1  

2  

(For Class X11)

Punjab School Education Board

Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar

Punjab Government

3  

4  

Class-xii

2016-17

Subject-sociology

Syllabus

SYLLABUS

Unit I- Societies in India 1. Tribal Society: Meaning, Features; Classification of Tribes; Marriage

System; Issues- Deforestation and Displacement; Changes 2. Rural Society: Meaning, Features; Issues- Indebtedness, Impact of Green

Revolution; Changes 3. Urban Society: Meaning, Features; Issues- Housing and Slums

Unit II- Inequalities in Indian Society 4. Caste: Meaning, Theories of Origin of Caste System: Traditional and

Occupational theories, 5. Class: Meaning, Correlates of class: Educational, Social (Power and

Prestige), Economic (Occupation); Interface between caste and class. 6. Gender: Understanding Gender, Difference between Sex and Gender,

Gender Inequality, Some basic concepts related to Gender

Unit III- Structural and Cultural Change 7. Westernisation & Sanskritisation 8. Modernisation & Globalisation 9. Social Movements Meaning and Types, Caste (Dalits and OBCs), Class

(Workers and Peasants), Women’s movement, Environmental movements

Unit IV- Social Problems in Indian Society 10. Alcoholism 11. Drug Addiction 12 Female Foeticide (Sex Selection and Determination), 13. Domestic Violence. 14. Problems and Concerns:( i)The Aged (ii) Disability

5  

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

TOPIC

Page No.

1 Tribal Society

2 Rural Society

3 Urban Society

4 Caste

5 Class

6 Gender

7 Westernisation and Sanskritisation

8 Modernisation & Globalisation

9 Social Movements

10 Social Problems: Alcoholism

11 Drug Addiction

12 Female Foeticide:

13 Domestic Violence:

14 Problems and Concerns :(i) The Aged (ii) Disability

6  

7  

UNIT 1

8  

Introduction

India has a rich and varied tribal heritage. Not only are the various tribal communities scattered all over

India, they also represent racial and linguistic stocks and are at different levels of economic and

technological development. While several changes have occurred amongst them with the spread of

education and other programmes of development initiated by the government of independent India, most

of these groups are still generally backward and receive special attention from the government and other

social reform agencies.

Chapter 1:     Tribal Society 

Highlights

1.1 Meaning 1.2 Features 1.3 Classification of Tribes 1.4 Marriage System of tribal society 1.5 Issues

1.5.1 Deforestation 1.5.2 Displacement

1.5 Changes

9  

The contemporary tribal cultures of India do not conform to the ideal of a primitive culture. Their

settlements are both rural and urban; the rates of literacy among them are rising. However, some tribal

groups or some segments among them, still practice primitive economy and their ways of life correspond

to the stereotypical image, but there are other groups which are on the path to modernisation. Such

changes notwithstanding, all tribal societies listed in the Schedule insist on maintaining their tribal status.

They are designated as Scheduled Tribes (STs).

These communities represent an important social group of Indian social structure. India has the second

largest concentration of tribal population after Africa. Tribe can be defined as a social group, which

occupies a definite area and is primitive in nature characterised by cultural homogeneity and a unifying

social organisation. The identity and culture of tribes are closely linked to the natural resources and the

environment in which they live.

Box 1.1

The tribes in India live in different parts across the country in varying proportions. The highest proportion

of tribal population is concentrated in central India, as well as, in the North Eastern part of the country.

They are known by different names such as Gonds, the Bhils, the Santhals, and the Oraons etc. are some

of the tribal communities who live in the central parts of the country. The tribal communities of India live

in the forest hills and naturally isolated regions and are known by different names such as Vanyajati

(caste of forest), Vanvasi (inhabitant of forest), Pahari (hill-dwellers), Adimjati (original communities),

Adivasi (first settlers), Janjati (folk people),AnusuchitJanjati (scheduled tribe) and so on. Among all these

terms Adivasi is known most extensively, and AnusuchitJanjati or Scheduled Tribe is the constitutional

name covering all of them.

‘Tribe’ in the Indian context today is normally referred to in the language of the Constitution as

‘Scheduled Tribe’. It was Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the chairman of the drafting committee of the constitution,

10  

who prefe

largest gro

Meaning

The word

‘one third

The word

groups th

word trib

241 BC.

social gro

that had

followed

the term tr

T

G

M

J.

T

T

Who are

Communi

characteri

Pr

G

D

Sh

E

erred the conc

oup of the bac

of Tribe

d tribe is deriv

d’.

d originally r

hat united to

us to 35 peop

Initially, a tr

oup. The Rom

a distinct nam

a common le

ribe are:

Tribals are com

G. S. Ghurye c

M. K. Gandhi

H. Hutton

Tribals.

The Constituti

the Schedule

ities are notif

istics:

rimitive traits

Geographically

Distinct cultur

hyness of con

Economically

Tribal

cept of Sched

ckward classe

ved from the L

referred to o

form Rome.

ple who beca

ribe was sim

mans identifie

me, occupied

eadership. A f

mmonly refer

called the trib

popularised t

preferred to

on of India ha

ed Tribes (ST

fied as STs u

s

y isolated

e

ntact with com

backward

duled Tribe to

es.

Latin word tr

one of the th

The Roman

ame a part of

mply a territor

ed tribe as a

d a common

few examples

red to as ‘Ad

bals ‘Backwar

the word Girij

o call the tri

as accepted th

Ts)?

under Article

mmunity at la

o ‘Adivasis’.

ribuz meaning

hree territoria

ns applied the

f Rome before

rially defined

political uni

territory and

s of the use o

ivasis’.

rd Hindus’.

jan.

ibalsPrimitive

he term Sched

342 of the C

arge

Latin word

"Tribus"

The Schedul

g

al

e

e

d

it

d

f

e

duled Tribes.

Constitution o

d 

The triba

2011 C

country’s

highest p

Mizoram

of tribes

(U.T.) w

Lakshadw

populatio

Nicobar

communi

are foun

Jharkhan

led Tribes con

of India based

Meanin

Do you

al population

ensus consti

s total popul

populace of

m; the state w

s is Goa. T

with highest p

weep and th

on of triba

Island. T

ity in India

d mainly in

nd and Orissa.

nstitute the se

d on the follo

ng ‐‐"one‐t

u know

n in India as

itutes 8.2%

ation. The st

tribal popu

with lowest po

The Union

opulation of

he U.T. with

als is Anda

The largest

is the Santh

West Benga

.

econd

owing

third"

s per the

of the

tate with

ulation is

opulation

Territory

tribals is

h lowest

aman &

t tribal

hals, who

al, Bihar,

11  

Box 1.2

Definitions of Tribal Society

“A tribe is a society that has a common territory, a common name, a common culture, a common dialect,

a tradition of common descent, and sometimes the presence of a chieftains”.

-Peter Murdoch

“A tribe is a group of local communities, which live in a common area, speak a common dialect and

follow a common culture”.

-Lewis Gillin and Phillip Gillin

A tribe is thus a small, homogenous geographically isolated group with a distinct language and culture. It

is technologically primitive, has an economy that is subsistence in nature and characterised by barter.

Characteristics

1. Common Territory: A tribe is a territorial community. It means it has a definite territory in which its

members reside. For example, the Naga reside in Nagaland; the Khasis live in Assam; the Todas in

Niligiri Hills of Tamil Nadu and so on. Usually they do not like the interference of the outsiders.

2. Collection of Families: Tribals comprise a collection of families. These collections may have various

sizes. These families which generally have relationships among themselves could be matriarchal or

patriarchal.

12  

3. Comm

the Santha

4. Comm

languages

the Santh

contribute

5. Chiefta

basis of p

weightage

6. Comm

of tribals

religion p

ancestral

worship t

animism a

7. Homo

culture, an

mon Name: Ev

al, the Muda,

mon Languag

s do not have

hal speak San

es much to the

ainship: Eve

hysical streng

e to his decisi

mon Religion:

. Mostly the

primarily take

worship and

the tribals pr

and totemism

genous Socie

nd economy,

Su

E

Endog

gr

very tribe has

the Kota, etc

ge:Tribals ha

a script. For

nthali languag

e developmen

ery tribe has

gth or experie

ions. The supr

: Religion is

eir social life

es the form o

d magic. In

ractice other

m.

eties: Tribal

i.e., all the m

Feeling

of unity

ubsistence

Economy

gamous

roup

Common Culture

DivisioLabo

s its own disti

c.

ave a commo

example, the

ge; the Mund

nt of commun

its own polit

ence or age, e

reme and fina

the vital elem

fe is regulate

of ideas of sp

addition to

types of fait

societies are

members of the

F

Co

Te

Man‐LaRelation

on of our

inctive name

on language

Gonds speak

das speak M

nity feeling.

tical system i

etc. The chief

al authority is

ment in the so

ed by religio

pirits, nature

ancestral an

th such as f

e quite homo

e tribe share t

Features

of 

Tribal Society

ommon

erritory

Hand ship

for example,

or dialect o

k Gondi dialec

Mundari langu

in which thei

f enjoys absolu

s in his hand.

ocial life

on. Their

worship,

nd nature

fetishism,

ogenous with

them.

Collection

of Families

Homogeneou

Societies

L

w

s

the Garo, th

f their own.

ct; the Bhils s

uage, etc. A

ir chief is ele

ute authority.

h respect to l

s

Common Name

Common

Language

Chieftainshi

Common Religion

us

Act

List out few

write their di

speak.

e Khasi, the N

In general,

speak Bhili di

common lang

ected either o

. All members

language, rel

 

e

p

tivity 1.1

tribal name

ialects which

Naga,

tribal

ialect;

guage

on the

s give

igion,

s and

h they

13  

8. Man-Land Relationship: A tribe is an integral part of its environment. The attachment of people to

the land on which they live is the basis of their life and culture. All members of the tribe identify

themselves with their land. There is no individual ownership of land or concept of land as property.

9. Feeling of Unity: The members of a tribe always feel that they are united. This sense of unity is

essential for them to retain their identity. They are always ready to avenge the injustice done to the group

or the individuals.

10. Subsistence Economy: A tribal society is simple in character. Their mode of production is based on

hunting, gathering, fishing, and on forest products. Along with the subsistence economy, barter system

also exists. Their economic activities are not based on the notion of profit. However, due to the increase

in their population and changed economic conditions, their self-sufficiency has declined.

11. Endogamous Group: All the members of the tribe marry within their own groups and thus practice

endogamy. Within every tribe there are other groups and subgroups, which help in preserving and

regulating the purity of blood, cultural peculiarities and retaining the property within the group.

12. Division of Labour: In tribal societies, division of labour is

based on age and sex. There is no specialisation in terms of

socially acquired technical skills as is seen in the more

advanced societies.

13. Common Culture: Every tribe has a distinctive culture of

its own such as its own way of behaving, thinking, feeling and

acting, as well as, its own customs, traditions, morals, values

etc.

Classification of Tribal Society Tribes of India form an important part of Indian population. The tribes of India are categorised into

different groups on the basis of racial classification, economic and integrational classification. The

classifications of the tribes are discussed in detail below.

Activity 1.2

Make a Project on tribal society which

includes their economy system on

which they dependent, the religion

system which they practice, their

marriage system and which kind of

division of labour exist in their

society.

14  

Racial Cl

Sir Herbe

types of p

with each

distinguis

a) T

K

of

gr

b) T

W

ar

th

c) T

in

co

st

d) T

m

R

m

lassification o

ert Risley atte

people in Ind

h other. It r

shed seven ph

The Indo-Ary

Kashmir. It ha

f physical ap

rowth of hair

The Dravidia

Western Benga

re thought to

hey have dark

The Mongoloi

ncluding Nor

omplexion w

tature.

The Aryo-Dr

mixture in vary

Rajasthan and

medium to bro

Ra

Class

‐ The In

‐The Dr

‐ The M

. The Ar

‐ The M

‐ Dravid

‐The Scy

‐The Tu

of Tribes in I

empted to clas

dia, namely, t

results in va

hysical types o

yan Type: T

as its characte

ppearance the

on face and b

an Type: The

al including w

o be probably

k eyes, long he

id Type: The

rth-East Fron

with yellowish

avidian (or

ying proporti

d Bihar. Thei

oad and their s

acial

ification

do‐Aryan

avidian 

Mongoloid

ryo‐Dravidian

Mongola‐

dian

ytho‐Dravidian

rko‐Iranian 

Classificatio

India

ssify the Indi

the Dravidian

arying racial

of tribes in In

This type of

eristic membe

ese people are

body, narrow

ey are deeme

whole of Che

y the original

ead and a ver

e Mongoloid t

ntier, Nepal a

h tinge, and

Hindustani)

ons of the Ar

ir complexion

stature is shor

n

E

Cla

‐For

‐Hil

‐Pla

‐SimArti

‐IndUrb

on of Tribal S

ian peoples on

ns, the Indo-A

l complexion

ndia.

tribal commu

ers – the Kash

e mostly tall

and long pro

d to extend f

ennai, Hydera

l inhabitants

ry broad nose

type is to be f

and Burma.

scanty hair o

Type: This

ryans and the

n varies from

rter than that

Economic

assification

rest‐Hunting

l Cultivation

ain Agriculture

mple and Folk isans

dustrial and ban Workers 

Society

n scientific b

Aryans and th

ns of the pe

unity is conf

hmiris, Brahm

with fair co

ominent nose.

from Ceylon

abad, Central

of India. The

.

found in the b

Their chief

on face. They

type of tribe

Dravidians. T

m light brown

of the Indo-A

asis. He reco

he Mongoloid

eople in Ind

fined to Punj

mins, Khatris

omplexion, da

to the valley

India and Ch

eir complexio

belt along the

features are

y have short

e is considere

They are foun

n to black, n

Aryans.

Integration

Classificatio

‐Tribal Communities

‐Semi‐tribal Communities

‐AcculturatedTribal Communities

‐Total AssimilaTribals

ognised three

ds which also

dia. Therefor

ab, Rajasthan

and Jats. In

ark eyes, luxu

y of the Gang

hotta Nagpur.

on is usually

e Himalayan r

broad head,

or below av

ed to be the

nd in U.P., pa

noses ranges

nal

on

 

ated 

racial

o mix

re, he

n and

terms

uriant

ges in

They

dark,

region

dark

verage

inter-

arts of

from

15  

e) The Mongolo-Dravidian (or Bengali) Type: This type is a blend of the Dravidians and

Mongoloid elements. They are found in Bengal and Orissa. They are characterised by broad and

round heads, dark complexion, plentiful hair on face and medium height.

f) The Scytho-Dravidian Type: This type is a mixture of the Scythians and the Dravidians. They

are found in the western region of India extending from Gujarat to Coorg. They also include

people from Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. This type has low-to-medium stature, fair

complexion, broad head, and moderate fine nose.

g) The Turko-Iranian Type: This type is present in Afghanistan, Baluchistan and North-Western

Frontier Provinces (N.W.F.P., now in Pakistan). They are regarded to be formed probably by the

fusion of Turkish and Persian elements.

Economic Classification of the Indian Tribes

The Indian tribals have also been classified on the basis of economy. The nature, man and spirit all

function to give a particular way to the tribals. They are interdependent and interact within this

framework. Therefore, we can classify the tribals of India into five types on the basis of their economy.

a) Forest-Hunting Type: The tribals of this type engage in hunting, food gathering and fishing.

There is an absence of technological aids. They also live in deep forest.

b) Hill Cultivation Type: The tribals who live in hilly areas

have adopted shifting cultivation.Shifting cultivation or

Jhum cultivation is an age old institution among the Indian

tribals.

c) Plain Agriculture Type: These tribals live in undulating

plateaus and are predominantly dependent on plough

cultivation.

d) Simple Artisan and Folk Artist Type: The tribals who

engage in handicrafts and their folk arts to eke out their

subsistence come under this category. These tribals depend very much on the local market and

village people.

e) Industrial and Urban Workers: The tribals who have accepted industrial life come under this

category. Primarily the tribe may be an agriculturalist or a forest hunting type or so on.

Do You Know

Shifting Cultivation is known by

different names in different parts

of the world.

Jhuming- North-East India

Milpa- Mexico

Roca- Brazil

Ladang- Malaysia

16  

 

Classification of Indian Tribes Based on Levels of Integration

The tribals are an integral part of Indian population. Though they have maintained their ethnic identities,

they have adjusted well to the non-tribal people after coming into contact with them. They have adapted

to the situation.

According to L. P. Vidyarthi and B. K. Rai, the Tribal Welfare Committee constituted by the Indian

Conference of Social Work in 1952 divided tribes into four main divisions:

a) Tribal Communities:Tribals who confine themselves to original habitats and are still distinctive

in their pattern of life.

b) Semi-Tribal Communities:Tribals who have more or less settled down in rural areas, taken up

agriculture and other allied occupations.

c) Acculturated Tribal Communities: Tribal communities those have migrated to urban and semi-

urban areas are engaged in “modern” occupations such as working in industries and have adopted

some of the traits and culture of the host population.

d) Totally Assimilated Tribals: These are tribals who have adopted Hindu religion in terms of their

orientation toward the Hindu social order. B. K. Roy Burman has classified such tribals into the

following categories:

Tribes which have been incorporated in the Hindu social order.

Tribes which are positively oriented toward the Hindu social order.

Tribes which are negatively oriented toward the Hindu social order.

Tribes which are indifferent toward the Hindu social order.

There are seven major tribes such as the Gonds, the Bhils, the Santhals, the Minas, the Oraons, the

Mundas and the Khonds which account for a population of a lakh or more. A brief description on The

Gonds, The Bhils and TheSanthals is given below.

17  

Major Tr

GondsBh

O

B

FP

Sa

Dg

ribes

hils

T

One of the lar

Believed to b

Found in MadPradesh, Biha

Speak Gondi also.

Depend on aggroups still pr

The Gonds

rgest tribes in

elong to the D

dhya Pradeshar, Orissa, etc

dialect and C

gro-forest ecoractice shiftin

The Santha

Found in B

Speak SantOrissa, Ban

Sohrai, the

They worsh

The bride p

n the country.

Dravidian gro

h, Andhra c.

Chhattisgarhi

onomy. A fewng cultivation

The

al is the larges

Bihar, West Be

thali languagengla of Benga

harvest festiv

hip Sun god.

price practice

oup.

w n.

Santhals

st tribe of Ind

engal, Jharkh

e. Also speak al and Hindi o

val is their mo

is generally p

Anothas Bh

FoundPrade

Speak

Main

Holi ifestiv

dia.

hand and Oris

Oriya languaof Bihar.

ost important

prevalent amo

The Bh

her large tribahilala.

d in Madhya esh, Gujarat, R

k Bhili dialect

source of liv

is one of theirvals.

sa.

age of

festival.

ong them.

hils

al group, also

Pradesh, AndRajasthan, Tr

t.

elihood is agr

r very importa

known

dhra ipura.

riculture.

ant

18  

Family Sy

Family is

tribal soci

Based

amon

in the

based

head

for m

his wi

Based

Based o

•Patriar•Matria

ystem of Trib

the basic uni

ieties, which a

d on Author

ng the Kharia

e family. All

d on monogam

of the family

marriage alway

ife’s parent’s

d on Residen

If the son

or near the

on Authority

rchalarchal

bal Society

it in all huma

are discussed

rity: In tribal

and the Garo

the authoritie

mous marriage

y. All the auth

ys comes from

house.

nce:

stays and the

e husband’s p

an societies. T

d in Box 4:

Family Syst

society both

o tribes respec

es are vested

e. Similarly, t

horities are ve

m the women

e daughter lea

arents, it is ca

Based on

•Patriloca•Matriloca•Biolocal•Neolocal

There is more

Box 1.3

tem of Tribal

h patriarchal

ctively. In the

in him and d

the Garos hav

ested in her.

n’s side. Afte

aves her fami

alled patriloca

Residence

l al

l

e than one for

l Society

and matriarch

e Kharia tribe

descent is trac

ve a matriarch

Descent is tr

er marriage, t

ly of birth, an

al residence. T

rm of family

hal families e

e the father is

ced through h

hal family sys

aced through

the son-in-law

nd the marrie

This system i

Based on D

•Patrilineal•Matrilineal•Double

system existi

exist, for inst

s the central f

him. This fam

stem. Mother

h her. The pro

w comes to li

ed couple live

is found amon

Descent

l

ing in

tance,

figure

mily is

is the

oposal

ive in

e with

ng the

19  

Santhals, the Mundas, the Hos, the Bhils, etc.

If the daughter stays and the son leaves, so that the married couple live with or near the wife

parents, it is called matrilocal residence, for example, among the Khasi, the Chenchus, etc.

When either the son or the daughter leaves, so that the married couple lives with or near

either the wife’s or the husband’s parents, it is called bilocal residence. In Lakshadeweep and

central Kerela, a few tribes follow this family system.

When both the son and the daughter leave and married couple lives apart from the relatives of

either spouse we call it neolocal residence, for example, among the Oraon, the Gadaba, etc.

Based on Descent:

When descent is traced through father’s side it is calledpatrilineal descent. For example, the

Kharia, the Santhal, the Munda etc.

When descent is traced through mother’s side it is calledmatrilineal descent. For example, the

Garo, the Khasi etc.

Some societies have followed double descent system in which descent is traced through for

some purposes from matrilineal kin and for other purposes from patrilineal kin.

Marriage System of Tribal Society

Ways of Acquiring Mate

The institution of marriage among the tribals is different from that in the Hindu society. Marriage among

the tribals is not a religious sacrament but a social contract with the purposes of enjoyment of sex,

procreation and companionship. The forms of marriage, the ceremonies, the taboos and the laws of

dissolution of marriage for the tribals are different from those of the civilised society. Mentioned below

are some of the tribal ways of acquiring a mate:

Marriage by capture: This is when a man forcibly marries a woman. This custom of marriage is

found among the Santhals, the Mundas, the Gonds, the Bhils, etc.

Marriage by purchase: Bride-price paid either in cash or in kind, is the central theme in this type

of marriage. This custom of marriage is found among the Mundas, the Oraon, the Ho, etc.

Marriage by exchange: Under this marriage system two households exchange women with each

other and thus, avoid the payment of bride-price. Marriage by exchange is practiced by the

Uralis, the Maria Gobds, etc.

20  

Marriage by elopement: In some cases if the parents do not give consent to the love of the

would-be spouses for marriage, they flee away to some other place without any information to the

parents. They are, however, accepted by the families after a period of time.

Marriage by service: This is when the man serves at his father-in-law’s house before marriage to

avoid the payment of bride-price.

Marriage by intrusion: When a woman forcibly marries a man. TheBirhor and theHo are among

the tribes who practice it.

Marriage by trial: under this type of marriage the man is required to prove himself courageous

and brave. After that he is free to choose his life partner. It is practiced by the Bhil tribe during

their Holi festival.

Marriage by mutual consent: In this form of marriage mutual consent is taken for marriage.

Marriage by probation: It allows a man to stay at woman’s place for a week together after

which they decide whether or not to get married. Marriage by probation is practiced by the Kukis

of Arunachal Pradesh and the Nicobarese.

Box 1.4

Economy System of Tribal Society

The tribes of India can be classified on the basis of their traditional economic organisation, material

culture, and levels of technology. Their economy is small in scale, subsistence or marginal in nature, and

makes use of simple technology which fits in well with their ecological surroundings. Tribes are

economically independent, with a distinctive division of labour and specialisation, production and

consumption patterns.

According to Vidyarti and Rai, Majumdar and Madan identified nine characteristics of tribes:

a. Use of simple technology

b. Economy is based on the principle of barter and exchange system

c. Lack of profit motive

d. Cooperation and collective endeavour

e. Low innovation

f. Absence of regular market but weekly markets exist

g. Consumer goods rather than capital goods are produced

h. Division of labour is based on sex and age

i. Both individual and communal ownership of property is present

21  

Issues con

We have

tribes. Th

and displ

people, p

inherited

each of th

Deforesta

Deforesta

trees. Bes

During ea

resources.

urbanisati

deforestat

covers als

ncerning Tri

discussed ab

ough they ha

acement bein

articularly th

from their an

hese problems

ation

ation is one of

sides, expans

arlier times,

. They were

ion, agricultu

tion has incre

so influences

ibal Commun

bove the cultu

ve a rich cult

ng the most

he aboriginal

cestors and th

s in detail.

f the major ca

sion of cropp

the tribals w

totally depe

ure, commerc

eased and affe

the climate an

nities

ural, social, p

ture, but they

prominent o

tribes and th

hrough their o

auses of the en

ped areas and

were able to s

endent on fo

cial logging,

fected the trib

nd contribute

Issues

political, econ

also face cert

of them. Defo

heir tradition

own experien

nvironmental

d pastures ar

survive becau

orests for the

increase in

bal’s livelihoo

es to a loss of

Defo

Disp

nomic aspect

tain specific p

orestation res

al culture an

ce while livin

l degradation.

re also the m

use of the av

eir livelihood

population,

od directly an

biodiversity.

orestation

placement

s and classifi

problems, as

sults in displ

nd knowledge

ng in the fores

. It implies th

major sources

vailability of

d. But due to

fuel-wood c

nd indirectly.

 

ications of va

well, defores

lacement of

e which they

st. Let us dea

he cutting dow

s of deforest

forest and n

o industrialis

collection, etc

The loss of

arious

tation

forest

have

l with

wn the

tation.

natural

sation,

c. the

forest

22  

Causes of Deforestation

Deforestation for Agriculture: Conservation of forest land into farmland is one of the most

important causes of deforestation. The forest is usually cleared by the landless peasants for

their livelihood. Shifting cultivation is practiced in several parts of the tropical countries

particularly by the aboriginal tribal people.

Deforestation for Timber Mining: Industrial timber mining is the major cause of

destruction of the forest. Demand for hardwood to make house furniture and fixtures

increased enormously since the industrial revolution. Therefore, the timber was obtained from

tropical forests because the hardwood quality was excellent and the labour was cheap.

Deforestation for Fuel-wood Production: Although fuel-wood gathering rarely causes large

scale destruction of forest, people cut down trees from the forest areas to use it as firewood.

This is their main fuel supply, both for cooking food and for heat. For this purpose the

indigenous tribal people cut down the trees, building stacks of them and make charcoal etc.

Urbanisation and Industrialisation: Since industrialisation and urbanisation need land, so

major portion of forest lands are cleared in order to promote industrialisation and

Causes of Deforestation  

Agriculture

Timber

Mining

Fuelwood

Production

Urbanisation

and

Industrialisation

Pasture Land Development

Paper and

Pulp

Industries

Commercial

Logging

23  

urbanisation. This produces harmful effects on the environment, as well as, on the forests’

ecological balance. It also contributes to the tribals becoming homeless.

Deforestation for Pasture Land Development: Conservation of forest-land into fodder-land

to meet the greed of the rich meat-based affluent societies of the world is yet another major

cause of deforestation.

Deforestation for Paper and Pulp Industries: Wood is transformed into paper that serves

as an essential tool for communication, commerce, education etc. Paper production and paper

use has increased dramatically all over the world for the past several decades. Pulp is also

used in paper making comes from plantations. Therefore, paper and pulp industries are to a

great extent responsible for deforestation.

Deforestation for Commercial Logging: Logging meanscutting down forest trees for wood.

Commercial logging companies cut down mature trees selected for timber business. Wood is

used for many things including construction, building furniture and as firewood.

Thus, we can say that deforestation has affected not only the ecological

system but also social and economic system of the tribals. On the global

level, deforestation has resulted in the release of carbon dioxide and

other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Deforestation causes many

problems for the tribals such as displacement of the indigenous

communities, loss of biodiversity, flooding, food problem, health issues,

climate change, etc.

Displacement

Displacement is defined as the act of uprooting someone from one area to another. It is also one of the

major problems for the tribals. Displacement of people from traditional habitats causes much trauma to

the affected persons. The effect of industrialisation and urbanisation has been felt by the tribal population.

As tribal areas are rich in natural resources, various measures were taken to exploit those areas for raw

materials, power, and irrigation projects. Therefore, the tribals have been deprived of their land and paid

meagre amounts as compensation, which they spend on drinking and other ritual practices. Thus, they

became moneyless and landless. For subsistence, they worked as labour in the factories. No doubt,

industrialisation initially provided employment opportunities for tribal youth in unskilled jobs, but due to

illiteracy and lack of awareness, they are not in a position to take up skilled or semi-skilled jobs.

According to NadeemHasnain, the major power and irrigation projects, such as the Maithon, Konar, and

Panchet in Bihar, the steel projects of Rourkela, Durgapur, and West Bengal are the many undertakings

Activity 1.3

Observe the causes and

effects of deforestation.

Discuss it in your class how it

has influenced our

environment.

24  

that have

of the va

cultivation

The cash

daily livin

the tribal

interested

other alter

have deve

Causes of1. L

de

ec

ro

to

su

be

ce

2. D

de

gl

id

resulted in a

arious facilitie

n was not irri

compensation

ng expenses u

people by the

d in setting up

rnative, the tr

eloped into slu

f DisplacemeLand Acquisi

eprived of th

conomy and d

oads and min

o leave their

uch as dams a

een displaced

ent of them.

Dam Constru

evelopment r

lobalisation f

dentity. The t

substantial d

es offered by

igable and did

n given is sel

until alternati

e newly cons

p their own fa

ribals are forc

ums lacking t

ent ition and Dis

heir livelihoo

depend on agr

ning operation

traditional la

and industries

d by developm

uction and Di

related displac

for the sake o

tribals, their

IndustryDisplace

Displacemdue to S

isplacement o

y the authorit

d not offer ade

ldom utilised

ive employme

structed factor

factories and g

ced to set up s

the basic civic

splacement:

od because m

riculture. Com

ns, industry an

and. Tribals a

s are located i

ment projects

isplacement:

cement. In re

of the develo

lands and th

CDis

A

Di

y and ement

ment EZs

of the tribals.

ties. The alte

equate return

for productiv

ent is found.

ries or towns

getting profit

small dwellin

c amenities.

Tribal comm

most of them

mpulsory acq

nd reservatio

are the worst

in near tribal

s in India as a

Dam constru

ecent times, la

opment have

he other reso

Causes of splacement 

Land

Acquisition

and

isplacement

M

Di

Very few of

ernative land

to maintain t

ve purposes.

Besides, no

hips. The ow

ts at the cost

ngs near the ou

munity from w

m live in a na

quisition of lan

n of forests f

t sufferers sin

dwellings. Ne

a whole and

uction is one

arge scale ind

emerged as t

ources are no

Dam Buan

Displca

Mining and

splacement

f them have ta

d offered by

their families.

It is almost i

alternative sp

wners of the to

of the tribal p

utskirts of the

whom land is

atural resourc

nd for constru

for national p

nce most dev

early 50-60 m

tribes constit

of the most im

dustrialisation

the biggest th

ow exposed t

uilding d

aement

aken the adva

the authoritie

.

nvariably spe

pace is provid

ownships are

people. Havin

e townships, w

alienated are

ce based inf

uction of dam

parks forces p

velopment pr

million people

tute at least 4

mportant cau

n, privatisatio

hreats to the

to the exploi

antage

es for

ent on

ded to

more

ng no

which

e thus,

formal

ms and

people

ojects

e have

40 per

ses of

on and

tribal

itative

25  

market forces and the numerous projects to exploit minerals and other natural resources. Land

alienation of the tribals by the powerful entities has become a common phenomenon.

3. Mining and Displacement: In the global era, mining has become another important source of

investment and profit for the private sector. Mining induced displacement and resettlement

(MIDS) has become a major risk from the point of the social sustainability. In India, most of

affected people are the tribal and other indigenous people.

4. Industry and Displacement: Acquisition of agricultural land for industrial purposes is not a new

phenomenon in India. Heavy industrial projects are in the pipe line for the core of India’s land

planned development for which large areas have to be acquired. This means people’s homes are

destroyed resulting in their displacement. In addition, the landowners give up land in the process

of acquisition by the State.

Changes in Tribal Society

Tribes are becoming aware, both socially and politically, in maintaining and preserving their ethnic and

cultural identity. They are also trying their level best to protect themselves against exploitation by

outsiders. This may, however, result in a new form of ecological-cultural isolation. After independence,

lots of changes – political, social and economic – have taken place in the Indian society. These changes

have promoted interaction and association among various castes, tribes, cultural and religious groups.

There are numerous social and cultural changes that have taken place among the tribals which are

discussed below:

1. Social Stratification: Some studies conducted on tribal societies have revealed that change is

taking place in tribal social stratification. The tribals seem to have attained the status of class

Changes in Tribal Society

Social 

StratificationNon‐

Agricultural

Occupations

Migration

Economy

System

Political 

System

Local to

Global Place

26  

from that of ethnicity. The difference in material possessions creates new patterns of consumption

in food, dress, housing etc., and also other parallel differences, for instance, the level of

education, religious orientation and preferences in political life.

2. Non-Agricultural Occupations: The tribals in India took to agriculture during the first quarter of

the 20th century. At that point they had enough land in their possession. Increasingly, the caste

Hindus made their entry into the tribal land and since then the tribal land slipped into the hands of

these non-tribals. Hence, the tribals experienced land alienation. This has made them job workers

instead of peasants. This process of taking up of non-agricultural occupation is called de-

peasantisation.

3. Migration: Traditionally social anthropologists have defined tribals as an immobile stock of

people. They hardly move beyond their areas. But the search for employment has pushed them to

work in big cities. Today, these tribals are working as migrant groups outside their village.

Government jobs have also encouraged them to move from one place to another.

4. Economic System: The tribal subsistence economy has become diversified. Tribals were for a

very long time dependent on the forests and forest products. They were experts in hunting and

gathering. But unlike the caste Hindus, they do not have any hereditary occupations. This has

enabled them to take any occupation they may find suitable at a given point in time.

5. Political Socialisation: Political factors are also causing change among the Indian tribals. The

universal right for voting, party functioning and social activism have all initiated a strong process

of political socialisation among the tribals. This, along with community development programme

for tribal welfare and development has provided opportunities for politicisation and leadership

among tribals.

6. Local to global place: In the era of globalisation, the tribals cannot be kept in isolation. The

small places, that is, the tribal homelands are linked with the region, state, nation and the world.

The tribals are no longer an encapsulated mass of people restricted to hill and forests. They have

become a part of the larger process of globalisation.

Conclusion

Thus, it can be concluded from the above discussion that the tribals are an integral part of India. They

have been classified by distinguished Indian and foreign scholars on the basis of their origin.

Deforestation and displacement are the major issues of tribals. After Independence a lot of social,

political, religious, and cultural changes have occurred among tribals.

Glossary

27  

Multiple Choice Questions

Objective Type Questions

Animism: According to Tylor, animism is a belief in the spirit of the death.

Totemism:Totemism means when an object or animal or plant is considered sacred by the tribe.

Therefore, the members do not touch or eat the totem because they feel it has some supernatural

powers and they worship it.

Shifting Cultivation: It is a farming system, which is practice by most of the tribals in India. It is

also known as “Jhum” or “Podu” cultivation in deferent regions. Under this system the forest

slopes are cleared, the fallen trees are burnt, and seeds are sown in covered with ash. Seeds are

sown before the onset of the rainy season. After rainfall the crops are ready. Then new piece of

land is selected for the next cycle of cultivation and the process is repeated.

Subsistence Economy: A tribal society is simple in character. Their mode of production is based

on hunting, gathering, fishing and on forest products. With the subsistence economy, barter

system also exists. Their economic activities are not based on sense on the notion of profit. Due

to the increase in their population and changed economic conditions, their self-sufficiency has

gone.

Simple Division of Labour: The tribals have a social organisation based upon a simple division

of labour usually based upon age and sex.

Exercises

I)

1. Which is the largest tribe in India?

(a) Santhal (b) Bhil (c) Munda (d) Gonds

2. The word tribe is derived from which word?

(a) Greek (b) Latin (c) Greek and Latin (d) Latin or Greek

3. Which is not Risley’s classification on the basis of racial?

(a) Indo-Aryan (b) Hill cultivation (c) Mongoloid (d) Scytho-Dravidian

4. Bhil tribe speak which dialect?

(a) Oriya (b) Chhattisgarhi (c) Bhili (d) Gondi

5. Which is the cause for environmental degradation?

28  

Fill in the Blanks

Match the Following

True/False

One word Question/Answer

(a) Housing (b) Gases (c) Displacement (d) Deforestation

6. The act of movement of someone from one position to another is called?

(a) Displacement (b) Mobility (c) Land Acquisition (d) Deforestation

1. The Romans identified tribe as a __________ unit.

2. The constitution of India has accepted to use the term tribe as __________.

3. __________, __________ and __________ are the cultural classification of tribal society.

4. Shifting cultivation is also called as __________ cultivation.

5. __________, __________ and __________ are the causes responsible for Deforestation.

6. __________ and __________ are the two major issues of tribal society.

1. India has the second largest concentration of tribal population?

2. Dr. G.S. Ghurye called the tribals as “Girijan”.

3. The Munda tribe speaks Mundari dialect.

4. Tribals have faith in Animism and Totemism.

5. Deforestation has no influence on climate and biodiversity.

Land acquisition and Dams buildings are the causes of Displacement.

Mundari Sir Herbert Risley

Timber Mining Marriage by Purchase

The Mungoloid Type Munda

Dam Construction Deforestation

Bride price paid in cash Disp[lacement or in kind

1. What is the total percentage of tribal in India?

2. The mixture of the Scythians and the Dravidians are called?

3. The tribals which are based on hunting, gathering and fishing are called?

29  

very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

long answer questions in 75-85 words each:

4. Food problem, health issues, loss of biodiversity and climate changes are the causes of

displacement or deforestation?

5. Industry, Mining, Dam building, land acquisition are the major causes of?

II)

1. What do you mean by Tribal Society?

2. Which is the largest tribe community in India?

3. The word tribe is derived from which words?

4. In Indian context who referred tribes as ‘Scheduled Tribe’?

5. The Bhil tribe speaks which kind of dialect?

6. Who gave racial classification of the tribal society?

7. ‘Sohrai’ is the harvest festival of which tribe?

III)

1. Write down three characteristics of tribal society.

2. What do you mean by chieftainship?

3. What is subsistence economy?

4. What do you mean by the Indo-Aryan type tribe?

5. What do you mean by Mongoloid tribe?

6. What is the Santhal Tribe?

7. What is deforestation?

8. What do you mean by displacement?

IV)

1. Write a short note on tribal society.

2. Write the Cultural classification of tribal society.

3. Write the Racial classification of tribal society.

4. Write the Linguistic classification of tribal society.

5. Write the Integrational classification of tribal society.

6. Distinguish between the Gond and the Bhil tribes?

7. Write down the three causes of deforestation.

8. Write the three causes responsible for displacement.

30  

very long answer questions in 250-300 words each:

9. Write five social change occur in tribal society.

V)

1. What do you mean by tribal society? Discuss its characteristics in detail.

2. Write a detail note on classification of tribal society.

3. What is deforestation? What are the causes responsible for deforestation?

4. What is displacement? Write a detail note on it.

5. Write down about social changes which occur in tribal society.

31  

Introduction

In India, nearly 70% of the population lives in rural areas. These areas are also known as countryside or

village in India. The life of rural people is very simple that constitute a group of people residing in a

definite geographical area in which the members share a common mode of consciousness, common

economy, common way of living, dressing, food habits, manners, etc. So, there exists homogeneity

among the people, having low density of population, primary relationships and have oral tradition.

Culture is deep rooted in these societies and it is part and parcel of social life. In rural societies, there is a

very little scope for occupational mobility because agriculture is still the main occupation of the people.

In the ancient literature, the word village was interpreted as group

of families dwelling at one place. The head of the village was

known as Gramini. Robert Redfield accounted following features

of a small community: small size, distinctiveness, homogeneity

and self-sufficiency. However, in modern societies, majority of

the village cannot claim above features, since villages are linked

with wider social, economic and political structures these days.

Do you know

Rural India contribute a big chunk

to India’s GDP by way of

agriculture, self-employment,

services and constructions, etc.

Chapter 2:     Rural Society 

Highlight

2.1 Meaning 2.2 Features 2.3 Issues

2.3.1 Indebtedness 2.3.2 Impact of Green Revolution

2.4 Changes

Mahatma Gandhi is often quoted 

“Real India lives in its villages.” 

32  

Villages of India exhibit an enormous deal of diversity. Different states have different number of villages

comprising the maximum number of villages are in the Uttar Pradesh and the Daman and Diu. The

National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) defines ‘rural’ as follow:

An area with a population with a population density of up to 400 per square kilometres.

Villages with clear survey boundaries but no municipal board

A minimum of 75% of male working population involve in agriculture and allied activities.

You will amaze to know that rural sociology is a new branch of Sociology with studies being carried out

from 19th century, the prominent scholars engaged in rural Sociology during this period were- Sir Henry

Maine, Etton, Stemann, etc. The period of 1890-1920 in America saw the rural societies facing many

socio-economic problems which attracted the attention of the intelligentsia thus establishing study of rural

societies as an academic discipline. The appointment of country life commission by SheodoreRoosenslt

was an important landmark in the history of rural Sociology. In 1916 the first text book on rural sociology

Do you know

The term “rural” is opposite to “urban”. The term ‘rural society’ is used almost interchangeably with term like ‘village’. As per census 2011, out of 121 crore Indians, 83.3 crore population live in rural areas. The rural community has a long history of its own. It is a group of about 5000 people depending on agriculture and allied occupations, permanently residing in a particular geographic area and participating in common socio-economic and cultural activities. 

