that monitoring andregulation by the Central Pollution ControlBoard has not been able to arrest. While officialstatistics claim that 90 per cent of the popula-tion in urban areas has access to safe drinkingwater, only 49 per cent has access to proper san-itation facilities, which results in a very realthreat of continued and increasing contamina-tion. Further, while there are some instances ofState and community action against the releaseof untreated effluents, a large number of indus-trial units in the country get by without ade-quate investment in the proper treatment anddisposal of effluents.

Indonesia also has the problem of fresh waterpollution due to irresponsible and illegaldumping of unprocessed industrial waste intothe rivers by factories.This is aggravated by thetendency among city dwellers to flush domes-tic waste into the open sewage that ends up inthe river. Water pollution is especially a majorproblem in the industrial and densely populat-ed areas of big cities such as Jakarta andSurabaya. Major water pollution is also presentaround mining and quarrying areas. Illegalminers do not adopt safety standards andrelease heavy metals and (as in the case ofgold mining) dangerous and toxic materialsinto the rivers.The government has been work-ing to clean up the rivers through a projectcalled Prokasih (Proyek Kali Bersih – CleanRiver Project) for years. The result has not beensatisfactory.

Water quality in Malaysia, reflected in terms ofthe percentage of clean rivers, deterioratedfrom 53.5 per cent or 48 rivers out of the total 90rivers monitored in 1990 to 28.3 per cent or 34rivers in 2000.75 This has been attributed tosewage from households and livestock farms,effluents from the manufacturing sector andagro-based industries, suspended solids fromsoil erosion and heavy metals from factories aswell as the occurrence of drought in parts of thecountry.

The share of the population with access to safewater in Vietnam has increased to 53 per cent,growing at 13 per cent per annum in recentyears. However, disparities remain dramatic.While the average share of population withaccess to safe water is 96 per cent in the better-off areas, this compares with only some 28 percent in the 12 weakest provinces. Effectively tar-geted assistance appears especially needed inDong Thap, Vinh Long, and Ben Tre.76

In most countries, while legislation is usuallyadequate, enforcement in remote areas poses agreat challenge to the authorities and is compli-cated by corruption. ESCAP has rated theprogress for this target in the Asia-Pacific regionas poor so far, with few countries giving this tar-get sufficient attention.

A variety of IT applications – such asGeographical Information System (GIS) – haslong been used to enhance sustainable devel-opment. The focus is now shifting to morepowerful mapping and monitoring tools inthe context of a networked environment. Forexample, ICT and GIS tools are able to assist inareas like the management of villageresources such as water wells and tube wells,and to create thematic resource maps of vil-lages for sustainable development. Also, GISmapping has been carried out in the field ofarsenic contamination in ground water.Remote sensing technologies and communi-cations networks also permit more effectivemonitoring, management and mitigation ofenvironmental risks.

In addition, ICT tools can increase access toand awareness of sustainable developmentstrategies in areas such as agriculture, sanita-tion and water management, and mining.Another potential result of ICT use is greatertransparency through monitoring of environ-mental abuse, and better enforcement of envi-ronmental regulations. Lastly, they can be usedto facilitate knowledge exchange and net-working for policy makers, practitioners andadvocacy groups.

Goal 8: Develop a global partnershipfor development

The strategy of building and strengtheningglobal partnerships as part of the effort toadvance human development is aimed atenhancing the effectiveness of policies adopted

While ICT opportunitiescan be identified for

each of the MDGs, thereis a need to prioritizethe Goals where ICTs

can be demonstrated tohave the greatest

impact, e.g. educationand healthcare, as

opposed to addressingthe hunger

reduction Goal



in all the other MDG areas. Because of this, thefact that ICTs can play a major role here needs tobe stressed. ICTs are increasingly being used tostreamline, aggregate and organize relevant“global” and local information, facilitating easydissemination in developed and developingcountries. As a result, ICTs have substantiallyincreased the strength of previously voicelessNGOs. This, in turn, has led to their growinginternational presence and a major role forthem individually, collectively and in partner-ship with other organizations in influencingpolicies and implementing strategies in many ofthese areas. ICTs can also be used to manageinformation needed to effectively provide offi-cial development assistance (ODA) as well as tolevel the playing field in terms of the availabilityof international and regional market informa-tion among all countries.

Some implications

Thus, assessments of Asia’s march towardsachieving the MDGs point to a mixed and variedperformance. Countries such as Malaysia,Thailand and even China show significantprogress and are ‘on track’ to achieve most oftheir goals and targets. Sri Lanka’s performancewith reference to most of the goals and targets isalso commendable.Pakistan, India and Mongolialag behind the other six countries in almost allthe MDGs, while Indonesia stands between thesuccessful countries and the laggards with avery mixed record overall. Similarly, progress incertain areas such as combating extreme pover-

ty, overcoming illiteracy or reducing infant mor-tality has been faster than progress in otherareas, even if not always adequate.

This increases the significance of using anenabling technology such as ICT to support theeffort to realize the MDGs. In all areas, an effortto raise consciousness with regard to alternativeintervention possibilities and best practices, anda greater degree of monitoring are a must toensure progress.The role that ICTs can play hereis obvious.† In addition, in specific areas thetechnology can directly contribute to the real-ization of the MDGs, as discussed below. Ourassessment of the current use of ICTs for devel-opment and the potential for harnessing thetechnology to yield benefits in these areasneeds to distinguish between these generalpurpose and specific uses, in order to maximizethe returns from investment in the area.

Moreover, while ICT opportunities can be identi-fied for each of the MDGs, there is a need to pri-oritize the Goals where ICTs can be demonstrat-ed to have the greatest impact, for example,education and healthcare as opposed toaddressing the hunger reduction Goal. This isnot to suggest that ICT solutions should not bedeveloped to enhance the responsiveness andeffectiveness of relevant agents in addressingother development priorities and challengesbut to identify major MDG priorities for nationale-strategies. Similarly, there is a need to cost andprioritize alternative ICT opportunities withinthe context of each of the MDGs.

† The discussion on ICTs and the MDGs in this chapter has benefited greatly from UNDP 2003 Working Paper: The Roleof ICT in Enhancing the Achievement of Millennium Development Goals.


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Photo: Amit Khullar

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The wide availability ofenhanced computingpower and the consequent ability ofnetworked individuals,to process and executea huge number ofinstructions inimperceptible timespans can have revolutionary implications

Developments in ICT during the last quarter ofthe 20th century are widely seen as having her-alded an information age in which economicand social activity has been widened, deepenedand transformed. Optimistic projections wouldhave it that a computerized and networked worldwill not only change work practices, attitudes toleisure and lifestyles, but also allow for a morewidespread and rapid growth of employment,productivity and output. In effect, these technolo-gies are seen as having the potential to advancehuman development as well as spread the capa-bilities to benefit from that potential.

At the core of this perceived transformation liesthe dramatic increase in computing powerensured by the emergence and rapid evolutionof microprocessor technology and the comingof the digital signal processor.† The pace of thisincrease is captured by the oft-quoted obser-vation made by Gordon Moore as early as 1965that newer chips that entered commercial pro-duction every 18-24 months incorporated twicethe number of transistors as their predecessor.That trend has since persisted. As a result, in the three decades starting 1971, the number of transistors on a chip increased from 2,250 onthe first Intel 4004 microprocessor to 42 millionon the Pentium 4 processor.The cost of a MHz ofcomputing power has fallen from US$ 760 in1970 to 17 cents in 1999.1 This has helped PCmakers and those incorporating computerchips into their products deliver far more pow-erful systems at the same or declining prices.

The growth in computing power has triggered averitable race in the development of digitaldevices that can exploit that power, and periph-

erals that extend that capability. These devicesacquire, record, organize, retrieve, display anddisseminate information. Here too technologi-cal change has reduced costs substantially. Thecost of a megabit of storage has fallen from US$5,257 in 1970 to 17 cents in 1999.2 Computingdevices also help manipulate and modify storedinformation, by searching through the informa-tion, displaying it in a chosen format, perform-ing simple and complex scientific and engineer-ing calculations, and solving a range of non-numerical problems. The power that this offersis considerably enhanced by the growing possi-bility of linking computing devices and allowingthem to communicate with each other, basedon some common protocol. This process hasbeen aided by improvements in communica-tion technology that have reduced the cost oftransmitting a trillion bits of information fromUS$ 150,000 to 12 cents over the last threedecades.

The wide availability of enhanced computingpower and the consequent ability of net-worked individuals, households, organizationsand institutions to process and execute a hugenumber of instructions in imperceptible timespans can have revolutionary implications.First, it has the potential of creating and mas-sively expanding industries catering to themarket for a range of computing devices, espe-cially personal computers that have nowbecome accessories in the home and not justat the workplace. Second, it paves the way forchanges in the nature of a whole range ofproducts, and stimulates many new productinnovations, such as cellular telephones andpalm-sized personal organizers. The stimulus

51

ICT for enhancing humandevelopment: potential and promiseM

DG

sC h a p t e r 3

† Digital signal processing (DSP) is the study of signals in a digital representation and the processing methods ofthese signals. DSP and analogue signal processing are subsets of signal processing. It has three major subfields: audiosignal processing, digital image processing and speech processing.



We are only nowabsorbing the full

consequences of thiscompacting of

economic and socialspace

Foundation for capacity-building for knowledge societies

Robin Mansell, Dixons Chair in New Media and the Internet,London School of Economics and Political Science

Regardless of how we define ‘knowledge societies’, digital networks and information have significant implicationsfor everyone. The global, albeit uneven, spread of networks brings change for those who can participate easily and fluidly in the electronic sphere and for those who cannot.The importance of promoting an increasingly centralplace for the use of advanced ICTs is acknowledged today to a much greater degree than it was a decade ago.However,there is a great deal of controversy over the priority that should be given to different kinds of ICT expenditure andabout the specific contexts in which these technologies can play a positive role.

For some, the principle priority for investment is in ICT applications that can foster ‘knowledge-driven’ economicgrowth. For others, service applications in support of health, education and other public services are the highest pri-ority. Investment priorities shape the deployment of networks and ICT applications and there is growing evidencethat the new technologies are being applied in distinctive ways around the world. The ways in which businesses,governments and citizens are taking advantage of the potential of the new technologies when they are able toaccess them are enormously varied.The greatest need is for initiatives that encourage learning and capability build-ing in different local contexts and that which facilitate exchanges of these experiences.

The prices of ICTs are declining, but the construction of new kinds of knowledge societies comes at a high cost.Theexclusion of some people is a persistent feature of recent development. Those who are already marginalized maybe further disadvantaged when they are bypassed by the new e-services. This feature of the ‘digital divide’ is aboutmore than simply accessing e-services. It is about being able to draw upon a whole range of resources from onlineand offline places in order to function in today’s world.

Even when initiatives to introduce various forms of e-commerce or e-government appear to be successful initially,the costs of sustaining e-service development and of scaling up these initiatives are substantial. More attentionneeds to be given to supporting initiatives that can be sustained financially. It must also be recognized thatalthough digital information can be replicated and circulated within global networks at very low cost, the costs ofcreating information in the first instance (the ‘first copy’ costs) remain high.This raises issues about the scope of thepublic domain for information sharing that is encouraged alongside markets for information ‘commodities’.

SPECIAL CONTRIBUTION

to innovation in sectors completely outsidethe computing business itself, resulting in theemergence, creation and servicing of a host ofnew needs, makes the employment conse-quences of the new technologies virtuallyimpossible to calculate.

Third, it can substantially transform industrialprocesses, since firms can now use the capacityto store information and execute instructionsto automate and change the manner in whichthey conduct and manage their operations.Information technology is, in part, revolution-ary because it ensures and necessitates thetransformation of productive capacity inalmost all sectors. Finally, the computing revo-lution leads to a dramatic expansion of thesize and scope of the services sector (across a

wide spectrum including finance, banking,trade, entertainment and education). Thisresults from associated technological devel-opments that find new uses for the massivecomputing power that is cheaply available. Italso comes from the huge market that devel-opments in communications and networkingtechnology create, and from the fact that theincreasingly ubiquitous PC becomes the vehi-cle to deliver a range of services, besides beinga device in its own right. The microprocessor isnot just the core of the IT revolution, butstands at the centre of the convergence of theinformation, communication and entertain-ment sectors.

When all of these benefits are combined withdevelopments in communication, individuals,


53ICT for enhancing human development: potential and promise

The prices ofcomputing hardwareand the proprietarysoftware thatdominates the sectorstill remain extremelyhigh

Careful consideration needs to be given to stimulating investment in local knowledge within any framework ofstrategies for promoting access to knowledge resources.

‘Digital divides’ cannot be overcome purely by relying on market forces. Public, private and civil society coalitionsand partnerships play a crucial role in influencing ICT diffusion and the extent to which people find creative waysof applying the new technologies. These coalitions are essential if there is to be a realistic chance of applying ICTs to address problems of poverty and to enabling greater participation in a globalizing world. A very importantobservation is that social and economic development priorities must come first. ICTs must be seen as enablers, notas investment targets in their own right. ‘ICT for Development’ initiatives must not be allowed to overwhelm acountry or region’s absorptive capacity or to distort the goals of social and economic development initiatives. Newcoalitions of resources and partnerships must be encouraged in line with each country’s and region’s developmentpriorities.This message needs to be heeded by all those who actively promote the emergence of knowledge societies.

‘Digital divides’ are manifestations of much deeper social and economic inequalities. ICTs on their own will never besufficient to address the deeper problems. Fundamental issues that hinder social and economic development mustbe addressed as a first priority. The lesson of the past decade’s experience with new ICTs, including the Internet, isthat they can be valuable enablers; they are not the solutions.

The prevailing ‘knowledge society’ vision often privileges economic goals of competitiveness and market-led devel-opment. However, evidence is accumulating to show that failures to experience the potential benefits of ICT invest-ment stem from ignoring non-market issues.These issues involve governance and institutions at all levels. A varietyof social capabilities must be developed and these cannot be left to the market. Investment in ICTs must be accom-panied by measures to strengthen skills and capabilities, and to foster the kinds of changes that people can acceptand welcome. This means ensuring the participation of all stakeholders in shaping their own knowledge societies.This presents real challenges because there is a tendency to assume that ICT issues are too technical for non-spe-cialists to understand. However, knowledge society services must be responsive to people’s needs and preferencesif they are to be accepted and widely used.

This means a commitment to encouraging a reasonably equitable distribution of capacities for living in technologicallymediated societies.This is much more than a simple ICT skills issue. It is a matter of human rights and entitlements to thecapacities for improving livelihoods. There is an increasing need be proactive in creating awareness of the potential ofknowledge societies, in building up technical and policy capacities, in strengthening institutions and processes, and inprovide access to information about international developments.The foundation for capability building for knowledgesocieties in all these areas is the understanding that development priorities must lead investment in ICTs.

organizations and corporations are able toboth secure a presence on the Web as well aseasily traverse cyberspace. This creates thebasis for establishing links between individuals,individuals and government agencies, individu-als and business, business and government,and business and business. The full conse-quences of this compacting of economic andsocial space are even now only being absorbedand analysed. One area where the effects aretangible is electronic commerce which allowsfor trading in virtual space, reduces transactioncosts, cuts down on retail infrastructure andslashes retail margins.

This revolution in ICTs and the widening ofeconomic and social space that it haswrought, have given rise to widespread spec-

ulation and debate on the potential of ICTs toenhance human development. Proponents ofthe view that ICTs can, in fact, have a powerfulpositive impact on human developmentfocus on the important role the technologycan play in areas such as dissemination ofhealth and reproductive information, trainingof medical personnel and teachers, provisionof equitable access to education and trainingfacilities, opening up of opportunities forwomen, and expansion of the scope for citi-zen participation. Through these means, it hasbeen argued, ICTs provide developing nationswith an unprecedented opportunity to meetvital development goals such as povertyreduction, provision of basic healthcare, andimproving access to quality education, farmore effectively than before.3



Based on these and other features of the tech-nology, international institutions and manydeveloping-country governments, businessesand citizens’ groups are pushing ICTs as a meansto transcend the structural and historical weak-nesses of developing nations in the economic,political and social spheres. They argue that ICToffers the developing world the opportunity to‘leapfrog’ several stages of development and joinindustrialized nations in the information age.Thisis possible, they feel, given its wide ramificationsand the fact that it is less expensive, is accessiblefrom knowledge in the public domain and, there-fore, is characterized by lower barriers to entry.

The principal problem with this argument is thatthe decline in computing and connectivity costsnotwithstanding, the prices of computing hard-ware and the proprietary software that domi-nates the sector still remain extremely high.Thus,the cost of a computer has only come down fromaround US$ 800 20 years ago to about US$ 300-400 today. This does appear small, whencompared with what has happened with mobilephone costs, for example. A mobile phone thatcost around US$ 1,000 10 years back is todayavailable for US$ 50-60. Very often the decline inhardware costs is notional, in the sense that itinvolves a similar or slightly higher price for muchmore powerful equipment. Since most users andmost applications do not need such power, whatwould have been of use is if less powerful equip-ment remains available at a lower price. But withmanufacturers of microprocessors and support-ing hardware phasing out production and sup-port of earlier technologies and rendering themtechnically obsolescent, even if not economicallyand socially so, there is a considerable degree of“downward stickiness” of entry-level equipmentprices.This makes the cost reduction substantiallynotional rather than real.

This problem is aggravated by the fact that lib-eralization involving easier entry of transnationalfirms into developing country markets as well asthe reductions on imported components andperipherals is seeing a decline for non-brandedPCs offered by low cost domestic assemblers.For example, in 2003-04, India’s domestic ITmarket, which includes a INR 8,750 crore (US$1.94 billion) market for PCs, registered the bestgrowth in 10 years of 24 per cent, with desktopvolumes registering a rate of growth of 21 percent. However, in that year, the share of assem-

bled PCs in the total reportedly fell by 7 percentagepoints from 65 per cent. Industry analystsexpect this trend to continue so that by the endof 2004-05, the assembler segment’s share maymove below even the 50 per cent level.† Theconsolidation in the PC market implies that agrowing dominance of branded PCs led bytransnational brands is likely to increase thestickiness of entry-level prices and dilute thebenefits that cost reduction can deliver.

Finally, the prices of computing facilities of dif-ferent kinds have been kept high because of thedominance of proprietary software controlledby large transnational firms and protected bycopyright that makes software extremelyexpensive and encourages large-scale piracy. Inaddition, software producers exploit the rapidincrease in computing power to add on newfeatures into higher versions of specific soft-ware. Many of these features are unnecessaryfor the ordinary user. Additionally, they result indownward stickiness in entry-level prices and inan increase in the costs of the upgrade necessi-tated by compatibility problems and networkeffects. This makes the success of the opensource software (OSS) movement crucial as ameans to keep software costs low directly, andthrough its indirect effects on the pricing poli-cies of proprietary software producers.

All these issues are of relevance because ourconcern here is with the possible humandevelopment implications of the ongoing ICTrevolution in poor countries. If the costs ofhardware, software and connectivity arebrought down substantially, ICT use canadvance human development through a vari-ety of routes. To start with, the technology andproduct offshoots of the phenomenon candirectly contribute to the creation of new pro-ductive employment. Many new products gen-erated by the technology, such as cellular tele-phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs) andforms of digital infotainment do not displaceexiting products and jobs but create new ones,releasing new demands because of the feltneed they cater to. The production and distri-bution of such products obviously create newemployment opportunities, and therebyimprove economic well-being. In many devel-oping countries, the product whose manufac-ture and sale is registering dramatic increasesis the personal computer. Reduced prices and

Many new productsgenerated by the

technology, such ascellular telephones,

personal digital assistants (PDAs) and

forms of digital infotainment do not

displace exiting products and jobs but

create new ones,releasing new demands

because of the feltneed to which

they cater

† Information taken from “Enter the Dragon”, Dataquest, 31 December 2004, p. 90.



new applications have transformed the PCfrom a tool for office automation to a con-sumer durable at home. The consequentgrowth in demand and production has hadsignificant employment effects. Governmentpolicy has been crucial to this, as in Thailand(Box 3.1). In other instances, such as in India,there has been a substantial increase in theemployment generated in the provision of arange of software and IT-enabled services,linked to or facilitated by the ICT revolution.However, such employment opportunitiesdirectly benefit the middle classes, whoseimproved well-being has only a marginalimpact on various human development indica-tors. Its effect on the poor is more a result ofthe indirect, demand-generating conse-quences of such employment and incomeincreases, the extent of which cannot be easilyestimated.

The second way in which ICT use can improvethe quality of life is through its productivity-enhancing and cost-reducing effects thatincrease the returns accruing to small and medi-um producers from productive activity. A strikingcase of such effects is the introduction of ICTdevices into the management of operations ofthe National Dairy Development Board inGujarat, India. (Box 3.2)

The third way in which ICTs can contribute toimproved welfare is to provide access to infor-mation as well as help impart skills and devel-op capabilities. Interviews with focus groups

and pro-poor activists reveal that there is sub-stantial demand for information that has a sig-nificant economic content, e.g., real-time infor-mation on prices, weather and pests; advice onagricultural technology, water use, soil man-agement, livestock management and livestockdiseases (agricultural extension); and availabil-ity and conditions of bank credit, micro-credit,and governmental grants and subsidies. In thesocial domain, health-related information isparticularly valuable. In the political arena,access to government forms, information ongovernment projects and personnel, and activ-ities of NGOs have a market. To these one mayadd a possible final cluster, even if the demandfor it is still tacit, and diffuse information on:

● export opportunities in small industry,crafts production, and horticulture

● changing requirements in global markets,and

● the opportunities provided by informationtechnology itself.

Besides, provision of straightforward access toinformation, ICTs can be used for skill and capa-bility development, with significant effect. Theexperience of the Karakoram Area Develop-ment Organization (KADO) in Pakisan illustratesthis possibility (Box 3.3).

Fourth, ICTs can be used for better and morewidespread provision of social services such aseducation and health. In China, for example, theconstraints created by its geographical vastness

ICT use can improvequality of life throughits productivity-enhancing and cost-reducing effects.This increases thereturns accruing tosmall and medium producers from productive activity

In early May 2003, the Ministry of Information and Communications Technology (MICT) ofThailand launched a project named “Computer ICT”. It aimed to offer Thai citizens the opportunityto acquire their own PCs at a low cost relative to the then prevailing open market prices (US$ 261for a desktop and US$ 467 for a notebook) and under easy payment conditions.

The sales target was first set at 100,000 PCs but a new target of a million PCs was set due to theoverwhelming response. The project was initiated when MICT teamed up with local brand PCmanufacturers and commissioned them to make low-cost PCs. As for software, MICT opted foropen source software, using Linux Operating System TLE 5.0.

The project’s aim was to increase PC penetration in Thailand, particularly among the low incomeearners. It also hoped to generate “spin-off”effects, by further inducing demand and competitionin the low-end PC segment. Other PC manufacturers, dealers and resellers have also come upwith strategies to reap the benefit of the market boom. For instance, a group of provincial PCresellers joined forces and launched a new product called “SME PC” at a price of US$ 333.

Source: Thuvasethakul et. al. 2003

Box 3.1 Computers for the masses in Thailand



Using ICT for human development

M.S. Swaminathan, UNESCO Chair in Ecotechnology and Chairman, MS Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, India

ICT provides uncommon opportunities for reaching the unreached and including the excluded in terms of knowl-edge and skill empowerment. Poverty persists in conditions where the human resource is under conditions whereit is under-valued and material resources are over-valued. An old Chinese saying goes:

If you are thinking one year ahead, plant rice;If you are thinking ten years ahead, plant trees;If you are thinking hundred years ahead, educate the people.

Several countries in our region have experienced rapid economic and social development only because of educa-tion and the acquisition of skills relevant to market-driven enterprises. This Report which brings together the expe-rience of Asian countries in harnessing ICT for achieving the MDGs is timely. Such sharing experiences will helpnations to purchase time in mobilizing ICT for accelerating the pace of human, social and economic development.

The M S Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) has been working in this field for several years. Our pro-gramme has been based on Mahatma Gandhi’s Antyodaya principle, i.e., ensure that the poorest person in the vil-lage gains from the technology and that technology does not further enlarge the rich-poor divide. Based on thisprinciple, we have recently established a Virtual Academy for Food Security and Rural Prosperity (VARP). ThisAcademy will help to spread demand-driven and user-friendly information through the integrated mobilization ofthe Internet, cable TV, community and Ham radio and vernacular newspapers. The Fellows of the Academy, chosenby a peer review process, are semi-literate or literate rural women and men who have shown extraordinary capabil-ities in mastering new technologies and applying them for the common good of all the families in the village. Thefirst Fellows of the Academy (four women and two men) come from very poor families and are products of the day-to-day struggle of women and men belonging to small farm families in meeting their livelihood needs. Therefore,their leadership of the Rural Knowledge Centres carries a high degree of credibility and acceptability. It is our hopethat by 2015, there will be a million Fellows of the Academy comprising at least one woman and one male knowl-edge manager from each village. This will enable the emergence of a Farmer Participatory Knowledge System.

The Rural Knowledge Centres of MSSRF are spearheading a movement for imparting a pro-nature, pro-poor andpro-woman orientation to job-led economic growth in rural areas. They give concurrent attention to on-farm andnon-farm employment, and to production and post-harvest technologies.They also demonstrate the power of part-nership among data generators, knowledge managers and the users of information and knowledge. This trilateralsymbiotic partnership holds promise for achieving the MDG even before 2015.

Another feature of these Rural Knowledge Centres is their linkage with institutions that can help rural families toconvert the scientific know-how into field-level do-how.Thus, linkages with appropriate hospitals have enabled theorganization of cataract-free zones. Some of the lessons we have learnt are:

● Connectivity, content and sustainability should receive concurrent attention.● Constraints must be removed on the basis of a malady-remedy analysis; for example, wired and wireless tech-

nologies could be used where telephone connections are not adequate or satisfactory. The approach should bebased on the principle that there is an implementable solution for every problem.

● The information provided should be demand-driven and should be relevant to the day-to-day life and work of ruralwomen and men.Also, semi-literate women should be accorded priority in training to operate the Knowledge Centre,since this is an effective method of enhancing the self-esteem and social prestige of women living in poverty.

● Knowledge dissemination should be linked to access to inputs needed to apply the knowledge for economic activities.● The Knowledge Centres should operate on the principle of social inclusion, presenting a win-win situation for all.● The local population should have a sense of ownership of the Knowledge Centre. It should be client managed

and controlled, so that the information provided is demand- and user-driven.● The local population should be willing to make contributions towards the expenses of the Knowledge Centre, so

that the long-term economic sustainability of the programme is ensured. Contributions in cash or kind generatea sense of ownership and pride, and create an economic stake in the operation of the Centre.




ICTs can contribute toimproved welfare byproviding access to information as well ashelping impart skillsand develop capabilities

and diverse terrain to provide schooling andimprove its quality are being tackled with a largerange of distance education programmes thatexploit the potential of ICTs (Box 3.4). In additionto the use of computers and the Internet, radioand TV are also deployed to promote education.For instance, there are 2,735 radio and TV univer-sities at national, provincial, prefecture andcounty levels and the number of total classes is18,136. In 2001, 174,300 people completed theircollege programmes in these universities and216,600 new students were enrolled, thus takingthe total number of students in all these univer-sities to 562,900.4 According to incomplete sta-tistics, over 10 million students have graduatedfrom all the radio and TV universities. It is to beexpected that, soon, information technologywould become an important tool in the func-tioning of these organizations.

Malaysia’s Telehealth programme is an exampleof the use of ICTs for provision of a range ofhealth services. Telehealth is a joint initiative ofthe Ministry of Health and the private sectorusing ICTs to deliver, among other things, highquality health content to the public. The initia-tors of this project believe that empoweringindividuals with medical knowledge will enablethem to make informed decisions and take careof their own health. This is the ‘wellness para-digm’, which is envisaged by the Ministry ofHealth to be the future of health care in the newmillennium.

Telehealth (www.telehealth.com.my) has fourcomponents: Teleconsultation, Mass Customised/Personalized Health Information and Education(MCPHIE), Continuing Medical Education (CME)and a Lifetime Health Plan (LHP).

The major advances made by the cooperativization of milk production and processing at AmulDairy in Gujarat, India, have been widely recognized.Village-level primary producers are organ-ized under a supervisor from the district-level Cooperative Dairy Union which owns a pro-cessing plant. Milk is sold only to the cooperative at local collection centres. ICT is being usedto improve collection and payment, substantially improving the prices received by farmers.Earlier, the quality and quantity of the milk was computed through manual calculations madeby the cooperative staff. This not only led to allegations of underpayment, but resulted in sub-stantial delays. The fat content in the milk supplied by the primary producers was calculated afew hours after the milk was received and farmers were paid every 10 days or so. With theintroduction of ICT, each producer is provided with a card that is read electronically at the col-lection centre and his/her ID sent to a personal computer. Milk is poured into a steel contain-er on a weighbridge that displays the weight and transmits the information to the PC. An oper-ator takes a small sample of the milk and a fat testing machine reads the fat content electron-ically in three seconds. With this information being displayed and transferred to the PC as well,the computer calculates the payment due to the producer and provides him/her with a pay-ment slip using which he/she can immediately collect his/her payment. The milk vending sys-tem costs around US$ 2,000 per centre. Two private manufacturers currently produce theequipment. Nearly 600 such systems are in operation in the Kheda district in Gujarat. There are70,000 village societies in India, of which 2,500 have been computerized.

Once this facility was put in place, the opportunities offered by computerization could beexploited and the benefits further extended. Using the Dairy Information System Kiosk (DISK)software developed by the Indian Institute of Management (IIM) Ahmedabad, which con-nects to a dairy information portal, it is now possible to maintain and access a computerizeddatabase. This database includes all details of the cattle owned by the cooperative’s mem-bers, historical information on milk production, information on the prices and availability of arange of commodities needed by cooperative members, and information on best breedingpractices. In addition, the system can be used to deliver services such as inoculation alertsthat can be printed onto the payment slip.The benefits that this transparent and efficient sys-tem delivers in terms of improved productivity and earnings should be obvious. Its effects onpoverty are also an obvious corollary.

Source: Bhatnagar 2000

Box 3.2 ICT enhances productivity and raises income: DISK in Gujarat



ICTs can be used forbetter and more wide-

spread provision ofsocial services such as

education and health

Established in 1995, the Karakoram Area Development Organization (KADO) is funded by theAga Khan Development Network (AKDN) and the Swiss Agency for Development Corporation(SDC). Its objective is to work closely with the communities inhabiting the Karakoram area inthe northern mountainous region of Pakistan. KADO has three programmatic areas thatemploy ICTs:

● an e-commerce initiative called Threadnet Hunza (http://www.threadnethunza.com)● an ICT training and capacity building programme for villagers, and ● a website for information sharing called the Karakoram-Hunza Cybersite.

Both Threadnet Hunza and the ICT training programme have yielded important lessons on thebenefits of using ICTs for poverty alleviation. Threadnet Hunza is an e-commerce website thatoffers the products of local handicrafts, such as carpets and household accessories, for sale overthe Internet.With technology support from KADO’s staff, the website has established a small andloyal clientele in Europe and the US (figures on the sales from the site were unavailable, althoughKADO claims that the website is self-sufficient and provides significant premiums to villagers ontheir products).

The ICT training programme of KADO assisted the local community in establishing 10 villagetraining centres, training master trainers and providing seed funds to entrepreneurs.These train-ing centres provide access to new technologies (such as basic computing and the Internet) for anominal fee that sustains their activities. As in the case of Threadnet Hunza, the training centresare financially feasible small enterprises.The village training centres thus meet two complemen-tary objectives:

● the generation of sustainable incomes for the poor, and● the establishment of mechanisms for ICT capacity building among the rural poor.

Box 3.3 Capacity building in the Karakorams: KADO

† Information from http://www.tenet.res.in/Press/digi_partners.html, accessed 30 December 2004.

Teleconsultation provides a platform for spe-cialists to make decisions without physicallyexamining patients. MCPHIE involves creatingand delivering high quality health content toequip individuals with medical knowledge toallow them to make informed decisions andtake care of their own health. CME increases theknowledge and skills of healthcare providerswhile LHP delivers a network-based personal-ized health plan for each individual, based onmedical records.

As part of the Telehealth initiative, two IT-basedspecialist hospitals in Selayang, Selangor andPutrajaya were commissioned in 2000.Currently, six hospitals are being built incorpo-rating the computerized Total HospitalInformation System (THIS). They are located inAmpang, Serdang and Sungei Buloh inSelangor, Alor Setar and Sungei Petani in Kedahand Pandan in Johor. In addition, 25 small andmedium-sized hospitals including 12 in the

states of Sabah and Sarawak, incorporating theHealth Information System, are now in variousstages of planning and development.

Currently, selected health clinics and health cen-tres in Johor, Negri Sembilan, Kuala Lumpur,Sabah and Sarawak are also being equippedwith teleprimary healthcare networks which areconnected to state and district hospitals. Thiswill facilitate teleconsultation and access to spe-cialized diagnostic services such as radiologyand pathology.

ICTs are also an excellent tool to create a citi-zen-friendly administration that provides freeaccess to information, exploits the technology’sinteractive capabilities that allow for a bettercitizen-government interface, and uses itsdelivery and monitoring capabilities toimprove the efficiency of services provision. Ata decentralized level, nLogue Communications,a division of TeNet group† has undertaken a



ICTs are also an excel-lent tool to create a citizen-friendly administration that provides free access toinformation, exploitsthe technology’s interactive capabilitiesthat allow for a bettercitizen-governmentinterface, and uses itsdelivery and monitoringcapabilities to improvethe efficiency of services provision

The 101 Distance Learning Centre (www.chinaedu.com) is the first distance-learning centre spe-cializing in basic education in China. It was established in Beijing in September 1996. As of 2003,there were 200 distance-learning middle schools in China with over 0.6 million registered stu-dents coming from 70,000 common middle schools. Remarkable achievements have been madein many big cities such as in Beijing where there are more than 30 online secondary schools with50,000 to 100,000 students.

Box 3.4 The popularity of on-line schooling

project that seeks to harness the Internet’s abil-ity to access and disseminate information. Aspart of its effort to commercialize cheap WLL-based connectivity in underserved rural areas,TeNet has set up nLogue, which seeks to developa network of local entrepreneurs to providefront-line implementation and services to localsubscribers. These Local Service Partners (LSPs)will be in the business of setting up AccessCentres in small towns and rural areas, whichwill provide simultaneous Internet and teleph-ony access to subscribers within a 30 km (19 mile) radius.

As part of their obligation to nLogue, LocalService Partners are required to:

● actively market nLogue services● provide after-sales service to subscribers,

satisfying their queries and offering product support

● manage equipment at the Access Centre● actively educate subscribers where needed

and create awareness of available technologies ● facilitate the building of Internet communi-

ties within their subscriber base, and ● identify opportunities for commerce over

local networks.

In rural areas, conveniently located kiosks willservice surrounding villages. In addition to local

and long-distance telephone service, these vil-lage kiosks will offer residents information oncommodity prices, land records, certificates,weddings, etc., all of which is collected andstored at the Access Centre.

Governmental efforts have also been importantin this area. In India, for example, e-governanceinitiatives are at the centre of the ICTs for devel-opment agenda.The concern of governments atnational, state/provincial and local levels toincorporate ICTs into their development agendais visible in the large number of ‘e-governance’projects that have been initiated in the country.These projects constitute by far the mostnumerous and include the largest and the mostnoticed of ICTs for development projects in thecountry. An early and relatively large-scaleexample of an e-governance project is the com-puterization of the Mandal Revenue Offices(MROs) in the state of Andhra Pradesh. As part ofthe project, all the MROs (totalling 1,124), therevenue divisional offices (78), the collectorates(23), the Office of the Commissioner of LandRevenue, and the Directorate of Economics andStatistics at Hyderabad have been computer-ized. This involves data collection, developmentand implementation of appropriate databasesand developing human resources throughintensive training. A substantial part of thefunding comes from a World Bank Hazard


Mitigation and Emergency Cyclone RecoveryProject, “which supports the government’sefforts to improve data collection and commu-nication of relevant hazard and vulnerabilityreduction information from the district andmandal level to citizens”.5

The system is expected to automate and facil-itate:

● the maintenance of statistical informationon population, landholding, cropping pat-terns, weather and climate, livestock, irriga-tion facilities, housing and a range of othereconomic information needed for designand management of developmentschemes

● the issue of integrated certificates (detail-ing caste, place and date of birth), birth anddeath certificates, income certificates, pen-sions and ration cards

● the maintenance of village records, includ-ing records relating to transfer of landrights, revenue demands, and allocation ofgovernment/surplus lands

● the monitoring of public grievances, wel-fare schemes, hazard mitigation plans andrescue operations

● the monitoring of the performance of everyemployee of the state government, and

● the provision of a government-citizen inter-face in which complaints can be registereddirectly by the affected party and griev-ances redressed in a transparent mannerwith substantial saving of time.

The system sits on the Andhra Pradesh State-wide Area Network (APSWAN), which uses anoptic fibre link to connect the state secretariatwith 23 district headquarters. Voice, video anddata services made possible by this backboneare expected to ensure better coordinationbetween state headquarters and district offices,and improve the efficacy of the different regula-tory, developmental and hazard mitigation pro-grammes of the state government.

The storage of a wide range of information,including documents relating to propertyrights, in computerized databases and provid-ing public access to these databases is seen aspromoting transparency of a kind that strength-ens democracy. It empowers people and speedsup decision-making when compared with asituation where information was sealed intofiles locked with red tape that were accessible

only to a bureaucracy sworn to secrecy on allmatters.

One noted e-governance project is theBhoomi project in the state of Karnataka. TheGovernment of Karnataka launched theBhoomi initiative in 1998, which has beendescribed as a major initiative to computerizeland records to ensure a more secure title anddecrease rural graft. According to reports, all ofthe 177 Talukas in the state have already beencomputerized, and the information transferredfrom the pre-existing manual registers to acomputerized database. Besides providingaccess to land records, that database is expect-ed to be used for a number of other develop-mental applications including better agricul-tural and financial planning for farmers in col-laboration with the Centre for KnowledgeSocieties, Bangalore.

The Maharashtra Emergency EarthquakeRehabilitation Project (MEERP), being imple-mented in the state of Maharashtra, is an exam-ple of an e-governance project that has a moretargeted objective, but infrastructure fromwhich can support many other activities. It isaimed at minimizing the adverse effects of nat-ural disasters. Complete with a disaster manage-ment centre located at the Yashwantrao ChavanAcademy of Development Administration(YASHADA), computerized control rooms acrossthe state, a VSAT- and VHF-based communica-tion network and area-specific GIS-based disas-ter-management plans, the system providescritical support for the disaster managementfunctions of the administration. It can help planexit and evacuation activities in case of naturalor man-made disasters, locate resources thatcould be easily and quickly deployed in theaffected areas and identify potential disastermanagement facilities in case of need.Supported by the World Bank, the Departmentfor International Development (DFID) andUNDP, the project is now reportedly complete inall districts across the state.

Given the resources available with the govern-ment,the international support for these projectsand the government’s own desire to computer-ize operations, these are the projects that arerelatively large in scale and are likely to be sus-tained. There can be little doubt that these doprovide the necessary interface for more citi-zen-friendly and transparent governance.However, unless practices and mindsets in the


The concern of governments at national, state/

provincial and local levels to incorporate

ICTs into their development agenda is

visible in the largenumber of

‘e-governance’ projects that have

been initiated in India



The storage of a widerange of information,including documentsrelating to propertyrights in computerizeddatabases and providing public accessto these databases isseen as promotingtransparency of a kindthat strengthensdemocracy, empowerspeople and speeds updecision-making

bureaucracy and the state administration them-selves change, the difference this interface canmake would be marginal.

Finally, ICTs are powerful tools for human devel-opment since they provide a platform for build-ing networks,exchanging information and ideas,launching campaigns and lobbying for change.One area where this is visible is in the strugglefor redressing the sharp gender inequalities thatcharacterize all societies, independent of level ofdevelopment or institutional features. Perhapsthe most significant positive impact of ICTs onwomen’s empowerment is the enhanced capac-ity of women’s advocacy and support groups toexchange information, coordinate action, andundertake concerted advocacy campaigns.

For example, the Human Rights Commission ofPakistan has been able to extend its outreach pre-cisely because of email and the Internet. One ini-tiative that was critical in making such interactionpossible is the construction of email lists and listarchives on specific issues by the SustainableDevelopment Network of Pakistan (SDNP).Indeed, this is among the true success stories ofPakistan’s IT experience.The network provides themost comprehensive source of news and infor-mation about various social and human develop-ment issues in Pakistan available on the Internet.The Gender and Sustainable Development List(GSD-List) ([email protected], archives athttp://lists.isb.sdnpk.org/mailman/listinfo/gsd-list) provides a daily news update on women’sissues, both from mainstream and alternativemedia sources.The GSD list has helped in the evo-lution of a vibrant community of women’s activistorganizations in the country by placing the powerof electronic communication at their disposal. Byunderstanding the convening power of theInternet, they have leveraged it to great effect inseveral cases of atrocities against women – bring-ing unprecedented attention to the state ofwomen’s empowerment in Pakistan.

Given these possible routes through which ICTdiffusion and use can contribute to humandevelopment, it is not surprising that it is not theemployment and income growth effects in theICT sector itself that have been emphasized in theICT for development literature,but the gains in theform of directly facilitating human development.

The literature on the role of ICT in promotingeconomic development, despite its short his-tory, makes its generalizations based on the

large number of ongoing experiments withusing the technology and is characterised bysome diversity in the opinions it reflects. TheFinal Report of the Digital Opportunities TaskForce6 highlighted the transformationalimpact of ICT by examining over 300 ICTs fordevelopment initiatives from around theworld.These initiatives illustrate the role of ICTsin generating new economic opportunities,delivering improved healthcare and educa-tion, promoting sustainable environmentalmanagement, fostering democratic gover-nance by empowering people and organiza-tions, and making government processes moreefficient and transparent.

Although such studies have suggested that ICTspread has a positive impact on income andemployment growth, much of the evidence per-tains to the developed countries. In the case ofdeveloping countries where non-ICT invest-ments could have a higher pay-off than ICTinvestments, the positive relationship could beweak or absent. Hence, there are some whohave argued that ICT should not become a‘techno-quick-fix’ for solving developmentproblems as there may be unacceptable trade-offs with realization of specific MDGs in lessdeveloped countries. According to this view, weare only beginning to understand how theapplication of ICT affects economic growth andthe achievement of specific social goals andthere are still serious doubts as to ‘whether thebenefits truly outweigh the costs’. The evidencesuggests that ICTs have a strong positive effecton the process of socio-economic developmentonly when governments create and maintain aconducive, enabling environment.

In this report, the development effects of ICT aretraced through four channels:

● ICT as a sector of economic activity● ICT as an enabler or input for enhancing

human productivity ● ICT as a means of improved provision of

better quality services, and ● ICT as a means of enhancing capabilities,

especially by increasing access to informa-tion and knowledge that directly enlargepeople’s choices and by facilitating the for-mation of groups and networks that con-tribute to human development advance.

First, and this is perhaps where the impact ofICTs is immediately visible, attention is paid to



ICTs are powerful toolsfor human development

since they provide aplatform for building

networks, exchanginginformation and ideas,launching a campaign

and lobbying forchange. One area

where this is visible isin the struggle for

redressing the sharpgender inequalities that

characterize all societies independent

of level of developmentor institutional features

the contribution of the ICT sector to the overalleconomic growth of a nation or even to theglobal economy. According to the third-quarter2003 version of the industry-standard IDC BlackBook, worldwide IT spending was set for a 5 percent growth to US$ 916 billion in 2004, whilespending on telecom services was expected toshow 4 per cent growth to US$ 1 trillion.7 TheICT sector and industry have witnessedunprecedented growth in the past decade. Inthe mid-1990s, the ICT sector became theworld’s first industry to surpass leading industri-al sectors such as automobile and steel. In thelatter part of the 1990s, the average annualgrowth rate of the world economy was around 3 per cent, while the growth of the ICT sectorwas two or three times that of the growth rateof the world economy. These rates of growthhave been sustained despite the growing roleof the ICT sector in major economies.

Developing countries such as India have alsobenefited from rapid growth in IT and relatedsectors. The growth of India’s ICT sectors, espe-cially IT components, has attracted attention fora number of reasons. To start with, the pace ofthat growth has been rapid, albeit from a lowbase, tallying with the dynamism seen as typicalof the industry and captured by the oft-quotedMoore’s Law.Thus, according to data collated byDataquest, over the 14-year period from 1990-91 to 2003-04, the annual compound rate ofgrowth of output was above 35 per cent.8

The area where the ICT revolution has openedup whole new opportunities for developingcountries such as India is in the services sector.Prior to the digital revolution’s transformation ofservice activity, the provision of most servicesrequired the presence of a service provider atthe point of delivery of the service. As a result,services export took the form of migration ofpersonnel to the location where the service wasprovided, as epitomized by the migration ofskilled technicians, doctors and nurses to theUS, and of semi-skilled and unskilled workers(carpenters, masons, chauffeurs and house-maids) to the Gulf countries from India.

The digital revolution has changed all that. Nowthere is a range of services being provided byworkers located in a country different from theone in which the service is actually delivered.These services are delivered via telecommuni-

cation or data networks, and are either out-sourced or organized by agents in the countryof origin of the service to whom the provision ofthese services are contracted out or outlocatedby subsidiaries of corporations from the countryof delivery of certain services. Examples of serv-ices outsourced/outlocated include customerinteraction services; the processing of creditcard accounts, insurance claims and businesspayrolls; the creation and maintenance of infor-mation bases in the form of networked datacentres and their use in the provision of infor-mation services such as help desks; and the gen-eration of digitized records as in the case ofmedical transcription. Other examples of outlo-cation include investment in design subsidiariesand back-office facilities.

The possible range of IT-enabled services in anenvironment where the service sector’s role isgrowing worldwide is immense. The reasonswhy such relocation occurs are obvious. It sub-stantially reduces the cost at which such servicesare obtained or provided, and so long as anappropriate location in terms of the availabilityof manpower with the requisite skills (say, basiccomputer literacy) and the necessary character-istics (e.g., knowledge of English) is chosen, thequality and efficiency of the service is alsoensured.

Estimates made by the National Association ofSoftware and Service Companies (NASSCOM),India, during the period 1990-91 to 2003-04,indicate that IT software and services exportshave been growing at 50 per cent per annum ordoubling every 18-24 months. There has been atrend shift in the rate of expansion of IT sectoroutput since 1996-97, driven by exports. Whilethe trend rate of growth of output valued in dol-lars rose from 23.7 per cent during 1990-91 to1996-97 to 35.7 per cent during 1995-96 to2002-03, the rate of growth of exports rose from32.5 per cent to 51.9 per cent during these twoperiods. As a result, the share of IT software andservices exports in India’s total exports is esti-mated to have risen from 3.2 per cent in 1996-97 to 21.3 per cent in 2003-04, and the ratio of ITsoftware and services revenues to GDP rosefrom 0.72 per cent in 1997-98 to 1.81 per cent in2000-01 and 2.64 per cent in 2003-04.†

Second, ICTs enhance the process of humandevelopment because of their impact on eco-

† Based on data collated from www.nasscom.org



There are some whohave argued that ICTshould not become a‘techno-quick-fix’ forsolving developmentproblems as there maybe unacceptable trade-offs with realization ofspecific MDGs in lessdeveloped countries

nomic growth through productivity gains that itgenerates in every sector. ICTs are increasinglybeing used as the means to design and controlprocesses and operations in the resourceextraction industries, manufacturing sector andservices. ICTs have, in fact, become indispensa-ble ingredients in all forms of economic activityranging from design and manufacturing tomaintenance of inventories, provision of prod-uct and service information and marketing.They have become vital to the conduct ofnational and international business transac-tions, facilitating stock market operations, inter-national trade and the functioning of globalcurrency markets.They also play a critical role incomputational activities supporting scientificand technological research, and thereby con-tribute to the generation of productivityenhancing technologies and processes. Alongthese channels, however, quantitative assess-ments of the impact of ICTs become difficult, asthey are embedded and integrated into thefunctioning of almost all industrial and servicessectors.This makes it difficult to isolate and thenquantify the contributions made by ICTs alone.

Third, ICTs allow government, cooperatives, civilsociety organizations and the private sector tooffer better and more easily accessed services ineven remote locations. These could vary fromsimple user charge collection services to sophis-ticated health services delivered by specialiststo patients in remote locations. Other examplesrevealed by the experiments under way involveprovision of veterinary services, grievanceredressal relating to availability of governmentfacilities and access to market and officialinformation of commercial value. Many e-governance projects are directed at using ICTsto provide these and other services.

Fourth, perhaps the most significant and long-term impact of ICTs lies in their ability to directlyexpand human choices through increased accessto information and knowledge. Knowledge playsa critical role in people’s ability to process, inter-pret, evaluate and deploy information in theirown context and in the pursuit of their own inter-ests. Knowledge empowers individuals, organiza-tions and communities by providing them withchoices far beyond those that may be available tothem otherwise. These choices generate oppor-tunities for increased participation – economical-ly, socially, politically and culturally. ICTs enablethe flow of knowledge across geographical,polit-ical, economic and social borders, thereby break-

ing earlier forms of knowledge monopoly whichled to the marginalization of large sections of theworld’s population.

Its role as a carrier technology allows ICT tobreak barriers to human development in at leastthree ways not possible before or with otherforms of technology:

● Breaking barriers to human knowledge.Access to information and education isindispensable in building human capabili-ties. The Internet and other ICTs are increas-ingly becoming the key delivery mechanismsfor information and education to sectionsof the population that did not have accessto educational infrastructure and content.Moreover, these new delivery mechanismsprovide access to global and diversifiedsources of information and educationalcontent thereby enhancing, dramatically,the quality of educational inputs that areavailable to even the most remote anddeprived populations. ICTs are also beingactively used in promoting life-long learn-ing and continued education as well asreintegrating unemployed people into theworkforce through re-education andretooling of skills.Women and other exclud-ed groups stand to benefit particularly fromthis.

● Breaking barriers to participation. The worldhas witnessed innovative uses of theInternet and other ICTs in enhancing politi-cal participation as well as in bringingabout greater transparency and accounta-bility. In many parts of Asia, where the massmedia have been and continue to be strictlycontrolled by governments, the Internethas offered a new medium of politicalmobilization and participation. In Malaysia,the emergence of alternative news andonline websites such as Malaysiakini haveprovided a channel for opposition groupsand parties as well as critics of the govern-ment to express dissent, thereby creating anew space for political debate and expres-sion. The Internet has also become a majormeans for interaction between civil societygroups and for raising awareness and run-ning campaigns that lobby for change.Such Internet- and ICT-based news andinformation groups have contributed to thecreation of a more vibrant public sphere.They increase social, political, economicand cultural participation, which enhances



networking and social mobilization and canmake governments more accountable andtransparent.

● Breaking barriers to economic opportunity.Since the ICT sector requires less initialinvestment than the more traditional sec-tors of industrial activity, it lowers the bar-riers to entry into the economy for peoplewho could never break into the industrialsector. ICT provides new and unprecedent-ed opportunities to whosoever has profi-ciency in handling ICT tools and has anidea or service to sell. This is what helpedpeople with ICT skills in countries such asIndia, China and Malaysia to overcome thetraditional barriers to employment and

wealth creation by joining the computersoftware industry or related ICT industries.ICTs have also created new outsourcingopportunities whereby services are pro-vided in one country and delivered toanother country. The large and rapidlyexpanding global software and IT-enabledservices outsourcing market provides anarray of opportunities to developing coun-tries with labour that is proficient in ICTand relatively cheap. These new avenuesof employment have benefited some hith-erto less privileged sections as well; forexample, in India, women constitute alarge section of the workforce in call andtranscription centres.


Photo 4/8/05 11:37 AM Page 7

Photo: Amit Khullar

Photo 4/8/05 11:37 AM Page 8

In 1997, there were 173fixed lines and mobiletelephones per 1,000people. Over a five-yearperiod ending 2002, thefigure more than doubled to 364 fixedlines and mobile telephones per 1,000people. The telecommunication landscape also beganto change from onedominated by landlinesto one based on wireless technology

The world has witnessed a rapid process of dif-fusion of ICTs since the mid-1990s. In 1997,there were 173 fixed lines and mobile tele-phones per 1,000 people. Over a five-year peri-od ending 2002, the figure more than doubledto 364 fixed lines and mobile telephones per1,000 people.* The telecommunication land-scape also began to change from one dominat-ed by landlines to one based on wireless tech-nology. Although wireless communication isstill considered a recent innovation in the evo-lution of telecommunications, adoption rates indeveloped and developing countries havebeen astounding. Analysts of diffusion process-es and their determinants have correctlyargued that wireless communication will expe-rience exponential growth to surpass landlinediffusion, due to faster deployment, lower costsand greater ease of use. On a global scale, thepenetration rate for mobile telephones in 2002was 19.07 per 100 inhabitants, overtaking thepenetration for main telephone lines whichstands at 17.90 per 100 inhabitants. Mostregions such as Africa, Asia, Europe and Oceania

have a higher mobile telephone penetrationrate compared to their main telephone linepenetration rate (Table 4.1). Gartner believesthat by 2007, 60 per cent of people aged 15 to50 in the EU and the US will carry or wear awireless communications device for at least sixhours a day.1

Diffusion rates for relatively newer ICT innova-tions like the Internet are also fast catching up.†

The Internet first began as ARPANET (AdvanceResearch Projects Agency Network) in 1969,which linked US scientific and academicresearchers and consisted of four host comput-ers. In 1980, there were 213 host computers inless than 12 North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) countries. In the mid-1980s, theARPANET took its first step out of the USDepartment of Defence and became theInternet. By the end of the 1980s, connectivityhad spread to more than 20 countries with100,000 host computers. The millionth host wasconnected in 1992 and, in 2003, more than 200countries had full TCP/IP (Transmission Control

67

Status of ICT diffusion andthe digital divide in AsiaM

DG

s C h a p t e r 4

Main telephone lines Cellular mobile phone(per 100 inhabitants) subscribers (per 100 inhabitants)

Global 17.90 19.07Africa 2.77 4.59Americas (North and South) 34.73 29.90Asia 11.99 12.42Europe 41.34 51.26Oceania 40.40 48.87

Source: International Telecommunication Union, World Telecommunications Indicators 2004: Access Indicators for theInformation Society, electronic version, updated October 2004 and downloaded 2 January 2005.

Table 4.1 Global telephone penetration rates (2002)

* World Bank, World Development Indicators Online, accessed 2 January 2005.† It must be noted that as of now the faster rate of growth of mobile lines vis-à-vis fixed lines does slow Internet

growth as the latter provides better Internet access.



ICTs and MDGs: Efficiency and equity Some policy issues relevant for human development in Asia and the Pacific

Bruno Lanvin, Senior Advisor, e-Strategies, The World Bank

In 2000, the G-8 Digital Opportunity Task Force (DOT Force) concluded that ”when wisely applied, ICTs offer enor-mous opportunities to narrow social and economic inequalities and support sustainable local wealth creation, andthus help to achieve the broader development goals that the international community has set. (. . .) ICTs can providenew and more efficient methods of production, bring previously unattainable markets within the reach of local pro-ducers, improve the delivery of government services, and increase access to basic social goods and services. Thereneed therefore be no trade-off between investment in ICT and the achievement of development objectives”.1

A hierarchical view of MDGsAs many analysts have underlined already, Goal 8 (which covers both ICT and partnerships) can increase the effi-ciency with which the international community will pursue Goals 1 to 7, considering the fact that Goals 2 to 7 areactually fundamental components of a concerted strategy to achieve Goal 1 (poverty eradication). Schematically,this ‘hierarchy of MDGs’ can be represented as follows:

Efficiency cum equityFrom the hierarchy suggested above, one can easily deduct that investing in ICTs will be an important way to:

● increase the efficiency of investments made in sectors such as education or health (e.g., by increasing the rangeand lowering the cost of delivering such services), and

● accelerate the fight against poverty.

Effo

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(res

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) fro

m lo

cal a

nd

inte

rnat

ion

al c

om

mu

nit

ies

to re

ach

MD

Gs

Goal 1 Poverty eradication

Goal 8 ICT & Partnerships

Goal 2 Primary education

Goal 3 Gender equality

Goal 4 Child mortality reduction

Goal 5 Maternal health

Goal 6 HIV/AIDS, malaria, other disease

Goal 7 Environment

Sco

reca

rds

and

mo

nit

ori

ng

(tra

ckin

g 4

8 in

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Target 1,2

Target 3

Target 4

Target 5

Target 6

Target 7,8

Target 9

Target 12 to 18


Protocol/Internet Protocol) connectivity withover 500 million users.2

The pervasiveness and growth of ICT is alsoseen in the number of personal computers(PCs) owned by people. In 1995, there were42.1 personal computers per 1,000 peopleand this number almost doubled to reach100.8 computers per 1,000 people in 2002.The number of Internet users per 1,000people has also risen more than 10-fold

from 9.6 users in 1995 to 130.7 users in2002 ( Table 4.2).