33  

was published by J.N. Gillettee. The central concern in the Sociological study of rural society is with

social organization- the social system (or subsystem) and their interrelationships within rural society. An

Indian Village has been studied by some Sociologist and Anthropologists. A few among others include

Dube, Lewis, Srinivas, Marroitt, Bailey, Gough, K.L. Sarma, Andre Beteille, etc.

Rural society is thus

Residing permanently in definite geographical area, small in size, homogenous in nature, have

face to face interaction, and informal social control.

Families are mostly joint in nature.

It has an economy i.e., self-sufficient in nature and based on agriculture. .

Within the village, different caste groups are vertically arranged, forming a sort of hierarchy.

They are interdependent.

Features of Rural Society

The main characteristics of the rural society are discussed below:

Residing permanently in definite

geographical area

Rutal Society

Homogenous in nature& have close interaction 

Small in size and have we-feeling 

Have face to face interaction, and informal social control

34  

1. S

ar

2. S

sm

T

si

3. In

si

al

4. S

do

so

be

us

St

re

th

mall Size:Th

re small henc

Social Homo

mooth. Most

Therefore, in t

imilar in natu

ntimate Rela

ize, every per

ll. Thus, the r

ocial Contro

ominated by

ociety is alwa

ecause of per

sed as an inst

Ac

tudy the featu

lationship an

ey have.

he rural societ

e, the populat

ogeneity:Rura

of their inh

the way of thi

re.

ations: In rur

rson knows e

relationships

ol:Village is

traditional m

ays informal

rsonal and inf

trument of soc

GrouFeeli

Caste System

Status Wome

RNeig

ctivity 2.1

ures and find

nd kind of o

ties are small

tion is also lo

al areas are

habitants are

inking, behav

al areas face

each other. Al

in village com

an organise

mores and info

in nature. So

formal contact

cial pressure t

F

Ru

Social Mobility

up ng

of en

Role of hbourhood

d out the

ccupation

ler in area tha

ow.

homogenous

connected w

ving, dressing

to face relati

ll the membe

mmunity are

ed unit of a

ormal social p

ocial pressure

ts. The Caste

to look into th

5. Occu

occupation o

of rural eco

engaged in ag

in dairy f

Features

of 

ral Society

Small

SizeHo

RJoint

Family

an the urban

s in nature.

with agricultu

g, acting, and

ions are foun

ers of village

informal, per

an agrarian s

pressure. The

e by the com

e Panchayats

he instances o

upation:Agri

f the rural so

onomy. Majo

griculture. In

farming and

y

Social

omogeneity

Intimat

Relatio

So

Con

Occupan

eligion

societies. As

Their life is

ure and its a

living of the

nd. Since, the

are interested

rsonal and inc

society. The

mode of soc

mmunity in the

and the Villa

of social disob

culture is

ciety and form

ority of the

inhabitants a

d cultivatio

te 

ns

ocial 

ntrol

tio

the rural soc

s very simple

allied occupa

e people are a

village is sm

d in the welfa

clusive.

life of peop

cial control in

ese areas is s

age Panchaya

bedience.

the pr

ms the major

rural peopl

are mainly eng

on. Besides

cieties

e and

ations.

almost

mall in

fare of

ple is

n rural

strong

ats are

imary

r basis

e are

gaged

the

35  

domestication of animals and agriculture there are some other occupations as well.

6. Religion:The rural society is considered to be a religious society. One of the significant features

of the rural people is its domination by rituals. Religion and its associated aspects such as ritual

and magic influence rural India in more ways than one. Rural community is essentially caste-

ridden. Religion accords legitimacy to the caste system. In reality in the countryside caste and

religion are inseparable. The origin of the caste system emanates from religion.

7. Joint Family: Another peculiar feature of the life of village is the joint family system. In the

village, the family has strict control over the individuals. Generally, the father is the head of the

household known as Karta and representative of the family. His orders are obeyed by all the

members of the family.

8. Social Mobility: In rural areas, mobility is rigid as all the occupations are based on caste.

Shifting from one occupation to another is difficult as caste is determined by birth. Thus, caste

hierarchy determines the social status of the rural people.

9. Caste System: Indian village life is mixed up with the caste system. There is no village without

the castes. Each village has several caste segments which have their own ties in some spheres.

The inter-dependence of castes could be seen in the exchange of specialised occupational

services. The village life has been controlled by the two ways of panchayats system such as,

Village Panchayat and JatiPanchayat.

10. Status of Women:Women in the Indian rural context are very

much dependent on their men folk. They are often engaged

themselves in indoor activities besides, performing domestic

activities they also work in the fields along with their men folk.

They also look after their family, children and domesticate

animals. Instances of desertion, divorce and separation are comparatively less in the rural context.

Activity 2.2

Find out who manage and

control the local affairs of

the rural society.

Box 2.1

Family System of Rural Society

Family is the basic unit of society. It is the oldest, most prevalent and enduring social institution which is

found everywhere in the world. In Indian villages, families prevail and endure as the basic social

institution. The rural society is marked by the patriarchal joint family system which is father-centred.

The eldest male member of the family looks after the family affairs. The joint family is one which

consists of members related through blood and spread over three or more generations, live together under

a common roof and work under a common head. They are more homogeneous and better integrated.

As Panikkar has pointed out 

the caste system, village system of life and

the joint family system can be regarded as

the basic pillars of the Indian social system.

36  

11. Role of Neighbourhood: Neighbourhood refers to a community in miniature. In a village,

neighbourhood is of great importance. They share the joys and sorrows together. In the times of

festivals, marriage and other religious ceremonies and in time of ill health, accidents and other

crises, neighbours support each other. Feeling of dependency on the neighbours is always present

in the village.

12. Group Feeling: In the life of the villages group feeling is occupies an important place. They

respect and obey the orders of their elders. Individualism is almost absent in the villages. People

are afraid of being publically criticised and condemned.

Box 2.2

Marriage System of Rural Society

Marriage is more than simply a legalised sexual union between a man and woman; it is socially

acknowledged and approved relationship. In the rural society, a marriage is considered to be absolutely

essential. It is not considered a union between two individuals, but a bond between two families, kin-

groups and communities. Monogamy is the most prevalent form of marriage of Hindu in rural society.

Among the Hindus, the marriage is prohibited in the same Gotra. For the selection of mate, alone

individual’s wishes not required. There are certain specific aspects, which are exclusively rural with

regard to the institution of marriage. The general rules regarding mate selection may be prescriptive,

Dr.IravathiKarve said, “Joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, who eat

food cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common, who participate in common family worship

and who related to each other as some particular type of kindred.” There are some major characteristics

of joint families which discussed below:

The size of the joint family is big.

It consists of people of at least three or more generations such as grandparents, parents and

children.

The member tends to identify themselves with their family. Every member has his own duties,

and obligations towards the family.

Members of the joint family normally reside together under the same household.

They eat the food prepared jointly in the common kitchen.

They hold a common property and the head of the family manages the family property.

37  

proscriptiv

mate selec

The organ

village pa

leads by

villagers,

It has bee

the grass

Constituti

Rajasthan

A village

institution

every stat

Marriagpartnersselectlife paby mviolition

ve and prefer

ction by three

nisation, adm

anchayats. Th

their headme

look after oth

en established

root level. I

ional Amendm

n was the first

e forms the b

n in the form

te.

The Parties

gestheir

artnermitualn

By ki

(Arrmarr

Villa

rences which

e sub heads:

P

ministration an

he village pan

en who main

her matters of

d in all the sta

It is entrusted

ment Act of

t state to estab

basic unit of

of Village Pa

s to selection

nsmen

range riage)

Bpartthe

age Panchaya

limit the fiel

Rules of

Political Syst

nd all kinds o

nchayats are

ntain peace a

f common con

ates of India b

d with rural

1992. This a

blish Panchay

f social and

anchayat. The

By the tners and kinsmen

E

at is the system

d of eligibilit

f Mate Select

Box 2.3

tem of Rura

of progress of

the pillars th

and order in

ncern for the

by the Acts o

development

act has added

yati Raj.

economic lif

e act provide

The Fields

Endogamous

Caste, Class, Racial,

Religious endogamous

m of rural loc

ty. K.M. Kapa

tion

al Society

f the rural com

hat support th

n the village.

village popul

f the state leg

t. It was con

d a new Part-

fe in India.

s for a three-

of Selection

Exogamou

Incest Taboos,

Clan, Spinda,

Viaalage exogamy

cal self-govern

adia has disc

mmunities in

he Indian rura

It settles di

lation.

gislatures to b

stitutionalised

IX to the con

They have th

-tier system o

us

The C

FamilAttribu

Backgro, reputat

sizeeducati

socioeconom

stau

nment. 

cussed the rul

India, is bas

al social syste

isputes amon

build democra

d through the

nstitution of

heir own po

of panchayati

riteria of Sele

lies utes

oundtion, , ion, o-mic s

IndivAttri

Agphy

appeachara

heaeduc

incom

es for

ed on

em. It

ng the

acy at

e 73rd

India.

litical

raj in

ection

vidual ibutes

ge, ysical arance, acter, alth, ation,

me, etc.

38  

It will be

accordanc

water, me

control of

Rural Is

Rural peo

problems

these prob

also varie

backgroun

issues hav

revolution

Indebted

Gram Pa

the duty of th

ce with the av

edical treatme

f building, san

sues

ople pass thr

of the rural

blems varies

es, due to the

nd and religio

ve some posi

n as rural issu

dness

anchayat at th

Panchayat sam

Zila p

M

he every panc

vailability of t

ent and healt

nitation and s

rough a serie

people throu

widely and a

e family size,

ous beliefs. T

itive and neg

ues were discu

he Village Lev

miti at the Bl

parishad at th

ajor Issues

chayat to arran

the funds. Fo

th, education,

ecurity, admi

es of problem

ughout the co

a few of them

employment

oday, there ar

gative impact

ussed in detai

vel

lock Level

he District Lev

nge the follow

or instance, m

, statistics, pr

inistration, etc

ms, which aff

ountry appear

m need to be

t status, owne

re many issue

t on them. Th

l below.

vel

Indebtednes

I

Gree

wing things w

maintainance o

rogress of ag

c.

ffect their sur

r to be comm

given priority

ership of var

es the rural pe

herefore, Ind

ss

Impact of

en Revolutio

within the area

of public road

griculture and

rvival and qu

mon. Howeve

y. The cause

ious resource

eople are deal

debtedness an

n

a of its author

ds, arrangeme

d cottage indu

uality of life

er, the intens

of these prob

es, socio-econ

ling with and

nd impact of

rity in

ent for

usries,

e. The

ity of

blems

nomic

these

green

39  

One of the

are povert

generation

necessary

purposes

death), lit

drags the

an easy v

situation a

little prop

What is R

It

la

ru

R

in

vi

Causes of

1. P

fa

e major probl

ty and deficit

n to the nex

y as it contri

such as, to m

tigation, etc. S

rural people

victim of expl

and earn mon

perty they hav

Rural Indebt

t means an o

abourers etc.,

ural indebtedn

Rural indebted

ncludes inabil

illages and th

f Indebtedne

Poverty: The

armers. Some

lems of the ru

t economy. Th

xt generation.

butes to pro

meet the fami

Since, money

into indebted

loitation by t

ney at a very

ve such as hou

tedness

obligation to

when are un

ness.

dness is an i

lity of our ec

he agricultural

ess

crucial caus

etime due to t

Higof

ural society is

his problem i

. Taking deb

duction. How

ily needs, to

y borrowed do

dness. Thus, i

the greedy m

high rate of

use or land, et

pay money t

nable to repay

indicator of t

conomic syste

l wage labour

se of the rur

the failure of

In

Malpractice of the money lenders

gh rate interst

Excessive burden of

land revenue and rent

s indebtednes

s just not rela

bt for the pu

wever, the ru

perform soci

oes not contri

it becomes im

moneylenders

interest. As a

tc. This system

to another pa

y a loan and

the weak fin

em to reach t

rers.

al indebtedne

monsoon and

Causes of

ndebtedness

PovertyA

Extravagent

Expenditure

s. The reason

ated to one in

urpose of agr

ural people i

ial functions

ibute to produ

mpossible to r

and middle-m

a result, the m

m is prevalen

arty. In rural

accumulate,

ancial infrast

to the needy

ess in India

d floods their

Ancestral

Debt

Litigation

Backwardnesof

Agriculturet

e

ns for such ch

ndividual but

ricultural pro

incur debts f

(related to m

uction rather

repay these lo

men who take

moneylender

nt in most part

l India poor

it gives rise

tructure of o

farmers, land

is the extrem

r crops destro

n

ss

e

hronic indebte

is passed from

oduction is in

for non-produ

marriage, birth

to consumpti

oans. They be

e advantage o

snatches wha

ts of our coun

farmers and

to the proble

ur country, w

dless people i

me poverty o

oyed and they

edness

m one

ndeed

uctive

h, and

ion. It

ecome

of the

atever

ntry.

wage

em of

which

in the

of the

y have

40  

to purchase seeds, implements, cattle etc., but they have no past saving, then they forced to

borrow money.

2. Ancestral Debt: The most important cause of the existing rural indebtedness is the ancestral

debt. Many agriculturalists start their career with a heavy burden of ancestral debt and drag the

loan for the whole of their lives, taking it to be a religious and social obligation. Such increasing

debt is passed on from one generation to another generation making its repayment increasing

difficult, whenever it is passed on. Thus, the Royal Commission has rightly stated that the Indian

farmer “is born in debt, lives in debt and dies in debt.”

3. Litigation: Litigation is another major cause of rural indebtedness. Agriculturists are generally

involved in various kinds of disputes such as intra-family disputes, inter-family disputes, theft of

crops and division of ancestral lands, property, etc. that often force them to go to courts of law.

Such prolonged litigations involved heavy expenditures and to meet there expanses. Farmers take

loans which further aggravates the burden of rural indebtedness.

4. Backwardness of Agriculture: Indian agriculture is an uncertain business. It virtually depends

on unreliable rains for the supply of water. If there are no rains, the entire crop is lost and the

credit invested in the agriculture goes waste. As a result, the loan taken for the productive

purposes also becomes a burden, leading to indebtedness for the farmers.

5. Extravagant Expenditure:Being bound to custom and tradition, the ruralites consider the

expenses on the occasion for marriage, birth, death and on some religious obligations as

unavoidable. Being poor, they have no reserve to fall back upon, this makes them to borrow.

6. Malpractices of the money lenders: The private money lenders are known to have adopted

various malpractices:

They charge exorbitant rates of interest varying from 40 to 60 percent per annum.

They have also been found keeping false accounts.

They are more interested in forcing the borrowers to part with their land by encouraging the

farmers to borrow from them and get their lands mortgaged to them.

7. High Rates of Interest: The high rates of interest force the

cultivators to borrow. The rates vary from state to state but due to the

poor economic conditions of the peasants, the interest accumulates

every year. Quite often, it is extremely difficult to clean up even the

interest charges alone. It is the high rate of interest and the

malpractices followed by the money lenders that tend to perpetuate the indebtedness.

Activity 2.3

Make a list of reasons

why the rural people

become indebted.

41  

8. E

is

ev

Consequ

There are

discussed

E

le

m

of

fa

S

ve

th

Excess burden

s becoming ex

ven during th

uences of In

numerous ec

below:

Economic Co

eads to low ag

moneylender a

f the market.

armer.

o The t

money

what h

incom

o In the

money

Theref

ocial Conse

enomous and

he exploiting

o Due t

hierarc

betwee

o As the

Their s

them b

n of land rev

xpensive burd

e floods and d

debtedness

conomic and n

onsequences:

gricultural pro

and he is depr

Such a situat

rade betwee

ylender. The

he sells to the

e.

process of o

ylender, the

fore, the farm

equences:The

d poisoned the

class and the

o the loss o

chy. Land ow

en the money

e farmers lose

self-respect is

but due to the

Econo

venue and re

den upon sm

drought this m

non-economic

The farmer l

oduction and

rived of sellin

tion adversely

n the mone

farmer is pric

moneylender

btaining loan

farmer often

mer (the owner

e relations b

e social life. T

exploited cla

of land, the

wnership gets

ylenders and f

e their lands, t

s lost as they

illiteracy and

Co

omic

ent: Land rev

mall farmers. I

makes the farm

c consequenc

loses interest

income. The

ng his produce

y affects the

eylender and

ced heavily f

r. Thus, such

ns, payment o

n loses his la

r of the land),

between the

Therefore, the

ass.

farmer feels

s concentrate

farmers.

they have to r

become slav

d lack of reso

onsequences

Social

venue is levied

In order to pa

mers run into

ces that are ca

in agricultur

farmer is forc

e in the open

inducement f

the farmer

for what he p

trades lead to

of interest and

and, as he i

, becomes a la

moneylende

e social group

deprived an

ed in few ha

render service

es. Although

urces they are

Politic

d by governm

ay these rents

o debts.

aused by rural

ral productio

ced to sell all

market and o

for work and

is always

purchases and

o loss of a sub

d repayment

is not able t

andless.

ers and the

ps get divided

nd pushed do

ands, which b

es to the new

, there are ma

e unable to ap

cal

ment in some

s and land rev

l indebtedness

on. With the

l his produce

obtaining the p

agricultural o

beneficial to

d receives litt

bstantial part

of principal t

to repay the

farmers be

d into two cla

own in the

builds up ten

owner of the

any laws to p

pproach court

states

venue

s. Are

result

to the

prices

of the

o the

tle for

of his

to the

loan.

ecome

asses-

social

nsions

e land.

rotect

ts.

42  

Political Consequences: The indebted farmers are treated by the moneylenders as commodities.

The moneylenders use them as their private property. Since, their economic position is not sound,

they do not have a political status of their own. Their political participation is completely

dominated by the moneylenders who use them for their own political advantages. In order to get

free themselves from the clutches of the moneylenders the farmers indulge in illegal means to

repay loans. The moneylenders attempt to drag and squeezed the farmers to indulge into all kinds

of illegal practices and poison the political atmosphere of the villages. Thus, the rural

indebtedness adversely affects all the aspects of rural life. It hampers the agricultural production

and rural economic life of the petty rural farmers.

The Green Revolution

Green revolution in India was a period during which agriculture in India increased its yields due to

improved agronomic technology. It chiefly refers to the breakthrough accompanied by sudden increase in

the yield per acre as a result of introducing High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of seeds and seedlings,

increasing application of the recommended chemical fertiliser in the areas with assured water supply,

adoption of mechanised farming and use of pesticides. Prof. Swaminathan is considered as the father of

Green Revolution in India.

43  

In the mid-1960s the government introduced Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP). The

traditional practices were gradually replaced. The new technology was tried in 1960-61 as a ‘Pilot project’

in seven districts. Later on, high yielding varieties programme was also added to the IADP and extended

to the entire country. The HYV was put into practice in India in the year 1966. After 1966, there was a

substantial increase in food grains production especially, wheat production as a result of new agricultural

strategy. However HYV Programme was restricted to only five crop-wheat, rice, jawar, bajra and maize.

HYVP of non-food grains were excluded from the new strategy.

The components of Green Revolution:

Green Revolution in Punjab

The state of Punjab in India has been one of the world’s most remarkable examples of

agricultural growth. Growth in Punjab has been clearly associated with the well-known

“Green Revolution”, which saw the development and adoption of new, High-Yielding

Variety of seeds (HYVs) of wheat, rice, and other food crops. The agricultural growth in

Punjab is exemplified by the increase in Punjab wheat production as well as rice production

similarly. The economic growth in Punjab can occur as a result of an increase in inputs used

in the production process and adoption of technological innovations such as high yielding

verities of seeds, chemical fertilisers, pesticides, tube wells, diesel pump sets and tractors.

 

44  

1. T

2. T

pr

3. T

et

4. T

pr

5. M

ad

6. T

pr

7. M

co

co

8. T

9. T

co

10. T

so

The use of high

The use of che

roduction.

The use of mo

tc. has led to

The adoption

roductivity.

More and mor

dded to the ag

The adoption o

roduction.

More and mo

ooperative cr

ommercial ba

The governme

The soil cons

ontributed to

The expansion

ocieties, regul

h-yielding va

emicals, ferti

odern agricult

a great enhan

of better me

re irrigationa

gricultural ou

of double and

ore credit fac

redit societies

anks, State Ba

nt’s incentive

servation sch

increased out

n of marketin

lated markets

A

RuralElectrifica

Rural Roads andMarketing

FarmMechani

arieties of seed

ilisers, pestici

tural machine

nce in agricult

ethods of cu

l facilities ar

utput.

d multiple cro

cilities made

s, land develo

ank of India, e

e price policy

hemes have

tput.

ng facilities

s, etc. have als

C

R

Supply of Agricultural

Credit

l ation

d g

m sation

Agricultural Universities

ds has contrib

ides have als

es like tractor

tural output.

ultivation like

re being made

opping has als

accessible t

opment bank

etc. have also

y also induced

helped the c

for agricultur

so contributed

Components of

Green Revolution

HYVSI

Land Reforms

buted to augm

o played a k

rs, harvesters

e Japanese m

e accessible

so helped the

to the farme

ks, regional ru

o helped the fa

d the farmers t

conservation

ral products

d to increase

Irrigation

Usefertil

in

pe

Co

Dev

Consolidatio

of Holding

ment productio

ey role in bo

, threshes, pu

methods has a

for the farme

e cause of inc

ers by severa

ural banks or

armers to gro

to produce m

of soil fert

by the co-op

productivity.

e of lisers

Use of nsecticide

s and esticides

ommand Area

velopment

on

on.

oosting agricu

ump sets, spra

also improve

ers and these

creased agricu

al institutions

r grameena b

w more.

more.

tility and the

perative mark

ultural

ayers,

ed the

e have

ultural

s like

banks,

ereby,

keting

45  

11. The implementation of land reforms including the adoption of intermediaries, security of the

tenure, conferring of ownership rights on the tenants, consolidation of holding, regulation of rent,

etc. has contributed in no small measure to augment the productivity.

12. The community development projects, national extension services and various rural development

programmes have also helped the cause revolution.

Impact of Green Revolution

Positive Impact

Boost the production on cereals:The major achievement of new strategy is to boost the

production of major cereals, viz., wheat and rice. The ratio of wheat to rice has steadily increased

from one-third in 1960-61 to 84 percent in 1999-2000. This means that, even though rice

continues to be the most important cereals in the country, wheat is catching up fast. Green

revolution did not cover coarse cereals like maize, jowar, barley, ragi and minor-millets.

Increase in the production of commercial crops: The green

revolution was mainly directed to increase the production of food

grains. It did not affect initially the production of commercial

crops or cash crops such as sugarcane, cotton, jute, oilseeds and

potatoes; these crops did not record any significant improvement

initially. However, significant improvement in the output of

sugarcane took place after 1973-74. Likewise there was

considerable improvement in the production of other cash crops

such as oilseeds and potatoes etc.

Significant changes in crop pattern:As a result of the green revolution, the crop pattern in India

has undergone two significant changes. Firstly, the output of cereals has risen at the rate of 3 to 4

percent per annum but the output of pulses has remained stagnant or even declined. Secondly,

Positive Impact

Increase in Agricultural Production

Boost to the production on cereals

Increase in the production of commercial

Significant changes in crop pattren

Boost to employment

Negetive Impact

Indian agriculture in still a gamble in the monsoons

Growth of capitalistic farming

Sidetracking the need for institutional reforms

Widening disparities in income New strategy and socio-economic relations

in rural areasProblems of labours displacements

Activity 2.4

Punjab agriculture also has

developed after Green

revolution. Make a list of

seeds and technological

innovations adopted by the

Punjab.

46  

among cereals the proportion of rice in total cereals output has come down from 48 percent to 45

percent between 1950-51 and 2008-2009.

Boost to employment: The adoption of new technology has also given a boost to agricultural

employment because of diverse job opportunities created by multiple cropping and shift towards

hired workers. At the same time, there has been displacement of agricultural labour by the

extensive use of agricultural machinery.

Negative Impact

The new agricultural technology has made the farmers market-oriented. The farmers are largely

dependent on the market for the supply of inputs and for the demand for their outputs. Therefore there are

some negative impacts as well of the green revolution which have discussed below:

Growth of Capitalistic Farming in India: The new agricultural strategy consisting of heavy

investment in seeds, fertilisers, pesticides water. These heavy investments are beyond the

capacity of small and medium farmers. Therefore, it helped the growth of capitalistic farming in

India and has led to concentration of wealth in the hands of the top 6 percent of the rural

population. The poor and marginal peasants have not directly benefited from green revolution.

Sidetracking the need for institutional reforms in Indian agriculture: The new agricultural

strategy does not recognise the need for institutional reforms in agriculture. The bulk of the

peasant population does not enjoy ownership rights. Large scale evictions have already taken

place. As a result, the tenants are being forced to accept the position of sharecroppers.

Widening disparities in income: Technological changes in agriculture have had adverse effects

on the distribution of income in rural areas. Technological changes have contributed to widening

the disparities in income between different regions, between small and large farms and between

landowners on the one hand and landless labourers and tenants on the other.

Problem of labour displacement: Green revolution unaccompanied by a massive programme of

‘rural industrialisation’ will cause nothing but frustration among the large mass of Indian

peasantry. Unemployment or underemployment of agricultural labour might land us in a situation

which might become explosive both politically and economically- rise of Naxalite movement in

many parts of the country is a cause for serious worry.

Box No. 2.4

The Green Revolution is criticised

Firstly, because it has been limited in its coverage of crops, land as well as regions. It has been

largely confined to wheat and rice. In India, a majority part of cultivable land is without proper

47  

irrigation facilities and in the dry lands, this technique has failed to make any breakthrough. The

Green Revolution has been practically limited to Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh.

Secondly, the crops coverage of the new technology led to the increase in production of wheat

and to some extent in rice. But other crops remained practically outside the ambit of new

technology. Initially, first few years the commercial crops were not covers by the new

technology. Most of the HYV seeds have been developed for and used during rabi seasons

leading to seasonal instability in production. As a new assessment is coming up, there are

indications that misappropriate use of fertilisers has led to substantial erosion of natural

productivity of the soils. Therefore, some people are of the opinion that the Green revolution has

outlived its utility.

Changes in Rural Society

The villages in India are passing through a transitional period. The old relational bonds and ties

have fallen into disfavor and they cannot be reinstated in the original form. The community

consciousness in village life is steadily decreasing. The control of the caste Panchayats is almost

non-existent.

The convention of hospitality is no longer observed. Sex relations are marked by a lack of

responsibility. The joint family is fast disintegrating. The number of thefts, abortions, murders,

assaults, litigation etc., is steadily increasing. The old customs are being violated. The bonds of

caste and society are disregarded. Similarly, family ties are also being discarded. Individualism,

materialism and rationalism are increasing. Hence, the only elements which now characterize

village life are agriculture which is the major occupation of villages. Even now the villages can

be given an equally simple if not simpler, plainer and higher life by improving the conditions in

these villages, through the establishment of panchayats, spread of education, economic reform in

48  

ag

or

A

is

cr

as

1. C

in

oc

m

th

co

po

fo

ap

ot

2. Ja

to

oc

re

3. F

A

co

griculture etc

rganized and

Alongside the

s also necess

reate change i

s reasoning, d

Change in the

n the village.

ccupations an

members of th

he village was

ondition and

ower of the c

ood habits, w

ppears to be

ther. Casteism

ajmani Syste

o government

ccupation ado

ender by the l

Family:The jo

Although, the

ommunity, ha

c. As a resu

integrated as

study of the

ary to know

in the rural co

demonstration

e Caste Syste

Due to the B

nd adopted ot

he untouchabl

s now determ

activities as w

caste panchay

ways of livin

growing wea

m is increasin

em: The jajm

tal efforts to

opted by the v

lower caste is

oint family

joint familie

aving been r

C

ult of these e

before.

foregoing fac

factors by m

ommunity. Th

n, compulsion

em: During th

British econom

ther professio

le caste beca

mined not only

well. The con

yat, exercised

ng etc., has c

aker on the on

ng due to veste

mani system a

raise the sta

village people

in kind. It is

system is no

es are still vi

replaced by n

Education

Culture

Jajmani

System

endeavors the

ctors which b

means of wh

he following

n, social press

he British rul

mic policy an

ons. Many Br

ame agricultur

y by his/her ca

ntrol of the ca

d in the form

completely di

ne hand whil

ed interests.

feature of vil

atus of the lo

es are not bas

now mostly d

o longer the

iewed with r

nuclear famil

Changes

in Rural

Society

FamilyC

Sy

Political System

e village wil

bring about ch

hich social or

are the impor

sure, contract,

le the caste sy

nd new laws d

rahmins and K

ral labourers.

aste but also b

aste panchaya

m of control o

ied away. Al

le, it seems to

llage society

ower caste an

sed on heredit

done on the b

peculiar ch

respect they a

ies. With the

Caste ystem

Economy

System

Health

ll once again

hange in the r

rganizations o

rtant among t

, education, e

ystem suffere

different caste

Kshatriyas sta

. The status o

by his/her per

ats weakened.

over the indiv

lthough the c

o be gaining

in India has n

nd impact of

tary not the p

basis of cash p

haracteristic o

are no longer

e increase of

n become as

rural commun

or political p

these methods

etc.

ed a severe se

es abandoned

arted farming

of an individu

rsonality, fina

. But even the

vidual’s behav

caste system

in strength o

now weakene

globalisation

ayment of ser

payment.

of village so

r the unit of

f individualism

s well

nity it

parties

s such

etback

d their

g. The

ual in

ancial

en the

viour,

thus,

on the

ed due

n. The

rvices

ociety.

f rural

m the

49  

families are becoming smaller and the control exercised by the family over the individual

members is also decreasing.

4. Culture:The clothes worn by the population in the villages are undergoing change. Among the

men, Gandhi cap is replacing the turban while the younger girls have stated wearing frocks. The

boys have taken to shirts. The ladies wear blouses and the conventional skirt is no longer as

popular as it used to be. Previously, people used handspun cloth but now-a-days mill-made cloth

is used more extensively. The women folk in the villages are now consuming more clothes of

artificial silk, artificial jewllery and cheap cosmetics. Besides the rural diet is no more consisting

of staple food only. It now includes vegetables, bread, tea, and junk foods.

5. Health: With the progress of sanitation and an increase in

the number of doctors in the village, health has improved in

villages. They now use soap for bath and washing

clothes.The drainage system is also better one. The primary

health centre made the village people health conscious. The

threat of epidemic has lessened due to the vaccination and

preventive measures. The family planning a programme has

been understood by the village people who know adopt the measures to limit the family size.

6. Education:Literacy is increasing among the inhabitants of the villages. Basic education and

social education are increasing, many of the states are making efforts to provide educational

institutions in the villages. Many of the young men of the villages are going to the towns to

receive education. In the bigger villages, high schools and even intermediate colleges can be seen.

In the rural areas, many institutes, agricultural colleges and degree colleges have been

established.

7. Economic System: The standard of living is rising in the villages creating a demand for new

things, for which shops are being opened in the villages. The educated youngmen from the

Activity 2.5

Talk to some elderly person in

your family or neighbourhood and

collect information about changes

in rural society. Discuss your

findings in your class.

50  

villages prefer paid white collar jobs. The use of new tools is increasing in agriculture. The

production has increased as a result of the new tools, new seeds and modern methods of farming.

The condition of minor professions has improved with the opening of co-operative societies. The

condition of financial capital has been improved with the opening of co-operative credit societies,

grain banks and co-operative banks, and the indebtedness has decreased. The cottage industries

has been encouraged by government aid. The per capita incomes have increased but so have the

prices of the commodities. The condition of the farmers and people engaged in minor occupations

has improved with the removal of intermediaries.

8. Political System: With the establishment of panchayats in the villages, political consciousness

has increased. The villagers have also started criticizing the actions of the government through

the right of the adult to vote. In some villages even newspapers are available which, along with

the radio, help to increase the political knowledge of the villagers. But the political parties have

also created disunity and factionalism within the villages. The villagers are not as awed of the

government officials as they used to be before independence. Even though, there are panchayats,

litigation has increased in the villages. The community feeling has increased even though national

consciousness has been aroused. Selfishness and individualism have increased along with co-

operation.

Conclusion

Thus, in this chapter we concentrated on the rural society. Under this society, we have discussed the

institutions of family, marriage, political system as well as problems of rural community such as

indebtedness and green revolution. In the section of indebtedness, it deals with the cause and the

consequences of it. Similarly, in the section of green revolution the cause and the impact of it is covered.

Further, the above noted changes clearly indicated that the Indian village community of today is not the

same as it was. A new pattern of life and social relationships has emerged.

Glossary

Rural Society: A rural soociety is a separate entity with essential characteristics, such as, the size

of community is smaller, density of population is low, agriculture is the main occupation,

homogeneity of population, stratification based on caste, joint family system, etc.

Joint Family: A joint family consists of a minimum of three generations- grandparents, parents

and children. They are living together under the same roof, sharing common kitchen and pursue

or economic expenses.

51  

Multiple Choice Questions

Endogamous: Endogamy is the rule of marriage that prescribes that the mate selection should be

from within the group. Marriage with out-group members is prohibited.

Exogamous:Marriage outside one’s own group is called exogamy. Exogamy is a rule of

marriage, which prohibits marriage within one’s group.

Indebtedness: Taking or incurring debt for the purpose of agricultural production is indeed

necessary as it contributes to production. However, the rural people incur debts for non-

productive purposes such as, to meet the family needs, perform social functions (related to

marriage, birth, and death), litigation, etc. Since money taken does not contribute to production

but instead to consumption, it drags the rural people into indebtedness.

Green revolution: The HYVPs revolutionised the agricultural production is called green

revolution.

HYVs: High-Yielding Verity Seeds (HYVs) are wheat, rice, and other food crops.

Exercises

I) Objective Type Questions

1. Rural society divided into two classes:

(a) Master and Slaves (b) The exploiting class and the exploited class (c) Upper class and

Lower class (d) Capitalistic and workers

2. The introduction of new techniques leading to greater crop yields:

(a) White Revolution (b) Blue Revolution (c) Yellow Revolution (d) Green Revolution

3. The mate selection within the group:

(a) Exogamy (b) Endogamy (c) Group Marriage (d) Monogamy

4. Jajmani system is based upon the relationship:

(a) Jajmanis (b) Kammens (c) Jajman and Kammen (d) None of the above

5. The reasons for indebtedness in rural society:

(a) Development (b) poverty and deficit economy (c) Self-sufficiency (d)

Subsistence Economy

6. The new agricultural technology has made the farmers

52  

Fill in the Blanks

Match the Following

True/False

One word Question/Answer

(a) Market-Oriented (b) Labour Class (c) self-sufficient (d) None of the above

1. The head of village was known as __________.

2. Rural society is __________ in size.

3. __________ System was based on the exploitation of the Kammen.

4. Social control in rural community is __________ in nature.

5. __________and __________are used to look into the instances of social disobedience in rural

society.

1. The village is the unit of social and political organization of India.

2. Rural indebtedness is an indicator of the weak financial infrastructure.

3. In agriculture resources like fertilisers, pesticides,

agricultural machinery etc., are used.

4. With the establishment of panchayats in the villages, political consciousness

has increased.

5. The adoption of new technology has also given a boost to agricultural employment.

Face to face relations Indebtedness

Head of the household HYVs

Marriage without group number Intimate relations

Litigation Karta

Wheat, rice, & other crops Endogamous

1. Who quoted “Real India lives in its villages.”

2. Which revolution helped the growth of capitalistic farming in India?

3. Which Commission has rightly stated that the Indian farmer “is born in debt, lives in debt and

dies in debt”?

4. The HYVPs revolutionised the agricultural production is called?

53  

short answer questions in 30-35 words each

long answer questions in 75-85 words each

very long answer questions in 250-300 words each

very short answer questions in 1-15 words

5. Marriage outside one’s own group is called?

II)

1. During ancient times the head of village was known as?

2. Who said, “Real India lives in its villages?”

3. Which kind of family system exists in rural society- Joint or Nuclear family?

4. Jajmani system is based on the relationship between whom?

5. What is the full form of HYVS.

6. Is poverty one of the major reason for Indebtedness?

III)

1. What is Joint family?

2. What is Indebtedness?

3. Write down two Causes of rural Indebtedness.

4. What do you mean by Litigation?

5. What is Green Revolution?

6. Write down two changes in rural society?

IV)

1. Discuss rural society.

2. Write three features of rural society.

3. Write the three causes responsible for the Indebtedness.

4. Write a short note on green revolution in Punjab.

5. Write two positive as well as two negative impact of green revolution.

V)

1. What do you mean by rural society? Discuss its characteristics in detail.

2. What is Indebtedness? What are the causes responsible for Indebtedness?

3. Define Green Revolution. Write down its components in detail.

54  

4. What is Green Revolution? Discuss in detail about its impact.

5. Define rural society? Discuss various changes taking place in rural society.

6. Write an essay on rural society.

55  

Introduction

Urban society possesses all the amenities of modern social life. Due to the fast industrial development

urban society was created. The pace of everything in urban society is dynamic in nature. The rate of social

change is faster due to education, technology, industry and urbanization. A complex social life is found in

which the people or different races, professions, castes and religions live together. In urban livelihood

social interaction is formal and anonymity is another important trait.

The term urban used demographically and socially. In the former sense, it lays emphases on the size of

the population, density of the population and nature of work of dwellers, while in the latter sense it

focuses on heterogeneity, impersonality, interdependence and quality of life.

Chapter 3:    Urban Society 

Highlight

3.1 Meaning 3.2 Features 3.3 Issues

3.3.1 Housing 3.3.2 Slum

Urban areas have been recognized as “engines

of inclusive economic growth” of 121 crore

Indians, 83.3 crore live in rural areas while 37.7

crore stay in urban areas, i.e., approx. 32% of

the total population.

Do You Know

The census of India, 2011

defines urban settlement as: All the

places, which have municipality,

corporation, cantonment board or

notified town area committee. All

the other places which satisfy

following criteria:

A minimum population of 5000 persons

At least 75% of working population

engaged in non-agricultural pursuits

A density of population of at least 400

persons per square kilometre.

56  

Box 3.1

Urban sociology is the study of the life of human interaction in metropolitan areas. It attempts to study the

structures, processes, changes and problems of urban areas and to subsequently try to provide the input

for planning and policymaking. In other words, it is the sociological study of cities, their role in the

development of society, etc. Urban sociologists use statistical analysis, observation, ethnography, social

theory, interviews, and other methods to study migration, economic and demographic trends, as well as

various social problems such as poverty, slums, race relations, drug addiction, prostitution, crime,

sexuality, and many other phenomena that surface in dynamic cities.

After the Industrial Revolution sociologists like Max Weber and Georg Simmel began to focus on the

accelerating process of urbanization and the effects it had on feelings of social alienation and anonymity.

Notably, Georg Simmel is widely considered to be the father of urban sociology for his contributions to

the field in in works such as The Metropolis and Mental Life, published in 1903.

The various approaches were further analyzed by different sociologists and researchers who worked at the

University of Chicago in the early twentieth century which was known as Chicago School of

Sociology. The works of Robert Park, Louis Wirth and Ernest Burgess institutionalized the urban research

in sociology. They developed human geography by using the quantitative and the ethnographic research

methods. The Chicago School combined sociological and anthropological theories to understand the

interrelation of urban structures and micro-interactions in cities. The Chicago School sought to provide

subjective meaning to how humans interact under structural, cultural and social conditions.

Box 3.2

Urbanisation

Movement of the people Rural to Urban

Ranking of the cities 

Mumbai Rank 1 

Delhi Rank 2 

Chennai

Rank 3

57  

Urbanisat

people fro

because it

business,

and behav

system, te

are reason

P

T

75

C

M

Urbanism

people fro

urban cult

division o

economic

of urbanis

T

tion plays a v

om rural area

t involves not

trade, service

viours pattern

echnological c

n attracting pe

opulation is m

The density is

5% of the ma

Cities are urba

Metropolises a

m is an import

om rural soci

ture and the e

of labour, hig

c functions an

sm: Transienc

Transiency:

vital role for t

a to urban ar

t only movem

e and professi

ns. The proces

changes, heal

eople to urban

more than 500

over 400 pers

ale population

an areas with p

are cities with

tant element o

ety and tribal

evolution of u

gh level of tec

nd impersonal

cy, Superficia

An urban in

the developm

reas, and the

ments from vi

ion but it also

ss of it is rapi

lthcare system

n areas. As pe

00.

sons per sq. k

n engages in n

population m

h population o

U

of the urban

l society. It re

urban society.

chnology, hig

lity in social

ality, Anonym

nhabitant’s rel

U• Transie• Superf• Anony• Individ

Urban

ment of the ur

e result is the

llage to cities

o involves cha

id all over the

m, employmen

er census of In

km.

non-agricultur

more than one

of more than o

Box 3.3

Urbanism

society which

epresents a w

It reflects an

gh mobility, i

relations. Lo

mity and Indiv

lation with o

Urbanismencyficialityymitydualism

n way of livi

rban commun

e growth of c

s and change

ange in the m

e world. The

nt avenues, ci

ndia, criteria

ral occupation

lakh.

one million.

h separates th

way of living.

n organization

interdependen

ouis Wirth ha

vidualism.

others last on

ing

nities. It is the

cities. It is a

from agricult

migrants attitud

facilities like

ivic facilities

for urbanisati

ns.

he identity or

It also denot

n of society in

nce of its me

as mentioned

ly for a shor

e movement o

a two way pr

tural occupati

des, beliefs, v

modern educ

and social w

ion are:

r personality o

tes the diffusi

n terms of com

embers in fulf

four characte

rt time he ten

of the

rocess

ion to

values

cation

welfare

of the

ion of

mplex

filling

eristic

nds to

58  

forget his old acquaintances and develop relations with new people. Since he is not much attached

to his neighbour members of the social groups, he does not mind leaving them.

Superficiality: A person has the limited number of persons with whom he interacts and his

relations with them are impersonal and formal. People meet each other in highly segmental roles.

They are dependent on more people for the satisfaction of their life needs.

Anonymity: Urbanities do not know each other intimately. Personal mutual acquaintance

between the inhabitants which ordinarily is found in neighborhood is lacking.

Individualism: People give more importance to their own vested interests.

Thus, urban community is:

It is heterogeneous, dominated by secondary relations, artificial, more mobile, and non-

agricultural based. It is bigger in size and the peoples are progressive.

A ‘way of life’ that is distinct from rural or small town lifestyles.

A centre known for its political, economic or cultural power, i.e., government centre.

The hub of change were innovation and creativity abound, i.e., employment.

A population centre that spawns and fosters alternate value system i.e., diversity over uniformity;

freedom over security and anonymity over familiarity.

Features of Urban Society

The main characteristics of the urban society are discussed below:

59  

1. S

oc

bi

re

2. N

ec

an

op

3. S

.i

pr

it

st

4. S

so

es

5. S

T

w

ize of Popu

ccupation exh

igger in size

ecreational fa

Non-agricult

conomy is th

nd specialise

pportunities a

ocial hetero

.e. people fr

roximity. The

s own culture

tyle.

econdary m

ociety. Forma

ssential in reg

ocial mobil

The achieved s

work and econ

ulation: Urb

hibit varies in

than rural so

cilities attract

tural Occup

he major occu

ed means in

and opulence

ogeneity:In u

rom different

ere social inte

e drawing ins

means of soc

al means of so

gulating the b

ity: The urba

status of an in

nomic status.

Individuali

Sociatoleran

ban societies

n degree from

ociety. The av

t people to ur

pation: emp

upation. Ther

the produc

of wealth.

urban areas th

t caste, class

eraction prod

piration from

cial control

ocial control

ehaviour of th

an society is m

ndividual is m

F

Ru

p

C

Division of 

labour

ism

al nce

Unstable family

s are identifie

m place to pla

vailability of

rban areas.

ployment in

re are occupa

tion process

here is an inte

s, race, religi

duces new cul

m different cul

: Control of s

such as polic

he people.

more open an

more prevalen

Features

of 

ral Society

Size of

population

Community

feeling

ed as large,

ace and time

job opportun

the industry

ational diversi

. The urban

ermixture of p

ion and cult

ltural verities

lture. They ar

social behavi

ce, law and co

nd the chance

nt than the as

y

Non‐agriculture

Sociaheterog

Soci

Contr

Social

mobility

dense and h

to time. Urba

nities, educati

and the serv

ifications. Th

n areas provi

people from d

tural backgro

s. Hence, urb

re engage in d

iour is more d

ourts are more

s for social m

scribed for ex

al enity

al 

rol

heterogeneou

an society is

ional, medica

vice sector o

hey employ s

ide abundan

diverse backgr

ound live in

an area const

diverse kind o

difficult in a

e powerful an

mobility are h

xample, by his

s and

much

al and

of the

killed

ce of

round

close

titutes

of life

urban

nd are

igher.

s own

60  

6. Mechanical attitude: The inhabitants of urban society interact with each other in very

mechanical or formal way which lacks genuine friendliness. As they show superficial manners of

politeness and mutual conveniences. They deal with the strangerous as animated machines rather

than as human beings. Besides, social heterogeneity augments the feeling of segregation and

loneliness there does not exist a real neighbourhood relationship.

7. Division of labour and specialization: In urban societies specialization is visible in every

walk of life. The larger the area, the grater is a specialization. Hence, we find different people

engaging themselves in different kinds of activities like mechanical, commercial, educational,

political, recreational, artistic, literary, scientific and so on. There are skilled, unskilled and semi-

skilled works, the artisans, the technicians, the ‘paper experts’, the ‘white-collar’ employs, the

financiers, businessmen, administrators, the politicians, the artist and other in society specializing

themselves in some particular kind of activity or the other.

8. Individualism: People are more individualistic in their attitudes. The city dweller takes his/her

independent decision on such matters as education, marriage, occupation, enterprise, adventure,

and so on. S/he is more selective in his/her chose and more individualistic in hi/hers preference.

S/he is guided by his own whims and fancies.

9. Anonymity: The city is densely populated area in which people interact with each other even

without knowing each other. The people are unaware of about

the existence of many institutional organisations and people

around them. But they do not feel sense of belongingness to any

group. Social contacts are impersonal and segmented.

10. Homelessness: Housing problem in big city is a common

feature. The poor people stay in footpaths and slums. The middle

class people have insufficient and combusted accommodation. They is no enough space for the

children to play.

Box 3.4

Family System of Urban Society

The family is regarded as the basic social institution. Urban family is undergoing transition. It is changing

into companionship. It’s now termed as one-generation household. Several studies on urban families

have been conducted in India by I.P. Desai, Kapadia and Alieen Ross. The size of urban joint family is

shrinking and kinship relationships are just getting confined to two or three generations. Therefore, it can

be concluded that:

Activity 3.1

Make a list of reasons why

the rural peoples are

migrating to urban areas.

Discuss it in your class.

61  

Jo

It

It

T

U

It

It

A

T

It

Economic

Urban w

T

ti

A

T

Middle C

B.B. Mish

M

S

Pr

C

oint family is

t is less author

t is called a fa

There is very l

Urban econom

t is marked by

t is distinct by

Almost all the

There is high d

t is characteriz

c classes in U

working clas

They have mig

es back home

A significant s

They are diver

Class:

hra states that

Merchants, Ag

alaried execu

rofessionals s

Clerks, assistan

replaced by n

ritarian and le

amily of minim

less time avai

Ec

my is prominen

y diversity of

y occupationa

occupations r

degree of inte

zed by achiev

Urban Society

ss:

grated to the

e.

section of the

rsified on the

t the Indian m

gents and Acti

utives such as

such as lawye

nts and other

U

nuclear family

ess co-operati

mal functions

lable to devel

conomy Sys

ntly based on

occupations.

al mobility.

require specia

er-dependence

ved status.

y

cities from th

urban workin

basis of class

middle class co

ive proprietor

managers, in

ers, doctors, p

non –manual

Urban workinclass

y. (Joint to nu

ive.

s.

lop close ties

Box 3.5

tem of Urba

n non-agricult

alized training

e among vario

he rural areas

ng class is lite

s, religion, lan

onsists of the

rs of modern

nspectors, sup

professors, jou

l workers.

Classes

ng M

uclear)

between pare

an Society

tural occupati

g and skills.

ous occupatio

s. These migr

erate.

nguage, etc.

following gr

trading firms

pervisors, tech

urnalists, artis

Middle

class

ents and child

ons.

onal groups.

rants still mai

oups:

s.

hnical staff, et

sts, priests, et

dren.

intain their ki

tc.

tc.

inship

62  

Urban Is

In conte

migrants

informal

populatio

anthropo

that these

Housing

Housing m

against sto

ssues

emporary so

. A large nu

sector. Ma

on. Urban p

logists, econ

e problems a

g

means a buil

orm, lighting

ociety, it ex

umber of the

any urban

problem of

nomists, pol

are the result

lding where p

, rain, etc. Ho

Issues

xtremely di

se migrants

problems a

housing and

itical scienti

t of intolerab

people live.

ousing stande

fficult to a

are rural po

arise from t

d slums hav

ists, geograp

ble living con

It means the

ers depend up

accommodat

oor, seeking

the inflow

ve drawn th

phers and urb

nditions in u

physical stru

pon certain fa

Hous

Slum

te the incre

employment

of heavy

he attention

ban planner

urban areas.

ucture that p

actors such as

sing

ms

easing inflow

t in the form

concentratio

n of sociolo

s. They obse

provides prote

income of fa

w of

mal or

on of

ogists,

erved

ection

amily,

63  

size of family, there living standards and education of the family. India is still gaping with unmeet basic

housing needs of thousands of citizens. Shelter is the basic human requirement. Even after so many years

of independence, the country is still grappling with the growing shelter problem, especially of the poor.

The problem has further been compounded by the rapid increase in urban population. Constant migration

of rural population to cities in search of jobs is causing unbearable strain on urban housing and basic

services. There is a severe housing shortage in the urban areas with demand-supply gap which is

increasing day-by-day.

Growth of population in cities is so fast that it has become impossible to provide adequate residential

accommodation to all. Hence, housing problem or what is known as ‘homelessness’ has become one of

the serious problems of the city. The pressure on space in cities is so tremendous that large numbers of

people are forced to live on roads, bus stands, railway stations and in poorly equipped houses. It is said

that around half of the city population are either ill-housed or has to pay more than twenty percent of their

income on rent. Mega cities like Mumbai, Calcutta, Delhi and Chennai are suffering from acute housing

problem.

Causes for homelessness 

Personal situation of homeless

Entitlement to land 

Shortage of housing 

Entitlement of housing 

64  

Congestion

Many households in urban areas have to cope with increasingly crowded conditions, although this is

certainly not true for everyone. The housing conditions improve when people build high buildings, more

than five storeys, to increase the number of houses. Many urban centers have very high population

densities. The house owners therefore rent out numerous rooms to migrants. Poor migrants live under the

most crowded conditions. They depend on the rented accommodation, which they often share with many

others to save money. Some poor households of the original population also live in very crowded

dwellings.

Firstly, many families expand and split up into multiple households because the land available for

construction becomes unaffordable. They are forced to fit more people into the same space or

house or to split up the existing plots and dwellings to accommodate a new household.

Secondly, in the absence of sufficient income from other sources, some households are inclined to

rent out a portion of their living space or sheds to tenants.

The government of India adopted a formal programme to provide

shelter for the low income sectors of population such as subsidized

housing scheme, low income group housing scheme was started

during sixth five year plan for low income sectors. Following

interventions were taken under National Housing Policy:

1. Providing savings and investment in housing

2. Creating an environmental conductive to investment in

housing for rental purpose

3. Making available standardized building, materials and components for reasonable prices

4. Improving and upgrading construction skills.

Activity 3.2

Growth of the population

becomes impossible to

provide adequate residential

accommodation to all. Find

out which cities are suffering

from this acute housing

problem and their reasons.

65  

Slums

Slum constitutes another most important and persistent problem of urban society. Slums are colonies are

formed by the migrant laborers, who are economically weak to have houses to live in. The slum dwellers

do not practice hygienic conditions because of shortage of resources, which effect the overall

development of nation. There are number of terms by which slums are known in different countries.

Slums are part of urban life. The population distribution in uneven, with cities like Delhi and Mumbai

being more densely populated than the rest of the cities. The rapid increase in India’s city population has

resulted in the growth of slums are squatter settlements resulting in serious social, economic, and

environmental problems. It is an overcrowded and squalid district of a city or a town usually inhabited by

very poor people. Slums are usually characterized by high rates of poverty and unemployment. Slums are

the breeding centre for many social problems such as crime, drug, alcoholism and despair. They are also

the breeding centre for disease due to unsanitary conditions.

In India, they are known as ‘Katras, Gallis, Juggi-Jhopadpatti, Chawls, Ahtas, Bustees, Zopadpatti’ etc. 

66  

Box 3.6

Definitions

An areas where houses are in any respect unfit for human habitation and are by reason of dilapidation,

overcrowding, faulty arrangement, narrowness or faulty arrangement of streets, lack of ventilation, light,

sanitation facilities or any combination of these factors, which are detrimental to safety, healthy and

morals.

-Section 3 of the Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act, 1956

A slum is a bulding, group of buildings or area characterized by overcrowding, deterioration, unsanitary

conditions or absence of facilities or amenities which because of these conditions or any of them endanger

the health, safety or moral of its inhabitants or the community.

-United Nation Urban Land Policies

Characteristics of Slum

The basic characteristics of sums are as follows:

Dilapidated and infirm housing structure

Poor ventilation

Acute overcrowding

Faulty alignment of streets

Inadequate lighting

Paucity of safe drinking water

Water logging during rains

There are no sanitation system maintained properly

Absence of toilet facilities

Non-availability of basic physical and social services

Disease and mortality rates are high

Deviant behaviour: crime, juvenile delinquency, prostitution, drug-addiction, alcoholism and

family maladjustment, etc.

Law and order is not properly maintained

Causes for the growth of Slum

67  

1. R

m

b

in

th

fi

an

2. U

w

m

sl

co

3. P

h

sl

co

ca

D

m

m

4. P

co

o

Rural-Urban

migrants.Man

etter school

n rural areas

heir lack of

inancial shor

nd eventuall

Urbanization

working and

manage urban

lums. The U

ountries and

Poor Housin

ousing and

lums. In s

oordination

auses of

Development

make a signif

million slum

Poverty: Urb

ountry, the l

f slums in th

n Migration

ny people m

for poor chi

s. However,

f skills and

rtage. Theref

ly settle dow

n: Rapid urb

d investment

nization and

UN-habitat

d 78 per cent

ng Plannin

poor planni

sufficient fi

in governm

poor hous

t Goals prop

ficant impro

dwellers” by

ban poverty

lower is the

he country th

Po

n: A slum

move to urba

ildren and di

some rural

the increasi

fore, rural-u

wn in only aff

banization dr

t opportunit

d migrant wo

reports tha

of those in t

ng: Lack of

ing encourag

inancial res

ment bureau

sing planni

poses that “m

ovement in th

y 2020.

encourages

incident of s

he lower is th

Ca

m

Economy

cause

overty

m develops

an areas prim

iverse incom

migrants ma

ingly compe

urban migran

ffordable slum

rives econom

ties in urba

orkers withou

t 43 per ce

the least dev

f affordable

ges the supp

sources and

ucracy are

ing the M

member nat

he lives of a

the formatio

slums and, o

he gross inco

auses of Slum

Rural‐Urban 

igration

U

Pohous

plan

y

as a result

marily becau

me opportuni

ay not find j

etitive job m

nt workers ca

ms.

mic growth a

an areas. Lo

ut an afforda

ent of urba

veloped coun

e low cost

ply side of

d lack of

two main

Millennium

tion should

at least 100

on and dema

on the contra

ome of that c

Urbanisation

or sing

ning

t of the sq

use cities pro

ities than sub

jobs immed

markets, wh

annot afford

and causes p

ocal govern

able place to

an populatio

ntries are slu

and for slum

ary, the high

country.

Ac

Have you

slum or hav

nearby you

some infor

these areas

where thes

in majority

quatting of

omise more

bsistence far

iately becau

hich lead to

d housing in

people to see

nments enab

o live in, dw

on in develo

um dwellers.

ms. The riche

her the magn

ctivity 3.4

u heard the

ve you ever s

ur locality. C

rmation about

s are growing

se areas are

y.

poor

jobs,

rming

use of

their

cities

eking

ble to

well in

oping

er the

nitude

word

seen it

Collect

t why

g and

found

68  

5. Economic cause: Poverty is the most fundamental cause of slums. The poor people who

flock to the cities in search of jobs are employing in the factories on low wages. The

better housing remains a dream for them because of high land values, exorbitant costs of

land and housing material and high rental values of the dwellings. Their economic in

capacity force them to live in the areas where housing condition are poor.

National Slum Development Programme

The central government has introduced a centrally sponsored scheme in fifth five year plan for the

environmental development of Urban Slum (EIUS). The scheme was transferred to state sector but not of

the state government could provide sufficient fund for the scheme with a result there has not been much

improvement and up gradation work in urban slums except, in some selected areas was several projects

were sanctioned. Therefore, it was considered appropriate for the government of India to introduce the

National Slum Development Programme in 1996.

Box 3.7

Difference between Tribal Society, Rural society and Urban Society

Tribal Society Rural society Urban Society

1 Small in size Small in size Big in size

2 The tribal society is

homogenous.

The rural society is

homogenous.

The urban society is

heterogeneous.

3 It is dominated by blood

relationships.

It is dominated by primary

relations.

It is dominated by secondary

relations.

4 Informal means of control Informal means of control Formal means of control

5 Hunting, gathering and pastoral

based.

Main occupation is agriculture. Urban community is known for

non-agricultural pursuits.

6 Close contact with nature. Close to nature. Far away from the nature.

7 Illiterate Less stress on education Mass education

8 People are known for their

simplicity.

People are known for their

simplicity and hospitality.

People are known for their

artificiality, narrow-

mindedness.

9 People are more conservative

and dogmatic.

People are more conservative,

and orthodox.

People are progressive.

10 Simple division of labour based Simple division of labour Large-scale division of labour

69  

Multiple Choice Questions

on sex

Conclusion

To sum up, in this lesson, the concepts of urban society, urbanization, urbanism and features of urban

society have been discussed. It has also discussed the urban issues of housing and slum. The present

chapter also highlights the distinction among Tribal, Rural and Urban societies.

Glossary

Urban society: It is heterogeneous, dominated by secondary relations, artificial, more mobile,

and non-agricultural based. It is bigger in size and the peoples are progressive.

Urbanisation: Urbanisation is the movement of the people from rural to urban areas, and the

resulting growth of cities. It is also a process by which rural areas become transformed into urban

areas.

Urbanism: Urbanism represents a way of living. It also denotes the diffusion of urban culture and

the evolution of urban society

Slums: A slums is a heavily populated urban informal settlement characterized by substandard

housing and squalor. While slums differ in size and other characteristics from country to country,

most lack reliable sanitation services, supply of clean water, reliable electricity, timely law

enforcement and other basic services.

Poverty: Condition where people are basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter are not being

meet.

Housing: It is one of the primary necessity of any civilised society. Since, it provides shelter to

the people.

Exercises

I) Objective Type Questions 

1. Which are the causes for homelessness in urban society?

(a) Shortage of housing (b )Entitlement of housing (c) Shortage of housing (d) All of the above

2. The movement of the people from rural area to urban area is called:

(a) Urban Society (b) Rural Society (c) Urbanism (d) Urbanisation

3. Which are the Causes for the growth of Slums:

(a) Poverty (b) Poor Housing Planning (c) Both a and b (d) None of the above

4. Which is not the feature of slum area:

70  

very short answer questions in 1-15 words each

True/False

Fill in the Blanks

Match the Following 

(a) Acute overcrowding (b) Inadequate lighting (c) Urbanism (d) No sanitation system

5. Which is the cause of homelessness:

(a) Shortage of housing (b) Self-sufficiency(c) Development (d) Market oriented

1. Urban society is small in size.

2. Trade, industry and commerce are the chief spots of the urban economy.

3. The chances for social mobility are less in urban society.

4. Mega cities are suffering from acute housing problem.

5. Slums are part of rural life.

1. Urban society is __________ in size and __________ in nature.

2. __________ means of social control found in urban society.

3. An urban community is known for its ________________ division of labour.

4. Housing problem is also known as __________.

5. __________ represents an urban way of living. 

6. __________ and__________ are the issues of urban society. 

Formal relation Homelessness

Shortage of housing Slum

Urban way of living urban society

Infirm housing structure Heterogeneity

Intermixture of people from Urbanism different background

II)

1. Define urban society.

2. Mention the kind of relations exists in urban areas.

3. Housing problem is also known as?

4. Slums are also known as?

71  

short answer questions in 30-35 words each

long answer questions in 75-85 words each

long answer questions in 250-300 words each

5. Name two types of deviant behaviour found in slum areas.

III)

1. What do you mean by Urban Society?

2. What are non-agricultural occupations?

3. Define Individualism.

4. What do you mean by housing?

5. What do you know by slum? 6. Give the meaning of urbanisation?

IV)

1. Write a short note on urban society.

2. Explain two characteristics of urban society.

3. Write down the three causes of housing problem.

4. Explain three causes responsible for slum areas in urban society.

5. Write two social changes in urban society.

V)

1. What do you mean by urban society? Discuss its characteristics in detail.

2. Write a note on urban society.

3. What is housing? What are the causes responsible for housing?

4. Write a note on Slum.

5. Define urban society. Write a note on social changes.

 

Refrence  

A. Gill (2014), ‘Agricultural Credit in Punjab: Have Policy Initiatives Made a Dent in Informal

Credit Market’. Centre for Development Economics and Innovation Studies (CDEIS Punjabi

University).

C.N. Shankar Rao  (2010),  ‘Principles of Sociology with an  Introduction to Social Thought’. New 

Delhi, S. Chand & Company LTD. 

C.N.  Shankar  Rao  (2010),  ‘Sociology  of  Indian  Society’.  Ram  Nagar,  New  Delhi,  S.  Chand  & 

Company LTD. 

72  

D.S. Kohli (1997, ‘The Green Revolution in Punjab: The Economics of Technological Change’.

Columbia University.

Datt&Sundharam  (62nd  Revised  Edition)  (2011),  ‘Indian  Economy’.  Ram  Nagar,  New  Delhi,  S. 

Chand & Company LTD. 

L. L. Sharma (2008), ‘Indian Social Structure and Change’. New Delhi, Rawat Publications. 

M.  Laxmikanth  (2014),  ‘Indian  Polity  for  Civil  Services  Examination’. New  Delhi, McGraw  Hill 

Education (India) Private Limited. 

Madhurima (2013), ‘Reading in Sociology’. Jalandhar, New Academic Publishing Co.  

NeelamKumari (2010), ‘A Text Book of Sociology’. Jalandhar, PV Books.  

Rajender K. Sharma  (),  ‘IndianSociety,  Institutions and Change’. New Delhi, Atlantic Publishers 

and Distributers. 

Ram Ahuja (2009), ‘Society in India’. Jaipur, Rawat Publications. 

S. R. Mynei (2012), ‘Sociology for Law Students’. Allahabad, Law Agency Faridabad. 

S.K. Misra (2010), ‘Indian Economy‐ Its Development experience’. Mumbai, New Delhi, Himalaya 

Publishing House. 

Samir Gupta (2012), ‘Urban Sociology’. New Delhi, Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.  

Samita  Manna  (2013),  ‘An  Introduction  to  Social  Anthropology’.  Delhi,  Chandigarh,  Dorling 

Kingersley (India) Pvt. Ltd. 

YogeshAtal (2008), ‘Changing Indian Society’. New Delhi, Rawat Publications. 

 

Internet References

www.sociologyguide.com

www.census.gov.in 

 

73  

74  

UNIT 2

75  

Introduct

In this cha

the unique

content of

are key or

We gener

caste rem

basis.

Concept o

In the pro

caste. It is

You migh

achievem

Shudra.

Highlig

4.1 Conc

4.2 Featu

4.3 Cast

4.4 Theo

4.5 Cast

tion

apter our you

e phenomena

f class 11th, y

rgans of India

rally say that

mains in that f

of caste

ocess of soci

s an importan

ht have heard

ent. In Hindu

Ch

ghts

cept of caste

ures of caste

e and social s

ories of origin

e Inequality a

ung readers wi

a of Indian soc

you have alrea

a’s social stru

the particula

forever. Mem

ialization at c

nt part of Indi

also about th

u social syste

apter 4

stratification

n of caste

and Indian So

ill make effor

ciety in gener

ady understoo

ucture. The ter

ar individual

mbers of a ca

childhood sta

ian society. T

he term ‘Varn

em, there are

4:    Cast

ociety

rts to understa

ral and Hindu

od that family

rm caste is us

belongs to a

aste used to h

age you alrea

Though, it is p

na’. The term

four Varna’

Brahmin

Kshatriya

Vaishya

Shudra

te Inequ

and what cast

u society in pa

y (i.e., joint f

sed to distingu

particular ca

have a particu

ady make sev

principally re

‘Varna’ refer

s such as Br

ualities

te system is a

articular. On

family), religi

uish an indivi

aste. An indiv

ular occupatio

veral encount

lated with Hi

rs to division

ahmin, Kshat

s 

and why it is o

the basis of c

ion, caste and

idual from an

vidual is born

on on a here

ters with the

indu social sy

of labour bas

triya, Vaishy

one of

course

d tribe

other.

n in a

ditary

e term

ystem.

sed on

ya and

76  

1. B

ed

2. K

3. V

4. S

In Varna

structural

occupatio

to caste s

existence.

division o

status, inh

prevails.

These fou

means ‘c

Brahmin,

of Varna

the caste

castes are

Herbert R

common

follow th

forming a

1. C

Shw

(t

Brahmins we

ducation.

Kshatriyas we

Vaishya were

hudras were

model, one

differentiatio

on to another n

system. In o

. Such caste

of Hindu soc

herited occup

ur ranked soc

colour’. The

‘Red’ with th

sometimes e

based on Shu

also known a

Risley (1851-

name, claimi

he same hered

a single homo

Caste is a grou

weta Varna

the white)

re associated

ere associated

associated w

there to serv

could have th

ons having dy

not only beca

other words,

system is a

ciety on the b

pations, restric

cial groups ar

colours wer

he Kshatriya,

stablishes the

udra Varna w

as ‘Antyaj’ (t

-1911) define

ing a commo

ditary-calling

geneous com

up of families

Ra

d with the pe

d with defenc

ith trade and

e the above m

he possibility

ynamism. Slo

ame restricted

when Varna

lso known a

basis of Varn

cted mobility

re known in S

e apparently

‘Yellow’ wit

e relationship

was further d

the outcaste).

es caste as a

on descent fr

g and regard

mmunity. This

, means it is b

akta Varna

(the red)

erformance o

e services, th

business

mentioned thre

y of mobility

owly and gra

d but became

a model beco

as ‘Jati’- an

na model in

y and social d

Sanskrit lang

symbolic. T

th the Vaishy

p between cas

ivided into to

a collection o

rom a mythic

it by those

definition of

based upon bl

Varna

(Colour)

P

(t

f religious ri

at is, protecti

ee ‘Varna’.

y. In the field

adually, the m

completely fo

omes immob

indigenous te

which purity

discrimination

guage by the

The classical

ya and ‘Black

ste and race.

ouchable and

of families o

cal ancestor h

who are com

f Risley expre

lood and mar

Peet Varna

the yellow)

ites, rituals an

on of people

d of sociology

mobility of th

forbidden also

bile caste stru

erm. Caste r

y-pollution pr

n to the exten

word ‘Varna

l texts assoc

’ with the Shu

In the proces

d untouchable

or group of f

human or div

mpetent to g

esses the follo

ital ties.

Sh

(

nd with imp

from enemies

y, Varna ind

e person from

o. It could giv

ucture comes

refers to stru

rinciple, ascr

t of untoucha

a’, which prim

ciate ‘White’

udra. The me

ss of develop

e. The untouc

families bear

vine, professi

give an opini

owing facts:

hyam Varna

the black)

arting

s.

dicates

m one

ve rise

s into

uctural

riptive

ability

marily

with

eaning

pment,

chable

ring a

ing to

on as

77  

2. C

po

ba

3. C

G. S Ghu

hierarchie

Sociology

1. S

bi

2. H

of

3. R

pr

4. C

le

in

5. L

so

6. R

du

‘A

Caste possesse

ossesses that

ased upon rea

Caste is a here

urya has exa

es and culture

y about caste

egmental div

irth.

Hierarchical d

f dominant ca

Restrictions o

rinciples, whi

Civil and reli

ead to untouch

ntra-caste mar

Lack of unres

olidarity and b

Restriction on

ue to role of r

Anuloma Viv

es a common

common nam

al or ancestor

ditary group.

amined caste

e dominated b

is given by G

vision of soc

division: Ran

aste (high pla

on feeding

ich defines w

igious disabi

hability as we

rriage, that is,

stricted choi

batter exchan

n marriage:

restrictive for

vah’ (hypergam

Cre

di

pr

Lun

choc

n name, mea

me based on d

or mythical a

Such heredit

e system in I

by religion an

G. S. Ghurye.

ciety: Each g

nking system

cement in hie

and social

what kind of fo

ilities and p

ell as other fo

, endogamy.

ice of occupa

nge known as

Restrictions

rms of kinshi

my) and ‘Prat

Ro

Roai

Civil and eligious sabilities

and rivileges

Lack of nrestricted hoice of

ccupation

ans each cast

descent- myth

ancestor. In b

tary makes ca

India by giv

nd tradition. T

He elaborates

group of caste

is an essentia

erarchy) and a

intercourse:

ood to be eate

rivileges: Ci

orms of social

ation: Restric

‘Jajmani syst

on marriage

ip. However,

tiloma Vivah

Features

Restriction on marriage

Restrictions on feeding and social ntercourse

te is a distin

hical ancestor

both cases cas

aste group hom

ving importan

The most com

s caste on the

e (segment) i

ality of caste,

authority syst

Restrictions

en and with w

ivil and relig

l discriminatio

ctions on occ

tem’.

e indicate tha

in caste syste

’ (hypogamy)

Segmental division of

society

Hierarchical division

nctive group.

r human or di

te creates a li

mogeneous.

nce to occup

mprehensive v

e basis of six f

is ascriptive t

which gives

tem.

s give rise t

whom can be s

gious privileg

ons. It also be

cupation creat

at caste becom

em one can fi

).

Each caste g

ivine- thus ca

ink with relig

pational struc

view in the fie

features:

that is based

rise to the co

to purity-pol

shared.

ges and disab

ecomes a cau

te non-compe

mes homogen

ind the presen

group

aste is

ion.

ctures,

eld of

upon

oncept

lution

bilities

use for

etitive

neous

nce of

78  

These features of caste are still part of mindset of the people. In Hindu society caste system still prevails.

Features of caste due to social interaction have made impact on Non-Hindu groups (Jain, Buddhist,

Christian, Muslim etc.). It can be said that caste has acquired dominance if one wishes to examine the

continuity and change of Indian society. One more thing must be kept in mind. The inherited occupations

or work activities in relation to caste are not only economic but religious and moral also. Thus, caste

system in India goes beyond several boundaries. It can also be used for conceptualizing social exclusion

and poverty. Whenever participation in decision making process, in access to employment and material

resources and participation in cultural processes arise, we find that some caste groups are either not

allowed or partially allowed.

Box 4.1

Louis Dumont (1911-1998), an eminent sociologist. He was primarily concerned with the ideology of the

caste system. For him, caste is a set of relationships of economic, political and kinship systems, sustained

by certain ‘values’, which are mostly religious in nature.

Dumont says that caste is not a form of stratification but a special form of inequality. He identifies

‘hierarchy’ as the essential value underlying the caste system, supported by Hinduism.

Concept of Pure and Impure

A caste is considered to be pure and impure on the basis of the way of life they follow. This distinction

is further substantiated on the basis of cleanliness maintained, occupation followed, access to reading

of scriptures and temples etc. For instance, the Brahmins, assigned with the priestly functions, occupied

the top rank in the social hierarchy and were considered ‘pure’ as compared to the untouchables, being

‘impure’, and segregated outside the village. The untouchables were not allowed to draw water from

the wells used by upper castes. Besides this, they did not have any access to Hindu temples, and

suffered from various other disabilities.

79  

Characteristics of Caste

The Following characteristics must be known to the readers:

1. Caste is a dominant social system: Caste is a dominant social system of Indian society. Because

of spatial mobility and religio-cultural interface between people, caste system has gone beyond

Hindu social group.

2. Ascriptive status: Caste is an ascriptive status group. Individual is known by the caste in which

he born.

3. Hierarchy: Caste is based upon Varna model of hierarchy. In this hierarchy, Brahmins are at the

top, followed by Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Shudras is further classified into touchable and

untouchables. Untouchables are termed as ‘Antyaj’ (out caste).

4. Occupations: The occupations of these Varna are preaching educational and religious values by

Brahmins, protection of people and activities as warriors by Kshatriyas, trade and business

activities by Vaishyas and serving the above three varnas is associated with the Shudras.

Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra get linkage with inherited occupations. Inherited

occupations create relative immobility in terms of occupation. As a result, caste system becomes

fixed occupational category.

5. Each caste possesses sub-caste: In each caste one can find several castes known as ‘Jati’ and

‘Upjati’.

6. Distinctive culture: Each caste group possesses a real or imaginative ancestor and distinctive

culture system.

7. Endogamous: Caste is an endogamous group. At the time of marriages the notion of gotra gives

rise to severe restrictions. Inter-caste marriage is permissible but intra-gotra marriage is

prohibited. In fact it is a taboo.

8. Purity-pollution: Caste system also incorporates purity-pollution. Caste-system establishes

Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya as twice-born. These castes are pure while castes related to

Shudra are polluted. The division of labour, thus, based on caste model is also characterised by

intellectual labour (twice born) and manual labour (Shudra). The term twice-born expresses

second birth. The birth is biological, while second birth is of religio-cultural nature based on

‘Upnayana Samskar’ (thread bearing ceremony). Shudras are not allowed to perform these

religious rites.

9. Privileges-disabilities: The privileges-disabilities model creates several kinds of do’s and don’ts.

The disability goes to the extent of untouchability. The castes related to Shudra particularly the

‘Antyaj’ still reside in the outskirts. Several forms of social restrictions are still prevalent. For

80  

example, in various state of India the groom related to Antyaj is not allowed to ride on horse

during marriage procession. These categories cannot enter into temple and cannot fetch water

from the well. Such restrictions are now anti-constitutional and offence under untouchability act.

10. Rules and regulations: Each caste group operates on the basis of certain rules and regulations of

informal character. They are monitored by caste Panchayats/caste associations. These caste

Panchayats/caste associations continuously make efforts for enhancing caste consciousness. They

are also involved in own communitarian welfare in order to establish caste solidarity.

On the bases of these features it can be said that caste system is a dominant feature of Indian society and

plays significant role in shaping way of life.

Caste and Social Stratification:

Caste system in India, as we have pointed out earlier also, constructs the notion of hierarchy in which

Brahmins are at the top and Shudras are at the bottom. The history of Indian society indicates that the

prestige of Brahmins was the highest. They were honoured by various caste segments because of their

occupation and value system. M.N. Srinivas argues that element of pollution is the basic feature of caste

system. This element or feature controls each and every type of caste relations. It means the theory of

Karma and Dharma along with purity-pollution principle provides base to caste stratification.

Box 4.2

T.B. Bottomore has discussed slavery, estate, caste and social class and status as four forms of social

stratification. In a simple manner stratification is a system of ranking in which social groups are placed in

terms of high/super-ordinate and low/subordinate. He points out that Indian caste system is unique. In

caste system one can observe economic differences. The dominant caste associated with Brahmin,

Kshatriya, and Vaishya Varna by and large control over the means and relations of production. At one

stage, the caste system can be compared with the estate in which status group in form of nobility, clergy,

traders and serfs can be compared with Varna model on which caste operates. The stratification system

found in caste is more or less close because of its endogamous character. The element of privileges and

disabilities further perpetuate caste system and its hierarchical arrangement. The differences in dress

patterns and food habits express the way on which stratification operates. The hierarchical system of caste

order is transcendental. This opinion is the part of Hindu mindset due to the theory of ‘Karma and

Rebirth’.

The protective discrimination process (reservation) has led to dynamism in caste stratification. The

persons belonging to schedule caste and other backward caste can acquire wealth, prestige and power

81  

on the basis of educational attainment and status in professional organizations along with employment

in Government and Public sector.

Theories of origin of caste:

How did caste come into existence is a question which has given rise

to various theories of origin of caste system. In the field of sociology

we generally discussed six theories of origin of caste. They are (1)

Traditional Theory (2) Political Theory (3) Evolutionary Theory (4)

Racial Theory (5) Religious Theory and (6) Occupational theory.

Here we will concentrate upon Religious theory, Traditional theory and Occupational theory.

Controversies prevail among the scholars regarding the origin of caste.

1. The Religious Theory of Caste is linked with worshiping of Gods and Goddesses and religious rites

and rituals. It is believed that Gods and Goddesses also observe hierarchy in their transcendental

spaces. In the evolution of society the small groups or the subordinate caste started worshiping of

local gods and Goddesses (the local/little traditions) while larger groups who believed in great

traditions worshiped Gods and Goddesses of great nature and performed rites and rituals

accordingly. This theory believed that subordinate groups in the process of evolution acquired the

status of lower caste while the larger group having belief system related to great tradition acquired

the status of upper caste.

This theory is based upon several mythical perceptions and does not have any scientific-rational

support. Religious theory is non-scientific because they are supported by empirical evidences or

historical facts. Classical text, no doubt, provides rationale and logic but they are either mythical or

imaginative.

2. Traditional Theory of Caste is based upon ideas of D.N. Majumdar. According to him the caste

system in India is based upon philosophical understanding of supernatural. According to Purushsukt

of the Rig-Veda, the four varnas originated from the different parts of the Prajapati Brahma

(Supreme Being). Hindu religious group believes that ‘Brahma’ has created Brahmins from his

‘mouth’, Kshatriya from his ‘arms’, Vaishya from ‘thighs’ and Shudra from his ‘feet’. These body

Theories of orign of Caste

The Religious Theory Traditional Theory Occupational Theory

Activity 4.1

In your classroom you may find

students belonging to different

caste groups. Enlist ten caste

groups.

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organs also express the occupation of respective caste. In the process of evolution, these Varna

which were based on ‘Guna’ and ‘Karma’ (characteristics and action) converted into caste.

He accepts the logic and argues that Varna refers to division of labour. Slowly and gradually,

division of labour became complex due to specialization. Such specialised skill became closed

people related to specialised act of intellectual labour did not share their secrets. Thus, Varna model

converted into that complex division of labour in which skill tactics could not be shared.

Like religious theory, this theoretical perspective also lacks scientific rationalities. But to an extent, it

indicates that religious beliefs and division of labour have played important role in the origin of

Varna and later on caste.

3. Occupational Theory of Caste origin is basically associated with the ideas of Nesfield. Nesfield

states that like other societies in India there was the presence of division of labour. One group was

engaged with specific economic/occupational activities. These activities were transmitted from one

generation to another generation. These groups became dependent on each other for satisfying

respective needs. In fact such state reveals interdependence as well as dependence. Initially such

division of labour gave rise to Varna model since each occupation associated with one Varna also

incorporates plurality within it. In other words, within one occupation one can have the possibilities

of various sub-occupations. These acts led to caste structure. Nesfield, on the bases of this argument

states that occupation and only occupation is responsible for the origin of caste structure.

Occupational theory can get support from that evidence in which inherited/traditional occupations

are major characteristics of caste order. But it is also a reality that in different parts of India one can

find the difference between (general) Varna hierarchy and local caste hierarchies. This theory, in this

way, fails to explain how dominant castes came into existence and how inter-caste mobility

occurred.

It can be said that the origin of caste is based upon multifactor propositions. Caste can be elaborated

by introducing racial propositions, occupational propositions, political propositions and religious

propositions etc. but caste cannot be examined systematically without giving importance to religion,

marriage and family. Caste with these components can be pointed out as extended kinship. Even

today intra-caste marriage, generally, takes place because of religio-cultural acceptability.

Caste Inequality and Indian Society

Caste inequality in social sciences can be elaborated as sets of institutional discrimination between

and within castes which reveal inferiority-superiority syndromes relating to the fields of culture,

polity and economy. In fact, the use of the terms of upper castes and lower castes express caste

inequality. One can observe unequal distribution of wealth, prestige and power in relation to

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different caste groups located in various regions. In various schools located in different parts of

country an untouchable child is not allowed to take drinking water from those pots which are used by

upper caste students is an example of caste inequality. Similarly in villages a woman belonging to

lower caste cannot enter into residences of the upper castes. However, one can find various changes

in Indian society which have challenged the existence of caste in inequality. In fact, democracy,

social justice, equality and tolerance are those values which have threatened caste inequalities

everywhere. Although, this process of change is uneven.

We have already mentioned the features of Indian caste system. These features have undergone the

process of change because of industrialization, urbanization, secularization, democratization and

globalization. Prior to these causes several indigenous or orthogenetic causes also led to dynamics in

caste system. Romila Thapar- a well known historian- has commented that caste was never static. It

happened because of dynamics (of course slow) in relations of production. The interface between

varnas created mobility. It can be said that caste as macro structure and caste as micro structure has

experienced various systems of dynamism. The changes in power relation also led to changes in

caste society. The role relationship between castes introduced modifications in power relationship. In

ancient India Kshatriya king enter into alliances with the priest. These alliances gave rise to

dominant caste in various areas including villages. In these processes lower caste imitate various

aspects of way of life of Brahmins and other upper castes respectively and upgraded own self from

existing caste status which is generally accepted after two or three generation. The process of

industrialization encouraged or compelled people to migrate from rural to urban spaces. Various

castes left their traditional occupations and entered into new occupations based upon achievement

orientations. The process of westernization changed food habits and dress patterns of various caste

groups. This process also questioned purity-pollution principle. The constitution of India provides

the prevention of civil disabilities laws (Untouchability Act), Hindu Marriage Act. Education also

weakened the traditional form of stratification. We have already pointed out that these aspects

weaken the purity-pollution principle. The ascriptive status of caste lost the significance provided

earlier and achieved statuses acquired utmost importance in determining the prestige. Traditional

occupations are replaced by new professions. Due to spatial mobility and educational achievements

inter-caste marriages come into existence.

Due to secularization, the issues of untouchability have weakened. In villages, people born in low

caste allowed to entered temples and can fetch water from the public wells. It is, in fact, their

fundamental right. On account of protective discrimination policy the lower caste got equal

opportunity in government services and public sector employments. Their political participation in

legislative assemblies and in Lok Sabah is now insured due to protective discrimination policy. Their

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Multiple Choice Questions

presence in education is also significant. Besides this caste dominance still prevails. Casteism-

caste consciousness- caste identity interplay can be felt in all micro and macro realities of Indian

society.