A recent report reveals that, in 2004, the num-ber of Internet users worldwide had risen to astaggering 935 million (Table 4.3).3 Though theUS topped the country-list with 185 millionusers, China with close to 100 million users wasfast catching up. In fact, according to EgilJuliussen, the author of the report, most futuregrowth in Internet users would come from


69Introduction

In other words, when considering efforts to be made to pursue a particular MDG, one needs to keep in mind thatthe ultimate effect on that particular sector (and its relevant MDG) will be a combination of two factors:

● the resources allocated to the sector, and ● the increased efficiency with which the services appropriate to that particular sector will reach their beneficiaries.

Graphically, this can be represented as follows:

If one regards ICTs as a significant tool through which efficiency gains can be realized in the delivery of services suchas education and health, it becomes useful to consider that any allocation of resources (T) can usefully be sharedbetween direct allocations to the relevant sectors, on the one hand, and support to ICT infrastructure and services,on the other. Using the same type of graphical representation as above, we now have a slightly more complex chainof causalities:

Since the realization of MDGs 2 to 7 will ultimately be necessary to the realization of Goal 1 (poverty reduction),investing in ICT should indeed be considered as a tool through which both efficiency and equity concerns can beaddressed while pursuing the MDGs.

Allocation of resources T to sector i(MDGi) and ICT

Allocation of resources xTO to ICT Allocation of resources x10 to sector i (MDGi)

ICT-related increased efficiency indelivering in sector i (MDGi)

Non ICT-related increased efficiency in delivering in sector i (MDGi)

Impact on sector i(MDGi)

Increased efficiency in delivering in sector i (MDGi)

Allocation of resources Tto sector i (MDGi)

Increased efficiency in deliveringsector i (MDGi)

Impact on section i (MDGi)

populous countries such as China, India, Brazil,Russia and Indonesia. These countries are alsoexpected to registerk strong growth of wirelessWeb usage and the cell phone will be the onlyInternet access device for many new Internetusers. The Human Development Report (HDR)2001 predicted that, by 2005, there will be wellover a billion Internet users with access to moreinformation than ever at a rapidly decreasingcost. At that time, there were 2.5 billion uniqueand publicly accessible Web pages on the

Internet with 7.3 million new ones being addedevery day.

As a result of such diffusion, Asian nationsare well placed to leverage the use of ICTsfor socio-economic and human develop-ment. In just over a decade, several Asiannations have emerged as global leaders interms of ICT use and penetration. Telephoneavailability, PC ownership and Internetaccess are increasing rapidly, pushed by



A recent report revealsthat, in 2004, the

number of Internetusers worldwide hadrisen to a staggering

935 million. Though theUS topped the country-

list with 185 millionusers, China with close

to 100 million userswas fast catching up

growing government support with pro-ICTpolicies and regulations as well as muchlower start-up costs than those developedcountries experienced initially.

This evidence is heartening because ICT avail-ability and connectivity are crucial to exploitingthe benefits of the technology for human devel-opment. Overall, the promise that the ICT revo-lution holds for development in poor countriestakes three forms. First, it is expected to result inthe growth and diversification of the ICT sectoritself, leading to the rapid expansion of outputand employment in the production of currentlyavailable ICT products as well as myriad newproducts the technology is expected to deliver.The consequent income and employmentgrowth, it is argued, cannot but have positivehuman development implications.

Second, the use of ICT in the agricultural, non-ICT manufacturing and services sectors isexpected to fundamentally transform thenature of production in these sectors with

major implications in terms of labour productiv-ity, growth and employment.

Third,the penetration of ICT into activities outsideof production is expected to reshape the waywork, markets and leisure will be organized, andthe way in which individuals and communitiescan trade and access information and services.This, in turn, will lead to changes in the structureof markets, improvements in the quality of life, adeepening of democracy, and major advances interms of human development indicators.

Needless to say, each of these routes throughwhich ICTs are expected to affect developmentis predicated on a certain kind and degree ofdiffusion of the technology within the country.The first presumes a process of cross-countrydiffusion, whereby the technologies and theindustries that constitute the ICT sector movefrom early to late entrants.

The second route by which ICTs are expected toimpact growth and development is predicated

Year-end 2004 Internet users (‘000) Share %

1. US 185,550 19.862. China 99,800 10.683. Japan 78,050 8.354. Germany 41,880 4.485. India 36,970 3.966. UK 33,110 3.547. South Korea 31,670 3.398. Italy 25,530 2.739. France 25,470 2.73

10. Brazil 22,320 2.3911. Russia 21,230 2.2712. Canada 20,450 2.1913. Mexico 13,880 1.4914. Spain 13,440 1.4415. Australia 13,010 1.39Top 15 Countries 662,360 70.88Worldwide Total 934,480 100

Source: Computer Industry Almanac at http://www.c-i-a.com/pr0904.htm, accessed January 2005.

Table 4.3 Top 15 countries in Internet usage

1995 2000 2002

Personal computers (per 1,000 people) 42.1 79.9 100.8Internet users (per 1,000 people) 9.6 84.7 130.7

Source: World Development Indicators database, January 2005

Table 4.2 Global diffusion of ICTs


71Status of ICT diffusion and the digital divide in Asia

Asian nations are wellplaced to leverage theuse of ICTs for socio-economic and humandevelopment. In justover a decade, severalAsian nations haveemerged as globalleaders in terms of ICTuse and penetration

on a horizontal intra-country diffusion process.ICT use in the manufacturing sector, it is pre-dicted, will transform the production processand organizational structures of firms, and raiseproductivity, investment, growth and employ-ment. Similarly, in the services sector, it isexpected to change the structure of markets,and the extent and ease of access to and deliv-ery of a range of services.

The third route by which ICTs are anticipated toimpact development is crucially dependent ona vertical intra-country diffusion process thatresults in an increase in the level of penetrationof the technology, leading to increased commu-nity and individual access to the benefits of thetechnology. This impacts human developmentby making these devices the means of servicedelivery, of ensuring transparency and ofenhancing participation.

One simple indicator of diffusion is the rate ofincrease of ICT-related expenditure. Expendi-ture on ICT, which includes external* and inter-nal† spending on information technology, is onthe rise for some Asian countries (Table 4.4). In

all countries where data were available (exceptIndonesia), ICT expenditure is seen to haveincreased both in absolute terms and as a shareof GDP between 1995 and 2001. The extent ofincrease has varied, with a high absoluteincrease of around 227 per cent in China and alow increase of a little over 6 per cent inThailand. India also shows a remarkableincrease, more than doubling its ICT expendi-ture over this period. Indonesia is the only coun-try that actually experienced a decline of a littleover 18 per cent. In terms of GDP shares the vari-ations recorded are lower, with all countriesshowing increases including, interestingly,Indonesia.

ICT related infrastructure development has alsobeen diverse across Asia. Between 1997 and2001, the Asian region (East Asia and the Pacific,and South Asia) recorded the highest percent-age increases in tele-density (fixed and wire-less), PC penetration and number of Internetusers as compared with the world as well asEurope and Central Asia (Table 4.5). The per-centage increases were exceptional, with EastAsia and the Pacific recording around 342 per

* External expenditures include information technology products purchased by businesses, households, govern-ments and education institutions from vendors or organizations outside the purchasing entity.

† Internal spending on information technology includes spending on internally customized software, capital depre-ciation, and the like.

Total ICT expenditure ICT expenditure as (million US$) % of GDP

1995 2001 1995 2001

China 20,401.0 66,612.0 2.9 5.7(226.51%)

India 7,250.0 19,662.0 2.1 3.9(171.20%)

Indonesia 4,337.0 3,540.0 2.1 2.2(-18.37%)

Malaysia 4,438.0 6,325.0 5.0 6.6(42.51%)

Mongolia NA NA NA NA

Pakistan NA NA NA NA

Sri Lanka NA NA NA NA

Thailand 4,464.0 4,751.0 2.7 3 . 7(6.42%)

Vietnam 740.0 2,124.0 3.6 6.7

Source: Development Data Group, World Bank http://www.worldbank.org/data/countrydata/countrydata.html,accessed 2 January 2005.Note: Figures in parenthesis denote percentage changes as compared to 1995.

Table 4.4 Increase in ICT expenditures of nine Asian countries in years 1995 and 2001



cent for tele-density, 247 per cent for PC pene-tration and a whopping 1,000 per cent in thenumber of Internet users, albeit from a low base.However, within the Asian region, fixed andmobile phone penetration varied from 45 to273 per 1,000 people in South and East Asia,respectively, in 2001. Over time, rates of growthin East Asia and the Pacific also exceeded thoseof South Asia.

The access to personal computers has also risen;although not so dramatically. Across the world,the numbers for all regions have doubled withthe highest penetration level of 73 computersper 1,000 people recorded in Europe andCentral Asia. In East Asia, computer access levelsrose from 7.5 to 26 computers per 1,000 peoplebetween 1997 and 2002.

In terms of technology diffusion and take-uprates, Internet users clearly recorded exponentialgrowth in all regions of the world. However, herealso, the growth in the Asian region was the high-est. Asian Internet users have also increasedexponentially. In East Asia, the number of Internetusers for every 1,000 people has grown from fourin 1997 to 44 in 2002.The same story is repeatedin South Asia, which had only one Internet userper 1,000 people in 1997 but recorded a jump to14 users per 1,000 people in 2002.

Even though South Asia lags in terms of con-nectivity status relative to the other Asian sub-regions, it has been showing signs of rapidlycatching up. In 2001, South Asia, with 43.7 mil-lion operative fixed lines and 8.5 million mobilesubscribers, accounted for 4 per cent of theworld’s fixed lines and less than 1 per cent ofcellular subscribers. Average fixed-line tele-density in the sub-region stood at 3.2 in thatyear and mobile tele-density was 0.63. However,during 1996 to 2001, the sub-region recorded

compound annual growth rates of fixed linesand mobile subscribers of 20 and 78 per cent,respectively, as compared to the world averagegrowth rates of only 7 and 48 per cent duringthe same period. Thus, relative to the otherregions of the world, South Asia emerged as oneof the fastest growing markets despite its lowtelephone penetration.

It is not just that the rate of growth during the1990s has been higher than the world average. Infact, the pace of expansion of the telephone net-work in South Asia has accelerated over timefrom 7 per cent between 1976 and 1981 to 11 percent between 1986 and 1991, and 20 per centbetween 1996 and 2001. According to Mingesand Simkhada4, this acceleration in networkgrowth rate is beginning to impact a long-estab-lished correlation between GDP per capita andfixed-line tele-density. The correlation wouldhave predicted that South Asia’s fixed tele-densi-ty would be 1.2 in 2001. Yet it was almost threetimes as high, at 3.2. They see this is as evidencethat old assumptions about telecommunicationsdevelopment no longer apply.

Taking per capita annual investment intelecommunications as an indicator of trends inconnectivity in the nine countries in this Report,we find that it has seen explosive increases overthe 1990s in China, Malaysia and Thailand, andmore moderate increases in Indonesia (Table4.6) . However, in the case of Indonesia, Malaysia,Pakistan and Thailand, there appears to havebeen a decline in per capita investment by 2002,reflecting possibly the after effects of the finan-cial crisis of 1998. The level of investment hasalso grown (even in nominal dollar terms) at arelatively slow pace in India and Sri Lanka.

It is to be expected that these wide variations ininvestment would influence the level of connec-

In terms of technologydiffusion and take-uprates, Internet users

clearly recorded exponential growth in all

regions of the world.However, here also, the

growth in the Asianregion was the highest.

Asian Internet usershave also increased

exponentially

East Asia and Europe andWorld Pacific South Asia Central Asia

Indicators 1997 2002 1997 2002 1997 2002 1997 2002

Total population (in billion) 5.79 6.17 1.7 1.84 1.28 1.47 0.473 0.472

Fixed lines & mobile telephones(per 1,000 people) 173 364 61.7 273 18 45 203 438

Personal computers (per 1,000 people) 54 101 7.5 26 2 7 28 73

Internet users (per 1,000 people) 25 131 4 44 1 14 10 87

Source: World Development Indicators Database, January 2005.

Table 4.5 Technology and infrastructure data profile in years 1997 and 2002



In most countries, theincrease in overall tele-density is beingdriven by mobilephones. From beingvirtually non-existent in1995 in all thecountries covered inthis study exceptingMalaysia and Thailand,mobile phones are nowcatching up with fixedlines

tivity, which is crucial for the use of ICT for humandevelopment purposes. A simple measure usedto assess the degree of such diffusion is,of course,tele-density or the number of telephones per 100inhabitants in the country. In 2002, fixed-line den-sity varied from 2.33 per 100 inhabitants (inPakistan) to 19.58 (in Malaysia). In terms of tele-density rates (Tables 4.7 and 4.8) in 2001,Malaysia,China and Thailand are the top perform-ers, both in telephone mainlines and mobilephones per 100 inhabitants. While levels of fixed-line penetration were much lower in the othercountries, the rate of growth of tele-density wassignificant in all of them,except Pakistan.The low-est penetration rates are observed for Pakistan forboth telephone mainlines and mobile phones,followed by Vietnam, with India and Indonesiacoming next for telephone mainline penetration.

In most countries, the increase in overall tele-density is being driven by mobile phones. Frombeing virtually non-existent in 1995 in all thecountries covered in this study, exceptingMalaysia and Thailand, mobile phones are nowcatching up with fixed lines. In developingcountries, where even basic communicationinfrastructure is a problem, mobile telephony isproving to be a boon. Operators no longer haveto invest heavily in hardware and, in countriesthat are geographically vast or where layinglandlines is a difficult process, user rates ofmobile telephony are on the increase.

However, of the nine countries, it is only inIndonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia and Thailand thatmobile phone penetration exceeds that of

mainline telephones. The reasons for this arelikely to be quite different in these four coun-tries, given that they stand at very different lev-els of economic development. It is likely that, inMalaysia, mobile telephone demand was drivenby higher purchasing power whereas, inMongolia, the absence of fixed-line infrastruc-ture as reflected in its low mainline tele-densityof a little more than 5 per 100 inhabitants, is thepossible explanation for high mobile take-uprates. In Mongolia, all aimags or provinces(except for Huvsgul), are connected withmicrowave digital lines, with some aimags hav-ing satellite connections. As for the other coun-tries, India follows Pakistan from the bottom, interms of the mobile phone penetration rate.However, since 2002, mobile telephony hasboomed in India, taking the mobile phone pen-etration rate to 2.4 at the end of March 2004.† Sothe picture has changed substantially.

1990 1995 2002

China 1.08 9.67 19.5India 1.87 2.73 3.4Indonesia 3.20 8.48 8.1Malaysia 16.69 85.64 49.4Mongolia 8.32 1.54 2.1Pakistan 1.23 3.87 1.2Sri Lanka 0.90 1.38 1.8Thailand 7.02 23.68 21.15Vietnam NA NA NA

Table 4.6 Per capita annual telecommunication investment (US$)

1995 2000 2002

China 3.30 11.18 16.69India 1.29 3.20 3.98Indonesia 1.69 3.23 3.65Malaysia 16.57 19.92 19.58Mongolia 3.50 4.95 5.18Pakistan 1.67 2.16 2.33Sri Lanka 1.18 4.14 4.43Thailand 6.06 9.23 9.87Vietnam 1.05 3.19 3.76

Table 4.7 Main telephone lines per 100 inhabitants

Source: International Telecommunications Union, Telecommunication Indicators Database, various issues.

† Based on figures from the Department of Telecommunications of the Government of India, available athttp://www.dotindia.com/networkstatus.htm, accessed on 21 May 2004.

1995 2000 2002


Source: International Telecommunications Union, Tele-communication Indicators Database, various issues

Table 4.8 Cellular mobile telephone subscribers per 100 inhabitants



The rise in telephonedensity as a result of an

increase in cellulartelephone connections

may not be fullyindicative of the diffusion

of telecommunicationstechnology

Source: Malaysian Communications and Multimedia CommissionFrom John, K. J. et. al., 2003, Chapter 3, Figure 2, pp 44

From John, K. J. et. al., 2003 Chapter 2, Figure 4, pp 48.

In Pakistan too, the telecommunications infra-structure has improved vastly over the lastdecade, and especially since the adoption ofthe National IT Policy in 2000. EstimatedInternet usage has risen from 130,000 in 2000to over 4 million in 2003, mainly in the metro-politan areas,5 although the number of citiesin Pakistan with Internet access increasedfrom 29 to over 1,000 between 2000 and 2003.Mobile phone usage has risen from 200,000phones to 1.7 million in the three yearsbetween 2000 and 2003. Pricing is a key factorin this development. Internet access calls arenot multi-metred or charged separately fortelephone and Internet usage, mobile phonesoperate on the caller party pays (CPP) princi-ple. Bandwidth prices for an E1 connection(2,048 kb/s) have been reduced from US$87,000 in 2000 to US $3,500 in 2003.

An interesting feature is that, whether in richor poor countries, a sharp increase in mobiletelephony has been accompanied by a decel-eration in the rate of growth of fixed line pen-etration. In Malaysia, as Figures 4.1 and 4.2show, the trend in the penetration rate forfixed lines has reached a plateau after 1997even as the mobile phone penetration raterose sharply.

The same pattern is repeated in Mongoliawhere national telephone density per 100 peo-ple is 5.4 while mobile phone density is 9.21 per100 people for the whole country (Figure 4.3).The mobile density in Ulaanbaatar reached 20while in rural areas this number ranges from0.35 to10.3. Most aimags have been connected

recently with mobile communications and thenumber of users is rapidly growing.

In Sri Lanka too, the numbers of landline con-nections, pay phone booths and radio pagingservices have been on the decrease since thelate 1990s.This has been attributed to the grow-ing popularity of cellular phones, with cellulartele-density surpassing that for all other formsof communication. As a result, Sri Lanka’s tele-density has changed significantly over the past10 years both in different modes and as anaggregate (Figure 4.4).

Despite this, the presence of mobile telephonesmakes aggregate tele-density an unsatisfactorymeasure of the extent of diffusion. A very largeproportion of cellular phone subscribers arethose who subscribe to the service in additionto holding a regular landline. Hence, the rise intelephone density as a result of an increase incellular telephone connections may not be fullyindicative of the diffusion of telecommunica-tions technology among those who were thusfar marginalized from the network.

Further, there are other features of telephonedistribution that point to the fact that tele-density is not an adequate index of diffusion.To start with, the aggregate figure concealsthe low penetration of telecommunicationscapacity and a high degree of urban andregional concentration. As Table 4.9 shows, inthe countries for which data is available, urbanareas account for more than 50 per cent offixed lines, with the urban share going up to90 per cent in the case of Pakistan. Even

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0

DEL penetration rate

Co

nn

ecti

on

s p

er 1

00 p

eop

le

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Figure 4.1 Malaysia's direct exchange line (DEL) penetration rate

40.0

35.0

30.0

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0

Cellular phone penetration rate

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

(100

0)

Figure 4.2 Malaysia mobile phone penetration rate



To assess the extent ofspread of connectivitywe need separate indicators of massaccess such as thepresence of public calloffices (PCOs) in ruraland urban areas, anddirect exchange linesand village publictelephones (VPTs) inrural areas

10

8

6

4

2

0

1999 2000 2001 2002

Den

sity

per

100

peo

ple

Year

Fixed

Mobile

4.464.79

4.81

5.4

1.36

4.23

8.47 9.21

Figure 4.3 Mongolia's telephone and mobile density per 100 people

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Tele

den

sity

per

'000

of p

op

ula

tio

n

Year

Wire-line

WLL

Total

Cellular

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

95.8

79.9

61.9

48.8

37.2

24.617.8

14.111.79.37.8

Figure 4.4 Tele-density growth of the past 10 years in Sri Lanka

Source: Davaatseren, 2003, Government Action Plan performance andfuture plansFrom Enkhjargal, S. et. al., 2003 Figure 2.1, pp 29

Source: Economic and Social Statistics of Sri Lanka, 2002, AnnualReport 2002, Central Bank of Sri LankaFrom Wattegama et. al., 2003, Figure 2.1

1990 1995 2000 2001

China — 4.6% 4.9% 4.9%India 13.8% 12.0% 7.2% 6.3%Indonesia 54.4% — 36.2% 36.2%Malaysia 11.2% 9.1% — —Mongolia 44.5% 55.3% 60.4% —Pakistan — 28.0% — —Sri Lanka 68.3% 65.6% 23.7% 23.5%Thailand — 54.6% 48.4% 53.1%Vietnam — 36.4% — —

Table 4.10 Share of largest city in main telephone lines

among urban areas, there is evidence of sub-stantial regional concentration. The largestcity alone accounted for well over half thelines in Mongolia and Thailand in 2001 andbetween a quarter to a third of the lines inIndonesia and Sri Lanka (Table 4.10). Theratios are far lower in large countries such asIndia and China, but this is more due to thepresence of a larger number of metropolitancities. But, even there, the metropolitan citiestogether account for a relatively high share offixed lines.

Thus, to assess the extent of spread of connec-tivity, we need separate indicators of massaccess such as the presence of public calloffices (PCOs) in rural and urban areas, and

direct exchange lines and village public tele-phones (VPTs) in rural areas. These indicatorsare by no means encouraging. For example, thenumber of public pay phones for every 100 inhabitants is not merely low in all coun-tries, but has risen extremely slowly in most(Table 4.11).

Internet connectivity

Even if connectivity in the form of a communi-cations link is established, there is no guaranteethat this can be viably expanded to connect acountry’s population to the world through theInternet, if that were considered a advanta-geous route to take. There are few Internetusers relative to the population at present and

1990 1995 2000 2002

China 22.3 80 65 63India 90 — 79 73Indonesia — — — —Malaysia — — — —Mongolia — 32 59 69Pakistan 91.64 — — 90Sri Lanka — 67 73 23Thailand 68 62 53 54Vietnam — — — —

Table 4.9 Percentage of main lines in urban areas

Source: International Telecommunications Union,Telecommunication Indicators Database, various issues



In terms of Internetpenetration in Asia, the

InternationalTelecommunications

Union estimated that in2001, the Asia-Pacific

region had over 160million Internet users

with a penetration rateof 460 users per

10,000 inhabitants

many developing countries lag in terms of thebandwidth (or the pipe) necessary for people tosimultaneously access information flowthrough the Internet.

In terms of Internet penetration in Asia, theInternational Telecommunications Union (ITU)estimated that in 2001, the Asia-Pacific had over160 million Internet users with a penetrationrate of 460 users per 10,000 inhabitants.Amongst the nine Asian countries being stud-ied here, China leads with a little over 59 millionusers, followed by India with a little under 17 million users (Table 4.12).However,with regardto the number of users per 100 inhabitants, it is

Malaysia that emerges on top with a penetrationrate of 31.96.The other eight countries are all wellbelow this rate,with Thailand coming in second ataround 7.76. The lowest penetration rates areobserved in Pakistan and Sri Lanka, with a littleover 1 user per 100 inhabitants.

Here again, access tends to be extremely con-centrated. For example, in August 2000, whenthere were an estimated 1.6 million subscribersand 4.8 million users in India (0.37 per cent ofthe overall population), more than three-fourths(77 per cent) of these users were from NewDelhi and the capitals of Indian states. Two cities – Delhi and Mumbai – alone accounted formore than one-third of all users. Maharashtra,with 453,000 users accounted for 28 per cent ofthe total. On the other hand, two of India’s mostpopulous states – Uttar Pradesh and Bihar – hadonly 20,000 and 8,000, respectively.6 Clearly, theinadequate spread of connectivity, the per-ceived benefits of connectivity and the cost atwhich it is available are working against as rapida spread of the Internet as was seen in the caseof radio.

With respect to PC penetration, Malaysia leadsthe nine countries with 14.7 PCs per 100 inhab-itants. All the others have single digit PC pene-tration rates. In fact, Pakistan, India and Vietnamare at the bottom, with the PC penetration ratebelow 1 per 100 inhabitants. Data on Internet

Estimated PCs

Internet hosts

Number of Internet users

Number of Internet subscribers (in

thousands)

Country

Estimated

PCs total (in

thousands)

Total (in

thousands)

Estimated

PCs per 100

inhabitants

Hosts

Total

Number of

ISPs

Per 100

inhabitants

Total

Broad

band

International Internet

bandwidth

(M/bit/s)

China 59,100 49,700 2260 9,380

India 16,580 3,640 82.4 1,670

Indonesia 4,500 600 31.3 573

Malaysia 7,841 2,633 19.3 1,320

Mongolia 50 19.5 0.1 17

Pakistan 1,500 200 NA 410

Sri Lanka 200 70.1 NA 90

Thailand 4,800

4.6

1.5

3.7

31.96

2.06

1.03

1.06

7.76 1500 15 1011

Vietnam

35,500

7,500

2,519

3,600

69

600

250

2,461

800

2.76

0.72

1.19

14.68

2.84

0.42

1.32

3.98

0.98

156,531

78,595

61,279

86,285

127

12,707

2,335

100,132

529

Hosts per

100

inhabitants

0.01

0.01

0.03

0.35

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.16

—

936

90

60

6

NA

70

29

18

4 1,500 1.85 350 1.1 143

Table 4.12 Internet diffusion in selected Asian countries in 2002

Source: International Telecommunications Union, Telecommunication Indicators DatabaseNA: Data not available.

1995 2000 2002


Source: International Telecommunications Union, Tele-communication Indicators Database, various issues

Table 4.11 Public pay phones per 100 Inhabitants



Inter- and intra-countryvariations in connectivity and accesslend some support tothe idea that ICT diffusion could well beaccompanied bywidening digital divides, stifling the effort to usethe technology forenabling the realizationof the MDGs

The Technology Achievement Index (TAI), firstused by the UNDP in HDR 2001, measures“how well a country is creating and diffusingtechnology and building a human skill base,reflecting capacity to participate in the tech-nological innovations of the network age”.9

The TAI focuses on four dimensions of techno-logical capacity to compute the value of theindex: creation of technology, diffusion ofrecent innovations, diffusion of old innova-tions and human skills.

In Asia, as per the TAI, Japan, Korea andSingapore are the only countries in the techno-logical leader category (Table 4.13). The digitaldivide across countries is evident, with only onecountry (Malaysia) among the nine being stud-ied here, being categorized as ‘potential leader’with a TAI value of 0.396 and a rank of 30 amongthe 72 countries covered. China, India,Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand come underthe ‘dynamic adopter category’, while Pakistan ismarginalized. Categorization was not possiblein the cases of Mongolia and Viet Nam as satis-factory data were not available; this itself proba-bly reflects even lower levels of technologyadoption.

The different levels of diffusion of the technologyto and within different countries has resulted indifferent stages of e-readiness, a term which theHarvard’s Centre for International Developmentsays can be understood as the potential of acommunity to participate in ICT developments.An oft-quoted index of e-readiness is theNetwork Readiness Index (NRI).10

The NRI framework for 2004 takes into accountmore than just ICT use in the economy: it alsoincorporates factors that contribute towardsthe use of ICTs for a nation’s development.Originally, the NRI captured the degree towhich a community is prepared to participatein the networked world, which was expandedin 2002 to include a community’s potential toparticipate in the networked world in thefuture. Top-ranked countries are those with themost developed ICT networks and the greatestpotential to exploit the capacity of their net-works.

The NRI scores are a combination of indicatorson network use and enabling factors reflectingimportant dimensions relevant for assessing thedigital divide. Of a total of 104 countries cov-ered, most Asian countries with the exception of

hosts per 100 inhabitants reveals a similar pic-ture. Interestingly, as per available data, broad-band subscriptions (which enormously increasethe speed and volume of information transac-tions) as a share of total Internet users rangebetween a low 0.1 per cent for Thailand to 2.5per cent for Indonesia. This is well below theAsia-Pacific average of 19 per cent (the Republicof Korea leads the world with a massive broad-band subscriber share of 93 per cent).

The threat of many digital divides

These inter- and intra-country variations in con-nectivity and access lend some support to theidea that ICT diffusion could well be accompa-nied by widening digital divides: stifling theeffort to use the technology for enabling therealization of the MDGs. Those who have no orlimited access to the technology or the skillsand knowledge required to exploit it fall furtherback in terms of their ability to use the technol-ogy. The term ‘digital divide’ denotes the result-ing widening disparity in the adoption of ICT bydifferent sections of society.

Fundamentally, a digital divide is a reflection ofexisting broader socio-economic inequalities.However, experience worldwide suggests that,even while the effort to mitigate these structuralconstraints should continue, appropriate inter-vention can reduce the degree to which ICTpenetration is shaped by them. In spite of com-mendable efforts by many Asian governments,ICT diffusion and use has followed existingsocio-economic, gender and urban-ruraldivides. That is, the existence of structural con-straints only increases the urgency of reinstat-ing human development concerns at the coreof initiatives to promote and harness ICT in Asia,so as to prevent the exclusion and marginaliza-tion of certain sections of the population in thedeveloping world.7

It has been argued that the rapid pace of expan-sion of ICTs in the developing world implies thatthough there may be differences in the level ofdiffusion of the technology, the gap is closing.This suggests that the term “digital divide” cameto prominence “more for its alliterative potentialthan for its inherent terminological exactitude”.8

What such arguments ignore is the fact that evenwhen diffusion occurs there are substantial gapsbetween sections within developing countries,so that the global digital divide persists even ifthe line is not draw along national boundaries.



Enormous digitaldivides also exist

across regions of theworld with respect toboth PC and Internetpenetration, even asthe share of Internet

users to totalpopulation has more

than doubled over theshort four-year period

1998-2002 in allregions of the world

Singapore, Hong Kong, Japan and Taiwan do notrank among the first 20 countries. Many areranked 30 or lower, with Bangladesh being theleast network-ready at rank 100. Of the ninecountries covered by this Report, Malaysia at 27is ranked the highest. At the other end of thescale, Sri Lanka (71) and Vietnam (68) are theleast network-ready countries (Table 4.14).Mongolia does not feature in this ranking dueto data limitations.

Factors influencing the digital divide

The extent and likelihood of a widening of thedigital divide can be assessed by examiningindicators such as penetration, cost, socio-eco-nomic features, use of locally relevant content,and the policy regime. These factors influencethe ability to derive economic and social bene-fits from information-intensive activities.9

Penetration

With regard to PC penetration, the digital divideis clear across the nine Asian countries (Table4.12). Although countries in Asia have takengiant leaps in terms of Internet penetration inthe past decade, the digital divide across coun-tries is evident (Tables 4.7, 4.15 and 4.16).

Putting this in a global context, enormous digi-tal divides also exist across regions of the worldwith respect to both PC and Internet penetra-tion (Table 4.16). Data in Table 4.15 show thatthe share of Internet users to total populationhas more than doubled over the short four-yearperiod 1998-2002 in all regions of the world.However, the US and high income Organizationfor Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) countries continue to be way ahead ofthe other regions. Both East Asia and the Pacific,and South Asia are far behind. As compared tothe world averages of 5.5 per cent and 13.1 per

NRI rank (out ofCountry Score 104 countries)

Malaysia 0.69 27Thailand 0.27 36India 0.23 39China 0.17 41Indonesia -0.13 51Pakistan -0.38 63Vietnam -0.46 68Sri Lanka -0.49 71Mongolia NA NA

Source: World Economic Forum (2005) The GlobalInformation Technology Report 2004–2005, available athttp://www.weforum.org/pdf/Global_Competitiveness_Reports/Reports/GITR_2004_2005/Networked_Readiness_Index_Rankings.pdf, Accessed on 30 March 2005.

Table 4.14 Networked Readiness Index (NRI)2004 of selected Asian countries

TAI rank (out of Country TAI value 72 countries covered) Category

Japan 0.698 4 Leader

Republic of Korea 0.666 5 Leader

Singapore 0.585 10 Leader

Malaysia 0.396 30 Potential leader

India 0.201 63 Dynamic adopter

China 0.299 45 Dynamic adopter

Thailand 0.337 40 Dynamic adopter

Indonesia 0.211 60 Dynamic adopter

Sri Lanka 0.203 62 Dynamic adopter

Pakistan 0.167 65 Marginalized

Mongolia NA Satisfactory data Othersnot available

Vietnam NA Satisfactory data Others not available

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2001: Making New Technologies Work for Human Development. Availableat http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2001/en/pdf/chaptertwo.pdfNA: Data not available.

Table 4.13 Technology Achievement Index (TAI) for selected Asian countries in the year 2001



Cost considerations area critical factor in thedigital divide. The poorare already hamperedby social factors suchas low education and alack of familiarity withtechnology. Adding theburden of high cost ofaccess to ICT servicesonly serves to deepenthe digital divide

Internet users as a percentage of population

Region 1998 2002

East Asia and the Pacific 0.9 4.4

South Asia 0.5 1.4

United States 30.8 55.1Middle East and North Africa 0.5 3.7Europe and Central Asia 1.7 8.7Latin America and the Caribbean 1.4 9.2

Sub-Saharan Africa 0.2 1.6

World 5.5 13.1Source: World Bank, World Development IndicatorsDatabase, accessed 5 January 2005

Table 4.15 Digital divide in Internet useacross regions of the world in years 1998and 2002

PC Internet users(per 100 (per 100

inhabitants) inhabitants)

Global 9.91 10.22

Africa 1.30 1.23

Americas (North and South) 28.95 25.76

Asia 4.45 5.85

Europe 21.40 21.64

Oceania 42.42 36.98Source: International Telecommunications Union Data-base, accessed January 2005.

Table 4.16 Differences in regional diffusionof ICTs in the year 2002 [Cost (US$)]

cent in 1998 and 2002, respectively, the share ofInternet users in East Asia and the Pacific wasonly 0.9 per cent and 4.4 per cent. South Asianpercentages were even lower, at 0.5 and 1.4.Thus, the digital divide in terms of Internet pen-etration clearly persists across regions. This issignificant because the United States and high-income OECD countries constitute just 19 percent of the world’s population.

Cost

Cost considerations are a critical factor in thedigital divide.The poor are already hampered bysocial factors such as low education and a lack offamiliarity with technology. Adding the burden

of high cost of access to ICT services only servesto deepen the digital divide. Unfortunately, usersin countries which are in the early stages of ICTdevelopment encounter higher cost of access ascompanies have to factor in capital costs as wellas a lower user base. Data on Internet retail pric-ing reveal enormous usage cost differencesacross countries (Table 4.17).

While the average usage costs of Internet retailpricing are comparable between OECD andAsian countries at approximately US$ 30.00 andUS$ 32.50 respectively, poorer Asian countriessuch as Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam have sig-nificantly higher than average costs. Particularlystriking is the case of Cambodia, where the totalcost of Internet usage per 20 hours stands at anexceptional high of US$ 45.40. At the other endof the spectrum, better-off countries like India,Malaysia and Thailand face costs for comparableservices ranging between US$ 2 and US$ 5.5(Table 4.17).

Within each country also, cost differences exac-erbate the digital divide. According to theMongolia country study associated with thisReport, the price of Internet connections hasbeen dropping overall. An hourly rate of US$0.60 in Internet cafés makes access more afford-able for citizens who have no computer at homeor in the office, in the urban area of Ulaanbaatar.Unfortunately, for users in rural aimags, dial-up

Total ISP Charge (20 hours per

Country month, Aug 2003)

China 7.25India 2.16Singapore 15.38Malaysia 3.68Mongolia 11.71Thailand 5.59Indonesia 10.74Pakistan 7.54Philippines 17.05Sri Lanka 5.23Vietnam 10.42Laos 26.50Cambodia 45.40

Source: International Telecommunication Union, 2001and 2005

Table 4.17 Internet retail pricing 2003 (US$)



connections are costly since phone calls costUS$ 0.20 per minute. In comparison, phone callscost only US$ 0.06 per minute in Ulaanbaatar.Therefore, the only alternative in rural aimags arethe Internet cafés at the local post and telecom-munication offices, which charge rates of US$0.45 to 0.60 per minute.

Retail prices partly reflect the high investmentcosts associated with networking and Internetprovision in developing countries. Thus, it costthe state government of Maharashtra, India, US$600,000 to wire up 70 contiguous villages in thedistricts of Kolhapur and Sangli. With 550,000villages across India, the cost of wiring everysingle village in the country would work out atUS$ 4.7 billion, which is indeed difficult to gar-ner given other priorities.

High investment costs obviously affect theextent and nature of digital provisioning. TheMalaysian government has allocated US$ 290million in its Eighth Malaysia Plan to bridge thedigital divide among its citizens, underlining therole of the State in reducing such inequalities.However, Malaysia has also given some compa-nies a Multimedia Super Corridor status whichentitles them to financial incentives such asexemption from income tax for up to 10 years oran investment tax allowance with no duties onthe import of multimedia equipment.While thisprovides incentives for companies to establishthemselves on the Malaysian technopole, it canhave the unintended effect of further privileg-ing the larger business enterprises.

Hardware and software costs

Another area of concern is the cost of hardware.While tariff and excise duty reduction hashelped bring down the cost of ICT equipment, itis still unaffordable from the point of view ofproviding IT to the masses. Similarly, it is widelyaccepted that costs of initial software and ofupgrading can be substantial if ICT for develop-ment projects depend solely on proprietarysoftware.

Thus ICT for development initiatives need tofocus on reducing hardware and software costs.One such initiative in India aims to reduce hard-ware costs by simplifying the equipment as wellas its usage.The Simputer was designed in 2001as a simple, easy-to-use and inexpensive devicewith multilingual software, aimed at providinghardware access to a large number of poorusers at low cost. Priced at less than US$ 200, it

is currently being produced in small prototypebatches and is being field-tested in selected ICTfor development projects.On the software side, the open source softwaremovement is gathering momentum as a meansto reduce costs by promoting more equitableand fair pricing. This has generated some inter-esting debates regarding ‘open source’ and ‘free’software. Free software, or software for which thesource code is available to programmers andusers who can modify the software as required,substantially lowers software costs and maxi-mizes diffusion.

The attraction of open source software lies in thefact that its use, by government and a large pub-lic, could encourage local software professionalsto provide software support in the form of add-on applications that are written at a cost muchsmaller than that required to buy multi-featuredpackaged software. This would decentralize soft-ware production, challenging the large transna-tional producers of packaged and bundled soft-ware, who have been able to convert the soft-ware industry from a service industry to one oflarge-scale manufacturing, thus worsening digi-tal divides.

Recently the government of the state ofMadhya Pradesh in India publicly announcedits decision to use the well-known opensource Linux software in its official IT pro-gramme, which includes its e-governance(Gyandoot) and computer-enabled schooleducation (Headstart) initiatives. This is inkeeping with trends in other developingcountries including China and many in LatinAmerica such as Mexico, Brazil, Argentina andPeru.

Content

The information and communication revolutioncan also bypass the disadvantaged populationgroups if there is inadequate attention to devel-oping locally relevant content. Issues of poverty,inequality and exclusion cannot be addressed ifcontent does not address real life problems forthese groups. For example, information on healththat focuses on tackling lifestyle diseases such asobesity is of little use in a situation of poverty andstarvation.

Similarly, the empowerment of women can hard-ly be promoted through websites where femalesubjects focus on beauty treatment or pornogra-

Another area ofconcern is the cost ofhardware. While tariff

and excise duty reduction has helped

bring down the cost ofICT equipment, it still is

unaffordable from thepoint of view of

providing IT to themasses



The attraction of opensource software lies in thefact that its use bygovernment and a largepublic could encouragelocal softwareprofessionals to providesoftware support in theform of add-onapplications that are written at a cost muchsmaller than that requiredto buy multi-featured packagedsoftware

phy. Rural development issues are harder toaddress if the content does not use the local lan-guage and idiom.

Socio-economic factors and the digital divide

The digital divide is not limited to issues ofpenetration and costs of access to hardwareand software. Increasingly recognized as morefundamental are factors such as social, eco-nomic, cultural and locational disparities,which lead to further cumulative inequalities.The interdependence among these factorsdeepens and widens the digital divide, imped-ing the effective use of ICT for human develop-ment. In Asia, gender gaps, urban-rural dispari-ties, special disabilities faced by remote andindigenous populations, inter-generationalgaps, all create sizeable obstacles to ICTabsorption and use. For example, a study onNet-based advertising targeted at Indians liv-ing in India found there were 3.1 millionInternet users in India as of 2000. These userswere young (over 70 per cent below the age of30 years), rich (over 60 per cent came fromhomes with a monthly income of INR 10,000 ormore), and predominantly male (one in everythree users was a woman).11

ICTs require specific skills; and that comes inthe way of their adoption by the underprivi-leged groups and regions. For example, in less-developed countries, legal and administrativestructures that have been considered impor-tant for providing equitable access to all sec-tions of the population are yet to be institu-tionalized. Even when these structures are inplace, difficulties in implementation cannegate their effectiveness for human develop-ment, strengthening the position of economicand political elites vis-à-vis others. These eliteshave larger resources at their command toown or access the technology, can acquire the

necessary skills easily due to their higher levelsof secondary and tertiary education, and canestablish links through ICT with other produc-tive and social sectors for appropriating newfacilities and opportunities.

Policy

Appropriate policy regimes can help redress thedigital divide. Policies can influence content,access, competition, and availability and spreadof infrastructure. Choices guiding ICT initiativesin Asia are often driven by economic and com-mercial interests. The gloss around the technol-ogy obscures social choices about how to com-puterize or communicate, and the ways inwhich different forms of computerization orcommunication advance different values.12

ICT initiatives in Asia are also driven by govern-mental agendas such as political interest, socialpolicy and military security, not always consis-tent with promoting human development.

The United Nations Commission on Scienceand Technology for Development WorkingGroup13 raised some crucial questions whichneed to be urgently addressed by politicalleaders and citizens of the developing world.Do the benefits of the increasingly widespread,albeit uneven, diffusion and application of ICTsoutweigh the risks for developing countries?Are stakeholders in developing countries tak-ing appropriate measures to minimize the risksof social and economic exclusion that could beassociated with these revolutionary technolo-gies? The UNCSTD report and other recentstudies not only provide some interesting anduseful insights into the problems of access anduse of information technology by developingcountries but also call for caution and carefulplanning and implementation of ICT-basedprogrammes if the technology is to be har-nessed for genuine development objectivesand goals.


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Photo: Amit Khullar

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The impact of ICTs in acountry or a regiondepends on their specific components,the purpose ofdeployment and spatialspread, besides theeconomic, social andadministrative environment in whichdiffusion occurs. It isuseful therefore toidentify, collate andconsolidate evidence ofa kind that permits anassessment of theimpact of ICT on humandevelopment

There are differences among planners, policymakers, researchers and others about the rolethat ICT can play in realizing the MDGs. Manyconsider the technological opportunities thatICT offers as being important facilitators of theeffort to attain the MDGs. The contrary view,however, is that ICT is of no great value andcould even be detrimental to populations inthe less-developed world, particularly the eco-nomically and socially underprivileged amongthem. These differences arise partly from thefact that the impact of ICTs in a country or aregion depends on their specific components,the purpose of deployment and spatialspread, besides the economic, social andadministrative environment in which diffusionoccurs. It is useful, therefore, to identify, collateand consolidate evidence of a kind that per-mits an assessment of the impact of ICT onhuman development.

Towards that end, it is necessary not only toidentify indicators of the status of ICT use, butalso to analyse the nature of interdependenciesbetween indicators of ICT development andthose reflecting human development concernsof the kind captured by the MDGs. The presentchapter attempts to do precisely this, usingempirical evidence from the nine Asian coun-tries that are the focus of this study.The countrystudies have been used to undertake an empir-ical study which:

● identifies ICT indicators that impinge onthe key concerns underlying the humandevelopment approach, especially thosecomponents emphasized by the MDGs,and

● constructs composite indices for capturingthe extent of ICT use for human develop-ment, especially for realizing the MDGs.

Through this process, the data relating to thenine Asian countries were used to construct aset of benchmark indices that could help deter-mine and monitor the progress of differentcountries in using ICT for realizing the MDGs.

Recent initiatives and limitations of existing data sources

A number of regional and international organi-zations have undertaken similar studies to builda framework for monitoring and assessing theuse of ICTs to achieve various socio-economicgoals. For example, Orbicom’s Monitoring theDigital Divide assesses the magnitude of the dig-ital divide and, more specifically, the progress ofdifferent countries toward the ‘infostate’, bybuilding thematic clusters of indicators relatedto info-density and info-use. The GlobalInformation Technology Report, brought out bythe Global Economic Forum, provides a frame-work to monitor progress using an index involv-ing measurement of three components: theenvironment for ICT; the readiness of stakehold-ers; and the usage of ICT among stakeholders.The Global Survey and Guide to ICT Planning inEducation is an important contribution to thetask of assessing progress in ICT use in educa-tion. A study by the European Commission hasbuilt Statistical Indicators Benchmarking theInformation Society (SIBIS) for a large number ofOECD countries. It provides information relatedto access of households to ICTs for various pur-poses such as business, education and health-care. The International Development ResearchCentre (IDRC) has also attempted to track ICTsupply indicators as well as information onusers and the nature of usage. Finally, theInternational Telecommunications Union’sReport1 seeks to identify “relevant indicators formeasuring access of the world’s populations

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to ICTs – helping to measure the extent to whichcountries and communities worldwide havegenuine access to the information society”.2

The current exercise seeks to build on these ini-tiatives and develop a set of indicators basedon the experience of countries in the Asianregion. An important effort is that of the UnitedNations ICT Task Force, established in March2001, which attempts to combine an analysis ofrelevant ICT initiatives and the results ofresearch studies relating to them in a coherentframework that offers guidelines for policy.Based on a largely qualitative overview of cur-rent applications of ICT in different countries,the Task Force came out with a set of indicatorsto chart progress which could help in settingtargets for ICT development. It also developeda matrix that maps ICT use for human develop-ment across the eight MDGs. This provides adirection for the current exercise: that of identi-fying ICT goals relevant to the major MDG tar-gets and then constructing a set of compatibleICT indicators.

Following this trajectory, a list of indicatorsunder each MDG has been worked out(Appendix II). However, it is not always possibleto obtain information on these indicators forAsian countries, since any effort to deal withdata deficiencies through cross-country surveyswould be prohibitively expensive. This exercise,therefore, aims at making the best use of avail-able evidence to arrive at a set of benchmarkestimates of specific indicators.

A framework to identify indicators for theconstruction of a composite index

A critical problem in measuring ICT spread anduse from the point of view of realizing the MDGsis that of choosing appropriate indicators andassigning weights for composition. Earlier stud-ies on the subject were restricted to the indus-trialized countries. Since problems of diffusionof technology across sectors, regions andgroups of the population are less serious fordeveloped countries, concerns about the conse-quences of a digital divide were often ignored.The indicators selected were mostly related tothe supply side, such as those pertaining to theavailability of PCs, access to Internet facilities,density of telephones, use of electronic goods,and enrolment in or completion of technicaleducation. These data are available in interna-tional publications and on websites. Similarindicators can easily be compiled for Asian

countries, although there are problems of com-parability of data in some cases.

However, in the case of developing countries,there is a strong case for going beyond supply-linked indicators and attempting to measurethe spread of technologies and their role in pro-moting the development process. This wouldrequire information on user-specific indicatorsof ICT applications on the purpose of use, andon the agencies and legal framework used topromote the adoption of ICTs.

Unfortunately, existing data sources for Asiancountries do not permit construction of suchspecific indicators suitable for cross-countrycomparison. Generation of fresh data wouldmake difficult financial and administrativedemands on national and international statisti-cal systems. Also, these countries are so verydiverse in terms of levels of economic and humandevelopment, degree of openness to world mar-kets and socio-cultural specificities that it is diffi-cult to generalize and arrive at a consensus onuser-specific indicators. Further, a review of the lit-erature and an analysis of interdependencies ofICT use and human development in developingcountries may not be adequate to estimate its rolein the future, particularly because ICT use is still inits infancy.

Identification of different dimensions ofdevelopment and their constituent indicators

These difficulties necessitate the continueddependence on rather simple and straightfor-ward indicators reflecting, primarily, the degreeof availability of ICTs (see the list of supply siderelating to the eight MDGs in Appendix II).Theyare combined with a few sector- or user-specif-ic indicators that can be obtained from interna-tional documents or websites of UN agenciesand the World Bank. These indicators are classi-fied into four categories, focusing on four broadaspects:

● those capturing availability or supply● those measuring “efficiency” (or cost of

access) and speed● those suggesting targeting of social

sectors, and● those reflecting targeting of vulnerable

groups (Appendix III).

Availability-linked indicators

Availability-linked indicators have been placedin two sub-categories: skill-independent and

A critical problem inmeasuring ICT spread

and use from the pointof view of realizing the

MDGs is that of choosing appropriate

indicators and assigning weights for

composition


87ICT and the MDGs: An index based on empirical regularities

skill-dependent. The first includes popular ICTtools for which users do not require much skillor training such as telephone mainline connec-tions, cellular subscriptions, television sets andradio receivers, all being presented per 1,000 ofthe population. Under the skill-dependent ICTcategory, where training and skills are required,the indicators identified are Internet users per100 people, PCs per 100 people and per capitaICT expenditure.

Higher expenditures would imply greater use ofICT by larger sections of the population as theycover purchase of products, including telecom-munication facilities and other equipment foroffices, businesses, households, governmentsand educational institutions. Two separate cate-gories have been kept on the supply side so asto increase the importance of availability-linkedindicators in the overall aggregation scheme.

Indicators of efficiency and speed

The indicators that capture aspects of efficiencyare Internet service provider charges, tele-phone usage charges for Internet access, costof a peak-rate local call per three minutes froma fixed line, cost of a peak-rate call to theUnited States per three minutes, Internetspeed and access, and extent of IT training andeducation. Information on these indicators iscompiled from data obtained from the WorldBank and the Global Competitiveness Report(GCR) 2001-02.The indicator of Internet serviceprovider charge is the monthly dial-up accesscharge for 20 hours of use and that for tele-phone usage charge is the telephone callcharge for 20 hours of access. Higher costswould imply lower efficiency and less access.Indicators of Internet speed and access, and ITtraining and education are positive indicatorsof efficiency as these assign higher values tocountries where ICT facilities are relativelymore efficient as manifest in greater speed ofaccess and higher expenditures incurred intraining of personnel.

Indicators measuring targeting of social sectors

These include Internet access in schools, com-puters in educational institutions per 1,000 stu-dents, government prioritization of ICT, andgovernment online services availability. Theimportance given to universal literacy in theMDGs justifies inclusion of two educational indi-cators. Two government-linked indicators havebeen included, as the State continues to have a

major role in promoting social development.Data on computers in educational institutionsare obtained from the World Bank and all otherindicators are compiled from the GCR, 2001-02.The latter simply show the ‘rating’ of each coun-try, as assigned by GCR. These ratings, reflectingthe performance of countries, are based on anopinion survey of 4,600 senior business leadersfrom 75 countries.

Indicators reflecting targeting of vulnerablegroups

Five indicators have been identified to assessthe contribution of ICTs to improving the statusof socially deprived sections of the population:the percentage of women among professionaland technical workers; public access to theInternet; government success in ICT promotion;competition in provision of Internet services;and efficacy of laws relating to ICT use.

Data on women professionals and technicalworkers have been taken from HDR 2003 andinformation on other indicators from GCR 2001-02. Public access to Internet facilities andgreater competition among service providers isexpected to lead to greater diffusion of thetechnology, a lowering of prices and animprovement in accessibility: all of which areseen as increasing the access of the economi-cally worse off.

Also, greater competition is likely to generategreater employment in the informal sector, ben-efiting poor and vulnerable groups such aswomen. Government success in ICT promotionas also greater efficacy of the legal system for e-commerce, consumer protection, etc., wouldreflect the outreach of the technology. This, too,will benefit vulnerable sections that tend to bemarginalized under a freely functioning market,without adequate protection of the State orlegal institutions.

Rationale for selection of indicators

What is the extent to which the selected indica-tors can map the attainment of MDGs? For goalslike eradication of poverty, the important ques-tion is whether income and employment effectsof ICT have a bias in favour of the poor thatcould help them move above the poverty line.

Despite equivocal opinions, there is adequateempirical evidence to suggest that the overallimpact of the availability of ICT has been positive

In the case ofdeveloping countries,there is a strong casefor going beyondsupply-linked indicatorsand attempting tomeasure the spread oftechnologies and theirrole in promoting thedevelopment process



for the poor. In any case, availability is a precon-dition for any kind of application, pro-poor orotherwise. This would justify inclusion of avail-ability-linked and efficiency indicators of ICTdevelopment. Besides, a role for the State in pro-viding public access to the Internet, in ensuringcompetition among service providers and alegal system promoting ICT development wouldhelp in better penetration of the technologyand, thereby, in making a dent on poverty andinequality. It would be useful to construct otherindicators for accessibility of the underprivi-leged or coverage of remote and backwardareas, but this is not possible with existing offi-cial as well as non-official databases.

The role of ICT in improving education has beenfound to be positive and justifies the inclusionof availability-linked and efficiency indicators tocapture aspects facilitating the realization ofeducation-related MDGs. In addition, Internetaccess in schools and computer use in educa-tional institutions have been consideredextremely useful sectoral indicators in articulat-ing progress of countries towards higher qualityand universal primary education.

Statistics on access to and usage of ICT bywomen compared to men would be useful inunderstanding the gender divide in this area.While data are available in The World’s Women2000, with citations from Cyber Atlas and NUA,there are serious information gaps and prob-lems of reliability due to sources of differentquality in the Asian countries. There are alsoanomalies and inconsistencies in data collec-tion procedures adopted by different countriesthat are significant, particularly for temporalcomparisons.3 One alternative is to use the per-centage of women having a tertiary level ofeducation (university, teachers’ college or high-er professional school), or enrolment of womenin the field of science and engineering, but thiswould be a bit remote in capturing gender sen-sitivity in ICTs. It is, therefore, proposed to cap-ture this dimension through the share offemales among professionals and technicalworkers.

With regard to maternal and child health, accessto basic amenities and other social sector objec-tives, indicators pertaining to government’s rolesuch as public access to the Internet, success ofthe State in Internet promotion, and efficacy oflaws relating to ICT use, are useful as the Stateplays a key role in social development in Asian

countries. These may be included to indirectlyreflect the coverage of social sectors, as disag-gregated data on the use of ICT in these sectorsare not available. Besides, use can be made ofavailability-linked indicators, since the growthof ICT per se can help achieve these goals.

The ICT Task Force too recognizes that the selec-tion of indicators will be guided by the availabil-ity of data at each point of time. In particular, itrecognizes that the limited availability of hardempirical evidence would constrain the selec-tion of indicators and influence their relativeimportance. It, therefore, argues in favour of adegree of flexibility in the methodology so thatthe indicators could be refined over time as dataavailability improves. In keeping with this per-spective, the attempt here is limited to workingout a few composite indices reflecting variousdimensions of ICT development as also its over-all progress. In addition, later in this Report, theTask Force’s suggestion that the indexing effortshould be complemented with an exercise inassembling anecdotal evidence and profilingsuccess stories is adopted.

Component indices on differentaspects of ICT development and an aggregate index

The methodology

In view of the growing popularity of compositeindices and the possibility of using the countryrankings in terms of various indices in previousstudies, it is proposed not to use complex multi-variate tools in the composition exercise. Themethodology attempts to aggregate indicatorsin several stages, as has been done in workingout the HDI. The method of assigning weightson the basis of a correlation matrix, such asPrincipal Component Analysis, is not consideredappropriate here since the pattern of interde-pendencies is likely to change as the technologytakes firmer roots in the region. As there is noother empirical basis to work out the relativeimportance of indicators, they are assignedequal weights.

The other significant problem is the eliminationof the scale bias that characterizes each indicator.In computing the HDI for Global HDRs, UNDPadopts the ‘Range Equalization (RE) method’where each indicator is divided by the range(after subtraction of the lowest value) to arriveat scale-free values that vary between 0 and 1.

Availability-linked indicators have been

placed in two sub-categories: skill-

independent and skill-dependent



In recent years, the methodology for computingHDIs has changed and it uses a fixed range com-puted on the basis of predetermined ‘goalposts’,reflecting the feasible upper and lower limits forthe values. This enables temporal comparisonsnot only of the rank scores of the countries con-cerned but also of their human developmentindices. The disadvantage is that the three con-stituent indices pertaining to life expectancy,education and GDP have lost the feature of afixed range of zero to unity.The highest value ineach constituent index falls short of unity as thevalue for the top ranking country is below thegoalpost. The explanation for the minimumvalue being higher than zero is similar. In view ofthe popularity of this method among practi-tioners and policy makers, as well as for reasonsof comparability, it has been used in the presentanalysis as well.

However, fixing the range of the constituentindices through division by range discrimi-nates against indicators that have greater dis-parity. Also, as the trends in inequality varyacross different indicators, it would be inap-propriate to force these to have a uniform andconstant range over time. Indeed, with theintroduction of the concept of goalposts tocompute the range, the (scale-free) values ofthe indices no longer have a constant range ofunity (thereby losing their unique property).However, maximum and minimum values havebeen specified based on recorded values overrecent years and division by the range isexpected to ensure that the difference in dis-parity in the constituent indicators does notget reflected in the HDI. There can also be dis-agreements in fixing goalposts for indicatorslike GDP per capita and life expectancy as theupper bound is based on the judgement of theresearcher. On the other hand, the two boundsfor literacy and gross enrolment are arithmeti-cally pre-determined. While inequality in thesetwo over time will decline as the maximumvalue is fixed, the same may not be the casewith per capita income.4 Unfortunately, the REmethod treats the two types of indices identi-cally. The popularity and acceptability of HDIamong policy makers seems to have come inthe way of these issues being investigated ade-quately in the literature.

It is proposed to use an alternate method thatpermits the coefficients of variation of differentindicators to remain different, even after mak-ing them scale free and lets these differences be

reflected in the composite index and ranking.All the indicators have been made scale freethrough division by their own means. The coef-ficients of variation of the original indicators,thus, become the standard deviations of thescale-free indicators, which are then carried intothe component indices.

Another important point is temporal compara-bility of the indices. As the present exercise aimsat making comparisons across countries only,the elimination of the scale effect has beenensured by dividing each indicator by eitherrange or mean, computed for the chosen year. Incase such comparisons are to be made over time,it would be necessary to fix the values of thedivisors, as is now being done in computing the HDI for the HDRs. Indeed, for computing ICTcomposite indices for any future year, it wouldmake sense to use the same means as in thebase year in the denominator for each indicator.However, in case the base year is not consideredrepresentative of the early years of the 21st cen-tury, it should be possible to work out the meanof the first three years, say 2001, 2002 and 2003,and fix these as the denominators for eliminat-ing the scale bias for all subsequent exercises.

Five component indices have been constructed,in the first stage by the RE method as well as bythe Division by Mean (DM) method of indexing,to cover the following aspects: skill-independ-ent ICT; skill-dependent ICT; efficiency andspeed; social sector targeting; and vulnerablegroups targeting.

Before composition, all the indicators need tobe made unidirectional within each category.Indeed, the indicators reflecting the costs ofaccess to the Internet, such as Internet serviceprovider charges, telephone usage charges forthe Internet, cost of a local call and cost of a callto the US, cannot be combined with those thatrepresent Internet speed or IT training. It is nec-essary to take the reciprocal of these cost fig-ures so that efficiency indicators are defined as:(i) Internet time available per US dollar; (ii) tele-phone time for Internet per US dollar; (iii) localtelephone time (at peak period) available perUS dollar; and (iv) US call time per US dollar.Thisis based on the understanding that the higherthe access to ICT time per unit of money, thegreater is the efficiency of the system.This prob-lem does not exist for any other category ofindicators. Finally, the composite aggregateindex of development of ICT in the context of

The indicators thatcapture aspects of efficiency are Internetservice providercharges, telephoneusage charges forInternet access, cost ofa peak-rate local callper three minutes froma fixed line, cost of apeak-rate call to theUnited States per threeminutes, Internet speedand access, and extentof IT training andeducation



MDGs has been obtained by combining the fivecomponent indices.

Component indices obtained through RE method and the corresponding aggregate index

Following the RE method, the component indexfor a category is obtained by first making eachindicator scale free, by subtracting its minimumvalue from each observation and then dividingit by its range. The average of these valuesacross the indicators (within the category) foreach country then becomes the value of itscomponent index. Understandably, if a countryhas maximum values for all the indicators in acategory, it will score an index value 1. Similarly,a country will obtain a composite score of 0 onlywhen it has the minimum value in all the indica-tors.The larger the value of the group-specific oraggregate index, the higher is the role played byICT towards the attainment of MDGs. An aggre-gate index for ICT development has been com-puted by using the same methodology as thatfor category-specific indices.

The indices of skill-independent and skill-dependent ICT availability measure the relativepositions of countries in terms of the availabilityof different types of facilities. Malaysia occupiesthe top position in both skill-independent andskill-dependent ICT categories (Table 5.1). Thevalue of the skill-dependent ICT index in thiscase is unity as it secures the highest value in allthe indicators belonging to this category.Thailand and China that follow Malaysia are way

behind, reflecting the differences across coun-tries within the Asian region. The value of theskill-independent ICT index for Malaysia is alsovery high but its distance relative to the secondand third position countries is less than in theprevious case. In sum, the availability of ICTacross the countries exhibits wide inter-countryvariation.

The efficiency and speed indices depict theranking of the countries in providing access tohigh-speed ICT at low cost. Here, too, Malaysiaoccupies the highest position. However, its rela-tive position vis-à-vis other countries is not ashigh as in the case of ICT availability due to thehigh costs of providing Internet facilities and ofa call to the US, when compared with othercountries (the two indicators belonging to thiscategory). Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan reporthigh values (fairly close to Malaysia), althoughthese countries have very low levels of ICTavailability.

The social-sector targeting index reflects theperformance of the countries in promoting ICTin certain specific directions for the well-being ofthe people. The idea is to assess whether bene-fits of the technology have remained restrictedto a few or have percolated down to larger sec-tions of the population. China obtains the high-est position here, followed by India and Malaysia.The high value obtained by China is largely dueto the indicators pertaining to deployment ofcomputers in the field of education and the gov-ernment giving ICT a high priority.

Indicators measuringtargeting of social

sectors include Internetaccess in schools,

computers ineducational institutions

per 1,000 students,government

prioritization of ICT, andgovernment online

services availability

Indices pertaining to different aspects of ICT development

Social VulnerableSkill- Skill- Efficiency sector group

independent dependent and speed targeting targeting Aggregate Country ICT index ICT index index index index index Rank

China 0.57 0.12 0.46 0.87 0.39 0.48 2India 0.04 0.01 0.62 0.65 0.76 0.42 4Indonesia 0.17 0.04 0.38 0.14 0.40 0.22 7Malaysia 0.87 1.00 0.67 0.59 0.68 0.76 1Mongolia 0.14 0.06 0.31 0.09 0.37 0.19 8Pakistan 0.03 0.00 0.57 0.36 0.48 0.29 5Sri Lanka 0.18 0.04 0.62 0.10 0.33 0.25 6Thailand 0.49 0.21 0.50 0.57 0.59 0.47 3Vietnam 0.18 0.04 0.29 0.06 0.24 0.16 9

Table 5.1 Component indices showing different aspects of ICT development and the aggre-gate index as obtained by RE method for nine Asian countries



Five indicators havebeen identified toassess the contributionof ICTs to improving thestatus of sociallydeprived sections of thepopulation: the percentage of womenamong professional andtechnical workers; public access to theInternet; governmentsuccess in ICT promotion; competitionin provision of Internetservices; and efficacyof laws relating to ICT use

The vulnerable-group targeting index measuresthe efficacy of the system in reaching the bene-fits of ICT to women and ordinary citizensthrough legal and governmental support. Indiais placed in the top position, followed byMalaysia; and this is due to high values reportedon public access to the Internet, government’ssuccess in ICT promotion, competition amongInternet service providers and a developed legalsystem governing ICT use.

The aggregate index is a summary measure ofthe five component indices. It may be taken toreflect the overall progress a country hasmade in promoting ICT for human develop-ment. Malaysia records the highest value, fol-lowed by China and Thailand. India comesfourth and this is due to its scoring high val-ues in categories other than availability ofICT. Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Indonesia areplaced at mid-level, indicating a modest rolefor ICT in promoting socio-economic devel-opment. Mongolia and Vietnam have a longway to go, particularly in terms of targetingspecific social groups or vulnerable groups ofthe population.

Component indices obtained through the DM method and the corresponding aggregate index

In applying the DM method, the indicators ineach category are divided by their respectivemeans. The values obtained are added up foreach country to obtain the component indexfor the category. An identical procedure isadopted for computing the aggregate index of

ICT development, based on the category-specificcomponent indices.

The leading position of Malaysia in ICT develop-ment emerges in all categories of indicators,except the social-sector targeting index whereChina takes the initiative (Table 5.2). The posi-tion of Malaysia is particularly impressive inavailability of skill-dependent ICT for which thevalue works out to about 25 times that of theaverage for India and Pakistan, the two coun-tries occupying the lowest positions. In skill-independent ICT again, Malaysia has a very highvalue (followed by China), exhibiting a huge gaprelative to India and Pakistan.

In the case of ICT efficiency, indices for India andPakistan are impressive, and almost similar toMalaysia and China. Sri Lanka, which securesmodest values in availability-linked indicators,goes to the top for efficiency. This index doesnot show much variation across countries ascosts are becoming similar around the world,impacted by globalization. In targeting socialsectors, China secures the highest value, basicallybecause of the substantial use of ICT in educa-tional institutions and the high priority assignedto the technology by the government. It is onlyin this category that we see Malaysia sinkingvery low, going below the average of the series,while India and Thailand attain significantlyhigher positions. In targeting vulnerable sec-tions of the population, India and Malaysia seemto be doing well. In both countries, the Stateplays an important role in prioritizing ICT as alsoin creating a competitive environment among

Indices pertaining to different aspects of ICT development

Social VulnerableSkill- Skill- Efficiency sector group

independent dependent and speed targeting targeting Aggregate Country ICT index ICT index index index index index Rank

China 6.18 2.20 6.40 10.14 4.81 1.37 2India 1.64 0.71 6.58 4.36 5.59 0.79 5Indonesia 2.65 1.12 5.06 2.75 4.79 0.71 7Malaysia 10.12 15.24 6.86 3.84 5.61 2.17 1Mongolia 2.91 1.42 4.90 2.50 4.82 0.72 6Pakistan 1.50 0.51 6.24 3.14 4.88 0.67 8Sri Lanka 2.83 1.12 8.12 2.47 4.67 0.80 4Thailand 5.63 3.62 5.11 4.31 5.36 1.12 3Vietnam 2.53 1.06 4.71 2.49 4.48 0.66 9

Table 5.2 Component indices showing different aspects of ICT development and the aggre-gate index as obtained by DM method for nine Asian countries



service providers. Again, inter-country dispari-ties are not alarming because of the nature ofthe indicators.

Understandably, Malaysia has the highest valuein the aggregate index, followed by China andThailand, the countries that have been part of arapid, globally-linked development process dur-ing the past two decades. India and Sri Lankacome next.They are at about the same level butthe latter gets past the former by reporting sig-nificantly higher values in availability- and effi-ciency-linked indicators. Immediately followingthem are Mongolia and Indonesia. These reportmedium level values in all the five categories ofICT development. Pakistan and Vietnam are at alower level in the final aggregate index.The tworeflect opposite development patterns, with theformer showing high values in efficiency andtargeting while the latter has a significant edgein availability.

Comparison of the alternate sets of indices

A quick comparison of the rankings obtainedfrom the two composite aggregate indices (byRE and DM methods, respectively) suggests thatthe results are not very different. The top threepositions are occupied by Malaysia, China, andThailand and the bottom position by Vietnam asper both methods. There are a few marginalchanges in the ranking of the middle ordercountries. It could be argued that since the pro-posed DM method gives results similar to theRE method, the credentials of this alternativeneeds to be noted in the literature of aggrega-tive indices. The objective of using the two dif-ferent methods in this exercise, however, isquite different. It is to identify and focus on thedifferences that have emerged from the twomethods and to analyse the reasons for thesedifferences in the context of the dynamics ofICT development.

The first major difference is that despite theranks of the countries being similar, the gapsin the values of the indices are quite different.For example, the difference between China,Thailand and India, obtained by the REmethod, may be seen as insignificant. This,however, is not the case with the results by theDM method. Of particular importance here isthe gap between India and the other twocountries, which is due to the low values of theformer for two composite indices of ICT avail-ability. It is important that the alternate DMapproach succeeds in retaining the significant

variation in these two indices (Table 5.2), andthat these are reflected in the aggregate indexwhich brings down the figure for India. The REmethod implicitly reduces their importanceby treating them at par with other (compo-nent) indices that do not exhibit significantinter-country variation. Similarly, Mongoliaand Vietnam score very low values in theaggregate index by the RE method, which isnot the case with the alternate DM method.This again is because the availability indica-tors, for which these two countries record rea-sonably high values, receive low weightage inthe logic of aggregation applied in the com-putation of the HDI.

One major difference is in the ranking ofPakistan vis-à-vis Sri Lanka in the aggregateindex by the two methods. The higher scores ofthe latter on availability are reflected in theaggregate index by the DM method, with a rela-tively higher weight giving it a higher rank. Inthe RE method, the importance of the availabilityindices (with high disparities) are implicitlyreduced, which is responsible for a reversal inranking. Division by mean eliminates the scalebias but not disparity. Sri Lanka has higherscores than Pakistan in a large number of indi-cators, and by a huge margin in absolute as wellas relative terms.

The difference in ranking occurs even in catego-ry-specific component indices. Sri Lanka andChina get top positions in terms of efficiencyand targeting of social sectors respectively bythe DM method, leaving Malaysia behind (whichis placed at number one in both as per the REmethod). Most of the indicators in the two cate-gories have low variation. All the countries havesimilar values except for telephone charge forInternet services and computers installed ineducational institutions. Both indicators areimportant within their respective categoriesand are responsible for much of the variationacross countries. Importantly, Sri Lanka’s advan-tage lies in charging low prices for Internet serv-ices while China’s is in promoting computereducation in schools. The DM method, byimplicitly giving higher weightage to these indi-cators, has placed the two countries above allthe others in these categories. Similarly,Malaysia is able to get past India in terms of thevulnerable-group targeting index (the latterhaving the top position by RE method) as it has a larger percentage of female professionalsamong workers and the method implicitly gives

The ICT Task Force toorecognizes that the

selection of indicatorswill be guided by theavailability of data ateach point of time. In

particular, it recognizesthat the limited

availability of hardempirical evidence

would constrain theselection of indicators

and influence their relative importance



a higher weightage to the indicator because ofits higher disparity.

It is not the purpose of this statistical exercise toestablish the superiority of one method overthe other, as their suitability would depend onthe objectives of the exercise and empirical reg-ularities observed in the region under investiga-tion.This discussion makes it clear that a changein the methodology of composition can anddoes bring about significant changes in the val-ues of component indices, and can alter eventhe ranking of countries. Issues of value judge-ment, implicit in the methodology, cannot bedismissed.

It has been demonstrated that the RE methodinherently gives lower weightages to indicatorspertaining to availability and a few otheraspects of ICT development that are observedto have high disparity. These disparities are theresult of the process of development, mediatedlargely through the market, with limited controlbeing exercised by the government. In the earliersections, it has been argued that ICT is still in theinitial stages of development and, consequently,increase in its availability itself could promptsocio-economic development. Several econom-ic, social and cultural factors are currentlyinhibiting the process of growth and anincrease in the availability of ICT will helpincrease the exposure of policy makers, admin-istrators and lay people to the global informa-tion system. Further, this would lead to theestablishment of better communication net-works even within the countries and facilitatedecision-making by public and private agen-cies. The supply of ICT is strongly linked witheconomic affordability, bringing in high dispari-ty. Also, economic factors affecting affordabilitywill be important in future years as well for thedevelopment of ICT. In view of all this, givingimportance to availability indicators does notseem misjudged.

National governments in the Asian region havetried to give a direction to the development ofICT by intervening in the market, controllingprices, introducing it in social sectors, fixing pri-orities, strengthening the legal structure forensuring access to all, etc. Importantly, the cross-country differences in the concerned indicatorsare not very high as may be inferred from thelow coefficients of variation of the indicators(Appendix III) belonging to third, fourth andfifth categories. Irrespective of socio-political

structures, each country has taken measuresto push the diffusion of the technology. Thereare specific measures adopted by individualgovernments to direct ICT towards the MDGobjectives but it is impossible to generatecross-sectionally comparable data on this.Also, the success of such measures has beenlimited and uneven across countries, due tothe overwhelming role of markets. This isreflected in the sectorally and spatially unbal-anced growth of ICT, evident from the highdisparity of the indicators of availability,belonging to the first and second category.

Therefore, maintaining the variation of the indi-cators (by making the standard deviation of theoriginal indicator the coefficient of the scale-free indicator) and then giving equal weightageto their variations in the aggregation schemeappears appropriate. Studies have shown thatindicators that play a significant role in thedevelopment dynamics of less-developedcountries exhibit high disparity in space.5

Undoubtedly, this kind of regularity observed incertain contexts cannot claim universality.However, given the pattern of developmentnoted through correlation analysis and a reviewof the literature relating to the Asian region, theretention of the variation in availability indica-tors in the process of composition can be justi-fied. This implies giving higher weightage toavailability indicators, the rationale for whichhas been discussed while analysing the devel-opment dynamics in the region.

In brief

To assess the levels of ICT applications forhuman development aimed at realizing theMDGs, indicators were identified to capture fivedimensions or broad categories of ICT develop-ment. Component indices were worked out foreach of the categories by aggregating the con-stituent indicators after eliminating the scalebias. This was done with both the RE methodused by UNDP in computing HDI and the DMmethod. An aggregate index was then comput-ed based on the category-specific componentindices by each method. These indices presentthe relative position of the nine countries interms of development of ICT for attainment ofMDGs.

Malaysia has the highest value in most of thecategory-specific component indices as well asthe composite aggregate index, because of its

The indices of skill-independent and skill-dependent ICT availability measure therelative positions ofcountries in terms ofthe availability of different types of facilities. Malaysiaoccupies the top position in both skill-independent and skill-dependent ICT categories



high values on availability indicators for bothskill-independent and skill-dependent ICT.China and Thailand follow in most of the indi-vidual indicators as well as component indices.However, in social sector targeting, China goespast Malaysia to the top position by both meth-ods, due to its emphasis on the use of ICT ineducation. Thailand is at par with these two butgets a lower aggregate value due to deficienciesin availability indices. At the lower end areMongolia and Vietnam, though they are fairlyhigh in terms of availability indicators – wayahead of India or Pakistan. The latter two coun-tries, however, have an advantage in efficiencyand in targeting social sectors and vulnerablegroups.The third South Asian country, Sri Lanka,has fairly high values for availability and occu-pies the top position in terms of ICT efficiencyby one method. Indonesia has middle level val-ues in almost all the indicators and figures incategory-specific as well as composite aggre-gate indices.

An important point emerging from the analysis isthat, in assessing the progress of ICTs for achiev-ing any set of socio-economic goals, there wouldhave to be an emphasis on availability indicators.In addition,several efficiency-linked and user-spe-cific indicators should be included in the analysis.For that, information must be gathered coveringaspects of affordability, access and utilization ofICT. These should bring in the demand side morestrongly and reflect the spread of technology notonly across economic and social classes but alsoregions,sectors and gender categories. Indicators,for example, may be built to articulate what per-centage of households in certain social, econom-ic, rural and vulnerable groups, such as tribals andother disadvantaged sections, are able to makeuse of ICT for applications relevant to them.Alternatively, one can try to build up ‘surrogateend points’ such as better information flows andbetter management of education, health andpublic delivery systems using ICT, for assessingprogress towards achieving the MDGs.


Photo 4/8/05 11:40 AM Page 11

Photo: UNDP Indonesia

Photo 4/8/05 11:40 AM Page 12

There are wide variations across theAsian region in thedevelopment and use of ICT for realizing theMDGs, which are not necessarily related to a country’s developmentas measured by per capita income

While the index to measure the impact of ICT ondevelopment needs refinement, the attempt toderive such an index does point in one direc-tion. There are wide variations across the Asianregion in the development of ICT and its use for realizing the MDGs, which are not necessarilyrelated to the development of a country asmeasured by per capita income.This is a pointerto the possible role of appropriate policiesaimed at reducing the shortfall in performancerelative to the potential.

Concern with developing an appropriate policyframework for harnessing ICT for developmentin developing countries is relatively recent.However, an examination of ICT policies indi-cates that by the late 1990s all the Asian coun-tries in this study had put in place a policyframework seeking to accelerate the pace of ICTdevelopment.This chapter seeks to examine theextent to which these frameworks are sensitiveto human development concerns and the waysin which they implicitly seek to realize the MDGsby promoting ICT use.

It needs to be noted that ICTs are neither astand-alone solution to development problemsnor can they replace traditional developmentinitiatives and investments. However, the evi-dence suggests that as Asian nations pro-gressed, so did their understanding of usingICTs for human development. The zeal to devisean appropriate policy framework was, therefore,also accompanied by a tendency to placehuman development concerns at the heart ofeach nation’s ICT regulatory framework. Policiestend to be more than just focused on ICT pro-motion through provision of tax breaks andsubsidies; they take into account all the con-stituents of a nation from the underprivilegedto its business community, and are informed by

a range of human development concerns. Inparticular, government policy tends to empha-size initiatives that can bridge the digital divideand reach the power of ICT to as large a propor-tion of the population as possible.

National policy framework

In Thailand, for example, even the very firstNational IT Policy statement dated 1996 andtitled “IT 2000”, incorporated human develop-ment concerns. The policy emphasized a three-pronged development agenda, involvinginvestment in:

● an equitable information infrastructure toensure empowerment and enhance lifequality

● people by building a literate populace andan adequate information technology man-power base, and

● good governance.

The importance attributed to these aspects ofIT policy was reflected in the country’sConstitution as well (Box 6.1).

Over time, the policy framework has beenrefined and developed. To achieve the abovegoals, Thailand’s “IT 2010” document identifiedfive flagship themes:

● e-Society,or a focus on the use of IT for quality-of-life improvement, knowledge-baseddevelopment and digital divide reduction

● e-Education, to develop and strengthenhuman capital at all levels so as to move thecountry towards becoming a knowledge-based society, which involves objectives suchas life-long learning,computer literacy,humanresource development, virtual education, etc.

97

National ICT policies forhuman developmentM

DG

s C h a p t e r 6



● e-Government, or the utilization of IT in thepublic sector, at central, provincial and localgovernment levels, so as to ensure goodgovernance

● e-Commerce, aimed at exploiting the eco-nomic potential of the Internet, and

● e-Industry, or the utilization and develop-ment of IT within the manufacturing and IT-related industries.

During the same period, other countries toohave been in the process of formulating anappropriate policy framework. In Malaysia, theNational IT Agenda (NITA), launched inDecember 1996 by the National IT Council(NITC), acknowledges the potential for accel-erating and transforming developmentprocesses through ICTs, information andknowledge. NITA is a framework for develop-ment in the Information Age that encompassescomprehensive human development, envi-sions the mobilization of the entire nation,views ICTs as a strategic development tool,and seeks to leverage tri-sectoral partnershipsas well as top-down and bottom-up approach-es in implementation. NITA focuses on threedevelopment areas: people, infostructure(hard and soft infrastructure) and applica-tions, and content. The intent is to provideequity and access to all Malaysians so that

they can create value and thereby transformMalaysian society.

The release in 1997 of a document titled“Nusantara 21”marked the first major national ini-tiative to develop ICT in Indonesia. Conceptuallyspeaking, Nusantara 21 was a grand design for aninformation infrastructure that covers the entirearchipelago of Indonesia. To support, accommo-date and coordinate the various needs ofNusantara 21’s stakeholders, the Government ofIndonesia issued Presidential Decree No. 30 in1997 that established a coordinating team from16 technical departments and agencies of thegovernment. The team was called Tim KoordinasiTelematika Indonesia (TKTI: Coordinating Teamfor ICT Development in Indonesia) and waschaired at that time by the Coordinating Ministerfor Production and Distribution.

Under the TKTI, a National IT Framework (NITF)document was prepared by the NationalDevelopment Planning Agency (BAPPENAS) inFebruary 2001 and submitted to TKTI. The NITFdocument prioritizes five strategic objectives inICT development:

● e-government for good governance ● e-commerce to support a sustainable

economy

ICTs are neither astand-alone solution todevelopment problems

nor can they replacetraditional development

initiatives andinvestments. However,the evidence suggests

that as Asian nations progressed, so did theirunderstanding of using

ICTs for human development

There are two major sections in Thailand’s current Constitution which outline the foundations ofICT in the national development context. These are:

i) Chapter III – Rights and Liberties of the Thai People, Section 40“Transmission frequencies for radio or television broadcasting and radio telecommunication arenational communication resources for public interest. There shall be an independent regulatorybody having the duty to distribute the frequencies under paragraph one and supervise radio ortelevision broadcasting and telecommunication businesses as provided by law. In carrying out theact under paragraph two, regard shall be had to utmost public benefit at national and local levelsin education, culture, State security, and other public interests including fair and free competition.”

ii) Chapter V – Directive Principles of Fundamental State Policies, Section 78“The State shall decentralise powers to localities for the purpose of independence and self-determination of local affairs, develop local economics, public utilities and facilities systems andinformation infrastructure in the locality thoroughly and equally throughout the country aswell as develop into a large-sized local government organisation a province ready for such pur-pose, having regard to the will of the people in that province.”

Section 40 is related to the development in the telecommunications arena whereas Section 78recognizes State responsibility to provide an equitable information infrastructure and becomesa guiding principle for the drafting of the National Information Technology Policy.

Souce: http://www.ect.go.th/english/laws/constitutioneng.html

Box 6.1 ICT for human development is embedded in Thailand’s Constitution


99National ICT policies for human development

● creation of an IT-based community ● utilization of IT for education, and ● promotion of e-democracy.

In India, a National Task Force on IT and SoftwareDevelopment was set up in the Prime Minister’soffice in May 1998. The Task Force made signifi-cant recommendations in three human devel-opment-related areas, among others. Thesewere: IT in government; IT spread and IT aware-ness; and citizen-IT interface.With regard to IT ingovernment, the Task Force recommendedcomplete computerization (“up to viable limits”)of government in five years. The objective ofsuch computerization was to reach servicedelivery as close to the citizen as possible, withminimal intermediation and at affordable cost.The argument was that unless computerizationprogressed significantly in government, it couldnot spread adequately outside. To that end, itrecommended that 2 per cent of the budget inevery government department should be ear-marked for the introduction and use of informa-tion technology, including training.

In the area of IT spread and awareness, the TaskForce, besides recommending reaching comput-ers and the Internet to every school and collegewithin five years, called upon the government tolaunch a range of value-added network services.The committee argued: “While providing deliv-ery of services, use of a variety of technologiesand solutions could be explored. These couldinclude home-based computers, ATMs, electronickiosks, telephones, smart cards, etc. Such net-works could substantially promote govern-ment’s efforts to provide a ‘one-stop non-stop’interface with the public”.1

The Task Force also felt that, for at least abouttwo decades, it will not be possible to provideeither telephones or Internet or other informa-tion services universally i.e. to more than 90 percent of households, since many would not beable to afford private subscriptions. It, therefore,recommended that these should be made avail-able on a public access basis, just as long dis-tance services are available through STD/ISDbooths. Since there were more than 600,000 ofthese booths in 2003, with a significant propor-tion located in villages, it suggested that asmany as possible should be converted intoPublic Tele Info Centres.

Finally, the committee called for the use of theFreedom of Information Act to make available

all official databases online to intensify democ-racy and increase transparency.

More recently, as a follow-up to the work of thecommittee, the government set up a WorkingGroup on Information Technology for Masses,on 10 May 2000. The working group was man-dated to:

● review various schemes and major initia-tives taken by various government agen-cies for taking IT to the masses

● identify potential areas and applications fordeployment of IT for the masses

● recommend development schemes/pro-grammes for citizen participation for takingIT to the masses, and

● prepare a comprehensive plan for taking ITto the masses.

The Working Group examined four areas – infra-structure and services, electronic governance,education, and mass campaign for IT awareness –and came up with a range of detailed recommen-dations in keeping with the thinking outlined ear-lier.Thus, it is clear that at least at the level of poli-cy formulation and statement, a range of humandevelopment concerns do enter into the policyframework of the Government of India. Further,there is a substantial degree of recognition of theconstraints to ensuring the reach of ICT to theextent needed for it to be a major instrument ofdevelopment, so that policy does take account ofthe need for reducing costs and mobilizingresources. However the thrust is indeed quiterecent and it remains to be seen whether policywill actually be translated into practice.

The ICT legal framework and national ICT visionof Vietnam has been elaborated in Directive 58-CT/TW, dated 17 October 2000, of theCommunist Party of Vietnam on acceleratingthe use and development of IT for the cause ofindustrialization and modernization. In thisDirective, the Vietnamese Government has rec-ognized that IT is one of the most importantenabling forces for development. It sees it asone among many means to improve the peo-ple’s quality of life and also create possibilitiesfor a quantum jump in the areas of industrial-ization and modernization.

Not surprisingly, the government wants toensure that, by 2010, the national informationnetwork is developed to reach nationwidecoverage. It will support large traffic, high speed

Government policytends to emphasize initiatives that canbridge the digital divideand reach the power ofinformation and communication technology to as largea proportion of the population as possible



and quality service at a cheap price so that it canraise the proportion of Internet users to levelsreflected by the global average.The targets are cau-tious. Decision No. 95/2002/QD-TTG of thePrime Minister, dated 17 July 2002, approves theMaster Plan for Information Technology use anddevelopment in Vietnam in 2005. It targets that,by 2005, average IT penetration and effective-ness all over the country will be of medium levelas compared with that of other countries in theregion. It also envisages that the level of IT usein activities of the Party and State managementagencies, political and social organizations, flag-ship economic branches of the national econo-my in the central government, and in Hanoi andHo Chi Minh cities will be similar to that in theadvanced countries in the region.

The Mongolian Government is paying similarattention to ICT development as an acceleratorfor economic and human development.The mainblueprint for the ICT sector is the “ICT Vision-2010”document which seeks to develop a “knowledge-based society to improve the quality of lives of thecitizens”by ensuring that,“regardless of where cit-izens live”, opportunities “for their equal andactive participation in social life, for improvingquality of life and to freely communicate witheach other and the world community”exist.

Needless to say, the direct emphasis on humandevelopment concerns in policy tends to vary.In Pakistan, the IT Policy and Action Plan itselfmakes only two specific references to humandevelopment goals:

● Section 3.4.2.3 on IT Education makes par-ticipation by rural and poor segments ofsociety in IT education a strategic priorityfor both social and economic development,and

● Section 3.4.12.2.4.2 on IT in the Economyrecognizes the need to develop new waysto use information technology to help solvethe most pressing problems of human andeconomic development – education, health,poverty alleviation, rural development, andcare for the environment.

However, towards these ends, the IT Action Planmakes several implicit commitments, bothstrategic and financial, that have human devel-opment implications:

● Section 4.6.1 on Universal Internet Accesscommits the government to spreading

Internet access to remote locations andPakistan Telecommunication CompanyLimited (PTCL) to making the UIN (UniversalInternet Number) into a local call (fromremote locations) to the nearest PoP of oneor more Internet Service Providers (ISPs).This will enable equitable access. In parallel,a drastic reduction in leased line charges isexpected to enable ISPs to go to smallerlocations, and

● The IT Action Plan Projects Portfolio of theNational IT Policy and Action Plan has aproject (item 15) called “CommunityInternet Centres in Rural Areas”with an allo-cation of Rs 70 million over three years (atthe 2002 exchange rate of US$ 1 = Rs 58,this is the equivalent of US$ 1.2 million). Inaddition, there is a project for the“Deployment of Internet Kiosks at PostOffices and Public Places”with an allocationof Rs 150 million (US$ 2.59 million). Finally,there are two e-government projects withtotal allocations of Rs 675 million (US$11.64 million).

In urban areas, where infrastructure is adequate,government policies have already helpedexpand real access by lowering the cost ofInternet access over fixed-line telephones. Thishas been done with the establishment of the“131” universal access prefix for all ISPs.Throughthis facility, Internet users need only pay thecharges for a single local call to access their ISP,regardless of the duration of the call. This serv-ice, available only in 29 cities in 2000, wasextended to over 805 cities, towns and villagesacross Pakistan in March 2003.2 This representsremarkable progress towards a universal serviceregime in the country, although it would be pre-mature to suggest that Internet access or usageis universal. Key obstacles are low bandwidth innon-metropolitan areas and unreliable ancillaryservices (electricity, maintenance and repairservices) and lack of demand for the resultingservices.

What the Pakistan experience suggests is that,rhetoric aside, the basic thrust of policy aimedat using ICT for development in most Asiandeveloping countries is the same as those cap-tured in the objectives and the first threethemes specified in Thailand’s policy. The threeobjectives are those of ensuring an equitableinformation infrastructure, building capacity forexploiting that infrastructure, and investing ingood governance.

There is recognition ofthe constraints to ICT

becoming a majorinstrument of

development. Policymakers do take

account of the need forreducing costs and

mobilizing resources



A prerequisite for ensuring an equitable infor-mation infrastructure is investment: public aswell as complementary private investment.However, the infrastructure thus created maynot in itself be equally accessible. So an ICT pol-icy sensitive to human development concernsmust emphasize universal service provision inthe telecom area. State initiatives to realize thisare particularly important in countries withsharp social and economic divides and in thosewhere geography makes universal provision dif-ficult. For example, in China, which has put astrong emphasis on information technologywithin the context of its 10th Five-yearDevelopment Plan (2001-2005) and targetswidespread usage of computers and theInternet, the statement on “TelecommunicationRegulations and Rules of People’s Republic ofChina” stipulates that telecom serviceproviders/operators must fulfil the obligation of“universal service”. The aim is to ensure that allcitizens, living anywhere in the country, are ableto access telephone and other basic communi-cation services at an affordable price.

To that end, the policy in China recognizes theneed for special expenditures for bridging thedigital divide among regions. In fact, success inbridging the digital divide is impossible withoutspecial expenditure from national budgets.Hence, the government has not only investedheavily in the creation of telecommunicationsinfrastructure, but also in universal telecommu-nication access in rural and remote areas. In par-ticular, plans have been made to accelerate theconstruction and improvement of an informa-tion infrastructure that can meet the socio-economic needs of western regions of the country.Moreover, special efforts have been made by thegovernment to cultivate a number of promisingIT industries in the western regions.

Even in Pakistan which still scores low in termsof the ICT for Development Index, policy calls formassive governmental investment in IT and theInternet. It recognizes the increase in govern-mental efficiency and transparency that wouldbe introduced by the application of ICTs to theways in which government conducts its work.The policy also requires the government to allo-cate a minimum of 2 per cent of the budget forIT services, although it is unclear whether that

allocation is to be made at the national budgetlevel, or at secondary and tertiary levelsthroughout the country.† This is not to say thatthere is no role for private enterprise in Internetprovision. Rather, the policy identifies “threegeneral principles that should be adopted if theInternet is to grow in Pakistan”:

● existing regulatory structures should notbe forced on it

● competition in Internet growth should beencouraged, and

● unnecessary regulations should be avoided.

Even if an adequate infrastructure is built, its usedepends on awareness and capability.Therefore, the promotion of the Internet as amedium of communication across the spectrumof business and government is a second key ele-ment of most national IT policies and actionplans. The government’s role is considered cru-cial in generating mass awareness of theInternet and IT, and in building the capability forICT use. The emphasis on awareness in theGovernment of India’s policy framework hadbeen discussed earlier. Such awareness is visibleelsewhere too.

In Pakistan, for example, the IT policy, indemanding the infusion of Internet, email andother ICTs into government operations andfunctions, also recognizes the need to universal-ize awareness and knowledge about the pres-ence of these technologies, and their readyavailability. It calls for massive awareness cam-paigns, frequent references to IT by governmentleaders, special events to promote IT, and theestablishment of working groups to createawareness at every government department inthe country.

The policy also recognizes that awareness perse can be rendered useless without creatingan environment in which the Internet as a consumer-driven service can flourish. Thepolicy calls on PTCL to play a facilitative, non-intrusive role in the development of a com-petitive and free environment for the provisionof Internet services, both at the back-end(backbone services providers) and at the frontend (Internet Service Providers and contentproviders).

A prerequisite forensuring an equitableinformation infrastructure isinvestment: both publicinvestment as well ascomplementary privateinvestment. However,the infrastructure thus created may not initself be equally accessible

† Section 3.4.12.1.4.2: A minimum of 2 per cent of the budget shall be allocated for IT services and provincial as wellas federal IT departments will allocate a substantial sum annually for developing IT infrastructure and conductingtraining at all levels in the government.



Reducing cost

Cost considerations are an important factor inreducing the digital divide. Hence, governmentsin Asia are taking a proactive stand on reducingICT costs. However, this often involves policiesthat imply a trade-off with universal provision.

Telecommunications reform aimed at encour-aging competition has been a major policythrust in many countries in the region. Chinalargely relies on a unique reform programmetitled “Competition Without Privatization”. As afundamental and strategic industry, telecom-munication operations have been monopolizedby the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunica-tions of China for more than four decades.Therefore, the Chinese Government did not sim-ply follow the trend towards a private, liberal-ized telecommunications order but carefullymanaged the introduction of market forces, andbalanced development goals with its need forcontrol. As a result, while the telecommunica-tion operators remain State-owned, the basictelecommunication market advanced from amonopoly to a duopoly, and is now beingextended to pluralistic competition.

The reform of telecommunication operationsbegan with some decentralization of decision-making and profit, via the contractual responsi-bility system in 1985. Further structural reforms –separating postal and telecommunication opera-tions from each other and from governmentalsupervisory functions – were implemented dur-ing the period 1988-91. In the 1990s, theChinese Government adopted a series of reformmeasures that, in less than three years, accom-plished the tasks of separating enterprises fromgovernment and post from telecommunica-tions, reorganizing industry sectors, dismantlingmonopoly and introducing competition in allservice sectors, including basic and value-addedtelecommunications and information services.In 1994, China Unicom was formed, and allowedto build and operate nation-wide cellular net-works. To promote fair competition in pagingservices, the paging sector of China Telecomwas split in 1998 to form Guoxin Paging Ltd.

In a deepening of this trend, a new round ofreform was launched in 1998.The basic idea wasto create a fair market by breaking up ChinaTelecom and simultaneously strengthenUnicom through market restructuring. ChinaTelecom Hong Kong, China Mobile Group,

Jitong, and China Net Communication wereformed. Competition among State-owned insti-tutions has thus increased.

In other contexts, the introduction of competi-tion has involved the induction of the privatesector. In India, telecom reform aimed at encour-aging competition has involved:

● opening up the basic services sector to pri-vate operators. The National Telecom Policyof 1994 threw open the basic services sec-tor by allowing for bidding for licences tooperate in circumscribed telecom circlesconsisting of the metros and regions co-terminus with the State. The ostensibleobjective was to supplement the efforts ofthe public sector to ensure telephone pro-vision on demand and a telephone in everyvillage at affordable prices

● permitting the entry of private and publicsector companies into the mobile teleph-ony area, using both GSM and CDMAtechnology

● corporatizing the public sector telecommu-nications network by creating separate cor-porations to cater to the principal metrosand to the rest of the country, and convert-ing the Department of Telecommunica-tions into a policy-making entity

● creating a statutory Telecom RegulatoryAuthority of India (TRAI) to recommendpolicies to increase competition, fix tariffsand mediate between different serviceproviders regarding interconnection, etc.,and

● opening up National and International LongDistance Telephony to private operators.

In terms of the availability and cost of telecomservices, the competition introduced by thesemeasures has had significant consequences.However, there is concern in some circles ontwo counts. First, with increased competitionand the presence of many players, it is argued,the objective of universal service provisionwould take a back seat. Second, it is argued, thatthe duplication of the expensive network bycompeting providers in different circles wouldresult in tariff benefits of competition being dis-tributed differentially. It is likely, it is contendedwith some supporting evidence, that low inten-sity and rural users would face an increase in tar-iffs over time, whereas high intensity users inhigh-density urban areas would benefit from areduction in tariffs. If these outcomes are real-

Even if an adequateinfrastructure is built,

its use depends onawareness and

capability. Therefore,the promotion of the

Internet as a medium ofcommunication across

the spectrum of business and

government is a keyelement of most

National IT Policies andAction Plans



ized, the implications for access and therefore forexploiting the human development benefits ofthe technology are no doubt partially adverse.

These trade-offs occur even when the govern-ment recognizes the need to use ICT policy forhuman development purposes. In India, therevised 1999 Telecom Policy calls for a balancebetween ‘universal service to all uncoveredareas’ and ‘high level services capable of meet-ing the needs of the country’s economy’. It setthe following targets:

● ensure a situation of telephone provisionon demand by 2002, and sustain it there-after so as to achieve a telephone density of7 by 2005 and 15 by 2010

● encourage the spread of telecommunica-tion to rural areas by making it more afford-able, by making rural telecom provisionmandatory for all fixed service providersand by providing reliable transmissionmedia in all rural areas so as to increaserural teledensity from 0.4 to 4 by 2010

● achieve telecom coverage of all rural vil-lages and provide reliable media to allexchanges

● provide Internet access to all district head-quarters by 2000, and

● provide high-speed data and multimediacapability (using technologies such asISDN) to all towns with a population greaterthan 200,000 by 2002.

e-Governance

Crucial to all policy frameworks is an effort toexploit ICT capabilities for better governance.The concern of governments at national,state/provincial and local levels to incorporateICT into their development agenda is visible inthe large number of ‘e-governance’ projects that have been initiated in Asian countries.These projects constitute by far the mostnumerous, among the largest and the mostnoticed of ICT for development projects in theregion.

Pakistan’s IT policy sees a role for government,not just in facilitating Internet expansion butin exploiting its potential by increasinglyadopting e-governance features. The statedvision of the e-government programme is theimprovement in the efficiency and trans-parency of the public sector and the enhance-ment of its service delivery mechanism. The

National IT Policy recognized the need for athorough adoption of information technologyby government at the functional level. InOctober 2002, Pakistan’s e-government portal(http://www.pakistan.gov.pk) was launchedwith an interface to 35 government divisionsand all existing federal ministries.

However,the anticipated widespread use of tech-nology in the business of government has notyet transpired. The legal framework necessary toimplement internal government documenta-tion and communication through electronicmedia does not exist. While enormous strideshave been made in providing governmentemployees with training and capacity-buildingopportunities, they have been skewed in favourof specialist training in computer sciences disci-plines. In any case, the goal is not the provisionof training or infrastructure to government offi-cials but to re-engineer the manner and form ofgovernmental action. Meanwhile, funds for e-government are being used mostly on infor-mation management systems and the develop-ment of content. Estimating the return on thisinvestment would be premature, and purelyspeculative. However, the magnitude of invest-ment, and the overarching desirability of thegoals of e-government serve to enhance theimportance of deploying e-government in aneffective and meaningful manner.

Unfortunately, unequal access to Internet serv-ices (as explained above), inherent inequalitiesbased on content (the e-government portal isentirely in English), and the limited “on-the-ground” service delivery function of the federalgovernment (the portal is limited to the federalgovernment, whereas social service delivery isin the provincial and local government domain)are all factors that may actually tend to exacer-bate the digital divide in Pakistan, instead ofcorrecting it.

Not surprisingly, while IT policy in Pakistan callsfor the establishment of e-government thatwould utilize IT and the Internet for a more effi-cient service delivery mechanism, the policyrecognizes that this represents an enormouschallenge. It, therefore, does state that e-govern-ment may take between five and seven yearsbefore it can be deployed with any expectationof seeing its benefits.

In China too, the government strives to harnessthe digital opportunities offered by ICT and

Cost considerations arean important factor inreducing the digitaldivide. Hence,governments in Asiaare taking a proactivestand on reducing ICTcosts. However, often,this involves policiesthat imply a trade-offwith universal provisionof services



eliminate the threat of the digital divide tosocial and economic development. The‘Government Online’and ‘Enterprise Online’pro-grammes, initiated in the mid-1990s, aim tofacilitate information access for all citizens. Theaim of the programme was that 30, 60, and 80per cent of all levels of government would beonline by 1998, 1999, and 2000, respectively;and that 100 large conglomerates, 10,000 mid-size firms and 1,000,000 small firms would bewired by 2000. This e-government programmenot only expected to allow people to promptlyobtain information on government policies,regulations, laws and enterprise services, butwas also a crucial initiative to bridge the domes-tic digital divide between the information“haves” and “have nots” nationwide.

The Sri Lankan government’s ‘e-Sri Lanka’ visionalso emphasizes using IT for good governance.It specifies the following objectives in this area:

● to build a nationwide ICT infrastructure bynetworking all primary and secondarycities, and extend connectivity to even theremotest parts of the island through terres-trial as well as space-based communicationtechnologies

● to use ICT to improve the delivery of publicservices, knowledge and education to peo-ple; create empowered civil servants withinformation and communication tools;facilitate coordination across governmentagencies; improve competition and trans-parency in public procurement; and reducetransaction costs to businesses

● to implement an e-government solution toreinforce peace and to help integrate mar-ginalized regions and communities withinan equitable resource distribution frame-work, and

● to develop innovative applications of ICTfor social development with the assistanceof an active NGO community (e.g. applica-tions for credit cooperative societies tofacilitate the use of ICT to mobilize its mem-bers, extend micro-credit and generateemployment in rural Sri Lanka).

In Indonesia, there are 22 e-Government PilotProjects with an estimated cost of more than US$60 million that were identified by Booz-Allan-Hamilton’s project to facilitate the deployment ofGovernment Online. In early June 2003, aPresidential Instruction (No 3/2003) was issuedon policy and strategy for developing e-govern-ment. This document instructed all governmentoffices to take necessary action within their func-tion and authorities to develop e-government.Three important documents were provided asattachments to the Presidential Instruction:

● National Policy and Strategy for Developinge-Government

● Architectural Framework of e-Government,and

● Framework for Implementing NationalPolicy and Strategy for Developing e-Government.

This Presidential Instruction is viewed as animportant commitment by the Government ofIndonesia to play a leading role in maximizingthe utilization of ICT.

In India,the e-governance area is the one in whichsome of the most innovative experiments inusing ICT for development fall. Some well-knowninstances of such projects like the computeriza-tion of the Mandal Revenue Offices (MROs) in thestate of Andhra Pradesh, and Bhoomi inKarnataka have been already discussed inChapter 3.This is an area which has attracted largegovernment outlays and is expected to receiveeven more attention in the immediate future.

Thus, the experiences of the countries chosenfor special study as the basis of this Report sug-gest that, at a macro-level, ICT policy is indeedsensitive to human development concerns andseeks to use the technology in partnership withNGOs, donors and the private sector. Whatneeds to be examined, therefore, is the degreeto which this economy-wide commitment isbeing translated into specific projects thatadvance specific MDGs. This is the focus of thechapters that follow.

What needs to beexamined is the degreeto which economy-wide

commitment is beingtranslated into specific

projects that advancespecific MDGs


Photo 4/8/05 11:41 AM Page 13

Photo: Amit Khullar

Photo 4/8/05 11:41 AM Page 14

Given the role of information in technology diffusion,the ability to use ICT topurvey informationacross geographicalspace at relatively lowcost, enhances its roleas an enabling instrument in the realization of the MDGsrelating to hunger andpoverty

All new technologies that restructure produc-tion and raise productivity can, all things beingequal, reduce the incidence of poverty.Inasmuch as productivity increases help raiseper capita incomes, they can help combathunger and contribute to the alleviation ofincome poverty. Information technology, it isargued, can go even further.

In a fundamental sense, information accessand spread is crucial to the diffusion of tech-nology; and community effort can play a majorrole in the process. Consider, for example, theGreen Revolution which is an indisputable suc-cess story in South Asia as far as agriculturalproductivity and aggregate economic growthare concerned. It involved the spread of a pro-ductivity-enhancing technological package,which has had a long-term, continuing positiveimpact on rural incomes. Information accessand spread was crucial to the GreenRevolution. It involved a process of provision ofinformation and material support to ruralfarmers. The information that they were nototherwise privy to was a crucial component.What the community development pro-gramme accomplished, in fact, was the cre-ation of an effective system of communicationthat helped disseminate the benefits of thistechnology to a large group of farmers. TheGreen Revolution is thus an example fromwhich generic ICT lessons can be drawn.

Given the role of information in technology dif-fusion, the ability to use ICT to purvey informa-tion across geographical space, at a relativelylow cost, enhances its role as an enablinginstrument in the realization of the MDGs relat-ing to hunger and poverty. In fact, through bothdirect and indirect means, ICTs offer great

promise to address existing human depriva-tions worldwide.

ICT’s direct contribution to poverty reduction,for example, can come either through theemployment-generating effects of the diffu-sion of these technologies into poor rural andurban areas or through its effects on enhancingreturns from economic activities undertakenby poorer households (Table 7.1). Its indirectcontributions can come through facilitatingand reducing the costs of delivery of informa-tion and services that promote wage- and self-employment, raise productivity and improvethe quality of delivery of employment-generatingand poverty-alleviating projects being imple-mented by the government.

Both ‘old’ and ‘new’ ICTs have been used for thesepurposes1 with some success.2 The impact of ICTson poverty differs greatly, depending on whichtechnology is used. Radio and telephony arerather cheap; their use requires few skills while interms of content and language, they enjoy greatflexibility. Evidence suggests that access throughradio to relevant and timely information canmake a difference to the livelihoods of people liv-ing in poverty.

In fact, until recently, radio was one of the mostpopular ICT tools for rural development. It hasa high penetration rate, can effectively reachdifferent target groups, and is relatively inex-pensive. Radio has been used for provision ofeducation, health and agricultural extensionservices. Although radio penetration hasdropped at the expense of expansion of televi-sion over the past decade, it retains its attrac-tiveness; and has found new audiences, both inthe urban and rural areas.

107

ICTs and eradication of poverty and hungerM

DG

s C h a p t e r 7



The other conventional ICT instrument used tosupport development projects has been the tele-phone. Technological change, especially thearrival of mobile telephony, has strengthened therole of this instrument substantially. One often-cited example of successful ICT use in povertyreduction is the Grameen Bank’s Village PayPhone initiative.3 Grameen Bank is a village-basedmicro-finance organization in Bangladesh. Thelives of members of the Grameen Bank, who nowalso form the backbone of Grameen Telecom,changed when they were provided access to cel-lular telephones. Women members in villageswere offered loans to buy cellular phones at taka

18,100 a piece (US$ 385). They were then able torent the sets out to other villagers on a commer-cial basis. By providing gainful employment aswell as ensuring connectivity that can be exploit-ed to various ends, the Grameen Bank’s VillagePay Phone initiative proved that ICTs can helpprovide goods and services that directly benefitthe poor.4

Our concern here is primarily with the impactof fast developing modern ICTs, including theInternet, on the MDG-realization effort.Unfortunately, empirical evidence in this areais still limited, though there are a large number

Technological change,especially the arrival of

mobile telephony, hasstrengthened the role

of telephones substantially. One often

cited example of successful ICT use in

poverty reduction is theGrameen Bank’s Village

Pay Phone initiative

Indicators ICT contribution – local content

Table 7.1 Summary of ICT uses for eradication of poverty and hunger

● Proportion of populationbelow US$ 1 a day

● Poverty gap ratio (incidence x depth of poverty)

● Share of poorest quintile innational consumption

● Prevalence of underweightin children (under five yearsof age)

● Proportion of populationbelow minimum level ofdietary energy consumption

● Employment opportunities – use of ICTs as methods ofreceiving local content on employment opportunities

● Market prices – use of ICTs as methods to receive andtransmit information on local market/agricultural prices

● Microcredit and other credit information – increase theaccess to information on credit opportunities for creatingenterprises.

● Enhance the livelihoods of poor people and communitiesby enabling them to benefit from the expression of theirown knowledge and expertise through the use of ICTsand other media.

● Access to new, overseas markets (selling local art)● Increasing fair trade opportunities by connecting local

producers with fair trade networks● Strengthening small businesses and entrepreneurs –

providing the tools for creating and printing flyers;managing accounts

● Support for local farmers, herders – co-management ofland resources through making local maps; GIS availablein telecentres

● Disaster relief at the local level – famines in remoteregions or very localized disasters: finding about thesekinds of crises sooner; using ICTs to help with redistribu-tion of supplies to affected areas (Red Cross has donesome great work already on using ICTs to speed up thedelivery of relief services for major disasters)

● Access by farmers and fishermen to local information onmarkets and prices via radio, telephony, Internet, etc

● Enhance access by local healthcare workers to suitableand relevant international information, adapting thisinformation to their circumstances as necessary.

Source: “The Role of ICT in Enhancing the Achievement of Millennium Development Goals” Draft prepared byUNDP for the consideration of the UN ICT Task Force. 21 February 2003


109ICTs and eradication of poverty and hunger

ICT and global poverty

Muhammad Yunus, Founder and Managing Director, Grameen Bank, Bangladesh

The new millennium has brought with it unprecedented possibilities for each human being to discover his or herown potential, and a chance to change his or her life. This is true, irrespective of where in the world she lives, duein large part to the rapid development in ICT. ICT is setting the stage for a distanceless world. It is already con-tributing to the expansion of economies at a rapid speed. Although ICT offers exciting possibilities for fightingpoverty, this potential will remain unexplored if we leave it to market forces alone. The benefits of these swiftdevelopments will primarily enable the rich countries to become richer, and big businesses to get bigger. They,in turn, will guide the ICT industry in the direction that will help them achieve their goals.

This need not be so. There are resourceful people and organizations in the world with a strong commitment toend poverty. They can throw their weight behind directing the ICT industry towards developing an ICT infra-structure, products, devices and systems which would best fit the needs of the poor. ICT business leaders, prod-uct and system designers, and researchers can be involved in contributing their time and talent to address issuesfaced by the poor. ICT can be used creatively to enable new and cost-effective ways for poor men, women andyoung people to participate in the global economy.

IT can play a role in bringing an end to poverty in the following ways:● integrating the poor into the process of globalization by expanding their markets through e-commerce, eliminat-

ing middle-men in their businesses, and creating international job opportunities through outsourcing● delivering education, knowledge and skill training, and● delivering health services on demand.

Within the Grameen family, we are designing companies, some of which are IT companies, with exclusively the poorin mind. Grameen Phone has been created in collaboration with Telenor of Norway and Marubeni of Japan to pro-vide mobile telephone services in Bangladesh. It is taking its services into rural areas of Bangladesh throughGrameen Bank borrowers. A Grameen borrower receives a handset with Grameen Bank financing; and becomes thetelephone-lady of the village, selling telephone services to the villagers, in places where even fixed lines did not existbefore. In the process, she makes an income, on average, higher than twice the per capita income in the country. ByJuly 2003, Grameen had provided more than 29,000 poor people with mobile phones for income generation in vil-lages across Bangladesh. Grameen Phone itself has become one of the largest mobile phone operators in SouthAsia, having reached 1 million subscribers in just seven years of operation.

Another company we set up, Grameen Communications, is providing Internet service to rural areas – to bring edu-cation, knowledge and business opportunities to the poor. Grameen Energy is bringing solar power to the villagesto provide energy for mobile phones, and light for shops and homes. Grameen Software has been set up to intro-duce international-level IT opportunities in Bangladesh for the benefit of the poor. Shares in all these companieswill, one day, be owned by the poor, once they are established as financially attractive, profitable ventures.

Whether the poor can afford IT or not depends not on the amount of investment needed by the poor nor on howcomplex the IT is but on the appropriateness of the institutional environment around the poor. Microcredit can pro-vide such an appropriate institutional environment. IT and microcredit both empower individuals, which makesthem mutually reinforcing. Mobile phone operators in the villages of Bangladesh have been able to afford mobilephones because of microcredit. The same principle will apply to other IT services, applications and products.

I have been advocating for the creation of an ‘international centre for information technology to end global pover-ty’, to create an appropriate information technology infrastructure and design suitable applications for deliveringservices to the poor.The funding to create such a centre could come from a consortium of donors and contributorswho support the core programme of the centre. It can build strategic partnerships with leading IT companies andtheir staff, research and academic institutions, social activist groups, microcredit institutions, development agencies,and health and education institutions and professionals. Creating this centre will be an important step towardsachieving the MDG of halving world poverty by 2015.




of experiments under way.5 Examples of usesof the technology in poverty alleviationinclude:

● those that help small- and medium-scalefarmers increase their revenues andimprove their farming practices by makingit possible for them to access informationon agricultural know-how and marketdevelopments6

● those that improve the marketing of prod-ucts produced by small-scale artisans inrural areas through various e-commerce ini-tiatives7, and

● those that offer additional non-economicbenefits such as improved law enforcementand more rapid and effective communica-tion during disasters.8

Such projects cater to demands for informationthat have a significant economic content, e.g.,real-time information on prices, weather, andpests; advice on agricultural technology (agri-cultural extension), water use, soil management,livestock management, and livestock diseases;and the availability and conditions of bank cred-it, microcredit, and governmental grants andsubsidies.

ICTs and agricultural development

Agriculture, like the production andexchange of commodities, will also be trans-formed by ICTs. Increasingly, ICTs spur thedevelopment of innovative programmes andresearch in the agricultural sector. Farmersworldwide are using ICTs to obtain marketinformation, to bypass intermediaries and toobtain better prices for their produce.9

Timely access to market information via com-munications networks also helps farmersmake judicious decisions about what cropsto plant and where to sell their produce andbuy inputs.10

Additionally, ICTs empower farmers, rationalizesupply chains and improve productivity. ICTsalso facilitate research and development, andinformation-sharing on agricultural farm exten-sion technologies and approaches (such as thedevelopment of effective seed technologies),particularly those that can work to enhancefood security and subsistence.

An even more upbeat assessment of the role ofICT in agriculture runs as follows:“ICTs will allow

farmers to have more accurate information onthe factors that are needed to increase cropyield. ‘Precision farming’, or farm managementusing ICTs, will become the norm rather thanthe exception. We can also expect better cropsand livestock as a result of agricultural biotech-nology”.11

A project launched by ITC Ltd in India is a case inpoint. ITC Ltd has set up a network of Internet-connected kiosks, known as e-Choupals, to servethe soybean, cotton, tobacco, and shrimp farm-ers in its procurement network. Through the e-Choupal (a high-tech version of the traditionalchoupal, meaning a village gathering place inHindi, where farmers get updated weatherreports, information on local and internationalproduce prices, etc), farmers are not onlyallowed to sell their produce directly to ITC, butalso to buy agricultural inputs and consumergoods for daily household use. One element ofe-Choupal’s success is its reliance on localexpertise, since kiosks are typically managed byrespected farmers and located in or near theirhouses.