GLOSSARY

Casteism

It refers to those activities by which one caste prefers own-self by

undermining interest of other castes.

Caste consciousness It refers to deeper understanding of own caste identity.

Prejudice

The holding of preconceived ideas about an individual or group,

idea those are resistant to change. Prejudice may be positive or

negative.

Dominant caste A caste group having numerical strength and or control over the

resources in the locality.

Sanskritisation It refers to a process whereby members of a lower/middle caste

attempt to raise their social status by adopting the ritual, domestic

and social practices/behaviours of a caste of higher status.

Protective- Discrimination It is the policy of granting special privileges to the downtrodden

and the underprivileged sections of society such as STs, SCs,

OBCs, and Women.

Endogamy The practice of marrying within one’s own group/caste.

Exogamy The practice of marrying outside of the own group/caste.

Exercises

I) Objective Type Questions 

1. Out of the following which is not the features of caste:

A) Ascriptive status

B) Hereditrical occupation

C) Profane-sacred distinction

D) Endogamy

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2. The division between the lower caste and the

A) Intellectual labour and manual labour

B) Prosperity and poverty

C) Orthodox and liberal

D) Urban and Rural

3. The notion of ‘Castisation of Politics’ is based upon ideas of

A) Rajni Kothari

B) G.S. Ghurye

C) Rajani Palme Dutt

D) Andre Beteille

4. Traditional theory of caste is based upon the idea of

A) G.S. Ghurye

B) D.N.Majumdar

C) Louis Dumont

D) J.H. Hutton

5. Out of the following which caste is not considered as twice born

A) Brahmin

B) Kshatriya

C) Vaishya

D) Shudra

6. According to Bottomore which one is not the features of social stratification

A) Slavery

B) Caste

C) Class

D) Gender

7. Out of the following which samskar makes person twice born

A) Jatakaram

B) Janam samskar

C) Upnayan samskar

D) Nama-karana

8. The term ‘Antyaj’ refers to

A) Touchable shudras

B) Untouchable shudras

C) Landless agriculturist

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very short answer questions in 1-15 words each

short answer questions in 30-35 words each

long answer questions in 75-85 words each

long answer questions in 250-300 words each

D) Tribals

9. Out of the following which match is not correct

A) Caste in Question - Dipanker Gupta

B) Caste and Race in India - H. Risley

C) Caste in India and other Essays – M.N.Srinivas

D) Caste, class and power - Andre Beteille

10. Out of the following which section of the society is linked with protective discrimination

policy

A) Upper castes

B) Middle castes

C) Scheduled castes

D) Dominant castes

1. What is Varna?

2. What is purity-pollution principle?

3. Identify that term from which caste is originated?

4. Name that Varna which is considered outcaste.

5. Mention Varna model of hierarchy.

1. Define Caste

2. What is ascriptive status?

3. Mention those occupations which are traditionally associated with Varna.

4. What is caste mobility?

1. Describe the characteristics of caste mentioned by G.S. Ghurye.

2. What is traditional theory of caste origin?

3. What is occupational theory of caste origin?

4. Identify those factors which have led to dynamics of caste.

1. What do you understand by caste? Explain the differences between Caste and Varna.

87  

2. Traditional and Occupational theory of caste origin do not explain the total picture of its origin.

How?

3. Identify those changes which raise the possibility of India as casteless society.

4. Mention those examples which reveal that caste is still a dominant system of Indian society.

5. Discuss the meaning of protective discrimination. Is protective discrimination leading to value of

social justice?

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E)

F)

G)

H)

I)

J)

Introduction:

In all societies, one can observe various social groups which are more prosperous, prestigious and

powerful than others. These differentials constitute social stratification in any society. If you have visited

cities then you might have observed some residential structures known as posh colony while on the other

side, you might have seen slums too. Similarly, in villages one can see a huge building of a landlord and a

Kaccha house owned by a landless agriculturist. Such inequalities are important fields for sociological

analysis. You have read in the previous chapter that in India one of the forms of inequality is caste

structure. It is ascriptive in nature. But when certain statuses are achieved by the individuals on the bases

of efforts, qualification and distinctive achievements, the class comes into existence. In a simplified

manner, it can be said that the nature of ownership over material resources also constitute classes.

Therefore, it is inferred that there are two classes in a society, one which posses ownership over material

resources and another which does not have ownership over material resources. At this stage, we can also

point out that slavery, caste, class and estate, status groups refers to those structural inequalities which

appear between different groups. This statement can be used for basic understanding of social

stratification. In this chapter our objective will be to understand class as one of the forms of social

stratification.

Meaning of Class

Class, commonly known as social class, is one of the major forms of social stratification along with

slavery, status, estate and caste. The concept of class in sociology is basically linked with ideas of Karl

Marx. Although Marx has not defined class anywhere. But his proposition of “haves” and “haves not”

clearly indicate that the ownership issues relating to means of production and the control over relations of

production are those important issues which constitute class in any society. ‘Social Class’ is one of the

principal types of social stratification found especially in the modern civilised countries. If the caste

Chapter 5: Class Inequalities Highlights

5.1 Concept of class

5.2 Features of class

5.3 Relations between caste, class and status group and class hierarchy

5.4 Views of sociologists on class structure

5.5 Classes in Rural and Urban India

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system is found to be unique to India, the class system is universal in nature. In sociology the concept of

class is defined differently by sociologists. But in simple sense, a class is a category or group of persons

having a definite status in society which can be compared with other groups in terms of superiority or

inferiority. The relative position of the class in the social scale arises from the degree of achieved prestige

attached to it. Class status is determined by property, achievement and capacity of an individual.

Nature and Characteristics of Social Class

On the basis of above mentioned introduction one can explain nature and characteristics of class in

following manner:

1. A Status Group: A social class is essentially a status group. Class is related to status. Different

statuses arise in a society as people do different things, engage in different activities and pursue

different vocations. The consideration of the class as a status group makes it possible to apply it

to any society which has many strata. The idea of social status separates the individuals not only

physical sometimes even mentally.

2. Achieved Status: Status in the case of class system is achieved and not ascribed. Birth is not the

criterion of status. Achievements of an individual mostly decide his status. Class system provides

scope for changing or improving one’s status. Factors like income, occupation, wealth, education.

‘life-styles’, etc. decide the status of an individual.

3. Universal in Nature: Class is almost a universal phenomenon. The class system appears in all

the modern complex societies of the world. It is a phenomenon that is absent only in the smallest,

Features

Class Consciouness A 

Status Group

Achieved Status

Universal in Nature

Mode of Feeling

Prestigious element

Stability

Mode of livelihood

Open Group

An Economic Group

90  

the simplest, and the most primitive of societies. All other societies of any size have a class

structure.

4. Mode of Feeling: In a class system we may observe three modes of feelings. (i) There is a feeling

of equality in relation to the members of one’s own class (ii) There is a feeling of inferiority in

relation to those who occupy the higher status in the socio-economic hierarchy. (iii) There is a

feeling of superiority in relation to those who occupy the lower status in the hierarchy. This kind

of feeling develops into class-consciousness and finally results in class solidarity.

5. Elements of Prestige: Each social class has its own status in society. Status is associated with

prestige. The relative position of the class in the social set up arises from the degree of prestige

attached to the status. Thus, the status and the prestige enjoyed by the ruling classes or rich

classes in every society is superior to that of the class of commoners or the poor people. The

prestige which a class enjoys depends upon our evaluations. In many societies knowledge, purity

of race or descent, religion, wealth, heroism, bravery and similar other qualities confer a high

degree of prestige on the persons possessing them. These qualities on which our evaluations are

based vary considerably in different societies, and in the course of time, within the same society.

6. Stability: A social class is relatively a stable group. It is not transistory or unstable like a crowd

or a mob. Though status in the case of class is subject to change, it is to some extent stable. Status

in the case of class may undergo radical changes in extraordinary circumstances i.e., in times of

wars, revolutions, economic, political and social crisis and so on.

7. Mode of livelihood: A social class is distinguished from other classes by its customary modes of

behaviour or mode of behaving. This is often referred to as the ‘life-styles’ of a particular class,

‘Life-styles’ or the modes of living include such matters as the mode of dress, the kind of house

and neighbourhood one lives in, the means of recreation one resorts to, the cultural products one

is able to enjoy, the relationship between parents and children, the kinds of books, magazines and

TV shows to which one is exposed, one’s friends, one’s mode of conveyance and communication,

one’s way of spending money and so on. ‘Life-styles’ reflect the speciality in preferences, tastes,

and values of a class.

8. Open Group: Social classes are ‘open groups’. They represent an ‘open’ social system. An open

class system is one in which vertical social mobility is possible. This means there are no

restrictions, or at the most only very mild restrictions are imposed on the upward and downward

movement of individuals in the social hierarchy. However, a completely open class system and a

completely closed class system are only hypothetical.

9. An Economic Group: The basis of social classes is mostly economic, but they are not mere

economic groups or divisions. Subjective criteria such as class-consciousness, class solidarity and

91  

class identification on the one hand, and the objective criteria such as wealth, property, income,

education, occupation, etc., on the other, are equally important in the class system. Classes, thus,

are not merely economic groups, they are something more than these.

10. Categorization of Social Classes: Sociologists have given three-fold classification of classes

which consists of (i) Upper Class (ii) Middle Class, and (iii) Lower Class. Warner and Lunt in

their study of a New England town have divided each of the traditional classes into two sub-

classes. They have given a six-fold classification consisting of (i) The upper-Upper Class (ii) The

Lower-Upper Class, (iii) The Upper-Middle Class, (iv) The Lower-Middle Class, (v) The Upper-

Lower Class and (vi) The Lower-Lower Class. Karl Marx, the champion of the theory of social

class and class conflicts, has spoken of only two major social classes, the ‘haves’ and the ‘have

nots’ or the rich and the poor, or the capitalists and the workers, or the Bourgeoisie and the

Proletariat. Sorokin has spoken of three major types of class stratification. They are economic,

political, and occupational classes.

11. Class Consciousness: Class system is associated with class consciousness. Class consciousness is

“the sentiment that characterises the relations of men towards the members of their own and other

classes.” It “consists in the realisation of a similarity of attitude and behaviour with members of

other classes.” Class consciousness is the means by which the integration of persons possessing a

similarity of social position and of life-chances is transformed into a common group activity.

Class Consciousness and Class Struggle: Karl Marx, who championed

the cause of workers, laid great emphasis on ‘class consciousness’

among the working classes. According to Marx, the rise of class

consciousness among the workers leads to their class identification, class

solidarity and finally to class struggle. Hence he gave a call to the

workers for International unity by stating “the workers of the world be

unite, you have nothing to lose, but your chains, you have a world to

win”. Class consciousness can be transformed into same group activity

with the help of some organ or instrument. Political party is such an

organ. Hence, Lenin added the idea of a party in Marxism to prepare the workers for class struggle.

Activity 5.1

Upto what extent your

identity has been shaped by

social class background of

your family? Discuss your

views with your classmates

and teachers in the classroom

and frame the indicators.

92  

Theoretical Perspectives on Class – Karl Marx, Max Weber, W. Lloyd Warner and Eric Olin

Wright

There are varied opinions over the development of social class. These opinions are guided by certain

approaches given by prominent social thinkers. Two major theories of class have been given by Karl

Marx, Max Weber W. Lloyd Warner and Eric Olin Wright.

.

Karl Marx on Class

According to Karl Marx, a class is a group of people who are related on the basis of means of production

and means of livelihood. From Marxian perspective, a class consists of people who have the same role in

the process of production. The two basic classes under capitalism are the capitalist (or ruling) class who

own and control all productive processes, and the working class who, because they lack that control, have

to sell their labour for wages. Thus, there are mainly two classes in society – one, the bourgeoisie who

own the means of production and the other called the proletariat or the working class.

For Marx the history of all societies in the world has been the history of class struggles. That is, ever

since human society came into existence, it has been divided into classes who clash in the pursuit of class

interests. Conflicting groups have existed in the slave society and feudal system. However, it is in a

capitalist society that the opposition of social classes can be best seen. For Marx each society has its own

mode of production (nature of its technology and division of labour). Each mode of production produces a

typical class system in which one class controls the process of production while the other class acts as the

producers and providers of services to the dominant class. Factory becomes the primary site of hostility

between the two classes, namely, the capitalists or the bourgeoisie and the workers or the proletariat. The

two classes represent the haves and the have-nots, the exploiters and the exploited, the buyers and sellers

of labour power, the oppressors and the oppressed, the powerful and the powerless.

When conflicts become extreme, and the working class gains a class consciousness (self-awareness and

the capacity to act in its own rational interests), it challenges the dominance of the capitalist class who are

the existing rulers of society. Marx distinguished between a ‘class in itself’ and ‘class for itself’. A ‘class

in itself’ is simply a social group whose members share the same relationship to the forces of production.

Marx argues that a social group only fully becomes a class when it becomes a ‘class for itself’ when its

members have class consciousness and class solidarity. Consequently, the opposing interests of the two

93  

classes and consciousnesses eventually lead to class conflict, resulting in a socialist revolution and the

establishment of a classless society.

Max Weber on Class

According to Weber, wealth, power and status form the basis of inequality. Class is associated with the

economic aspect, status with community and power with politics. Like Marx, Weber also considers class

in economic terms. According to Weber, those who share a similar class situation also share similar life-

chances. Class is based on the fact of owning property and not owning any property.

Weber makes a distinction between:

1. Ownership or Propertied classes who own mines, cattle, slaves, capital goods, stocks, money,

land and real estate, buildings, etc.

2. Working class whose labour is directly exploited by capitalists

3. Acquisition classes who have no property but special skills on the basis of which they offer

various services (specialists, persons with rare skills, entertainers, sportspersons)

4. Commercial class comprising privileged person such as merchants, bankers, professionals,

industrial and agricultural entrepreneurs etc. who possess similar financial resources.

Weber in his theory on capitalism and class structure states that the unequal distribution of power is the

basis of social stratification. Classes are stratified on the basis of their relations with goods produced for

market. Status groups represented by similar styles of life are stratified on the basis of their income. These

elements express a class situation.

While discussing class power Weber believes it is an “unequal access to material resources.” If someone

possesses something that you want or need, then this makes that person more powerful than you since

s/he controls access to a desired social resource. For example, the relationship between an employer who

is in a dominant position and the employee who is in a subordinate position.

W. Lloyd Warner examines class structure in United States of America. He conceptualizes three social

classes namely: the Upper class, the Middle class and the Lower class. These classes are further divided

into upper, middle and lower. Warner explains class structure on the basis of income and wealth. He also

accepts the fact that there are inherited privileges which in the form of inherited wealth constitute the

section of upper- middle class. Upper class is financially the best compensated and posses most influential

status in American society. in present frame corporate elite is also a part of upper class structure. Middle

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class is composed of educated salaried professionals. A highly educated salaried professional whose work

is largely self-directed is a part of upper-middle class. Warner admits that middle class is most vaguely

defined. Working class is composed of that population which act as worker in manufacturing, retail and

service sector.

Eric Olin Wright presents a theory of class based on synthesis of ideas of Marx and Weber. Wright

argues that there are three criteria of control over economic resources in a capitalist society. These criteria

are

1. control over money capital

2. control over land, factory, and offices

3. control over labour. These aspects create classes like employer, blue collar worker, white collar

workers, professional employees, manual workers etc.

On the bases of traditionalities and modernities you can point out different class locations. According to

him middle class worker (mainly managers and supervisors) enjoy relationship with authority, while

working class faces exploitation and oppression.

OCCUPATION, INCOME AND EDUCATION AS DETERMINANTS OF CLASS

Education as Determinant of Class

Formal education has played a vital role in the growth and development of human being. Education,

especially higher education, professional and technical education can also help people to access economic

opportunities in a much better way and market their abilities and respond to challenges.

Occupation as Determinant of Class

Occupation is the direct outcome of one’s educational attainment. Occupation is used as an indicator of

social class and researchers use different criteria for ranking occupations. Many researchers classify

occupations in terms of the prestige associated with them, others place more emphasis on the economic

rewards attached to them. As a result, occupational classification differs and the results of various

DETERMINANTS OF 

CLASS 

Education

Occupation

Income 

95  

students are not strictly comparable. A further problem arises from the fact that it is not possible to

identify many members of the bourgeoisie on the basis of their occupations. A person’s occupation does

not necessarily say anything about the extent of his investments in private industry. In view of these

problems, the findings of social mobility studies must be regarded with caution.

Income as a determinant of Class

It is assumed that high educational attainment, and access to socially valued occupational status, would

consequently improve earning. Income is not directly proportional to occupation and education. Income

reflects one’s ability to “earn”. This index is an obvious and radical index of one’s class. Income may be

generated through business endeavours, though the successful completion of deals or though occupational

position that one holds. However income, especially ‘white’ money truly indicates one’s class. People

who earn though “parallel” means and if caught, hamper their class, position and social standing.

Relation between Caste and Class:

Structurally caste and class are status groups. Status group is known for a common life style and similar

kind of consciousness. In class structure the mobility through education becomes an important social fact.

The educational attainment leads to possibilities of inter-class mobility. In fact, in all modern societies the

concept of middle class is basically a product of educational attainment. All liberal professions and

specializations are by and large education based. Thus the classes of employer and employees, the class of

supervisor, the class of elites are almost product of educational attainments. Education can also be used

for making a distinction between agrarian /rural classes and industrial/urban classes. Landlords constitutes

that rural class in which educational attainments are not needed much but the class of bourgeois and of

petty bourgeois (middle class) are structured basically through education.

The prestige of social classes in any society is based upon principle of accumulation. Accumulation over

means of production also gives rise to control over prestige and power. The close observance of Indian

society by you will prove our argument. The capitalists, the liberal professionals and the elites enjoy

prestige in society as well as they are possessors of economic, cultural, political and social power. As a

result, class hierarchy is based upon economic, educational and political achievements which at the same

time determine prestige linked hierarchies.

As far as, relation between class and caste is concerned it can be said that:

1. Caste and class are exclusive categories because of ascriptive orientation and achievement

orientation respectively.

96  

2. Caste refers to prestige differential while class refers to ownership differential.

3. One can have upward and downward status mobility in classes while such mobility is not

possible in caste.

4. Caste gives basic importance to purity-pollution principle while in class structure no such

importance is given.

However, in Indian society upper caste (castes associated with Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya Varna)

controlled over the social and cultural resources. They were linked with intellectual labour. Thus these

castes are, by and large, upper and middle Indian classes. The castes related with Shudra did not have

ownership over the resources and were compelled to sell their manual labour to the upper and middle

castes. As a result, the structure of lower class in India is mainly composed of lower castes. The

processes of economic, industrial, educational and political modernization initially influenced upper and

middle castes. Lower caste experienced backwardness (what we call ‘cultural-economic-technological

and political lag’) thus lower castes experienced exploitation and inequalities on the basis of class lines.

In rural India the big landlords, the absentee landlords, the upper and middle peasantry and the capitalist

farmers basically belong to upper and middle castes while low peasantry, marginal farmers and landless

agriculturist belong to lower caste. The class of moneylenders in rural India is basically composed of

caste related to Vaishya Varna. Thus upper caste, middle caste and lower castes in general way are upper

class, middle class and lower class in Indian society. At the same time it is also a reality that because of

protective and productive discrimination new opportunity structures due to industries and education and

spatial mobility one section of lower caste has entered into the sphere of middle and upper class. In social

sciences the system of polity, culture, economy and social relations can be examined by using caste-class

relations and caste-class nexus. But it must be known to all that in class status can be changes due to

achievements but caste status can never be changed. However, the development of caste consciousness

and of class polarisation has justified the logic that ‘caste is a closed class and class is an open caste’.

Relationship between Caste and Class

Sociologically there is no denial of this logic that caste and class are exclusive categories having

distinctive attributes. However, in reality the caste-class nexus can be observed everywhere. Here nexus

means upto what extent castes and classes have penetrated in each other. The following arguments will

stimulate you to think in this direction:

1. The upper castes and the middle castes in rural and urban India are, by and large, upper and

middle classes also. It happened because upper and middle castes came into contact with

modernization earlier than the lower castes.

97  

2. The educational attainments by upper castes and middle castes are much more than the lower

castes. As a result, new professional categories and specialization based groups which

constitute neo-rich and neo-middle classes are generally from upper and middle castes.

3. These upper and middle castes also constitute dominant political class. They share

bureaucratic and administrative power systems. One can also experience class endogamy.

Rarely one can find the example where marital ties have occurred between the partners

belonging to upper and lower classes respectively. Similarly, these differences can be

experienced further when language, life style, social intercourse are compared.

Thus it can be said that caste and class have entered into the interface in which similarities

can be viewed which make cooperative and coordinated interaction.

Box 5.2

Difference between caste and class

Caste Class

1. Caste is an ascriptive status

2. Caste is basically Hindu

centric/Indian phenomenon.

3. Caste gets legitimacy from Hindu

religion through purity pollution

principle

4. Caste reveals restrictions in mobility

5. Caste gives importance to traditional-

inherited occupations.

6. In caste system untouchability

prevails

7. In caste endogamy is a social norm.

Caste gives importance to gotra

based exogamy.

1. Class is an achieved status

2. Class is universal phenomenon.

3. Caste gets legitimacy from

ownership over the means of

production particularly the material

assets.

4. Class accepts all forms of upward

and downward mobility

5. Class gives importance to

achievement based

occupation/professions

6. In class the principles of

untouchability or of social isolation

are absent.

7. In class no norms relating to

marriage exist.

98  

Relation between Class, Caste and Status group:

The relation and differences between class, caste and status group are also important facts. The status

group refers to those organized or semi-organized social categories comprising individuals having same

statuses/offices. In this sense, caste is also a status group (for example, social category comprising all

Brahmins) but in contemporary social sciences the term status group is generally used for professionals

who have acquired positions because of achievement (for example, status group comprising all

bureaucrats). The status groups based upon achievement develop own life style and patterns of living.

They are also based on same income category. But their ranking in society is not based upon material

assets. Their ranking is based upon prestige which they have because of nature of professions. The higher

category within a status group is generally known as ‘Elite’. They are highly specialised persons who play

directional and leadership roles in own status group and in the society. Their direction/role creates the

process of social transformation. But by and large the majority of all intra-status groups and of elites

within one status group belong to upper and middle caste. Lower caste people, particularly of countryside

(villages), cannot use those opportunity structures and facilities which upper caste and middle castes are

able to use in urban space. Thus it can be said that without examining caste structure and its relations with

other groups the deep rooted unequal structures of Indian society cannot be understood. This discussion is

an indication of following propositions:

1. Class, caste and status groups are analytical categories having distinctiveness.

2. In reality these three structures are interrelated and interdependent. It means in class we can

find castes and in caste several classes. The same thing can be

observed in status group. For example, a Brahmin IAS officer

having income of 15 lakh rupees per year express caste

(Brahmin), status group (bureaucrat) and upper class (income

structure).

3. We have already mentioned that caste is also a status group but

this status group is based upon ascription. It means ascriptive

status group and achieved status group may constitute

classification of status group itself. It also reveals that prestige

is based upon both the birth and the achievement (known as quality and performance

respectively).

Activity 5.2

Create social composition

of ten families of your

neighbourhood expressing

the presence of caste,

class and status group.

Submit to your class

teacher and discuss.

99  

Class Hierarchy:

Like caste, class is also a hierarchical structure. In caste system the caste relating to Brahmin are at the

top while untouchable castes of Shudra Varna are placed at the bottom of the ranking. In similar fashion

‘haves’ (having monopoly over material resources) are at the top in the structure of hierarchy while

‘haves not’ (the non-owner of the resources) are placed at the bottom of the structure. Within these two,

several groups are found in both the castes and the classes.

Karl Marx- the most important class theorist- has talked about the classes of

bourgeoisie and proletariat in capitalistic society. Within these two classes he also places

petty-bourgeoisie (the middle strata). Petty-bourgeoisies, in market terminology is

composed of professional groups and people attached mainly with intellectual labour.

Marx treats them opportunist and states that during the process of class struggle a small

component of petty bourgeoisie makes aliens with the bourgeoisie and a large section of

petty bourgeoisie take the side of proletariat. Thus, finally two class model becomes the

central thesis of Karl Marx.

Max Weber- another important class theorist- talks about propertied bourgeoisie, non-

propertied white collar workers, middle class, industrial working class. Non-propertied

white collar workers mainly comprise technocrats, managers and liberal professionals.

W. Lloyd Warner- an American sociologist- on the basis of income criteria discusses

the upper class, the middle class and the lower class. These three classes can be divided

further into three sub-classes, such as upper-upper, upper-middle, upper-lower, middle-

upper, middle-middle, middle-lower and lower-upper, lower-middle, lower-lower. These

classes constitute different patterns of ranking. We have already pointed out that class

hierarchy are visible in urban world and rural world of Indian society. It is also an

important point to accept that in India classes are mainly products of colonial order when

modernization process in India was initiated by British Empire the class structure came

into existence. Particularly the phenomenon of middle class in India is a product of

westernization. The process of globalization has also led to corporate bourgeois,

multinational and transnational industrialist, classes engaged with service profession,

neo-rich and neo-middle class all these compositions make class hierarchy complex and

dynamic. We would like to present one debateable logic before you also. The collapse of

socialistic system in USSR and in Eastern Europe becomes the cause for an idea known

100  

N

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Box 5.3

assification o

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Max Weber

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101  

15. Manual Working Class Engaged With Non-Agricultural Activities And

16. Contractual/ Part time workers constitute rural class structure in India.

If you observe Indian urban space closely you will find the following classes:

1. Corporate capitalists

2. Industrial capitalists

3. Financial capitalists

4. Bureaucrats/ academia of upper category

5. Cultural, Political and Economic elites

6. Middle class- managers, traders, businessman, small shopkeepers, self employed people, bankers

7. Lower class- assistants, mechanics, low grade supervisors

8. Industrial working Class in organised sector

9. Working class in unorganised/semi-organised sectors

10. Construction workers on daily wages and

11. Unemployed persons constitute class structure in urban India.

These classes can be classified further into sub-classes (for example, in private sector, in public sector

and in private-public partnership). As a result, class structure in rural and urban India is of

heterogametic character. These theoretical propositions of classes and related class divisions indicate

that ownership over means of production constitutes the bases of classes while class divisions are

based on similar kind of ownership. On the other hand non-ownership over the resources also

prevails. Members of social groups always aspire to become the part of classes having upper ranking

in the hierarchy. Thus social mobility that is inter-class mobility becomes an important feature of

society. As a result, there is always a relationship between class, social mobility and hierarchy. When

you think about yourself and aspire to get upper positions in society class, stratification and mobility

become visible before you. When you compare classes you can also become aware about inequalities.

Unequal sections in society lead to unequal differences in way of life. It is also possible that in certain

cases deprivation and denial may reach to the extent of social exclusion. Because of globalization the

traditional structure of classes are weakening but in any case economic inequalities are bases of class

divisions and these classes make impact on our life. Education and health status makes us stronger as

a result mobility gets fast pace resulting into changes in the membership of class. Now you can

understand why class structures are necessary to understand social realities.

102  

Multiple Choice Questions

Exercises

I) Objective Type Questions 

1. The ownership over the means of production is a determinant of

A) Status group

B) Class

C) Caste

D) Social category

2. The class of serf is opposite to

A) Bourgeois

B) Master

C) Feudal

D) Petty-bourgeois

3. The history of all existing societies is the history of class struggle is stated by

A) Karl Marx

B) V.I. Lenin

C) Antonio Gramsci

D) Rosa Luxemburg

4. Class-in-itself and Class-for-itself in respective manner are

A) Objective criteria

B) Subjective criteria

C) Subjective and objective criteria

D) Objective and subjective criteria

5. The class theory given by Eric Olin Wright is synthesis of ideas of

A) Marx & Durkheim

B) Marx & Weber

C) Marx and Spencer

D) Marx & Engels

6. By and large educated salaried professionals are known as

A) Middle class

B) Neo-rich class

C) Super-rich class

103  

very short answer questions in 1-15 words each

short answer questions in 30-35 words each

D) Self-employed class

7. Property-less white collar professionals as one of the classes is discussed by

A) Karl Marx

B) Max Weber

C) Lloyd Warner

D) Vilfredo Pareto

8. Out of the following which does not reveal the distinction between caste and class

A) Ascription & achievement

B) Closed & open mobility

C) Sacred & secular

D) Ruling & ruled

9. Out of the following which does not constitute the means of production

A) Land

B) Culture

C) Labour

D) Capital

10. Out of the following who gives importance to life chances and market situation for class

analysis

A) Karl Marx

B) Max Weber

C) Alfred Weber

D) C.W. Mills

6. Identify two important features of class.

7. What do you mean by ownership over the resources?

8. Identify means of production.

9. Name those two classes which were found during slavery.

10. Who is a bourgeois?

5. What do you mean by class?

6. What is the relationship between caste and class?

7. Identify those classes which one’s find in Rural India.

104  

long answer questions in 75-85 words each

long answer questions in 250-300 words each

8. What is the meaning of this statement of Marx that “the history of all existing societies is the

history of class struggle”?

9. Name those classes which have been elaborated by Max Weber.

5. Discuss the views of Eric Olin Wright on Class.

6. Differentiate between Caste and Class.

7. Which factors are responsible for the emergence of unipolar world?

8. Identify those classes which are found in Rural India.

9. Identify those classes which are found in Urban India.

6. Explain the Marxian theory of class.

7. Explain the Weberian theory of class.

8. What are those classes which have occurred due to globalization?

9. What is classless society? Is classless society possible?

10. What is relationship between class, social mobility and social stratification?

GLOSSARY

Bourgeoisie It is the social class who owns the means of production and whose

societal concerns are the value of property and the preservation of

capital, to ensure the perpetuation of their economic supremacy in

the society.

Class Struggle It is the tension or antagonism which exists in society due to

competing socio-economic interests and desires between people of

different classes.

Elite They are highly specialised persons who play directional and

leadership role in own status group and in the society. Their

direction/role creates the process of social transformation.

Petty- bourgeois It is a French term, refers to a social class that comprised small-scale

capitalists such as shop-keepers and workers who manage the

production, distribution, and/or exchange of commodities and/or

105  

services owned by their bourgeois employers.

Proletariat It is a term used to describe the class of wage-earners (especially

industrial workers) in a capitalist society.

Slavery It is a form of social stratification in which some individuals are

literally owned by others as their property.

Social mobility It is a movement of individuals or groups between different socio-

economic positions.

Social stratification The existence of structured inequalities between groups in society in

terms of wealth, power and prestige.

Under class It is a class of individuals situated right at the bottom of the class

system, often composed of people from ethnic minority backgrounds.

Working class It is a social class broadly composed of people involved in blue

collar or manual occupations.

106  

Introduction

You might have observed family system, relations in peer group, neighbourhood and nature of relation in

various social groups. When father or brother or for that matter male members of the family interact with

female members a feeling of discrimination is always felt. Similarly if a girl is your friend then directly or

indirectly you might have expressed do’s and don’ts for her in several forms. In newspaper the atrocities

against women are regularly reported from several parts of country. This kind of interaction between men

and women is not a new phenomenon. Right from the beginning of human civilization, the relations

between men and women are examined with several frames of reference. In Hindu family system

particularly during the duration of sacred fasts like ‘Karvachoth’ etc you might have heard several

mythological stories which are full of those kinds of relationships. Its stimulate us to accept an idea of

Simone de Beauvoir that ‘woman is not born, she is made’. It means woman- her ideas, perception,

experience, what she is and what she should be- are constructed by the related social groups and societies

in which patriarchy is dominant.

In sociology we try to examine these issues along with conceptual, theoretical and methodological

insights give rise to a sub-sociology (that is the branch within sociology) known as ‘sociology of gender

relations’. Thus sociology of gender relations can be known as that branch of sociology in which man-

woman relations are scientifically and critically examined in context of society, culture, polity, economy

and psychology. In fact, the patriarchy is so powerful in a traditional society like India that every aspect

of woman is constructed on the basis of what male members think. Whenever we discuss gender relations,

we talk about

1. Inequalities between man and woman

Chapter 6:    Gender Inequalities 

Highlights

6.1 Concept of Gender

6.2 Gender Inequality

6.3 Theories of Feminism

6.4 Gender Socialization

6.5 Gender Discrimination

6.5.1 Meaning

6.5.2 Nature

6.6 Role of Gender relations in societal development

107  

2. The relation between male power and female power

3. The analysis of dominance of male power over woman and

4. Women’s participation in economic and political activities.

Concept of Gender:

‘Gender’ is a socially constructed process. It is a product of culture. Gender as sociological concept refers

to those political, cultural, socio-psychological and economic propositions by which the relations between

men and women operate. It means when we describe men-women relations by using socio-cultural frame,

gender comes into existence.

‘Sex’ is a biological category. In this category those biological features or physiological features are

elaborated which create distinction between men and women. You may find a column in various

application forms, you might have observed a column and title ‘sex’. In that column the authorities ask

about sex status in the form of male, female and transgender.

Transgender’ includes people who live, or desire to live, a large part

of their life in the role or dress of the gender opposite to that

associated with the biological sex to which they were first born. In

popular sense, it is known as ‘Third Gender’.

Difference between Sex and Gender

While sex differences are understood as biological, gender

differences refer to those behaviors and attitudes which are

constructed through social practice. The construction of ways of being female or male is a dynamic

process in which all play a part.

Gender Relation

Gender relations as we have already pointed out refer to men-women relations on the basis of ideological,

cultural, political and economic issues. In gender relations we examine gender subordination. Issues

relating to women empowerment and exploitative trends about women are found differently in different

societies. Gender relations, it becomes important to talk about institution of marriage, family, pre-marital,

marital and extra-marital relations, the issues of homosexuality, issues of transgender, the nature of

intimate relations as human sexuality. It is generally accepted that men and women are naturally different

because of physiological distinctiveness. But such biological or physiological differences with the support

structure of society and culture are converted into social differences. Anthropological and historical

Box 6.1

Gender is a lived reality an experience related to every step of life, and, therefore, courses on gender do most often become an experience in active learning.

108  

evidences have proved that cultural reproduction establishes and re-establishes these differences in

relation to vital roles of social interaction.

Gender Inequality and Patriarchy:

Through our everyday behaviour, girls and boys begin to learn

their place in an unequal society where ‘masculine’

characteristics including the exercise of power and dominance

are valued for men and ‘feminine’ characteristics, such as

service, nurturing, caring are devalued. So in our society these

gender constructions form the basis of unequal relations

between females and males.

Patriarchy means rule of father in a male dominated family. It

is a social and ideological construct which considers men as

superior to women. According to Sylvia Walby, patriarchy is a “system of social structures and practices

in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women.” It means patriarchy is based on a system of power

relations which are hierarchical and unequal. The nature of control and subordination of women may vary

from one society to another due to the differences in class, caste, religion, education and socio-cultural

background.

Theories of feminism

Feminism is a school of thought in which we incorporate several propositions of ideas known as Marxian

feminism, Socialist feminism, Radical feminism etc. These theories basically stress upon ‘the patriarchy

debate’ and construct the logic of women movement. The basic issue associated with feminism is women

subordination.

1. Marxist feminism: The Marxist feminism talk about how oppression of women has been built

systematically into the structure of society. They focus on a link between patriarchy and

capitalism. According to them female oppression is a result of ideological domination that

emerges out of economic operation. According to Friedrich Engels, the development of

capitalism and the emergence of private property changed the position of women in society. He

believed that women operation operated through the institution of family-the bourgeois family is

patriarchal and oppressive since men tried to ensure that property is passed on only to their sons.

Activity6.1

Discuss with your mother and father about

those norms and value systems which have

been communicated to you as a boy or as a

girl. And then make comparison between

the value system and the norms which a

boy possesses and a girl possesses. Prepare

a chart and discuss it with your teacher

about why it happens.

109  

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th

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Eco-feminism

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reativity, sens

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The foundatio

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Theories of feminism

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110  

legitimised by culture, religion, and law are transmitted to women. In fact gender socialization contributes

to the persistence of disparity between women and men. It can be elaborated as ‘gender gap’.

A report submitted by UNIFEM ‘Who answers to women: Gender and Accountability’ discusses the

realities of women’s world. The report published in 2008-09 reveals that atleast 1 in 3 women and girls

are victim to gender based violence, 60 per cent of all unpaid family workers globally are women and 57

per cent of children out of school are girls. The report reveals that in politics, employment, family,

education, property and public services several challenges are before women which create constraints in

achieving equality.

One of the constraints in achieving gender equality in India is gender based socialization. In informal

space/domestic space girl child right from the beginning internalises those values, norms and behavioural

practices which institutionalise inequalities subordination and religio-cultural oppression. She learns that:

1. Act as an obedient child before father, other male family members including the younger brother

2. Always act in terms of politeness and never speak loud before any family member

3. Try to get efficiency, discipline and time management in the personality in such a way that no male

member of family suffers

4. Get specialization in all domestic activities including religious activities and food preparation

Slowly and gradually, what will be the roles in the family of father-in-law are also learnt by the girl as a

part of socialization process. It is ironical that gender socialization gives insignificant importance to how

to act in the public sphere as independent/autonomous social unit. The gender socialization as a process

comprises “don’ts” rather than “do’s” in the public sphere.

Gender socialization to an extent can be located as

discriminatory process. We can say that gender

socialization creates gender difference as social

construction and constitutes the relation between gender

and body on the bases of religion, culture and patriarchy. In

this context, one important dimension known as ‘gendering

the body’ comes into existence. The cultural constructions

about skin, hair and other parts of women’s body are made

in gender socialization. In Indian society sometimes

gendering body comes close to racial consciousness. The beauty of a girl is determined by several

components including the colour of her skin. The sale of the beauty cream for changing the colour for

Box 6.2

Gender socialization refers to the ways in

which any society ensures that children

learn the appropriate behaviours

associated with their being males and

females. It also sets children into different

courses in life because they are male or

female. Society thus channelizes human

behaviour through gender socialization.

111  

skin can be placed here as an example. The process of gender socialization creates internalization of

mothering in the deep psyche of women. In the following activity you can seek answer of various

questions from your parents and family members for understanding what gender socialization is?

Activity-6.2

Arrange a short play in the classroom in which girl acts as daughter/sister and boy as

father/brother, then introduce interaction based on following questions:

1. Daughter: Father, what should I wear in marriage ceremony- Kurta-salwar, Saree, Top-

jeans or any dress of my choice (the same question can be asked mother).

2. Daughter/Sister: Father/Mother/Brother, I would like to go to see a movie with my

friends in the evening. Please give me permission.

3. Daughter: father, I will be going to Chandigarh to appear in an examination. Can I go

alone? or with my friends?

This interaction can be divided in terms of village and city. Draw the answer and make

narratives, then point out what you have found in gender socialization.

Gender Discrimination: meaning and nature

Gender discrimination refers to those behaviours of subordination, exclusion and non-participation by

which one set of population, here women, is by and large sidelined or ignored. It means all behavioural

patterns are in favour of man as a result women suffers. In fact, women all over the world are

disadvantaged in one form or another.

The census of India of 2011 reveals that there are 914 females against 1000 males in context of child sex

ratio (0-6 years). It is lowest since India’s independence. This data shows that discrimination with women

has moved toward upward direction. Sex selection in support of male child, dowry deaths, or torture

because of dowry, rape and creation of visible differences in all spheres of social relations based upon sex

are some of those phenomena which express gender discrimination.

On the basis of 2011 census you can identify the literacy rate between males and females, gender wage

differentials, infant mortality, maternal mortality etc. where discrimination with women is well

established. In Punjab and Haryana the decisions of khap-panchayat also shows discriminatory trends

with women.

In terms of malnutrition such discrimination can also be observed. We also find several prejudices about

women and girls. In villages, one can observe the pitiable status of a widow. Probably widow in the

112  

family experiences the verse kind of discrimination. Probably in all families due to dominance of

patriarchy female child has been treated inferior to male child.

These discriminations stimulate us to make a classificatory scheme in the structure of occupation and

profession in terms of

1. Female domination

2. Gender balanced

3. Male domination

In these structures one can clearly observe the state of pay gap. Such pay gap may further vary if women

worker is further classified in terms of caste, class, rural and urban spaces, religion and ethnicity. It can

also be argued further that pay gap in context of women worker grows when age, education and marital

status are taken into account. You can do an activity.

Activity-6.3

Visit a place where construction is taking place. Ask from male and female construction workers

following questions:

1. How much time you work at this place?

2. How much you get holidays in a week?

3. What are your wages and the mode of payment?

4. What kind of work activities you perform?

5. At work place what facilities are given to you by contractors?

Make a distinction between views given by male and female workers and submit it as a report to

your teacher who will discuss economic inequality/discrimination with you.

PROBLEMS OF WOMEN

In India women, as we have already pointed out, has been facing various problems like female foeticide,

dowry, child marriage, restrictions on widow remarriage, attitudinal differences, behavioural differences

by society and related groups for women (gender bases), cultural avoidance of childhood of a girl child

etc.