In addition, both ITC Ltd and the farmers enjoylower costs and higher revenues. ITC Ltd savesmoney by eliminating two layers of middle-men and buying its produce directly fromfarmers; the farmers, knowing current prices,can negotiate a better deal in selling theircrops. Farmers are also able to increase thequality and quantity of their harvests, thanksto the information the kiosks provide. This“win-win” business model helps ensure the e-Choupal network’s sustainability, while mak-ing it highly scalable. ITC Ltd has thus devel-oped an internationally competitive agricul-tural business by empowering the independ-ent small farmer in a country where 200 mil-lion people are engaged in farming or relatedactivities.

China is another country to have exploited thebenefits of the technology in this area. Thewebsite of the China Technology and ScienceService for the Countryside, operated by theMinistry of Science and Technology of China,delivers comprehensive technological andrelated information to 900 million peasants inmore than 800,000 administrative villages inChina. The website is operated by a broadcastnetwork that includes television and uses thefunctions of a computer terminal. It startedoperations on 6 June 2001, and has since post-

ICTs empower farmers,rationalize supply

chains and improveproductivity. ICTs also

facilitate research anddevelopment, and

information-sharing onagricultural farm

extension technologiesand approaches



ed 18,000 scientific and technological articles,and more than 100,000 words have beenupdated every day. Another similar project inthe agricultural sector is the Beijing FarmKnowproject, which began in 1998. During the pro-ject’s first phase, over 60 farms in the rural areasaround Beijing were equipped with computersand Internet access, and farmers were trainedto use them. Currently, Beijing FarmKnowreaches over 100,000 farmers through its web-site. Farmers can access information on cropplanting, disease control, pest identificationand control, seed prices, and market prices aswell as consult with agricultural specialists byemail. There are many such examples else-where in Asia. One such in Malaysia, which iscomprehensive in scope, is discussed in Box 7.1.

There are many other instances of the contribu-tions ICT can make to raising the magnitude andreducing the vulnerability of returns earned bysmall producers from their economic activities.These include provision of information that warnsfisher-folk of storms at sea or facilitates the pre-vention or treatment of crop or animal disease.

In India, Embalam is a two-street village 22 kmwest of Pondicherry, where 130 out of 210 fam-ilies struggle below the poverty line. The villageelders have allowed the M S SwaminathanResearch Foundation (MSSRF) access to one sideof the temple, to house two solar-powered com-puters that are used to give villagers a wealth ofdata, varying from the price of rice to weatherconditions for fishermen and medical informa-tion for the sick. Embalam is one of four villages

in which the MSSRF is implementing the “infor-mation village” project. The project aims to use“science and technology to tackle poverty, witha $120,000 grant from the Canadian govern-ment.The foundation provides villages with freetechnology and information in exchange for thevillages’ promise to house the computers andstaff their operation.”Through the project “farm-ers have gained a better grip on their local mar-kets as prices are more transparent.They get theright seeds when they want them; and theyhave catalogued over 350 different types ofherbs that can grow in their area. Fishermen getinformation from satellite images on where thefish shoals are likely off the Pondicherry coast,and (from a United States Navy website) onwave heights and wind directions in the Bay ofBengal”.12

Pakistan’s ThreadNet Hunza is another exampleof the use of ICT in generating economic activi-ties and sustainable incomes. Established in1995, the Karakoram Area DevelopmentOrganization (KADO) is funded by the Aga KhanDevelopment Network (AKDN) and the SwissAgency for Development Corporation (SDC). Itsobjective is to work closely with the communi-ties inhabiting the Karakoram area in the north-ern mountainous region of Pakistan. KADO hasprogrammes that employ ICTs, such as the e-commerce initiative called ThreadNet Hunza(http://www.threadnethunza.com). ThreadNetHunza offers the products of local handicrafts,such as carpets and household accessories, forsale over the Internet. With technology supportfrom KADO’s staff, the website has established a

On the employmentfront, India’s experience is used toargue that the growingmarket for IT servicesand Business ProcessOutsourcing offers poorcountries a new development opportunity

TaniNet is essentially an information service toolset. It was started in September 1999 in Malaysiaas a project under the Demonstrator Application Grant Scheme (DAGS). Among its main objec-tives is to introduce the Malaysian rural farming community to agricultural biotechnologythrough an interactive, Internet-based service in English and Malay.

Services offered include: online information and services on agriculture and biotechnology;information on the local application of new technology; a forum for discussions among the ruralfarming communities through a managed bulletin board and chat room; easily available infor-mation on agricultural biotechnology; online access to expert advice and troubleshooting relatedto agricultural problems; and education for the community through access to important anduseful information and services.

Even though there is specific reference to the benefit of this scheme for the poor, the developersof this application have discovered that the use of indigenous content and local language fur-ther increase the popularity of the website among local residents or communities.

Source: http://www.taninet.com.my and John et. al. 2003.

Box 7.1 Malaysia’s TaniNet



small and loyal clientele in Europe and the US(figures on the sales from the site were unavail-able, although KADO claims that the website isself-sufficient and provides significant premi-ums to villagers on their products).

In some cases, as in Vietnam, villages havecreated websites to market local produce.A goodexample is Bat Trang, a pottery village. The vil-lagers here have created a website (www.bat-trang-ceramics.org) about their products withthe hope of increasing the volume of goods soldabroad. Yet another example is the Hoi An townin Danang city. This is one of the most populartourist places in Vietnam. Residents of Hoi Anhave created their own website to introduce andpromote their products such as silks and othersouvenirs for foreigners and tourists.

ICTs and employment

On the employment front, India’s experience isused to argue that the growing market for ITservices and Business Process Outsourcing (BPO)offers poor countries a new developmentopportunity. As UNCTAD 2003 puts it,“Outsourcing to offshore vendors or ‘offsourc-ing’ is expected to continue growing in the nearfuture,” because “competitive advantages andeconomic pressures encourage companieslocated in the United States and Europe to lookfor partners in developing countries to deliverquality business services”.13 The pressure to out-source non-core operations and concentrateon core business functions has always beencharacteristic of large companies. Initially, thisresulted in the hiving-off of certain operationsto be undertaken by specialized, local firms inthe developed countries themselves. Thechange now is that, with the increasing avail-ability of cheap and better or larger networktechnology, communications infrastructureand bandwidth, many of these services can bemanaged and provided from remote locations.

So long as a cheap workforce with the requisitelanguage abilities and skills can be found or cre-ated, this is an opportunity waiting to be exploit-ed by developing countries, according to many.The evidence too seems to support this argu-ment. As the UNCTAD 2003 report argues,“manycompanies in certain developing countries (mainlyIndia) have flourished by providing, in particular,software application development and manage-ment services to clients worldwide”.14 It is true thatIndia has certain specific, historically determined

advantages, such as English language abilitiesthat serve it well in the principal outsourcingmarket, the US; a large pool of educated and inmany cases professionally trained manpower;and, above all, an autonomously evolved soft-ware services industry base. However, even incountries without these advantages, other capa-bilities can, if combined with national governmentand international support, be used to win them aslot in the BPO-IT enabled Services (ITeS) space.This is not necessarily true in the case of IT servic-es which requires more advanced skills, but woulddefinitely be true in the BPO-ITeS segments.

It is indeed true that any growth in employmentand income can ultimately have some effect ondomestic demand and, possibly, poverty.However, the human development effects of out-sourcing are limited because such employmentis still extremely small, predominantly urban andrestricted to the English-educated middle class.

ICTs can also play a role in ensuring betteremployment opportunities in developing coun-tries via improved labour market facilitation anddirect employment. Using electronic job mar-ketplaces, employers and employees can matchlabour skills and availability to satisfy demands.For example, TARAhaat, a portal designed toserve villages in rural India, provides job oppor-tunity information on local websites in localdialects (Box 7.2). In addition, the establishmentof local telecentres in countries such as Pakistanand India has created direct employment forthousands of local women and men.

Another country to have harnessed ICTs forimproved labour market facilitation and directpayment is Mongolia. ICTs directly createemployment opportunities for the unemployedand poor in IT industries. Newly establishedmobile phone stations, for example, have createdmany job places. They operate on CDMA, AMPSand GSM technologies and increase communi-cation capacity to 200,000 users.

Ulaanbaatar, in the last decade, has establishedmore than 100 Internet cafés and created atleast 200-300 jobs. Some self-employed citizens,through their own initiative, have sought to fill agap in the market by installing telephones inpublic places for local calls. The price for a one-minute call is 100 tugrugs for residential phonesand 200 tugrugs for cellular phones. This is aclear demonstration of the self-employed har-nessing ICTs to make a living.

Microfinance ventures,even when successfulfrom the point of viewof providing credit to

the poor and ensuringhigh recovery rates, are

characterized by hightransaction costs and

therefore extremelyhigh interest rates. TheSwayam Krishi Sangam

(SKS) smart cards project is one exampleof using ICT to reduce

transactions costs andreduce the cost of

credit provided by self-help groups



ICTs are widely utilized in the country for jobsearch, employment and education. In 1998, withthe assistance of the TACIS programme, a labourmarket information system was established bythe government implementing agency – theCentral Employment Office.This was upgraded in2002. Household income and expenditure surveydata in Mongolia show that one-third of the verypoor are unemployed, a rate over three times thatof the non-poor. All district employment officesare connected to the network. They gather infor-mation from entities and training organizationson vacant job places and training programmes,register unemployed people, send the unem-ployed for relevant training,and work as job inter-mediaries. In 2002, over 16,900 people or 54.8 percent of the unemployed were sent to skills andshort-term training programmes through localemployment offices.15

ICTs and access to credit

It is widely accepted that access to credit is cru-cial to continued poverty alleviation. Lack ofcredit can prevent the growth of productiveactivities, affecting poverty alleviation. In theabsence of credit, the poor can be forced into a

state of indebtedness that prevents them fromrealizing the full benefits of their economicactivities. This leads to bondage and extremelylow wages, very often pushing children frompoor households into underpaid child labour. Itis also accepted that microfinance venturesorganized through self-help groups are a usefulcomplement to State-provided credit, especiallyin a large country like India.

The problem, however, is that microfinance ven-tures, even when successful from the point ofview of reaching credit to the poor and ensur-ing high recovery rates, are characterized byhigh transaction costs and therefore extremelyhigh interest rates. The Swayam Krishi Sangam(SKS) smart cards project is one example ofusing ICT to reduce transactions costs andreduce the cost of credit provided by self-helpgroups (Box 7.3).

ICTs and the improvement of government services for the poor

Social deprivation of various kinds can bealleviated through provision of informationrelated to health, government projects and

The use of ICTs offersincreased opportunitiesto improve the livingconditions of the poorthrough better government services,enhanced environmental monitoring and moreefficient education andhealth care services

TARAhaat, named after the all-purpose haat (meaning a village bazaar), comprises a commer-cially viable model to bring relevant information, products and services via the Internet to theunserved rural market of India, from which an estimated 50 per cent of the national income isderived. It combines a mother portal,TARAhaat.com, supported by franchised networks of villagecyber cafés and delivery systems to provide a full range of services.

In the absence of efficient infrastructure for transport and communication, information is hard tocome by and market options are not clearly or widely known. There is no instrument moreeffective than the Internet for bringing both jobs and information to the rural economy: bring-ing the buyer and seller together and creating an efficient marketplace.

The look and feel of TARAhaat is carefully designed to attract and retain users of all kinds: farmers,traders, housewives, senior citizens, and children. The primary interface is both graphic (usingspecially designed pictures and icons that are attractive, colourful and animated) and voice-based to ensure that everyone, regardless of their level of literacy, can quickly learn to takeadvantage of the system.

The impact of TARAhaat is being felt at several different levels: family, agriculture and youth. For thefamily, this venture provides a window to the world, enabling it to connect locally to internationalinformation, and health, matrimonial, and mailing services. The farmer benefits through weatherforecasting, procurement services, and sales negotiations. The younger generation benefitsthrough career counselling, entertainment, and educational and career opportunities.

Source : ICT case study presented at the International Conference on Achieving Connectivity for the Rural Poor inIndia, Baramati, India, 31 May-3 June 2001, Retrieved on 9 March 2005 from http://www1.worldbank.org/prem/poverty/voices/globcoal/baramati/casestudies.htm

Box 7.2 India’s TARAhaat



government personnel, and activities of non-government organizations.

ICTs have also been used by governments tohelp extend and improve their services to thepoor. For example, the Indonesian governmenthas initiated a number of projects for reducinggovernment bureaucracy and inefficiency, thusproviding faster, reliable and cheaper servicesto the public at large, while ensuring trans-parency and accountability within the govern-ment.These projects have helped improve gov-ernment services by reducing processing timeand costs for the public, as well as providing

faster and accurate reporting for internal use.Some successful projects include theDepartment of Finance’s services for tax andduty collection, or regional government servic-es for issuance of licenses and permits (Box 7.4).

The use of ICTs offers increased opportunities toimprove the living conditions of the poorthrough better government services, enhancedenvironmental monitoring, and more efficienteducation and healthcare services. Govern-ments are using ICTs to improve the quality andefficiency of public services delivery systems. Tothis end, ICTs help governments strengthen

Poverty maps areimportant tools in

guiding spending forgovernments. ICTs suchas GIS allow for poverty

mapping, which combines

geographically-referenced

surveys and censusdata to generate

poverty and inequalityprofiles at low levels of

aggregation

Located in Medak District in Andhra Pradesh in India,Swayam Krishi Sangam (SKS) is a microfinanceproject catering to the needs of landless labourers and marginal farmers in this drought-prone areawith a high incidence of poverty. Forced to borrow during emergencies at high rates of interest,many of the poor fall into a debt trap and end up “mortgaging” children into bonded labour.

Committed to targeting the poorest, SKS encourages membership of women from householdshaving annual incomes less than INR 20,000 (approximately US$ 450). SKS has a variety of loanproducts and provides general and seasonal loans at an interest rate of 20 per cent, consump-tion loans from group funds at zero interest rates and emergency loans, also at zero interest rates.

SKS currently operates one branch in Narayankhed (Medak district), serving 998 poor women in60 village Sangams (collectives). It reports a 100 per cent repayment rate on loans, most of whichare in the range of US$ 50 in the first year of membership and US$ 100 in the second year.Thesehave reportedly been used primarily for land and livestock related enterprises, and activities suchas vegetable vending and running tea shops. SKS field staff is recruited locally; almost all from thepoor – Dalit, tribal and other backward castes.A majority of the staff are women with, at best, onlya 10th-grade education. SKS maintains that the loans have made a tremendous impact on mem-bers’ lives, raising their incomes, reducing seasonal out-migration and preventing bondage ofchildren as child labourers.

Box 7.3 India’s Swayam Krishi Sangam (SKS) smart cards

Projects initiated by the Indonesian government for the purpose of reducing governmentbureaucracy and improving inefficiency, include:

● Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) to reduce export and import document-processing timefrom several days to only 30 minutes.

● Payment of income tax online (MP3-Monitoring Pelaporan Pembayaran Pajak):The programmewas completed in 2003, and succeeded in collecting 13,000 billions rupiah of income tax withintwo months. Earlier, this would have taken six months.

● Computerization of regional government services: Government services in the districts ofTakalar and Kutai Timur are considered the most advanced among regional government ICT-based services development. For example, Kutai Timur (www.KutaiTimur.go.id) has deployeda programme called One Roof Management Information System (SIMTAP) that currently offers23 services online, with more in the development phase. Most of the services are related toissuing business licenses, permits and registrations. Some licenses and permits can now beobtained within a few minutes.

Box 7.4 Indonesian government’s online projects



internal information flows, accountability andtransparency, and procurement of goods andservices. Effective use of ICTs by governmentscan raise the quality standards for informationtechnology suppliers. The success of theGyandoot community network in India demon-strates the importance of identifying and cater-ing to the needs of the users (Box 7.5).

In Vietnam, there is a general trend in the min-istries toward improving the skill levels of ICTuse and focusing on the development of data-bases to support activities such as economic,agricultural and water resource management. Aplan to introduce Telecommunications PostsCultural Point for Communes (TPCPC) wasdrawn up in 1998, based on the co-operation ofvarious government agencies such as Ministryof Agriculture and Developing Rural Areas,Ministry of Culture and Information, Association

of Vietnamese Farmers and Vietnam Posts andTelecommunications Corporation.

Nearly 75 per cent of the Vietnamese populationlives in rural or remote areas. The aim of theTPCPC plan is to provide 100 per cent of the com-munes in Vietnam with the ability to access basictelecommunications and postal services. Thetotal of 5,714 post and culture centres nation-wide provide basic knowledge and up-to-dateinformation to farmers, especially in remote andmountainous areas. Eighty-five per cent of com-munes receive newspapers daily and 92.5 percent have access to the telephone network.

The Vietnamese Government also focused onusing the Internet to supply necessary informa-tion to farmers in rural areas. For example, thepilot project “Internet for all” connected 30 postand cultural centres in 30 communes of 10

ICT diffusion alone cannot deliver results,but must be supportedby a range of conventional development advances.For example, theimpact of improved ICTaccess on farm earnings throughincreased knowledge ofmarket prices will beredundant if there areno roads to carry cropsto markets

The ‘Gyandoot’ community network, aimed at creating a cost-effective, replicable, economicallyself-reliant model for taking the benefits of IT to the rural population, is an intranet using Wirelessin Local Loop (WLL) technology. It is set up in five blocks with 21 kiosks, each catering to about15-20 villages in the tribal Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh in India. Its success lies largely in tar-geting information by assessing the interests of the people.

The key services it offers are: information on rates for agriculture produce, land record rights, gov-ernment programmes and employment opportunities; provision of access to documentationsuch as caste certificates, applications for jobs, local weather reports and e-newspapers; provi-sion of services such as computer training, online public grievance redressal, health services,email, rural e-auction, and matrimonial services.

The scheme also requires the establishment of intranet/Internet kiosks that are run on a com-mercial basis, with the operator obtaining a share of the minimal fee charged as revenue forundertaking the investment. In many places, the village panchayat paid for the kiosk(soochanalaya) and equipment, which was operated by a soochak who was an educatedunemployed youth from the village, trained for the purpose. To quote Sood1: “The GyandootProject in Dhar has developed an important e-governance protocol, in the form of the shikay-at, or complaint. For a fee of INR 10, rural citizens may select from a predetermined menu of30 different kinds of complaints, which together cover a wide range of citizen-consumer togovernment interactions in rural areas. These include for example: the absence of a schoolteacher; the death of cattle that may require a government veterinarian’s inspection; the mal-function of a public hand-pump that must be repaired; and so forth.”

Between January 2000 and June 2001, 68,500 villagers have used various services.The most com-monly used services were grievance redressal (41 per cent), market rates (25 per cent), and landrecords (20 per cent). Interestingly, one out of every six users of the network was illiterate with noknowledge of reading or writing. It is a disappointment that only 13 per cent of the users arewomen, which can be attributed to the low status of and lack of women-specific and family-oriented services. With this experience, similar initiatives, with better refinement are underway.

Source: Samiullah, Y. and Rao, S., 2002

Box 7.5 India’s Gyandoot: a model network



provinces. There is also a growing number ofministries going online with preliminary web-sites in place or under development. Also under-way is a discussion on a potential project forautomating customs.

ICTs and poverty mapping

Poverty maps are defined by the AsianDevelopment Bank (ADB) to be spatialdescriptions of the distribution of poverty inany given country. As such, they are impor-tant tools in guiding expenditure for govern-ments. ICTs such as GIS allow for poverty map-ping, which combines geographically-refer-enced surveys and census data to generatepoverty and inequality profiles at low levelsof aggregation. Additionally, poverty mapsbased on highly disaggregated data servebenchmarking as well as monitoring andevaluation purposes.16 In other words, ICTshelp facilitate consultative inputs, povertymonitoring, mapping and assessments toevaluate impact and enhance support to thepoor within the context of a country’s pover-ty reduction strategy, as seen in Malaysia.Often, however, such interventions in areassuch as health, education and infrastructure,being the responsibility of different agencies,are not coordinated. In order to integrate

such cross-institutional data, a Meta DataStandard needs to be established.

Malaysia’s database on the poor, the SINAR sys-tem, utilized the Poverty Level Index (PLI) toregister poor households. SINAR was devel-oped as a system to centralize the coordina-tion of information on the urban poor, which isuseful to various agencies and private institu-tions. This enables services to be provided toindividual poor families while helping to avoidduplication and abuse. By March 2002, SINARhad been used to record information on13,049 household heads and 2,845 membersof poor families in Kuala Lumpur.17 Anothersuch example is the multi-county initiativefrom the Food and Agricultural Organization(FAO) titled Food Insecurity and VulnerabilityInformation and Mapping Systems (FIVIMS)(Box 7.6).

Supportive measures

As can be deduced from the discussions above,ICTs can have an important developmentimpact as they are able to overcome the barriersof social, economic and geographic isolation,increase access to information and education,and enable the poor to participate extensivelyin the decisions that affect their lives (Table 7.2).

Needless to say, ICTdiffusion alone cannotdeliver results. It must

be supported by arange of conventional

development advances

A major step towards eliminating hunger is to generate accurate and timely information onchronic food insecurity, its nature and causes. Most countries have national information systemson food security, but they vary widely in their coverage, analytical techniques, and in the qualityand reliability of their information.

To support these efforts, FAO has promoted an initiative titled Food Insecurity and VulnerabilityInformation and Mapping System (FIVIMS) that operates at both national and global levels. Atthe national level, its aims include raising awareness of food security issues, improving data qual-ity and promoting better use of the information to drive action. At the international level, aninter-agency working group with a secretariat at FAO, Rome, helps to define common standards,methods and tools for information management and presentation. It also mobilizes resourcesand provides support to national FIVIMS programmes.

A number of FIVIMS activities are under way in countries in Asia and the Pacific, includingBangladesh, Cambodia, India, the Philippines, Sri Lanka,Thailand and Papua New Guinea. In Asiancountries, which host the largest number of undernourished people worldwide, FAO, backed bythe Japan Trust Fund, has been supporting start-up activities via the Asia FIVIMS project.The aimis to improve information on food insecurity and vulnerability so that countries can take the nec-essary actions in favour of the goals of the World Food Summit – to reduce the number of under-nourished people and achieve food security for all.

Source: FAO communication

Box 7.6 Information and action for food security



Needless to say, ICT diffusion alone cannotdeliver results. It must be supported by a rangeof conventional development advances. Forexample, the impact of improved ICT access onfarm earnings through increased knowledgeof market prices will be redundant if there areno roads to carry crops to markets. This issueshould be of particular concern to policy mak-ers in the government services sector, as

increased ICT use in government can only besuccessful as part of a larger developmenteffort.18

Further, technological interventions alone can-not bridge the digital divide and reduce poverty.More important than technology is the contentmade available to the user. Even more impor-tant is the programmatic support that would

Technological interventions alonecannot bridge the digital divide andreduce poverty. Moreimportant than technology is the content made availableto the user

Correlates of What ICTs can do Category of poor Advantage of ICTspoverty that benefits

Lack of sufficient Information Potentially all can ICTs can influencehealth, water and improves delivery benefit, particularly the improvement ofsanitation of health services the poor in rural and basic infrastructure

and transfers suburban areas and servicesknowledge onimprovement ofwater and sanitation

Lack of skills or Distance education Potentially all can ICTs caneducation or learning-assisted benefit, but the complement

ICTs poorest segment is traditional teachinglikely to be resourcesexcluded. Somelower incomeindividuals mightbe able to takeadvantage

Lack of Employment in ICT May benefit the ICTs can help inemployment or professions (e.g., poor with low disseminatingincome earning mobile phone income but not information onopportunities operators, IT necessarily the poor employment

industry work) opportunities

Lack of information Market information May benefit the ICTs can be usedand social capital on agriculture, poor with low integrated with

labour market income but not traditional media,conditions and other necessarily the poor e.g., radio,income earning broadcasting,opportunities Internet information

Poor quality of More efficient and Potentially all can ICTs can be used ingovernance transparent benefit, including conjunction with

government the poor traditional practices

Lack of voice and Email access to Potentially all can ICTs canparticipation decision-makers, benefit, including complement

ICTs allow active the poor traditionalparticipation of newspapers andpeople in policy other mediaformulation anddecision-making

Table 7.2 Poverty and types of ICT intervention

Source: Adapted from Digital Divide: Determinants and Policies with Special Reference to Asia, ADB, October 2002.



run parallel to the provision of hardware, soft-ware and content.19

It has been found that a successful ICT conceptmust encompass relevant information aboutlocal and indigenous situations, which enhanceslifestyles and sustains livelihoods of the localpoor communities concerned. It must also havesuitable information and communications tech-nology as a tool to deliver the information effec-tively to the targeted local poor communities.

In addition, content provided through ICTshould not be limited to knowledge from out-side sources but extended to draw on knowl-edge from the local community, especially thepoor. Further, it would be useful if ICT contentexploits the potential of the existing traditionalor folk media that are available among differentcommunities. By linking ICT content to the exist-ing content and symbols from the traditionalmedia, the problem of interventions beingviewed as “foreign” to the respective communi-ty can be partially resolved.

Thailand is a case in point. With the role of ICTsincreasing in importance as the country shiftsto community empowerment as its key pover-ty reduction strategy, its experiences haveshown that content development is the mostcrucial factor. Currently, the information, bothon- and off-line, is still agency-based, not peo-ple-centred. At this stage, an informa-tion/knowledge management system that ispeople-centred and user-friendly is probablymore important than hardware and networkconnectivity for a middle-income society suchas Thailand.

Illiteracy and knowledge only of local languagesare, as expected, major obstacles to the use ofICT. To be relevant, applications must be avail-able in local languages and, to the extent possi-ble, be visually oriented and use voice inter-faces.20

Given the low literacy rate as well as the verylimited familiarity with English, much of theavailable content is not accessible by rural pop-ulations. Since 2000 some viable solutions tothis problem have emerged, such as Inpagesoftware. However, the standardization anddeployment of solutions and content will take

time. Nevertheless, it is encouraging to note thatvarious initiatives to develop content in locallanguages have been launched in countriessuch as China, Pakistan and India. For instance,China’s various websites specializing in agricul-tural development and poverty reduction are intheir national language – Mandarin.

Therefore, the following principles governingthe use of ICTs in future poverty alleviationundertakings suggest themselves21:

● Efforts should be made to develop viable ICTpoverty alleviation programmes. These pro-grammes should be coordinated acrossagencies in the best spirit of networking, toensure proper focus in resource use and syn-ergy in development efforts.The small, spon-taneous but fragmented initiatives amongprivate agencies and NGOs to bridge the dig-ital divide should not only be encouragedand facilitated but be mainstreamed andcoordinated by creating an ‘ICT for povertyalleviation small grants fund’ that can bemicro-managed by regional agencies.

● Educational applications of ICT should befully supported for their economic potential.

● Technological interventions should be sup-plemented by strong content provision.It should run parallel with a developmentprogramme, thus providing mutualreinforcement between ICT utilization andimpacts.

● The use of poverty maps should be fullyexploited through the collection of highlydisaggregated census and economic data.

● A regional approach to programme devel-opment should be adopted since ICT andpoverty alleviation are not best dealt withusing a single national strategy. Govern-ments and government agencies within thesame region (e.g., Southeast Asia) shouldinitiate dialogues to determine standards,platforms and protocols for informationand knowledge exchange and re-use. Aregional approach to knowledge network-ing should be adopted.

These and other practices can make ICTs powerfultools for poverty reduction by enhancing the capa-bilities of the poor in education,marketing,manage-ment and planning, as well as providing links to avariety of resources such as agricultural information.

To be relevant, applications must be

available in local languages and, to the

extent possible, bevisually oriented anduse voice interfaces


Photo 4/8/05 11:47 AM Page 15

Photo: Amit Khullar

Photo 4/8/05 11:47 AM Page 16

By providing flexibleand interactive learningstyles and anywhereanytime access, ICTsbenefit learners by giving them the material they needwhen and where theywant it. ICTs allow themto interact withouttemporal and spatialconstraints with bothteachers and learnergroups

We cannot predict what forms systems of edu-cation will take in the future; what their environ-mental characteristics, content structure ormode of delivery would be. However, what wecan safely predict is that ICTs will play a majorrole in such systems, since this is a trend that isalready visible across the world, including inAsia. Needless to say, changes in the nature ofeducational systems are visible too.Assumptions of teacher-centred education andwhole-class instruction are being challenged. Itis no longer strange to think of communicationbetween teachers and students using emails,online lectures or even video conferencing. Andas part of those changes, ICTs are already creat-ing new possibilities for “reaching theunreached” and also for making lifelong educa-tion feasible for all. These trends would onlygather momentum and could imply a revolu-tion, provided determined efforts are made topromote appropriate use of ICTs as innovativenew delivery mechanisms for system-wide pro-vision of education.1

Government policies too now reflect the realiza-tion of the importance of integrating ICT use andpromotion into their education policies.The cre-ation of educational networks offers substantialeconomies of scale and scope, when attemptingto improve the quality of education and seekingto standardize quality across the system. Hence,governments are investing in infrastructure facil-ities that link schools and educational institu-tions. Most significantly, in countries with vastland areas that make assured access to educa-

tion difficult, ICT is proving a boon since itreduces costs and renders distance learningmuch more viable than it was earlier.

Potential benefits

The opportunities and benefits associatedwith the use of ICTs in education are manifold.The capacity of ICTs to reach students in anyplace and at any time is bringing about revo-lutionary changes in the traditional educa-tional paradigm† by eliminating the premisethat learning time equals classroom time.2 Byproviding flexible and interactive learningstyles and anywhere anytime access, ICTs ben-efit learners by giving them the material theyneed when and where they want it. ICTs allowthem to interact without temporal and spatialconstraints with both teachers and learnergroups.

The teachers benefit by taking advantage of theinteractive systems that help them understanda learner’s needs and performance more accu-rately, make more effective assessments anddevelop improved systems of certification.ICT-based systems enhance educational qualityfor learners by increasing motivation, facilitat-ing acquisition of basic skills, promoting inquiryand exploration, and preparing individuals forthe technology-driven world.

On the teaching side,ICTs enhance quality becausethey can be used as tools for training and supportfor teachers regardless of their geographical

121

The role and use ofICTs in educationM

DG

s C h a p t e r 8

† The traditional paradigm is built on three basic principles:1. Learners must congregate in a building where the teaching/learning process must take place.2. There must be a predetermined path, divided into grades, that leads to a diploma and students must follow this

path regardless of their interest, needs or abilities.3. There must be a hierarchic structure where the instructor is the provider of knowledge and the students are the

recipients.



The digital revolutionhas created a dilemmafor the less educated.

On one hand, it createsnew and better jobs

but, on the other hand,it raises the bar onhigh-demand skills,

which they don’tpossess. There is a

distinct need forutilizing technology to

serve those on the“downside of privilege”


The Virtual University: a key component of thePakistan Education and Research Network

Atta-ur-Rahman, Chairman, Higher Education Commission, Pakistan

Explosive growth in IT in the current decade has opened up vast new opportunities for devel-opment for countries such as Pakistan. The four broad IT areas on which the Government ofPakistan has focused are:

● IT education● IT infrastructure● government enabling policies to promote IT related investments, and ● providing services to the citizen.

The Government has given the highest priority to IT education. A multidimensional strategywas adopted to overcome the deficiency in human resources in the field of information tech-nology. This involved the initiation of new government-sponsored short-, medium- and long-term training programmes, setting up of seven IT universities, and strengthening of existingcomputer science departments at public sector institutions. A nation-wide programme hasbeen launched to train the trainers in various areas of IT. To improve the quality of IT educa-tion in schools, a training programme for 25,000 school teachers has been completed.

Some seven new universities are being set up, including two in the private sector. In order tosave funds and time, we decided to use existing campuses, wherever they existed, and con-vert them into IT universities/institutes. This is an important cornerstone of our policy sinceconstruction would have taken us years of effort and seriously delayed our IT initiatives.

An exciting educational initiative has been the establishment of the Virtual University, startedwith the assistance of UNDP on 26 March 2002. This distance-learning university will allow usto train tens of thousands of IT professionals in different parts of the country, as high qualityTV programmes are telecast across the nation.

Viewed as a single entity, Pakistan has highly qualified individuals who are scattered in var-ious institutions and organizations without forming a critical mass at any single place.Similarly, the wider Pakistan diaspora includes many notable academics. Virtual University

dispersion. In fact, research has shown that theintroduction of ICTs for educational purposes haspositive effects on teaching practices. Other ben-efits for educational providers include efficientmanagement of learning resources at lower costs(Table 8.1). These result from the sharing ofresources and learning environments,opening upof classrooms as well as the promotion of collabo-rative learning and a general move towardsgreater learner autonomy.3

The use of ICTs brings new challenges as well.The digital revolution has created a dilemma forthe less educated. On the one hand, it createsnew and better jobs but, on the other, it raisesthe bar on high-demand skills which they do

not possess. There is a distinct need for utilizingtechnology to serve those on the “downside ofprivilege”.4

Further, the teaching paradigm has to change ifbenefits from even the right ICT infrastructureare to be derived. Since computers, being onlytools, themselves bring very little to the learn-ing process, policy makers must help teacherseffectively integrate computers and Internettechnologies into their schools.5 ICTs alone donot have special properties or powers thatwould revolutionize education. The principalagents in the teaching and learning process areteachers and their pupils, and if both partiescommit to the use of what is undeniably a pow-


123The role and use of ICTs in education

The new flexible andinteractive learningenvironment ushers innew ways of learning.ICTs break throughtraditional constraintsof space and time,making for an idealeducational tool inreaching out to learners across remoteareas

utilizes the services of these talented individuals to design and develop its courses, whichare then delivered, free to air, on television. A strong student-teacher interaction is provid-ed over the Internet using a comprehensive Learning Management System which providescourse content, discussion boards, assignments, etc. as well as their own email accounts forstudents. To maintain a formal educational environment, students are encouraged toattend classes at any of the many “virtual campuses” all over the country. These campusesprovide the necessary equipment for viewing lectures as well as networked computer lab-oratories that are required by students for their studies. The local networks connect to themain servers of Virtual University over the Internet, which has become available even in theremotest regions of the country.

Although still in its infancy, Virtual University has made considerable progress. Over 2,000students are enrolled in its first degree programme – a four-year BS in Computer Scienceor Information Technology. The courses have been well received by the academic com-munity in general, and several conventional universities have incorporated them formal-ly or informally into their own programmes. The fact that Virtual University provides auniform educational environment to its students, regardless of their physical location,has become a huge equalizer with significant implications for uniform developmentacross the country. Quality higher education is no longer the domain of the urban elite,and the affordability of the programmes puts them within reach of even the lowerincome groups.

Realizing the importance of providing affordable quality higher education to its people, theGovernment of Pakistan formally chartered Virtual University in September 2002. Keeping inmind the effectiveness of the new mode of education and the changing world scenario in IT,the charter empowers Virtual University to offer courses in a wide spectrum of disciplines.TheUniversity has recently introduced a series of BS programmes in liberal arts thereby provid-ing an opportunity to a much wider audience.

Virtual University has also been granted a license to operate two independent televisionchannels dedicated to education. These channels will be available on free-to-air digital satel-lite telecasts across the region and are scheduled to go on air towards the end of 2003. Theadvent of these channels will go a long way towards enhancing the outreach of VirtualUniversity and it is anticipated that, with the introduction of new courses in English and otherregional languages, enrolment from overseas will also increase. As enrolment grows, theVirtual University of Pakistan will be poised to become a significant contributor towards thesocio-economic well-being of the nation.

erful tool, then improved learning is likely tooccur.6

Finally, while ICTs do offer many beneficialopportunities for education, they are no substi-tute for formal schooling.The role of technologyis to support primary education not replace it,though the technology may play a part in meet-ing the needs of children or adults who cannotgo to a conventional school or class. Access toICTs ensures enhancement of traditional or for-mal education systems, enabling them to adaptto the different learning and training needs ofsocieties. Computer simulation, telematics,video-audio, computer conferencing and virtuallearning, along with educational television and

radio, have the potential to reach larger audi-ences than possible through the traditionalclassroom.7 In principle, ICTs can increase theeffectiveness of the process of education by pro-viding cheaper and more interactive tools. Theycan enhance the teaching aspect of educationand improve educational administration (theplanning, monitoring and evaluation of educa-tion).Value addition to education represents thegreatest advantage in the use of ICTs (Figure 8.1).

Policies, investments and initiatives

In order to successfully use ICTs for educationwithin a country, it is essential to pursue certainlong- and short-term objectives for development



of ICTs. Some of the more significant objectivescan be summarized as follows:

● to build the physical infrastructure such ascomputer networks (local networks,intranets, Internet) and computer rooms inschools, to ensure connectivity, and to pro-vide access to various databases andresources for teaching and learning activities,and for educational management

● to develop human resources for the ICTindustry with ICT trained specialists at alllevels of qualification and to create special-ized ICT training programmes for promot-ing ICT applications in different fields

● to develop educational software that usesICT as a tool to aid innovative thinking,problem-solving and processing skills, and

● to improve educational management bydesigning student, teacher and administra-tive databases.

In order to profit from the advantages that ICTsbring to education, several governments andNGO across Asia have initiated programmes toexploit the benefits of the technology.In India,theIT Action Plan adopted in July 1998 was an earlyinitiative. In Mongolia, as a follow-up to its ICTVision 2010, the Ministry of Science, Technology,Education and Culture (MOSTEC) released a set of

Using network technology, distance

information platformsare being built across

the fields of basic,higher and vocational

education. Such onlineschools offer excellent

teaching andsystematic curriculum

resources

Opportunities Benefits

Access to high quality learning material Learning material developed anywhere at remote sites can be made accessible to learners anywhere

Open connectivity between learners Free flow of information within and across learner groups

Interactive learning transcends limitations Networked ICTs allow interaction between of simple access to information learners, with teachers, and the development

of quasi intelligent learning programmes

Flexible learning activity convenient Removal of time constraints on learning for the learner allows different rates of progression and

access to non-traditional learners

Removal of spatial constraints on the Reduced physical constraints on access to learning environment learning; travel and subsistence costs

minimized; and distance is no longer a determinant of marginalization

Development of intermediary services Use of networks of teachers and advisors to to support learning collate process and distribute ideas and

materials to wider audiences

Management of learning can show Interactive systems can generate formative rich data on learner’s progress data on learning progress and link to adaptiveand performance learning matched to learners’ needs and actions

Assessment and certification can be Assessment and certification can be organizedadministered using ICTs online with possibilities to reduce costs, improve

security and standardize assessment tasks

Educational service providers can use Financial, administrative and resource ICTs to increase efficiency, improve management systems can use ICT generated service, and reduce costs data at different levels of analysis to improve

service delivery

Collaborative learning activities Students from different locations could learn among learners and share resources together

Collaborative teaching activities Teachers from different places and with varied among teachers perspectives could share experiences and

jointly develop teaching resources

Source: Adapted from Lewin 2000

Table 8.1 Opportunities and benefits associated with the use of ICTs in education



“Guidelines for dissemination of ICT in educationof Mongolia by year 2010”. The objective of thedocument was to establish a flexible system forthe implementation of ICT training at all levels ofeducation, according to international standards.ICTs in education mainly focus on development ofthe education management system and reformof educational content and technology. In SriLanka, the Ministry of Human Resources,Education and Cultural Affairs conducts severalprogrammes, as part of the Sri Lankan education-al system reform policy, promoting the use of ICTto streamline the school educational process atprimary and secondary levels.

There are also a number of specific projectsexperimenting with the use of ICTs in educa-tion. For instance, in June 2003, theGovernment of India announced an ambitiousprogramme titled ‘Vidya Vahini’, to create com-puter laboratories with facilities such asInternet access, an online library, academicservices and web-casting across 60,000 schoolsrun or financed by it. Drawn up by theDepartment of Information Technology, theproject is being implemented by ERNET Indiaand the software is being developed by theNational Informatics Centre.

In India community projects are conductedacross several states. In Madhya Pradesh, thegovernment tackles computer illiteracy by pro-

viding computer-enabled education and devel-opment of basic computer skills for all studentsin primary and middle schools through the7,000 Jan Shiksha Kendras (cluster resource cen-tres) located in middle school premises across 48districts. Another state that has joined the ranksin using ICT to enable community developmentis Andhra Pradesh. It set up 663 computer class-rooms with over 8,000 computers for computereducation in high schools, reaching over 300,000students. Other initiatives of the Indian govern-ment include less ambitious but highly effectivecommunity-based projects (Box 8.1).

The Sri Lankan Government also runs an initia-tive connecting 92 education centres acrossprovinces, regions and sectors to the Ministry ofEducation, developing computer training cen-tres at 800 selected schools, and issuing CD-ROMs to meet the educational requirements ofSri Lankan secondary schools. In a decisivemove, the Ministry has also introduced IT stud-ies as an optional subject for the GeneralCertificate of Education (GCE) (Advanced Level)examination from 2004.

Malaysia is another country that looked to propelitself into the knowledge economy with its SmartSchool concept, a learning institution that aimsto foster self-assessed,self-paced and self-directedlearning.The government, along with the privatesector, set out to develop Smart School

In male-dominatedsocieties, technologyhas proven a cost-effective alternative toall-female schools foreducating womenwithout disruptingcultural traditions.Television and radiobroadcasts or Internet-basedtechnologies enablegirls to continue theirstudies from home orsmall learning centres

ICTs

Opportunity Producer

Capabilities Enhancer

Social Enabler

Knowledge Generator

Dev

elo

pm

ent

Kn

ow

led

ge

Traditional Pathway: Minimal Value Addition

New Pathway: The ICTs Value Chain

Edu

cati

on

ICTs

Source: Banuri et. al. 2003, Figure 1, pp 21



Applications (involving teaching and learningmaterials and a smart school management sys-tem) and install the necessary technology infra-structure. ICT was to be used as the main teachingtool in four major subjects and the Internet wasto eventually become a learning resource for stu-dents. However, the project faced many chal-lenges and was downscaled at a later stage.

Although, most governments initiate sound ICTpolicies and even implement some successfulprojects, many fail due to lack of resources.Building the ICT infrastructure requires a hugeamount of initial investment from governments.Yet, countries such as Vietnam have invested in acomputer-based information network system foreducation called Educational Network (EduNet)and improved computer facilities at educationalinstitutions. These investments will go towardsproviding an Internet connection and presencefor all educational institutions, additional multi-media classrooms and high performance com-puting centres,educational databases for teachersand students,and facilities for distance education.Investment in the EduNet is expected to lead toimprovements in the areas of content, teachingmethodology and education management.

In China too heavy investments have mainly beenmade in building the physical ICT infrastructurerequired to support education. In 2001, therewere 7,266 primary schools and 3,714 middleschools that were built with campus-wide net-works, and the total number increased by 200 percent by 2002. By the end of 2002, there were 5.84million computers in primary and middle schools

nationwide with about 3.5 students sharing onecomputer on average, as compared with a ratio of100 to 21 in 1999. In Thailand, investments in theeducational infrastructure have been made with aview to bridging the quality gap between urbanand rural education (Box 8.2).

Pakistan too has made progress in developing theinfrastructure through the Pakistan EducationNetwork (PEN) initiative,at a cost US$ 5.18 million,to provide connectivity across universities, sec-ondary and primary schools. PEN is is a major ICTinfrastructure project being administered by theHigher Education Commission – the federal gov-ernment’s regulatory agency for universities. ThePEN initiative will utilize existing telecommunica-tions infrastructure,the recently launched Paksat-IIsatellite, and specially designed and placed net-work “nodes” and servers, to ensure connectivityacross 60 universities initially and, eventually,thousands of secondary and primary schools. Ithas a 155 MBps optical fibre backbone, and waslaunched in early 2003.

Use of ICTs in distance learning and non-formal education

The new flexible and interactive learning envi-ronment ushers in new ways of learning. Inaddition, ICTs break through traditional con-straints of space and time, making for an idealeducational tool in reaching out to learnersacross remote areas.

Provision can be made to reach childrenthrough distance education, as in many parts of

Provision can be madeto reach childrenthrough distance

education, as in manyparts of the developingworld formal schooling

is currently likely toaccount for less than

1,000 days of a child’sentire lifetime

Among the many ICT-oriented projects initiated in India, community-based low-cost projectssuch as the Goa Computers for Schools Project emerged successful. It aims to improve the lev-els of computer access and literacy among students, as well as train teachers to use comput-ers to teach effectively.

The project also allows after-hours use of computer facilities for email, information access andincome generating schemes by adults in the community. Based on Linux, the software usedin this unique project is moderately priced, can be freely distributed and legally copied. Theproject also proved to be of immense help to all secondary schools, ensuring that they obtaina laboratory of at least eight Internet-ready computers with the help of the government,industry and the community, relying on teamwork and networking among volunteers.

The Goa Computers for Schools Project is a case of sound policies that seek to combine localneeds with local solutions to ensure sustainable and effective use of ICTs in the field of education.

Source: Chandrasekhar et. al. 2003

Box 8.1 India: An example of efforts to integrate ICT in education



the developing world formal schooling is cur-rently likely to account for less than 1,000 daysof a child’s entire lifetime. Fewer than half of pri-mary school-age children are enrolled in schooland more than two-thirds of those who doenroll fail to complete three years of schooling.While it will take a massive effort to change thissituation, as an interim measure, ICTs can beemployed in formal and informal settings todeliver essential knowledge and information.8

ICT-based distance education has been used toovercome time, space and geographic restric-tions, allowing teachers and students to inter-act and share learning materials. Using networktechnology, distance information platforms arebeing built across the fields of basic, higher andvocational education. Such online schools offerexcellent teaching and systematic curriculumresources. ICT enables better management of

knowledge resources, ensuring that distance-learning students receive high quality educa-tion and access the best teaching resources.

This holds true especially for a huge country likeChina where millions live in remote areas, andthe lack of qualified teachers impairs access tofundamental and advanced education.According to the Ministry of Education’sprogramme, the China Modern DistanceLearning Satellite Broadband MultimediaTransmission Platform went into operation inNovember 2000, to serve mainly the westernand other remote regions. This project allowssimultaneous transmission of video and multi-media channels at different rates. Moreover, theInternet access service provided on the platformenables a high-speed interconnection with CER-NET, forming a satellite to land consolidated bi-directional education network. The operation of

The question ofequitable access is notjust a question of whocan use what isavailable on theInternet, but also ofwho can produce it.There are already greatdifferences acrosscountries in thisrespect

SchoolNet Thailand was initiated by the National Electronics and Computer TechnologyCentre (NECTEC) in 1995. The project’s prime objectives are to provide Internet access toschools throughout Thailand, to improve the overall standard of education in the country byreducing the gap in quality of education between schools in urban and rural areas. The proj-ect was successfully implemented with the help of the Telephone Organization of Thailand(TOT), the Communications Authority of Thailand (CAT) and the Ministry of Education.

Each of these agencies plays a vital role in the project. NECTEC is responsible for technicalmatters; TOT sponsors domestic communications and hosts the Network Operation Centres(NOCs) nationwide; and CAT supports the international Internet bandwidth. Finally, theMinistry of Education selects schools and coordinates, promotes and supports the use ofInternet in these schools. SchoolNet successfully achieved the target of connecting 4,758schools and its activities have evolved beyond network connection to incorporate comple-mentary activities. They can be classified into five areas:

● It connects schools to the network, regardless of where they are located, by paying only thelocal telephone charge, and no Internet access fee. School members receive up to five dial-up accounts each for 80 hours per month. They also receive 8 MB of data storage on a cen-tral server to post school web pages and educational content.

● It provides technical support to schools, through a special distribution package called LINUXSchool Internet Server or LINUX SIS, which contains Web-based system administration soft-ware that is distributed to schools as freeware. In addition, a help desk is provided at theNECTEC SchoolNet office.

● The project provides teachers and students with Internet training and web page developmentcourses. Moreover, training is also given on the use of digital library toolkits to teachers ofschools that are excellent centres for specialized subjects, enabling them to put their coursesor teaching materials in the digital library.

● Finally, SchoolNet encourages schools to participate in international collaborative projects,such as the Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment Programme andThinkQuest Projects.

Source: Thuvasethakul et. al. 2003

Box 8.2 Thailand’s SchoolNet



this platform comprehensively improves the sit-uation of one-way transmission availablethrough the satellite TV network in China.

In addition, projects such as the 101 DistanceLearning Centre (www.chinaedu.com) cater to200 distance-learning middle schools in Chinawith over 0.6 million registered students com-ing from 70,000 common middle schools.Remarkable achievements have been made inmany big cities such as Beijing where there aremore than 30 online secondary schools with50,000 to 100,000 students.

Distance education has also proved enormous-ly successful in countries like Indonesia,Thailand and India. Government ministrieshave been instrumental in taking distance edu-cation from concept to execution with reward-ing results across these three countries.Indonesia’s Southeast Asian Ministers ofEducation Organization (SEAMEO) establisheda regional open and distance learning centre tosupplement or substitute conventional class-room instructions. Its projects include develop-ment of online courses for senior secondaryschool students, training institution personnel,field extension workers and university lectur-ers, production of web and CD-based multime-dia learning programmes for online access,integration of IT in teaching mathematics andscience and in the education and prevention ofHIV/AIDS. India’s outstanding success story indistance education was a one-of-a-kind projectinitiated by the Ministry of Human ResourceDevelopment using television to reach out toIndia’s students. Well into its 20th year, the proj-ect has seen resounding success in equippingstudent communities in backward areas withthe knowledge they require (Box 8.3).

In Thailand, the Distance Learning Foundation(DLF) has been entrusted by the Ministry ofEducation to conduct live secondary curriculumbroadcasts via satellite to schools. Since itsinception, from broadcasting for a limited timeto 99 schools, it is now available through theweek, round-the-clock via UBC Channel to desti-nation schools. The Foundation has broadcastto 3,000 secondary schools, or around 2 millionstudents, and to 350,000 UBC members. Thebroadcast was also later expanded to coverneighbouring countries.

Teachers and students in distance educationprogrammes can use telephones or fax

machines if they have questions, and this serv-ice is provided free of cost with the help of boththe public and private sectors. In 2002, DLF part-nered with the Institute for Promotion ofTeaching Science and Technology offering free-of-charge web-based information content tothose with access to the Internet, through both‘live broadcast’ and ‘by demand’.

Pakistan can also be cited as another countrythat has put distance education to good use intackling adult illiteracy in rural areas (Box 8.4). Italso has several other distance learning initiativesin place, from training and capacity building formid-career professionals in the areas of sustain-able development and the environment to train-ing employees in the social sector. Spearheadedmostly by NGOs, other initiatives also includeelectronic media projects for underprivilegedpre-schoolers. Based on Sesame Street, producedby the US-based Children’s Television Workshop,the project has taught children concepts such asnumeracy, communication and language, criticalthinking, environmental concerns/ecology,health and hygiene, character-building, self-development, and social awareness.

Other countries such as Sri Lanka, however, havebeen slower to adopt distance learning, and areonly now taking steps towards harnessing itspotential. The Open University of Sri Lanka waslaunched in 1997, and initially only distributedteaching materials to a selected group of inter-nal students. After a while, institutions such asthe University of Colombo, School of Computingand Singapore Informatics began to introduceweb-based distance education services. Soon, asmall but growing number of wired individualsstarted pursuing diplomas, and professional ordegree programmes offered by overseas insti-tutions via the Internet.9

ICT programmes have also been utilized in otherways. Countries such as Malaysia and India haveembarked upon projects in the non-formal edu-cation sectors. For instance, in Malaysia, theElectronic Book pilot project studies how elec-tronic book appliances, that store textbook con-tent and link users to the Internet, can be used toimprove teaching and learning. It was reportedthat the e-book improved user knowledge incomputers and technology, and increasedpupils’ interest in reading and learning.

Among other projects that were launched, butdid not succeed, is Project Shiksha in India. With

Distance learning inboth formal and non-formal environmentshas helped raise the

quality of education andcontributed to

economic and socialdevelopment in most

countries where theseinitiatives have been

undertaken



the aim to accelerate computer literacy, compre-hensive software training for teachers and stu-dents was initiated at government schools acrossIndia.Over 80,000 school teachers and 3.5 millionstudents got the opportunity to strengthen theirIT proficiency. However, since the project wasspearheaded by Microsoft, all training was basedon its platforms which increased dependence onproprietary software and made it expensive toreplicate on a mass basis.

Distance learning in both formal and non-for-mal environments has helped raise the qualityof education and contributed to economic andsocial development in most countries wherethese initiatives have been undertaken. It mustalso be noted that in some countries, morethan others, the benefits have been manifold.In male-dominated societies, technology has

proven a cost-effective alternative to all-female schools for educating women withoutdisrupting cultural traditions.10 Television andradio or Internet-based technologies enablegirls to continue their studies from home orsmall learning centres. Functioning withoutgender or cultural allegiances, technology facili-tates communication and through this expandedaccess to information enhances the reach andprocesses of education significantly.

The impact of ICTs on educational services isgrowing.11 Initial attempts to introduce com-puter-based technologies into schools andhigher education were hampered by cost, con-straints on information processing, and lack ofconnectivity. However, in recent years, ICTshave been successfully harnessed for educa-tion in countries such as Mongolia, to reach

ICTs have beensuccessfully harnessedfor education incountries such asMongolia, to reachremote communities,and provide educationto traditionallymarginalized sectionsof society

In order to combat the traditional compartmentalized system of education in India which pre-vented acquisition of knowledge and learning, the University Grants Commission (UGC),which comes under the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, ini-tiated a unique educational experiment, called the Countrywide Classroom in 1984.

Realizing that India’s explosion of student population could not be adequately reachedthrough merely classroom education, television was used as a means to supplement class-room teaching. The UGC used the Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system to telecast highquality educational material via Doordarshan, India’s national public service television net-work. The project was primarily aimed at undergraduate students in small towns and ruralbackwaters.

Initially conceived as a one-hour programme, the Countrywide Classroom grew to 20 hours ofprogramming per week. The project sought to use television’s positive attributes such as ani-mation, special effects and visual power to make an impact on its youthful target group.Content is developed by Educational Media Research Centres and Audio Visual ResearchCentres established by the UGC. Today, 17 autonomous media centres function in a decen-tralized mode, co-ordinated by the Consortium for Educational Communication. These mediacentres have produced over 6,000 educational programmes on science, applied science, engi-neering, medical science, social science and humanities among others.

The Countrywide Classroom reaches out to four million viewers a day for an average pro-gramme. The enormous reach is explained by the fact that TV viewing is a community activi-ty in India. The central and state governments along with the UGC have ensured access tocommunities and, therefore, larger audiences by providing TV sets.

Today, although the project has gained recognition around the country, UGC may need toexplore interactive packages, utilizing the potential of widespread cost-effective Internetservices to complement the Countrywide Classroom in order to survive the age of conver-gence. Other shortcomings include lack of effective promotion to create awareness, limitedtransmissions, lack of videotapes which can increase reach, and lack of telecasts in other lan-guages apart from English and Hindi.

Source: Govindaraju, P. & Banerjee, I. 1999.

Box 8.3 India’s Countrywide Classroom project



remote communities, and provide educationto traditionally marginalized sections of society(Box 8.5). There has been a shift from the tradi-tional to the open and virtual paradigm in edu-cation. Smart schools, online education andvirtual universities have been incorporated byinstitutes applying a new set of strategies todeliver education, using synchronous andasynchronous digital networks.12

Although ICT plays a significant role in provid-ing a more effective, relevant and flexible modeof learning to the underprivileged, its use callsfor a completely new teaching paradigm. Thisshift in the teaching environment needs to betaken into consideration before deployment,along with other factors specific to each coun-try. These factors span local infrastructure limi-tations, localized content availability, cost toinstall, maintain and scale up ICT-based educa-tional programmes, familiarity and learningcurves of the target audiences with respect tothe technologies being used, socio-culturalaspects such as age, gender and literacy levelsand penetration and perception of technologies,among others. In addition, choosing the appro-priate ICTs will also demand a thorough under-standing of the educational objectives at handwhich, in turn, requires complete knowledge ofthe target audience’s goals and aspirations.

However, the re-training of teachers and reshap-ing of the educational system remains the most

challenging task as ICTs are increasingly used ineducation. ICTs provide active learning experi-ences and access to a wide range of media.13

Therefore, teachers need to consciously redesignlearning environments so that students cantransfer their newly gained ICT skills to otherapplications that can be used in an ICT-rich envi-ronment.14 Once teachers and students acquireICT skills they can adopt a transferable learningstyle so that each further step in using ICTbecomes easier. A change in the learning envi-ronment calls for a paradigm shift for teachers.This shift primarily occurs due to teachers mov-ing from being passive instructors to becomingactive constructors, putting the learners incharge of the learning process (Table 8.2).

There are four key reasons demanding a changein the role of the teacher.15 Firstly,ICTs will render certain teaching resourcesobsolete. Secondly, ICTs will make some formsof assessment redundant.Thirdly, it will becomecrucial for teachers to encourage critical think-ing skills, promote information literacy and nur-ture collaborative working practices. Finally,teachers will need to reappraise the methods bywhich they meet children’s learning needs.

In order to effect these changes, teachers haveto be empowered to use ICT.16 Providing themwith resources to integrate ICT would helpthem gain confidence in these technologies.However, training of teachers alone is unlikely

The provision of alocalized, supportive

environment thatencourages teachers to

see ICT as integral tothe achievement of

their existing goals willbe an important

national initiative

The Functional Education Project for Rural Areas in Pakistan was initiated as an experimentalprogramme to address the learning needs of the rural populace, where adult illiteracy is 62per cent.1 Based on extensive research and careful development of material, the Allama IqbalOpen University (AIOU) worked out a method of teaching and group study led by villagers tomeet the needs of locals. The experimental stage ran from 1982 to 1985 and the AIOU hassince institutionalized some of that work.

The main teaching methods and media include printed teaching material, illustrated flipcharts, audio cassettes and group meetings led by group leaders. Field workers recruited andtrained group leaders in the techniques of group study and supervised their work. At the endof each session, the group leader completed a feedback form that was used later for man-agement and evaluation. The project reached about 1,500 learners and it was estimated thatit could be extended to reach about 5,000 a year. It also met with some success in reachingpeople with little formal education, as 55 per cent of the learners were illiterate and 66 percent had either not gone to school or were educated only up to the lower primary level. Theevidence is consistent in showing that the project succeeded in establishing a viable andeffective system for rural education. Its work has continued and has now become the respon-sibility of a university faculty of mass education at the AIOU.

Source: Adapted from: Edirisingha, P. 1999.

Box 8.4 Pakistan’s Functional Education Project for Rural Areas



to be effective in the development of ICT skillsand knowledge, and enhanced use of ICT inschools.17 A more holistic approach comprisesappropriate training (appropriate in terms ofskills, knowledge, relevance to educationalgoals and priorities, and delivery), ready accessto ICT resources and ongoing support toencourage progress beyond formal training.The provision of a localized, supportive envi-ronment that encourages teachers to see ICTas integral to the achievement of their existinggoals will be an important national initiative.

A good example of the holistic approach is theproject for improving teacher quality in China.The Ministry of Education, along with UNDP and

DFID, is using distance education to raise theeducational equity for 20,000 teachers in thepoorer Western provinces. Pakistan too hasdeveloped training projects that would equip10,000 primary and secondary school teacherswith ICT skills. Although these training pro-grammes have been initiated to effect a changein the learning environment, it is too early toascertain the impact of these initiatives.

Another major challenge that developingcountries face today is the lack of models spe-cific to local contexts for use of ICT in educa-tion. Claudio de Moura Castro, ChiefEducation Adviser of the Inter-AmericanDevelopment Bank, points out that though

The pressing problemsfor educationalplanners is how toquickly reach themajority of the poor,uneducated ruralpopulace, and find outhow to fund, implementand maintain theeducational part of ICTnetworks

One of the simplest uses of ICTs is exemplified by the Gobi Women’s Project in Mongolia.Funded by DANIDA at a cost of US$ 1.7 million and aided by UNESCO, the project providesnon-formal distance education to some 15,000 nomadic women, broadcasting useful instruc-tion on health, commercial skills, family planning, traditional crafts and environmental issues.

The project relies on a series of weekly radio programmes and booklets, covering everythingfrom stitching a camel saddle to basic mathematics. Since nomads move a couple of times ayear, a chain of “co-ordinating committees” composed of education specialists and profes-sionals such as doctors, veterinarians and economists have been formed.They reach out fromthe capital Ulaanbaatar to the 62 sums (districts), linking teacher trainers to the corps of 620visiting teachers, who meet monthly with about 30 students individually or in small groups.

The project has re-equipped four radio stations (one in the capital and three in the Gobi) toproduce three weekly series reinforcing the books’ lessons. While the Ulaanbaatar stationtakes the lead in introducing new subjects, the regional stations take a local look at the cur-riculum. Radio producers, teachers and communicators have been trained by the project. Theproject helped women become self-sufficient.

UNESCO plans to extend the project with another DANIDA-funding of US$ 1.5 million toenable parents to learn new skills and help their children study at home. It is expected toreach 37,000 families since the school drop-out rate is a problem because parents need thechildren to help with domestic work. The project, in its next phase, therefore aims to offer“family-based education”.

Box 8.5 Mongolia’s Gobi Women’s Project

From To

Objectivist learning theory Constructivist learning theoryTeacher-driven Student-drivenTeacher as expert, information giver Teacher as facilitator, coach, guideTeacher as knowledge transmitter Learner as knowledge constructorTeacher in control Learner in controlFocus on whole classroom teaching Focus on individual and group learning

Source: Lee 2001

Table 8.2 Paradigm shift in teacher’s role



rich countries have used technology to makeeducation even better, if developing coun-tries were to follow the same path, theywould be choosing alternatives that, in addi-tion to being very expensive, require high-quality teachers who are not and cannot bemade available.18 These experiments are,therefore, doomed to remain enclaves, cater-ing to the elite but incapable of being scaledup to reach the number of people who are indire need of better instruction.

Instead, then, developing countries need tofocus on those technologies that compensatefor factors that are lacking, namely, well-trainedteachers and the resources to pay for expensiveequipment. The task at hand is to concentrateon technological alternatives that, at low cost,bring to students the imagination and creativityof a few excellent teachers.

Though there have been commendable effortsby many countries in leveraging ICTs for educa-tion, the true potential of ICT application hasnot been realized. Both civil society and thepublic sector have focused almost exclusivelyon ICT education. The lack of creativity in usingICTs as a means to better education, and focus-ing on ICTs only as a component, deprives theeducation sector of an important instrument.The goal of achieving universal primary educa-tion has yet to be advanced using ICTs, with theexception of some experimental innovations inthe private sector.

Developing countries face three main chal-lenges in expanding primary education:19

● Limited resources: compared to rich coun-tries, developing countries spend much lessper student and as a proportion of GNP atall levels of education.

● Inequity: when spending on education islow, the benefits of the education systemare disbursed unevenly so that rich peopleoften capture a much larger share and thepoor benefit marginally.

● Inefficiency: inefficient spending means thata high share of recurrent spending goes forteacher salaries, leaving little for learningmaterials. In addition, low-quality teachingmeans that students do not learn as muchas they could.

Another major constraint is the lack of con-tent for ICT delivery. The development of

instructional content-ware remains a neglect-ed area, affecting investments in hardwareand resulting in heavy economic and educa-tional losses. One possible reason is thatequipping schools with infrastructure is easi-er than developing corresponding instruc-tional material,20 since many countries haveyet to discover how to produce suitable yetcost-effective content for delivery. Educa-tional materials could typically include contentin the form of text, special “books of readings”,study or learner guides, assignments, assess-ments pads and tutors’ guides. Theseresources, along with appropriate learnersupport systems, would complete the educa-tion or training environment.21

In this context, questions of equity and qualitybecome significant. The pressing problems foreducational planners is how to quickly reach themajority of the poor, uneducated rural populace,and find out how to fund, implement and main-tain the educational part of ICT networks. Thequestion of equitable access is not just of whocan use what is available on the Internet, but alsoof who can produce it.There are already great dif-ferences across countries in this respect.Similarly,there are great differences between public andprivate corporate players in their capacity tobecome “net-based education providers”. Equitycan be looked at from two angles:

● equitable access of students as consumers,where the poorer peoples and nations areput at a disadvantage, and

● equitable provision of content, where thepoor are even worse off.

Finally, the need for linking ICT and educationefforts to education policies and reforms thatembrace the use of new technologies holisti-cally cannot be stressed enough.22 ThoughInternet connectivity represents innovativepublic sector leadership and ministries ofeducation around the world have made acommitment to computerize schools, fewhave developed coherent strategies to fullyintegrate the use of computers as pedagogi-cal tools in the classroom. Today, countrieshave seen levels of computer literacy growbut they remain far from utilizing the fullpotential of ICTs in education. Real learninggains have yet to be made and will only comewhen countries succeed in integrating com-puters and the Internet into the broader edu-cational curriculum.

The need for linking ICT and education

efforts to educationpolicies and reforms

that embrace the use of new technologies

holistically cannot bestressed enough


Photo 4/8/05 11:53 AM Page 17

Photo: Amit Khullar

Photo 4/8/05 11:53 AM Page 18

In as much as there isa gender divide thatadversely affects thestatus of women, it alsocontributes to a digitaldivide, since women’saccess to and capacityto use the benefits ofthe technology isrestricted

It is now widely recognized that systemic orstructural and conjunctural factors have com-bined to generate and perpetuate substantialgender disparities in the course of economicdevelopment the world over. Needless to say,Asia is no exception. Recognizing the equalright of women and men to development, andthe debilitating effects on overall growth andhuman development that gender disparitieshave been found to have, the UN’s MillenniumDeclaration provided for special goals and tar-gets in the area, which calls for mainstreamingthe gender problem into economic develop-ment. This chapter is concerned with delineat-ing some of the principal challenges raised bythe gender situation in the Asia-Pacific regionand examining how ICTs are being and can beharnessed to further this agenda.

Assessing the status of women

The fundamental problem from a gender-sensi-tized, human development point of view is evi-dence that economic growth need not necessarilygenerate improvements in the socio-economicstatus of women. There is indeed national andinternational indication of a positive relationship,in the long run,between material progress and thesocio-economic condition of women. However,this outcome does not reflect an automatic,monotonic relationship. The outcome is influ-enced, among other things, by women’s strug-gles for equality and justice and by thedemand for labour resulting from economicexpansion. Increased demand for womenworkers leads to greater recognition ofwomen’s work because it is paid, resulting inpressures to provide better conditions of work,enlarge the opportunities for women’s partici-pation and improve the overall freedom andstatus enjoyed by women.

A range of indicators has been used to assessthe extent to which this process has unfolded.1

To start with there are variables defining thebasic conditions of life and survival, such asaccess to food and nutrition, water, shelter andbasic consumables (including amenities suchas electricity and sanitation). Second, there arevariables defining capabilities, such as access toeducation and health services. Third, there arevariables defining the nature of economic par-ticipation, such as the pattern of employment,division of time between paid and unpaidwork, control over assets and control over ownlabour power. Finally, there are variables defin-ing the extent of social inclusion and freedom,such as the degree of control in householddecision-making, freedom from violence, socialinvolvement and autonomy of movement out-side the household, and political participation.Almost all of these features are covered by thegoals and targets set by the UN’s MillenniumDeclaration.

It should be obvious that each of these caninfluence the degree of access to and the capac-ity to use the benefits of ICT. Therefore, inas-much as there is a gender divide that adverselyaffects the status of women, it also contributesto a digital divide since women’s access to andcapacity to use the benefits of the technologyare restricted. In the South Asian region, Internetusers constitute less than 1 per cent of the pop-ulation. And most women Internet users belongto the predominantly urban, educated elite.According to one analysis: “Barriers of illiteracy,preoccupation with survival, constraints of time,inegalitarian and oppressive socio-culturalnorms and practices, high costs and predomi-nantly urban character of facilities, and band-width limitations are some of the key factorsimpacting women’s access to ICTs in the region.

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ICT, gender equality andempowerment in AsiaM

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Obstacles to access – a necessary condition forwomen’s appropriation of ICTs – prevent theengendering of the design, content and use ofICTs.”2

We can think of two ways in which ICT use canempower women and improve their status:

● directly, through the agency of the affectedwomen themselves, who exploit the bene-fits of the technology to improve their sta-tus, and

● indirectly, by those who are exploiting thetechnology to improve the delivery of serv-ices to women, to increase awareness aboutthe status of women and to advance theiradvocacy activities.

The latter could consist either of women’sgroups or those not specifically targetingwomen, but whose activities have a positive fall-out for women who, as a group, are specially dis-advantaged. Given the gender divide, it is thelatter that is likely to be more important in theearly stages of the effort.

At an individual level, ICTs offer possibilities forwomen to participate in e-commerce, distanceeducation and e-government, thereby over-coming socio-cultural barriers to women’s eco-nomic advancement that have been especiallysignificant in many Asian cultures. At the level ofwomen’s groups, information technology allowsinformation processes to be accomplishedmuch more efficiently, and thus can be used toraise the productivity of information workers,including the operations of advocacy groupsand NGOs that work to improve the lot ofwomen.3

The use of ICT in women’s education

Educating women and giving them equal rightsis important because it increases their produc-tivity, raises their output and reduces poverty. Italso promotes gender equality within house-holds and removes constraints on women’sdecision-making, thus reducing fertility ratesand improving maternal health. Educatedwomen do a better job of caring for childrendue to an increase in awareness about thehealth and nutrition of their children. Equalaccess to education is an important steptowards greater gender equality, but it is not theonly one. However, even as gender disparities ineducation diminish, other differences persist

everywhere in legal rights, labour marketopportunities, and the ability to participate inpublic life and decision-making.

ICTs can do a lot to improve women’s opportu-nities in receiving education and training.Distance education based on ICTs, especiallythrough radio and television programmeswhich contain various forms of educational andtraining content, will promote sharing of educa-tion resources and offer women wider access toprofessional training, secondary education, on-the-job education, etc. Programmes targeted atwomen could not only educate and developskills, but also provide insights into women’sissues, and create awareness among womenregarding their rights, problems, solutions andchoices. This would help equip women to iden-tify and break down barriers that restrict anddiscriminate against them.

The first barrier to overcome is the lack ofknowledge to access the benefits of ICT. Insome instances more ‘primitive’ means are usedto solve the problem. The Siyath Foundation inSri Lanka provides information to women at thegrassroots level by downloading informationfrom the Internet, translating it into their moth-er tongue and distributing it throughout SriLanka by fax or post. Regular discussions areheld among the women at the village levelabout the downloaded information at ‘GamiHamuwa’ meetings.4 However, Sri Lankanwomen’s groups are increasingly using ICTtools for education and training purposes. TheCentre for Women’s Research (CENWOR) haslaunched a Women’s Electronic InformationNetwork, which consists of electronic mailinglists and a website, and online training forwomen.

In Pakistan, the Sustainable DevelopmentNetworking Programme (SDNP), as part of itsInternet Skills Training Programme for Women,conducts workshops at SDNP centres that teachbasic Internet access and use. These were intro-ductory in nature and could offer large numbersof participants some hands-on experience.Theywere usually targeted at specific groups. Forinstance, SDNP in Quetta focused one workshopon housewives and working women in May2001, attracting about 50 participants withaccess to computers at home. The province ishighly gender segregated and the presence of afemale SDNP staff member enabled contact tobe established. The aim was to assist women in

ICT can be used toempower and improve

the status of women:directly, through thewomen themselves,

who exploit the benefitsof the technology to

improve their status;indirectly, by those who

are exploiting the technology to improve

the delivery of servicesto women


137ICT, gender equality and empowerment in Asia

overcoming their fear of technology, to providebasic training on email and Web use, and toenable them to oversee family use of theInternet. The office reported enormous interestin Quetta city and Baluchistan, with one sessionattracting over 250 people, and there was muchinterest expressed by the participants in obtain-ing more advanced skills. Other centres at whicha large number of such sessions have been heldare Peshawar, Islamabad, Karachi and Lahore. Inmany remote areas, this was women’s first expo-sure to the Internet.

Once the access barrier is broken, the opportu-nities are immense. A community developmentproject on ICTs for women’s empowermentthrough education is being conducted by theAnnisa Foundation, in collaboration with theUNESCO office in Jakarta, Indonesia. The projectis being implemented in two villages: BatuKumbung and Gegerung in West Lombok inWest Nusa Tenggara. The Foundation assistseight groups in literacy programmes includingthree groups of female farm labourers for thefunctional literacy programme; one group ofchildren who are out of school; one group ofmale teenagers; one group of fathers; and twogroups of mothers. The programmes teach writ-ing and reading skills, and simple calculation.Other activities for women’s empowermentconducted by the Foundation include the dis-semination of knowledge related to their healthand the environment, and the establishment ofincome-generating activities.

This project also cooperates with the Agency forAssessment and Application of Technology inthe implementation of solar cells as the mainenergy source for computers and televisions inthe classroom, reducing costs of provision sub-stantially. The teaching is conducted throughthe media of television and radio. Each villagehas one multi-functional hall for conducting the

programme. A set of computers for databaseand administrative purposes and another of tel-evision and radio sets for teaching purposes areinstalled in the hall. Face-to-face class activitiesare conducted three times a week and also forevaluation and assessment purposes. The majorimpact of this project for women is that theycould acquire the skills to take up productiveactivities such as making snacks, growing veg-etables and other home-based activities thatallowed them to earn extra income, whileattending to their family responsibilities thatare ingrained in the socio-cultural condition. Inother countries, especially China (Box 9.1), suchefforts are being undertaken on a much largerscale.

Very often educational programmes impartskills that raise productivity and increasereturns from employment. Since 1985,Indonesia has been developing a programmecalled Kelompencapir. Kelompencapir is short for Kelompok (group), pendengar (listeners),pembaca (readers) and pemirsa (watcher). So,the programme involves radio listeners, news-paper readers and TV audience groups, whotogether discuss the information delivered tothem, arrive at a decision and take collectiveaction, mainly regarding rural life and develop-ment. It is a programme aimed at disseminatingknowledge on new varieties of crops, newmethods of growing crops, or new technologiesin the villages. The villagers from different vil-lages compete in transforming that knowledgeinto actual practice. The participants in this pro-gramme have an almost equal gender distribu-tion. Such simple models could be furtherimproved to become more innovative by usingthe full spectrum of ICTs.

In India, the National Institute of AgriculturalExtension Management (MANAGE) has set up vil-lage information kiosks in 11villages in the Ranga

Programmes targetedat women could notonly educate and develop skills, but alsoprovide insights intowomen’s issues andcreate awarenessamong women regarding their rights,and choices. This wouldhelp equip women toidentify and break downbarriers that restrictand discriminateagainst them

To enhance women’s capabilities, the Shanghai Women’s Federation is implementing a projectnamed ‘A Million Homes On The Internet’ with the assistance of the municipal government andShanghai Telecom. With this project, the Federation hopes that a million women between theages of 35 and 60 years would receive education and training in ICT knowledge and skills in threeyears starting 2003. They can then utilize the facilities offered by ICT, such as computers and set-top boxes, all by themselves, and improve their quality of life.The Federation also hopes to set upa distance education centre for women in more than 30 per cent of the counties and towns inShanghai, so as to provide women with easier access to education.

Source: Wang et. al. 2003

Box 9.1 “A Million Homes On The Internet” project in Shanghai



Reddy district of Andhra Pradesh state.The kiosksare housed on the premises of Mutually AidedCooperative Thrift and Credit Societies(MACTCS), a collective of savings and creditgroups of women, federated at the sub-district(mandal) level. The 11 village kiosks cater notonly to the concerned villages, but to womenfrom 25 to 30 surrounding villages,who are group members of these societies.This project is an agriculture extension initiative,which seeks to ensure quick dissemination oftechnological information from the agriculturalresearch system to farmers in the field and thenrelay their feedback back to the system man-agers. Staff of the MACTCS are trained by MAN-AGE to run the kiosks. The maintenance andoperation of MACTCS finances is a major serviceoffered by the kiosks. Villagers also use theInternet to check their eligibility for housingloans, crop loans and other schemes, and as asource of information about market prices inthe state.

Elsewhere in Andhra Pradesh, a project titled‘Sustainable Dry-land Agriculture by MahilaSanghams’ has been initiated by the state gov-ernment, under the UNDP-GoI Food SecurityProgramme. A major objective of the project isto utilize appropriate methodologies to meetthe information needs of women farmers.Theseinclude information on agronomic practicesand farming methods, access to and use of newtechnologies, market news and agriculturalcommodity prices, weather and rainfall pat-terns, recommended crops for the season, andinformation on meetings and workshops on rel-evant issues. A database of relevant informationis maintained and updated at a central hub,which can be accessed through a network ofcomputers at information centres located in theoffice of the Mandal Agricultural Offices.These centres will be equipped with computersand modems for dial-up Internet access, andwould provide services to the entire communi-ty. In addition to information related to dry-landagriculture, the information centres would alsomaintain a gender-disaggregated village data-base with basic demographic information, land-holding patterns and income profiles.The centreswould provide a platform for distance learningthrough centrally developed interactive learn-ing packages on specific technologies. They willalso provide simple services such as filling inand printing out applications for various gov-ernment schemes in the required formats, at asmall charge.

Such projects have been launched elsewhere inAsia as well. In order to improve and enhancecurrent science and technology-based productsand services, and their delivery through theapplication of ICTs, the office of the Ministry ofResearch and Technology in Indonesia devel-oped a delivery system of information productscalled Warintek (Warung Informasi Teknologi orTechnology Information Kiosk). Warintek hasbeen introduced in rural communities inIndonesia since 2000. It consists of technologyinformation kiosks that provide access to theInternet and CD-ROMs of appropriate technolo-gies for rural communities. All information onappropriate technologies in the CD-ROMs ispresented in Bahasa Indonesia. Warintekcharges a small sum for access to the Internetand provides free access to the CD-ROMs. Bothmale and female farmers are invited to Warintekkiosks to be trained on how to use and accessthe information needed. In West Sumatra andPalembang, women participants, includingfarmers, are very active in the use of Warintekkiosks to search for information related to theirbusinesses. About 10 to 20 people utilize thekiosks each day of whom half are women. InMedan, North Sumatra and the PapuaProvinces, district governments have allocated50 to 60 per cent of the Warintek training slotsto women.

Education is one of the areas where ICTs havebeen shown to have the most impact. Thestrategic application of technologies and ICT-enabled skill development could be used tobroaden the availability of quality educationalmaterials and resources. ICTs could also supportteacher training, learning and capacity develop-ment. In addition, ICTs could help deliver educa-tional and literacy programmes specially target-ed at poor girls and women, using appropriatetechnologies in both formal and non-formaleducational settings such as public access cen-tres. Lastly, they could be used to influence pub-lic opinion on gender equality through informa-tion and communication programmes, using arange of ICTs.

The use of ICTs to generate employment opportunities

For women, the access to productive employ-ment opportunities is the key to the reductionof poverty and the redress of inequities in thedistribution of incomes in favour of men.However, only a part of women’s work can make

ICTs can primarily allowwomen to juggle family

responsibilities andwork commitments by

teleworking, whichopens up a plethora of

productive employmentopportunities for

women previously constrained by the

need to stay at homedue to socio-cultural

reasons



this contribution since it is known that a signifi-cant part of women’s work – in the processing ofprimary produce for self-consumption, basicdomestic handicraft production, and in servicessuch as cleaning and childcare – is unpaid. Sincesuch work is typically not captured by employ-ment data, there is also a tendency to overesti-mate the extent of unemployment amongwomen as well as to underestimate the femalelabour participation rates.

However, a positive development is that ICTscan provide a number of new job opportunitiesfor women or business opportunities of whichwomen could avail themselves. ICTs can prima-rily allow women to juggle family responsibili-ties and work commitments by teleworking,which opens up a plethora of productiveemployment opportunities for women previ-ously constrained by the need to stay at homedue to socio-cultural reasons (Box 9.2).

In partnership with Nari Raksha Samiti (NRS),the Datamation Foundation in India started acomputer literacy programme and established

a computer-training centre in a slum locality inDelhi. Women who are underprivileged, abusedor destitute but have had at least school-leveleducation are trained there to acquire basiccomputer skills such as the use of softwareapplications like Microsoft Word, Excel andPowerPoint. The training is expected to helpincrease employment opportunities for thesewomen. The Datamation Foundation itself hashired nearly 150 of these women, whichaccounts for about 10 per cent of its work force.Datamation’s goal is to create more than 3,000full-time job opportunities for women in thenext two to three years.

There are examples in India where ICTs are usedfor marketing purposes to strengthen the earn-ing opportunities of poor women. One of thefew e-commerce projects, geared to the market-ing of commodities produced by rural women’scooperatives and NGOs focusing on women, isIndia Shop set up by the Foundation ofOccupational Development (FOOD). The advan-tages are better prices and higher profit marginsfor these women, which result from bypassing

Through the use of ICTs, some rural women can gain a new communicationplatform to exchangeopinions on politicalissues with theirpolitical leaders and to raise awarenessabout women’s issues

‘e-Homemakers’ is a community project managed by homemakers in Malaysia. The projectcurrently involves the management of a community portal, www.myhome4work.net, in threelanguages; the testing of a virtual office with teleworking staff who all work from home; the publi-cation and distribution of a monthly e-newsletter to 5,000 members; and the organization of con-ferences to encourage the practice of working from home as well as to open women’s minds toalternative work options. Two hundred disadvantaged women have also been trained in informa-tion technology, with the aim of preparing them to work from home as teleworkers. All e-homemakers communicate mostly through email, fax and telephone, while the portal’s editorsshare files through Yahoo! Briefcase. Face-to-face meetings are conducted as and when necessary.

The project’s founder, Mothers for Mothers, is a network of women working or wanting to workfrom home using ICTs. Although homemakers are classified as a ‘digitally under-privilegedgroup’, Mothers for Mothers was the earliest women-centred organization in Malaysia to experi-ment with the use ICTs. In 1998, when the group was established, it was the only organization inthe NGO circuit to use email and telephone services to organize conferences from Kuala Lumpurto Penang. Over 98 per cent of communication was done via email, at a time when email was neweven to big companies. Mothers for Mothers also published a book on working from home infour languages. The research, writing, editing and proof-reading was entirely coordinated andcompleted via email from 1999 to 2000.

In 1999, core volunteers of the group constructed a website called mom4mom.com withoutexternal funding, by working closely with an IT company. It was the first local website to embarkon e-commerce for women by having a simple message board where women could post theiradvertisements for home-based services and products, though financial constraints meant thatpayment could not be made online. Mom4mom.com was subsequently converted tomyhome4work.net.

Source: e-Homemakers. Retrieved 1 September, 2003. http://www.myhome4work.net/en/index.php.

Box 9.2 e-Homemakers in Malaysia



the middleman through such ventures. To sup-port the venture, FOOD runs an e-marketersproject at the same time, which trains computeroperators at different locations to partner localcooperatives,deliver products,provide customerservices, and promote the website. After the ini-tial pilot period during which the e-marketerswere provided free Internet access to carry outtheir work, they continue to receive DSL Internetconnections from FOOD for a small fee, whilesome choose their own Internet serviceprovider. e-Marketers are trained by FOOD forfree, and receive a commission ranging from 2 to5 per cent of sales by the women’s cooperativesand NGOs.The commission helps the e-marketersto sustain the project and motivates them to fur-ther expand their client base. FOOD now collab-orates with the Council for Advancement ofPeople’s Action and Rural Technology (CAPART)to expand this successful model to other parts ofIndia.

The use of ICTs for women’s social andpolitical participation

ICTs can also facilitate women’s participation ingovernment and political affairs. Some ruralwomen can gain a new communication plat-form to exchange their opinions on politicalissues with their political leaders and use ICTs toraise awareness about women’s issues. Femalepolitical candidates can also win support fromvoters in this way, employing ICTs in the com-munication of their political messages to thevoters.

In Malaysia, the use of ICTs among politicalgroups is seen to be higher and more compre-hensive as compared to non-political groups. Amajor factor for this could be access to betterfunding. Puteri UMNO (the young women’swing of UMNO, the dominant Malay-basedparty within the ruling coalition) and WanitaMCA (the women’s wing of the major Chinese-based political component within the samecoalition) have secretariats with several perma-nent staff linked through Local Area Networks(LANs). Most administrative work is computer-ized and electronic file sharing is common. Bothorganizations have Internet-enabled comput-ers, websites (Wanita MCA’s is located within theparent site), and use emails and faxes for com-munication between branches as well asbetween members. Of the two, Puteri is clearlymore organized in terms of having a strategy topromote the use of ICTs among its members, as

well as in using ICTs to advocate and achievepolitical purposes.

Presently, there are plans for the Puteri stateheadquarters to be on broadband, and for allUMNO offices to double-up as community ITcentres that are open to the public. Membersare being trained in information warfare and in‘Cyber War Conventions’ that have been under-taken as an on-going, year-round activity on anational scale. Puteri’s website is frequentlyupdated, and hit rates and contributions indi-cate that it has a core group of regulars as wellas quite a high number of irregular surfers.Underlying Puteri’s plans, which are coordinat-ed by an IT bureau, is the recognition that ICTs,in particular the Internet, are a crucial tool foreducating and empowering women. This driveto ensure widespread awareness of women’sindividual rights, and the collective power sogenerated, can help towards realizing the MDGindicator of expanded women’s representationin national politics, which stands at just over 10 per cent of total MPs in the national parliament.In contrast, Wanita MCA is adopting a moreorganic approach. It has no specific bureau incharge of ICT, whether for administrative or pro-gramme purposes, relying instead on directionfrom its research and operation units.

The use of ICTs by women’s advocacy groups

Perhaps the most significant positive impact ofICTs on women’s empowerment is the enhancedcapacity of women’s advocacy and supportgroups to exchange information, coordinateaction, and increase the reach of advocacy cam-paigns. Civil society and activist organizationsroutinely receive dozens of emails containinginformation on emerging areas of concern.

In New Delhi, India, the Datamation Foundation,in collaboration with the NRS, has launched aninitiative titled ‘Save the Girl Child Campaign’. It isaimed at using ICTs to generate and record com-plaints against members of the medical commu-nity indulging in selective sex determinationtests and selective abortion of female foetuses.The campaign has set up a dedicated website onwhich more than 750 cases of selective sex-determination tests and consequent illegalabortion of the female foetuses have beenrecorded. Furthermore, through links with otherorganizations active in the field, such as NanhiKali, NRS and Nari Dakshta Samiti, attempts are

Perhaps the most significant positive

impact of ICTs onwomen’s empowerment

is the enhanced capacity of women’s

advocacy and supportgroups to exchange

information, coordinateaction, and increase

the reach of advocacycampaigns



being made to increase the number of recordedcases, to mobilize public opinion against theactivity and to monitor individual complaintseffectively. This is an excellent example of advo-cacy groups using ICTs to further the reach oftheir campaigns, and to improve the efficacy oftheir campaigns by establishing networks withother groups with similar objectives.

Some women’s groups in Thailand have startedto use the Internet in their work. An example isthe Development and Education Programme forDaughters and Communities Centre (DEPDC),whose website can be found at www.depdc.org.DEPDC became internationally famous when itsfounder and manager, Sompop Jantraka, wasnamed an Asian Hero by Time magazine in April2002. Its main objective is to prevent youngwomen, from seven districts in the northern Thaiprovince of Chiangrai, from entering the sexindustry or the labour market at a young age.Since 1989, DEPDC has offered scholarships,shelter and various kinds of support to childrenand their communities. It has successfully pre-vented more than 1,000 girls from entering thesex industry. At present, the Centre is taking careof a large number of children, including hill-tribechildren orphaned by AIDS. DEPDC markets andsells the girls’ handicraft works on its website.

The handicrafts, which include hand-madescarves and bags, generate profits that are chan-nelled to the Centre’s Vocational Skills TrainingProgramme for the benefit of the girls.

Older forms of communications technologiessuch as the radio have a crucial role to play in asociety with limited literacy.This is illustrated bythe activities of the Kutch Mahila VikasSangathan (KMVS), an NGO working with ruralwomen in 150 villages of the Kutch district inGujarat, India. After its involvement in commu-nity development work for over a decade, KMVSlaunched a weekly, 30-minute, sponsored pro-gramme in the Kutchi language on All IndiaRadio’s Radio Bhuj in 2000. Titled Kunjal PaanjeKutch Ji (Sarus Crane of Our Kutch), the pro-gramme deals with a range of gender-relatedissues such as the participation of women inpolitical processes, a girl’s right to education,female foeticide, the harassment of brides fordowries and female suicides.

There are similar examples of innovative useof the Internet in Pakistan as well (Box 9.3).Theproject ‘Portrayal of Women in the Media’ wasdesigned by UNDP in collaboration withPakistan Television (PTV), Pakistan’s only pub-lic telecast media channel. It aims to ensure a

Low levels of literacyand education of amajority of rural womenresults in insufficientcomputer skills to fullyharness the potential ofICTs. Language barrierspose a formidableobstacle and there are substantial difficultiesfor non-English speakers in Asian countries to interactwith the virtual globalcommunity

Shirkat Gah (Urdu for “convening point for participation”) is one of Pakistan’s most respectedwomen’s rights groups, known for its efforts to empower women and advocate for a better legaland social framework. In recent years, the international recognition it has received, and the coali-tions and networks it has helped build, have served the cause of Pakistani women through theInternet and email.

As a member of international forums and groups such as the GREAT (Gender Research andTraining) Network in the United Kingdom, the web-based South Asia Citizens Web(http://www.mnet.fr/aiindex/) and Women Living Under Muslim Law (http://www.wluml.org/),Shirkat Gah has been able to leverage the immense reach of the Internet and email to help drawnational and international attention to some of the most disturbing recorded cases of rape andviolence against women. In particular, rape cases such as those of Zafran Bibi in 2001 and theMeerawala gang-rape in 2002, became international causes through the timely and effective useof mailing lists and international networks. In 1999, when the government of Nawaz Sharif initi-ated a misguided campaign to push for civil society accountability, and ended up harassingestablished organizations such as Shirkat Gah, the abuse did not go unnoticed.

Shirkat Gah’s use of the Internet is also identified in a 1999-2000 study by the Society forInternational Development as one of the prominent examples of how “women all around theworld have been able to use the Internet to support their networking, information and commu-nication needs, and in the process of mobilizing support, they have created a series of networksthat quickly and strategically link women’s local concerns with the global movement.”

Source: Harcourt 2000.

Box 9.3 Shirkat Gah and the World Wide Web for women



positive, balanced and diverse portrayal ofwomen in electronic media through trainingand gender sensitization of TV media profes-sionals. Under this programme, PTV facilitatesspecialized courses on gender sensitizationand seeks to incorporate gender issues intoregular training programmes. Gender commit-tees have been established at all PTV centresand, in 1999, PTV management made a majorpolicy decision to ban all displays of physicalviolence against women and children in theirprogramming. Perhaps the most significantlandmark in the history of PTV’s gender policywas the launching of a daily 60-minute trans-mission for women, titled Khwateen Time. Theproject has now established its credibility bysecuring reasonable success in portraying abetter image of women through the electron-ic media. Mind sets and attitudes cannot bechanged overnight but at least the first stephas been taken in that direction.5

The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan hasalso been able to extend its outreach preciselybecause of email and the Internet. One initiativethat was critical in making such interaction pos-sible is the construction of email lists and listarchives on specific issues by SDNP. Indeed, thisis among the true success stories of Pakistan’sICT experience. It represents the most completesource of news and information about varioussocial and human development issues inPakistan available on the Internet.

The Gender and Sustainable Development List†

(GSD-List) provides a daily news update onwomen’s issues, both from mainstream andalternative media sources. The GSD-List hashelped in the evolution of a vibrant communityof women’s activist organizations in the countryby placing the power of electronic communica-tion at their disposal. By understanding the con-vening power of the Internet,they have leveragedit to great effect in several cases of atrocitiesagainst women – bringing unprecedentedattention to the state of women’s empower-ment in Pakistan.

According to CENWOR, which monitors the useof ICTs by women’s groups in Sri Lanka,enhanced networking has been one of themost useful, practical and visible results of indi-vidual women and women’s groups gaining

more access to ICTs. Such networking has beenused in recent years, for example, to quicklyand effectively share information updatesamong all concerned women about significantcourt cases that raise issues related to women’srights, violence against women and women’saccess to resources. Also, ICTs and their net-working capabilities allow women’s groups toraise action alerts among women activists inSri Lanka. An example was a government pro-posal to import labour for the country’s freetrade zones where the work force was predom-inantly rural women. The Internet has alsoenabled women’s groups in Sri Lanka tobecome better connected with internationalwomen’s groups and women activists fromaround the world.6

In Mongolia, the Women’s Information andResearch Centre (WIRC) is a well-recognizedand dynamic NGO, which was established in1995. WIRC facilitates the promotion of gen-der equality in Mongolian society and usesICTs in a number of ways. Firstly, it uses ICTs inresearch and database processing, and analy-sis on broad-scale social, economic, politicaland cultural events with a gender-specificagenda. Next, it uses ICTs for information dis-semination and networking in priority areas.Also, ICTs are used at the Documentation andResource Centre facility, which has as its mainaim the promotion of women’s equal partici-pation in public life in the information tech-nology era.

At a regional level, UNICEF’s Meena Communi-cation Initiative has played an important rolein focusing attention on the rights of the girlchild in South Asia. Aimed at changing percep-tions and behaviour that hamper the survivaland development of female children, the cam-paign uses the cartoon character Meena, anassertive and courageous little girl, and a set ofevents derived from the research of actual con-ditions to challenge prevailing perceptionsand practices. These ‘adventures’ are presentedin a range of formats including animated films,videos, radio serials, comic books, posters, dis-cussion guides, folk media, calendars and stick-ers. The Meena series has also emerged in ancillary education materials, includingposters, comic books, flipcharts and educa-tional packages.

There should be anallocation of financial

resources in the national budget to

support strategies toincrease women’s

participation in theinformation economy,including funding for

NGOs to strengthen opportunities for

women’s empowermentthrough ICTs

† [email protected], archives at http://lists.isb.sdnpk.org/mailman/listinfo/gsd-list



Challenges in implementing ICT projects for empowering women

Cultural and social attitudes often discriminateagainst women’s participation in the fields of sci-ence and technology; and they limit the oppor-tunities for women to embrace the benefits ofutilizing ICTs.Traditionally, women tend to be leftout of e-learning and ICT-based activities in thehome, as they are the last to use home comput-ers, surf the Internet, or to have the luxury of timeto access community telecentres. Rural and mar-ginalized women tend to forego the chance touse ICTs such as mobile phones as they believetheir husbands, brothers and other male mem-bers of the household should have first priority,due to deep-seated socio-cultural notions ofmale superiority and hierarchy. This situationimposes natural barriers for women to get ade-quate access to ICTs and to reap the benefits thatICTs offer. Furthermore, unexposed to the knowl-edge and use of computers, women develop afear of technology, which is difficult to overcome,affecting their confidence in learning to use ICTs.

The majority of women, particularly in ruralareas, have a low level of literacy and education.This results in insufficient computer skills tofully harness the potential of ICTs. Languagebarriers pose a formidable obstacle. There aresubstantial difficulties for non-English speakersin Asian countries to interact with the virtualglobal community because most of the infor-mation from outside of these countries is inEnglish.This is further complicated by packagedsoftware that embodies the experience andrequirements of a foreign culture. The lack ofcultural relevance is significant to women asthey are, more often than men, deprived of for-mal educational training.7

Women in many Asian countries have limitedtime to themselves due to their responsibilitiesof caring for their families even while engagingin income-generating activities. This situation isespecially true for women in rural areas. Thus,the opportunities for women to receive formaleducation and vocational skills training arescarce. Women, therefore, face the triple burdenof having to earn an income, manage thehousehold and provide childcare. This givesthem little time to learn and use ICTs.

Next is the limitation of the lack of ICT equip-ment and poor infrastructure as not many

women’s groups have proper or adequate ICTequipment and facilities. The high cost of ICThardware makes the acquisition of ICT equip-ment, especially PCs, largely unaffordable forwomen, more so for the disadvantaged whocould greatly benefit from ICT usage for eco-nomic self-reliance. Women are often financiallydependent upon men and have limited controlover financial resources that could be used topurchase or gain access to ICTs.

In the statement of the Asia-Pacific GenderForum for the World Summit on the InformationSociety, it was also recognized that “the poten-tial of ICT as a tool for enhancing women’scapacities in the area of health and education,as well as their access to basic social servicesand information, is well-recognized. However, inthe marginalization of women from the lack ofaccessibility and affordability of ICT, womenface a variety of barriers from low rates of basicliteracy and information literacy to the lack ofhigh-skilled ICT training. The English languagedominance of ICT in software and in contentfurther isolates women in this region from fullyparticipating and benefiting from the informa-tion society”.8

The Way Forward

Relatively few applications of the technologywill be planned to achieve gender goals, butindirectly ICTs may have profound effects ongender roles, gender equality and the empow-erment of women. It may well be that mostcountries will maintain the policies and buildthe institutions needed to utilize the technolo-gy to promote social and economic develop-ment, and that the improvement of the status ofwomen will be part and parcel of the resultingmodernization and development. It may, how-ever, be the case that preexisting genderinequalities will be reflected in the differentialabilities of men and women to appropriate thetechnologies, and that the information revolu-tion will see a continuation or a worsening ofgender inequality.9

The key actors in the ICT policy-making andimplementation process are national govern-ments, multilateral agencies including bodies inthe United Nations system, donor agencies, civilsociety organizations and the private sector.Integrating gender considerations into nationalICT policy and implementation can only be

A strategy for enhancing women’saccess has to be multi-pronged. It will entail achange in social structures, communityand household norms,economic and technological models,and the creation ofspaces for women’sagency



achieved with strong and effective leadershipfrom the State which puts in place consultativemechanisms that ensure that all key actors are actively involved in the process of policy formulation, implementation and review.Furthermore, the representation of women’sorganizations at all levels of ICT-related policyand decision-making processes should beensured. Otherwise the making and implemen-tation of ICT policies would be skewed towardsthe interests of the male population, which isunfortunately all too common in most Asiancountries.

There should be an allocation of financialresources in the national budget to supportstrategies to increase women’s participation inthe information economy, including funding forNGOs to strengthen opportunities for women’sempowerment through ICTs. In addition, ICTeducation should be integrated in school curric-ula and be based on gender equality, to realizegirls’ full participation in science and technologyeducation. Similarly, relevant distance educationand training programmes should be imple-mented using ICTs, especially for rural womenand girls, who are most disadvantaged in gain-ing access to education. It is thus imperativethat the State play a proactive role in improvingthe social and economic environment forfemales so that they can harness ICT technolo-gies and reap the vast benefits that ICTs afford.

International agencies should assist nationalgovernments in these areas by providing a vari-ety of supporting resources: technical expertisefor design of policy tools, financial support andinstitutional capability-building. Specific activi-ties include policy dialogue and advocacy,where organizations representing women’sinterests are deliberately included in consulta-tions regarding all issues related to ICTs, andwhere women are specifically consultedregarding their needs and contributions in theprocess of ICT expansion. Institutional strength-ening has to be ensured, so that the govern-ment, national regulatory bodies and otherentities involved in the governance of the ICT

sector have the capacity to analyse the impactof the sector on gender equality, and includethis analysis in policy-making and planningprocesses.

The private sector is powerful and important inthe ICT area; however its goals tend to empha-size profitability.The major challenge for privatesector organizations in developing countries isto reorient their strategies to long-term marketdevelopment, rather than short-term profitabil-ity. Private sector organizations should adoptproactive employment policies that encourageand facilitate the participation of women in awide spectrum of ICT-related fields. Also, theyshould demonstrate their commitment toachieving the goals of gender equity in the ICTsector by providing and supporting trainingprogrammes specifically designed for girls andwomen. Lastly, they should promote the protec-tion of women’s human rights against onlinesexual exploitation and gender-based violencewithout compromising women’s rights to infor-mation and communication.

Civil society organizations should participatefully in ICT policy-making consultativeprocesses, promote indigenous local contentthat reflect local cultures and ways of life, andsupport women’s online communities andnetworks, especially those that aim toaddress gender issues and promote linguisticdiversity.

A strategy for enhancing women’s access has tobe multi-pronged. It will entail a change insocial structures, community and householdnorms, economic and technological models,and the creation of spaces for women’s agency.The lessons from micro-level initiatives indicatesome directions for moving towards greateraccess for women. Crucial among these arecapacity-building for women, sensitive designof projects, continuous adaptation of designand delivery based on women’s needs, theexploration of technology menus that fit theconvenience of women (such as the use of radioand multimedia).10

The representation ofwomen’s organizations

at all levels of ICT-related policy and

decision-makingprocesses should be

ensured. Otherwise themaking and

implementation of ICT policies would beskewed towards the

interests of the malepopulation


Photo 4/8/05 11:55 AM Page 19

Photo: Amit Khullar

Photo 4/8/05 11:55 AM Page 20

ICTs are increasinglybeing used to facilitatetwo-way informationexchange in healthcarebetween rural andurban areas, providingisolated communitieswith access to the latest health information andtreatment. If ICTs are strategically deployedand integrated withhealth interventions,they can enableresources to go muchfurther through cost-effective and scalablesolutions

Improved healthcare is crucial to the realizationof a number of MDGs such as those relating toreducing infant and under-five child mortalityrates by two-thirds by 2015, combating theeffects of infectious diseases, and halting thespread of HIV/AIDS. Technical interventionsmust focus on prevention through means suchas immunization and the launch of publichealth campaigns as well as on treatment deliv-ered through a strengthened basic healthcaresystem. ICTs can help these efforts by improvingthe effectiveness of health promotion and disease-prevention programmes as well as facilitatinghealth-service delivery. ICTs are increasingly beingused to facilitate two-way information exchangein healthcare between rural and urban areas,providing isolated communities with access tothe latest health information and treatment,and informing officials of rural public healthissues. If ICTs are strategically deployed andintegrated with health interventions, they canenable resources to go much further throughcost-effective and scalable solutions.

Many development practitioners believe thatICTs can play a critical role in improving health-care in developing countries. Some of the keypremises in this area are:

● ICTs represent an unprecedented opportuni-ty to make new knowledge, services andopportunities available in underserved areas.Poor communities benefit by receiving criti-cal health resources communicated acrosslarge distances, improved access to govern-mental and quasi-governmental resourcesand services, and superior medical advice,diagnosis or knowledge in their own locality

● ICTs can play a critical role as instrumentsfor continuing education and lifelong learn-ing that will enable doctors in developing

countries to be informed about and trainedin the use of advances in medical scienceand knowledge, and

● ICTs can be potentially used to increase thetransparency and efficiency of governance,thus improving the availability and deliveryof public health services.

ICTs have been used in many ways to enhancehealthcare provision and delivery by:

● increasing access of rural caregivers to spe-cialist support and remote diagnosis, anddelivering healthcare services through tele-consultation to remote populations, lead-ing to a decrease in the reallocation of med-ical specialists

● responding to disease epidemics throughsharing lessons, treatment practices andguidelines with healthcare professionals,researchers and policy makers

● enabling governments, NGOs and healthestablishments to increase access to healthinformation through various forms of ICTs,for example, radio or television pro-grammes and the Internet

● collecting and analysing health informa-tion, measuring outcomes, and disseminat-ing information to healthcare professionals,researchers, policy makers, citizens, and/orany other relevant parties

● facilitating intra-government coordinationon healthcare, enhancing governmentplanning, increasing health awareness andpurveying disease prevention contentacross all actors and departments, particu-larly in the most crisis-affected countries

● enhancing the delivery of basic and in-servicetraining for healthcare workers, and servingas a medium for continuing education orlifelong learning for healthcare professionalsto keep abreast of the latest knowledge.

147

ICTs and health

MD

Gs C h a p t e r 1 0



Telemedicine

The most reported ICT application in health istelemedicine.The potential of ICTs to traverse timeand distance allows humans to interact with eachother in new ways. As such, ICTs are being used inmany developing countries to facilitate remoteconsultation, diagnosis and treatment. Tele-medicine helps to extend the scope and reach ofclinical services, and allows for the capture andanalysis of clinical data from multiple sources toassist in the formulation of improved treatmentprogrammes. Instead of having to move thepatient to the doctor or vice versa, it becomespossible to move only the relevant medical infor-mation. In rural communities, where access tospecialized care is almost non-existent, patientscan seek advice from distant specialists withoutleaving the community. One form of telemedicineis interactive videoconferencing. This permits twodoctors and a patient at different sites to confersimultaneously. A camera in an examining roomenables one doctor to present the patient to theother doctor, usually a consultant. Essentially,telemedicine can impact health by:

● reducing the need to transfer patients to asite of medical expertise

● decreasing the need for reallocation ofmedical specialists

● decreasing the number of patient days inthe hospital

● lowering the costs of healthcare forpatients

● enhancing diagnostic and therapeuticquality of care, and

● preventing deaths through increasing thelevels of second opinion diagnosis betweenmedical practitioners.

Where no doctors are available, remote health-care provision via the Internet is better than hav-ing no healthcare at all. For example, the bestmedical students in Pakistan often leave upongraduation to work in Europe and the US. Forthose who remain, medical practice is no longerthe lucrative career choice it once was, althoughtop professionals in urban Pakistan commandvery high premiums for their services. For devel-oping countries such as these, with an acuteshortage of medical practitioners, telemedicinemay be the most practical means to provide goodhealthcare services to the people (Box 10.1).

In Thailand, the telemedicine project was initiatedand implemented by the Ministry of Public

ICTs can play a criticalrole as instruments for

continuing education toenable doctors in

developing countries tobe informed about

advances in medicalscience and knowledge

Established in April 1998 in Pakistan, TelMedPak seeks to interconnect hospitals and local doc-tors. A prototype was set up in a private hospital in Taxila, a small town 20 km from Islamabad.This hospital was equipped with an Internet-enabled PC and a scanner. Store-and-forward tele-consultation was used.The patients’ case reports requiring expert medical opinion were emailedto the specialist, who studied the case reports and replied to the hospital. Each patient’s com-plete record was kept strictly confidential with a limited number of people having access to it.This project proved to be very successful.

TelMedPak also launched a pilot project in Gilgit. Case histories with images of x-rays and CTscans were sent through the Internet from Gilgit to Islamabad. A panel of consultants then gavetheir expert advice on the cases. Internet service providers helped to connect the district head-quarters (DHQ) at Gilgit with the surgical unit of Holy Family Hospital, Rawalpindi, where apartfrom general surgeons, orthopaedics, neurosurgeons and other medical specialists were madeavailable. All the practical modalities of telemedicine were tested. DHQ Gilgit, with only a fewdoctors, was able to offer patients health services similar to those in developed cities such asIslamabad. TelMedPak aims to establish satellite links and promote collaboration with interna-tional hospitals and schools.

TelMedPak.com also serves as a repository of medical information, articles and news alerts onemerging health issues, guidelines on preventative medicine and a directory of practitioners.Thesite is constantly updated and provides valuable information such as articles on the SARS epi-demic. One attractive element of TelMedPak is a small Urdu language section on maternal andchild healthcare (http://www.telmedpak.com/homes.asp?a=995).

Source: Connecting Telemedically, TelMedPak website http://www.telmedpak.com/doctorss.asp?a=3211

Box 10.1 TelMedPak.com: pioneering telemedicine in Pakistan


149ICTs and health

Health (MPH) to serve as a platform for med-ical consultation, enabling physicians inremote or under-served areas to consult spe-cialists in the capital. Medical consultationsinclude tele-radiology, tele-pathology andtele-cardiology. The project has been in opera-tion since May 1998, linking the MPH andmajor university hospitals in Bangkok withabout 20 district hospitals. Each station has aroom-based videoconferencing system. Thecommercial ThaiCom I satellite provides thenetwork backbone while provincial telephonelines serve as a support network. The tele-con-sultation application has store-and-forwardand interactive videoconferencing features.One of the frequently used applications istele-sonography where still or dynamic sono-graphic images are sent from remote areas tocity specialists. The first phase was completedwith reasonable success.

China too has many rural areas where health-care is usually inadequate due to geographicisolation and low population density.Considerable healthcare discrepancies existbetween rural and urban areas. Medical expert-ise is concentrated in capital cities, so people inrural areas often have to travel for specializedhealth treatment. The government, public insti-tutions and the private sector have been pro-moting ICTs as a means of overcoming thisproblem.

In India, Apollo Telemedicine Enterprise Ltd, asister organization of the Apollo HospitalsGroup, was established in September 1999. Itspecializes in providing consultation servicesand second opinions to remote sites whereaccess to quality healthcare is difficult. ApolloTelemedicine is reportedly the pioneer inlaunching the first rural telemedicine centre inthe country, catering to a population of about50,000 villagers. As many as 10 hospitals cov-ering eight states have recently hooked up tothe Indian Space Research Organization’s(ISRO’s) network, thus extending super-spe-cialty medical consultations to remote areassuch as locations in the Andaman and NicobarIslands, Tripura, Leh, and Assam. Using Insatsatellites and VSAT equipment, the patient’smedical records, such as medical images andoutputs from diagnostic devices, are sent tospecialist doctors, who, after perusing them,provide advice on the course of treatment in avideoconference with a doctor or a paramedicat the patient’s end. This is indeed a major

advance, given the fact that less than 2 percent of specialist doctors in India are practic-ing in rural areas where the majority ofpatients live. At present, links have been estab-lished between super-specialty hospitals andsmaller hospitals in neighbourhood districttowns.

The principal criticism of telemedicine applica-tions is that they are expensive and cannot bescaled up to cover large populations. However,there are successful attempts to develop low-cost applications in this area as well. One exam-ple is the low-cost telemedicine kit developedby Neurosynaptic Communications, a companybased in Bangalore, India, in collaboration withthe TeNet group at the Indian Institute ofTechnology (IIT), Chennai. The equipmentincludes a remote diagnostic kit and a PC, whichtogether provide basic healthcare infrastructurein rural areas at a cost of just INR 10,000 (aroundUS$ 220). It can measure basic physiologicalparameters such as temperature, blood pressure,pulse rate and multi-channel ECG (electrocardio-gram). It also has an electronic stethoscope.Doctors in secondary or tertiary healthcare centres and patients at remote locations can beconnected to each other via the Internet anda videoconferencing link. The data from the kitis communicated to a computer through a wireless infrared link. The fully battery operatedkit also has an integrated video/audio confer-encing capability, and a central database canstore all patient records and history.Measurements made using the kit can be sent tothe doctor in a remote location over the Internet.Using the data, the doctor can make his/herdiagnosis and provide the appropriate advice.

In Malaysia, the Ministry of Health (MoH) joinedforces with the private sector to formTelehealth, with the aim of delivering high qual-ity health content to the public using ICTs. Theproject’s initiators believe that empoweringpeople with medical knowledge will enablethem to make informed decisions so as to carefor their own health. This is the “wellness para-digm”, which is envisaged by MoH to be thefuture of healthcare. The Telehealth website(www.telehealth.com.my) has four compo-nents, one of which is tele-consultation thatprovides a platform for specialists to make deci-sions without the need to physically examinethe patients. To reach a wider section of thepopulation, the content is in the nationallanguage, Bhasa Malaysia, and in English.

ICTs are being used inmany developing countries to facilitateremote consultation,diagnosis andtreatment.Telemedicine helps to extend the scope and reach of clinicalservices and allows for the capture andanalysis of clinical data from multiplesources to assist in the formulation ofimproved treatmentprogrammes



The portal also offers a wide range of articles onlifelong wellness including pregnancies andnewborn babies. It also allows users to registerwith the site to facilitate collection of their pro-files based on which they are provided with per-sonalized content. Users can also request forinformation stored in the database to be auto-matically emailed to them.The portal offers chatfacilities to allow users to interact with others,while newsgroups allow users to exchangeideas without having to be online all the time.

In Indonesia, the Videophone TelemedicineProject uses low-cost videophone equipment toenable local doctors to consult specialists atmajor hospitals over normal telephone lines. Itwas launched in May 1999 as a joint trial projectbetween Medifa, an Indonesian non-profitorganization that supports the training ofyoung doctors, and the Japan InternationalCooperation Agency (JICA), advisers to theIndonesian Government on telecommunica-tions policy. Based on the results, Medifa hasexpanded the network considerably. The aimwas to find a practical and inexpensive way forlocal doctors in outlying regions to consultmedical specialists and take part in medicaleducation.

Doctors in regional clinics sometimes lack expe-rience in certain fields and are hesitant in theirdiagnoses without the support of senior doc-tors at major hospitals. Both local doctors andpatients want to be able to consult specialists“face-to-face” via videophones in difficult cases.There are several advantages: it is applicable inany area with a telephone network; it is easy touse as PCs are not required; and it is economical,costing only US$ 450 for equipment and tele-phone charges.

ICTs in healthcare education and training

The potential for use of ICTs to improve medicaleducation is indeed immense. For example, in SriLanka, an experimental application is being usedat Colombo University’s Medical Faculty to trainits undergraduates. It is a client-server solutionthat can run on an Apache web server, with PHPserver-side scripting language, or on a WindowsNT platform. Students can log on to the serverthrough the LAN using a conventional webbrowser. Once connected, they can choosebetween two types of approaches: a pre-deter-mined sequential walk through the lessons; or a

pre-lesson question paper, and depending onthe answers they provide, a tailor-madesequence of lessons. Each lesson comprises acombination of text, images and multi-mediaclips. While following the lessons, random pop-up questions are presented, and studentresponses are recorded into the database.

These questions keep students alert, and enablethe lecturers to keep track of their progress andidentify concepts that prove to be too difficultfor a majority. The faculty has also started main-taining computer-based multiple-choice ques-tion banks for medical students. A student canuse these question banks to test his or herknowledge before the exams. The tool alsoincorporates a search engine and a discussionforum. In addition, students in different medicalschools in Sri Lanka have joined hands to createe-groups for information sharing. These e-groups provide not only technical informa-tion related to medical studies, but also allow fordissemination of advice from seniors to juniors.