Besides these pathologies women are also victims of rape, kidnapping, abduction, molestation,

trafficking, prostitution, sexual harassment, eve-teasing, moral policing etc. domestic violence and

presentation of woman as commodity in media are also problematic issues which clearly reveal that all

113  

institutions varying from family to market suppress women in one form or another. These issues of

discrimination and oppression express the fact that justice to women and equality to women are still

distant realities. It is necessary to attack on systems of patriarchy. Such attack can be initiated by

introducing gender inequality based socialization in school. As student when you internalise gender

equality based learning, you can communicate such learning to your family members and enter into a

dialogue with them. It is one of the important ways by which issues of gender equality can reach to

different group of society and consciousness in support of gender issues is generated. It is also necessary

to have dialogue about fundamental rights directive principles and fundamental duties laid down in India

constitution, so that consciousness about women’s right is framed. Such conscience will stimulate us to

raise our voice in support of women’s empowerment. School, in this sense, is a place which can act as

instrumental means for minimising women’s exclusion.

The issues of gender inequality and of discrimination give rise to various forms of gender discourse. The

inequality based upon identity formation of gender raises the issue of gender justice. The question arises

whether sociology of present era is capable of creating those thought processes which lead to issues of

equality based gender consciousness.

Universally women constitute almost ‘Aadhi-Abadi’ (Half-population) of the world. But because of

subordination of women, ignorance of health status of women by male members of family and non-liking

of girl child due to religious and economic reasons, in several parts of world including India women

constitute less numbers than man’s population. Thus, imbalance in sex ratio including child sex ratio (0-6

years) expresses gender discrimination.

In Indian society, it is found that sex selection abortion during first pregnancy is generally not practiced,

but by the time of the second or third pregnancy almost 50 per cent more boys were born compare to

girls. It is more with upper castes and better educated population. If we accept the argument of famous

demographer of India Ahish Bose that it can be said that ‘how child sex ratio is, in fact, civilizational

collapse’? It is essential why some preference prevails. In our opinion son can be defined as patriarchal

value of security to family. This kind of narrative goes against constitutional norm of India and stimulates

us to re-examine the notion of motherhood and fatherhood. It is to an extent unfortunate that gender

equality in terms of various dimensions is not critically evaluated. As a result, issue of gender equality at

workplace, state violence against women, feminization of poverty, multiple deprivations of Dalits and

tribal women, exclusion of women of various categories from education, the intentional exclusion of girls

for determining suitable occupations and suitable partners for them are not examined analytically. To an

extent, it can be said that women as an insecure social category is one of the important features of Indian

114  

society. When analysis of health status of women is made, it can be said that women is the worse victim

of budget associated with health sector.

Role of Gender relations in societal development:

The issues of gender relations can be used for conceptualising India as a democratic state and as a

democratic society.

1. On the bases of constitutional norms, formation of government through election and domination

of formal institutions such as law make India a democratic state. The citizens of India whether

male and female enjoy and practice fundamental rights, fundamental duties and value of equality.

But the presence of India as democratic society is an issue of debate.

2. There is no effective participation of women in decision making process with a sense of equality.

Freedom of expression and freedom to make choices are denied to women in both the rural and

the urban India.

3. The issues relating to caste, kinship and religion perpetuate victimization of women. In fact, a

woman is a prisoner of a patriarchy. Her involvement in relations can be observed with a sense of

differentiation if comparison is made with man.

4. Wage differentials between males and females workers also exist. Her continuous activities in

domestic sphere are always considered non-economic. It makes women a liability.

5. The low sex ratio particularly the child sex ratio is its consequence. Woman is a soft target as far

as war and deviance are concerned. Her participation in political activities is not given equal

importance.

6. The female members of an agriculturist family continuously work in the field but her presence in

the market relating to purchase and sale of agricultural product is not accepted. If a female

member claims property right in the family, she is continuously criticized and condemned by

male members.

7. These are some of the examples raising doubt India as a democratic society, unless and until her

participation gets actualization in decision making processes in domestic and non-domestic

world. The claim of India as democratic society will remain debatable.

Box 6.3

Economic Participation

States Female workers Female literacy Sex-Ratio (female/1000

115  

very short answer questions in 1-15 words each

short answer questions in 30-35 words each

(in %) (in %) males)

Mizoram (Top) 46.08 89.40 976

Delhi (Bottom) 12.19 80.93 868

Punjab 18.21 70.73 895

National average 25.6 65.46 943

Sources: 1. Economic Census Ministry of statistic and Programme Implementation

2. The Times of India, 27 Aug. 2014.

In India 25.6 per cent work force of the total belongs to women. The highest participation of women in

workforce is found in Mizoram while in Delhi it is the lowest. In Punjab the percentage of population of

women work force is below the national average.

The discourse established in this chapter clearly indicates that gender relations in India are of

discriminatory nature. In informal groups and in formal groups woman is discriminated consciously and

unconsciously. She also faces multiple forms of violence. Loyalty, obedience and submissions are those

values which have been framed for women by patriarchy. After 68 years of India’s Independent situations

have, undoubtedly, changed but such changes are not satisfactorily. Women are still not enjoying

constitutional rights. They are the victim of caste, religion and orthodoxies. Unless and until, gender

equality does not appear the developmental processes of Indian society will remain inegaliatrian.

Exercises

1. Define Sex.

2. Define Gender.

3. What do you mean by gender relations?

4. What is patriarchy?

5. What is socialization?

1. Make the distinction between sex and gender.

2. What do you mean by gender inequality?

116  

long answer questions in 75-85 words each

long answer questions in 250-300 words each

3. Is gender socialization a symbol of discrimination?

4. Is violence against women a consequence of patriarchy?

5. What kind of differences you find between the roles of brother and of a sister?

1. What is the meaning of theory of feminism?

2. Give examples of gender discrimination in public sphere.

3. What is the role of caste in gender discrimination?

4. What is the role of religion in gender discrimination?

5. Write a note on gender socialization in Rural India and in Urban India.

1. Describe some important theories of feminism.

2. ‘Women is not born, she is made’ comment.

3. Is gender inequality raising doubt on India as democratic society?

4. Describe some important features of gender discrimination in political sphere of India.

5. How gender discrimination is a constraint to inclusive growth?

Glossary

Gender role It refers to expected attitudes and behaviour, a society associates

with each sex.

Transgender It refers to that category of persons which possess the attribute of

both the male and the female.

Gender discrimination It refers to those behaviours of subordination, exclusion and non-

participation by which one set of population, here women, is by

and large sidelined or ignored.

Patriarchy It is a system of society in which men hold the power and women

are largely excluded from it. In other words, in which the father or

oldest male is the supreme authority, and descent is traced through

the male line.

Socialization It is a Process of life-long learning by

which individuals acquire the knowledge, culture, norms and value

and transmit it to the new generation.

117  

Sex ratio It refers to number of female per 1000 male.

Child sex ratio It refers to number of female child (0-6 years) per 1000 male child

of same age-set.

118  

119  

 

Introdu

Culture is

social gro

architectu

undergo a

Westernis

Highl

7.1 We

7.

7.

7.

7.

7.2 San

7.

7.

7.

7.

uction

s learnt and it

oup which a

ure, jewellery

a change. In

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Westerniz

Chapte

ights

esternisation

.1.1 Meaning

.1.2 Carrier o

.1.3 Features

.1.4 Impact

nskritisation

.2.1 Meaning

.2.2 Sanskriti

.2.3 Dominan

.2.4 Impact

t does not com

are transmitt

and artwork

n this chapter

nskritisation.

ation

er 7 We

f process

sation preferr

nt Caste

me of its own

ted from on

k as well as n

r we will di

CC

esternis

red as against

n. It forms th

ne generation

non material t

iscuss two m

Cultural Changes

sation a

t Brahminisat

he people’s w

n to other.

things i.e. be

major cultural

S

and San

ion

way of life. It

Culture inclu

eliefs, norms

l processes o

Sanskritizat

nskritisa

is a way of l

udes materia

and values, w

of change na

tion

ation 

life of

al i.e.

which

amely

120  

Meanin

In order

Westernis

Indian soc

occurring

can be tra

of masse

changes in

It is durin

modern s

revenue w

The army

the new a

of merit.

doors for

were also

Indian soc

foundation

large num

few. New

in the wh

world init

Thus, We

population

education

one to un

the lower

essential.

ng of West

to understa

sation. Accor

ciety and cul

at different

aced from the

s. But at the

n the society

ng nineteenth

state. During

was settled. Th

y, police and

venues for al

Further the e

all castes. R

made. The p

ciety, was als

n of transmis

mber of India

wspaper one o

hole length an

tiated influenc

esternisation i

n in India. T

n and employm

dergo Wester

r castes com

ternisation

and the soc

rding to M. N

ture as a resu

levels- techn

period of Br

e same time

and culture o

century, the B

this period

his era marks

law courts w

l castes where

establishment

Railways, pos

printing press

so brought by

sion of mode

ans. Knowled

f the best sou

nd breadth of

cing the lives

is not limited

Those who g

ment in gover

rnisation. It w

mprehend that

n

cio-cultural c

N. Srinivas,

ult of over 15

nology, institu

ritish Raj. No

e, it had also

f India.

British slowly

the survey o

s the emergen

were establish

e recruitment

of schools a

stal and teleg

, which has p

y the British.

ern as well as

dge remains n

urce of comm

f the country.

of people in

d to a particu

got the acces

rnment were t

was only later

t the Wester

changes one

Westernisati

50 years of B

utions, ideolo

doubt coloni

o brought fe

y laid the fou

of land was

nce of new bur

hed. These ha

t was made on

and colleges o

graph, roads a

profound imp

It is clear fro

traditional kn

no longer a p

munication had

In this way

either good o

ular section of

ss to western

the privileged

r that some of

rnisation was

needs to

on refers to

British rules, a

ogy, values”.

ial rule leads

ew radical

undation of

made and

reaucracy.

ad opened

n the basis

open there

and canals

pact on the

om this that a

nowledge to

privilege of

d made peopl

even the eve

or bad way.

f

n

d

f

s

Make a lare westchangeslife?

comprehend

“the changes

and the term

The growth

to exploitatio

advent of suc

le realize of t

ents happenin

Activity

list of varioustern and youas part and

A

the meanin

s brought abo

subsumes ch

of Westernis

on and suppre

ch changes la

the common b

ng anywhere i

y 1

s changes whiu consider the

parcel of yo

Army

ng of

out in

hanges

sation

ession

id the

bonds

in the

ich ese our

121  

Mysore N

Brahmin

He coined

had writte

S. Ghurye

Carrier

The Brit

Westernis

spread We

S

T

M

On the o

contact w

were:

T

li

Rabin

Narsimhachar

family. He c

d concepts lik

en several pap

e, who is know

r of Weste

tish as well

sation. Amon

esternisation.

oldiers and ci

Traders and ow

Missionaries

other hand, a

with British ha

Those who ca

fe style. Thes

ndranath Ta

rya Srinivas

contributed im

ke Sanskritisa

pers and book

wn as father o

ernisation

l as Indian

ng British the

These were:

ivilians occup

wners of orch

mong Indian

ad helped in

me in the dir

se were those

t

w

e

c

r

t

t

R

laagore

Box 1

s (M. N. Sr

mmensely to

ation and Dom

ks. He had bee

of Indian Soc

process

ns considered

re were three

pying high ran

hards

ns who came

the process o

rect contact w

e people who

the househol

who aband

espoused Chr

Thos

contact inclu

received new

trades or serv

the British. F

Roy and R

aunching vari

rinivas) born

India Sociol

minant Caste

en a student o

iology.

d as the c

e groups who

nks

e in direct an

of Westernisa

were influenc

either were e

lds of Britis

doned Hind

ristianity.

e who came

uded the pe

w education, e

ved as bureau

For example

abindranath

ious reform m

n in

logy.

e. He

of G.

carriers of

o helped to

nd indirect

ation. These

ced by their

employed in

sh or those

duism and

in indirect

ersons who

entered into

ucrats under

the social re

Tagore brou

movements.

formers like

ught forth g

M. N. Srin

Raja Ra

Raja Ram M

great change

nivas

Traders

am Mohan R

Mohan

es by

Roy

122  

Feature

Following

1. E

s

in

th

a

tr

2. V

v

s

th

3. E

4. V

s

ir

n

es of West

g are the featu

Establish N

ociety but a

nstitutions ev

hose introduc

access to get

raditional kno

Variation in

varied from r

peed varies i

heir education

Ethically Ne

Value Prefe

ubsumes a va

rrespective o

nineteenth cen

ternisation

ures of Weste

New Institut

also brought

ven before th

ced by the B

t education

owledge.

n the Struc

egion to regi

in India. For

n system. But

eutral: Weste

erences: We

alue, like hum

of their sex,

ntury, Human

Value Preferenc

n

ernisation:

tions: Weste

changes to

he arrival of

ritish. In the

in those ins

cture and V

ion but also f

instance, som

t they did not

ernisation is e

sternisation i

manitarianism

age, caste,

nitarianism be

F

E

Ins

EN

es

ernisation no

old instituti

British. But

fact that, ear

stitutions kno

Velocity: Im

from one sec

me section of

t accept the Br

ethically neut

s loaded with

m. Humanitar

religion, eco

ecame the bas

Features

stablish New

stitutions

thically Neutral

ot only estab

ions. For in

those institut

rlier only upp

own as Gur

mpact of West

ction of popu

f population a

ritish diet, da

tral as it does

h ‘certain val

ianism means

onomic status

sis for the intr

Variatiothe Struand Vel

blished new

nstance, India

tions were qu

per caste chi

rukuls and tr

ternisation pr

ulation to ano

accepted the

ancing and suc

not imply it i

lue preferenc

s concern for

s etc. In the

roduction of

on in ucture locity

institutions i

a had educa

uite different

ildren were h

ransmitted m

rocess is not

other. Its form

western dres

ch other habit

is good or bad

ces’, which in

r the welfare

e first half o

several reform

in the

ational

from

having

mostly

t only

m and

ss and

ts.

d.

n turn

of all

of the

ms by

123  

B

in

Impact

Westernis

westernisa

1. R

di

st

2. E

ed

ne

ne

3. D

be

4. M

co

of

British. The in

nequalities ex

t of Wester

sation has in

ation.

Reduced Cas

ifferent castes

tarted workin

Education: T

ducation. Ma

ewspapers an

ew education

Dress and Fo

e similar.

Means of Tr

ompanion wh

f untouchabil

ntroduction o

xisted.

rnisation

nfluenced the

ste Differen

s closer to ea

g and living t

The most imp

any schools,

nd periodicals

n system disse

ood Habits:

ansportatio

hile travelling

lity which doe

ChangeSocial

Instituti

Indian

of civil, penal

e Indian soc

nces: It has im

ch other. Wit

together, forg

ortant impact

colleges and

were publish

eminated mod

: By adopting

on: Modern m

g through publ

es not allow th

ReD

Status of Women

e in l ons

Culture

l and procedu

ciety in a g

mpacted the I

th the process

getting the cas

t of westernis

d universities

hed which put

dern values of

g western dre

means of trans

lic transport.

he upper and

Impact

duced Caste Differences

MTra

ural law by th

great way. F

Indian caste s

s of industrial

ste differences

sation is the in

were opened

t forward new

f equality, fra

ss and food h

sportation doe

That has help

lower caste p

Education

Dress Food H

Means of ansportation

he British put

Following ar

system by bri

lization and u

s.

ntroduction o

d during Bri

w thoughts an

aternity and lib

habits differen

es not give ch

ped to eradica

people to sit t

n

and Habits

t an end to va

re the impac

inging people

urbanization p

of modern fo

itish period. M

nd view points

berty.

nt castes tend

hance to choo

ate the evil pr

together.

arious

cts of

e from

people

orm of

Many

s. The

ded to

se the

actice

124  

5. S

th

en

6. C

in

dr

ch

m

ch

er

7. In

In

la

Meanin

Caste syst

form of m

M. N. Sr

group, ch

‘twice-bor

The upp

and Vais

they und

Upanaya

life of a

full mem

tatus of Wo

he status of w

njoy equality

Change in

nstitutions, th

rastic change

hoose partne

marriages are

hild marriage

radication of

ndian Cultu

ndian culture

anguage, litera

ng of Sans

tem made Ind

mobility is obs

inivas refers

hanges its cus

rn’ caste”.

per three cas

shyas of Hind

dergo thread

ana ceremony

student of a

mber of religio

omen: Weste

women. They

of opportunit

Social In

he institution

e. As the boy

ers. The int

possible. Peo

e is detriment

child marriag

ure: There is

e as well. It

ature, music a

kritisation

dian society a

served in cast

to Sanskritis

tom ritual, id

tes namely B

du society are

ceremony ca

y marks Hindu

male child an

ous communi

ernisation has

have access

ty in all matte

nstitutions:

of marriage

and girl hav

ter caste an

ople have ac

tal to health

ge.

influence of

has visible

and art.

n

a closed socie

te. Such mobi

sation as a “p

deology, and

B

Brahmans, K

e called twic

alled as “Upa

u ritual of ini

nd his accept

ty.

s given a filli

to education

ers.

Among so

had undergon

ve the freedom

d inter relig

cknowledged

that leads to

western cultu

impact on I

ety. But it is

ility is eviden

process by wh

the way of li

Box 2

Kshatriyas

e-born as

anayana”.

itiation of

tance as a

ip to

and

ocial

ne a

m to

gion

that

o the

ure on

Indian

not a static s

nt in the form

hich a “low”

ife in the dire

G

Up

society in abs

of Sanskritisa

Hindu Caste

ection of a hi

irls got acces

panayana Ce

solute form.

ation.

e, or tribal or

igh and frequ

ss to educatio

remony

Some

other

uently,

on

125  

Such changes occur when group of individuals who belong to traditionally low position in the community

attempt for gaining higher position in the caste hierarchy. The caste system is a rigid system in which the

position of each caste is fixed. However, the mobility associated with Sanskritisation resulted only in

positional change in the system and did not lead to any structural change. In other words, a caste moves

up, above its neighbors, and another comes down. All this takes place in an established hierarchical order.

The system itself does not change. Such attempts take long duration of time usually a generation or two.

There are certain pre requisites for the process of Sanskritisation which brings positional change. These

are:

Firstly, the caste to which other caste wants to

imitate is regarded as superior in respect of

ritual status, economic matters, respectability

and social prestige.

Secondly, there is a well known proverb ‘where

there is a will there is a way’. “Will” is the

essence for initiating any process of bringing

change. In the same way, castes involved in the

process of Sanskritisation must have the will to

improve its social status.

Thirdly, imitating caste must have regular and

close socio-cultural contacts with the imitated

caste.

Fourthly, imitating caste must regard the upper

caste as their “reference group”.

It is evocative that:

Sanskritisation is an endogenous source of social change.

Brahmins alone are not the object of imitation.

This process is not restricted to the castes rather also found among tribal communities such as

Bhils of western India, the Gonds and Oraons of Central India.

A caste or a group adopts and follows the customs and rituals of their reference group. It may be a

twice born caste or local dominant caste.

The low caste or tribal community endeavour to gain higher status in society.

Box 3

Reference group means a group to which

we compare ourselves. That group

becomes a benchmark according to which

one start changing its opinion, behavior,

attitude and beliefs. For example Ram is a

below average student in a class. Once he

decided to improve after getting inspired

from group of intelligent students of his

class. There onwards he started observing

their peculiar traits/behavior and oriented

himself making them as his reference

group. Over a period of time he became

good in studies, punctual and disciplined.

In our day to day life we rely on many

reference groups. It may be family, peer

group, actor etc.

126  

U

an

It

Sanskri

In the stu

caste hier

some of t

consumpt

To denote

by Sanskr

Brahminis

Sanskritis

itself the

instance B

large. Bu

Brahmins

Brahminis

essential

was mean

that refer

Brahmins

oriented o

example o

of life of

claim equ

made not

Vaishyas,

new custo

Upward vertic

nd claims hig

t is gradual pr

itisation p

udy of Coorg

rarchy, adopte

their own, w

tion etc. With

e this process

ritisation. Her

sation. Lets re

sation is a br

e narrower

Brahmins are

ut some of

s etc eat non-v

sation had b

to specify w

nt. Moreover,

rence group

s. The process

on the model

of low castes

f lingayats w

uality with B

only Brahmi

, Jats etc in d

oms and habit

cal mobility ta

gher position.

rocess which

preferred a

gs in Mysore,

ed some custo

which were co

hin a generati

s of mobility

re comes a qu

ead the answe

roader term a

process of

vegetarians a

f them like

vegetarian foo

been used, it

which particu

, it has also b

of Sanskritis

s of imitation

l of Brahmin

of Mysore w

who are not

Brahmins. Th

ins as their re

different parts

ts, but also ex

akes place, w

takes long du

as against

it was found

oms of Brahm

onsidered to

on or two the

Srinivas firs

uestion why d

er in the follo

and it can in

Brahminisati

and teetotaler

e Kashmiri,

od as well. If

would have

ular Brahmin

been asserted

sation are no

n need not ne

s. He has giv

who adopted t

Brahmins bu

he lower cast

eference grou

s of the coun

xposure to new

whereby low

uration of peri

Brahmini

d that lower

mins like thei

be impure b

ey could claim

stly use the te

did Srinivas p

owing paragra

nclude in

ion. For

rs by and

Bengali

f the term

become

n’s group

d by him

ot always

ecessarily

ven the

the way

ut who

te have

up but also or

ntry. Hence, S

w ideas, value

Ma

SouCoo

born caste or

iod to bring c

isation

castes in ord

ir rituals, dre

by the higher

m higher pos

erm Brahmini

preferred to us

aph.

ient to imitat

Sanskritisation

es and behavi

ap showing p

urce: Religioorgs of South

r community

change.

der to raise th

ss and food h

r caste like m

sitions in the

isation. Later

se the word S

te the way of

n means not

ior patterns of

position of Co

on and Societh India. Srini

calls for a ch

heir position i

habits and ga

meat eating, l

hierarchy of

r on, he repla

Sanskritisation

life of Kasht

only adaptati

f upper caste.

oorg in South

ty among thivas, M. N (1

hange

in the

ave up

liquor

caste.

aced it

n then

triyas,

ion of

h India

e 1965)

127  

Domina

The conc

with the

Srinivas i

O

lo

H

O

New facto

such as:

W

Jo

U

There can

village. L

dominant

it will tran

Srinivas w

twice-born

and the w

B

ant Caste

cept of Sans

help of the

identified tha

Own a sizabl

ocally availab

Have strength

Occupy a high

ors affecting

Western educa

obs in the adm

Urban sources

n be more th

Local dominan

caste is Brah

nsmit Kshatri

where he clea

n caste. He s

way of life in t

Brahmin

skritisation w

concept of

at dominant ca

e amount of

ble,

of the numbe

h place in the l

dominance h

ation,

ministration,

of income.

han one domi

nt caste set a

hmin it will te

iya or Vaishy

arly made a p

aid “low Hin

the direction o

was substanti

dominant c

aste should:

f the arable

ers,

local hierarch

ave also eme

inant caste in

a model for t

end to transm

a model. Her

point that it’s

ndu Caste, or

of a high and

Ksh

iated

aste.

land

hy.

erged

n the

the majority

mit a Brahmini

e you may re

not only Bra

tribal or othe

frequently, ‘t

Do

Cast

appe

Myso

entit

deve

study

at a

state

dom

econ

caste

hatriya

of people liv

ical model. A

call the defin

ahmins who a

er group, chan

twice-born’ c

you know t

te’ was advo

eared in his e

ore Village”

led “The Do

eloped the co

y of Rampura

small distanc

e. In his opin

inant, must h

nomic and p

es.

ving in rural

And if it is Ks

nition of sansk

are being imit

nges its custo

aste.”

Box 4

that the con

ocated by M

essay on “Th

and later exp

ominant Cast

oncept of Do

a village. Th

ce from Myso

nion a caste

have more n

political pow

V

areas. If the

shatriya or Va

kritisation giv

tated rather it

m ritual, ideo

cept of ‘Do

M. N. Srini

he Social Sys

plained in th

te in Rampur

minant Caste

is village is s

ore city in Ka

to be consid

umerically st

wer over the

Vaishya

local

aishya

ven by

t’s the

ology,

ominant

ivas. It

stem in

e paper

ra”. He

e in his

situated

arnataka

dered as

trength,

e other

128  

Impact

1. S

bo

ra

on

2. E

sy

te

th

up

3. F

ha

4. R

B

pe

5. L

or

st

t of Sanskr

ocial Life:

orn in low ca

aise ones soci

n the other ha

Economic Fi

ystem guides

eaching, busin

he low castes

pper castes. T

Food Habits

abits as well.

Religious P

Brahmins. Th

erforming Aa

Life Style Pa

rder to look a

tarted living i

ritisation

Sanskritisatio

aste are more

ial status in a

and.

ield: Econom

s the choice

ness etc. and

to acquire th

They adopted

s: Apart from

Low caste pe

Practices: M

hey began to

arti and Bhaja

atterns: San

alike upper c

n pucca hous

RP

Life StylePatterns

on has a grea

e oriented tow

a society on th

mic field is an

of work. Th

individuals b

e higher statu

and started d

m changes in

eople stopped

Moreover, low

o put sacred

an.

nskritisation h

caste people,

ses and kept th

I

So

Religious Practices

e

at impact on

wards the pro

he one hand a

nother area w

herefore, per

orn in low ca

us made them

doing jobs at p

their work p

d eating prohib

wer castes s

thread. The

has also affec

low caste pe

heir houses n

Impact

ocial Life

the social lif

ocess of Sans

and can give

where Sanskri

rsons from u

aste do unclea

m to give up jo

par with the u

profile, there

bited food.

tarted adapti

ey start visit

cted the life

ople started d

eat and clean

EconomField

Food Habits

fe of an indiv

skritisation. S

higher status

itisation has

upper caste d

an menial job

obs considere

upper castes.

emerged cha

ing the relig

ting temples

style pattern

dress up like

.

mic d

vidual. Indivi

Sanskritisatio

s in caste hier

left its sign.

do clean jobs

s. The urge a

ed to be uncle

anges in their

gious practic

and also s

ns of low cas

upper caste.

iduals

on can

rarchy

Caste

s like

among

ean by

r food

es of

tarted

ste. In

They

129  

Differe

Conclu

It is evid

which br

Sanskritis

Hierarch

accepted a

Do you

Society

Change

Enlist c

nce betwe

sion

dent from the

ing about ch

sation are the

hy- A rankin

as relevant w

We

u know that t

y among the C

e in Modern I

changes when

een Wester

above discu

hange in the

processes of

ng of statuse

ithin the syste

esternizati

promote se

upward mplace by th

develo

process worframewo

the term Sans

Coorgs in So

India’.

n an individua

rnisation a

ussion that W

e system and

cultural chan

G

es within an

em.

ion

ecular outloo

obility takeshe process oopment

rks outside tork of caste

A

skritisation w

outh India’. H

al undergoes

and Sansk

Westernisation

d not the ch

nge.

Glossary

organization

ok

s f 

he 

Sansk

pr

up

pr

Activity 2

was coined by

He explained t

the process o

kritisation

n and Sanskr

hange of syst

according to

kritization

romote sacre

upward moblace by the p

imitati

rocess worksframework

y M. N. Srini

the term Sans

f Sanskritisat

ritisation are

tem. Both W

o some criter

ed outlook

ility takes process of ion

s within the k of caste

ivas in his bo

skritisation in

tion? 

the two proc

Westernisation

rion of evalu

ook ‘Religion

n his book ‘So

cesses

n and

uation

n and

ocial

130  

Vertical social mobility- Vertical mobility refers to the movement of an individual or people or groups

from one status to another. It involves change in class, occupation and power positions.

Reference group- A group or social category that an individual use to help define his beliefs, attitudes

and values and to guide his behavior.

Twice-born- The upper three castes of Hindu society are known as twice born. They undergo sacred

thread ceremony.

Exercise

Find out correct answer out of four options:

1. Change in the beliefs and architecture is a: Structural Change/Cultural Change/Both/None

2. Cultural processes of change: Westernisation/Sanskritisation/Both/None.

3. The process by which those who occupy traditional low position attempts to gain higher position

in the caste hierarchy is called as: Westernisation/Sanskritisation/Modernisation/Globalization

4. Who have given the statement “the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result

of over 150 years of British rules, and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels-

technology, institutions, ideology, values”: Yogendra Singh/M. N. Srinivas/K. L. Sharma/None

of the above

5. The development of westernisation is traced from which period: Vedic period/Post Vedic

period/Mughal period/British period

Fill in the blanks:

1. British and Indians were considered the carriers of ______________________ process.

2. ______________ means concern of the welfare of all irrespective of caste, religion, economic

status, age and sex.

3. For the caste to be dominant, it should have ______________, __________________ and

___________________.

4. Westernisation is ________________________ as it does not imply it is good or bad.

5. ________________ alone are not the object of imitation.

True/False:

131  

1. The form and pace of westernisation of India remain same from region to region and from one

section of population to another. ____________

2. Westernisation is ethically neutral. __________

3. Structural change occurs with the process of Sanskritisation. ____________

4. Sanskritisation is the process where vertical mobility takes place in which one moves in

downward direction. ___________________

5. For a caste to be dominant it should own a sizable amount of the arable land locally available.

_________

Match the following:

1. Hierarchy Reference Group

2. Upper Caste Positional change

3. Sanskritisation Ranking of statues

4. Westernisation Welfare of all

5. Humanitarianism Ethically neutral

Answer the following in one word:

1. What does that process called by which one gains higher position in the caste hierarchy?

2. Name one process by which cultural change occurs?

3. Which period can be considered as the indicator of initiation of westernization?

4. By which process upward mobility takes place by the process of imitation?

5. Which cultural process works outside the framework of caste?

Answer the following very short answer questions in 10-15 words each:

1. From which period the origin of Westernisation can be traced?

2. Who are considered to be the carriers of Westernisation process?

3. Who have used the term Sanskritisation instead of Brahmanisation?

4. Name any two groups among British who helped to spread Westernisation?

5. Name any one criterion to identify the dominant caste by M. N. Srinivas?

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

1. What is meant by Westernisation?

2. Does Westernisation is ethically neutral. Why?

132  

3. What is meant by Sanskritisation?

4. What do you understand by humanitarianism?

5. Tell various levels at which changes occurred due to Westernisation?

Answer the following long answer questions in 75-85 words each:

1. What are the various pre requisites for the process of Sanskritisation?

2. Explain the process of Sanskritisation?

3. Why Sanskritisation is preferred as against Brahminisation?

4. Give details on the carrier of Westernisation process?

5. Sanskritisation results only in positional change in the system and does not lead to any structural

change. Discuss?

6. Bring out differences between Westernisation and Sanskritisation?

Answer the following long answer questions in 250-300 words each:

1. Write note on Westernisation and its features?

2. Write note on Dominant Caste?

3. What do you understand by cultural change. Explain two cultural processes of change?

4. What do you understand by Westernisation. Explain its impact on Indian society?

5. Write note on Sanskritisation?

6. What do you understand by Sanskritisation. Explain its impact?

References

Myneni, S. R. 2012. Sociology. Fridabad. Allahabad Law Agency.

Rao, C. N. Shankar. 2004. Sociology of Indian society, New Delhi. S. Chand & Company Ltd.

Scott, William. P. 2005. Dictionary of Sociology, Delhi. W.R.Goyal Publisher & Distributors.

Sharma, Rajendra. K. 2004. Indian Society Institutions and Change, New Delhi. Atlantic

Publishers and Distributors.

Singh, Yogendra. 2002. Modernization of Indian tradition, Jaipur. Rawat Publications

Srinivas, M. N. 1965. Religion and Society Among the Coorgs of South India. Bombay, Asia.

Srinivas, M. N. 1966. Social Change in Modern India, New Delhi. Oriental Longman Limited.

Srinivas, M. N. 1987. The Dominant Caste and Other Essays. Delhi. Oxford University Press.

Internet References

133  

file:///C:/Users/admin/Desktop/sanskritisation%20notes/1881%20Words%20Essay%20on%20W

esternisation.html

file:///C:/Users/admin/Desktop/sanskritisation%20notes/Westernisation_%20Origin%20and%20

Characteristic%20of%20Westernisation.html

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_B35TTwav0ww/TI5oyui_cMI/AAAAAAAAAyQ/wrTNFI-

nhV8/s1600/CRY_Girls_Education.jpg

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-

AggNxRrTjEk/Ty_5qdqBCHI/AAAAAAAAAB0/pjh2oZoI92c/s1600/vaishya.gif

http://www.academia.edu/3218832/Sanskritisation_Westernisation_and_Modernisation

http://www.bmw.com/com/en/insights/explore/bmw_magazine/01_2006/_shared/img/x5_india_0

1.jpg

http://www.britannica.com/topic/upanayana

http://www.iloveindia.com/indian-heroes/pics/raja-ram-mohan-roy.jpg

http://www.indianetzone.com/photos_gallery/94/Dvija_1.jpg

http://www.kshatriyarajputsabha.in/images/maharana_pratap.png

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Twice-born

http://www.srilagourgovindaswami.org/images/brahmin150.jpg

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sanskritisation/sanskritisation-essay-on-the-sanskritisation-

2281-words/6133/

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sanskritisation/sanskritisation-meaning-characteristics-models-

and-effects/47756/

http://xenophongroup.com/mcjoynt/suffrn2.jpg

https://iversity.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Rabindranath-Tagore.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/BritishIndianArmy.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/BritishIndianArmy.jpg

https://www.isca.ox.ac.uk/typo3temp/pics/6f494a42ad.jpg

 

134  

Introduction

In this chapter you may read structural processes of change namely modernisation and globalisation. Both

these processes are global in nature. However, both these processes vary from country to country

depending upon their historical, socio-cultural patterns etc.

Meaning of Modernisation

Modernisation refers to taking up of the modern ways of life and values. Earlier the term was used mainly

to gauge the changes in the economy and its effects on societal values. But today, modernisation has

wider range of relevance as it had paved the way towards total transformation from agricultural to

industrial economy. It has influenced even the lives of people who are custom bound to adapt themselves

to the present time conditions. With the result, there is a gradual change in people’s thinking, preferences,

recreational facilities etc. In other words, the scientific and technological inventions brought drastic

changes in the whole system of social relationships and imbibed new ideologies in the place of traditional

ones. For instance, in industrial sector, manual power is replaced by mechanical power. Modernisation

has also improved transportation system, health, education etc. The pace of modernisation may vary from

Chapter 8

Modernisation and Globalisation

Highlights:

8.1 Modernisation

8.1.1 Meaning

8.1.2 Characteristics

8.1.3 Process of Modernisation

8.1.4 Causes

8.1.5 Impact

8.2 Globalisation

8.2.1 Meaning

8.2.2 Characteristics

8.2.3 Process of globalisation

8.2.4 Causes

8.2.5 Impact

135  

society to

existing c

there a di

of the pro

Differe

Modern

\

Charac

“Modesocietie

Moderit attempolitics

“Modethe ultterm as

o society depe

conditions of

fference in th

ocess of mode

nce betw

n society

cteristics

Tradi

Suproful

Simlaban

Or

ernisation is tes acquire the

rnisation refermpts to be ins, education, t

ernisation is aimate purposs accepted by

ending upon t

the society. N

he starting po

ernisation.

ween Tra

itional societ

ubsistence poduction islfillment of b

mple form obour on the

nd age

rganically inte

the current tee characteristi

rs to “a compndustrialized. traditions and

a process by wse of achieviny the society c

the needs as

Not only is t

oint for the in

aditional

ty

productiondone for

asic needs

of division obasis of sex

erdependent

D

erm for an oics common t

plex set of chaModernisatio

d religion”.

which modernng a better anconcerned”

well as

that but

nitiation

and

i.e,the

fx

M

k

Definitions

ld process ofto more devel

anges that takon involves o

n scientific knnd more satis

f social chanloped societie

ke place almoongoing chan

nowledge is insfactory life

Daniel Lern

Modernisatio

study of the

identifies tha

of change th

Non-Western

or indirect w

nge, whereby es”.

-

ost in every pange in a soci

ntroduced in tin the broade

Box 1

ner had intro

on for the f

Middle-Easte

at modernisat

hat was brou

n country by

ith the Weste

less develop

-Denial Lern

art of society ety’s econom

-Smels

the society west sense of t

-Alat

oduced the t

first time in

ern societies.

tion is a proc

ught about i

y contract, di

ern country.

ped

ner

as my,

ser

with the

tas

term

his

. He

cess

in a

irect

136  

Following

1. R

m

2. C

m

pa

3. S

ch

m

4. L

tr

5. P

up

ha

6. Ir

m

re

7. P

M

g are the char

Revolutionar

modernity. It in

Complex Pro

may include i

articipation, t

ystematic P

hanges in ano

may affect the

Lengthy Pro

radition to mo

Phased Proc

p in modern

ave moved fr

rreversible

modernity in t

everse back to

Progressive

Modernisation

acteristics of

ry Process:

nvolves a rad

ocess: It’s a c

ndustrializati

the new system

Process: It’s

other. As you

societal valu

ocess: It’s a

odernity.

cess: It’s a ph

stage. Conse

rom tradition t

Process: It’

the form of u

o the prior po

Process: It’

n enhances hu

IrreversiProces

ProgPro

modernisatio

Modernisatio

dical and a tot

complex proc

on, urbanizat

m of educatio

s a systemati

u have read e

ues too.

lengthy proc

hased process

quently, soci

to modernity.

’s an irrevers

urbanization,

sition.

s a progress

uman well bei

Ch

R

Phased Process

ible ss

gressive ocess

on:

on is a revolu

tal change in t

cess. It means

tion, mobiliz

on etc.

ic process th

earlier in the

cess in the se

s where socie

ieties can be

.

sible process

literacy, ind

ive process.

ng culturally

haracteristics

Revolutinary Process

LePr

tionary proce

the ways of li

changes in a

zation, secular

hat is change

same chapte

ense that it ta

ties begin wi

ranked in ter

. Any societ

dustrialization

It’s not only

and materiall

CompleProcess

SystemProc

engthy rocess

ess i.e., chang

ife of individu

all the spheres

rization, expa

e in one sphe

er that change

akes generati

ith the traditio

rms of the ex

ty that adapts

n slowly and

y inevitable b

ly.

ex s

matic ess

ge from tradit

uals.

s of human lif

ansion of po

ere leads to

es in the eco

ons to move

onal stage an

xtent to which

s certain leve

gradually wi

but also desi

ion to

fe that

litical

bring

nomy

from

nd end

h they

els of

ill not

irable.

137  

Box 2

Cultural lag, a concept was propounded by William F. Ogborn. It refers to the disorganization produced

by unequal paces of change in the society. Culture always keeps changing in terms of time. The material

aspects of culture change promptly while the rate of change in non material culture is slow and gradual.

The change occurring in one aspect of culture creates stress and pressures in the other aspect of culture

which has either no change or if any, it is very slow. For instance, displaced population when arrive at

alien place their adaptation process to the new environment takes long while. It takes time to adapt new

language, local custom, food habits etc. which is time consuming process. This slow process of adaptation

creates lag.

Box 3

Rustow and Ward mentioned following measures of modernisation.

Adopting scientific technology in industry, agriculture etc to make them highly productive,

Secularization of ideas,

A spread of scientific and technical education,

A transition from ascribed to achieved status,

An increase in material standard of living,

Mobility in terms of urbanization,

High proportion of working force employed in secondary and tertiary sector.

Process of Modernisation

Modernisation is a process of change that affects every aspect of society. It includes the gradual

expansion of new systems that leads to alteration of social structures and psychological traits. As society

becomes more productive and progressive, it becomes more complex in social and cultural aspects. In

other words, modernisation entails change in social, political and economic organisation. This is specified

by Weber that the transformation in the process of modernisation leads from personal bonds to

impersonal relations. Further Durkheim implied that transformation in the process of modernisation

occurred from Mechanical Solidarity to Organic Solidarity.

138  

With the

was trans

from less

modernisa

willingnes

Sociologi

In

in

advent of ind

forming from

s developed

ation, certain

ss to accept n

cal theorists i

n the sphere o

nstance, from

dustrialization

m traditional t

to developed

n pre requis

new technolog

identified fou

of technology

handlooms to

n there was tr

to modern w

d regions. B

sites are ess

gy etc.

ur interrelated

y, process of c

o power loom

ransformation

orld. This all

Before any

ential such

spheres in th

change occurr

ms.

n in every sp

l was happen

society takes

as adaptatio

he process of m

red from simp

Constrmoder

phere of socie

ning because

s up the tran

on of new E

modernisation

ple to scientif

Box

raints in the rnisation:

Colonial rudeveloped c

Scare capitalabour force

Inadequate

ety i.e., the so

of mass migr

nsition proce

Education sy

n.

fic knowledge

4

process of

ule in less countries,

al and skillede,

infrastructure

ociety

ration

ess of

ystem,

e. For

d

e.