Malaysia’s Telehealth initiative also has a contin-uing medical education component that helpsincrease the knowledge and skills of healthcareproviders.The country’s Health Ministry has alsopartnered with a private company, IntuitiveControls Sdn. Bhd., in the use of ICTs for medicaltraining and research. In the RM 1.5 million proj-ect (around US$ 395,000 at current exchangerates), Hospital Kuala Lumpur’s five operatingtheatres in its urology department are linked tothe main auditorium for real-time trainingsessions through the use of sensitive cameras,microphones and other equipment. The eventsand sessions are archived and accessiblethrough the Internet for students to refer to dur-ing their course of study, making medical train-ing more flexible and cheaper as students neednot necessarily be sent overseas to train. TheUniversity Malaya Medical Centre also uses sim-ilar solutions to conduct its training and aca-demic curriculum.

ICTs have also helped increase access to infor-mation and research for healthcare workers indeveloping countries. One example is HealthInterNetwork (http://www.healthinternet-work.net), which provides access to a vastonline library of more than 2,100 high-qualitymedical journals with the latest information onpublic health to providers in 69 developingcountries for free, and another 42 for a signifi-cantly reduced subscription fee. Institutions in

Information is vital inimproving the health

status of a populationand preventing the

spread of communicable

diseases. ICTs can playa role in the

management of such information, through

database storage andretrieval of information


151ICTs and health

new countries just need to invest US$ 1,000 peryear for online access, beginning with a six-month free trial. Health InterNetwork was creat-ed to bridge the digital divide in health, ensur-ing that relevant information – and the tech-nologies to deliver it – are widely available andeffectively used by professionals, researchers,scientists and policy makers.

Launched by the UN Secretary General inSeptember 2000 and led by WHO, HealthInterNetwork has brought together public andprivate partners to further the principle ofensuring equitable access to health informa-tion. Its core elements are content, Internetconnectivity and capacity building. A similarproject, eMedicine.com, is making its onlinedatabase available for free in countries having aper capita GDP of less than US$ 3,000.

Continuing education and training are impor-tant so that healthcare workers are aware ofthe latest developments and can provide bet-ter service to their patients. It will be very help-ful if the role of ICTs in healthcare is empha-sized at the entrance stage into the profession.For practicing doctors and health profession-als, IT literacy may be incorporated into profes-sional upgradation programmes. Fortunately,the use of ICTs to train healthcare workers,especially in remote areas, is an active andexpanding field.

ICTs in hospital and healthcare administration

In Thailand, ICTs are also used to increase theefficiency of database management in health-care systems, such as hospital administrationsystems. Most medium to large hospitals nowuse ICTs, to some extent, to manage patientrecords and treatment procedures, hospital sup-plies and inventories, as well as other back-office functions. This allows them to servepatients more effectively and efficiently, andenables them to come up with surveillance sys-tems for communicable diseases such as malar-ia, measles and tuberculosis that allow for moreefficient tracking and planning.

Western China has initiated the AngelProgramme, also known as the HospitalManagement Support for Poverty AlleviationProgramme. Its aim is to use ICTs to create aHospital Information System to enhance themanagement of hospitals and their equipment,

thus improving the quality of healthcare serv-ice. Electronically-based support systems arebeing deployed to support healthcare workers,providing support tools that allow them toincrease the accuracy of the data flowingthrough the healthcare reporting structure.These developments have ensured significantimprovements in healthcare in western China,especially in terms of alleviating infant and childmortality.

Vietnam, Pakistan and Indonesia are all at thepreliminary stages of setting up their hospitalinformation systems. In Vietnam, the Institute ofInformation Technology and some universitieshave carried out research on health applicationsof ICTs. The Ministry of Health has also set up amedical intranet connecting 30 hospitals andinstitutes. The initial target date in the MasterPlan for connecting all district hospitals was2000 but due to financial constraints, the unoffi-cial target is now 2005. Wide Area Networks(WANs) are used by hospitals to send their peri-odical reports to the Ministry of Health(www.moh.gov.vn) electronically. Some hospi-tals use LANs to facilitate the management andprocessing of patient records.

In Pakistan, hospitals like Shifa InternationalHospital and Shaukat Khanum MemorialHospital are using computers for maintainingdata. Computers are available in mostIndonesian hospitals, primarily for recordingand reporting data of individual divisions, suchas patient admissions, medical records, billingsystems, and personnel and logistics data.Many hospitals do not have online intranetfacilities that allow the sharing of databetween divisions, but they have their ownhomepages. A noteworthy difference betweenthe homepages of profit and non-profit insti-tutions is the availability of pages for publiceducation. The state-owned Infection Hospital,has webpages for basic information on majorcommunicable diseases. In contrast, a numberof private hospitals’ websites focus primarilyon the types of services and products offeredby them.

Malaysia’s foray into ICT is comparatively moreadvanced. The Primary Care Doctors’Organization of Malaysia (PCDOM) project –Primary Health Care Network Services (PNS) –consists of a clinic and patient managementsystem and an e-community environment.Under the pilot project that started a few years

One of the main problems in eradicatingchild mortality hasalways been the lack ofawareness, informationand education. Timelyand effective dissemination of information forhealthcare is the key toovercoming thisproblem. In thiscontext, ICTs can play avery powerful role inimproving publicawareness ofhealthcare



ago, 50 general practitioners were selected tobe part of an e-community. PNS helps to simplifymanagement processes, which reduces admin-istrative costs.

ICTs for the management of patient/health information

Information is vital in improving the health sta-tus of a population and preventing the spreadof communicable diseases. ICTs can play a rolein the management of such information,through database storage and retrieval of infor-mation. In Thailand, ICTs are used to promotematernal and child health through the PerinatalHIV Implementing Monitoring System.Developed by the Office of Health Promotion,Department of Health, the system aims toimprove the management of maternal and childhealth information, starting from data collec-tion at public hospitals and health facilities,through the transmission of such data to thecentral office and ending with the analysis ofthat data. Programmes are distributed via CD-ROM and sent to all public hospitals and healthfacilities, which are then advised to enter thedata of all cases of HIV-infected pregnantwomen and also all cases of children born toHIV-infected mothers.The information is sent tothe Bangkok central office on a monthly basis,so that appropriate measures can be taken toprevent transmission, and to follow up oninfected cases. The programme has been usedfor a few years and found to have achieved sat-isfactory outcomes.

An interesting ICT for health project in India isCommunity Access to Sustainable Health(CASH) which uses PDAs loaded with a databaseof patient records. Local paramedic workers canquickly and accurately collect patient informa-tion and often make on-the-spot diagnosesbased on the patient’s medical history in thePDAs. As the information is uploaded daily intoa central database, it also helps to effectivelytrack the spread of diseases, allowing for epi-demiological research and fast responses. Theproject is based at the Comprehensive RuralHealth Centre, a 60-bed hospital in Ballabhgarh,Haryana, and provides healthcare to around147,000 people in 100 villages. An ElectronicMedical Record (EMR) system that runs on ahandheld computer was designed. Over40,000 patient records, previously collected bythe Ballabhgarh centre, are entered into thefour handheld computers. The EMR allows for

clinical documentation of pregnancies anddeliveries, alerts for medications used duringpregnancy, and scheduling of immunizationfor children.

The Auxiliary Nurse Midwives (ANMs) reportedthat the computers made an immediate differ-ence to their work in that they now had thepast medical history of the expectant motherat their fingertips. This helped them with on-the-spot decisions on whether the patientneeded iron or vitamin supplements orwhether there had been a difficult pregnancyin the past. The ANMs also found it easier tocollect data during their rounds as the point-and-click interface made data entry fast andeasy. It also replaced the cumbersome paper-based process for data collection in the past,which would be dictated to a data entry oper-ator in the computer centre at Ballabhgarhevery month. With the new system, data gath-ered by the ANMs on the handheld computersare collected by a van and transferred to thecomputer centre at Ballabhgarh daily. Sincedata are now collected on a daily basis, dis-eases can be tracked as they spread and cor-rective action taken. The doctors atBallabhgarh are now deeply interested inusing the CASH system to combat infectiousdiseases such as malaria and tuberculosiswhich are prevalent in the area.There are otherexamples of the use of similar data collectionand management techniques in the country(Box 10.2).

The use of ICTs in public education and awareness

One of the main problems in eradicating childmortality has always been the lack of aware-ness, information and education. Timely andeffective dissemination of information forhealthcare is the key to overcoming this prob-lem. In this context, ICTs can play a very power-ful role in improving public awareness ofhealthcare.

Many of the Thai government’s major healthpromotion programmes and projects have ahealth-education component, and ICTs are usedto deliver health information and/or knowledgeto pregnant women and mothers of newborns,as well as healthcare workers. Traditional ICTssuch as radio, video and television programmesare mostly used and these accompany less-cost-ly print media such as booklets, newsletters and

Time is of importance instopping the spread of

communicable diseases. ICTs can play

an integral role in preventing disease

dispersion through thetracking of cases and

incidents. This willenable healthcare

professionals to bealert enough to warn

people to take the necessary precautions,

and thus stop thespread of the disease

at the initial stages


153ICTs and health

magazines. Some major health promotion pro-grammes include:

● the Thalassaemia Prevention and ControlProject, which aims to reduce the numberof thalassaemic infants by 10 per cent

● Baby-Friendly Hospitals which promotebreastfeeding

● the Safe Motherhood Project which pro-vides special care to women during preg-nancy, labour and post-labour, and

● the Under-Five Child Development Project,which instructs mothers on child develop-ment through a nutrition and developmentcorner at each hospital and health facility.

The Office of Health Promotion also has its ownradio programme, which broadcasts healthinformation on AM and FM channels for 30 min-utes each week. About 20 to 30 per cent of theairtime is allocated to maternal and child-relat-ed health information.Video cassettes have alsobeen used extensively to provide health-relatedknowledge and these are distributed to publicand community hospitals as well as health facil-ities. Hospitals generally run these programmesat the outpatient lobby or in the nutrition anddevelopment corner.

Since 1999,Thailand’s Department of Health hasbeen operating a 24-hour hotline where peoplecan phone to make health-related inquiriesand/or look for health consultation. The auto-

mated answering machine guides usersthrough 692 topics, grouped under 23 cate-gories of health-related issues. In 2002, a total of673,885 calls were received. The three mostpopular categories were sex (583,706 calls or86.62 per cent), mental health (64,554 calls or9.6 per cent), and general health and communi-cable diseases-related issues (55,080 calls or8.17 per cent).1

Similarly in China, television plays a very impor-tant role in enhancing public awareness ofhealthcare due to its high penetration densitynationwide. China’s Central Television (CCTV)network has launched a special programme onmaternal and child health. Such disease preven-tion techniques have had a positive impact onmass behaviour and achieved significantresults. Carefully tailored and targeted mes-sages have played a role, through a combina-tion of local and nationwide broadcasting,where appropriate, so that the majority isexposed.

In Mongolia, the Health Promotion Departmentis in charge of health education and promotion;media campaigns; health and behavioural sur-veys; developing, planning and distributinginformation, education and communicationmaterials; and social mobilization to create ahealthy environment. It also develops, designsand distributes health education messages andadvertisements for radio and TV. The ESS studio

ICTs are seen as apotential tool in theglobal response to theHIV/AIDS pandemicbecause they offer thefeasibility, at arelatively low cost, ofproviding access toinformation andknowledge to thoseworking on the problem, to those who are suffering from the disease or its effects, and to those who need to take preventive action

Teledoc, also known as Handy Vaid, is an initiative of Jiva Ayurveda in the state of Haryana, India, thatseeks to get timely health advice and medication to the patient’s doorstep by making innovative useof Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs). A representative carrying a PDA through the village collectsinformation and queries from the villagers using a pre-designed consultation form.This informationis then transferred to a city doctor, who diagnoses the problem and suggests appropriate treatmentand precautions.The doctor’s diagnosis and suggested treatment is then transferred to the PDA andcarried back to the villager.Teledoc is seen as the solution to improving health services and the over-all living conditions in some of the world’s most under-served areas. Since this programme does notrequire doctors to travel to or live in remote locations, it will be possible to get the benefits of spe-cialist medical advice even to the most remote and inaccessible population. It also provides anopportunity for international travellers to volunteer as field consultants to the programme.

The project, supported by the Soros Foundation, began in June 2002 for a period of three yearsand six months: till December 2005. With a total budget of US$ 327,180 and a per patient cost ofUS$ 15, it aims to provide treatment to 7,500 people in five villages by December 2002; to 12,000people in eight villages by December 2003; 18,000 people in 12 villages by December 2004; and22,500 people in 15 villages by the end of 2005.

Sources: http://www.apnic.net/mailing-lists/s-asia-it/archive/2003/01/msg00017.html and http://www.jiva.org/programs/description.asp?program_id=2

Box 10.2 The Handy Vaid project in India: using ICT for consultation



produces and broadcasts TV spots, healthadvice, health-education programmes andradio promotions, which are received by more100,000 people throughout the country. Thebroadcasting schedule includes a reproductivehealth series and TV spots. Programmes onreproductive health, safe motherhood andhealthy environment for children are aired onradio twice a week.

ICTs and the prevention of diseases

Time is of importance in stopping the spread ofcommunicable diseases. ICTs can play an inte-gral role in preventing disease dispersionthrough the tracking of cases and incidents.Thiswill enable healthcare professionals to be alertenough to warn people to take the necessaryprecautions, and thus stop the spread of the dis-ease at the initial stages.

Given the current and projected impact of theepidemic on development, reversing HIV/AIDSbecomes the most important MDG; andprogress towards this particular goal will be aprecondition for reaching all other MDGs.

Though having a much longer history, malariacontinues to challenge national governmentsand poses a significant public health problemin parts of Asia, Latin America, the Middle East,Eastern Europe, the Pacific, and sub-SaharanAfrica. It is now believed that there are 300million cases of malaria each year, and the dis-ease kills over 1 million people a year, mainlychildren. This translates into a death frommalaria every 30 seconds. Together withHIV/AIDS and tuberculosis (TB), malaria is amajor barrier to economic and social develop-ment, especially in Africa where 90 per cent ofthe cases occur. In keeping with targetsdefined at the African Summit on Roll BackMalaria in 2000, one of the MDG’s health tar-gets also includes having halted and begun toreverse the incidence of malaria and othermajor diseases by 2015.

The number of TB cases has been on the declinesince 1980 in most industrialized countries andstill is, although the rate of decline has slowedlargely because of trends in immigration.Nevertheless, the global incidence rate of TB isgrowing at approximately 0.4 per cent per year,and is growing much faster in sub-SaharanAfrica and in countries of the former SovietUnion. Today, one-third of the world’s popula-

tion is infected with the TB bacillus. Of this poolof infected people, about 8 million become sickwith TB every year of which 2 million die.Current trends indicate that between 2000 and2020, nearly 1 billion people will be newlyinfected, 200 million will develop the disease of which 35 million will die. The rise in TB is sogreat that WHO’s World Health Assembly, in an unprecedented step, declared TB a globalemergency.

ICTs are seen as a potential tool in the globalresponse to the HIV/AIDS pandemic becausethey offer the feasibility, at relatively low cost, ofproviding access to information and knowledgeto those working on the problem, to those whoare suffering from the disease or its effects, andto those who need to take preventive action.ICTs can also play a significant role in combatingmalaria, TB and a host of other infectious dis-eases.They can do so by enhancing the effective-ness of health institutions, improving primaryhealthcare and delivery of health services inrural areas, and also by serving as an advocacytool in raising awareness of prevention andtreatment methods.

Addressing the HIV/AIDS pandemic requiresdelivering timely, credible information from anarray of development sectors, not just to clini-cians and medical scientists, but also behaviouralspecialists, policy makers, donors, activists,industry leaders, and affected individuals andcommunities – many living and working insome of the world’s poorest, least-wired coun-tries. Table 10.1 provides a schematic picture ofthe kind of knowledge required by different tar-get groups.

Knowledge about care and treatment, educa-tion and prevention efforts is a prime area forthe effective use of the new ICTs in the battleagainst HIV/AIDS. Its promise of enabling easeof access to information and knowledge at arelatively low cost for different interest groupsis its main attraction. This allows for networksthat have the potential to link partners in dif-ferent spheres and locations, in the North andin the South, in their efforts to apply rapidlyincreasing knowledge to action. Therefore,efforts should be made to take advantage ofthe potential of ICTs to stimulate the creationand sharing of appropriate knowledge, and tostrengthen alliances among civil society institu-tions as well as with the private sector and localgovernment.

ICTs can be used astools to collect and

analyse health information, measure

outcomes, and disseminate

information for relevantaudiences, whetherthey are healthcare

professionals,researchers, policymakers, or citizens


155ICTs and health

For example, with low levels of AIDS awarenessin a country like Pakistan, and a cultural infra-structure that discourages the discussion of sexualpractices and drug use, information dissemina-tion is essential.Television and radio advertisingcampaigns have been the primary mechanismemployed by the Government of Pakistan inspreading awareness about AIDS. It has alsoused mainstream television programming, airedduring prime time, to educate viewers aboutAIDS through several private sector televisionseries productions that focus on life with AIDSand discrimination against AIDS patients as thecentral theme of the plot. The first such showwas Bujhta Hua Diya (The Extinguishing Lamp),which aired in 1994.

Malaysia’ PROSTAR is an innovative experi-ment at information dissemination. Initiatedin 1995, PROSTAR is a community mobilizationprogramme where youths aged between 16and 25 are trained as peer educators who, inturn, plan and implement suitable activities toinfluence other youths to practise healthylifestyles. PROSTAR has more than 850 clubsthroughout the country, most of which arebased in secondary schools, with a total mem-bership of 20,000. It runs an e-forum on itswebsite targeted at this large pool of potentialusers. Even if they do not have computers athome, they can make use of the computers intheir schools or they can patronize Internetcafés.

The Department of Health’s AIDS/STD Sectionprinted posters and distributed them to variousPROSTAR clubs to publicize the launching of the

new website. The Section’s emphasis on youth-related activities is understandable. Accordingto the AIDS/STD Section’s 2001 Annual Report,an average of 16 new HIV-positive cases arereported each day, the majority being peopleaged between 20 and 49. And, 40 per cent ofthose in this category are young adults agedbelow 29.2

The AIDS/STD Section is now making use ofICTs to effectively monitor peer-educator train-ing programmes and other activities at the var-ious PROSTAR clubs. In 2002, it launched an in-house network PROSTARNET, which links theSection with its 115 state and district-levelbranches throughout the country. Each branchkeeps track of all the clubs within its territoryand sends reports to its headquarters viaPROSTARNET. The reports cover membershipdetails, activities of the clubs, activities ofPROSTAR officers, club committee meetings,proposed projects, progress on the implemen-tation of approved projects as well as trainingprogrammes.

Previously, the Section had to rely on the tele-phone, fax and on-site visits to obtain reports.With the availability of PROSTARNET, it not onlyreceives reports quickly but is also able to traceinactive clubs so that immediate steps can betaken to revive them. Earlier efforts to launchPROSTARNET were delayed due to the reluc-tance of various district-level branch officials touse it, as they were not very IT-literate.The prob-lem was resolved through training on the use ofPROSTARNET and they are now doing so confi-dently.

ICT can be used as ameans of informationprovision andnetworking aimed atempoweringstakeholders andfacilitating consultations on policyformulation. It can alsosupport the sharing ofinformation amongmedical practitionersand researchersworking in the area

Objectives Types of organizations Type of knowledge

Communication International ● Biomedical● Social/behavioural

Mobilization National ● Interventions● Treatment

Sharing Regional ● Policy● To inform about research ● Local /community ● Monitoring/● To inform about care ● Governmental, evaluation

and treatment non-governmental ● Quantitative studies● To inform about prevention ● Research: medical, social, public ● Qualitative studies

activities ● Health action● Education● Health systems

Source: Driscoll, November 2001.

Table 10.1 Types of organizations, their objectives and types of knowledge



Using ICTs for surveillance of HIV/AIDS and other diseases

AIDS surveillance is well developed in most of theworld and HIV surveillance, often based on sen-tinel antenatal surveys, has been extensivelyimplemented, especially in Africa and other hard-hit areas.3 As the diversity of HIV epidemicsaround the world is becoming ever more appar-ent, existing HIV surveillance systems are ill-equipped to capture this diversity, or to explainchanges over time in mature epidemics. Effortsare now being made to build on existing systems,strengthen their explanatory power and makebetter use of the information they generate.

Strengthened systems, dubbed “second gen-eration surveillance systems”, are being devel-oped to yield information that is most usefulin reducing the spread of HIV and in providingcare for those affected. That means tailoringthe surveillance system to the pattern of theepidemic in a country. It means concentratingdata collection in populations most at risk ofbecoming newly infected with HIV – popula-tions with high levels of risk behaviour oryoung people at the start of their sexual lives.It means comparing information on HIV preva-lence and on the behaviours that spread it, tobuild up an informative picture of changes inthe epidemic over time.

In the circumstances, ICTs can be used as toolsto collect and analyse health information, meas-ure outcomes, and disseminate information forrelevant audiences, whether they are healthcareprofessionals, researchers, policy makers, or citi-zens.That is, they can be used both for monitor-ing the HIV/AIDS situation in the country as wellas the efficacy of policies aimed at limiting thespread of disease.

With regard to the latter, by allowing for theplacement of vital information in the publicdomain,transparency can be encouraged, finan-cial commitments tracked and governmentsheld accountable.4 Having data sets that arereliable and consistent (between and withincountries) is essential for planning and monitor-ing policies and programmes, for national andglobal advocacy, for making decisions about theintervention mix, and for providing a focus forthe different sectors and actors.5

For example, in Thailand, an ‘Annual Surveillanceof HIV Infection’ has been adopted by the

Ministry of Public Health since 1995 (rather thanthe semi-annual surveys conducted between1989 and1994). In this project, ICTs have playeda significant role in the data collection, analysis,and dissemination of results, which enables theMinistry to have up-to-date surveillance data forbetter management and control of the AIDSepidemic.

The Tak Malaria Initiative, carried out in thenorthern Thai province of Tak, along the Thai-Myanmar border, was implemented duringNovember - October 2002. Supported by the Billand Melinda Gates Foundation, an informationnetwork was set up to allow the submission ofdiagnosed malaria cases from district healthcentres to provincial health centres using elec-tronic forms. With such a system in place,provincial health centres were able to monitorand predict the number of malaria cases moreeffectively, and health authorities were betterplaced to control and prevent the spread of themalaria epidemic.

Sri Lanka also uses ICTs for purposes of surveil-lance and research.The Malaria Research Unit ofthe Department of Parasitology at theUniversity of Colombo Medical Faculty uses aGIS to monitor the spread of the disease in sev-eral selected Grama Niladhari divisions atBadulla and Moneragala districts. This GIS data-base was developed using the data collectedbetween 1997 and 2002. Based on this GIS data-base, the unit has prepared a risk map to indi-cate the areas more prone to malaria.

ICTs for information exchange and networking

ICTs can be used as a means of information pro-vision and networking, aimed at empoweringstakeholders and facilitating consultations onpolicy formulation. It can also support the shar-ing of information among medical practitionersand researchers working in the area. It giveshealthcare providers, researchers and policymakers the opportunity to engage in discussionthrough local/global discussion groups and/orWeb boards, and thereby, serve as a good venuefor easy sharing and consultation on varioushealth issues.

For example, India’s Saathii (Solidarity andAction Against the HIV Infection in India) is anorganization that seeks to disseminateresearch, training and funding-related informa-

The benefits of applyingICTs in healthcare areconstrained by limited

human and institutionalcapacities, common tomost poor developing

countries. Theseinclude large gaps inbasic infrastructure

availability, the abilityand willingness of

health workers and others to make use ofthe opportunities, the

availability of relevantand/or localized digital

content, governmentregulations and policies, and its

sustainability and scalability


157ICTs and health

tion on a real-time basis to those with limitedaccess to libraries and the Internet. It publishesa weekly/daily electronic newsletter providinginformation on current research advances inbehavioural and basic science and clinicalaspects of HIV/AIDS that are relevant toresource-limited settings; updates on HIV-relat-ed national and international conferences;national and international training pro-grammes; funding announcements that arerelevant to India; and news items and lettersthat merit political action.

It also collaborates with AIDS-India e-forum todisseminate India-relevant information on adaily basis. It seeks to facilitate active discus-sions on current HIV events relevant to India,and sharing of information on various pro-grammes, individuals and experiences. TheAIDS-India e-forum is a virtual organization setup as a Yahoo! e-group forum in response tothe AIDS crisis in India. It facilitates networking,communication and collaboration amongthose of who are involved or interested inAIDS-related issues in India. It has more than1,700 registered members, and is currentlyextremely active with four or more messages/responses circulated every day (Box 10.3).

ICTs can be used as a communication tool inself-help group initiatives such as peer coun-selling and consultation. It can also be used asa means of building communities of thoseaffected by HIV/AIDS and can serve as an

online source of mutual support. Thailand’sKaew Diary, is one popular example of a civicmovement to offer community support forHIV-infected and AIDS patients. Initiated by anHIV-infected woman, the website, (www.kaew-diary.com) is used as a medium of communi-cation. The website started out as a personaldiary posted on one of the most popular por-tal sites, www.pantip.com, where Ms. Kaewwrote about her experience of being diag-nosed as HIV-infected when she was applyingfor a new job a few years ago. The feedbackwas very encouraging, and she got many kindwords and support from people who read herstory. Later on, more people volunteered tohelp with her “cyber community”, by develop-ing a website, and enriching its content anddesign. Approximately 3,000 people haveapplied to be a member of her website, onwhich they can search for information,exchange information and experiences, orseek consultation.

Through ICTs, partnerships at the regional orinternational level can also be formed to tapinto pooled resources and focus the effortagainst HIV/AIDS. SEA-AIDS, for example, is anemail-based information network that receives,manages, edits and disseminates informationrelated to HIV/AIDS. It supports a discussionforum among over 1,000 people working andliving with HIV in the Asia-Pacific region. Theproject was developed, launched and run inThailand in 1996 with the support of UNAIDS. In

Successful ICT initiatives are usuallythose that respond to“real social needs”rather than being prescribed by “technology pushers” –initiatives where technical and contextual knowledgeare disconnected, andwhere the control islocated outside thecommunity

India’s Samuha is an organization that has been working since 1989 among the poor in the stateof Karnataka, with a range of activities in its portfolio. One of its arms is Samraksha, which focus-es on counselling, care and support of People Living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA). The organizationhas a network of five outreach sites for counselling, six outpatient clinics, two 10-bedded RespiteHomes, and community-based home care and hospital support services.

Over the year 2002, Samuha has set up Samuha communications to combine fieldwork withinformation documentation and dissemination. This initiative is based on the premise that anywork that requires long-term attitudinal changes, such as HIV/AIDS prevention, has to reach outto a wider number of people, and that most development organizations are not equipped totake on the additional task of communicating their findings and experiences.

One pilot project aims at using ICTs and GIS technology for a networked HIV/AIDS interventionand awareness programme in Devadurga Taluka of Koppal district in North Karnataka.Networked intervention cells ensure that the team responsible for setting up a district resourcecell will also serve as an interface with the local community. The project will use macro-socialfeedback from a GIS mapping of HIV/AIDS afflicted communities in these areas, which will beexecuted in collaboration with the Centre for Knowledge Societies in Bangalore.

Box 10.3 India’s Samuha: support for people living with HIV/AIDS



1998, the forum moved to the HIVNET platformhosted by the Foundation du Present (FdP) andis currently moderated and managed by Health& Development Networks with support fromFdP. Experts have done research to assess thebenefits of such electronic networking amongHIV/AIDS organizations. It was found that SEA-AIDS has proven to be much more than a mech-anism for discussion, updates and articles. It haschanged the way people involved in HIV/AIDSprogrammes communicate and work on a day-to-day basis. By facilitating fast, easy and opencommunications across geographic and sec-toral borders, SEA-AIDS has demonstrated thatnetworking and information sharing are crucialto strengthening and uniting the response tothe epidemic.6

In a survey of SEA-AIDS members, 97 per centfound the services useful, 99 per cent saw it as agood source of information and 86 per cent saidit had helped them find other people workingon the same topics.7 However, almost half ofthose surveyed also reported that they were toobusy to contribute to such a network. Theresearchers concluded that electronic networkscould help to meet the expressed needs forimproved collaboration, and sharing of informa-tion and experiences in response to HIV/AIDS.Many people participate and benefit passivelyby observing discussions, while others activelycontribute.

In China too, ICTs have been an integral part ofthe country’s fight to stop the spread of diseases.On 1 January 2002, China’s Ministry of Healthissued an Internet-based Disease PreventionInformation System (DPIS) that requires the localauthorities to report diseases in a timely manner.The major objective is to collect timely and accu-rate information on epidemic diseases nation-wide so that decision makers are able to adoptappropriate measures to stop the disease early.The DPIS is an important public health pro-gramme in China. The government of Guilin cityruns a Computer Telephone Integrated DPIS tomonitor the programme and has significantlyenhanced its efficiency.

Challenges to adopting ICTs in healthcare

The benefits of applying ICTs in healthcare areconstrained by limited human and institutionalcapacities, common to most poor developingcountries.8 These include large gaps in basic

infrastructure availability, the ability and willing-ness of health workers and others to make use ofthe opportunities, the availability of relevantand/or localized digital content, governmentregulations and policies, and ICT sustainabilityand scalability.

While ICTs can help improve the health status ofpopulations, there are major constraints such asaccess to the higher bandwidth, required fortransmitting physiological data and complexmedical images, as well as high telecommunica-tion costs. Many challenges to the viability ofrural ICT projects remain, given the limitationsof access to electricity, telephony, Net-connec-tivity and other basic infrastructure.9 Except forMalaysia, constraints such as lack of access totelecommunications and high costs have pre-vented the deployment of ICTs on a strategiclarge-scale level. These constraints are moresevere in developing countries like Pakistan,India and Indonesia, where even dial-up accessvia normal telephone lines, let alone broad-band, is limited. Many countries lack the basicinfrastructure to support use of ICTs. Failure to address these problems would mean thatICTs will not play “more than a marginal role”10.The implementation cost is far too high toachieve critical mass for realizing any realimpact.

In Vietnam, the use of ICTs in healthcare is stillin the start-up stage. It is mostly limited tosmall-scale initiatives at local levels and is notsystemized. ICT applications have been deploy-ed in over 30 hospitals but these costly applica-tions face the problem of integration as theywere developed by different software compa-nies. The lack of ICT specialists and low comput-er literacy in the health sector is a big challengefor the implementation of ICT applications inthe sector. The quality of the health data inVietnam is also still a problem because ICT hasnot been widely and efficiently used in thehealth sector.

The actual impact of ICTs in healthcare hingeson the ability and willingness of health administra-tors to adopt ICTs as a tool. The lack of computerskills has prevented many healthcare professionalsfrom harnessing the potential of ICTs. Inertia andthe fear of new technologies have also prevent-ed many from utilizing ICTs.

There is under-utilization of even available serv-ices in some localities due to socio-cultural and

Many countries lack thebasic infrastructure to

support use of ICTs.Failure to address

these problems wouldmean that ICTs will not

play “more than amarginal role”


159ICTs and health

economic barriers. Thailand’s tele-consultationusage was not as high as anticipated, mainlydue to rural physicians and city medical special-ists being unfamiliar with the system. Also, thevery high workload of rural physicians made itdifficult and inconvenient to schedule consulta-tion times.

Although the diffusion of ICTs in healthcarehas had varying successes, its application is stillat a primary stage. In order to reduce infantand child mortality, improve maternal healthand combat infectious diseases, access to hos-pital services, especially for the poor, must beimproved. One major challenge is to reducethe huge digital divide between rural andurban areas caused by imbalanced ICT diffusion.Specific health support is needed, includinginvestment in ICT infrastructure, and govern-ments should promote its use and developmentin rural areas, especially to improve the popu-lation’s health. It is also important to focusefforts on educating health professionals onthe use of ICTs and providing them with neces-sary connectivity, rather than to the popula-tion at large. With proper knowledge and con-nectivity, these professionals will, in turn,spread health benefits and knowledge to awider group of people.11

Another challenge which developing countriesface is that the information economy functionsmainly in English. While a majority (59.8 percent) of the total global online populationcomes from non-English speaking zones, 68.3per cent of web pages are written in English.12

Similarly, the bulk of medical information inonline databases is in English. This means thatfamiliarity with English is essential to become adigital citizen, and implies that non-Englishspeaking countries should invest either in thegeneration of software in local languages or indeveloping English language skills, or both.Although the number of non-English websitesis growing rapidly, it is still not keeping pacewith the English-oriented World Wide Web.13

Unfortunately, for countries experimentingwith ICTs for healthcare, information transmis-sion through websites is still mainly limitedto one-way transmission, from the experts tothe public. This is reflected in the constructionof expensive portals, accessible only to otherexperts, urban users and those literate inEnglish. Interactive usage and public activismthrough the portal is clearly lacking due to

the unavailability of innovative and interac-tive local-language content that is presentedin an easily understood manner, without theuse of medical jargon. While good traininghas been offered to select professionals onbest practices in HIV/AIDS prevention, thistype of information remains unavailable tomost of the general population. Consequen-tly, many complementary sectors of massmedia and popular culture are, on the whole,under-utilized.

In some developing countries, there is lack ofgovernment will to fully exploit the benefits ofICTs. For example, in Indonesia, the medical fac-ulty of Gajah Mada University conducted a pilotstudy in 1990 on radio-telemedicine that linkedit with Sardjito Central Hospital and five pilothealth centres in a selected district. The systemallowed emergency message transmission,interactive discussions among faculty membersand medical consultation from the health cen-tre. This simple technology used low radio fre-quency and had notable success in the earlydetection of an outbreak of food poisoning.However, there seems to be no intention toupgrade or sustain the system due to shortageof funds and the low incentive has led to thelack of community enthusiasm.

The Mongolian Government has created pro-grammes to improve the promotion of healtheducation to the population, as well as a legalenvironment to implement information, educa-tion and communication activities. But thehealth expenditure budget on ICTs is not ade-quate and many websites still depend on inter-national NGOs and cannot provide up-to-dateinformation regularly. As for the PakistaniGovernment, its role in promoting telemedicinehas been limited to policy commitments andthe occasional reference to telemedicine atpolitical events. The one example of a workingtelemedicine initiative of the government, theDistance Learning and Telehealth (DLT) clinic inGujjar Khan, has had serious Internet accessproblems due to the country’s still-evolvingtelecommunications infrastructure.The DLT wasestablished as a pilot programme of COMSATS,a government-owned ICT and Internet serviceprovider, managed by the Ministry ofInformation Technology. The telehealth pro-gramme has come to a stand still due to inap-propriate and inefficient Internet service andunavailability of adequate bandwidth requiredfor telemedical applications.

Specific health supportis needed, includinginvestment in ICTinfrastructure, andgovernments shouldpromote its use anddevelopment in ruralareas, especially toimprove thepopulation’s health



Finally, successful ICT initiatives are usuallythose that respond to “real social needs” ratherthan being prescribed by “technology push-ers”.14 In contrast, initiatives, where technicaland contextual knowledge are disconnectedand the control is located outside the commu-nity, are more likely to fail.15 More attention

needs to be paid to innovative ways of apply-ing ICTs to the specific information needs ofcommunities and local groups. That includesfocusing on building local skills to encouragethe process of local appropriation16 and rein-forcing traditional information communica-tion networks.17


Photo 4/8/05 11:57 AM Page 21

Photo: Amit Khullar

Photo 4/8/05 11:57 AM Page 22

Internet-basedcommunities have been formed all overthe world byenvironmental activists. ICTs, by their very nature, have variousapplications that gobeyond mereinformation distribution – analysisof data is one of theirkey potentials.

Technology’s role in environmental protectionand sustainability is undisputed. ICTs, in particu-lar, are gaining in relevance amidst the increas-ing concern for the environment worldwide.Internet-based communities have been formedall over the world by environmental activists.ICTs,by their very nature,have various applicationsthat go beyond mere information distribution –analysis of data is one of their key potentials.Hence, they can make a valuable contribution toa sustainable environment by improving moni-toring and response systems, facilitating envi-ronmental activism and enabling more efficientresource use.

Material on most environmental managementissues is scattered. It is possible to use theInternet to put together and classify the material.Information on water management would be ofparticular interest to most developing countries.

ICTs can also influence the functional adjust-ments and changes required to help sustain theenvironment. A free-access website that tracksindustrial emissions, for example, can serve as aself-monitoring tool for private sector business-es with warning emails to the relevant officeswhen emissions approach a critical “limit”.

Additionally, ICTs can serve as devices to com-municate information and increase awarenessabout the importance of the environment andunderstanding of issues such as climate changeand biodiversity. A significant benefit that ICTsoffer any society or local community is the pro-vision of effective tools to exchange ideas,knowledge and even support, not only fromwithin a nation but also from global resources.The power of ICT as an information and network-ing medium enables citizens to act as environ-mental enforcement agents, alerting decision

makers to compliance infringements whileleveraging that power to reach and influencepublic opinion. Most, if not all, identifiable envi-ronmental initiatives that employ ICTs do sousing mass media, including the Internet andemail.Television and radio have also been inten-sively used in Asia. Any programme that exploitsthe connectivity these technologies offer car-ries the potential to increase sustainability,given appropriate content and training.

ICTs also play a unique role in ensuring envi-ronmental sustainability by bridging the infor-mation gap between the government and thepublic. Information flows from the public thatsupply qualitative, time-sensitive inputs fordecision-making can be crucial for policy. Onthe other hand, the development of ICTs andtheir use in the environmental area creates theopportunity for the government to ensure pub-lic access to environmental information andbroaden public participation in decision-making and implementation.

Further, ICTs directly facilitate improved deci-sion-making.Two application areas, key to natu-ral resource management, are GIS and remotesensing techniques. Both are relatively newdevelopments founded on what are referred toas geospatial technologies. Their relevance forensuring environmental sustainability is dis-cussed here.

Overall, the effect of the use of ICTs on theenvironment is by no means fully clarified.Berkhout and Hertin,1 in their report to OECD,cited three main types of ICT effects on theenvironment:

First Order Impacts are seen as the direct envi-ronmental effects of ICT production and use.

163

ICTs and environmental sustainabilityM

DG

s C h a p t e r 1 1



Positive effects include the use of ICTs for envi-ronmental protection purposes such asthrough the use of electronic devices for themonitoring of toxic waste disposal. The nega-tive effects stem from the production, use anddisposal of hardware such as computers,screens and network cables. Second OrderImpacts are seen as stemming from efficiencygains. These relate to the indirect environmentimpacts of the use of ICTs upon the structure ofthe economy and on production processes,products and distribution systems. Theseeffects are expected to be largely positive. Themain types of positive environmental effectsare dematerialization (getting more output forless resource input), virtualization (the substitu-tion of information goods for tangible goods)and ‘demobilization’ (the substitution of com-munication at a distance for travel). Third OrderImpacts are expected to result from feedbackprocesses, which refer to indirect effects on theenvironment, mainly through the impacts onlifestyles, value systems and consumption pat-terns of ICT use.These have “rebound”or feedbackeffects that compensate for adverse environmen-tal effects of higher economic growth and con-sumption stimulated by ICTs, through environ-mental efficiency. For example, the efficient useof natural resources could lead to a fall in thedemand for raw materials and other produc-tion inputs. Or new online information servicescould provide consumers with more informa-tion about practices that positively influenceconsumption patterns from an environmentalpoint of view.

Overall, the potential use of ICTs in this area,although largely untapped across developedand developing economies, remains enormous.However, technological determinism must beavoided. ICTs, like all technologies, may also beused by people who over-exploit naturalresources.They deliver positive outcomes only ifintegrated with appropriate policies and intoappropriate programmes.

GIS and remote sensing techniques

GIS and satellite remote sensing have played animportant role in collecting information relatingto sensitive and vulnerable forest and water-shed areas. They provide essential informationon both the quantity and quality of forestlandas well as wildlife inhabitants. They have alsobeen instrumental in monitoring changes inforestland.

Thailand uses GIS and satellite remote sensingto monitor progress in the country’s largestreforestation project. In Thailand’s “loves thetrees” forestry project (launched at HerMajesty the Queen’s initiative in 1999), satel-lite imagery is used to identify denuded forestareas in five Northern provinces. These areasconstitute the most important and threatenedwatershed. The project involves land and airpatrolling, and reforestation in forest and non-forest areas. All types of media are used –radio, village audio towers, and TV documen-taries in Thai language and local dialects – topromote public awareness of the project, andto solicit support. Four hundred people volun-teered to join the project, which has effective-ly been employing GIS to verify and monitorchanges in forest areas. The Governmentpledged to reforest 5 million rai in protectedareas to commemorate the fifth cycle of thereign of H.M. King Bhumiphol during 1994-2007. More than 3.5 million rai have beenreforested.

Other, urban uses of GIS have also been experi-mented with in Thailand. Its Department ofEnvironmental Quality Promotion piloted acommunity GIS for environmental manage-ment in four Tambon AdministrationOrganisations (TAOs). The system provides thefollowing outputs:

● physical data such as location, size, bound-ary and other geographical details

● infrastructure data such as access to elec-tricity, piped water, telephones, roads, watersources and health stations

● information on tourist sites● socio-economic data on population, house-

hold distribution, land ownership, occupa-tion, income, education, and health, and

● natural resource and environment data onland, water, forests, mineral resources, pollu-tion situation and pollution sources.

Local communities are expected to participateactively in collecting, updating and using infor-mation in the database. In this connection, theMinistry of Science and Technology supportsefforts by local academic institutes to familiar-ize TAOs with the GIS and its potential contri-bution to tourism management, tax collection,and natural resource planning and manage-ment under a “Technology Clinic” project.Similar urban uses have been made in India aswell (Box 11.1).

The power of ICT as aninformation and

networking mediumenables citizens to act

as environmentalenforcement agents,

alerting decision makers to compliance

infringements whileleveraging that power

to reach and influencepublic opinion


165ICTs and environmental sustainability

The two biggest challenges for GIS in Thailandare prohibitive cost and data inconsistencies. Toshare cost and to overcome the data problem,the Geo-Informatics and Space TechnologyDevelopment Agency (GISTDA) has a mandateto develop a national GIS master plan and aNational Spatial Data Clearinghouse. GISTDAwill set GIS standards, generate metadata, anddevelop prototypes for easy application by rele-vant agencies. It also has a mandate to promoteGIS use not only by line ministries but also bylocal administrative organizations.

In Sri Lanka too, remote sensing and GIS tech-niques have been applied for the detection ofchange in forest cover. In this project, twoLandsat TM images from 1988 to 1992 wereused to determine the deforestation in a selectedarea in Habarana in the Polonnaruwa district,North-central Province. GIS overlay operationsshowed that more than 1.2 per cent of the studyarea had been deforested in the four-year period.This demonstrated how effectively the combi-nation of TM and GIS techniques could be usedto find information of operational significancerelated to deforestation.

The Survey Department has been using GIS appli-cations for several years. Within their GIS data-base, the map of Sri Lanka has been divided into92 units or sheets. Data collection is done usingboth aerial photography and plan table methods.Information collected is used to build a threedimensional model. This process involves thePhotography, Remote Sensing and Airbase units

of the Department. The database provides,among other things, minute details such as thestart and end points of a river or the exact forestcoverage in a given area.The hydro layer has infor-mation on the capacity of reservoirs and qualityof water – which supports scientific managementof freshwater resources. The administrative layerdivides the island into provinces,districts and divi-sional secretariats (formerly known as assistantgovernment agent divisions). The beneficiaries ofthis information include the Urban DevelopmentAuthority, the Forest Department, CeylonElectricity Board, the Department of Agriculture,the Universities of Kelaniya and Moratuwa, and Sri Lanka Telecom. For example, the Departmentof Agriculture analyses data on terrain patterns tolocate areas with high soil erosion. The land uselayer will further add value to the system from anenvironment angle.

In Mongolia, the “natural resources managementsystem” project supported by DANIDA wasimplemented during 1998-1999 in two soums.The project objective was the formulation ofcounty guidelines for pasture management,based on information derived from satellite dataand geographic information systems coupledwith geo-positioning systems and its applicationfor sustainable livestock management.

Satellite data, namely, Landsat and Spot images,were captured over the territories of the soumsselected as project sites and processed to pro-duce dominant vegetation and land covermaps.Those maps were integrated with pasture

The development ofICTs and their use inthe environmental areacreates the opportunityfor the government toensure public access toenvironmental information and broaden public participation in decision-making andimplementation

GIS was applied for the rehabilitation of the water distribution system in the water zone ofMirzapur in Uttar Pradesh in India.1 The objective was to allow the water department to makekey improvements in the system to enable registration and regularization of water connec-tions. Since the water supply is shared among several zones, identification of the requiredinvestment based only on water supply system drawings was difficult. Computer-based mod-elling was required; and specific information was needed for this. A picture of the basic waterdistribution system along with node coordinates was required. The population for each nodewas used to estimate the demand. Without GIS, this information would have been almostimpossible to bring together quickly in the right format.

With GIS,the water supply network was evaluated along with property maps to estimate the pop-ulation at each node. Coordinates for each node were easily identified. Since the water supplymaps only showed recent system repairs and improvement, key elements of the system such assecondary distribution lines in neighbourhood streets were not updated. GIS was used to mapphysical survey information directly to the streets without creating a new water system map.Thisallowed a much finer grain of analysis than was possible with only the water system map.

Source:GIS Development website,http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/urban/overview/urbano0003a.htm

Box 11.1 India’s water system management at Mirzapur



management, socio-economic and demographicdata to depict the quality, carrying capacity,productivity and boundaries of pastureland. GISanalytical capabilities were mobilized to detectthe overgrazed or degraded and resource landsso as to enable better pasture planning. Publicparticipation was ensured throughout theentire process of project implementation, allow-ing herders and local managers to understandand apply sustainable resource managementconcepts in their businesses. However, despitethe long-term contribution to sustainability thatthe use of remote sensing and GIS technologiescould make, the government’s commitment toprovide human resources and technologicalservices was weak and outputs were discontin-ued two years after project completion.

Some studies have found that GISs are often notwell integrated with decision-making systemsin institutions. This results in pitfalls in imple-mentation of ICTs and their effectiveness. This isa potential problem that needs to be kept inmind when implementing these systems.

GIS as a tool against natural calamities

GISs are also potent tools in the management ofpotential or actual calamities. GIS techniques havebeen used in tracking and managing forest firesand floods. China has successfully experimentedwith the technique in these areas.

The ICT initiatives of the Mongolian Government,with the support of UNDP and the Governmentof Switzerland, include a new project to deal withdisasters titled ‘Strengthening the DisasterMitigation and Management System inMongolia’. The project aims to support theMongolian Government’s priorities on sustain-able development, environmental protectionand poverty alleviation by developing a naturaldisaster mitigation and management agencyaccredited at international and national levels.Project activity focuses on the establishment ofinformation and communication systems, andinformation databases for disaster management.

In 2002, JEMR Consulting Co. had assessed theperformance of ICT emergency activities for twocases of heavy windstorms that hit most parts ofMongolia, involving human deaths and substan-tial livestock losses. The first windstorm withdust and snow hit Mongolia during 5-9 April2001 and as a result, 23 people and 185,000 live-stock died. The economic loss was estimated as

Mongolian Tugrig 8.5 billion. Meteorologistsunderestimated the weather situation beforethis wind disaster and information dissemina-tion was taken as “not required”. Thus, informa-tion was not disseminated to the population. Asa consequence, the country was devastated.

The second windstorm,that occurred during 18-21March 2002, killed three persons and 50,000 live-stock. The total economic damage was estimatedas Mongolian Tugrig 2.1 billion.This windstorm hadthe same intensity and geographic coverage as theprevious one, but there were fewer human andlivestock deaths and lower economic loss due tothe use of ICTs. Before the storm, the weather serv-ice issued an emergency warning and disseminat-ed information to the entire population by meansof national radio, TV, e-newsletters, and portativeradio receivers. The professional weather service,ICT and Government-supplied radio communica-tion networks, introduced at bagh level in 2002,have played an important role in preventing oralleviating the consequences of natural disasters.

Similarly,Thailand’s Royal Irrigation Departmenthas launched an early warning system regard-ing floods in 10 water basins. Information on thewater level is transmitted from upstream sta-tions to downstream stations. For example,information from the Mae Taeng station, located32 kilometres north of Chiang Mai, provides a12-hour warning to Chiang Mai residents. Theinformation dissemination process uses mobilevehicles with loud speakers, manned warningboards, local radio and television. TheDepartment is also developing a system whichwill provide automatic reading of the waterlevel, transmit the information electronically todownstream stations and the Department with-in seven or eight minutes, and electronically dis-seminate the warning to the public.

The use of environmental databases

The development of effective environmental data-bases that can be used for tracking the status ofvarious environmental indicators is an importantway in which ICTs are applied to environmentalprotection. One relevant database, INFOTERRA, isan information retrieval system that providesinformation essential for effective environmentalmanagement that will help to ensure the sustain-able development of natural resources.

On the surface, such online databases or web-sites represent little more than information dis-

Technological determinism must beavoided. ICTs, like all

technologies, may alsobe used by people who

over-exploit naturalresources. ICTs deliverpositive outcomes only

if integrated withappropriate policiesand into appropriate

programmes



semination mechanisms on important environ-mental issues. However, the process by whichthey are constructed and maintained ensurescapacity and skills development at the grass-roots level (i.e. the organizations for which thewebsites are developed). Moreover, these web-sites represent an injection of new energy intothe work of organizations.

There are many national level databases aswell (Box 11.2). The National AgriculturalResearch Centre in Pakistan provides retro-spective searching facilities of 23 internation-al databases available on CD-ROMs, includingmajor agriculture and life sciences databasessuch as CAB, AGRIS, AGRICOLA and BiologicalAbstracts as well as specific databases likeTREE-CD, ECONLIT, FASTA, Pest Bank, Tropogand Rural, Aquatic Science and FisheriesAbstracts, to help scientists search throughrelevant world literature.

In Sri Lanka, the International Water Manage-ment Institute, part of the global networkknown as Consultative Group for InternationalAgricultural Research (CGIAR), is among theleading research institutions using ICTs for nat-ural resource management. Its work is centredon maintaining freshwater resources and irriga-tion research information on databases, and dis-seminating them through a website. Data relat-ed to research (currently under way) is firststored in a relational database within the sys-tem. This database might contain a large num-ber of different sets of parameters relating toan irrigation system. This data will be used tocreate 3D models, and the results then fed tothe organizational website.Two recent researchefforts published in this manner are: a project

to determine the possibility of utilizing thewater of Walawe River immediately before itenters the sea; and the impact of tanks (SriLanka’s man-made reservoirs) on spreading dis-eases such as malaria, filaria and dengue fever.

In Malaysia, the ASEAN Review of Biodiversityand Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) pro-vides an on-line platform www.arbec.com.my,for the effective dissemination of criticalresearch among members of the biodiversitycommunity in the region as well as interna-tionally. Earlier, it had been discovered thatalthough information on biodiversity wasreadily available, access to it was difficult dueto the disparate locations in which theresearch data was found. Moreover, to facilitatediscussion of the topics, researchers had toeither travel or use expensive modes of com-munication such as the telephone. With theprovision of financial assistance from theDemonstrator Application Grants Scheme,†

ARBEC has built an online portal that givesresearchers access to the database and per-mits them to critically discuss biodiversityissues. Internet technology cost-effectivelyenables equitable dissemination of criticalresearch within the biodiversity community.ARBEC also provides opportunities for upgrad-ing research skills of budding scientists.

ICTs for better monitoring of environmental violations

ICTs can be used for emergency communicationwith and at the grass-roots level, with significantimplications for environmental management.For example, one key use of ICT by the ForestDepartment in Sri Lanka is a communication

GIS and satellite remotesensing have played animportant role in collecting informationrelating to sensitive andvulnerable forest andwatershed areas. Theyprovide essential information on both thequantity and quality offorestland as well aswildlife inhabitants

In China, many national databases have been constructed for land evaluation and manage-ment, such as the 1:4,000,000 national database for population, environment and sustainabledevelopment; 1:1,000,000 national database for land cover (by county), national database for soil erosion, national database for cultivated land by slope steepness; 1:250,000 nationaldatabase for land cover (two periods), national database for wetlands, etc. Some of these data-bases were generated through the interpretation of the remotely sensed images.

Source: China Country Report, p. 81, box 8.3

Box 11.2 China’s national environment databases and management systems

† The Demonstrator Applications Grants Scheme (DAGS) in Malaysia has provided seed funding for several innova-tive development ICT applications to support environmental management. These pilot community-based projectsrepresent ICT best practices in the area of environmental management. The projects promote awareness for theprotection and conservation of natural resources.



system that effectively delivers informationregarding forest offences which helps deal withsuch actions immediately.The network is dividedinto three zones:

● from Colombo to Anuradhapura in theNorth-central part of the country

● from Colombo to Hambantota in theSouth-east of the country, and

● Kandy-Nuwara Eliya area in the Centralregion.

The Department head office in Colombo cancontact any zone through the network, whilethe provincial or local offices can only accessother offices within their own zone. Mobileunits of each office are accessible via a radionetwork. In the event of illegal activities takingplace in a particular region, the respectiveoffice is contacted over the network andinstructed to connect over the telephone topass on information through a secure channel.This avoids the risk of third-party interceptionof confidential information.

Additionally, Sri Lanka’s Environmental Founda-tion Ltd. (EFL), a public interest law group, has along history of using email to share information,and network with like-minded groups within thecountry and overseas. One early example is theuse of a primitive type of email to search informa-tion on rock quarries.This resulted in a successfulcampaign against the operation of a quarry atWeragampitiya, where vibrations and noise pollu-tion were damaging houses in the area.

In the mid-1990s, this facility was furtherexpanded to access databases containingenvironmental information at foreign universi-ties. Other successful cases of using effectiveemail communication were the campaignsagainst a diesel power generation plant at EtulKotte, near Colombo, and the proposedColombo-Katunayake Expressway. In the lattercase, environmental issues related to similarhighways in Israel and the USA were obtainedvia email and were comprehensively analysed.EFL similarly used email to obtain informationon what happened in the Nauru islands in thePacific, when confronted with a multinationalcompany that was about to begin exploitingextensive phosphate deposits in Eppawala inSri Lanka.

The pivotal role the Internet now plays in cam-paigns for conservation and environmental jus-

tice in Sri Lanka can be better appreciated byexamining how such campaigns have evolvedover time:

● In the early 1990s, there was mass agitationagainst the construction of the Kandalamatourist hotel on the banks of the historicKandalama reservoir. The print and broad-cast media were widely used in this cam-paign that also had elements of sit-inprotests and marches. Although the privatecompany – supported by the then govern-ment – went ahead with the project, publicprotests made it more environmentallyfriendly than was proposed initially

● In the late 1990s, citizen groups working onboth natural and cultural heritage conser-vation mounted opposition to the handingover of Sri Lanka’s largest known phos-phate deposit in Eppawala, in North-cen-tral Province, to a multinational miningcompany. Activists effectively used emailand websites to explain their views and tolobby international support against theproject. Several dozen websites or webpages were created and online petitionsand email campaigns used to pressurizethe Sri Lankan government and its donorsto abandon this mining project in an areafull of archaeological and natural sites.

In Indonesia pollution has been reduced sinceearly 1997, when the Environmental ImpactManagement Agency began using the massmedia to expose plants that are non-compliantwith their designed environmental standard.1 TheProgramme for Pollution Control, Evaluation andRating (PROPER) rates the water pollution pro-duced by 187 medium and large industrial plants.Performance ratings were based on the govern-ment’s existing data on compliance with waterregulations, responses to a survey about effluentdischarges, and rigorous on-site inspections.

Prior to disclosure in the media, theEnvironmental Impact Management Agencyrated only 35 per cent of the plants as “in compli-ance”, but after exposing companies to the mediathe compliance figure rose to 50 per cent.Surprisingly, improvements at facilities were moti-vated as much by the information that seniormanagement gained about their plant’s environ-mental performance as by the external disclosureof ratings. In most cases, plant managers had sim-ply not understood the level of wastes they werereleasing and the associated business costs.

GISs are also potenttools in management of

potential or actualcalamities. GIS

techniques have beenused in tracking and

managing forest firesand floods. China has

successfully experimented with the

technique in theseareas



The importance of having a dedicated source offunding is highlighted by the fact that thePROPER programme went into hibernation afterthe economic crisis of 1998. Such is the vulnera-bility of enforcement programmes. Fortunately,with the economy picking up, the programmere-emerged in the year 2003 with a new roundof ratings.

On a smaller scale, in Pakistan, a Self-Monitoringand Reporting Tool (SMART) for EnvironmentalProtection Agencies was developed throughthe joint efforts of SDPI and the Punjab andFederal Environmental Protection Agencies.SMART is a scalable software solution devel-oped for the management of reports generatedby industries under the self-monitoring pro-gramme. SMART maintains a database of indus-trial activities and the emissions/pollution levelsgenerated by specific industrial concerns, whichhelps redress imbalances.

Numerous opportunities exist for the use of ICTsby civil society initiatives directed at ensuringenvironmental sustainability. One was utilizedby civil society in Pakistan in 1999 for the SaveKirthar National Park Campaign. KirtharNational Park (KNP) is a protected area of308,733 hectares situated in Sindh province,80 miles north of Karachi (capital of SindhProvince). Kirthar was designated a nationalpark by the Sindh Wildlife Department in 1974,the first of Pakistan’s parks to be included in theUN’s listing of National Parks of 1975.