139  

In

co

pu

In

pu

In

st

of

The

Indivi

dual

level enta

transform

opinions.

faith in s

modernisa

transcend

by specifi

n the context

ommercial fa

urpose by hir

n the industri

ulled by oxen

n the realm o

tarted residing

f analysis.

ails a chang

mation with re

Modern man

science and t

ation is the b

ence to this w

icity of roles a

t of agricultu

arming on a

ring labour to

al milieu, the

n is replaced b

of ecology, th

g near the ind

ge in the att

egard to acce

n gives more

technology a

break away f

worldly ration

and specificit

ure there was

large scale.

do farm work

ere was swing

by tractors.

here is a mov

dustrial sites.

titudes and

eptance of ne

importance t

and belief in

from hierarch

nalism and sec

ty of goals in

s a shift from

For instance

k.

g from manua

ement from v

MM

peculiar per

ew ideas, rat

to planning,

distributive

hy to equalit

cularism. At s

the institutio

m subsistence

growing mo

al work to m

village to urb

Modernisation

rsonality trait

tional view p

organization,

justice. In t

ty, from holi

societal level

nal sphere tha

e farming to

ore cash crop

mechanical. Fo

ban centre. Fo

is best under

ts of the pe

point, and rea

and efficien

the words of

ism to indivi

, modernisati

at is educatio

the producti

ps for comm

or instance, p

or instance, p

rstood at two

erson. There

adiness to ex

ncy. S/he has

f Yoginder S

idualism and

on is characte

n, communic

ion of

mercial

lough

people

level

is a

xpress

more

Singh

from

erized

cation,

140  

tolerance,

towards m

Causes

1. U

co

ar

th

2. In

pr

tr

3. E

kn

fo

in

de

pr

4. C

pe

, secularizatio

modernisation

Urbanisation

omfortable lif

reas for bette

he medium fo

ndustrialisa

rocess new m

ransformation

Education:

nowledge am

or the techno

ndicator in

evelopment e

rocess of mod

Charismatic

eople with hi

on, social mo

n is a global fe

n: Urban a

fe in the citie

r employmen

or promoting t

ation: Industr

machines and

n from manua

Education b

mong the peop

ological inno

the process

encompassed

dernisation.

Leadership

is/her persona

ChaLea

Mass M

obility, family

eature.

areas are ch

es. It is theref

nt, educationa

the process of

rialization is

technologies

al to mechanic

builds up th

ple. It acts as

vations. It is

s of develo

people’s ski

p: A charism

ality. A charis

Ur

arismatic adership

Media

y, marriage e

haracterized

fore mass mi

al, medical, re

f modernisati

the process

are being us

cal work form

he skills an

s an instrume

s an importa

opment whe

ills and know

matic leader i

smatic leader

Causes

rbanisation

etc. It is a per

by better in

gration took

ecreational fa

on.

of the develo

sed. The adap

ms the process

nd

nt

ant

re

wledge which

is one who is

r has a potent

Industriali

Education

Make aaspects

rvasive proce

nfrastructure.

place from ru

acilities etc. th

opment of ind

ptation of new

s of modernis

h is further a

s having cha

tial to impress

isation

n

Activ

a collage whs of modernisa

ess. The tend

One can le

ural areas to

hus urbanizat

dustries. With

w technologie

ation.

associated wit

risma to influ

s people and

vity 1

hich reflects vation?

dency

ead a

urban

tion is

h this

es and

th the

uence

make

various

141  

th

fo

5. M

m

M

in

m

th

m

Impact

Modernis

western c

number o

of modern

Due to th

had broug

urbanizati

communic

about dras

During po

pattern to

Panchayat

levels in I

Meanin

With the

whole wo

a many-si

concept p

parts of th

are unifie

people. F

hem his/her st

ollowers to ad

Mass Media

magazines, bo

Media has op

nformation fo

mechanism to

his process o

modernisation

t

ation came

ontact with th

f changes bro

nisation was

e British poli

ght little or no

ion, new le

cation as we

stic transform

ost independe

o new plann

ti Raj System

India society.

ng of Glob

dawn of twe

orld primarily

ided and mult

propounded b

he world. Peo

ed into a sing

or instance th

taunch follow

dapt modern v

a: Mass m

oks, televisio

pened up n

or masses in s

diffuse requi

of diffusion o

.

into existen

he establishm

ought about a

selective duri

icy of least in

o change at th

gal system,

ll as social r

mation in the I

ence period, t

ned legal ref

m created poli

balisation

enty first cent

based on the

ti dimensiona

y Marshall M

ople are linked

le society and

he mass med

wers. Such lea

values, ideas e

media involv

on, radio, mov

new thoughts

society. Mass

ired knowled

of knowledge

nce with the

ment of British

at various lev

ing the period

nterference at

his level. Ho

western for

reforms whic

Indian society

the process o

forms. Introd

tical awarene

tury, there w

process of in

al phenomeno

Mclluhan, wh

d by latest ad

d function to

ia is the grea

aders with th

etc which pav

ves newspap

vies, internet

s, attitudes

s media is a v

dge quickly. A

e hinges arou

e emergence

h rule in India

vels. The proc

d of British ru

t micro level

owever, the d

rm of educ

ch encompass

y.

of modernisat

duction of C

ess at local lev

was an acknow

nterdependenc

on. Today the

ere everyone

dvances in tec

gether. Globa

atest link thro

e charisma o

ve the way to

ers,

etc.

and

vital

And

und

of

a. A

cess

ule.

structures of

diverse compo

ation, new

sed under the

tion had unde

Community D

vel. Thus, mo

wledgement o

ce and mutua

e whole world

comes to kn

chnology. In t

alisation mad

ough which w

f their person

the process o

society that i

onents such a

means of t

e macro leve

ergone change

Development

odernisation o

of new proce

al give and tak

d is called as

now what is h

the contempo

de the world m

we get inform

nality make h

of modernisat

is family, cas

as industrializ

transportation

el changes br

e from its co

Programmes

occurred at va

ess influencin

ke. Globalisat

‘global villa

happening in

orary world, p

more accessib

mation on eac

his/her

tion.

ste etc

zation,

n and

rought

lonial

s and

arious

ng the

tion is

age’, a

other

people

ble to

h and

142  

every aspect whatever is happening all around the world. Mass communication mechanism like

Facebook, YouTube, Twitter etc have brought people more closer to each other.

Globalisation refers to the increased flows among various countries in terms of goods, services, capital,

ideas, information and people. This leads to cross border integration on the basis of economic, social and

cultural activities. Suppose you have an orchard of nut producing trees. You wish to enhance your

business networking by selling your product abroad. You may make use of various networks for

communication and sale. All this phenomenon of networking is possible with the process of globalisation.

International Organizations have explained

globalisation as:

Definitions

Globalisation is the intensification of worldwide social relations that link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice-versa.

-Giddens

Globalisation is a process by which we come to experience, or become aware of, the world as a single place.

-Robertson

Globalisation is the removal of barriers to free trade and the closer integration of national economies.

-Stiglitz Box 5

The Japanese call globalisation

as gurobaruka.

Indonesia calls globalisation as

globalisasi.

143  

Globalisat

T

T

T

Thus, glob

R

co

E

Fr

Fr

Charac

Following

Ta

Iibt

T“nb

tion entails th

The positive as

The neutral asp

The negative a

balisation me

Reduction of t

ountry of dest

Ease in the flow

reer flow of t

reer moveme

cteristics

g are the vario

The World Band societies a

Internationainterdependenborder transacthe more rapi

The Organ“globalizationnational resoubecome increa

hree aspects:

spect represen

pect shows th

aspect depicts

eans:

trade barriers

tination.

w of foreign

technology

nt of labour a

ous characteri

Bank Grouparound the wo

al Monetarynce of countrctions in goodd and widesp

ization forn as dynamicurces becomeasingly interd

nts globalisat

hat it is a natu

s the threat of

s in order to

capital that en

and man powe

istics of globa

identified “gorld.”

y Fund reries worldwidds and service

pread diffusion

r Economicc and multidie more and mdependent.”

ion as a vast r

ural and inevit

f economic cri

have freer f

nhance invest

er.

alisation.

lobalization a

efers “globade through thees and of inten of technolo

c Co-Operamensional pr

more internati

reservoir of b

table process

isis and incom

flow of good

tments

as the growin

alization ase increasing vernational capgical.”

ation androcess of ecoonally mobil

benefits.

of developme

me inequality

s from the h

ng integration

the growivolume and vpital flows, an

Developmeonomic integre while natio

ent.

.

host country t

n of economi

ing economvariety of crosnd also throug

ent describeration wherebonal economie

to the

ies

micssgh

edbyes

144  

1. D

G

po

th

2. A

m

co

su

3. S

be

4. In

on

5. M

bu

an

De-localisati

Globalisation i

olitical impli

han ever.

Acceleration

more in respe

ommunication

uch as cell ph

tandardisat

enchmarks w

nterconnect

ne country to

Movement: W

usiness trave

nd tourism ha

De-local

Accel

on: With t

is driven by t

cations. For

n: Speed is a

ect to time a

n. All this is

hones, interne

tion: Globali

which did not e

tedness: The

another. Suc

With the fast

el, internation

ave been grow

lisation

eration

the process

technological

instance, cap

n important

and space b

possible bec

t servers and

isation entails

existed earlier

e new modes

ch connectivit

t impact of g

nal conferen

wing steadily.

ch

Sta

of globalisa

l and econom

pital investme

characteristic

ecause of ra

cause of avail

television sat

s standardizat

r. For instanc

of communic

ty’s are gettin

globalisation t

ces, educatio

haracteristics

andardisation

ation distanc

mic changes. B

ent, labour, f

c of globalisa

adical change

lability of var

tellites.

tion on the ba

ce, universitie

cation and ne

ng faster and w

the entire wo

on

s

n

In

ce is getting

Besides, it als

fashion, book

ation. There

es arose in t

rious modes

asis of compa

es and shoppin

etworks conne

wider every y

orld is on the

terconnected

Movem

g less impo

so has cultura

ks etc travel

are no delay

transportation

of communic

arability and s

ng centres.

ecting people

year.

e move. Migr

dness

ment

ortant.

al and

faster

ys any

n and

cation

shared

e from

ration,

145  

Process of Globalisation

During 1980’s many countries came under the influence of Liberlisation, Privatisation , Globalisation. In

the year 1990, License, Quota, Permit (LQP) raj was replaced by Liberlisation, Privatisation,

Globalisation (LPG) regime where LPG means:

Liberlisation (L): The reorientation of economies in the direction of market principles.

Privatization (P): The transfer of control over ownership from the public sector to private

sector.

Globalisation (G): Free flow of foreign capital, technology, labour and shrinking trade barriers.

LPG has been adopted into various ways such as in the form of assigning the management of public

sector enterprise fully or partially to private companies. Another form was termed as disinvestment.

Therefore, with the arrival of LPG, encounters with competitive and challenging environment prevailed at

public sector.

We live in an era in which the greater part of social life is determined by global process. Following are

the various types of globalisation.

Box 6

Giddens has pointed out four dimensions of globalisation:

Capitalism

The inter-state systems

Militarism

Industrialism

Each of these dimensions has a vital place in the process of globalisation. It is the universalisation of the nation state which is responsible for the creation of a single world.

146  

1. Ecological Globalisation: In describing the ecological globalisation one can refer to the

destruction of environment in terms of ozone depletion as well as global warming. Concern arose

at global level to combat these issues. Therefore, treaties have been signed at global level to

address the cause of environmental degradation. To reduce the amount of ozone depletion

Montreal Protocol was signed where as to address the amount of carbon dioxide entering the

atmosphere Kyoto Protocol was signed at the global level.

2. Economic Globalisation: Economic globalisation refers to the increasing inter dependence

across the world due to the rapid movements of goods, services and capital. With the result of

interdependence, affect in one economy may have a spill over affect at global level. For instance,

global financial crisis came in the year of 2009 also known as sub-prime mortgage crisis which

had impacted badly many countries of the world.

3. Technological Globalisation: Technological globalisation refers to the advancement of

telecommunication infrastructure which leads to revolutionary

changes and connectivity from one part of the world to another.

Modern means of transportation have reduced geographical

distances and enhanced connectivity for various forms of

exchanges. For instance, mobiles, internet etc.

4. Cultural Globalisation: Cultural globalisation refers to the

transmission of norms, ideas and values from one part of the

Globalisation

Ecological Globalisation

Economic Globalisation

Technological Globalisation

Cultural Globalisation

Political Globalisation

Activity 2

Make a list of international brands available in India that you have used, seen and heard?

147  

gl

tr

se

5. P

po

pe

Causes

Tn

Ttrw

lobe to anoth

ravelling all o

ections of pop

Political Glo

olicies world

eculiar agend

The improveetworking si

The developmransport had

way for the gr

her. This dif

over the world

pulation and t

balisation: I

wide. Variou

das. With the r

ed forms ofites, emails et

ment of vard helped in earowth of glob

ffusion was

d. It also deno

their varied cu

In the wake o

us internationa

result many in

f communicatc gave impe

rious meansasy mass movbalization.

possible thro

otes to an inc

ultural practic

of political glo

al agreement

nternational o

ation technoetus to the gr

of transpovement from

ough the use

crease in inter

ces.

obalisation th

s and contrac

organizations

ologies suchrowth of glob

ortation suchm one place to

e of internet,

rconnectedne

here existed ad

cts have been

came into be

as mobilesbalization.

h as shipso another pa

media, food

ss among dif

doption of un

n signed to ad

eing.

s, social

and airaved the

d and

fferent

niform

ddress

148  

Impact

1. T

ea

H

gi

sp

2. F

w

fo

op

be

3. F

gl

t

Trade liberl

arly 1980’s o

However, it di

iven distinctiv

pace have bee

Foreign Tra

world also ado

ormulation. It

pportunities w

een a boomin

Financial Fl

lobalisation.

Global Pr

Tra

isation: Wor

nwards the ex

id not occur u

ve character t

en vastly redu

ade Investm

opted liberlise

t ensures a h

which is a ma

ng factor whic

lows: Rapid

With the resu

Finan

roduction

ading System

rld trade has

xtent of trade

uniformly acr

to the current

uced.

ment (FDI):

ed measures t

huge amount

ajor step towa

ch has bolster

integration

ult, there eme

Trade L

ncial Market

m

expanded ra

e liberlisation

ross all the co

t process of g

FDI geared

towards FDI.

of domestic

ards economic

red the econom

of financial

erges better ac

Impact

Liberlisation

apidly over th

began to acc

ountries. The

lobalisation. T

d up during

FDI emerged

c capital, pro

c growth of a

mic life of the

markets is

ccess to extern

n

ForeInv

Fi

Technology

he past two d

celerate in dev

effects of new

The natural b

1980’s. Many

d as a signific

duction level

any country. T

e people worl

the most pe

nal finance fo

eign Trade vestment

inancial Flow

decades. From

veloping coun

w technology

barriers of tim

y countries o

cant part of c

l and employ

Therefore, FD

ldwide.

eculiar eleme

or the borrow

ws

m the

ntries.

y have

me and

of the

capital

yment

DI has

ent of

wer.

149  

4. T

em

an

be

in

m

E

th

5. F

fu

in

6. G

m

ou

al

de

be

7. T

ne

di

fr

Conclu

Thus, it

exercising

where mu

Technology:

mphasised in

nd the diffus

ecome more

nternet, low

mobile phone

Electronic pres

he world.

Financial M

unds, equity

nfluence of pr

Global Prod

multinational e

utsourcing. B

lso significa

evelopment,

eing operated

Trading Sys

egotiations ex

irect barriers

ree flow of go

sion

can be said

g their choice

utual give and

Discuss wimpacts of

Technol

nvestments i

sion of know

inter connect

cost interna

es and elec

ss has created

Market: The g

funds and r

rivatization w

duction: W

enterprises th

Besides, the g

ant in the

financial serv

d through man

stem: Under

xpanded well

to trade. Wi

oods and serv

d that moder

e in receiving

d take takes pl

ith your clasf globalisation

logical r

in education,

wledge. The w

ted with the

ational phone

ctronic conf

d globalisatio

global financ

rating agenci

worldwide.

With the adv

hat coordinate

growth of tech

service sect

vices and ca

ny countries o

r this system

l, reduced tar

th the result,

ices across bo

rnisation refl

g outside elem

lace.

A

ssmates and mn in India.

revolution

, training

world has

spread of

e service,

ferencing.

n all over

cial system h

ies has incre

vancement of

e global supp

h-industries is

tor. Software

all centers are

on the globe.

m, the trade

riffs and other

there existed

orders.

lects indepen

ments. Global

Activity 3

make a list o

has changed.

eased substan

f global pro

ply chains wh

s

e

e

e

r

d

ndent develop

lisation reflec

of various po

The influenc

ntially. Ther

oduction the

hich link firm

pment where

cts interdepen

ositive and n

ce of banks, h

e is an incr

ere are num

ms as well as

e countries b

ndent develop

negative

hedge

reased

merous

cater

began

pment

150  

Glossary

Secularization: The belief that the state morals, education etc should be independent of religion.

Charismatic leader: A charismatic leader is one who is having charisma to influence people with

his/her personality.

Disinvestment: Privatization of public sector or government companies.

Outsourcing: Giving out work to other companies.

Exercises

Find out correct answer out of four options:

1. Structural processes of change: Only Modernisation/Only Globalisation/Both Modernisation and

Globalisation/None.

2. Who among the following said that the process of modernisation leads from personal bonds to

impersonal relations: Durkheim/Weber/Karl Marx/None.

3. Who among the following said that the process of modernisation occurred from Mechanical

Solidarity to Organic Solidarity: Durkheim/Weber/Karl Marx/None.

4. The growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through the increasing volume

and variety of cross border transactions in goods and services and of international capital flows:

Westernisation/Sanskritisation/Modernisation/Globalisation.

5. Globalisation means: Reduction of trade barriers/Freer flow of technology/Both/None

Fill in the blanks:

1. A charismatic leader is one who is having _______ to influence people with his/her personality.

2. In the process of modernisation, the ___________ level entails a change in the attitudes and

peculiar personality traits of the person.

3. LPG and for liberalization, ___________ and ________________.

4. The transfer of control over ownership from the public sector to private sector is called as

___________________.

5. __________________ as the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide.

151  

True/False:

1. The pace of modernisation varies from society to society. _________

2. British policy of least interference at micro level structures of society that is industrialization,

urbanization and legal system had brought little or no change at this level. _______

3. Modernisation is a systematic process that is change in one sphere leads to bring changes in

another. _______

4. The process of Globalisation varies from country to country of the world.__________

5. Globalisation does not emphasis interdependence. __________

Match the following:

1. Modernisation Impersonal Bonds

2. Globalisation Mechanical solidarity

3. Dukheim Global Village

4. Weber Technological changes

5. Marshall Mclluhan Interdependence

Answer the following in one word:

1. Who has given the concept of global village?

2. Who has given the concept of Mechanical and organic solidarity?

3. Name the process through which the transfer of control over ownership from the public sector to

private sector is done.

4. Name the process through which the reorientation of economies in the direction of market

principles is done.

5. Name the leader who can influence people with his/her personality.

Answer the following very short answer questions in 10-15 words each:

1. Name four spheres in the process of modernisation?

2. Name three causes of modernisation?

3. Name two characteristics of modernisation?

4. Name two characteristics of globalisation?

5. What do you understand by charismatic leader?

6. LPG stands for?

152  

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

1. What do you understand by Modernisation?

2. Discuss briefly two characteristics of modernisation?

3. Discuss briefly two causes of modernisation?

4. What do you understand by globalisation?

5. What do you understand by privatization?

6. What do you understand by liberalization?

Answer the following long answer questions in 75-85 words each:

1. Differentiate between traditional and modern society?

2. Differentiate between mechanical and organic solidarity?

3. What is modernisation? Discuss its two levels?

4. What is globalisation? Name two types of globalisation?

5. Substantiate the concept of globalisation with the help of example?

Answer the following long answer questions in 250-300 words each:

1. What do you understand by modernisation? Discuss its characteristics in detail?

2. Write note on modernisation?

3. Enumerate various causes of modernisation?

4. Write a note on the process of modernisation?

5. Write note on globalisation?

6. What is globalisation and discuss its types?

7. Discuss in details the characteristics of globalisation?

8. Write a note on the process of globalisation?

Reference

Agor, R. 2008. Society and Environment, Delhi: Birla Publication Pvt Ltd.

Ahuja, Ram. 2009. Society in India, Jaipur: Rawat Publications.

Atal, Yogesh. 2012. Sociology: A study of the social Sphere, Delhi: Pearson.

Ericksen, Thomas. Hylland. 2007. Globalization: The Key Concepts, New York: Berg.

Fadia, B. L. and Fadia, Kuldeep. 2008. Indian Administration, Agra: Sahitya Bhawan

Publications.

153  

Gopinath, C. 2008. Globalization: A Multidimensional System, Los Angeles: SAGE Publication

Inc.

Myneni, S. R. 2012. Sociology, Faridabad: Allahabad Law Agency.

Rao, C. N. Shankar. 2010. Sociology: Principles of Sociology with an Introduction to Social

Thought, New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd.

Internet reference

file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/modernisation%20notes/Essay%20on%20Modernisation.html

http://emergency.millersville.edu/~schaffer/courses/s2003/soc656/readings/huntington-

change.pdf

http://img.labnol.org/images/2007/08/urban-slums.jpg

http://thumbs.dreamstime.com/z/imports-exports-arrows-around-world-global-international-

busines-words-earth-to-illustrate-business-trade-corporations-42615033.jpg

http://www.culturaldiversitynetwork.co.uk/diversity.jpg

http://www.indianetzone.com/photos_gallery/48/Indian_Cash_Crops.jpg

http://www.slideshare.net/aislingMOConnor/the-causes-and-effects-of-globalisation

http://www.slideshare.net/levi22usa/globalization-11716775

https://littleusgoneglobal.files.wordpress.com/2015/03/fast-food.jpg

https://villagenara.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/ox-drivenploughandtractortillage.jpg

https://wondersofpakistan.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/villages-of-punjab-pakistan-2.jpg

https://www.cpp.edu/~ddwills/courses/ant358/Study%20Guide/Traditional%20and%20Modern.h

tml

https://www.indian-apparel.com/appareltalk/upload/Handloom-&-Powerloom.jpg

https://www.searchlaboratory.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/social.mediA_.jpg

154  

Introduction

Social movements play a paramount role in highlighting some of the social problems existing in society.

There are certain undesirable conditions which have persisted for centuries. Under such conditions the

participants of a social movement strive to create a new system of living. Members of any movement

highlight divergent issues through frequent use of various forms of protest.

Meaning of Social Movement

Social movement is a broad social alliance. It has group consciousness working towards either to promote

or to resist social change to achieve special end. This process involves series of actions and efforts on the

part of the group of people. Social movement must have a minimal degree of organisation. Any social

Chapter 9

Social Movements

Highlights:

9.1 Meaning

9.2 Features

9.3 Types

9.4 Stages

9.5 Caste Based Movements

9.6 Class Based Movements

9.7 Women’s Movements

9.8 Environmental Movements 

155  

movement always has a leader to guide and to accomplish the plan of action. Many a time social

movements are spontaneous.

156  

Definitions

A social movement is a collective effort to promote or resist change. -Horton and Hunt

It is an organised group effort to generate or resist social change. -Neil J. Smelser

A social movement is a collective effort to transform established relations within a particular society. -Rudolf Herberle

Box 2

We all know that India got independence on 15th August 1947 from British Empire after a long

struggle. We wanted freedom so that we can live a dignified life in our own country, i.e. India.

Under the colonial rule we were denied freedom to access resources, freedom of expression and we

were bearing the brunt of slavery like practices. To break the shackles of such derogatory practices,

a consciousness developed among people, which brought them together to fight for their own rights.

This organised attempt which was not limited by the boundaries of the states and had a set ideology

led to the initiation of a movement, a movement to achieve independence from all sorts of

indignities. This movement is called India’s Independence Movement.

Box 1

The German sociologist Lorenz Von Stein in his book “History of the French Social

Movement from 1789 to the Present” introduced the term ‘Social Movement’ in

1850. Among the first documented social movements is French Revolution. After

the victory in the Napoleonic wars Britain underwent a period of social upheaval.

Similar situations were faced in other countries as well. For example in Russia

demand for reforms were persisting, which led to the Russian Revolution of 1905

and of 1917, resulting in the collapse of the Russian state around the end of the First

World War. In 1945, Britain underwent radical changes after victory in the Second

World War. The post war period traces the occurrence of various movements such

as women’s rights, anti-nuclear and environmental movements.

157  

Feature

Following

1. G

an

2. S

fo

3. S

4. S

or

5. S

th

6. A

to

7. S

8. T

m

9. It

es of Socia

g are the key f

Group conscio

nd solidarity b

ocial movem

ollow.

ocial movem

ocial movem

r formal.

ocial movem

hese boundari

A social move

otal. These are

ocial movem

The cycle of th

may fade away

t implies the c

al Moveme

features of so

ousness is an

breeds throug

ments develop

ents involve c

ents involve

ment is not lim

ies.

ement orienta

e also oriente

ents may be p

he social mov

y very soon.

creation of an

ViolenNo

Viol

Time Duration

O

ents

ocial moveme

essential feat

gh active parti

on more or l

collective act

sustained col

mited by the

ated towards b

ed towards res

peaceful in na

vement is no

n entirely new

F

Co

Bring NeSocialOrder

nt or on ent

n

Organised

ent:

ure of any so

icipation.

less a set ideo

ion rather tha

lective mobil

state or nati

bringing abou

sisting change

ature or they m

t definite, it m

w social, econo

Features

Group onsciousness

ResiChan

ew l

ocial moveme

ology which i

an individual

lisation throug

ional boundar

ut changes. T

e and maintai

may also turn

may continue

omic and poli

Collective Action

SetIdeolo

PromoteChange

st ge

ent. This sense

is obligatory

action.

gh organisati

ries. It tends

These changes

in a status quo

n violent.

e for a long p

itical order.

t ogy

e e

e of belongin

for its memb

on, either inf

to spread be

s may be part

o.

period of time

ngness

bers to

formal

eyond

tial or

e or it

158  

From the

consciou

confer th

and orga

either pe

Types o

1. R

t

c

t

u

r

a

m

2. R

o

s

R

e above discu

usness of belo

heir acceptanc

anised attemp

aceful or viol

of Social M

Reform Mov

the existing p

changes in s

transforming

used to suppo

reform movem

aimed to re

marriage, den

Revolutionar

order. Such m

structure, they

Russian revol

M

ssion it can b

ongingness. I

ce. Social mo

t its member

lent.

Movement

vements: Ref

pattern of soc

some spheres

it. The insti

ort their agen

ment like Br

move social

nial of inter ca

ry Movemen

movements at

y advocate re

lutions, which

Reform Movements

e inferred tha

It has set of i

ovements go

s try to bring

ts

form moveme

cial order bu

s of society

itutions of p

nda. For exam

rahmo Samaj

l evil practi

aste marriage

ts: Revolutio

ttempts to br

econstructing

h were used to

TMo

s

RevMo

at a social mo

ideas, which

beyond the s

g either partia

ents are satisf

ut try to bring

without com

ress, church

mple a socio-r

j movement

ices like sat

and educatio

onary moveme

ing radical ch

of the entire

o overthrow t

Types of ovements

volutionaryovements

ovement is a c

is essential f

state or nation

al or total cha

fied with

g certain

mpletely

etc. are

religious

in India

ti, child

n.

ents are not s

hanges. Bein

e social order

the then existi

y 

ReMo

collective ven

for the memb

nal boundarie

ange followin

satisfied with

ng dissatisfied

r. For examp

ing socio-poli

evivalist ovements

S

nture. It is bas

bers to adher

es. With colle

ng any means

the existing

d with the ex

le, the Frenc

itical order.

Sati

sed on

re and

ective

s, i.e.,

social

xisting

h and

159  

3. R

c

m

m

m

K

Stages of

1. In

If

em

2. St

to

Revivalist M

called reacti

movements

members dee

movements se

Khadi and Gr

f Social Mo

n the prelimin

f people are sa

mergence of a

tage two is k

o collective m

Inst

Movements: R

ionary mov

also lies in

em certain

eek to bring b

ramodyog mo

vements

nary stage, th

atisfied with e

any social mo

known to be a

mobilisation. T

Stages of Social

Movement

Formalisa

itutionalisati

Revivalist mov

vements. Ge

n the dissat

changes obj

back old valu

ovement of Ga

here is a disco

everything ha

ovement. This

as popular sta

The leader pro

ation

ion

vements are a

enesis of s

tisfaction. Th

jectionable.

ues. For instan

andhi ji.

ontentment am

appening arou

s stage can al

age where dis

omises to dim

also

such

heir

The

nce,

mong people

und in a socie

so be called a

ssatisfaction a

minish the suff

Prelimi

P

Dissolutio

G

with the exis

ety then there

as unrest stage

and feeling of

fferings of peo

inary

opular

on

Gandhi Ji Spi

ting social pa

is no scope f

e.

f deprivation

ople.

inning Yarn

attern.

for the

leads

160  

3. St

of

4. A

cr

5. T

th

But it is

mentioned

Caste Ba

Caste bas

movemen

untouchab

present us

the basis

discuss fe

Caste M

tage three is t

f masses, call

After the form

rystallised. Th

The fifth stage

he achievemen

essential to

d stages.

ased Movem

sed moveme

nts were initia

bility practice

sage of the te

of their statu

ew movement

Movements

the formalisat

ls for collectiv

malisation stag

he goal of the

e is the stage

nt of set goal

note here th

ments

ents highlight

ated not only

e and to brin

rm dalit and

us in the soci

ts to acknowle

Class

tion stage. Or

ve action. It le

ge come fourt

e movement b

of dissolutio

s and sometim

hat all the m

t the struggl

to get rid of e

ng reforms in

other backwa

iety they wer

edge the strug

s Movements

rganisation cl

eads to the in

th stage of in

becomes acce

on of moveme

mes the move

movements m

le of dalits

economic exp

the society’s

ard castes/cla

re made to b

ggle of dalits

SocialMovement

s M

larifies the ide

nitiation of soc

nstitutionalisa

pted in that so

ent. Sometim

ement itself fa

ay not neces

and other b

ploitation but

s stereotyped

sses goes bac

bear oppressio

and other bac

ts

Women's Movements

eology which

cial movemen

ation where m

ociety.

mes the movem

ades away.

ssarily pass t

backward cas

t also for the

d traditions an

ck to the nine

on for centur

ckward castes

E

h if gets accep

nt.

movement bec

ment ends up

through the a

stes/classes. T

abolishment o

nd ideologies

teenth centur

ries. We shall

s/classes.

EnvironmentMovements

ptance

comes

p with

above

These

of the

s. The

ry. On

l now

tal s

161  

Satyasho

by the Sat

Mali caste

associates

society w

Shadratish

Brahmans

newly acq

this divid

eliminatio

prerequisi

Sri Nara

SNDP mo

Narayana

considere

allowed id

was given

Ezhavas,

secondly,

to all cas

worship a

Satm

odhak move

tyashodhak S

e. Its membe

s argued tha

was between th

hudra castes

s were deploy

quired power

de. The ideolo

on of all kind

ite for the libe

ayana Dhar

ovement was

Guru hims

d to be unapp

dol worship a

n on two po

as well as,

building up

stes. He also

and funerals. H

tyashodhak movement

ement: Satya

Samaj. It was

rs were most

at the princi

he Brahmans

on the other

ying their trad

rs as officials

ogy of the m

ds of Brahma

eration of the

rma Paripal

s founded by

self belonged

proachable b

and animal sa

oint program

to eradicate

of number of

simplified r

He gave a ne

SND

ashodhak mo

founded in 1

tly gardeners,

ipal division

s on the one h

r. Furthermor

ditional religi

s under the B

movement wa

anical power.

lower castes

lana (SNDP

y Sri Narayan

d to Ezhava

y the clean c

acrifice. Unde

m, firstly, for

the practice

f temples, wh

rituals regard

ew slogan “on

Cas

DP Movemen

vement is a N

1873 by Jotira

, cultivating f

within Mah

hand and the

re, they argue

ious authority

British rule to

as based on t

It is conside

.

P) movemen

na Guru in K

a caste. Ezh

castes. Ezhava

er this movem

the upliftm

of untoucha

hich were dec

ding marriage

ne religion an

ste Movemen

nt S

Non-Brahman

ao Phule. Joti

flowers, fruits

harashtrian

e backward

ed that the

y and their

o reinforce

the idea of

ered as the

nt: In 1895

Kerala. Sri

hava were

a were not

ment focus

ent of the

ability and

clared open

e, religious

nd one God

nts

Self ReaspectMovement

n movement.

irao Phule be

s and vegetab

t M

Jotir

Sri Nar

It was repres

elonged to the

bles. Phule an

Mahar Movem

rao Phule

ayana Guru

sented

e Phul

nd his

ment

162  

for manki

Self Res

Ramasam

equal righ

castes to

where bac

movemen

theme of

equality.

inequalitie

movemen

practices

developed

Mahar m

October 1

participate

mainly M

himself b

Caste gro

proportion

socio- eco

was cons

Maharash

taking wo

death, tak

ideology

religion o

Class Ba

Class bas

demand o

ind”.

spect Move

my in Tamil N

hts. The mov

have self re

ckward castes

nt was extrem

the self respe

It was all be

es ingrained i

nt worked on

perpetrated

d the idea of i

movement:

1956, he led a

ed in this m

Mahars particip

elonged to. T

oups in Ma

n of populati

onomic statu

sidered to b

htra. They wer

ood to crema

ke away dead

of the Maha

f the caste Hi

ased Movem

sed movemen

of workers as

ement: In 1

Nadu. The m

vement also

espect in the

s placed at th

mely influent

ect movement

ecause of Per

in the caste sy

n liberating t

in the name

instituting this

Dr Ambedka

a mass conve

movement. Th

pated, which

The Mahars w

aharashtra. T

ion before th

us of Mahars

be polluting

re made to do

tion ground,

d cattle from

ar movement

indu, which w

ments

nts include bo

s well as of

925 the Sel

movement aim

aimed at en

context of c

he lower end

tial in Tami

t was to gain

riyar’s determ

ystem and rel

the society f

e of dharma

s movement a

ar was one of

ersion movem

his Neo-Budd

was the comm

were one of

hey were th

heir conversio

was extreme

and they li

o various type

conveying m

m houses and

t reflects a t

was characteri

oth workers’

peasants was

f Respect m

med at attaini

ncouraging b

castes based

of the hierarc

l Nadu. The

economic an

mination to f

ligious practi

from the evi

and karma.

as the medium

f the greatest

ment in Nagpu

dhist movem

munity Dr Am

the major Sc

he largest g

on to Buddhi

ely low. The

ived in isola

es of menial j

messages of b

cleaning we

total rejection

ised by hierar

movements

s freedom fro

movement wa

ing a society

ackward

society,

chy. The

e central

nd social

fight the

ces. The

il social

Periyar

m for achievin

leaders of th

ur to Buddhis

ent was a co

mbedkar

cheduled

group in

sm. The

eir touch

ation in

jobs like

birth and

ells. The

n of the

rchy and ineq

as well as pe

om economic

as founded b

y where back

ng his goal.

e Scheduled

sm. About ha

onversion mo

quality.

easants’ mov

c exploitation

Periyar. E.V

Dr B. R

by Periyar. E

kward castes

Castes in Ind

lf a million p

ovement in w

vements. The

n. The trade

V. Ramasam

R. Ambedkar

E. V.

enjoy

dia. In

people

which

main

union

my

163  

movemen

measures

the poor I

unhygieni

miserable

plight of

peasant re

Trade U

prolonged

from dual

and native

of industr

Mahatma

Labour O

could be

centre to c

Congress

important

nationalis

Commissi

moderates

Indian Tra

time betw

Congress

again the

nt in India illu

taken up by t

Indian masse

ic conditions,

e. A number o

the working

evolts were th

Union Move

d hours of wo

l forces one f

e capitalist fo

rial bargaining

Gandhi foun

Organisation,

sent to it. Th

coordinate the

(AITUC) wa

t to note that

sts where the

ion of Labou

s gave in the

ade Union Fe

ween the natio

and broke aw

working clas

ustrates a stud

the governme

s got employ

, exploitation

of factory act

class people

he Bengal rev

ement: The

orking, low w

from the han

orces. Such op

g and the ideo

nded the Majd

it became ne

herefore, Bal

e activities of

as formed in

within AITU

communists

ur in 1929 th

eir resignation

ederation und

onalists and t

way from AIT

s. But later m

TraUnio

Movem

dy of the wo

ent. With the g

yment in thes

n at the hand

ts came at va

e. Further, pe

olt against in

Indian worki

wages, work

ds of imperia

ppression put

ological orien

door Mahajan

ecessary to ha

Gangadhar T

f various trade

Bombay in

UC there wer

were in sup

hese ideologic

n to the cong

der the leaders

the communis

TUC. These s

moderates as w

M

ade on ment M

rking class, t

growth of cot

se factories as

s of native an

arious points

easants were

digo plantatio

ing class suff

in unhygieni

alist political

t seed for the

ntation.

n Sangh. In 1

ave a central

Tilak and La

e unions spre

1920. Lala L

e ideological

pport of the n

cal difference

gress in 1930

ship of V.V G

sts. The comm

splits made th

well as the com

Class Movements

Indigo Movement

their demands

tton mills, jut

s workers. Lo

nd foreign ca

of time but t

also exploit

on system and

fered various

ic conditions

rule and ano

foundation o

1919, with the

trade union

ala Lajpat Rai

ad across the

Lajpat Rai wa

l differences b

nationalists. W

es led to a sp

and formed

Giri. In 1933

munists form

he movement

mmunists rejo

PeasaMovemin Pun

s, response o

te mills and te

ow wages, lo

apitalists mad

they too, coul

ted economic

d peasant mov

s forms of ex

etc. Workers

other from th

of movement

e setting up o

so that a lab

i started a na

country. All

as elected as

between the

With the appo

plit in the AI

a rival organ

there occured

med their own

t week and su

oin AITUC.

ant ment njab

f their owner

ea industry in

ng working h

de their cond

ld not improv

cally. Well k

vement in Pun

xploitation su

s face exploi

e hands of fo

with twin mo

of the Interna

bour represen

ational trade

India Trade U

its president

moderates an

ointment of R

ITUC. Finally

nisation name

d another spli

n Red Trade U

ufferers were

rs and

India

hours,

ditions

ve the

known

njab.

uch as

itation

oreign

otives

ational

ntative

union

Union

t. It is

nd the

Royal

y, the

ed the

it, this

Union

e once

164  

Indigo m

1859-60 i

the deman

were com

exploitatio

longer bea

backed th

system, bu

and Cham

Peasant

kisan activ

demands

the issue

of land

(groups)

demonstra

occurred

farmers fr

The peasa

Lyallpur a

The Princ

emerged i

official co

lords). Bh

and in lat

legislation

movement: A

in Bengal. Eu

nd of blue dy

mpelled to g

ons. In 1859

ar the physica

hem in their f

ut the peasan

mparan in 186

movement

vity. The Kis

were related

that had got

revenue of

marched

ations were h

with the Lah

rom many dis

ant movemen

and Sheikhup

cely States in

in Patiala and

ombine. The

hagwan Singh

ter years the

n enabling the

Agrarian strug

uropeans had

ye in Europe

grow indigo

, the peasant

al torture imp

fight. The go

nt resistance c

6-68.

in Punjab:

san Sabha had

to debts and

immediate at

Amritsar an

to the d

held. The cu

hore Kisan M

stricts of the p

nt in Punjab w

pura. These d

n Punjab wit

d was based

muzaras (ten

h Longowalia

movement w

e tenants to be

ggles have tak

complete mo

indigo planta

rather than

ts rose in arm

posed on them

overnment ap

continued. Th

Punjab was a

d emerged in

d reduction o

ttention was

nd Lahore d

district hea

ulmination of

Morcha in 193

province got a

was mainly lo

districts were

tnessed an ou

on the dema

nants) refuse

a and Jagir S

was led by T

ecome owner

ken place from

onopoly over

ation was com

food crops

med rebellion

m. The intellig

ppointed a co

he indigo peas

another centre

1930. The m

f taxes. Furth

the resettlem

districts. Jath

adquarters a

f the movem

39. Hundreds

arrested.

ocated in the

the home of

utbreak of pe

and for restor

d to pay the

Singh Jago we

Teja Singh S

rs of their land

m colonial da

the growth o

mmercially pr

and were s

n against thei

gentsia of Be

ommission to

sants revolted

e of

main

her,

ment

has

and

ment

s of

districts of Ju

f the largely

easant discon

ation of land

batai (share

ere the promi

Swatantar. Th

d was passed

ays. Indigo reb

of indigo plan

rofitable to g

subjected to

ir oppressors,

engal who sup

lessen the e

d on a large s

ullundur, Am

self-cultivatin

ntent. An infl

ds illegally se

e rent) to the

inent leaders

his struggle c

.