It first came into the public eye because of theproposed construction of a national highway in1991. The active involvement of civil societyresulted in a rapid assessment of the seriousdamage this project might have on the ecologyof the national park.

In July 1997, the Federal Ministry of Petroleum(Directorate General of Petroleum Concessions)Government of Pakistan, granted the DumbarBlock Exploration License to a multinational oiland gas exploration firm (Premier Oil). TheDumbar Block encompasses more than 90 percent of the Kirthar National Park, which enjoys‘Protected Area Status’. The Sindh WildlifeProtection Ordinance 1972, Section 15 prohibits“clearing or breaking up any land for cultivation,mining or for any other purposes”. Similarly, anotification of the Sindh Government issued inJanuary 1997 bans mining activities in nationalparks.

Spearheaded by The World ConservationUnion (IUCN)-Pakistan, SDPI and other NGOs inSindh province, a civil society campaign toprotest the illegality of the Dumbar BlockExploration License began in 1998. It was oneof the most visible and well-organized initia-tives for the environment in Pakistan’s history.Its use of the Internet and email to build acoalition of support for the protection of KNPis instructive for its simplicity and effective-ness. It generated frequent headlines in news-papers, both in Pakistan, and through theexposure it generated online, in global civilsociety journals and websites. While it failed tothwart Premier Oil’s designs in KNP, it persuad-ed its partner organization, Shell, to disengagefrom the project.

The Save Kirthar National Park Campaign estab-lished a website, now located at a free host(http://www.geocities.com/savekirthar).The sitegenerated numerous email messages to mail-ing lists in Pakistan (through the SDNP) andacross the world, and attracted media attention.The results induced Friends of the EarthInternational (http://www.foei.org/) to join thecampaign and take the oil and gas companies(Shell and Premier Oil) to court.

ICTs and energy consumption

Initially, ICTs generated activity in a substantiallynew business sector, i.e. the IT industry includ-ing software, hardware, knowledge manage-ment, and content development.The industry ischaracterized by the minimal use of “material”capital, and the premium it places on intellectualor human capital, i.e. knowledge.

Currently, and perhaps more importantly, ICTsare redefining the way products and services inthe economy are designed, produced, and oper-ated. The economy grows not just by addingmore resources (including energy resources)but by being increasingly efficient in the waythese resources are used to meet real humanneeds. ICTs have reshaped the very notion ofproductivity, allowing sharp increases in theefficiency with which materials, labour and cap-ital are used.

Additionally, many electronic gadgets anddevices have inbuilt energy saving and standbymodes which significantly reduce energy con-sumption. This is especially important in poorcountries with have low access to energy sources.

On the surface, onlinedatabases or websitesrepresent little more than information dissemination mechanisms on important environmental issues.However, the processby which they are constructed and maintained ensurescapacity and skillsdevelopment at thegrassroots level



ICTs can also be used to change energy con-sumption habits. In Thailand, one of the mostsuccessful projects using ICT to save electricityresulted in a saving of approximately 3,000 BTUper year or US$ 208 million (9,000 million Baht).The Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO),Ministry of Energy, has made extensive use ofthe media, especially TV and radio, to promoteits energy saving projects under the slogan of“Divided by Two” (reducing energy use by half ).Each year, EPPO invests heavily in TV and radioadvertisements and public campaigns, financedby the Energy Conservation Promotion Fundwhich comes from an oil tax surcharge. The tar-get audience is the general public, especiallyurban residents.

EPPO’s award-winning website –www.eppo.go.th – provides useful andfriendly content on various aspects of ener-gy, energy development and conservationprogrammes, and energy tips. It also servesas a gateway to TEENET (Thailand Energyand Environment Network), a network ofresearch and development organizations inthis field.

Using ICTs to empower slum dwellers

One of the indicators for the environmental sus-tainability MDG is the achievement of signifi-cant improvement in the lives of at least 100million slum dwellers by 2020. ICTs are playingan invaluable role here as well. By mapping land,recording land ownerships and simplifyingregistration and other transactions for tenuretransfer, ICTs contribute to current efforts forimproving the slum environment.

ICTs can also be used to help ensure potablewater supply. Their application ranges frommetering and reduction of transaction costs toorganizational maintenance functions such aspersonnel recruitment and management. Thefunctions of some organizations that areresponsible for supplying potable waterinclude construction of reservoirs and tappingof ground water resources, building and main-tenance of distribution systems, and assuranceof water quality. All these have benefited fromICTs.

Furthermore, technologies on sewerage, solidwaste management, and related sanitationfunctions can be adapted from developedcountries and appropriately modified for devel-

oping nations. John Daly2 emphasizes theimportance of ICTs in empowering the urbanpopulation and in improving the environmentas a whole:

“ICT can play a major role in urban planning andmonitoring urban development. The technologycan be applied to design and construction ofhousing, to the building supply industry, and toimproving the markets for housing, building sup-plies, labour for the construction industry, etc.

“ICT rollout is likely to empower slum dwellerswith access to information as well as withmore voice in public affairs, and with moreaccess to entertainment. While much can bedone to disseminate information with radioand television, telephone and the Internet areimportant in allowing the poor to expressthemselves and in allowing interactive com-munication. The rollout of communicationstechnology to enterprises and service centresworking in slums is likely to be ultimately ben-eficial to the slum residents receiving thoseservices, as is the general rollout of ICT to thelarger organizations such as the health andeducation ministries supporting the slumhealth centres and schools.”

Challenges and lessons

Despite the immense potential for applying ICTsto better the environment, broadcast mediasuch as radio and television remain the mostprevalently used ICTs for the environment, interms of information dissemination and knowl-edge networking. Our discussion suggests that,besides better appreciation and understandingof the current state of the environment, the keychallenges to utilizing ICTs for ensuring environ-mental sustainability are:

● ICTs are used mainly for environment mon-itoring and less attention is given to riskand vulnerability analysis

● the application of ICTs for environmentalsustainability is uneven across North andSouth, highly qualified and poorly educat-ed people, between different environmen-tal aspects, and among agencies withrespect to environmental management

● ICT tools are mainly used by State con-trolled organizations for environmentalprotection. The roles of NGOs and privateorganizations in ICT promotion for environ-mental sustainability remain weak

ICTs can also be usedto change energy

consumption habits. InThailand, one of the

most successfulprojects using ICT to

save electricityresulted in a saving of

approximately 3,000BTU per year



● the shortage of budgets results in ICT meas-ures being focused only on major environ-mental problems,such as disaster monitoring,soil erosion, and forest depletion, and

● public awareness remains weak in this area.

Training of skilled people and connectivityremain the two major challenges facingdeveloping countries aiming to use the tech-nology for environmental management inAsia.

Currently, research grants serve as one way ofencouraging ICT awareness and developmentin the environment arena. These effortsinclude UNDP’s Pan Asia ICT R&D GrantsProgramme, which calls for building institu-tional capacity in the developing countries of

the Asian region and encouraging innovativenetworking solutions to problems such asenvironmental management. Similarly, VirtualFoundation, an online philanthropy pro-gramme, carefully screens organizations, evenat the grassroots level, so that they can befunded by online donors. This initiativeencourages private philanthropy amongst cit-izens and also supports NGOs in their questfor environmental sustainability.

However, experience clearly shows that,although ICTs have enormous potential inensuring environmental sustainability, thespread of ICTs must not be an objective in itself.ICTs should be implemented in appropriate cir-cumstances coupled with the needed legisla-tive support and dedicated funding.


Photo 4/8/05 11:58 AM Page 23

Photo: UNDP Mongolia

Photo 4/8/05 11:58 AM Page 24

While the process ofglobalization inexorablycompresses the worldinto a global village,ICTs intensify andaccelerate the process.Developing countriesneed to cope with theprocess by adapting toit in ways that allowthem to appropriate itsbenefits and minimizeits adverse consequences

Revolutionary advances in information technol-ogy are reinforcing economic and socialchanges that are transforming business andsociety. From this evolution, a new kind of econ-omy – the information economy – is emergingin which information is the critical resource andthe basis for competition. Throughout theworld, ICTs are generating a new industrial revo-lution already as significant and far-reaching asrevolutions of the past. Old ways of doing busi-ness are being challenged, and sometimesdefeated, in this process.

This is part of the process of globalization, to theextent that the latter is mediated by technology.While globalization inexorably compresses theworld into a global village, ICTs intensify andaccelerate the process. Developing countriesneed to cope with the process by adapting to itin ways that allow them to appropriate its ben-efits and minimize its adverse consequences.The target of MDG 8 is to manage the effects ofglobalization through a focused partnership fordevelopment. Such a goal-oriented partnershipfor development can tie multiple stakeholdersinto joint risk-taking and reward-sharingrelationships.

In November 2002, the UN ICT Task Force waslaunched by the UN Secretary-General in orderto harness the power of technology for devel-opment. It is a UN endeavour that aims at fullyincorporating representatives from public andprivate sectors, non-profit organizations, andcivil society as equal members. The Task Force’smembership includes some of the world’s mostprominent business leaders whose decision-making power is equal to that of the repre-sentatives of governments and multilateralorganizations.

Through this system of collective input, the TaskForce has already achieved a common under-standing on priorities and tasks, as well as onthe most effective modalities for achieving thegoals set out in its mandate. The objective is tocreate a win-win situation, where the goals ofthe private sector, based primarily on the prof-it/loss criteria, would be increasingly comple-mentary and mutually reinforcing with broaddevelopment goals that the United Nationsworks to advance.

ICT partnerships involving the private sector, civil society and global organizations

Global companies must be persuaded to playan important role in this endeavour. This couldstart in their own corporate domains, throughthe application of good practices everywherethey operate. Understanding the far reachingeffects of this benefit, UN Secretary-General KofiAnnan has gone forward to invite the businesscommunity to join the “Global Compact” byincorporating in their own corporate practices aset of core values in the areas of labour stan-dards, human rights, the environment and theanti-corruption. This initiative has beenendorsed by a wide variety of business associa-tions, labour groups and NGOs.

However, the process cannot stop here.Governments alone cannot ensure that ICTsplay their designated role in development. Theeffort of developing the appropriate technologyand innovation aimed at reducing the costs ofthat technology is, most often, best undertakenby individuals, autonomous institutions, privatefirms and civil society organizations, that havethe requisite knowledge and the flexibility to

175

ICTs and global partnerships in AsiaM

DG

s C h a p t e r 1 2



ensure success. Partnerships between theseentities and the government – which serves asfacilitator and financier – and internationalorganizations, that provide technological andfinancial support for the process, would be nec-essary to accelerate the process of technologydevelopment.

An obvious area in which the private sector cancontribute is to impart skills that can help thepoor and the disadvantaged exploit ICTs if pro-vided access. Even if still on a marginal scalefrom a global point of view, work in this areahas begun as illustrated by Intel’s ‘Teach to theFuture’ programme discussed in Box 12.1. Theneed to multiply and strengthen such or similarprojects hardly needs emphasizing. Fortu-nately, private firms recognizing the need forcorporate social responsibility have entered thearea.

Civil society organizations that play a major rolein the development arena and have the knowl-edge, experience and the grassroots organiza-tion required to induct ICT into existing proj-

ects, and design projects aimed at utilizing ICTin innovative ways, have to be harnessed as well(Box 12.2).

Finally, international donors and NGOs, withtheir long track record in supporting develop-ment activities, collating international experi-ences and scaling up small experiments, cannotbut be involved in this emerging area. InPakistan, for example, SDNP, a programme fund-ed jointly by the UNDP, IUCN and IDRC in 1994,was responsible for helping develop websitesfor NGOs and development agencies at highlysubsidized rates. This created a significantmomentum for networking within the develop-ment community, the sharing of best practicesfor poverty elimination and the opening up of aworld of information and knowledge that layunexplored on the Internet.

Global partnership requires establishing rela-tionships among all these actors and betweenthem and the State in developing countries. Anexample of such a partnership is that betweenthe Sri Lankan government and a regional

UN Secretary-GeneralKofi Annan has goneforward to invite the

business community tojoin the "Global

Compact" by incorporating in their

own corporate practices a set of corevalues in three areas:

labour standards,human rights and the

environment

Intel’s ‘Teach to the Future’ is a worldwide effort to help both experienced teachers and pre-service teachers integrate technology into instruction and enhance student learning.

In Pakistan, Intel initiated its education programme, ‘Intel Teach to the Future’, in 2002 with amemorandum of understanding to train 13,000 school and college teachers across the coun-try. Intel has exceeded its original target by training 43,000 teachers and spreading the pro-gramme to 40 cities across Pakistan. Its success in 2002 resulted in Intel receiving a letter,praising the programme, from the President of Pakistan, General Pervez Musharraf.

In December 2001, Intel launched its worldwide effort to help teachers integrate technologyinto instruction – ’Teach to the Future’ – in Karachi, piloting two batches of master trainers,equipped with 60 hour of extensive training, an exhaustive set of modular training material,and licensed software for their personal use. The objective of the ‘Teach to the Future’ pro-gramme is to expand the scope of ICT use in the classroom through diffusing the capacity touse personal computing among teachers in primary, middle and high school across the coun-try. Intel’s own Senior Trainers train groups of Master Trainers who are awarded Master Trainercredentials upon committing to training at least 20 teachers from their own institutions for 40hours each. Intel’s Master Trainers monitor the follow-up training through ‘Buddy Visits’ andproviding constant feedback and support to the Master Trainers. Among the skills imparted toteachers through the programme are the use of the Internet, web page design, and desktoppublishing software such as Microsoft Publisher.

Intel’s programme targeted training 15,000 teachers during 2002, and surpassed that goal byimparting ICT skills to 19,000 teachers. In 2003, it aimed at training 50,000 teachers, or MasterTrainers. In theory, therefore, by the end of 2003, a total of 100,000 teachers in Pakistan willhave received ICT training through this programme.

Source: Banuri et. al. 2003 and http://www.intel.com/education/projects/global_tour/ h_18_pakistan/

Box 12.1 Intel’s ‘Teach to the Future’ programme


177ICTs and global partnerships in Asia

organization, the Asia Pacific BroadcastingUnion (ABU). Established in 1964, ABU is a mem-bership body that brings together State and pri-vate radio and TV broadcasters in the entire AsiaPacific region. It provides skills training, scholar-ships, programme exchange and other servicesfor member broadcasters which has helpedraise broadcasting standards in Sri Lanka.

Collaboration using ICTs in highereducation and research

Given the origins of the Internet as a tool forresearch collaboration, it is not surprising thatone area where partnership based on ICTs hasautonomously evolved to a substantial extent ishigher education and research. ICT tools havelinked worldwide research institutions, en-hanced scientific research and developed part-nerships for innovative projects. Commun-ication between universities and researchorganizations has increased collaborativeefforts between institutions and countries thatmutually exchange research ideas, acquireinterdisciplinary knowledge, solve special tech-nical problems on-site, share public informa-tion, compare methodologies and report newachievements.

In China, educational institutions are aggressivein establishing partnerships with foreign institu-tions and this is often done using ICTs. Apartfrom China, Indonesia has also been using ICTsto build partnerships with foreign researchinstitutes to enhance its education sector. Onesuch initiative is the Global Distance LearningNetwork (GDLN) project at University ofIndonesia. The project was approved by theWorld Bank in 2001 and had a budget of US$ 2million. Its objective is to test the potentialeffectiveness and sustainability of distancelearning in Indonesia, by delivering training

material developed by global institutions forvarious segments of the public, such as stu-dents, key decision makers in the public and pri-vate sectors and the public at large.

Thailand has also started initiatives using ICTs ineducation. One such key initiative is the ASEANSchoolNets project, where the ASEANFoundation is the main sponsor of the project.This initiative, a regional partnership, is aimed atincorporating the use of ICTs in schools toimprove the teaching and learning process.

Global Public Policy Networks (GPPNs)

Another set of new global partnerships haveemerged between what are termed variously asglobal civil society organizations, global socialmovements and, now more recently, as GlobalPublic Policy Networks (GPPNs). They are inter-national networks and coalitions that can workconsensually in developing sustainable policypositions. They have been effective in drawinginterest from a wide group of organizationswith similar objectives although operating indifferent local environments. GPPNs are seen tofill the gaps in terms of addressing North-Southissues.

The GPPNs are increasingly using ICT; and oper-ate rather informally. They are thus able tomobilize and respond quickly through publicpolicy campaigns which attract broad globalinterest. The globalization process and theInternet have, in turn, facilitated these loose andinnovative networks of organized action wheretraditional processes have failed to respond inan appropriate manner. The effectiveness ofGPPNs can be seen in their ability to addresscapacity gaps in national governance as well asin global governance when conventional insti-tutions have proven ineffectual.1 GPPNs, on the

Given the origins of theInternet as a tool forresearch collaboration,it is not surprising thatone area where partnership based onICTs has autonomouslyevolved to a substantialextent is higher education and research

TVE International is a non-profit organization working globally and locally to raise awarenessof environment, development, health and human rights issues through the media.

Established in 1984 by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and World Wide Fund forNature (WWF), TVE is both a producer and distributor of quality television programmes onenvironment and nature. It now holds the world’s largest collection of copyright-cleared envi-ronment and development programmes that are available to television broadcasters andnon-broadcast users across much of the world. Hundreds of television stations and thousandsof NGOs, universities, schools and activist organizations use these programmes for education,awareness, advocacy, training and activist purposes.

Box 12.2 The International Television Trust for the Environment (TVE International)



other hand, have succeeded in getting newissues onto the global agenda especiallythrough the use of ICT; facilitating negotiationsand setting standards that are globally accept-able; gathering and disseminating knowledge;helping to implement ideas and decisions; and,finally, enhancing public participation throughengagement with government, business andCSO networks. The potential and capabilityoffered by global partnership networks cannot beoverstated and should be leveraged fully by allsectors.

The use of technology itself generates partner-ships that have larger implications for develop-ment. These partnerships share information,views and experiences, and generate discussionfacilitated by the technology. They, therefore,help arrive at international positions, standardsand mechanisms on development, in general,and the use of ICTs for development, in particu-lar. Further, by helping mobilize a constituencyfor these democratically derived positions, stan-

dards and mechanisms they create internationalpressures on different actors – government, civilsociety organizations and the private sector toadopt them. These positions relate not just tothe use of ICT for development per se, but tomacroeconomic issues such as debt reduction,capital controls, fiscal and monetary policy andsustainable development, to name but a fewareas.

In general, the impact of ICTs in developing sus-tainable global partnership has been positivefor many countries. This has enhanced the newhope that ICTs have generated in the develop-ing world. Indeed, social and economic develop-ment are complex phenomena depending onvarious factors, and ICTs alone cannot solve thedeveloping world’s problems. However, integra-tion of ICTs into overall national and regionaldevelopment strategies expands the scope andcoverage of development interventions. Globalpartnerships that ICTs help forge can contributesubstantially to realizing that goal.


Photo 4/8/05 12:00 PM Page 25

Photo: Amit Khullar

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One of the most important constraints isno doubt sheer physicalaccess and, where suchaccess is available, thecost of such access.The first conclusion ofsignificance is the needto increase the reachof the technology, notmerely physically butalso at reasonable cost

Given the nature and the power of ICTs, the per-ception that they can be used as enablingdevices in the effort to realize the MDGs is well-grounded and indisputable. They can be used:

● for information collation and analysis ● to serve as low-cost means of communica-

tion and information dissemination● to enhance the productivity of operations

varying from production and managementto marketing and delivery

● to help deliver services such as educationand health more efficiently to even remotelocations

● to help monitor the status of achievementand progress on all MDG fronts

● to help increase transparency and account-ability in a range of organizations, includinggovernment, and

● to encourage networking of a kind thatincreases the power of disparate and dis-perse organizations working toward thesame goals to jointly formulate alternativesand campaign strategies and lobby andpressurize governments into delivering onrequirements and promises on variousfronts.

Given the spread of the technology in Asia,countries in the region are in a position to useICTs for socio-economic and human develop-ment. Telephone availability, personal comput-er ownership and Internet access are increas-ing rapidly, facilitated by much lower start-upcosts, compared to those experienced bydeveloped countries initially, as well as bygrowing government support with pro-ICTpolicies and regulations.

This Report points to the significant role thatICTs can play in achieving the MDGs. The evi-

dence suggests that while countries areattempting to exploit these opportunities,progress has been slow. The experiences of thecountries chosen for special study as the basisof this Report suggest that, at a macro-level, ICTpolicy is indeed sensitive to human develop-ment concerns and seeks to use the technologyin partnership with NGOs, donors and the pri-vate sector. What needs to be examined, there-fore, is the degree to which this economy-widecommitment is being translated into specificprojects that advance specific MDGs. Though,many of the applications studied are in thenature of pilot projects – experimental in char-acter, small in scale and uncertain in terms ofsustainability – they provide the material toassess the role that ICTs can play as well as themodels that, if successful, need to be scaled up.

An objective of this Report, besides selectivelydocumenting the myriad experiments in differ-ent MDG-related areas, was to attempt tounderstand some of the constraints to extend-ing the effects of the technology as illustratedby specific experiments. One of the most impor-tant constraints is, no doubt, sheer physicalaccess and, where such access is available, thecost of such access. The first conclusion of sig-nificance is that there is need to increase thereach of the technology, not merely physicallybut also at reasonable cost. Increased reach hasmany aspects: spread of the required hardware;dismantling of barriers to access even when thetechnology is physically available; ensuring theavailability of the appropriate software; anddeveloping appropriate, people-sensitive con-tent in local languages. There is reason tobelieve that, in terms of these indicators, reach isstill limited. This is partly due to the inadequacyof the hardware that is in place in many coun-tries. In many contexts, aggregate indicators of

181

Conclusions and policyimplicationsM

DG

s C h a p t e r 1 3



reach are far from satisfactory even whenspread is rapid. Further, aggregate figures ofreach conceal the low penetration of telecom-munications capacity and a high degree ofurban and regional concentration.

Not surprisingly, the number of Internet usersrelative to the population is very small at pres-ent and many developing countries lag in termsof the bandwidth (or the pipe) necessary forpeople to simultaneously access informationflow through the Internet. Inter- and intra-coun-try variations in connectivity and access lendsome support to the idea that ICT diffusioncould well be accompanied by widening digitaldivides, stifling the effort to use the technologyfor enabling the realization of the MDGs. Thosewho have no or limited access to the technologyor the skills and knowledge required to exploitit fall further back in terms of their ability to usethe technology.

Very often the choice of policies to overcomethese constraints is posed in terms of a privatevs. public effort dichotomy. Advocates of privateentry and dominance in an area where the pub-lic sector has for long been the dominant player,suggest that public monopoly has been detri-mental to both access and cost. It is indeed truethat, in many contexts, private entry hasincreased competition and reduced costs.However, focusing on this alone would lead toignoring a number of factors.

First, private networks would be almost worth-less if they could not interconnect to the largeand historically evolved public network andexploit the network externalities that are wide-spread in these areas. Second, the private net-work reach is narrow, in the sense that it tendsto avoid areas where the terrain is difficultand/or where line and call densities are low.Thisis true even in environments such as Indiawhere there is a Universal Service Obligationattached to most licences given to operators inthese areas.

Narrow private reach is inevitable because ofthe profit motive underlying private invest-ments. While private initiative can supplementthe investment needed from the government, itis not always clear whether private providerswould be willing to offer connectivity in remotelocations at all, or at a reasonable cost. Reach ofa kind that is required for the pursuit of theMDGs would not materialize without public

involvement. The government may, in theprocess, avail of facilities created by the privatesector in areas where traffic density is high,especially if competition among private produc-ers has substantially reduced cost. However, inthe foreseeable future, government investmentwould be crucial in areas where traffic density islow or where remoteness or the difficulties ofgeography make the investment inadequatelyprofitable in the initial stages. The possibility oftapping profits from commercial exploitation ofthe technology through taxation, as in theexport of software and IT-enabled services,needs to be explored to finance the govern-ment’s investment for human developmentpurposes. This would ensure some degree ofholistic development of the ICT sector. Finally,private entry and competition results in thereplication of communications infrastructure inthe same area which, given the massive capaci-ty of individual optical fibre networks, for exam-ple, is wasteful and has adverse cost and viabili-ty implications in the long run.

Connectivity and hardware availability are onlyone end of the problem. ICTs require specificskills and that comes in the way of their adop-tion by underprivileged groups and regions.This could negate the effectiveness of the tech-nology for human development, even whenmade available, by strengthening the positionof economic and political elites vis-à-vis others.The elite has larger resources at its command toown or access the technology, can acquire thenecessary skills easily due to its higher levels ofsecondary and tertiary education, and canestablish links through ICT with other produc-tive and social sectors for appropriating newfacilities and opportunities. Progress alongmany MDG fronts is not just enabled by ICT but,in a complex two-way relationship, is also a pre-requisite for exploiting the technology.

The conclusion here is clear. A prerequisite forensuring an equitable information infrastruc-ture is investment: both public investment aswell as complementary private investment. Butthe infrastructure thus created may not in itselfbe equally accessible. So an ICT policy sensitiveto human development concerns mustemphasize universal service provision in thetelecom area. State initiatives to realize this areparticularly important in countries with sharpsocial and economic divides, and in thosewhere geography makes universal provisiondifficult.

Very often the choice of policies to overcome

these constraints isposed in terms of a

private vs. public effortdichotomy. Advocates

of private entry anddominance in an area

where the public sectorhas for long been the

dominant player,suggest that publicmonopoly has beendetrimental to both

access and cost


183Conclusions and policy implications

ICT and poverty alleviation

In the long run, the most important MDG is thatof abolishing poverty and raising incomes ofthe poorer sections of the population. Whileprogress can be achieved independently inother areas, success beyond a point rests onprogress on the income poverty front. Our dis-cussion suggests that ICTs can play a major rolehere.

ICTs can directly contribute to poverty reduc-tion by generating new employment opportu-nities and by increasing productivity, reducingcosts and enhancing returns from economicactivities undertaken by poorer households.They can also facilitate and reduce the costs ofdelivery of information and services that pro-mote wage- and self-employment, raise produc-tivity and improve the quality of employment-generating and poverty-alleviating projectsbeing implemented by the government.Besides this, ICTs can facilitate poverty mappingand monitoring, help evaluate the impact ofpoverty reduction strategies and mediateenhanced support to the poor.

That having been said, we should be careful notto extrapolate this argument too far. Whetherthese uses of ICT development can be sustainedand whether they can be translated into fasterhuman development depends on factors thatconstitute components of the human develop-ment index. Given the skill-dependence of thetechnology, a prerequisite for ICT applicationand use is literacy and education. Poverty is theproduct of economic processes occurring at avariety of levels – local, national and internation-al. Existing social and economic relations struc-ture the impact of external factors and deter-mine who will have access to subsistence andlivelihood opportunities as well as access to edu-cation and assets, which can help to increasethese choices.However,while medium-term suc-cess depends on changes in these areas, ICTs canbe used to ameliorate poverty in many ways.

To do so, a number of inadequacies need to beaddressed. While providing access to informa-tion to the poor is an important step in liftingthem out of poverty, identifying the type andrelevance of information required in the localcontext are aspects that have to be consideredin providing information to the marginalized. Ithas been found that a successful ICT conceptmust encompass relevant information about

local and indigenous situations, and must alsohave suitable ICTs as a tool to deliver the infor-mation effectively to the targeted local, poorcommunities. In addition, content providedthrough ICT should not be limited to knowl-edge from outside sources, but extended todraw on knowledge from the local community,especially the poor.

Some principles governing the use of ICTs infuture poverty alleviation undertakings, thus,suggest themselves:

● technological interventions should be sup-plemented by strong content provision andmust be combined with well-planneddevelopment programmes

● efforts should be made to coordinate viableICT for poverty alleviation programmesacross agencies in the best spirit of net-working, to ensure proper focus in resourceuse and synergy in development efforts,and

● the small, spontaneous but fragmented ini-tiatives among private agencies and NGOsshould not only be encouraged and facilitatedbut be mainstreamed and coordinated.

These and other practices can make ICTs power-ful tools for poverty reduction by enhancing thecapabilities of the poor in education, marketing,management and planning, as well as providinglinks to a variety of resources such as agriculturalinformation.

ICTs and education

There is adequate cross-country evidence tosuggest that supply-side adjustments can sub-stantially influence educational achievement.This enhances the role of ICT as an enablingdevice in an area such as education. It can play arole by improving the delivery and administra-tion of educational services and by providingwider access to educational material, whileimproving the quality of content and pedagogy.Given the ability of ICT to provide access toquality educational resources at low cost over awide geographical area, it can not only helpboost the effort at providing education but canhelp reach it to the marginalized, irrespective oftheir location. Above all, it can serve these pur-poses by reducing the cost of provision of edu-cational services as well as improving quality –two features that may keep children back atschool and stem the rising drop-out rates as the

Connectivity and hardware availabilityare only one end of theproblem. ICTs requirespecific skills and thatcomes in the way oftheir adoption byunderprivileged groupsand regions. This couldnegate the effectiveness of thetechnology for humandevelopment, evenwhen made available,by strengthening theposition of economicand political elites vis-à-vis others



years of schooling increase.

ICT-based distance education has been used to overcome time, space and geographic restrictions, allowing teachers and students tointeract and share learning materials. Ongoingefforts to build distance learning platformsneed to be strengthened since their benefits inthis area are substantial. However, while ICTs canplay a significant role in providing a more effec-tive, relevant and flexible mode of learning tothe underprivileged, its use calls for a complete-ly new teaching paradigm. This shift in teachingenvironment needs to be taken into considera-tion before deployment, along with other fac-tors specific to each country. These factors spanlocal infrastructure limitations, localized contentavailability, cost to install, maintain and scale upICT based educational programmes, familiarityand the learning curve of the target audience.These factors must relate the technologiesbeing used, socio-cultural aspects such as age,gender and literacy levels, and penetration andperception of technologies among others.

Choosing the appropriate ICTs will also demanda thorough understanding of the educationalobjectives at hand which, in turn, requires com-plete knowledge of the target audience’s goalsand aspirations. One objective should be toimprove the efficiency and effectiveness of edu-cational administrators, authorities andenablers through the strategic application ofICTs and through ICT-enabled skill develop-ment. The technology can also be used to sup-port teacher training, learning and capacitydevelopment, and ICTs can be used to broadenthe availability of quality educational materialsand resources.

It must be noted, however, that while ICTs dooffer many beneficial opportunities for educa-tion, they are no substitute for formal schooling.The role of technology is to support primaryeducation, not replace it; though the technologymay play a part in meeting the needs of chil-dren or adults who cannot go to a conventionalschool or class. Access to ICTs enhances tradi-tional or formal education systems, enablingthem to adapt to the different learning andtraining needs of societies. Developing coun-tries need to focus on those technologies thatcompensate for the factors that are lacking:well-trained teachers and resources to pay forexpensive equipment. The task at hand is toconcentrate on technological alternatives that,

at low cost, bring the imagination and creativityof a few excellent teachers to students. A majorconstraint is the lack of content for ICT delivery.The development of instructional content-wareremains a neglected area and needs specialattention

Finally, questions of equity need to be priori-tized. The pressing problem for educationalplanners is how to quickly reach the majority ofthe poor, uneducated rural populace, and findout how to fund, implement and maintain theeducational part of ICT networks.

ICTs and the gender divide

It is clear that, throughout the region, a range ofmeasures is required to reduce gender inequal-ity. These could vary from creation of employ-ment opportunities specifically for women andensuring equal pay for equal work to changingmind-sets and reforming social practices thatwork against giving women an equal position inthe economic, social and political mainstream.ICT use for realizing the MDG in this area mustbe assessed in terms of its ability to influenceoutcomes on one or more of these fronts.Employment creation in the ICT area, especiallyin IT-enabled services where women workersare an important component, is an obvious fall-out of the technology in developing countriessuch as India. However, as discussed in theReport, given the characteristics of those whofind employment in these sectors, the directeffects of such employment on improving thestatus of the poor can be only marginal. Much ofthe benefit for the poor would be through thesecond-order effects of such activity andemployment that generate demands for activi-ties undertaken by the disadvantaged.

However, the principal effects of ICT on genderequality would be elsewhere. To quote someobvious applications, ICTs can deliver educationaland literacy programmes, specifically targeted atpoor girls and women, using appropriate tech-nologies in both formal and non-formal educa-tional settings (e.g. public access centres). Inaddition, such technologies can be used toinfluence public opinion on gender equalitythrough information and communication pro-grammes using a range of ICTs.

ICTs can also facilitate women’s participation ingovernment and political affairs. Some ruralwomen can gain a new communication plat-

A prerequisite forensuring an equitable

informationinfrastructure is

investment: both publicinvestment as well as

complementary privateinvestment



form to exchange opinions on political issueswith their political leaders and use ICTs to raiseawareness about women’s issues. Female politi-cal candidates can also win support from votersin this way, employing ICTs in the communica-tion of their political messages to the voters.

Perhaps the most significant positive impact ofICTs on women’s empowerment is the enhancedcapacity of women’s advocacy and supportgroups to exchange information, coordinateaction, and increase the reach of advocacy cam-paigns. Civil society and activist organizationsroutinely receive dozens of email containinginformation on emerging areas of concern.

It must be noted that relatively few applicationsof the technology are planned to achieve gendergoals.This results in pre-existing gender inequal-ities determining the differential abilities of menand women to appropriate the technologies. Ifnot addressed, the information revolution willsee a continuation or a worsening of genderinequality.This requires purposive action.

There should be an allocation of financialresources in the national budget to supportstrategies to increase women’s participation inthe information economy, including funding forNGOs to strengthen opportunities for women’sempowerment through ICTs. In addition, ICTeducation should be integrated in school curric-ula and be based on gender equality, in order torealize girls’ full participation in science andtechnology education. Also, relevant distanceeducation and training programmes should beimplemented using ICTs, especially for ruralwomen and girls, who are most disadvantagedin gaining access to education. It is thus impera-tive that the State play a proactive role inimproving the social and economic environ-ment for females so that they can harness ICTtechnologies and reap the vast benefits thatthey afford.

Above all, the effort at integrating gender con-siderations into national ICT policy and imple-mentation must be based on representationof women’s organizations at all levels of ICT-related policy and decision-making processes.

ICTs and health

Intervention to ensure improved healthcaremust focus on prevention through means suchas immunization and the launch of public

health campaigns as well as on treatment deliv-ered through a strengthened basic healthcaresystem. ICTs can help these efforts by improvingthe effectiveness of health promotion and dis-ease-prevention programmes as well as facili-tating health-service delivery. They areincreasingly being used to facilitate two-wayinformation exchange in healthcare betweenrural and urban areas, providing isolated com-munities with access to the latest health infor-mation and treatment, and informing officialsof rural public health issues.

ICTs have been used in many other ways toenhance healthcare provision and delivery by:

● increasing access of rural care-givers to spe-cialist support and remote diagnosis anddelivering healthcare services, throughtele-consultation, to remote populations,leading to a decrease in the re-allocation ofmedical specialists

● responding to disease epidemics throughsharing lessons, treatment practices andguidelines with healthcare professionals,researchers and policy makers

● enabling governments, NGOs and healthestablishments to increase access to healthinformation through various forms of ICTs,for example, radio or television pro-grammes and the Internet

● collecting and analysing health information,measuring outcomes, and disseminatinginformation to healthcare professionals,researchers, policy makers, citizens, and/orany other relevant parties

● facilitating intra-government coordinationon healthcare and enhancing governmentplanning, health awareness and diseaseprevention content across all sectors anddepartments, particularly in the most crisis-affected countries, and

● enhancing the delivery of basic and in-serv-ice training for healthcare workers, andserving as a medium for continuing educa-tion or lifelong learning for healthcare pro-fessionals to keep abreast of the latestknowledge.

The most reported ICT application in health istelemedicine. ICTs are being used in manydeveloping countries to facilitate remote con-sultation, diagnosis and treatment. ICTs canalso be used to increase the efficiency of data-base management in healthcare systems, suchas hospital administration systems. One of the

Perhaps the most significant positiveimpact of ICTs onwomen’s empowermentis the enhanced capacity of women’sadvocacy and supportgroups to exchangeinformation, coordinateaction, and increasethe reach of advocacycampaigns



main obstacles to improving public health hasalways been the lack of awareness, informa-tion and education. In this context, ICTs canplay a very powerful role in improving publicawareness of healthcare. In particular, ICTs canserve as an important tool in the globalresponse to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Theyoffer the feasibility, at a relatively low cost, ofproviding access to information and knowl-edge to those working on the problem, tothose who are suffering from the disease or itseffects, and to those who need to take preven-tive action. ICTs can also play a significant rolein combating malaria, TB and a host of otherinfectious diseases, by enhancing the effec-tiveness of health institutions, improving pri-mary healthcare and delivery of health servicesin rural areas, and also by serving as an advo-cacy tool in raising awareness of preventionand treatment methods.

ICTs can be used as a means of information pro-vision and networking aimed at empoweringstakeholders and encouraging consultations onpolicy formulation. It can also support the shar-ing of information among medical practitionersand researchers working in the area. It providesthe opportunity for healthcare providers,researchers, and policy makers to engage in dis-cussion through local/global discussion groupsand/or Web boards, and, thereby, serve as agood venue for easy sharing and consultationon various health issues.

The benefits of applying ICTs in healthcare areconstrained by a number of factors common tomost poor developing countries. These includelarge gaps in basic infrastructure availability, theability and willingness of health workers andothers to make use of the opportunities, theavailability of relevant and/or localized digitalcontent, government regulations and policies,and its sustainability and scalability.

While ICTs can help improve the health status ofpopulations, there are major constraints. Theseinclude access to the higher bandwidth, requiredfor transmitting physiological data and complexmedical images, as well as high telecommunica-tion costs. Many challenges to the viability ofrural ICT projects remain, given the limitations ofaccess to electricity, telephony, Net-connectivityand other basic infrastructure. Except forMalaysia, constraints such as lack of access totelecommunications and high costs have pre-vented the deployment of ICTs on a strategic

large-scale level. These constraints are moresevere in developing countries like Pakistan, Indiaand Indonesia where even dial-up access via nor-mal telephone lines, let alone broadband, is limit-ed.Many countries lack the basic infrastructure tosupport use of ICTs.Failure to address these prob-lems would mean that ICTs will not play “morethan a marginal role”. The implementation cost isfar too expensive to achieve critical mass forrealizing any real impact.

Further, the actual impact of ICTs in healthcareactually hinges on the ability and willingness ofhealth administrators to adopt ICTs as a tool.The lack of computer skills has prevented manyhealthcare professionals from harnessing thepotential of ICTs. Inertia and the fear of newtechnologies have also prevented many fromutilizing ICTs. There is under-utilization of evenavailable services in some localities due tosocio-cultural and economic barriers. Thailand’stele-consultation usage was not as high asanticipated, mainly due to rural physicians andcity medical specialists being unfamiliar withthe system. Also, the very high workload of ruralphysicians made it difficult and inconvenient toschedule consultation times.

Although the diffusion of ICTs in healthcarehas had varying successes, its application is stillat a primary stage. It is important to focusefforts on educating health professionals onthe use of ICTs and providing them with neces-sary connectivity, rather than to the popula-tion at large. With proper knowledge and con-nectivity, these professionals will, in turn,spread health benefits and knowledge to awider group of people.

An important problem in an area such as healthis that technical and contextual knowledge aredisconnected in initiatives in which control islocated outside the community. More attentionneeds to be paid to innovative ways of applyingICTs to the specific information needs of commu-nities and local groups.That includes focusing onbuilding local skills to encourage the process oflocal appropriation and reinforcing traditionalinformation communication networks.

ICTs and sustainable development

Overall, the potential use of ICTs in this area,although largely untapped across developedand developing economies, remains enormous.However, technological determinism must be

The most reported ICTapplication in healthis telemedicine. ICTs

are being used inmany developing

countries to facilitateremote consultation,

diagnosis and treatment



avoided. ICTs, like all technologies, may also beused by people who over-exploit naturalresources.They deliver positive outcomes only ifintegrated with appropriate policies and intoappropriate programmes.

Despite the immense potential for applying ICTsto better the environment, broadcast mediasuch as radio and television remain the mostprevalently used ICTs for the environment interms of information dissemination and knowl-edge networking. Our discussion suggests that,besides better appreciation and understandingof the current state of the environment, the keychallenges to utilizing ICTs for ensuring environ-mental sustainability are as follows:

● ICTs are used mainly for environment mon-itoring and less attention is given to riskand vulnerability analysis

● ICT tools are mainly used by State con-trolled organizations for environmentalprotection. The roles of NGOs and privateorganizations in ICT promotion for environ-mental sustainability remains weak

● the shortage of budgets results in ICT meas-ures being focused only on major environ-mental problems, such as disaster monitor-ing, soil erosion, and forest depletion, and

● public awareness remains weak in this area.

ICTs and partnerships for development

Developing countries need to cope with theprocess by adapting to ICT in ways that allowthem to appropriate ICT benefits and minimizeits adverse consequences.The target of MDG 8 isto manage the effects of globalization through afocussed partnership for development. Such agoal-oriented partnership for development cantie multiple stakeholders into joint risk-takingand reward-sharing relationships.

Global companies must be persuaded to playan important role in this endeavour. This couldstart in their own corporate domains, throughthe application of good practices wherever theyoperate. International donors and NGOs, withtheir long track record in supporting develop-ment activities, collating international experi-ences and scaling up small experiments, cannotbut be involved in this emerging area.

Given the origins of the Internet as a tool forresearch collaboration, it is not surprising that one

area in which partnership based on ICTs hasautonomously evolved to a substantial extent ishigher education and research. ICT tools havelinked worldwide research institutions, andenhanced scientific research and developed part-nerships for innovative projects. Communicationbetween universities and research organizationshas increased collaborative efforts betweeninstitutions and countries that mutuallyexchange research ideas, acquire interdiscipli-nary knowledge, solve special technical prob-lems on-site, share public information, comparemethodologies and report new achievements.

Another set of new global partnerships existbetween what are termed variously as globalcivil society organizations, global social move-ments and GPPNs. These international networksand coalitions can work consensually in develop-ing sustainable policy positions. They have beeneffective in drawing interest from a wide groupof organizations with similar objectivesalthough operating in different local environ-ments. GPPNs are seen to fill the gaps in termsof addressing North-South issues.

The use of technology itself generates partner-ships that have larger implications for develop-ment. These are partnerships which by sharinginformation, views and experiences generatediscussion, all undertaken with the help of thetechnology that helps arrive at internationalpositions, standards and mechanisms on devel-opment, in general, and the use of ICTs fordevelopment, in particular. Further, by helpingmobilize a constituency for these democratical-ly derived positions, standards and mechanismsit creates international pressures on differentactors – government, civil society organizationsand the private sector – to adopt them. Thesepositions relate not just to the use of ICT fordevelopment per se, but to macroeconomicissues such as debt reduction, capital controls,fiscal and monetary policy and sustainabledevelopment, to name but a few areas.

In general, the impact of ICTs in developingsustainable global partnerships has been pos-itive for many countries.This has strengthenedthe hope that ICTs have generated in thedeveloping world. Indeed, social and econom-ic development are complex phenomenadepending on various factors, and ICTs alonecannot solve the developing world’s prob-lems. However, integration of ICTs into overallnational and regional development strategies

Despite the immensepotential for applyingICTs to better the environment, broadcastmedia such as radioand television remainthe most prevalentlyused ICTs for the environment



expands the scope and coverage of develop-ment interventions. Global partnerships thatICTs help forge can contribute substantially torealizing that goal.

To sum up, in all MDG areas, an effort to raiseconsciousness with regard to best practicesand alternatives and a greater degree of moni-toring are imperative to ensure progress. Therole that ICT can play here is obvious. In addi-tion, in specific areas, the technology candirectly contribute to the realization of theMDGs, with even greater effect. Assessments ofthe current use of ICT for development and thepotential for harnessing the technology toyield benefits in these areas needs to distin-guish between these general purpose and spe-cific uses, in order to maximize the returns frominvestment in the area. Further, while ICTopportunities can be identified for each of theMDGs, there is a need to prioritize the goalswhere ICTs can be demonstrated to have thegreatest impact, e.g., education and healthcareas opposed to addressing the hunger reduc-tion goal. There is also a need to prioritize andcost ICT opportunities for a range of implemen-tation modalities, within the context of each of

the MDGs. If this is done, even a small effort cango a long way.

However, as mentioned earlier, because of inad-equate diffusion of the technology much of thepotential of ICT still remains unexploited. TheICTs for human development project is in itsearly stages. Even if many of the experimentsmay prove financially unviable and/or unsus-tainable, the experience so far does providethe basis to identify areas in which furtherprogress needs to be made to render the proj-ect successful.

This Report has attempted to assess and evenquantify the progress of nine Asian countriestowards using ICTs for advancing the MDGs. Ourexamination of the myriad, innovative effortsand experiments to harness the technology forhuman development purposes establishes that,the limited reach of the technology notwith-standing, use of the technology to help realizethe MDGs has progressed substantially and can-not be reversed. However, the same examina-tion does point to numerous inadequacies indesigning and implementing projects for thepurpose.


Overview1. UNCSTD 19972. UNDP 20013. UNDP 20044. Wang et. al. 20035. Chandrasekhar et. al. 20036. Slamet et. al. 20037. John et. al. 20038. Enkhjargal et. al. 20039. Banuri et. al. 2003

10. Wattegama et. al. 200311. Thuvasethkul et. al. 200312. Tien et. al. 2003

Box 11. http://radified.com/Articles/digital_vs_analog.htm2. Negroponte 19953. http://www.compukiss.com/sandyclassroom/

tutorials/article273.htm

Chapter 11. Sen 19892. UNDP 1995, 1233. ESCAP/UNDP 2002, 192-93

Chapter 21. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 162. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 23. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 164. Abhijit Sen 2002, 565. Chandrashekhar et. al. 20036. Slamet et. al. 20037. Thuvasethakul et. al. 20038. Banuri et. al. 20039. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 17

10. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 211. Banuri et. al. 200312. CPRIR 200213. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 2114. Wang et. al. 200315. The Probe Team 1999, 916. Chandrasekhar et. al. 200317. John et. al. 200318. Wattegama et. al. 200319. ESCAP/UNDP 200320. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 2321. Thuvasethakul et. al. 200322. Tien et. al. 200323. Enkhjargal et. al. 200324. ESCAP/UNDP 200325. Banuri et. al. 2003

26. Hussain 2003, 1827. Hussain 2003, 2528. Chandrasekhar et. al. 200329. Wang et. al. 200330. Slamet et. al. 200331. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 2332. Enkhjargal et. al. 200333. Thuvasethakul et. al. 200334. ibid.35. Tien et. al. 200336. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 2437. Wang et. al. 200338. Slamet et. al. 200339. ibid.40. UNDP 2004, 32941. John et. al. 200342. Enkhjargal et. al. 200343. Hussain 2003, 2644. Enkhjargal et. al. 200345. Thuvasethakul et. al. 200346. ESCAP/UNDP 200347. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 2548. Chandrasekhar et. al. 200349. Slamet et. al. 200350. Slamet et. al. 200351. ESCAP/UNDP 200352. Chandrasekhar et. al. 200353. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 2954. ibid.55. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 3356. Wang et. al. 200357. Wang et. al. 200358. Wang et. al. 200359. Chandrasekhar et. al. 200360. ibid.61. Slamet et. al. 200362. Slamet et. al. 200363. Banuri et. al. 200364. Thuvasethakul et. al. 200365. ibid.66. Tien et. al. 200367. John et. al. 200368. Enkhjargal et. al. 200369. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 3670. Banuri et. al. 200371. Wang et. al. 200372. John et. al. 200373. ESCAP/UNDP 2003, 3774. ibid.

189

Notes

MD

Gs

Endnotes 4/8/05 11:26 AM Page 189


75. John et. al. 200376. Tein et. al. 2003

Chapter 31. Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas 19992. ibid.3. Mansell and Wehn 19984. Wang et. al. 20035. Kumar 2000, 956. Accenture, Markle Foundation & UNDP 20017. PR Newswire 20038. Dataquest 2001, 2002, 2003

Chapter 41. Nua.com 20012. Wolcott & Goodman 20003. Computer Industry Almanac 20054. Minges and Simkhada 20025. Wolcott & Goodman 20006. Franda 20027. Mansell and Wehn 19988. Fink and Kenny 20039. UNDP 2001

10. World Economic Forum 200111. Balakrishnan 200212. Mody 199913. UNCSTD 1997

Special Contribution1. G-8 DOT Force 2001

Chapter 51. ITU 20032. ITU 2003, iii3. Hafkin 20034. Kundu 20035. Kundu 1984

Chapter 61. www.mit.com2. Banuri et. al. 2003

Chapter 71. Adeya 20022. Kenny et. al. 20003. Adeya 20024. InfoDev 20005. Gerster and Zimmermann 20026. Addo-Dankwa 20027. Hazan 20028. Bayes et. al. 19999. InfoDev 2000

10. Digital Opportunity Initiative 200111. Lallana 2003, 1712. Venugopal 200013. UNCTAD 2003, 14514. UNCTAD 2003, 13515. Enkhjargal et. al. 200316. Flor 200117. ESCAP 200318. Kenny, Navas Sabater and Qiang 200119. Flor 200120. ibid.21. ibid.

Box 7.51. Sood 2002, 63

Chapter 81. UNESCO 20012. Haddad and Jurich 2002b

3. Wheeler 20014. Leiken 20025. Hawkins 20026. Goodison 20027. UNESCO 20018. Dhanarajan 20029. Gunawardene and Wattegama 2003

10. Haddad & Jurich 2002b11. Lewin 200012. Dhanarajan 200213. Daniel 200114. Lee 200115. Wheeler 200116. UNESCO Courier 200117. Williams et. al. 200018. Castro 200319. UNDP 2003, 9320. Nunes and Gaible 200221. Dhanarajan 200222. Hawkins 2002

Box 8.41. Perraton & Creed 2000

Chapter 91. Ghosh 20032. Gurumurthy 2003, 23. Daly 20034. Wanasundera 20025. Hashmi 20036. Narendran 20027. Gurumurthy 20038. WSIS 20039. Daly 2003

10. Gurumurthy 2003

Chapter 101. Thuvasethakul et. al. 20032. John et. al. 20033. Thompson 20024. Driscoll 20015. WHO 2002a6. France et. al. 19987. Thuvasethakul et. al. 20038. Chandrasekhar and Ghosh 20019. Sood 2002

10. de Alcantara 200111. Chandrasekhar and Ghosh 200112. Sood 200213. Kirkman 199914. Box & Engelhard 200115. Heeks 199916. Michiels and Crowder 200117. EDC 2001

Chapter 111. Berkhout and Hertin 20012. World Resource Institute 20033. Daly 2003a

Box 11.11. Gibbons 2003

Chapter 121. Banuri and Spanger-Siegfried 2001

Bibliography1. UNDP 2001, 46

Appendices1. Hafkin 2003

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Aimags: The territory of Mongolia is dividedadministratively into Aimags and a capital city.Aimags are subdivided into Soums and Soumsinto Baghs. The capital city is divided into dis-tricts and districts into Horoos.

Analogue devices: Analogue devices are thosein which continuously variable physical quanti-ties such as electrical potential, fluid pressure, ormechanical motion are represented in a wayanalogous to the corresponding quantities inthe problem to be solved.

ARPANET (Advance Research ProjectsAgency Network): The network that becamethe basis for the Internet, ARPANET was a largewide-area network created by the United StatesDefence Advanced Research Project Agency(ARPA). Established in 1969, ARPANET served asa testbed for new networking technologies,linking many universities and research centres.It consisted of a number of individual comput-ers connected by leased lines, using a packet-switching scheme.

Bagh: Refer Aimags above.

Bandwidth: The range of frequencies,expressed in Kilobits per second, that can passover a given data transmission channel within aframe relay network.The bandwidth determinesthe rate at which information can be sentthrough a channel – the greater the bandwidth,more the information that can be sent in a givenamount of time.

Bits: The binary digits a computer uses to repre-sent all data, comprising of 0s and 1s.

Body Mass Index (BMI): A measure of bodymass that is calculated by dividing an individ-ual’s weight in kilograms by her/his height insquare metres.

Broadband: A transmission facility having abandwidth sufficient to carry multiple voice,video or data channels simultaneously. Eachchannel occupies (is modulated to) a differentfrequency bandwidth on the transmissionmedium and is demodulated to its original fre-quency at the receiving end. In general, broad-band refers to telecommunication in which awide band of frequencies is available to transmitinformation. Because a wide band of frequen-cies is available, information can be multiplexedand sent on many different frequencies or chan-nels within the band concurrently, allowingmore information to be transmitted in a givenamount of time (much as more lanes on a high-way allow more cars to travel on it at the sametime).

British Thermal Unit (BTU): 1 BTU equals 1055.05585 Joules.

Caller Party Pays (CPP): CPP is the arrange-ment in which the mobile subscriber does notpay for incoming calls. Instead, the calling partypays for those calls.

Digital devices: The versatility of modern infor-mation systems stems from their ability to repre-sent information electronically as digital signalsand to manipulate it automatically at exceeding-ly high speeds. Information is stored in binarydevices, which are the basic components of dig-ital technology. Because these devices exist onlyin one of two states, information is representedin them either as the absence or the presence ofenergy (electric pulse). The two states of binarydevices are conveniently designated by thebinary digits, or bits, zero (0) and one (1). Digitaldevices can be broken down into three basiccategories: input devices, output devices, andmanipulating devices.

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Input devices allow for the conversion of hard-copy pieces of paper into digital 1s and 0s,which computers can understand, to allowthese documents to then be manipulated in thecomputer world. Output devices are hardware,which allow those digital 1s and 0s to be con-verted into hardcopy output. Manipulatingdevices would be the servers, PCs, or any otherdevice which are used to alter the state of thosedigital 1s and 0s.

Digital Signal Processor (DSP): A DSP is a spe-cial-purpose Central Processing Unit that pro-vides ultra-fast instruction sequences, such asshift and add, and multiply and add, which arecommonly used in math-intensive signal pro-cessing applications. DSPs are not the same astypical microprocessors though. Micro-processors are typically general purposedevices that run large blocks of software. Theyare not often called upon for real-time compu-tation and they work at a slower pace, choosinga course of action, then waiting to finish thepresent job before responding to the next usercommand. A DSP, on the other hand, is oftenused as a type of embedded controller orprocessor that is built into another piece ofequipment and is dedicated to a single group oftasks. In this environment, the DSP assists thegeneral purpose host microprocessor.

Division by Mean (DM) method: The methodof building composite indices of multiple indi-cators. In applying the DM method, the indica-tors are divided by their respective meanswhich permits the coefficients of variation ofdifferent indicators to remain different evenafter making them scale-free and lets these dif-ferences be reflected in the composite indexand ranking. The coefficients of variation of theoriginal indicators, thus, become the standarddeviations of the scale-free indicators, which arethen carried into the component indices.

E1 connection: European Digital Signal 1,which is the European standard for digital trans-mission at 2,048 kb/s.

Falciparum malaria: The most dangerous typeof malaria. Red blood cells infected with the par-asite tend to sludge and form “microinfarctions”or small areas of dead tissue due to lack of oxy-gen in capillaries in the brain, liver, adrenalgland, intestinal tract, kidneys, lungs, and otherorgans.

Human Development Index (HDI):The HDI is asummary measure of human development. It

measures the average achievements in a coun-try in three basic dimensions of human devel-opment: a long and healthy life, as measured bylife expectancy at birth; knowledge, as meas-ured by the adult literacy rate (with two-thirdsweight) and the combined primary, secondaryand tertiary gross enrolment ratio (with one-third weight); and a decent standard of living, asmeasured by GDP per capita (PPP US$)

Geographical Information System (GIS): GIS isa computer system capable of assembling, stor-ing, manipulating, and displaying geographical-ly referenced information (i.e. spatial data). Thesystem combines database management sys-tem functionality with information about loca-tion. In this way it is able to capture, manage,integrate, manipulate, analyse and display datathat is spatially referenced to the earth’s surface.

Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER): The ratio of totalenrolment, regardless of age, to the populationof the age group that officially corresponds tothe level of education shown. However, whatmatters is the net enrolment ratio, which is theratio of the number of children of official schoolage (as defined by the national education sys-tem) who are enrolled in school to the popula-tion of the corresponding official school age.

Haemorrhage: Flow of blood from a rupturedblood vessels.

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): IMR is the annualnumber of deaths among children youngerthan one year as a proportion of the annualnumber of live births.

Internet: The vast collection of inter-connectednetworks that all use the TCP/IP protocols andthat evolved from the ARPANET of the late1960s and early 1970s.

Internet Service Provider (ISP): A company ororganization which provides access to theInternet to businesses and/or consumers. An ISPpurchases an Internet link from another compa-ny that has a direct link to the Internet andresells portions of that bandwidth to the gener-al public.

HIV/AIDS: Human Immunodeficiency Virus(HIV) and Acquired ImmunoDeficiencySyndrome (AIDS). HIV is the virus that causesAIDS. Immunodeficiency means having a faultyimmune system so that a person can becomevery ill or die from a disease that others canfight off. HIV is passed from person to personthrough blood or other bodily fluids, either


199Glossary

through a transfusion of infected blood, to ababy from its mother, through use of contami-nated hypodermic needles, or through sexualcontact with a person who has the disease.