Indigo

bellion occur

ntation. Becau

grow. The pea

various form

, as they cou

pported their

xploitations i

scale in Darbh

mritsar, Hoshia

ng Sikh peas

luential move

eized by land

ir biswedars

of this move

continued unt

Plant

rred in

use of

asants

ms of

uld no

cause

in the

hanga

arpur,

antry.

ement

lord-

(land

ement

til the

165  

Women’

During V

patriarcha

of time, t

period an

started di

improve d

K. Karve

economic

emancipat

Brahmo

Brahmo S

than a do

great effo

evil socia

Naxal mo

district of

This mov

answers to

1. F

2. H

’s Movemen

Vedic period w

al system wom

their status in

d under Briti

iminishing fu

due to the soc

e. In the con

c, as well as,

tion of wome

Samaj: Ra

Sabha was lat

zen language

rts in order to

al practice wa

M

ovement trace

f West Benga

vement has gr

o the followin

ind out the ca

How many sta

nts

women enjoy

men were resp

n the family a

ish administra

urther. Howe

cial reforms s

ntemporary I

political sph

en like Brahm

aja Ram Moh

ter renamed a

es. The Brahm

o abolish the

as declared a

Brahmo Samaj

Movement

es its origin

al. Its major

reat impact o

ng questions:

ause responsib

tes are affecte

yed equal stat

pected in the

and in the so

ation the statu

ever, during

started by Ra

India, women

heres. Variou

mo Samaj and

han Roy, the

as Brahmo S

mo Samaj wa

practice of Sa

crime. The g

WMo

Ac

to the May

leaders were

on West Ben

ble for Naxal

ed by this mo

tus to man an

family, as w

ociety gradual

us of women

the nineteen

aja Ram Moh

n’s participat

us movement

SEWA move

father of In

amaj. He wa

as greatly infl

ati. His effort

government d

Women ovements

ctivity 1

1967 peasan

Charu Mazu

gal and on s

movement?

ovement? Mak

nd were educ

ell as, in the

lly started de

did not impr

nth century th

han Roy, Ishw

tion has sho

ts were initia

ement.

ndian Renaiss

as a very well

fluenced by m

t was rewarde

declared Sati

SEMov

nt uprising at

umdar, Kanu

ome other st

ke a list of all

ated. Despite

society. How

eteriorating. D

rove. Rather,

he status of

war Chandar V

own an upwa

ated addressin

sance, founde

l-read person

modern weste

ed by the gov

as illegal and

EWA vement

Naxalbari in

Sanyal and J

tates as well.

l those states.

e the prevalen

wever, in the c

During the M

women’s po

women beg

Vidyasagar a

ard trend in

ng the questi

ed Brahmo S

n as he knew

rn ideas. He

vernment whe

d punishable

n the Darjeel

Janghal Santh

Try to find

nce of

course

Mughal

osition

gan to

and D.

both

ion of

Sabha.

more

made

en this

under

ling

hal.

out

166  

the regula

worked fo

the right o

Self Em

Ahmadab

India’s bu

Labour A

Ela Bhatt,

the policy

SEWA m

further th

year 1991

but also e

found way

offered su

governme

better pric

Environ

In 2006,

formed i

faces ma

conjugal

1. Who w

2. What w

ation of 1829

or improving

of inheritance

mployed Wo

ad in Gujara

urgeoning tex

Association (T

, joined the T

y level for imp

members has

e SEWA mo

1. To combat

every poor pe

ys to support

upport servic

ent subsidies

ces and better

mental Mov

‘Gulabi or P

in the Banda

any social p

violence etc.

was the leader

was the mode

. The Samaj

the situation

e and property

omen’s Ass

at. Ahmadaba

xtile industry

TLA) in Ahma

TLA and took

proving labou

always been

ovement amon

the problem

erson in India

t its sharehold

es with the l

and other pro

r marketing. I

vements

Pink’ gang, a

District of U

roblems like

.

r of Gulabi G

e of protest fo

deemed educ

n of widows w

y for women.

sociation (S

ad gained pro

y. Gandhi re

adabad. TLA

k up the role o

ur laws. SEW

an integral p

ng the memb

of moneylen

a, the SEWA

ders. SEWA b

loans, linkage

ograms. It had

It helped the w

A

women’s mo

Uttar Pradesh

e caste rigidi

Gang when it w

ollowed by Gu

cation as a m

who were livi

SEWA) M

ominence at t

mained one

A is one of th

of representin

WA became a b

part of SEW

bers, the SEW

nders, which s

A Bank was f

bank

es to

d also helped

women to put

Activity 2

ovement, was

h. This region

ity, illiteracy

was formed?

ulabi Gang?

major tool to im

ing in dreadfu

ovement: S

the turn of th

of the found

e first labour

ng the organis

branch of the

WA activity si

WA Academy

severely affec

founded in 19

in identifyin

t their loans to

s

n

,

Self Employ

mprove wom

ful conditions

SEWA bega

he 20th centur

ding forces b

r organisation

sation in cour

TLA. Capaci

ince its found

y was formall

cted not only

974. The SEW

g raw materia

o the best use

yed Women

Gulabi G

men’s status. I

. It also dema

n in the ci

ry as the cen

behind the T

ns in India. In

rt and advoca

ity developm

dation. In ord

y registered i

vegetable ve

WA bank had

als merchants

e.

Association

Gang

It also

anded

ty of

ntre of

Textile

n 1955

ated at

ent of

der to

in the

endors

d also

s with

167  

Environm

collective

concern

resources,

culture, p

ecologica

received a

the Unite

held in S

movemen

encompas

developm

beginning

India rais

environm

Chipko M

in the hill

the eco-sy

Chipko A

this move

mass dest

Mahila M

movemen

contribute

country a

mental movem

e action of sev

of this mov

, the right of

protection of

l balance. Th

attention of s

d Nations Co

Stockholm in

nt’ became

ssed various

ment pursued b

g of the Chipk

sed larger e

ental projects

Movement:

l region of Ga

ystem at the

Andolan was b

ement, organ

truction. Gaur

Mandal Dal,

nt. Sundar L

ed in spreadin

and the oute

ments are a g

veral social g

vement is t

indigenous p

f environment

he concerns o

cholars follow

onference on

n 1972. By

a worldwi

countries of

by the Indian

ko Movement

ecological co

s and issues o

Chipko mov

arhwal. Garhw

foothills of H

born. Chandi

nised rallies t

ra Devi, an e

, mobilised

Lal Bahugun

ng this move

r world abou

ChipkoMoveme

glaring examp

groups. The s

the control

people to pres

t and mainte

of human env

wing the conc

n Human Env

the 1980s th

ide phenom

the world in

state. The ge

t. The 1970s

oncerns like

f displacemen

vement was in

wal is an imp

Himalayas. In

Prasad Bhatt

to protect the

lderly woman

village wom

na, an env

ement. He en

ut the move

EnM

o ent M

ple of the

significant

over the

serve their

enance of

vironment

clusion of

vironment

he ‘green

menon. It

ncluding India

enesis of the

and 1980s w

rights of c

nt and rehabil

nitiated for the

portant part o

n March 1973

t, the father o

e forest from

n, head of the

men for the

ironmentalist

nlightened the

ement and its

nvironmentalMovements

Appiko Movement

a. These stru

environmenta

was the time p

communities,

litation.

e protection o

f

3

f

m

e

e

t,

e

s

l

NarmBac

And

uggles questio

al movement

period when s

sustainabilit

of trees and ov

mada chao dolan

Women Hug

oned the noti

in India lies

several strugg

ty of large

verall environ

gging Trees

ion of

in the

gles in

scale

nment

168  

environmental impact. He was also awarded Padam Vibhushan for his contribution in the movement.

Chipko means tree hugging or embrace as the ‘Angwal’ (locally called). The movement is known for its

approach of hugging trees to stop them from felling. The major demand of Chipko Movement is to

reorient forest policy. It had demanded the nurturing of the forest wealth. Its principle suggestions are as

follows:

The major function of the forest policy shall be to emphasise the function of forests in the

conservation of soil and water recourses. Hence, commercial felling should be entirely halted in

major river catchments of the Himalayas and in other zones susceptible to soil erosion and

landslides. Such area should be clearly identified.

There should be a proper survey of forest land crop and proper provision should be made for

the fulfilment of minimal needs of the local population.

Attempts to afforest barren lands should be launched and villagers should receive every

encouragement to take up farm forestry.

The contractor system should be completely abolished in the forestry sector. The local

population should instead be made partners in all forestry operations.

Forest based industries should preferably be set up entirely in the small sector in the rural areas.

These industries should be supported by the raw material harvested through minimal

exploitation of wood and minor forest produce.

Emphasis should be on the raising of species appropriate to local ecology and needs of the

population.

The Appiko Movement: The Chipko Movement in Uttarakhand in the Himalayas motivated the

villagers of the district of Karnataka province in southern India to launch a similar kind of movement to

save their forests. And this movement which emerged in southern India came to be known as Appiko

Movement. The local term for ‘hugging’ in Kannada is ‘Appiko’. In September 1983 led by Panduranga

Hegde, men, women and children of Salkani ‘hugged the trees’ in Kalase forest. The Appiko Movement

spread awareness in south India. This movement uses various techniques to raise awareness like folk

dances, street plays and so on. The movement has attained a fair amount of success. The state government

has banned cutting of green trees in several forest areas. Only dying and dry trees are cut to meet local

requirements.

169  

Narmad

many othe

that starte

Narmada

Developm

of this dam

Medha Pa

India seek

initially ru

Further,

directed

states to

the reha

replaceme

Supreme

allowed t

to proc

N

da Bachao A

ers. NBA also

ed in 1985. T

River in Guj

ment Project.

m about four

atkar who wa

king stoppage

uled the decis

Supreme Co

the concern

first compl

abilitation a

ent process. T

Court la

the construct

ceed on

Narmada Ba

Andolan (NB

o called as Sa

his movemen

arat. In 1978

The most con

million peop

as one of the l

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lete

and

The

ater

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1. Ref

2. Rev

3. Rev

achao Andol

BA): NBA w

ave Narmada

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the Narmada

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leaders of NB

ion on the Sar

ndolan’s favou

formist Move

volutionist Mo

vivalist Move

lan

was initiated b

Movement is

gainst the con

a Water Disp

am was the S

ted and displa

BA had filed a

rdar Sarovar

ur. It led to an

A

Matc

ment

ovement

ement

by Medha Pat

s one of the m

nstruction of

putes Tribunal

ardar Sarovar

aced.

a written peti

Dam from th

n immediate s

Activity 3

ch the followin

Ar

Ch

Tel

tkar and Baba

most powerfu

the Sardar Sa

l approved th

r Project. Wit

ition with the

e nation’s ape

stoppage of w

ng

rya Samaj

hipko moveme

langana Rebe

a Amte along

ul mass movem

arovar Dam o

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th the constru

Supreme Co

ex court. The

work at the da

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ments

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uction

ourt of

court

am.

170  

condition of fulfilling certain conditions. The court set up a mechanism to scrutinise the progress of

resettlement. Although the NBA was not fully successful in preventing the construction of the dam, it

nevertheless created a high level of awareness regarding the environment aspects and rehabilitation

process.

Conclusion

It is apparent from this chapter that social movements arose to bring change in society. Caste and Class

movements gave the courage to people to stand for their rights. Women’s movements made women

acknowledge their value and strength. Environmental movements generated awareness among people for

the protection and maintenance of environment.

Glossary

Caste- a closed social stratum based on heredity that determines its members’ prestige, occupation, place

of residence, and social relationships.

Ideology- A set of independent ideas held by a social group.

Formal organisation- An organised group having set objectives, formal rules and regulations and its

members have defined roles, each with clearly designated rights and duties. For example, school,

voluntary association, government agencies, etc.

Exercises

Find out correct answer out of four options:

1. Which of the following is not the feature of social movement?: Group consciousness/Set

ideology/Collective mobilisation/Only violent in nature

2. Who represented Satyashodhak movement?: Jotirao Phule/Dr. Ambedkar/Ishwar Chandra

Vdiyasagar/Sri Narayana Guru

3. Which of the following is not a caste movement?: Mahar movement/SNDP

movement/Satyashodhak movement/Indigo movement

4. Who founded Self Respect Movement?: Periyar E. V. Ramasamy/Dr. Ambedkar/Sri Narayana

Guru/None

5. When people are not satisfied with the existing social order and advocate reconstructing of the

entire social order, this type of movement is called: Revivalist Movement/Reform

Movement/Revolutionary movement/None

171  

Fill in the blanks:

1. SEWA stands for _______________

2. Class movement includes _______________ and _______________ movements.

3. ___________________ gave the slogan “One religion and one god for mankind”

4. __________________ made great efforts in order to abolish the practice of sati.

5. The peasants were compelled to grow ___________ crop which lead to the initiation of Indigo

Movement.

True/False:

1. Social movements involve sustained collective mobilisation through organisation either informal

or formal._______

2. Social movement is always peaceful in nature. _______

3. Mahar movement is based on total rejection of the religion of the caste Hindu._______

4. SNDP movement was founded by Jotirao Phule._______

5. Cycle of the social movement is not definite._______

Match the following:

1. Self Respect Movement Chandi Prasad Bhatt

2. Mahar movement Medha Patekar

3. Chipko movement Periyar E. V. Ramasamy

4. Brahmo Samaj Raja Rammohan Roy

5. Narmada Bacho Andolan Dr. Ambedkar

Answer the following in one word:

1. Who founded Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana movement?

2. Who founded the Majdoor Mahajan Sangh?

3. Who founded Brahmo Samaj?

4. Who is the father of chipko movement?

5. Name the person who has been awarded Padam Vibhushan for his contribution in chipko

movement?

Answer the following very short answer questions in 10-15 words each:

1. Who was the leader of Chipko movement?

172  

2. Name any two Caste movements?

3. Who are called peasants?

4. What does SEWA stand for?

5. Sundar Lal Bahuguna was conferred which award for his contribution?

6. Who founded Brahmo Samaj?

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

1. Why it is called Chipko movement?

2. What do you understand by caste movement?

3. Describe:

a) Peasant movement

b) Women’s movement

4. What do you understand by Class Movement? Name any one movement.

5. Discuss briefly the factors responsible for the emergence of Class Movement.

Answer the following long answer questions in 75-85 words each:

1. What do you understand by environmental movement? Specify reasons for the initiation of such

movements.

2. Discuss briefly any two caste movements.

3. Enumerate determinants of peasant movement held in Punjab.

4. What do you understand by women’s movement? Name any one such movement.

5. In what way the position of women is different in pre and post independent India?

Answer the following long answer questions in 250-300 words each:

1. Write a note on social movement and its features?

2. What do you understand by social movement and discuss its various types?

3. Differentiate between caste and class movements. Substantiate by giving examples.

4. What do you understand by peasant movement? Discuss its determinants by citing any one

peasant movement.

5. Elucidate the position of women in India. How does the women movement led to the upliftment

of their position?

6. What do you understand by environment movement? Discuss two movements in detail.

173  

References

Bank, J. A. 1972. Sociology of Social Movements, London and Basing Stroke: The Macmillan

Press Ltd

Bhagat, R. D. 2013. Sociology of Social Movement, New Delhi: Centrum Press.

Chandra, Bipin. (et al). 1989. India’s Struggle For Independence 1857-1947, London: Penguin

Books.

Chopra, J. K. 2007. Unique Quintessence of Sociology, New Delhi: Unique Publication.

Crowel, Daniel. W. 2003. The SEWA Movement and Rural Development: The Banaskantha and

Kutch Experience, New Delhi: Sage Publication.

Kunwar, Shishupal. Singh. 1988. Hugging The Himalayas: The Chipko Experience, U.P: Dasholi

Gram Swarajya Mandal.

Kuumba, M. Bahati. 2003. Gender and Social Movements, Jaipur: Rawat Publications.

Rajaram, Kalpana (ed.). 2006. A Brief History of Modern India, New Delhi: Spectrum Books Pvt

Ltd.

Rao, C. N. Shankar. 2010. Sociology: Principle of Sociology with an introduction to Social

Thought, New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd.

Ritzer, George. 2000. Sociological Theory, New York: McGraw Hill.

Scott, William. P. 2005. Dictionary of Sociology, Delhi: W.R.Goyal Publisher & Distributors.

Shah, Ghanshyam. 2004. Social Movements in India: A Review of Literature, New Delhi: Sage

Publication.

Internet references

http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-

2ZYjxYhXyxA/UzBiRgbahzI/AAAAAAAAIBk/PZLX_8Y0NTI/s1600/chipko+movement.png

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-wqm0EUcu-

zc/TnquAUUWZQI/AAAAAAAAAQs/qTyqcVTJmQY/s1600/Sita.jpg

http://globalmarathi.com/20120702/images/4954144392887887548/4628937662288415428_Org.

jpg

http://images.jagran.com/narmada_10092013.jpg

http://indiafacts.co.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/images12-e1408434178686.jpg

http://sewabharat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/federation-banner1.jpg

http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/21722/10/10_chapter%201.pdf

174  

http://static01.nyt.com/images/2010/08/04/world/04iht-letter_337-span/04iht-letter_337-span-

articleLarge.jpg

http://users.clas.ufl.edu/codwyer/z_External_Folder/Courses/Social_Movements_GRAD/Staggen

borg_Ch2.pdf

http://www.christopherpinney.com/siteImages/image/Politics/B.R._Ambedkar/012.jpg

http://www.gulabigang.in

http://www.lokashakti.org/encyclopedia/groups/143-narmada-bachao-andolan

http://www.preservearticles.com/201106238427/working-class-movement-and-the-trade-

union.html

http://www.scribd.com/doc/15990953/Environmental-and-Ecological-Movements#scribd

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/india-2/social-movements-in-india-meaning-features-and-

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https://books.google.co.in/books?id=8Wh9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PR1&dq=state+formation+and+rad

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h24Mwfp#v=onepage&q=sndp&f=false

https://books.google.co.in/books?id=N2O76-

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age&q=environment%20movement%20india&f=false

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&q=worker%20movement%20in%20india&f=false]

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3.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Gandhi_spinning.jpg

175  

176  

177  

Introduction

Every society goes through numerous changes. These changes can be productive as well as destructive for

the respective society. The destructive changes mainly include problems like drug addiction, alcoholism,

slums etc which affects the entire society at large. These problems, leading towards harmful consequences

in society are known as Social problems. These problems do not carry same status in all the societies.

For instance, Alcoholism is a problem in Indian society whereas in western societies alcoholism is a part

of culture. This perception depends upon the norms and values in a society.

Meaning of social problem:

Social problems are the general factors that affect and damage the society. A social problem is normally a

term used to describe problems with a particular area or group of people in the world. Social

problems often involve problems that affect the real life. It is a condition in society that is considered

harmful or undesirable by society as a whole, based on existing social values and in respect of which it is

believed that amelioration is possible.

It is evocative from the above that:

1. A condition or situation in society

2. A significant number of people in society who are directly or indirectly affected by it.

Definitions of Social Problems

Social problems as behavioural patterns regarded by a large portion of society as being in

violation of one or more generally accepted social norms. Merton and Nisbet (eds)

“A situation confronting a group or a section of society which promises or inflicts injurious

consequences that can be handled only collectively”. Reinhardt

“A condition affecting a significant number of people in ways considered undesirable, about

which it is felt that something can be done through collective social action”. Horton and Leslie

Chapter 10: Social Problem: Alcoholism

Highlights 10.1 Meaning of Social Problem 10.2 Factors of Social Problem 10.3 Alcoholism: Meaning 10.4 Classification of Alcoholism 10.5 Causes of Alcoholism 10.6 Effects of Alcoholism

178  

3. E

4. S

5. A

an

Factors o

There are

discuss be

Socio-cul

The natu

heterogen

and triba

untouchab

which ma

intergener

Economic

Economic

contempo

benefits o

aggravate

Evaluative jud

ocial values a

A belief by a

nd rectify the

of Social prob

e various fact

elow:

ltural Factor

ure of hetero

neous societie

al groups liv

bility in India

any social-pr

rational gap i

c Factors

c factors are

orary Indian s

occurring due

es other proble

Socio-C

dgment of the

and their conf

significant nu

undesirable s

blems

tors responsib

rs

ogeneous soc

es like India,

ving together

a is due to the

roblems such

s found.

also respon

society. Uneq

e to developm

ems like high

EcoFa

Cultural Fac

social condit

flict.

umber of mem

situation thro

ble for socia

cieties has b

where there

r, there exis

e caste system

as female f

nsible for so

qual distribut

ment. As a r

h morbidity an

F

P

Soc

P

logical actors

ctors

tion and defin

mbers of soc

ugh joint acti

al problems s

been the cau

are people o

t several typ

m. Another ma

foeticide, dow

me of the m

tion of wealth

result, there

nd mortality,

Factors of Social

Problems

cio-Cultural Factors

Political Factors

Untouch

nition of it as u

iety that som

ion.

specifically in

use of a nu

of several reli

pes of socia

ajor socio-cul

wry, domestic

major social

h has led to

is the proble

crime, slum,

Economic Factors

hability, FemDowry e

undesirable b

mething can b

n India which

umber of so

igions, castes

al problems.

ltural factor is

c violence ag

problems be

disparity in

em of poverty

illiteracy, etc

male Foeticetc.

by society.

e done to im

h we are goi

cial problem

s, linguistic g

The proble

s patriarchy, d

gainst women

eing faced b

the distributi

y. Poverty in

c. Further, the

ide,

mprove

ing to

ms. In

groups

em of

due to

n and

by the

ion of

n turn

e slow

179  

process o

developm

Regional

Regional

underdeve

In additio

unemploy

Political F

Many a ti

etc. In ord

modes of

Ecologica

Sometime

consequen

has led to

and degra

emergenc

existence

being brou

Now, we

problems

We will d

of urbanizatio

ment.

Factors

disparities ca

eloped region

on to it, the

yment, polluti

Factors

mes, political

der to win ele

mobilization

al Factors

es, due to ra

nce of such a

o increase in e

adation and de

ce of new type

of mankind i

ught under cu

have come

in our societ

discuss these p

Eco

on and indus

ause the prob

n to the develo

regions rec

ion, etc.

l factors may

ections and co

like caste, re

apid developm

an attempt ha

environmenta

esertification

es of diseases

itself. Further

ultivation. Th

to know abo

ty such as A

problems one

Economi

Political

ological Fac

strialization i

blem of intra

oped region w

eiving the m

cause social

ome to power

ligion, and la

ment of a co

as emerged as

al pollution th

of the land. T

s, global warm

r, to feed the i

is has disturb

out social pr

Alcoholism, D

e by one in the

ic Factors

l Factors

ctors

n India has

a migration. A

which affects

migrants are

problems suc

r, political pa

anguage.

ountry, envir

s a major soc

hat includes ai

This in turn h

ming, ozone

increasing po

bed the global

oblems and

Drug addiction

e succeeding

U

Ta

Wat

resulted in r

A large numb

the populatio

facing the p

ch as electora

arties do not s

onment is gr

ial problem i

ir pollution, w

has led to incr

depletion, flo

opulation of th

l ecological ba

their factors.

n, Female fo

chapters.

Poverty, SUnemploy

Nepotism,apeism, Cor

ter pollutionGreen ho

regional disp

ber of people

on structure o

problems of

al politics, nep

shy away from

rossly ignore

in India. Rapi

water pollutio

reased morbi

oods etc. that

he world mor

alance.

. There are s

eticide and D

Slum, yment

, Red rruption

n, Air pollutouse effect

parity in econ

e migrate from

of both the reg

slum, conge

potism, corrup

m using comm

ed. The ecolo

id industrializ

on, noise poll

dity and mor

has threatene

re and more la

some major

Domestic viol

tion,

nomic

m the

gions.

estion,

ption,

munal

ogical

zation

ution,

tality,

ed the

and is

social

lence.

180  

Alcohol

Decades

Alcohol i

for relievi

social pro

taking alc

later, s/he

health of t

Meaning

The term

not only t

alcoholic

customs o

Classifica

1. O

2. O

3. O

4. T

5. E

dr

1. P

dr

lism

ago, alcoholi

s a depressan

ing stress but

oblem but also

cohol once in

e may start ta

the drinker ph

of Alcoholis

‘alcoholism’

to the individ

beverages. T

of the commu

ation of alcoh

Once or twice

Once or twice

Once or twice

Three or four t

Every day or s

rinkers who s

Pre-alcoholic

rinking to re

ism was a m

nt which mak

t slowly and

o takes the fo

n a while lea

aking it frequ

hysically and

m

is now used

dual but also

This intake is

unity and that

holics on the

in a year are

in two three m

in a month ar

times in a mo

several drinks

start there day

Stage: In th

duce tension

moral problem

kes a person m

gradually th

rm of acute p

aves the possi

uently in larg

socially.

in a broader

to his/her fa

s to extent tha

it interferes w

basis of the

called rare us

months are te

re termed as l

nth are terme

s during the d

y with liquor.

his phase, ta

and ignore

m. But today,

manage his te

ey become h

psychological

ibility of hab

ge quantities

sense to des

amily. Alcoho

at exceeds cu

with consume

consumption

sers,

ermed as infre

light drinkers

ed as moderat

day are terme

They are labe

Stages of

king advanta

his personal

, it has taken

ensions. Initia

habitual. At th

l and physiolo

bit forming p

which could

cribe a patter

olism is char

ustomary use

er’s social and

n:

equent users,

,

te drinkers,

d as heavy dr

elled as Alco

f alcoholism

age of social

problems. L

n the shape o

ally, the drink

his stage, it n

ogical problem

phenomena fo

have disastr

rn of drinking

racterized by

e or complian

d economic fu

rinkers. These

holics.

l sanction, an

inking drinki

of social pro

ker’s intake i

not only rema

m. In other w

or the drinker

rous effects o

g which is ha

frequent inta

nce with the

unctioning.

e are the hard

n individual

ing with relie

oblem.

is just

ains a

words,

r. But

on the

armful

ake of

social

d core

starts

ef, he

181  

keeps on searching for those opportunities in which he may drink. The frequency of drinking

increases as he starts losing his capacity to face

conflicts in life.

2. Relief Drinking Stage: In this phase, along with

the increase in the frequency of drinking, there is an

increase in the quantity of the drink too. However,

he develops a guilt-feeling and knows that

gradually he is becoming an abnormal person.

3. Acute Stage: In this phase, his drinking becomes

conspicuous. He develops rationalizations to face

social pressures and to assure him that he has not

lost control over himself. However, he does not lose

his self-respect. Gradually, he starts alienating

himself from others as his physical and social

deterioration becomes obvious to them.

4. Chronic Stage: In this phase, he starts drinking even in the morning. He faces prolonged

intoxication, impaired thinking, indefinable fears, tremors, and loss of certain skills. He always

thinks of drinking and feels restless without alcohol.

5. India’s Current Scenario: Alcohol dependence is a major health problem in India. An

estimated 32-42% of adult Indian population reports high usage of alcohol in their lifetime. 5-7%

is abuser of alcohol and 10-20 million persons have been estimated to be in need of treatment for

alcohol dependence. The reports also indicate that there is a steady rise in per capita alcohol

consumption every year. Various states such as Andaman and Nicobar islands, Andhra Pradesh,

Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West

Bengal have declared one or more days as DRY DAYS each month.

Alcoholism in Punjab is not as a big issue as drug abuse, yet it has been noticed that The state's

consumption of Indian-manufactured foreign liquor (IMFL) slipped to 45 lakh proof litres in December

2012 from 52 lakh proof liters in the same month in 2011. One of the factors, contributing to reduction of

alcohol consumption in Punjab is the abuse of substance. Punjab is one of the few states and U.T.s where

minimum legal age of alcohol consumption is 25 years, while in a number of states alcohol is allowed to

be consumed below 25 years of age.

Activity: Make a collage on

various social problems of

Punjab

Box 1

Factors responsible for an adolescent’s

decision to use alcohol

The social systems in which teens

live.

Imitating adults.

The increase in risk-taking that

usually accompanies adolescence.

Decreased parental supervision and

greater independence.

Peer pressure.

Increased stress.

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Causes of Alcoholism

1. Misery Drinking: Men drink, because they are miserable, because life holds no joy for them nor

any other prospect other than a dreary and unending round of toil. In such a life scheme drinking

is a blessed palliative medicine.

2. Occupational Factor: Men drink because their occupation has completely exhausted them. They

look forward to the respite which intoxication affords after the heat of the blast furnace or the

stench of the stockyards.

3. Bad Housing and Lack of Recreational Facilities: Men drink, because their houses are so cold,

dark and sordid, that they cannot stay there for a long time. The failure of community to satisfy

the emotions in a sane and healthy manner also leads to such craving.

4. Ignorance: Men who do heavy manual work have long been deluded by the belief that alcohol

furnishes added strength and vigour with which they can pursue their labour. This illusory

feeling of physical vitality after the consumption of alcohol is the cause of drunkenness.

5. Inherent Nervous Defects: There are born drunkards whose neurological heritage is such that

they are unable to face reality. In their desperate effort to flee the world these unhappy persons

become hopeless alcoholics.

6. God’s Curse or Gift: Some persons believe that men drink because they are steeped in original

sin. Others maintain with equal conviction that men drink because the Lord intended that they

should have occasional movements of pleasant oblivion from this vale of tears- and placed the

grapes on earth for that particular purpose.

7. For companionship and Fun : Men drink for companionship, for fun and for conceivability.

8. Fashion : Drinking to excess is a “perversion of the hard instinct”, brought about by the pathetic

attempt of one individual to enter into rapport with his fellows.

9. For Business Reasons: Men drink for business reasons in the capacity of either potential

customers or sellers. The great game of “entertaining the visiting buyer” falls into this category.

10. Sudden success in Business: Many cases of drinking arise after apparent success in Business or

professional life.

11. Urbanization: The urbanization and mechanization of life along with material mindedness

which modern civilization has brought, has also been responsible for the increase in drinking.

12. Social Inadequacy: There are certain persons who are unable to face the hard realities of life and

start drinking to overcome their social inadequacy temporarily. Their attempt to avoid this

problem later on takes the form of habitual dri

183  

Effects of Alcoholism

The use of liquor and other intoxicants is harmful for every progressive and growing individual and

society. It is harmful to the extent that it intellectually impoverishes, morally softens and spiritually

damns the person addicted to it.

1. The wastage of national wealth: It has been estimated that a successful enforcement of prohibition

policy would increase the purchasing capacity of people by Rs.140 crores; of this Rs.44 crores will be

invested for productive purpose. It is obvious; therefore, that prohibition would save the country from

huge wastage of national wealth.

2. Low standards of health: The consumption of liquor leads to deterioration of health. This may happen

due to any of two following reasons: (i) Liquor is narcotic and leads to nervous degeneration, liver

cirrhosis, high blood pressure and a host of other diseases, and (ii) money spent on liquor reduces one’s

resources and may not leave one with sufficient funds to buy nutritious food.

3. Lowering of efficiency: With the fall in the standards of bodily health and mental agility, the fall in

efficiency is but a cordilary. The alcoholic is whimsical and incapable of sustained attention,

concentration and putting in long hours of work.

4. Mental imbalance: A man under the influence of liquor has no control over his will and fickle minded.

He is unable to think and work constructively. His own vision and thinking get barred if intoxication is

strong.

5. Increase in Crime: Under the influence or liquor people act in unsocial ways as their inhibitions are

removed. This includes murder, rape and other crimes. Moreover, in order to meet the expenses of drink a

man may take to gambling or even theft.

6. Increase in poverty: In India villagers and labourer drink in spite of their poverty. This obviously

increases their poverty though it may provide them temporary well-being and euphoria.

7. Individual disorganization: The consumption of liquor makes a man wayward in habits and

whimsical in moods. He also loses all control over his will and his desire to grow and progress becomes

feeble. He grows careless and indifferent and feels little difference between morality and immorality. All

this produces personality disintegration.

8. Family disorganization: More homes are broken due to drinking than any other single cause. This is

easy to understand. As the moral sense of man is destroyed and his inhibitions removed due to

alcoholism, prostitution and adultery are the normal consequences. An alcoholic shows little respect to his

wife or children. This leads to constant family tension and divorce.

Box:2

184  

Underage drinking can lead to:

1. Alcohol-related fatalities. Alcohol-related accidents are a leading cause of teen deaths. Teen

drowning, suicides and murders also have been linked with alcohol abuse.

2. Sexual activity. Teens who drink tend to become sexually active earlier and have sex more often

than do teens who don't drink. Teens who drink are also more likely to have unprotected sex than

are teens who don't drink.

3. School problems. Teens who drink tend to have more academic and conduct problems than do

teens who don't drink.

4. Alcoholism. People who begin drinking as young teens are more likely to develop alcohol

dependence than are people who wait until they are adults to drink.

5. Violent crime. Teens who drink are more likely to be involve in a violent crime, such as rape,

assault or robbery.

Box 3

The ways in which Schools and Teachers can protect youth from drinking

Encourage student involvement in school, a factor in reducing alcohol use.

Create an environment that helps students explore their talents and follow their passions,

whether academic, musical, sports, or social or community causes.

Provide students with opportunities for validation and belonging.

Increase positive outcomes from adolescents by being a mentor, a valued teacher, or other

caring adult.

Provide information to parents on the consequences of underage alcohol use, school policies

and practices on alcohol use, and local sources for more information.

Recognize that significant social transitions (such as graduating to middle or high school or

getting a driver’s license) are accompanied by increasing responsibility, freedom, social

pressure, and/or more demanding academic requirements, all of which may increase the

likelihood of alcohol use. At such times, teachers and staff can be particularly alert and

supportive.

Consider making a special effort to connect students with an adult who can serve as a mentor

and confidant.

Recognize that children who mature earlier or later than the majority of their peers may be at

increased risk.

185  

Treatment of Alcoholism

Alcoholism is more treatable than drug-addiction. There have been many successful treatment

programmes. Since there is a continuum between use and abuse, there are various kinds of programmes

for different degrees of drinking. Psychotherapy, environment therapy, behaviour therapy and medical

therapy are suggested and used for different types of drinkers.

The following treatment measures are mainly used to treat the drinkers and alcoholics:

1. Role of family: Involving an alcoholic’s family in his treatment and rehabilitation enhances the

chances of success by 75% to 80%. The learned family members do not preach; nor do they

blame or condemn the alcoholic. They minimize problems, offer sincere and unselfish help and

guidance, and never abandon him.

2. Alcoholic Anonymous: One of the most effective social therapies which use group interaction is

Alcoholic Anonymous. It is an organization of ex-alcoholics which started in United States in

early 1940. The only requirement for membership is a desire to stop drinking. Alcoholic

Anonymous are found mainly in the metropolitan cities like Delhi, Mumbai. The gatherings are

therapeutics in that the drinkers can unburden their problems to persons who work with them and

who help them fight their weakness and build self-esteem and a sense of belonging.

3. Treatment centres: These centres have been developed in some cities as alternatives to hospital

treatment. Each centre has about 10-20 residents. Here, not only counselling takes place in a

supportive environment but residents are also made to follow certain anti-drinking rules too.

4. Changing values through education: Some voluntary organizations undertake educational and

informational programmes to alert the alcoholics to the danger of excessive drinking.

5. Policy and program to produce more jobs, permit fair competition and reduce corruption and

nepotism in appointments and promotions. If the lives of people are made meaningful, rewarding

and satisfying, the need for alcohol would not exist or it will be minimized.

6. Education about the harm and loss that alcohol can bring to a person’s life and to society will

help control the use of alcohol. Parents can impart education on the dangers of becoming an

alcoholic as well as punish the deviants and create the necessary fear.

7. Parents’ education should be concerned with shaping the attitudes and behaviour conducive to

non-drinking. Lastly, schools and colleges can also educate young students about the

psychological and sociological effects of alcohol and alcoholism.

186  

Glossary

Parents’ education

Education

Policy and program

Changing values through educationTreatment centres

Alcoholic Anonymo

ussRole of 

family

Slum A slum is a heavily populated urban informal settlement characterized by substandard

housing and squalor.

Red Tapism Red tape is an idiom that refers to excessive regulation or rigid conformity to formal

rules that is considered redundant or bureaucratic and hinders or prevents action or

decision-making. It is usually applied to governments, corporations, and other large

organizations.

Nepotism Practice among those with power or influence of favouring relatives or friends,

especially by giving them jobs

Alcohol Alcohol is a depressant. It slows down brain and this affects the way one thinks, feels and behaves. Alcohol is a drug and can be toxic. Beer, wine, spirits or hard liquor, liquors, ports, sherries and homebrew all contain different amounts of alcohol.

Absolute Poverty

Eextreme poverty is when people lack the basic necessities for survival. For instance they may be starving, lacking clean water, proper housing, sufficient clothing or medicines and be struggling to stay alive.

187  

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Answer the following long answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Exercises

1. List down the factors which are responsible for social problem.

2. Give two examples of problems related to ecological factors?

3. which types of problems arise due to political factors

4. What do you mean Alcoholism?

5. Who are “light drinkers”?

6. What is Alcohol abuse?

7. List the stages of Alcoholism

1. What do you understand by Social Problem?

2. Write any two factors related to social problems.

3. Write down three effects of alcohol consumption.

4. What do you mean by chronic phase of alcoholism?

5. What is “Alcohol dependency”?

6. What do you mean by the Alcoholism?

7. What do you mean by the Pre-alcoholic symptomatic phase?

1. Discuss various factors of Social problems in India

2. Write a short note on drugs.

3. Write the stages of Alcoholism.

4. Write the categories of Alcoholism.

5. Write the harmful effects of Alcoholism.

6. Why are young children more prone to alcoholism?

Toxicity Poisonous nature; poisonous quality.

188  

Answer the following long answer questions in 250-300 words each:

6. What do you mean by Alcoholism? Discuss the factors responsible for it in detail.

7. Write a detail note on harmful effects of Alcoholism.

8. What are the causes responsible for alcoholism in adolescents?

9. Write a detail note on its stages of Alcoholism.

10. How school and teachers can help in preventing alcoholism

11. Write down about consequences of underage drinking.

Q1. Write True or FalseAlcoholism is more treatable than drug-addiction

1. Social Problems are interrelated to each other.

2. Male child preference and Patriarchal system are social problems related to ecological factor.

3. Alcoholism does not influences the families and communities

4. Men drink because their occupation has completely exhausted them

5. Heavy drinkers are the drinkers who drink every day or several drinks during the day

6. Teachers cannot play any vital role in the prevention of alcoholism

Q2. Fill in the Blanks

1. Red-tapism and nepotism are problems associated with increasing political corruption among

leaders.

2. The problem of untouchability in India is due to the caste system.

3. When a person starts drinking even in the morning, he is said to be entered in chronic phase.

4. Liquor is narcotic and leads to nervous degeneration, liver cirrhosis, high blood pressure and a

host of other diseases.

5. Moderate drinkers are those who drink three or four times in a month.

6. Alcohol dependence is a major health problem in India

Q3. Multiple choices

1. Rapid industrialization has led to increase in environmental pollution such as a) Degradation and desertification of the land b) Nepotism c) Over Population

d)Caste system 

2. Which of the following is not a stage of alcoholism 

a) Prodigal phase b) Crucial phase c) Chronic phase d) Frequent phase

189  

1. Which one of the following is not classification of drinkers

a) Rare users b) Infrequent users c) Light drinkers d) Hyper users

2. Alcoholism is associated what kind of problems

a) Social problem b) Economic problem c) Health problem d) All of the above

Q4.Match the followings

1. Poverty a. Ecological or environmental problem

2. Undesirable condition b. Socio-Cultural problem

3. Male child preference c. Economic Problem

4. Global warming d. Factors of social problem

5. Stage of Alcoholism e. Compulsive phenomenon

6. Light drinkers f. Chronic phase

7. Addiction g. who drink once or twice a month

8. Underage drinking h. Increased stress

9. Cause of Alcoholism i. Violent crime

References

1. Chambliss, William J. 1994. "Policing the Ghetto Underclass: The Politics of Law and Law Enforcement." Social Problems, Vol.41

2. Eitzen and Baca Zinn. 1997. Social Problems. 7th edition 3. Gusfield, J. The Culture of Public Problems. 1981. University of Chicago Press. 4. G.R Madan Indian Social Problems-Social Disorganization and Reconstruction-

GoogleBooks.html 5. "Social Problems." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 1968. Encyclopedia.com. 6. www.google.com 7. http//www. Wikipedia social problems 8. http://www.inhw.org//social problems in India 9. https://www.alcoholwebindia.in 10. Campbell, Nancy D. 2007. Discovering addiction: The science and politics of substance

abuse research. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press 11. Alcoholism: Can your genes drive you to drink? – Crime Times Vol. 3, no. 1, 1997, pages

1 & 3 & 7 –http://www.crime.times.org/

190  

 

 

 

 

Introduction

Drug addiction is a problem that has been increasing immensely among our society today. The

young people are more vulnerable to drug abuse because of poor self esteem, low achievement at

school, family history and peer pressure. Some times they feel that they are too bright, too

powerful and are too much in control to become addictive. Addiction can trap anyone. It can lead

to harming ones health, causing problems in family structure, and contribute to the delinquency

in society. The persons who get addicted often lose interest in other activities of their life. As a

result, they are not able to take care of their responsibilities and may become a liability for their

families as well as their society.

Let us define the most commonly and frequently used terms while addressing the problem of

drugs.

Drugs: Any chemical that alters the physical or mental functioning of our body is a ‘drug’.

Drugs, as natural or synthetic substance, are used in the diagnosis, mitigation, treatment,

or prevention of a disease or relief of discomfort.

Drug Addiction: Drug addiction is a strong physiological and psychological dependence on

some habit forming stimulant or narcotic substance (such as alcohol, cannabis, nicotine, or

a derivative of cocoa or poppy) which produces a state of arousal, contentment, or euphoria.

Chapter: 11 Drug Abuse

Highlights:

Introduction

11.1 Meaning

11.2 Definition

11.3 Types of Drugs

11.4 Signs and symptoms of Drug Abuse

11.5 Causes of Drug Addiction

11.6 Consequences

11.7 Government measures

191  

Drug/Substance Abuse: Continued or excessive use of such substances which

causes addiction or dependence is called drug abuse or substance abuse. Thereafter any attempt

to discontinue their use results in specific reactions called withdrawal symptoms (such as

sweating, vomiting, and tremors) which cease when the use is resumed. Commonly abused

substances among adolescents are tobacco and alcohol which are a gateway to use of other drugs.

Commonly abused drugs are alcohol, sedatives, stimulants, narcotics, hallucinogens and

nicotine. The impact of use of these drugs on an individual is not the same, but different.

1. Alcohol: Alcohol is a drug and may be classified as a sedative or tranquilizer, depending

upon the quantity that is consumed. It includes intoxication. The excessive use of alcohol

affects the nervous system of the abuser. It also leads to develop physical dependence

slowly.