Kala-azar (kalajar): An infectious diseasecaused by an intracellular flagellate protozoanLeishmania donovani, common in rural parts ofthe tropical and subtropical countries of theworld.

Khurals: Khurals are local public self-governingassemblies in Mongolia.

Local Area Network (LAN): A group of com-puters and other devices in a relatively limitedarea (such as a single building) that are con-nected by a communications link, whichenables any device to interact with any otherdevice on the network.

Mandal: An administrative unit between ablock and a district in the state of AndhraPradesh, India.

Megabit: A megabit is roughly 1 million (pre-cisely 1,048,576) bits. Mbit/s is a unit of meas-urement in digital transmission, indicating thenumber of megabits transmitted per second.

Megahertz (MHz): A measure of signal fre-quency expressing millions of cycles per sec-ond. This unit is typically used to measure theprocessor speeds of computers. Every com-mand given to a computer (from the keyboard,mouse, software, hardware, etc.) requires a fixednumber of MHz to execute.The more MHz avail-able, the faster commands can be executed, andthe faster a computer will perform.

Microprocessor: A microprocessor is an elec-tronic computer Central Processing Unit (CPU)made from miniaturized transistors and othercircuit elements on a single semiconductor inte-grated circuit (IC) or chip. Before the advent ofmicroprocessors, electronic CPUs were madefrom discrete (separate) TTL integrated circuits;before that, individual transistors; and beforethat, from vacuum tubes.

Moore’s Law: An empirical observation stating,in effect, that at our rate of technological devel-opment and advances in the semiconductorindustry, the complexity of integrated circuitsdoubles every 18 months. It is attributed toGordon E. Moore (a co-founder of Intel). Mooreoutlined his “law” in 1965. His original empiricalobservation was that the number of componentson semiconductor chips with lowest per compo-nent cost doubles roughly every 12 months, and

he conjectured that the trend will continue for atleast 10 years. In 1975,Moore revised his estimatefor the expected doubling time, arguing that itwas slowing down to about two years.

Network Readiness Index (NRI): The NRI seeksto better comprehend the impact of ICT on thecompetitiveness of nations. It is a composite ofthree components: the environment for ICToffered by a given country or community; thereadiness of the community’s key stakeholders(individuals, businesses, and governments) touse ICT; and finally the usage of ICT amongstthese stakeholders).

Paan: Chew made of betel leaf wrapped aroundspices and other ingredients.

Packet: The unit of data sent across a network.

Packet Switching (network): A communica-tions technique where a message is broken intopackets that include address information andare sent to the destination on the fastest routesavailable; all packets may not take the sameroute, so the receiving station reassembles themessage in proper order before forwarding thecomplete message to the address.

Panchayat: Indian village council, often consist-ing five members.

Protocol: A set of formal rules describing howto transmit data, especially across a network.Low level protocols define the electrical andphysical standards to be observed, bit- andbyte-ordering, and transmission and errordetection and correction of the bit stream. Highlevel protocols deal with the data formatting,including the syntax of messages, the terminalto computer dialogue, character sets, sequenc-ing of messages, etc.

Principal Component Analysis: A method ofanalysing multivariate data in order to expresstheir variation in a minimum number of princi-pal components or linear combinations of theoriginal, partially correlated variables.

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP): A method ofmeasuring the relative purchasing power of dif-ferent countries’ currencies over the same typesof goods and services. Goods and services maycost more in one country than in another.Therefore, PPP allows us to make more accuratecomparisons of standards of living across coun-tries. PPP estimates use price comparisons ofcomparable items but since not all items can bematched exactly across countries and time, theestimates are not always “robust”.



Rai: Land area measure in Thailand. 1 rai = 1,600square metres.

Range Equalization (RE) Method: The methodof computing composite indices of differentindicators in which each indicator is divided bythe range (after subtraction of the lowest value)to arrive at scale-free values that vary between 0and 1. If a country has maximum values for allthe indicators in a category, it will score an indexvalue of 1. Similarly, a country will obtain a com-posite score of zero only when it has the mini-mum value in all the indicators.

Sepsis: The presence of bacteria, virus, fungus,or other organisms in the blood or other tissuesand the toxins associated with the invasion.Symptoms include a sudden drop in blood pres-sure and changes in heart rate.

Seropositive: Having a blood test result whichindicates infection with an organism (e.g., HIV).A test may detect either antibodies to an organ-ism (antibody positive) or the organism or itsproteins (antigen positive).

Soochak: The person operating a Soochanalayaor information centre.

Soums: Refer Aimags above.

Tambon: An administrative unit in Thailand

Technology Achievement Index (TAI): The TAIpresents data on the performance of 72 coun-

tries in creating and diffusing technology and inbuilding a human skills base. First used by theUNDP in the Human Development Report 2001,it measures “how well a country is creating anddiffusing technology and building a human skillbase, reflecting the capacity to participate in thetechnological innovations of the network age”.1

The TAI focuses on four dimensions of techno-logical capacity to compute the value of theindex: creation of technology, diffusion of recentinnovations, diffusion of old innovations andhuman skills.

Transmission Control Protocol/InternetProtocol (TCP/IP): A set of protocols developedby the US Department of Defence to developways to connect dissimilar computers across anetwork.The protocol family of the Internet net-work combines both TCP and IP.

Tim Koordinasi Telematika Indonesia:Coordinating Team for ICT Development inIndonesia.

Tugrig: The Mongolian national currency, 1 US$equals 1,210 MNT, as of June 2005.

Vivax malaria: Vivax malaria is usually morecommon than P. falciparum malaria and rarelycauses any complications.

Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT): A kindof ground station used to contact a communi-cations satellite such as INMARSAT.


201

Appendices

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Gs

Appendix I: Millennium Development Goals and indicators

IndicatorsGoals and Targets

Goal 1: Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger

Target 1: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, theproportion of people whose income is lessthan US$ 1 a day

Target 2: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, theproportion of people who suffer from hunger

1. Proportion of population below US$ 1(1993 PPP) per day

2. Poverty gap ratio (incidence X depth ofpoverty)

3. Share of poorest quintile in national con-sumption

4. Prevalence of underweight children (underfive years of age)

5. Proportion of population below minimumlevel of dietary energy consumption

Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education

Target 3: Ensure that, by 2015, children every-where, boys and girls alike, will be able to com-plete a full course of primary schooling

6. Net enrolment ratio in primary education7. Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who

reach grade 58. Literacy rate of 15-24 year old

Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women

Target 4: Eliminate gender disparity in primaryand secondary education preferably by 2005and in all levels of education no later than 2015

9. Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondaryand tertiary education

10. Ratio of literate women to men (in the agegroup, 15-24)

11. Share of women in wage employment inthe non-agricultural sector

12. Proportion of seats held by women innational parliament

Goal 4: Reduce Child Mortality

Target 5: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990and 2015, the under-five mortality rate

13. Under-five mortality rate14. Infant mortality rate15. Proportion of one-year-old children immu-

nized against measles

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* Indicators for targets 12-15 are given in a combined list (from 33 to 44)Source: http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp

Goal 5: Improve Maternal Health

Target 6: Reduce by three-quarters, between1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio

16. Maternal mortality ratio17. Proportion of births attended by skilled

health personnel

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Other Diseases

Target 7: Have halted by 2015, and begun toreverse, the spread of HIV/AIDS

Target 8: Have halted by 2015, and begin toreverse, the incidence of malaria and othermajor diseases

18. HIV prevalence among 15-24 years oldpregnant women

19. Condom use rate of the contraceptiveprevalence rate

20. Number of children orphaned by HIV/AIDS

21. Prevalence and death rates associated withmalaria

22. Proportion of population in malaria riskareas using effective malaria preventionand treatment measures

23. Prevalence and death rates associated withtuberculosis

24. Proportion of tuberculosis cases detectedand cured under DOTS (Directly ObservedTreatment Short-course)

Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability*

Target 9: Integrate the principles of sustainabledevelopment into country policies andprogrammes to reverse the loss of environ-mental resources

Target 10: Halve, by 2015, the proportion ofpeople without sustainable access to safedrinking water and sanitation

Target 11: By 2020, to have achieved a signifi-cant improvement in the lives of at least 100million slum dwellers

25. Proportion of land area covered by forest26. Ratio of area protected to maintain biolog-

ical diversity to surface area27. Energy use (kg oil equivalent) per US$ 1

GDP (PPP)28. Carbon dioxide emissions (per capita) and

consumption of ozone-depleting CFCs(ODP tonnes)

29. Proportion of population using solid fuels

30. Proportion of population with sustainableaccess to an improved water source, urbanand rural

31. Proportion of population with access toimproved sanitation, urban and rural

32. Proportion of households with access tosecure tenure (owned or rented)


203Appendices

* Indicators for targets 12-15 are given in a combined list (from 33 to 44)Source: http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp

Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development*

Target 12: Develop further an open, rule-based,predictable, non-discriminatory trading andfinancial system.

Includes a commitment to good governance,development, and poverty reduction — bothnationally and internationally

Target 13: Address the special needs of theLDCs.

Includes: tariff- and quota-free access for LDC’sexports; enhanced programme of debt relieffor Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) andcancellation of official bilateral debt; and moregenerous ODA for countries committed topoverty reduction

Target 14: Address the special needs of land-locked countries and Small Island DevelopingStates (through the Programme of Action forthe Sustainable Development of of Small IslandDeveloping States and the outcome of the22nd Special Session of the General Assembly)

Target 15: Deal comprehensively with the debtproblems of developing countries throughnational and international measures in order tomake debt sustainable in long term

Some of the indicators listed below will bemonitored separately for the Least DevelopedCountries (LDCs), Africa, landlocked developingcountries and Small Island Developing States(SIDS)

Official Development Assistance (ODA)33. Net ODA, total and to LDCs, as a percentage

of OECD/Development AssistanceCommittee donors’ gross national income(GNI)

34. Proportion of total bilateral, sector allocableODA of OECD/DAC donors to basic socialservices (basic education, primary healthcare, nutrition, safe water and sanitation)

35. Proportion of bilateral ODA of OECD/DACdonors that is untied

36. ODA received in landlocked developingcountried as proportion of their GINs

37. ODA received in Small Island DevelopingStates as proportion of their GINs

Market Access38. Proportion of total developed country

imports (by value and excluding arms)from developing countries and LDCs,admitted free of duty

39. Average tariffs imposed by developed coun-tries on agricultural products and textilesand clothing from developing countries

40. Agricultural support estimate for OECDcountries as a percentage of their GDP

41. Proportion of ODA provided to help buildtrade capacity

Debt Sustainability42. Total number of countries that have

reached their Heavily Indebted PoorCountries Initiative decision points andnumber that have reached their HIPC com-pletion points (cumulative)

43. Debt relief committed under the HIPCInitiative

44. Debt service as a percentage of exports ofgoods and services



Target 16: In co-operation with developingcountries, develop and implement strategiesfor decent and productive work for youth

Target 17: In co-operation with pharmaceuticalcompanies, provide access to affordable, essen-tial drugs in developing countries

Target 18: In co-operation with the privatesector, make available the benefits of newtechnologies, especially information andcommunications

45. Unemployment rate of young people aged15-24 years, each sex and total

46. Proportion of population with access toaffordable essential drugs on a sustainablebasis

47. Telephone lines and cellular subscribersper 100 population

48. Personal computers in use per 100 popula-tion and Internet users per 100 population


205Promoting ICT for Human Development in Asia 2004: Realising the Millennium Development Goals

Appendix II: Indicators for ICT development under different MDGs, proposedas per the guidelines of UN ICT Task Force

MDG 1 — Eradication of extreme poverty and hunger

(i) Average income from ICT as percentage of GDP

(ii) Number of ICT initiatives related to the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger

(iii) Preps (poverty reduction strategy papers) that include development of ICT (IMF)

MDG 2 — Achievement of universal primary education

(i) ICT access and usage in primary school

(ii) Number of teachers trained in the usage of ICT

(iii) Initiatives related to ICT use in primary education

(iv) Presence of ICT-related content in primary education, particularly in terms of availability oflearning materials in digital form in local languages, educational websites, e-learning prod-ucts/services etc.

MDG 3 — Promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women

(i) Women’s ICT access and usage

(ii) ICT literacy among girls

(iii) Sensitivity of ICT policy environment to gender issues assessing importance of women inICT plan, policy or strategy1

(iv) Role of women in ICT policy-making

(v) Percentage of female IT workers or female technical workers

(vi) Initiatives to bring about women’s advancement through the use of ICT

MDGs 4, 5 & 6 — Reduction of child mortality, improving maternal health and combating HIV/AIDS,malaria and other major diseases

(i) Initiatives promoted through ICT for sensitization of population on health-related issueslike child mortality, maternal health, HIV/AIDS, malaria and other major diseases

(ii) Investment, penetration, usage of ICT in health institutions and by medical professionalsand other health workers

(iii) Importance given to health and healthcare needs in terms of allocation of resources andsetting perspectives, in country’s ICT plan

(iv) Number and coverage of specific programmes and campaigns related to ICT in health sector

MDG 7 — ICT impact on environmental sustainability

(i) Presence of content related to environmental protection and sustainability including cli-mate change, biodiversity, etc., in education and information, disseminated through ICT

(ii) Indicators pertaining to prevention/monitoring of environmental disasters

(iii) Initiatives related to reduction in consumption of energy, water and other essentialresources through introduction of ICT

MDG 8 — Developing a global partnership for development

(i) Number of telephone connections

(ii) Number of personal computers

(iii) Number of people trained in ICT (local capacity-building)

(iv) Number of local companies registered with ICT as main/major business



(v) Number of domain names registered locally or domain addresses registered to an addressin a country

(vi) Number of personal computers, phones, mobiles, radios, radio stations, etc.

(vii) Degree of competitiveness and regulatory controls in the market

(viii) Number of Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

(ix) Patents registered related to local ICT

(x) Number of registered software licenses

(xi) Number of health and educational institutions connected electronically

(xii) Number of web pages in major ‘local’ languages

(xiii) Number of IP addresses, domain names and email accounts

(xiv) Number of people employed in ICT sector



Appendix III: Indicators used for construction of indices pertaining to ICTdevelopment

1. Availability or supply-linked — skill-independent

i. Telephone mainlines (per 1,000 people)

ii. Cellular subscribers (per 1,000 people)

iii. Television sets (per 1,000 people)

iv. Radios (per 1,000 people)

2. Availability or supply-linked — skill-dependent

i. Internet users (per 100 people)

ii. Personal computers in use (per 100 people)

iii. ICT expenditure per capita (in US dollars)

3. Efficiency and speed

i. Internet service provider charges (in US dollars)

ii. Telephone usage charge for Internet service (in US dollars)

iii. Cost of local call per 3 min (in US dollars)

iv. Cost of call to US per 3 min (in US dollars)

v. Internet speed and access

vi. Training and education in IT

4. Targeting social sectors

i. Internet access in schools

ii. Computers installed in education (in thousands)

iii. Government prioritization in ICT

iv. Government online services availability

5. Targeting vulnerable groups

i. Female professional and technical workers (% of total female workers)

ii. Public access to Internet

iii. Government’s success in ICT promotion

iv. Competition among Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

v. Laws related to ICT use



Co

untr

y Fa

ct S

hee

ts

ICT

FAC

T SH

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CH

INA

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wer

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htm

l

Country Fact Sheets 4/8/05 11:25 AM Page 208

209Promoting ICT for Human Development in Asia: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals

Co

untry Fact Sh

eets

CHINA - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FACT SHEET

INDICESDeveloping East Asia &

S. No. INDICES China World Countries South Asia the Pacific1 Human Development Index Value, 2002 0.745 0.729 0.663 0.584 0.7402 Human Development Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 177 countries) 94 NA NA NA NA3 Human Development Index Value, 2001 0.721 0.722 0.655 0.582 0.7224 Human Development Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 175 countries) 104 NA NA NA NA5 Human Development Index Value, 1990 0.566 NA NA NA NA6 Human Development Index Rank, 1990 (Out of 173 countries) 101 NA NA NA NA7 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2002 13.2 NA NA NA NA8 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 95 countries) 24 NA NA NA NA9 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2001 14.2 NA NA NA NA10 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 94 countries) 26 NA NA NA NA11 Gender-Related Development Index Value, 2002 0.741 NA NA NA NA12 Gender-Related Development Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 144 countries) 71 NA NA NA NA13 Gender-Related Development Index Value, 2001 0.718 NA NA NA NA14 Gender-Related Development Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 144 countries) 83 NA NA NA NA15 Gender Empowerment Measure Value, 2002 NA NA NA NA NA16 Gender Empowerment Measure Rank, 2002 (Out of 78 countries) NA NA NA NA NA17 Gender Empowerment Measure Value, 2001 NA NA NA NA NA18 Gender Empowerment Measure Rank, 2001 (Out of 70 countries) NA NA NA NA NA19 Technology Achievement Index Value, 2000 0.299 NA NA NA NA20 Technology Achievement Index Rank, 2000 (Out of 72 countries) 45 NA NA NA NA21 Networked Readiness Index Score, 2004 0.17 NA NA NA NA22 Networked Readiness Index Rank, 2004 (Out of 104 countries) 41 NA NA NA NA

INDICATORSDeveloping South East Asia &

DEMOGRAPHY China World Countries Asia the Pacific23 Total Population (millions), 2002 1,294.9 6,225.0T 4,936.9T 1,480.3T 1,917.6T24 Urban Population (as % of the total), 2002 37.7 47.8 41.4 29.6 40.225 Population under age 15 (as % of the total), 2002 23.7 29.4 32.2 34.8 25.826 Total Fertility Rate, 1970-75 4.9 4.5 5.4 5.6 5.027 Total Fertility Rate, 2000-5 1.8 2.7 2.9 3.3 2.0

Developing South East Asia & INCOME China World Countries Asia the Pacific

28 GDP Per Capita (PPP US$), 2002 4,580 7,804 4,054 2,658 4,76829 Female Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 3,571 NA NA NA NA30 Male Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 5,435 NA NA NA NA31 Youth unemployment (% of labour force aged 15-24), 2001 3b NA NA NA NA32 Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line

(US$ 1 a day) - 1990-2002 16.6 NA NA NA NA33 Percentage of Population below Poverty Line

(National Poverty Line) - 1990-2001 4.6 NA NA NA NA

Developing South East Asia & EDUCATION China World Countries Asia the Pacific

34 Adult Literacy Rate (% age 15 and above), 2002 90.9 NA 76.7 57.6 90.335 Female Literacy Rate, 2002 (%) 86.5 NA NA NA NA36 Male Literacy Rate, 2002 (%) 95.1 NA NA NA NA37 Female Gross Enrolment Ratio Combined Primary,

Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 64a NA NA NA NA38 Male Gross Enrolment Ratio Combined Primary,

Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 69a NA NA NA NA39 Public Expenditure on Education (as % of GDP), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA40 Public Exp. on Pre-Primary & Primary Ed. (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA41 Public Exp. on Secondary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA42 Public Exp. on Tertiary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA



Co

untr

y Fa

ct S

hee

ts

Developing South East Asia & S. No. HEALTH China World Countries Asia the Pacific43 Life Expectancy at Birth (yrs.), 2002 70.9 66.9 64.6 63.2 69.844 Life Expectancy at Birth (Female), 2002 (yrs) 73.2 NA NA NA NA45 Life Expectancy at Birth (Male), 2002 (yrs.) 68.8 NA NA NA NA46 Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 31 56 61 69 3247 Under 5 Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 39 81 89 95 4248 Maternal Mortality Ratio Reported (per 100,000 live births), 1985-2002 53 NA NA NA NA49 Percentage of children underweight for age (% under age 5), 1995-2002 11 NA NA NA NA50 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), 2000 40 61 51 37 4851 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), Urban, 2000 69 85 77 68 7352 Population with access to improved water source (%), 2000 75 82 78 85 7653 Population with access to improved water source (%), Urban, 2000 94 95 92 95 9354 Population with access to improved water source (%), Rural, 2000 66 71 69 81 67

Developing South East Asia & ENVIRONMENT China World Countries Asia the Pacific

55 Percentage of land area covered by forests, 2000 17.5 NA NA NA NA56 Ratio of protected area to surface area, 2003 0.07 NA NA NA NA57 Per capita carbon dioxide emissions (metric tons), 2000 2.2 3.8 1.9 1.1 2.3

Source:1 UNDP (2004), Human Development Report 2004, Oxford University Press, New York.2 For rows 3, 4, 9, 10, 13, 14, 17, 18, 31, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56: UNDP (2003) Human Development Report 2003, Oxford University Press,

New York.3 For rows 5, 6: UNDP (1993) Human Development Report 1993, Oxford University Press, New York.4 For rows 19,20: UNDP (2001) Human Development Report 2001, Oxford University Press, New York.5 For rows 21,22:World Economic Forum (2005) The Global Information Technology Report 2004-2005,Palgrave Macmillan,New York.

Notes:a Data refers to the 1999-2000 school yearb Data refers to 2000



Co

untry Fact Sh

eets

ICT

FAC

T SH

EET-

IND

IA

S.N

o.IN

DIC

ATO

RIn

dia

Sou

th A

sia

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inco

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es (p

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usa

nd

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ple

)13

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262

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ain

lines

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tin

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st (t

ho

usa

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s)22

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4926

2436

633

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ph

on

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ain

lines

-co

st o

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cal c

all (

$ p

er 3

min

ute

s)0.

020.

020.

020.

054

Mo

bile

ph

on

es (p

er t

ho

usa

nd

peo

ple

)0

66

105

Inte

rnat

ion

al t

elec

om

mu

nic

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ns-

ou

tgo

ing

tra

ffic

(min

ute

s p

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ub

scri

ber

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per

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NA

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aily

new

spap

ers

(per

th

ou

san

d p

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le)

NA

6060

408

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(per

th

ou

san

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120

112

139

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sio

n s

ets

(per

th

ou

san

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le)

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rnet

-use

rs (t

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usa

nd

)25

0.0

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as %

GD

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9N

AN

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per

cap

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($)

7.8

19.0

NA

NA

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bu

sin

ess

and

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vern

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t en

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9N

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s re

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to

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ith

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.

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ce:

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l



Co

untr

y Fa

ct S

hee

ts

INDIA - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FACT SHEET

INDICESDeveloping South East Asia &

S. No. INDICES India World Countries Asia the Pacific1 Human Development Index Value, 2002 0.595 0.729 0.663 0.584 0.7402 Human Development Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 177 countries) 127 NA NA NA NA3 Human Development Index Value, 2001 0.590 0.722 0.655 0.582 0.7224 Human Development Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 175 countries) 127 NA NA NA NA5 Human Development Index Value, 1990 0.309 NA NA NA NA6 Human Development Index Rank, 1990 (Out of 173 countries) 134 NA NA NA NA7 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2002 31.4 NA NA NA NA8 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 95 countries) 48 NA NA NA NA9 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2001 33.1 NA NA NA NA10 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 94 countries) 53 NA NA NA NA11 Gender-Related Development Index Value, 2002 0.572 NA NA NA NA12 Gender-Related Development Index Rank, 2002

(Out of 144 countries) 103 NA NA NA NA13 Gender-Related Development Index Value, 2001 0.574 NA NA NA NA14 Gender-Related Development Index Rank, 2001

(Out of 144 countries) 103 NA NA NA NA15 Gender Empowerment Measure Value, 2002 NA NA NA NA NA16 Gender Empowerment Measure Rank, 2002

(Out of 78 countries) NA NA NA NA NA17 Gender Empowerment Measure Value, 2001 NA NA NA NA NA18 Gender Empowerment Measure Rank, 2001

(Out of 70 countries) NA NA NA NA NA19 Technology Achievement Index Value, 2000 0.201 NA NA NA NA20 Technology Achievement Index Rank, 2000 (Out of 72 countries) 63 NA NA NA NA21 Networked Readiness Index Score, 2004 0.23 NA NA NA NA22 Networked Readiness Index Rank, 2004 (Out of 104 countries) 39 NA NA NA NA


DEMOGRAPHY India World Countries Asia the Pacific23 Total Population (millions), 2002 1,049.5 6,225.0T 4,936.9T 1,480.3T 1,917.6T24 Urban Population (as % of the total), 2002 28.1 47.8 41.4 29.6 40.225 Population under age 15 (as % of the total), 2002 33.3 29.4 32.2 34.8 25.826 Total Fertility Rate, 1970-75 5.4 4.5 5.4 5.6 5.027 Total Fertility Rate, 2000-5 3.0 2.7 2.9 3.3 2.0

Developing South East Asia & INCOME India World Countries Asia the Pacific

28 GDP Per Capita (PPP US$), 2002 2,670 7,804 4,054 2,658 4,76829 Female Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 1,442 NA NA NA NA30 Male Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 3,820 NA NA NA NA31 Youth unemployment (% of labour force aged 15-24), 2001 NA NA NA NA NA32 Percentage of Population below Poverty Line

(US$ 1 a day) - 1990-2002 34.7 NA NA NA NA33 Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line


Developing South East Asia & EDUCATION India World Countries Asia the Pacific


Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 48a NA NA NA NA38 Male Gross Enrolment Ratio Combined Primary,

Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 62a NA NA NA NA39 Public Expenditure on Education (as % of GDP), 1999-2001 4.1 NA NA NA NA40 Public Exp. on Pre-Primary & Primary Ed. (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 38.4 NA NA NA NA41 Public Exp. on Secondary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 40.1 NA NA NA NA42 Public Exp. on Tertiary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 20.3 NA NA NA NA



Co

untry Fact Sh

eets

Developing South East Asia & S. No. HEALTH India World Countries Asia the Pacific43 Life Expectancy at Birth (yrs.), 2002 63.7 66.9 64.6 63.2 69.844 Life Expectancy at Birth (Female), 2002 (yrs) 64.4 NA NA NA NA45 Life Expectancy at Birth (Male), 2002 (yrs.) 63.1 NA NA NA NA46 Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 67 56 61 69 3247 Under 5 Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 93 81 89 95 4248 Maternal Mortality Ratio Reported (per 100,000 live births), 1985-2002 540 NA NA NA NA49 Percentage of children underweight for age (% under age 5), 1995-2002 47 NA NA NA NA50 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), 2000 28 61 51 37 4851 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), Urban, 2000 61 85 77 68 7352 Population with access to improved water source (%), 2000 84 82 78 85 7653 Population with access to improved water source (%), Urban, 2000 95 95 92 95 9354 Population with access to improved water source (%), Rural, 2000 79 71 69 81 67

Developing South East Asia & ENVIRONMENT India World Countries Asia the Pacific




Notes:a Data refers to the 2000-01 school year.



Co

untr

y Fa

ct S

hee

ts

ICT

FAC

T SH

EET-

IND

ON

ESIA

East

Asi

a &

S.N

o.IN

DIC

ATO

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nes

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e P

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00

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ne

mai

nlin

es (p

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ho

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nd

peo

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)17

3511

026

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ng

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(th

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117

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ne

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nlin

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of l

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l cal

l ($

per

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tes)

0.04

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4M

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ile p

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nes

(per

th

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san

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le)

131

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Co

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INDONESIA - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FACT SHEET


S. No. INDICES Indonesia World Countries Asia the Pacific1 Human Development Index Value, 2002 0.692 0.729 0.663 0.584 0.7402 Human Development Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 177 countries) 111 NA NA NA NA3 Human Development Index Value, 2001 0.682 0.722 0.655 0.582 0.7224 Human Development Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 175 countries) 112 NA NA NA NA5 Human Development Index Value, 1990 0.515 NA NA NA NA6 Human Development Index Rank, 1990 (Out of 173 countries) 108 NA NA NA NA7 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2002 17.8 NA NA NA NA8 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 95 countries) 35 NA NA NA NA9 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2001 17.9 NA NA NA NA10 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 94 countries) 33 NA NA NA NA11 Gender-Related Development Index Value, 2002 0.685 NA NA NA NA12 Gender-Related Development Index Rank, 2002



(Out of 78 countries) NA NA NA NA NA17 Gender Empowerment Measure Value, 2001 NA NA NA NA NA18 Gender Empowerment Measure Rank, 2001

(Out of 70 countries) NA NA NA NA NA19 Technology Achievement Index Value, 2000 0.211 NA NA NA NA20 Technology Achievement Index Rank, 2000 (Out of 72 countries) 60 NA NA NA NA21 Networked Readiness Index Score, 2004 -0.13 NA NA NA NA22 Networked Readiness Index Rank, 2004 (Out of 104 countries) 51 NA NA NA NA


DEMOGRAPHY Indonesia World Countries Asia the Pacific23 Total Population (millions), 2002 217.1 6,225.0T 4,936.9T 1,480.3T 1,917.6T24 Urban Population (as % of the total), 2002 44.5 47.8 41.4 29.6 40.225 Population under age 15 (as % of the total), 2002 29.9 29.4 32.2 34.8 25.826 Total Fertility Rate, 1970-75 5.2 4.5 5.4 5.6 5.027 Total Fertility Rate, 2000-5 2.4 2.7 2.9 3.3 2.0

Developing South East Asia & INCOME Indonesia World Countries Asia the Pacific

28 GDP Per Capita (PPP US$), 2002 3,230 7,804 4,054 2,658 4,76829 Female Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 2,138 NA NA NA NA30 Male Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 4,161 NA NA NA NA31 Youth unemployment (% of labour force aged 15-24), 2001 NA NA NA NA NA32 Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line



Developing South East Asia & EDUCATION Indonesia World Countries Asia the Pacific


Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 64 NA NA NA NA38 Male Gross Enrolment Ratio Combined Primary,

Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 66 NA NA NA NA39 Public Expenditure on Education (as % of GDP), 1999-2001 1.3 NA NA NA NA40 Public Exp. on Pre-Primary & Primary Ed. (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 37.8 NA NA NA NA41 Public Exp. on Secondary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 38.8 NA NA NA NA42 Public Exp. on Tertiary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 23.4 NA NA NA NA



Co

untr

y Fa

ct S

hee

ts

Developing South East Asia & S. No. HEALTH Indonesia World Countries Asia the Pacific43 Life Expectancy at Birth (yrs.), 2002 66.6 66.9 64.6 63.2 69.844 Life Expectancy at Birth (Female), 2002 (yrs) 68.6 NA NA NA NA45 Life Expectancy at Birth (Male), 2002 (yrs.) 64.6 NA NA NA NA46 Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 33 56 61 69 3247 Under 5 Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 45 81 89 95 4248 Maternal Mortality Ratio Reported (per 100,000 live births), 1985-2002 380 NA NA NA NA49 Percentage of children underweight for age (% under age 5), 1995-2002 26 NA NA NA NA50 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), 2000 55 61 51 37 4851 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), Urban, 2000 69 85 77 68 7352 Population with access to improved water source (%), 2000 78 82 78 85 7653 Population with access to improved water source (%), Urban, 2000 90 95 92 95 9354 Population with access to improved water source (%), Rural, 2000 69 71 69 81 67

Developing South East Asia & ENVIRONMENT Indonesia World Countries Asia the Pacific






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MALAYSIA - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FACT SHEET


S. No. INDICES Malaysia World Countries Asia the Pacific1 Human Development Index Value, 2002 0.793 0.729 0.663 0.584 0.7402 Human Development Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 177 countries) 59 NA NA NA NA3 Human Development Index Value, 2001 0.790 0.722 0.655 0.582 0.7224 Human Development Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 175 countries) 58 NA NA NA NA5 Human Development Index Value, 1990 0.790 NA NA NA NA6 Human Development Index Rank, 1990 (Out of 173 countries) 57 NA NA NA NA7 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2002 NA NA NA NA NA8 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 95 countries) NA NA NA NA NA9 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2001 NA NA NA NA NA10 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 94 countries) NA NA NA NA NA11 Gender-Related Development Index Value, 2002 0.786 NA NA NA NA12 Gender-Related Development Index Rank, 2002


(Out of 144 countries) 53 NA NA NA NA15 Gender Empowerment Measure Value, 2002 0.519 NA NA NA NA16 Gender Empowerment Measure Rank, 2002 |

(Out of 78 countries) 44 NA NA NA NA17 Gender Empowerment Measure Value, 2001 0.503 NA NA NA NA18 Gender Empowerment Measure Rank, 2001 (Out of 70 countries) 45 NA NA NA NA19 Technology Achievement Index Value, 2000 0.396 NA NA NA NA20 Technology Achievement Index Rank, 2000 (Out of 72 countries) 30 NA NA NA NA21 Networked Readiness Index Score, 2004 0.69 NA NA NA NA22 Networked Readiness Index Rank, 2004 (Out of 104 countries) 27 NA NA NA NA


DEMOGRAPHY Malaysia World Countries Asia the Pacific23 Total Population (millions), 2002 24.0 6,225.0T 4,936.9T 1,480.3T 1,917.6T24 Urban Population (as % of the total), 2002 63.3 47.8 41.4 29.6 40.225 Population under age 15 (as % of the total), 2002 33.2 29.4 32.2 34.8 25.826 Total Fertility Rate, 1970-75 5.2 4.5 5.4 5.6 5.027 Total Fertility Rate, 2000-5 2.9 2.7 2.9 3.3 2.0

Developing South East Asia & INCOME Malaysia World Countries Asia the Pacific


(US$ 1 a day) - 1990-2002 <2 NA NA NA NA33 Percentage of Population below Poverty Line

(National Poverty Line) - 1990-2001 15.5a NA NA NA NA

Developing South East Asia & EDUCATION Malaysia World Countries Asia the Pacific



Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 69 NA NA NA NA39 Public Expenditure on Education (as % of GDP), 1999-2001 7.9 NA NA NA NA40 Public Exp. on Pre-Primary & Primary Ed.

(as % of all levels), 1999-2001 28.1 NA NA NA NA41 Public Exp. on Secondary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 34.5 NA NA NA NA42 Public Exp. on Tertiary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 32.1 NA NA NA NA



Co

untry Fact Sh

eets

Developing South East Asia & S. No. HEALTH Malaysia World Countries Asia the Pacific43 Life Expectancy at Birth (yrs.), 2002 73.0 66.9 64.6 63.2 69.844 Life Expectancy at Birth (Female), 2002 (yrs) 75.6 NA NA NA NA45 Life Expectancy at Birth (Male), 2002 (yrs.) 70.7 NA NA NA NA46 Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 8 56 61 69 3247 Under 5 Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 8 81 89 95 4248 Maternal Mortality Ratio Reported (per 100,000 live births),

1985-2002 30 NA NA NA NA49 Percentage of children underweight for age (% under age 5),

1995-2002 12 NA NA NA NA50 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), 2000 NA 61 51 37 4851 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), Urban, 2000 NA 85 77 68 7352 Population with access to improved water source (%), 2000 NA 82 78 85 7653 Population with access to improved water source (%), Urban, 2000 NA 95 92 95 9354 Population with access to improved water source (%), Rural, 2000 94 71 69 81 67

Developing South East Asia & ENVIRONMENT Malaysia World Countries Asia the Pacific



New York.3 For rows 5, 6: UNDP (1993) Human Development Report 1993, Oxford University Press, New York.4 For rows 19,20: UNDP (2001) Human Development Report 2001, Oxford University Press, New York.5 For rows 21,22:World Economic Forum (2005) The Global Information Technology Report 2004-2005, Palgrave Macmillan, New York.

Notes:a Data refers to a period other than that specified.



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MONGOLIA - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FACT SHEET


S. No. INDICES Mongolia World Countries Asia the Pacific1 Human Development Index Value, 2002 0.668 0.729 0.663 0.584 0.7402 Human Development Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 177 countries) 117 NA NA NA NA3 Human Development Index Value, 2001 0.661 0.722 0.655 0.582 0.7224 Human Development Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 175 countries) 117 NA NA NA NA5 Human Development Index Value, 1990 0.578 NA NA NA NA6 Human Development Index Rank, 1990 (Out of 173 countries) 100 NA NA NA NA7 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2002 19.1 NA NA NA NA8 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 95 countries) 38 NA NA NA NA9 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2001 19.1 NA NA NA NA10 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 94 countries) 36 NA NA NA NA11 Gender-Related Development Index Value, 2002 0.664 NA NA NA NA12 Gender-Related Development Index Rank, 2002


(Out of 144 countries) 95 NA NA NA NA15 Gender Empowerment Measure Value, 2002 0.429 NA NA NA NA16 Gender Empowerment Measure Rank, 2002

(Out of 78 countries) 62 NA NA NA NA17 Gender Empowerment Measure Value, 2001 NA NA NA NA NA18 Gender Empowerment Measure Rank, 2001 (Out of 70 countries) NA NA NA NA NA19 Technology Achievement Index Value, 2000 NA NA NA NA NA20 Technology Achievement Index Rank, 2000 (Out of 72 countries) NA NA NA NA NA21 Networked Readiness Index Score, 2004 NA NA NA NA NA22 Networked Readiness Index Rank, 2004 (Out of 104 countries) NA NA NA NA NA


DEMOGRAPHY Mongolia World Countries Asia the Pacific23 Total Population (millions), 2002 2.6 6,225.0T 4,936.9T 1,480.3T 1,917.6T24 Urban Population (as % of the total), 2002 56.7 47.8 41.4 29.6 40.225 Population under age 15 (as % of the total), 2002 33.2 29.4 32.2 34.8 25.826 Total Fertility Rate, 1970-75 7.3 4.5 5.4 5.6 5.027 Total Fertility Rate, 2000-5 2.4 2.7 2.9 3.3 2.0

Developing South East Asia & INCOME Mongolia World Countries Asia the Pacific




Developing South East Asia & EDUCATION Mongolia World Countries Asia the Pacific



Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 64 NA NA NA NA39 Public Expenditure on Education (as % of GDP), 1999-2001 6.5 NA NA NA NA40 Public Exp. on Pre-Primary & Primary Ed. (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA41 Public Exp. on Secondary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA42 Public Exp. on Tertiary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA



Co

untr

y Fa

ct S

hee

ts

Developing South East Asia & S. No. HEALTH Mongolia World Countries Asia the Pacific43 Life Expectancy at Birth (yrs.), 2002 63.7 66.9 64.6 63.2 69.844 Life Expectancy at Birth (Female), 2002 (yrs) 65.7 NA NA NA NA45 Life Expectancy at Birth (Male), 2002 (yrs.) 61.7 NA NA NA NA46 Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 58 56 61 69 3247 Under 5 Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 71 81 89 95 4248 Maternal Mortality Ratio Reported (per 100,000 live births), 1985-2002 160 NA NA NA NA49 Percentage of children underweight for age (% under age 5), 1995-2002 13 NA NA NA NA50 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), 2000 30 61 51 37 4851 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), Urban, 2000 46 85 77 68 7352 Population with access to improved water source (%), 2000 60 82 78 85 7653 Population with access to improved water source (%), Urban, 2000 77 95 92 95 9354 Population with access to improved water source (%), Rural, 2000 30 71 69 81 67

Developing South East Asia & ENVIRONMENT Mongolia World Countries Asia the Pacific






Co

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PAKISTAN - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FACT SHEET


S. No. INDICES Pakistan World Countries Asia the Pacific1 Human Development Index Value, 2002 0.497 0.729 0.663 0.584 0.7402 Human Development Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 177 countries) 142 NA NA NA NA3 Human Development Index Value, 2001 0.499 0.722 0.655 0.582 0.7224 Human Development Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 175 countries) 144 NA NA NA NA5 Human Development Index Value, 1990 0.311 NA NA NA NA6 Human Development Index Rank, 1990 (Out of 173 countries) 132 NA NA NA NA7 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2002 41.9 NA NA NA NA8 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 95 countries) 71 NA NA NA NA9 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2001 40.2 NA NA NA NA10 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 94 countries) 65 NA NA NA NA11 Gender-Related Development Index Value, 2002 0.471 NA NA NA NA12 Gender-Related Development Index Rank, 2002


(Out of 144 countries) 120 NA NA NA NA15 Gender Empowerment Measure Value, 2002 0.416 NA NA NA NA16 Gender Empowerment Measure Rank, 2002 (Out of 78 countries) 64 NA NA NA NA17 Gender Empowerment Measure Value, 2001 0.414 NA NA NA NA18 Gender Empowerment Measure Rank, 2001 (Out of 70 countries) 58 NA NA NA NA19 Technology Achievement Index Value, 2000 0.167 NA NA NA NA20 Technology Achievement Index Rank, 2000

(Out of 72 countries) 65 NA NA NA NA21 Networked Readiness Index Score, 2004 -0.38 NA NA NA NA22 Networked Readiness Index Rank, 2004

(Out of 104 countries) 63 NA NA NA NA


DEMOGRAPHY Pakistan World Countries Asia the Pacific23 Total Population (millions), 2002 149.9 6,225.0T 4,936.9T 1,480.3T 1,917.6T24 Urban Population (as % of the total), 2002 33.7 47.8 41.4 29.6 40.225 Population under age 15 (as % of the total), 2002 41.5 29.4 32.2 34.8 25.826 Total Fertility Rate, 1970-75 6.3 4.5 5.4 5.6 5.027 Total Fertility Rate, 2000-5 5.1 2.7 2.9 3.3 2.0

Developing South East Asia & INCOME Pakistan World Countries Asia the Pacific

28 GDP Per Capita (PPP US$), 2002 1,940 7,804 4,054 2,658 4,76829 Female Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 915 NA NA NA NA30 Male Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 2,789 NA NA NA NA31 Youth unemployment (% of labour force aged 15-24), 2001 13a NA NA NA NA32 Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line



Developing South East Asia & EDUCATION Pakistan World Countries Asia the Pacific

34 Adult Literacy Rate (% age 15 and above), 2002 41.5 NA 76.7 57.6 90.335 Female Literacy Rate, 2002 (%) 28.5b NA NA NA NA36 Male Literacy Rate, 2002 (%) 53.4b NA NA NA NA37 Female Gross Enrolment Ratio Combined Primary,

Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 31c NA NA NA NA38 Male Gross Enrolment Ratio Combined Primary,

Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 43c NA NA NA NA39 Public Expenditure on Education (as % of GDP), 1999-2001 1.8 NA NA NA NA40 Public Exp. on Pre-Primary & Primary Ed. (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA41 Public Exp. on Secondary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA42 Public Exp. on Tertiary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA



Co

untry Fact Sh

eets

Developing South East Asia & S. No. HEALTH Pakistan World Countries Asia the Pacific43 Life Expectancy at Birth (yrs.), 2002 60.8 66.9 64.6 63.2 69.844 Life Expectancy at Birth (Female), 2002 (yrs) 60.7 NA NA NA NA45 Life Expectancy at Birth (Male), 2002 (yrs.) 61.0 NA NA NA NA46 Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 83 56 61 69 3247 Under 5 Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 107 81 89 95 4248 Maternal Mortality Ratio Reported (per 100,000 live births), 1985-2002 530 NA NA NA NA49 Percentage of children underweight for age (% under age 5), 1995-2002 38 NA NA NA NA50 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), 2000 62 61 51 37 4851 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), Urban, 2000 95 85 77 68 7352 Population with access to improved water source (%), 2000 90 82 78 85 7653 Population with access to improved water source (%), Urban, 2000 95 95 92 95 9354 Population with access to improved water source (%), Rural, 2000 87 71 69 81 67

Developing South East Asia & ENVIRONMENT Pakistan World Countries Asia the Pacific



New York.3 For rows 5, 6: UNDP (1993) Human Development Report 1993, Oxford University Press, New York.4 For rows 19,20: UNDP (2001) Human Development Report 2001, Oxford University Press, New York.5 For rows 21,22:World Economic Forum (2005) The Global Information Technology Report 2004-2005, Palgrave Macmillan, New York.

Notes:a Data refers to 2000.b Data refers to a year between 1995 and 1999.c Data refers to 2000/01 school year.



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SRI LANKA - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FACT SHEET


S. No. INDICES Sri Lanka World Countries Asia the Pacific1 Human Development Index Value, 2002 0.740 0.729 0.663 0.584 0.7402 Human Development Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 177 countries) 96 NA NA NA NA3 Human Development Index Value, 2001 0.730 0.722 0.655 0.582 0.7224 Human Development Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 175 countries) 99 NA NA NA NA5 Human Development Index Value, 1990 0.663 NA NA NA NA6 Human Development Index Rank, 1990 (Out of 173 countries) 86 NA NA NA NA7 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2002 18.2 NA NA NA NA8 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 95 countries) 36 NA NA NA NA9 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2001 18.3 NA NA NA NA10 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 94 countries) 34 NA NA NA NA11 Gender-Related Development Index Value, 2002 0.738 NA NA NA NA12 Gender-Related Development Index Rank, 2002




(Out of 70 countries) 67 NA NA NA NA19 Technology Achievement Index Value, 2000 0.203 NA NA NA NA20 Technology Achievement Index Rank, 2000 (Out of 72 countries) 62 NA NA NA NA21 Networked Readiness Index Score, 2004 -0.49 NA NA NA NA22 Networked Readiness Index Rank, 2004 (Out of 104 countries) 71 NA NA NA NA


DEMOGRAPHY Sri Lanka World Countries Asia the Pacific23 Total Population (millions), 2002 18.9 6,225.0T 4,936.9T 1,480.3T 1,917.6T24 Urban Population (as % of the total), 2002 21.1 47.8 41.4 29.6 40.225 Population under age 15 (as % of the total), 2002 25.0 29.4 32.2 34.8 25.826 Total Fertility Rate, 1970-75 4.1 4.5 5.4 5.6 5.027 Total Fertility Rate, 2000-5 2.0 2.7 2.9 3.3 2.0

Developing South East Asia & INCOME Sri Lanka World Countries Asia the Pacific

28 GDP Per Capita (PPP US$), 2002 3,570 7,804 4,054 2,658 4,76829 Female Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 2,570 NA NA NA NA30 Male Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 4,523 NA NA NA NA31 Youth unemployment (% of labour force aged 15-24), 2001 24a NA NA NA NA32 Percentage of Population below Poverty Line



Developing South East Asia & EDUCATION Sri Lanka World Countries Asia the Pacific


Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 66b NA NA NA NA38 Male Gross Enrolment Ratio Combined Primary,

Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 64b NA NA NA NA39 Public Expenditure on Education (as % of GDP), 1999-2001 1.3 NA NA NA NA40 Public Exp. on Pre-Primary & Primary Ed. (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA41 Public Exp. on Secondary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA42 Public Exp. on Tertiary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA



Co

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Developing South East Asia & S. No. HEALTH Sri Lanka World Countries Asia the Pacific43 Life Expectancy at Birth (yrs.), 2002 72.5 66.9 64.6 63.2 69.844 Life Expectancy at Birth (Female), 2002 (yrs) 75.8 NA NA NA NA45 Life Expectancy at Birth (Male), 2002 (yrs.) 69.8 NA NA NA NA46 Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 17 56 61 69 3247 Under 5 Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 19 81 89 95 4248 Maternal Mortality Ratio Reported (per 100,000 live births), 1985-2002 92 NA NA NA NA49 Percentage of children underweight for age (% under age 5), 1995-2002 29 NA NA NA NA50 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), 2000 94 61 51 37 4851 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), Urban, 2000 97 85 77 68 7352 Population with access to improved water source (%), 2000 77 82 78 85 7653 Population with access to improved water source (%), Urban, 2000 98 95 92 95 9354 Population with access to improved water source (%), Rural, 2000 70 71 69 81 67

Developing South East Asia & ENVIRONMENT Sri Lanka World Countries Asia the Pacific




Notes:a Data refers to 2000b Data refers to 1998-9 school year



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THAILAND - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FACT SHEET


S. No. INDICES Thailand World Countries Asia the Pacific1 Human Development Index Value, 2002 0.768 0.729 0.663 0.584 0.7402 Human Development Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 177 countries) 76 NA NA NA NA3 Human Development Index Value, 2001 0.768 0.722 0.655 0.582 0.7224 Human Development Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 175 countries) 74 NA NA NA NA5 Human Development Index Value, 1990 0.715 NA NA NA NA6 Human Development Index Rank, 1990 (Out of 173 countries) 74 NA NA NA NA7 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2002 13.1 NA NA NA NA8 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 95 countries) 22 NA NA NA NA9 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2001 12.9 NA NA NA NA10 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 94 countries) 24 NA NA NA NA11 Gender-Related Development Index Value, 2002 0.766 NA NA NA NA12 Gender-Related Development Index Rank, 2002




(Out of 70 countries) 55 NA NA NA NA19 Technology Achievement Index Value, 2000 0.337 NA NA NA NA20 Technology Achievement Index Rank, 2000 (Out of 72 countries) 40 NA NA NA NA21 Networked Readiness Index Score, 2004 0.27 NA NA NA NA22 Networked Readiness Index Rank, 2004 (Out of 104 countries) 36 NA NA NA NA


DEMOGRAPHY Thailand World Countries Asia the Pacific23 Total Population (millions), 2002 62.2 6,225.0T 4,936.9T 1,480.3T 1,917.6T24 Urban Population (as % of the total), 2002 31.6 47.8 41.4 29.6 40.225 Population under age 15 (as % of the total), 2002 25.6 29.4 32.2 34.8 25.826 Total Fertility Rate, 1970-75 5.0 4.5 5.4 5.6 5.027 Total Fertility Rate, 2000-5 1.9 2.7 2.9 3.3 2.0

Developing South East Asia & INCOME Thailand World Countries Asia the Pacific

28 GDP Per Capita (PPP US$), 2002 7,010 7,804 4,054 2,658 4,76829 Female Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 5,284 NA NA NA NA30 Male Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 8,664 NA NA NA NA31 Youth unemployment (% of labour force aged 15-24), 2001 7a NA NA NA NA32 Percentage of Population below Poverty Line

(US$ 1 a day) - 1990-2002 <2 NA NA NA NA33 Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line


Developing South East Asia & EDUCATION Thailand World Countries Asia the Pacific


Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 72b NA NA NA NA38 Male Gross Enrolment Ratio Combined Primary,

Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 74b NA NA NA NA39 Public Expenditure on Education (as % of GDP), 1999-2001 5.0 NA NA NA NA40 Public Exp. on Pre-Primary & Primary Ed. (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 42.3 NA NA NA NA41 Public Exp. on Secondary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 20.5 NA NA NA NA42 Public Exp. on Tertiary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 21.7 NA NA NA NA



Co

untry Fact Sh

eets

Developing South East Asia & S. No. HEALTH Thailand World Countries Asia the Pacific43 Life Expectancy at Birth (yrs.), 2002 69.1 66.9 64.6 63.2 69.844 Life Expectancy at Birth (Female), 2002 (yrs) 73.4 NA NA NA NA45 Life Expectancy at Birth (Male), 2002 (yrs.) 65.2 NA NA NA NA46 Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 24 56 61 69 3247 Under 5 Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 28 81 89 95 4248 Maternal Mortality Ratio Reported (per 100,000 live births), 1985-2002 36 NA NA NA NA49 Percentage of children underweight for age (% under age 5), 1995-2002 19c NA NA NA NA50 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), 2000 96 61 51 37 4851 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), Urban, 2000 96 85 77 68 7352 Population with access to improved water source (%), 2000 84 82 78 85 7653 Population with access to improved water source (%), Urban, 2000 95 95 92 95 9354 Population with access to improved water source (%), Rural, 2000 81 71 69 81 67

Developing South East Asia & ENVIRONMENT Thailand World Countries Asia the Pacific




Notesa Data refers to 2000b Data refers to the 2000-01 school year.c Data refers to a year/period other than that specified, differs from the standard definition or refers to only part of the country



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VIETNAM - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FACT SHEET


S. No. INDICES Vietnam World Countries Asia the Pacific1 Human Development Index Value, 2002 0.691 0.729 0.663 0.584 0.7402 Human Development Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 177 countries) 112 NA NA NA NA3 Human Development Index Value, 2001 0.688 0.722 0.655 0.582 0.7224 Human Development Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 175 countries) 109 NA NA NA NA5 Human Development Index Value, 1990 0.472 NA NA NA NA6 Human Development Index Rank, 1990 (Out of 173 countries) 115 NA NA NA NA7 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2002 20.0 NA NA NA NA8 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2002 (Out of 95 countries) 41 NA NA NA NA9 Human Poverty Index Value (%), 2001 19.9 NA NA NA NA10 Human Poverty Index Rank, 2001 (Out of 94 countries) 39 NA NA NA NA11 Gender-Related Development Index Value, 2002 0.689 NA NA NA NA12 Gender-Related Development Index Rank, 2002



(Out of 78 countries) NA NA NA NA NA17 Gender Empowerment Measure Value, 2001 NA NA NA NA NA18 Gender Empowerment Measure Rank, 2001 (Out of 70 countries) NA NA NA NA NA19 Technology Achievement Index Value, 2000 NA NA NA NA NA20 Technology Achievement Index Rank, 2000 (Out of 72 countries) NA NA NA NA NA21 Networked Readiness Index Score, 2004 -0.46 NA NA NA NA22 Networked Readiness Index Rank, 2004 (Out of 104 countries) 68 NA NA NA NA


DEMOGRAPHY Vietnam World Countries Asia the Pacific23 Total Population (millions), 2002 80.3 6,225.0T 4,936.9T 1,480.3T 1,917.6T24 Urban Population (as % of the total), 2002 25.2 47.8 41.4 29.6 40.225 Population under age 15 (as % of the total), 2002 31.7 29.4 32.2 34.8 25.826 Total Fertility Rate, 1970-75 6.7 4.5 5.4 5.6 5.027 Total Fertility Rate, 2000-5 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.3 2.0

Developing South East Asia & INCOME Vietnam World Countries Asia the Pacific

28 GDP Per Capita (PPP US$), 2002 2,300 7,804 4,054 2,658 4,76829 Female Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 1,888 NA NA NA NA30 Male Estimated Earned Income (PPP US$), 2002 2,723 NA NA NA NA31 Youth unemployment (% of labour force aged 15-24), 2001 NA NA NA NA NA32 Percentage of Population below Poverty Line



Developing South East Asia & EDUCATION Vietnam World Countries Asia the Pacific

34 Adult Literacy Rate (% age 15 and above), 2002 90.3b NA 76.7 57.6 90.335 Female Literacy Rate, 2002 (%) 86.9a NA NA NA NA36 Male Literacy Rate, 2002 (%) 93.9a NA NA NA NA37 Female Gross Enrolment Ratio Combined Primary,


Secondary, Tertiary, 2001-02 67 NA NA NA NA39 Public Expenditure on Education (as % of GDP), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA40 Public Exp. on Pre-Primary & Primary Ed.

(as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA41 Public Exp. on Secondary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA42 Public Exp. on Tertiary Education (as % of all levels), 1999-2001 NA NA NA NA NA



Co

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hee

ts

Developing South East Asia & S. No. HEALTH Vietnam World Countries Asia the Pacific43 Life Expectancy at Birth (yrs.), 2002 69.0 66.9 64.6 63.2 69.844 Life Expectancy at Birth (Female), 2002 (yrs) 71.4 NA NA NA NA45 Life Expectancy at Birth (Male), 2002 (yrs.) 66.7 NA NA NA NA46 Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 30 56 61 69 3247 Under 5 Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births), 2002 39 81 89 95 4248 Maternal Mortality Ratio Reported (per 100,000 live births), 1985-2002 95 NA NA NA NA49 Percentage of children underweight for age (% under age 5), 1995-2002 33 NA NA NA NA50 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), 2000 47 61 51 37 4851 Population with access to improved sanitation (%), Urban, 2000 82 85 77 68 7352 Population with access to improved water source (%), 2000 77 82 78 85 7653 Population with access to improved water source (%), Urban, 2000 95 95 92 95 9354 Population with access to improved water source (%), Rural, 2000 72 71 69 81 67

Developing South East Asia & ENVIRONMENT Vietnam World Countries Asia the Pacific




Notes:a Data refers to a year between 1995 and 1999.b Data refers to a year other than that specified.


UNDP Regional Centre Colombo (RCC),Asia Pacific Regional HDR Initiative (APRI)

Regional Manager: Minh H. PhamRegional Programme Coordinator, APRI: Anuradha Rajivan

APRI is part of the MDG-HDR cluster of the RCC whichundertakes research, advocacy and capacity devel-opment on human development issues. It also pro-vides support to UNDP Country Offices throughtechnical backstopping and strategic policy advice.APRI’s mandate includes the production of UNDP’sflagship Regional Human Development Reports(RHDRs). RHDRs are policy advocacy documentswhich aim to stimulate debate and trigger policyresponses to address key development challenges inthe Asia-Pacific region.

http://www.colomboregionalcentre.lk.undp.org

Partners for this Regional Human Development Report

UNDP Regional Centre Bangkok (RCB),Asia Pacific Development InformationProgramme (APDIP)

Regional Manager: Elizabeth FongRegional Programme Coordinator, APDIP: Shahid Akhtar

APDIP is a part of the Cross-Practise Cluster of theRCB which aims to promote the development andapplication of Information and CommunicationTechnologies (ICTs) for poverty alleviation and sus-tainable human development in Asia-Pacificthrough its core service lines of Policy Develop-ment & Dialogue; Access; and Content Develop-ment & Knowledge Management. It also providessupport to UNDP Country Offices through technicalbackstopping and strategic policy advice. APDIPdelivers on its objective through activities thatinvolve awareness raising and advocacy, promotingICT policies and dialogue, building capacities,research, knowledge sharing and networking.

http://regionalcentrebangkok.undp.or.th/,www.apdip.net

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