2. Sedatives or Depressants: Babriturates, bromides and tranquillizers belong to this

category. These drugs are also called “drowners”. They act to relax the central nervous

system and induce sleep and provide a soothing effect. Medically, these are used in high

blood pressure, insomnia, epilepsy and to relax patients before and during surgery.

3. Stimulants: The most widely known stimulants are amphetamines. When administered

by a medical practitioner, moderate dose of amphetamine can check fatigue and produce

feelings of alertness and self-confidence. But the heavy dose of the same may cause

extreme nervousness, irritability, head ache, sweating, diarrhea and unclear speech. It is

Definition

Drug Addiction is defined as a chronic, relapsing brain disease that is characterized by

compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences. It is considered a brain disease

because drugs change the brain; they change its structure and how it works. These brain changes

can be long lasting and can lead to many harmful, often self-destructive, behaviors - National

Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA).

192  

not advisable to take a heavy dose of it for a long time. In such cases, it may cause

varying degrees of intellectual, emotional, economic and social deterioration.

4. Narcotics: Narcotic drugs include opium, marijuana, heroin, morphine, cocaine, codeine,

methadone, pithindine and cannabis such as charas, ganja, bhang etc. Continued taking of

these is regarded as the worst type of addiction because it produces craving and psychic

dependence.

5. Hallucinogens: These include mescaline, DMT, STP, MDA and LSD [Lysergic acid diethylamide]. These are also called “psychedelics” a broad group of drugs that cause distortions of sensory perception. Their use is not advised by medical practitioners.

6. Nicotine or Tobacco: This includes cigarettes, cigars, snuffs and beedi [which includes

tobacco]. This leads to relaxation, stimulates central nervous system, increases

wakefulness and removes boredom. Tobacco is illegal use everywhere in the world, yet is

causes far more deaths than all other psychoactive substances combined. About 3 million

premature deaths a year (6% of the world total) are already attributed to tobacco

smoking. Tobacco is responsible for about 30% of all cancer deaths in developed

countries.

Types of Substances/Drugs

Sr. No. Category Drugs

1 Socially accepted drugs Caffeine, Alcohol, Nicotine

2 Prescribed Tranquilizer, Barbiturates, Narcotic Analgesic,

Anabolic steroids

3 Solvent drugs Glue, Petrol, Benzene, Nail Polish Remover,

Iodex, Correction Ink

4 Over the counter drugs Cough-mixture, Aspirin, Gutka, Country

Liquor

5 Illegal drugs Heroin, Cocaine, Crack Marijuana, Ganja.

193  

Causes of Drug Addiction

Now, you will learn about causes of drug addiction.

i. Psychological Causes : Psychological factors such as – getting ‘kicks’ and ‘thrills’,

relieving tension, removing exhibitioners, avoiding boredom, easing depression,

satisfying curiosity, feeling high and confident and intensifying perception, etc. may

motivate people to become drug addicts.

ii. Physiological Factors like removing pain, getting sleep, heightening sexual

experiences, staying awake, getting more physical strength etc. also induce people to

become drug addicts.

iii. Social causes that favor drug abuse are – to become acceptable to friends, the desire to

join “high society”, facilitating social experiences, challenging social values, to set new

social trends, etc.

iv. Peer Group Influence: Peer group influence seems to be very powerful in initiating a

new person to drug-taking habit. To get recognition in the company, to satisfy other

members of the peer group, to avoid ridicule at the hands of fellow- members-and due to

such other factors young people become victims of drug abuse.

v. Feeling of Alienation and Lack of Motivation: The conditions of modern society are

such that they may push some mentally weak or delicate persons towards loneliness.

Such persons though live in the midst of people tend to feel that they are alone in the

world for they do not have any companions.

vi. To escape from the Pressure and Conflicts of Life: Our living conditions also impose

various pressures, conflicts, tensions and dangers in our life. One requires courage and a

realistic approach to face such challenges of life. All are not mentally equipped to face

successfully such realities of life.

vii. Miscellaneous Causes Backing the ugly practice of drug abuse include sharpening

religious insight or to get new spiritual light, improving study, solving personal

problems, deepening self-understanding, increasing efficiency, to refresh the mind, and

so on.

194  

Do you know why an individual become drug addict

Lack of basic knowledge about the effects and dangers of consuming drugs/ addictive

substances

Urge to try something new, coupled with peer influence and pressure, make young people

vulnerable to drug abuse

Influenced by their peers and mimic their behaviours. In many instances, young people

are influenced by their peers to experiment with cigarettes, alcohol and other harmful

substances

Myths that drugs can help overcome boredom, depression, stress and fatigue.

Media images that glamorize substance abuse.

Peer pressure in academic and non academic areas

Effects of Drug

Drug abuse leads to number of effects on person’s life. They are short-term and long-term in

nature.

Short-term Effects: Drugs have short term effect that lead to show effects only a few minutes

after the intake of drugs. The drug abuser feels a false sense of well-being and a pleasant

drowsiness. Some of the short term effects are distorted vision, , impaired judgment, bad breath

and hangovers.

Long-term Effects: Drugs have a long-term effect on the physical and mental health of the

individual that leads to serious damage due to constant and excessive use. These effects are

discussed as under:

1. Substance abuse impairs both physical and mental functioning leading to compromised

quality of life.

2. Several long –term physical ailments, including loss of appetite, stomach ailment, skin

problems, liver, heart and central nervous system damage, memory loss etc may occur.

3. In general drug use weakens the immune system and makes the individual more

vulnerable to acquire infections.

195  

4. Drug abuse in itself is not a cause of HIV/AIDS or other STDs but under the influence of

drugs, people may engage in risk behaviors that make them more susceptible to these

infections.

5. Drug abusers may even die suddenly

from a so-called overdose when one

takes too much for the body to bear.

Death may also occur from long-term

damage.

6. Although substance/ drug abuse is

harmful at any stage of life, these

substances are especially harmful if

consumed during pregnancy as these are

absorbed through blood and as the

growing fetus (unborn child) gets nutrition from blood, these substances can reach the

fetus and cause harm.

7. Drug abuse influences not only the individual but their families and communities. The

person who gets addicted often loses interest in other activities be it school, job or any

other responsibility. As a result, they are not able to take care of their responsibilities and

may become a liability for their families. Furthermore, it is expensive to buy substances/

drugs on a regular basis. Hence, in desperation, addicted individuals may be forced to

engage in petty crimes.

Control of Drug Abuse/ Addiction

Drug addiction may be biologically inherited or began out of curiosity. It brings fatalistic

end to the individual and proves immensely harmful for their surroundings. It is a menace

which needs to be curbed. There are various measures to control drug addiction. Not only

the abuser but his peer, family and society collectively need to contribute in order to

eradicate the problem of drug abuse or addiction. Some of the measures are discussed as

under:

196  

1. Special attention towards adolescents As the attitudes related to smoking, drinking and

abuse of other substances are formed during preadolescence and early adolescence; it is an

important age to invest in prevention efforts.

Paying attention to the following may prevent young people from abusing drugs:

Peer pressure can be managed by being aware of the implications of drug abuse and

developing skills to manage peer pressure. One can not only save oneself from adopting

risky behavior under peer pressure but also persuade the peers not to engage in unhealthy

behaviors such as substance abuse.

Young people should also be educated to recognize that a friend is someone who cares,

protects and looks after the welfare of their friends rather than coerce/ initiate them into

unhealthy habits.

Empowered with adequate information and skills, young people should be able to decide

that it is their body, their life and hence, they should be taking well-informed and

responsible decisions

2. Educational Approach: Imparting education about drugs and the evil effects of their

consumption is of great importance. All misleading knowledge must be removed. The

message should be clear and unambiguous to the intended audience and come from

credible source of information.

3. Legal Approach: The legal control on the distribution of drugs, when effectively

applied has been and remains an important approach in the prevention of drug abuse.

The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic substances Act- 1985

The central government introduced this act in the year 1985 to combat trafficking in

drugs. It was amended in 1987 to make the legislation still more stringent. The act

provides for a minimum punishment of 10 years rigorous imprisonment for its violation,

and it could be extended to 20 years with a fine of 1 to 2 lakh rupees. The court is also

empowered to impose still heavier amount of fines.

197  

4. Punishment to Enforcement Agencies Including Police: No law or legislation is

effective itself. It gets strength only if it is effectively enforced.

5. Changing the Attitudes of Doctors: The practicing doctors will have to change their

approach in prescribing too many costly drugs. They have to be careful about the side

effects of the drugs which they are prescribing.

6. Follow-up study of Drug Addicts under Treatment: It is necessary to make follow-

up study of drug addicts treated under detoxification programmes.

7. Role of Teachers: Teachers can play a vital role in the prevention of drug abuse.

They can talk openly and freely with the students’ interests and activities and

encourage them to develop healthy hobbies.

8. Role of Parents: Parent’s role is no less significant, Drug abuse, at times, may have

its roots in parental neglect, over-hostility, rejection, marital disharmony, etc. It is

thus necessary that parents have to take more care in keeping the family environment

congenial and harmonious. They could talk their children openly and affectionately,

listen to their problems patiently and suggest them how to handle the problems

effectively.

9. Providing Alternative Activities: A popular approach to the prevention of drug

abuse is providing for alternative activities which may help to prevent drug abuse.

10. The sooner people seek help for drug addiction problems, the more chances they

have of gaining control of their life once again. However, abstinence is the safest way

to live a longer and healthier life.

Risk Factors Protective Factors Aggressive Behavior in childhood Good-Self control Lack of parental supervision Parental monitoring and support Poor social skills Positive relationships Drug experimentation Academic competency Availability of drugs at school School anti-drug policies Community poverty Neighbourhood pride

198  

Answer the following very short answer questions in 10-15 words

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Answer the following long answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Glossary 1. Delinquency: minor crime, especially that committed by young people. 2. Sedative : An agent or drug having a calming or soothing effect or inducing sleep 3. Tranquilizer: A sedative that is used to reduce anxiety or tension 4. Alienation: Emotional isolation 5. Detoxification: The medical and bio-psychosocial procedure that assists a drug addict to

withdraw from dependence on all substances of abuse. 6. Peer group: A peer group is a social group and a primary group of people who have

similar interests, age, background, or social status.

Exercises

1. What do you mean drug?

2. What is meant by drug abuse?

3. What are amphetamines?

4. What is Drug Addiction?

5. What do you mean by Sedatives or Depressants.

6. What are different categories of drugs

1. Give the social causes for persons turning to drugs.

2. List the short term effects of drugs on an individual.

3. What is the role of teachers in the prevention of drug abuse?

4. What is “Tobbaco”?

5. What do you mean by Narcotics?

6. What do you mean by the drug addiction?

.

1. Discuss long term effects of drugs on individuals.

2. What are the psychological and physiological effects of drug addiction.

199  

Answer the following long answer questions in 250-300 words each:

3. What type of special attention should be given to the adolescents to prevent drug addiction

?

4. Write the causes of drug addiction

5. Write the harmful effects of Drug addiction on youth .

6. Why are young children more prone to drug addiction

1. Write a note on drug abuse in 250 words.

2. How the problem of drug abuse can be controlled.

3. Write a detail note on factors responsible for drug addiction .

4. What is drug abuse? What are the causes responsible for it?

5. What are effects of Drug Abuse.

6. Write down about control of Drug Addiction

Write True or False

7. Alcoholism is more treatable than drug-addiction

8. Parents are helpless in curbing the problem of drug addiction.

9. Amphetamines belong to sedatives and depressants category.

10. Drug abuse does not influences the families and communities

11. Teachers cannot play any vital role in the prevention of drug abuse

12. Drugs have long-term impact that lead to serious damage due to constant and excessive use

Fill in the Blanks

7. The most widely known stimulants are Amphetamines.

8. Peer group influence is very powerful in initiating a new person to drug-taking habit.

9. The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic substances Act was amended in 1987 to make the

legislation still more stringent.

10. Sedatives or Depressants are also called drowners.

11. Substance/Drug Abuse leads to a number of short-term and long-term effects that are detrimental to

health.

12. Drug use weakens the immune system and makes the individual more vulnerable to acquire

infections

200  

Multiple choices

1. The most widely known stimulants are

a) Tablets b) Amphetamines c) LSD d) Heroine

2. Tobbaco is responsible for about 30% of all

a) Cancer deaths b) AIDS c) Social cause d) Change

3. What occurs when acceptable social standards of its use are violated, resulting in adverse

physiological, psychological, and social consequences

a) Drug abuse b) obesity c) Food adulterants d) conflict in values

4. Which of the following is the cause related to become acceptable to friends, the desire to join

“high society”, challenging social values, to set new social trends, etc.

a) Social cause b) Psychological cause c) Legal cause d) Economic cause

5. The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic substances is under which act

a) 1986 b) 1985 c) 1966 d) 1989

References:

1. National Informatics Center. Retrieved 2009-07-19. 2. "Narcotics Control Bureau - Ministry of Finance" (PDF). National Informatics Center.

Retrieved 2009-07-19. 3. Srivastava, A. Pal, HR. Dwivedi, SN, et al. National household survey of drug abuse in

India. Report submitted to the Indian Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment and the United Nations Office for Drugs and Crime. 2003.

4. http://www.antidrugs.gov.il/download/files/indian_drug-laws.pdf 5. www.drugaddiction in India-google.com

201  

Introduct

Female ha

deprivatio

female fo

endangere

children i

no questio

infanticid

ego-centri

undue im

globalizat

Meaning

The term

foetus af

diagnostic

female fe

other wor

the mothe

Sex Ratio

It is defin

Highligh

12.1 Me

12.2 Ind

12.3 Ca

12.4 Co

12.5 Str

tion

ave been the

ons and discri

oetus faces th

ed species in

n the wombs

on that femal

e has existed

ic tradations

mportance giv

tion and mode

of Female F

m female foe

fter sex de

c test. Female

etuses after a

rds, murderin

er.

o

ed as the num

hts

eaning

dian Scenario

auses of femal

onsequences o

rategies contro

most vulnera

iminations. D

he peril of pre

another hund

are not only

e feticide is n

d for a long ti

, distort soc

ven to male

ern education

eoticide

ticide means

etermination

e feticide is a

about 18 we

ng a female c

mber of femal

le foeticide

of female foet

olling female

able for centu

Discrimination

e-birth elimin

dred years. Fe

denied the ri

not just uneth

ime because

ietal norms a

child in Ind

n system fema

s aborting a

test or pre

a process of a

eks of gesta

child in the w

es per 1000 m

C

Fem

ticide

e foeticide

uries and till

n against girl

nation. Indian

emale feticide

ight to live bu

hical but it is

e of social th

and social di

dian society.

ale is unwelco

female

e natal

aborting

tion. In

womb of

males.

Chapter;12

male Foeticide

date they are

child begins i

n females are

e is a violatio

ut also robbed

downright cr

hinking base

iscrimination

despite of

omed even tod

e

vulnerable to

in the womb

e heading tow

on of human

d to their righ

ruel as well. H

d on certain

against fema

modernizatio

day.

o various form

of the mother

wards becomi

rights. The fe

ht to born. Th

Historically,fe

erroneous no

ale child. Be

on, westerniz

ms of

r. The

ng an

female

here is

female

otion ,

esides,

zation,

202  

Sex ratio

indicator

between m

point of ti

Sex ratio

Pr

of

S

of

T

or

Contemp

2001.

The Cens

females p

in 2011),

Year

2011

2001

1991

1981

1971

1961

1951

o is an im

to measur

males and fem

ime,

can be

rimary – Rat

f conception.

econdary – R

f birth

Tertiary – Ra

rganisms.

porary Scena

sus 2001 indi

per 1000 male

the child se

Primary

Secondar

Tertiary

Sex Ra

940

933

927

945

932

941

946

mportant soci

re the equi

males at a giv

tio at the tim

Ratio at the tim

atio of matu

ario

icates that wh

es in 1991 to

ex ratio (in t

y

ry

y

atio

ial

ity

ven

me

me

ure

except so

hile there is

933 females

the 0-6 age g

Mak

again

ome margina

an increase i

per 1000 ma

group) has sh

Activit

ke a collag

nst female foe

Female infathe set of prdays after th

Earl

rubb

brea

flow

Rut

of t

umb

blee

girl

Mil

Chi

Cala

A s

in

suff

al increases in

in the overall

les in 2001 a

hown a decli

ty 12.1

e of camp

eticide

Box 1

anticide is the rocedure to kiheir birth.

lier girl infa

bing poison

ast, by being

wer.

thless elimina

the heinous

bilical cord

eding, results

child.

k of Caltrop

ld is starv

atropy milk.

spoon full of

child’s mo

focated by ch

The s

popul

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secula

n the census o

l sex ratio of

and 940 femal

ine in almos

paign

2.1

method that ill girls within

fants were k

n on the

fed milk of p

ation method

methods by

leading to e

s in the deat

p is a metho

ved then fe

f paddy husk

outh. The c

oking to death

sex ratio of I

lation in

ury has show

ar decline in

of 1951, 198

f the country

les per 1000 m

t all the Stat

relies on n the few

killed by

mother’s

oisonous

d is one

y loosing

excessive

th of the

od where

ed with

dumped

child is

h.

Indian

the

wn a

trend

1 and

y (927

males

tes as

203  

compared

concerned

lowest sex

ratio in th

Causes of

1.

Child sex

a human

d to the 1991

d, the overall

x ratio (824),

he state of pun

f female foeti

. Dowry: D

families in

houses or

families b

foeticide. I

and thus, t

of the amo

x ratio is defin

population.

1 Census i.e

l sex ratio of

Bathinda wit

njab.

icide

Dowry demand

nto debt. Rura

getting into

ut also amon

In India, the

they think tha

ount.

Patriar

Cu

ReB

ned as the nu

945 in 1991

f Punjab stat

th the middle

ds are growin

al families are

huge debts.

ng the rich.

age old custo

at it’s better t

Cau

Family planningsystem

rchy

ultural and

eligious Beliefs

umber of fema

1, 927 in 200

e depicts 893

e sex ratio (87

ng with rise in

e forced to se

Female feti

Dowry dema

om of dowry

to get rid of t

ses of femalefoeticide

Dowry

Advareprodtechn

g

Box

ales per thous

01 and 914

3. However,

70) while Fer

n consumerism

ell land and u

cide is not o

and is one o

system puts a

the burden of

e

Status of women

Preferenfor son

anced ductive ology

sand males in

in 2011. As

Ludhiana is

rozpur has the

m. The dowry

urban poor res

only common

f the main r

a damper on

f a girl child w

nce n

n the age grou

s far as Punj

a region wit

e highest sex

y trap pushes

sort to selling

n among the

reasons for fe

the parents’ s

with just a fra

up of 0-6 year

jab is

th the

(885)

many

g their

poor

female

spirits

action

rs in

204  

2. Status of women: The poor status of women has made them inferior as compared to men.

They willingly embrace the role of the meek, submissive, docile wife. Female feticide

happens with the explicit consent of the mother. While most mothers agreed to this misdeed

out of a sense of duty towards the family.

3. Preference for son: Birth of a son is perceived as an opportunity for upward mobility. while

daughter is considered as downward economic mobility. Preference for son, especially in the

Hindu society is a cause behind this brutal act. Since son is considered important for

performing various rituals i.e. cremation is one of the most important rites. In other words,

it’s only the son who can perform the last rites, perpetuation of the lineage, inheritance and so

on. Further, male child is preferred because they provided manual labor. Female foeticide is

most common in the areas where cultural norms value male child over female child for social

and economic reasons.

4. Advanced reproductive technology: The advanced reproductive technology in medical field

led to the mushrooming of a variety of sex selection services as sonography, genetic clinics,

ultra sonlc clinics in almost all parts of the country paved the way for an easy access to

medical ultrasound and abortion.

5. Family planning system: Family planning system of government to have smaller size is also

the reason for female foeticide.

6. Patriarchy: In the patriarchal mind-set, females are always taken as liability. It is considered

that amount spent in their upbringing is a waste to the family they are born in and benefits to

the families into which they are to be married.

7. Cultural and Religious Beliefs: Various factors along with a plethora of cultural and

religious beliefs constitute the root causes for why sons are preferred and why daughters are

not desired. Attaining moksha is considered to be an ideal end of life cycle. Salvation could

be possible only through sons are accorded with peculiar privilege of performing last rites of

deceased parents.

205  

Conseque

1.

2.

3.

4.

ences of fema

. Affect on

the foetus

health bad

. Imbalance

decline in

of girls,br

deviant be

. Increase i

Besides, v

sexual har

trafficking

common.

. Prevalenc

female fo

happening

bride swa

females f

foeticide h

ale foeticide

Health: Wom

till she gets

ly.

e of Sex Ra

sex-ratio. Nu

ide burning

havior, HIV a

n Crime: Sex

violence has

rassment, eve

g, flesh tra

ce of Evil

oeticide, frat

g, many fami

apping, selli

from backw

has adversely

Prevalencof Evil

Practices

men, who un

son. With th

atio: Female

umerous socia

, forced poly

aids, gay cultu

xual violence

aggravated a

-teasing, acid

ade etc. ar

Practices: D

ternal polyan

ilies are eng

ng and buy

ward areas.

affected man

Consfema

A

Iin

ce

s

ndergo sex se

he result, she

foeticide giv

al problems a

yandry , swap

ure etc.

e has been pro

against the f

d-attack,

e very

Due to

ndry is

gaged in

ying of

Female

ny parts

sequences of ale foeticide

Affect on Health

Increase n Crime

lective aborti

e may becom

ves rise to im

arise such as

p marriages

ogressively ri

females. Crim

Imbalaof SeRati

ions, may end

me barren and

mbalance of

forcedabduct

, gand rape,

sing in the co

mes such as

ance ex o

d up with abo

d it also affec

sex ratio. D

tion and kidn

child prostit

ontemporary s

rape, molest

orting

ct her

Due to

npping

tution,

scene.

tation,

206  

If the fem

brides. Pe

large.

Measures

In order t

Code, 186

Diagnosti

• T

m

• T

pr

• T

pa

19

D

fo

ap

as

Until Ind

them as

continue.

fundamen

The socia

exploitatio

early mar

enacting p

In order to

of India, f

group of 1

they are pa

male ratio kee

eople will wa

s to Combat

to stop this e

60; the Medi

ic Techniques

The Indian P

miscarriage. T

The Medical T

regnancy on m

The efforts on

assing of the

994. The Ac

Diagnostic Te

oeticide, the

ppropriate au

s well as by th

dian society g

human being

But it is d

ntal change in

al evils such a

on, lack of pr

rriage etc. sh

proper laws. T

o make the fe

for instance,

15 to 45 obta

assed on from

eps declining

ander for fem

female foetic

evil practice,

ical Terminat

s (Prohibition

Penal Code

hese sections

Termination

medical groun

n behalf of leg

e Pre-Natal D

ct was amen

echniques (Pr

PC & PND

uthorities and

he State Gove

grants women

gs such prac

difficult to c

n social attitud

as dowry, pov

roper educatio

hould be dea

The need of h

emales indepe

Haryana is o

in brides from

m one husband

g, then days a

males in order

cide

the legislatu

tion of Pregn

n of Sex Selec

contained pr

s penalize viol

of Pregnancy

nds, humanita

gislature to c

Diagnostic T

nded in 200

rohibition of

DT Act, 1994

advisory com

ernment.

n equal statu

ctices like fe

check this e

des.

verty, women’

on to girl chil

alt with stern

hour is to imp

endent, wome

one such stat

m other states

d to the next.

are not so far

r to perpetuat

ure has enacte

nancy Act, 1

ction Act) 199

rovisions un

lent or forced

y Act, 1971

arian grounds

curb the evil p

echniques (R

2 and renam

Sex Selectio

4 provide pr

mmittees are t

us to men an

female foetic

evil practice

’s unemploym

ld and their d

nly and requ

plement them

en should be i

e where 36%

s and brides

r, when there

te their gener

ed certain law

971 and the

94.

nder sections

d abortions.

liberalized la

s and eugenic

practice of fe

Regulation an

med as the

on) Act, 199

rovisions und

to be constitu

nd value

ide will

without

ment and

drop outs

uired by

m strictly.

imparted

% of the men

are exploited

e will be no f

ration or to s

ws which are

Pre-Concept

312 to 31

aw and allow

c grounds.

emale foeticid

nd Prevention

Pre-Concepti

94. In order

der which Su

uted by the Ce

n between the

d. In many a c

female specie

save the soci

e the Indian

tion and Pre-

6 for prohib

wed terminati

de started wit

n of Misuse)

ion and Pre-

to prevent fe

upervisory B

entral Govern

e age-

cases,

es, no

ety at

Penal

-Natal

biting

ion of

th the

) Act,

-Natal

female

Board,

nment

207  

skill and training through various vocational programs. Free and compulsory education should be

provided to female children so that they can support themselves during emergency. Hence, it would help

in changing the attitude of people. Girls should be sensitized to grow up to be as good as boys. They can

be good citizens, earners, providers for their family and for their parents. Females need not be sold or

burnt. She should be provided proper education that makes her self-sufficient and economically

independent. A clear and strong social preference for the girl child is required to be created that can be

done by generating awareness. Medical professionals should counsel their patients and their families on

the importance of the girl child and impact of the skewed sex ratio on the society. Social action is

supplemented with prompt implementation of regulations which are required to stop female foeticides. If

such practices will continue, especially in a society with an overwhelming preference for male children,

the problem of female foeticide may not be eliminated.

Glossary

Female foeticide : Killing the female foetus in mother’s womb.

Female Infanticide: Killing of female after birth.

Sex ratio : The number of females per 1000 males.

Patriarchy: Father figure exercise authority over women and children

Exercises

Find out correct answer out of four options:

1. According to 2011 census, the sex ratio in India is: 939/940/941/942.

2. Sex ratio can be defined as: Number of females per 100 males/Number of males per 100

females/Number of females per 1000 males/None.

3. In the state of Punjab, district with highest sex ratio: Ferozpur/Bathinda/Ludhiana/Amritsar.

4. Female foeticide test includes: Ultra sound/MRI/X-rays/Weighing Machines.

5. The main cause of female foeticide: Increased sex ratio/Patriarchal mind set/Preference for

girls/None.

Fill in the blanks:

1. Sex determination test includes_____________

208  

2. ____________ is one of the reason for female foeticide.

3. ____________ evil practice is responsible for female foeticide in Indian society.

4. _______________ keeps declining in India while a bit is improved in _____________ State.

5. _____________ should be implemented properly in order to combat female foeticide.

True/False:

1. Ultra sound is the pre diagnostic test for the determination of sex. ________

2. Law does not help to generate awareness about female foeticide. _________

3. Sex ratio has improved in Punjab according to census 2011. _________

4. Awareness programmes can sensitize about the ill effects of female foeticide. ________

5. Cultural and rituals norms have no effect on female foeticide. ___________

Match the following:

1. Female Foeticide killing of the girl child

2. Sex Ratio male dominance

3. Patriarchy killing of female fetus in the womb

4. Female Foeticide ` females per 1000 males

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

1. What is the sex ratio of India as per the census 2011?

2. What is the sex ratio of Punjab as per the census 2011?

3. Which districts in Punjab have the highest and lowest sex ratio?

4. Describe full form of PNDT?

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

1. Define Female Foeticide

2. Define sex ratio?

3. What are the two causes of female foeticide?

4. Status of female in India?

5. Why males are proffered in India?

Answer the following long answer questions in 75-85 words each:

1. Short note on female foeticide?

2. Discuss any two measures to combat female foeticide?

209  

3. Discuss any two consequences of female foeticide?

4. Why sex ratio is declining in India. Explain?

5. Name two social problems that give rise to female foeticide?

Answer the following long answer questions in 250-300 words each:

1. Write detail note on sex ratio?

2. What do you understand by female foeticide. Describe its causes and consequences?

3. Explain the role of government to combat this problem?

4. Write a detail note on female foeticide?

5. What do you understand by female foeticide. Explain various measures to combat this problem?

References

Alka Srivastava. 2002. Declining Sex Ratio The marginalized Girl Child. Women's Lint Vol. 8,

No. 1, January March-2002.

Jena, K.C. 2008. Female Foeticide in India: A Serious Challenge for the Society. Orissa

Review, 8-17

sneh, L T. and Renu, S. 2006. Female Foeticide and Infanticide in India: An Analysis of

Crimes against Girl Children. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, Vol. 11ssue

1, 2-11

210  

Introduction

Violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men

and women and is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a

subordinate position compared with men. History of domestic violence dates back to the pre-

historic period. One of the most important reasons for domestic violence is the traditional and

centuries old mind set of the people that women are physically and emotionally weaker than the

men. The domestic abuses that are perpetrated within the four walls are targeted particularly

against women as they are physically weaker and are treated as a second class citizen in the

society.

Definition

Domestic Violence is defined as socially unacceptable and abusive behavior by one or the other

or both the members in a close and intimate relationship like marriage. It is anything that is

experienced as fearful, controlling and threatening when used by those with power (invariably

men) against those without power (mainly women and children).

Domestic violence includes harassment, maltreatment, brutality or cruelty and even the threat of

assault - intimidation. It includes physical injury, as well as willfully or knowingly placing

spouse in fear of injury and compelling the spouse by force or threat to engage in any conduct/

Chapter: 13 Domestic Violence 

Highlights:

13.1 Definition

13.2 Forms of Domestic Violence

13.3 Factors of Domestic Violence

13.4 Causes of Domestic Violence

13.5 Effects of Domestic Violence

13.6 Remedies for Domestic Violence

211  

act from which the spouse has a right to abstain. Confining or detaining the spouse against one’s

will or damaging property is also considered as acts of violence.

Forms of Domestic Violence

1. Intimate Terrorism: It is an approach of gaining control by one of the members over the other by way of creating terror. It is one of the commonest forms of couple violence having possibility of escalating over time and involving physical injuries.

2. Physical Abuse: In this form of domestic violence a physical contact is involved to cause

injury, pain or other bodily harm and suffering. Physical abuse may be inflicted in many ways such as hitting, slapping, punching, pushing and other form of physical contact resulting in bodily sufferings to the victim.

3. Sexual Abuse: Sexual abuse occurs when one of the partners is made to participate in

unwanted sexual activity by force or threat. Threatening a person or using force to obtain participation in sex, against her/his will, even if she/he is spouse, is an act of aggression and violence.

4. Emotional abuse: The emotional abuse or psychological abuse occurs when the victim is

subjected to humiliation by perpetrator privately or in public. The perpetrator exercises

control over the victim’s freedom and access to information. The victim is subjected to

harassment and isolation from the family and friends. The perpetrator even resorts to

harming others who are closer to the victim. In other cases of emotional abuse the victim

is deprived of basic necessities of life by the perpetrator.

5. Verbal abuse: The abuse wherein the abuser uses language and words of mouth to cause

humiliation, disrespect or to criticize the victim is called the verbal abuse. Verbal threat

to cause physical harm to the victim, name-calling humiliation and blaming are some

other forms of verbal abuse. There can be some mild ways of verbal abuse such as false

accusation, humiliation, misleading to submit to undesirable behavior and the isolation of

the victim.

6. Economic abuse: Domestic violence that prevents victims attaining economic self

sufficiency by restricting his/her access to economic resources is called economic abuse.

212  

The abuser controls victims’ finances to prevent him/her from gaining and maintaining a

control of earnings to achieve self-sufficiency or gain financial independence. Economic

dependence is most commonly cited reason by the victims for staying in abusive

relationships.

Factors that perpetuate Domestic Violence: There are many factors that perpetuate domestic

violence which can be discussed under the following sub-headings such as cultural, economic,

legal and social.

1. Cultural

a) Gender-specific socialization

b) Definitions of appropriate sex roles

c) Expectations of roles within relationships

Factors that perpetuate Domestic Violence 

Cultural

Economic

Legal

Power & Control

Social

213  

d) Belief in the inherent superiority of males

e) Values that give men proprietary rights over women and girls

f) Notion of the family as the private sphere and under male control

g) Customs of marriage (bride price/dowry)

h) Acceptability of violence as a means to resolve conflict.

2. Economic

a) Women’s economic dependence on men

b) Limited access to cash and credit

c) Discriminatory laws regarding inheritance, property rights, use of communal lands, and

maintenance after divorce or widowhood

d) Limited access to employment in formal and informal sectors

e) Limited access to education and training for women

3. Legal

a) Lesser legal status of women either by written law and/or by practice

b) Laws regarding divorce, child custody, maintenance and inheritance though favouring

women but not in actual practice due to strong patriarchy.

c) Low levels of legal literacy among women

d) Insensitive treatment of women and girls by police and judiciary Political

e) Under-representation of women in power, politics, the media and in the legal and medical

professions

f) Domestic violence not taken seriously

g) Notions of family being private and beyond control of the state

h) Limited organization of women as a political force

4. Social Stresses

Families and couples in poverty are more likely to experience domestic violence, due to

increased pressure of financial and other resources necessary for life and conflicts resulting

there-from. Poverty may hinder a man's ability to live up to his idea of "successful manhood",

214  

thus he fears losing honour and respect. When a man fails to economically support his family

and have control over the spouse, he may turn to substance abuse, and violence to express

masculinity.

Activity

Watch and note down the behaviour of male members towards the

females members in your family for three successive days and

discuss it in the class.

Domestic Violence against Women in India

This form of domestic violence is most common of all. One of the reasons for it being so

prevalent is the orthodox and idiotic mindset of the society that women are physically and

emotionally weaker than the males. Though women today have proved themselves in almost

every field of life affirming that they are no less than men, the reports of violence against them

are much larger in number than against men. The possible reasons are many and are diversified

over the length and breadth of the country. According to United Nation Population Fund Report,

around two-third of married Indian women are victims of domestic violence and as many as 70

per cent of married women in India between the age of 15 and 49 are victims of beating, rape or

forced sex. In India, more than 55 percent of the women suffer from domestic violence,

especially in the states of Bihar, U.P., M.P. and other northern states.

Causes of Domestic Violence in India

1. The most common causes for women stalking and battering include dissatisfaction with the dowry and exploiting women for more of it, arguing with the partner, refusing to have sex with him, neglecting children, going out of home without telling the partner, not cooking properly or on time, indulging in extra marital affairs, not looking after in-laws etc.

2. In some cases infertility in females also leads to their assault by the family members.

3. Women in India also admit to hitting or beating because of their suspicion about the husband’s sexual involvement with other women.

4. In urban areas there are many other factors such as more income of a working

215  

Effects of Domestic Violence:

1. It makes adverse effects on the health and wealth of the victim woman. It creates a lot of

stress to the woman and the stress converts into mental and physical problems to the woman

that creates problems in her education and healthy family atmosphere.

2. The spousal domestic violence also makes effects on the children of the family. They do not

proper attention on their daily schedule, such as education, playing or other creative

activities. On seeing a domestic violence towards the mother, the children begin to hate their

father and other relatives, and that create a negative attitude in the children regarding the

marriage life cycle.

3. Women victims of violence generally remain quiet, depressed and emotionally disturbed

after the occurrence of the violence. The trauma of domestic violence has a negative and

disturbing impact on women’s productivity in all shades of her life . The suicide tendency in

such victimized women is also a deadly consequence and the number of which is on the rise.

Remedies for Domestic Violence

Following are the remedies to control the problem of Domestic Violence.

1. Fighting the ‘Domestic Violence’ Evil

Domestic violence is now being viewed as a public health problem of epidemic proportion all

over the world. Many public, private and governmental agencies are seen making huge

efforts to control it. There are several organizations all over the world, government and non

government, actively working to fight the problems generated by domestic violence to the

human community.

2. Need for Stringent Laws

woman than her partner, her absence in the house till late night, abusing and neglecting in-laws, being more forward socially etc.

216  

The Government of India passed a Domestic Violence Bill, 2001, “To protect the rights of

women who are victims of violence of any kind occurring within the family and to provide

for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto”.

3. Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

The role of non-governmental organizations in controlling the domestic violence and curbing

its worse consequences is crucial. There are many NGOs which are active in big cities such

as Sakshi (Delhi), Women’s Rights Initiative (Delhi) and Gulabi Gang (Bombay). These

NGOs continue to spread awareness amongst people regarding the legal rights they have in

hand for fighting against the atrocities they are subjected to. They are encouraging more and

more people to report any case of domestic violence so that proper action may be taken

against the culprits. There is need for such organizations in small towns and rural areas.

4. Police and Health Care

Police plays a major role in tackling the domestic violence cases. They need to be sensitized

to treat domestic violence cases as seriously as any other crime. Special training to handle

domestic violence cases should be imparted to police force. Gender training should be made

mandatory in the trainings of the police officers. There should be a separate wing of police

dealing with women’s issues.

5. Introduce a Comprehensive Law against Domestic Violence: There should be

a comprehensive law that incorporates a broader definition of domestic violence. The

definition should encompass all acts of physical, psychological, emotional, sexual, and

financial abuse that, in effect, hurt or degrade the woman or take away her ability to control

contact with another individual.

6. Address Domestic Violence through Education: Prevention of domestic

violence ultimately depends upon changing the norms of society regarding violence as a

means of conflict resolution and regarding traditional attitudes about gender. To achieve this,

the concept of gender and human rights musts be introduced in the curricula of schools,

universities, professional colleges, and other training settings. Along with this, there must be

217  

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words

recognition and commitment to the principle of free compulsory primary and secondary

education for girls.

7. Increase Outreach to Rural Areas: Coverage of services and programs needs to be

expanded to rural areas. Apart from interventions such as lok adalats and parivarik mahila

lok adalats, grievance redressal mechanisms for women facing domestic violence in rural

areas are few or simply absent. In addition, All Women Police Stations are primarily

located in urban areas. The voluntary sector has attempted interventions in rural areas

successfully but their efforts are hampered by the non-availability or limited access to

referral, health, and police.

Glossary

1. Perpetrator: One who is guilty/responsible for a crime.

2. Patriarchy: Social system in which father is head of the household having authority over women and children

3. Violence: Behaviour involving physical force intended to hurt, damage, or kill someone or something

4. Domestic violence: Violent or aggressive behaviour within the home, typically involving

the violent abuse of a spouse or partner.

5. Feoticide: Female foeticide in India is the act of killing a female foetus outside of the legal

channels of abortion. It occurs in India for assumed cultural reasons that span centuries.

6. Wife battering : The array of physical and psychological injuries exhibited by women

(battered women or battered wives) who have been beaten repeatedly or otherwise

abused by their partners or spouses.

Exercises

1. What do you meant by term “violence”?

2. What is meant by domestic violence?

3. List any two factors of domestic violence?

4. What do you mean by female feoticide?

5. List the factors of wife battering

218  

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Answer the following long answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Answer the following long answer questions in 250-300 words each:

7. Write down three causes of domestic violence.

8. What is difference between domestic violence and violence?

9. What is wife battering?

10. What are factors responsible for female feoticide?

11. List cultural factors of domestic violence

7. Write causes of domestic violence

8. Write remedies of wife battering

9. Write the legal reforms to curb female foeticide.

10. Write effects of domestic violence

11. What is scenario of Domestic violence against women in India

.

12. Write a detail note on domestic violence.

13. What are the causes of Domestic violence?

14. Write down about control of domestic violence.

15. What do you mean by female feoticide? Discuss its factors in detail.

16. What is wife battering? What are the remedies for it.

17. Write down about control of Female Feoticide.

Q.1 Multiple Choice

1. Which is a Forms of Domestic Violence

219  

a) Legal b) Physical abuse c) Society d) Economic

2. Which Factor does not perpetuate Domestic Violence

a) Cultural b) economic c)social d) pedagogy

3. Term used to organize non-formal education for adult females and school drop outs,

create employment opportunities for women as well as provide counseling and support

services to women.

a) Women Empowerment b) Women Social Services c) Women counseling d) Women

Voilence

4. The act, according to which a daughter has an equal share in the property of her parents

a) Legal property act b) Hindu Property act c) Civil act d) Divine act

5. Compounding the problem of age and sex differences is the fact that family statuses and

roles are called

a) Compound role b) Ascribed role c) Traditional role d) Refrain role

Q.2 Fill in the Blanks

1. Physical abuse may be inflicted in many ways such as hitting, slapping, punching,

pushing and other form of physical contact resulting in bodily sufferings to the victim.

2. The couples living alone or with children, or an individual parent with children are ,

nuclear households.

3. Women’s studies must be made compulsory as part of school, college and university

syllabus.

4. Domestic Violence is defined as socially unacceptable and abusive behaviour by one or

other or both the members in a close and intimate relationship like marriage or a family.

5. The four-fold system of the Purusharthas which outline an ideal life cycle, are directed

towards the goal of attaining moksha

Q.3 True/ False

1. Newly married couples must be made aware that a small family need not only include

male children.-True

220  

2. The greed for dowry, desire for a male child and alcoholism of the spouse are major

factors of domestic violence against women in rural areas.

3. Wife Beating does not reflects Domestic Violence.

4. History of domestic violence dates back to the pre-historic period.

5. The spousal domestic violence also makes effects on the children of the family.

4 Match the followings

1. Economic liability---Dowry demand

2. Female Feoticide--- Skewed Sex Ratio

3. Form of Domestic Violence---Marital Rape

4. British regime --- women as 'slaves of slaves'

5. The four-fold system --- Purusharthas

References:

1. Patel, Tulsi (ed.), Sex Selective Abortion in India, Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd., New

Delhi, 2007.

2. Smith, M., & Segal, J. (March 2010). Domestic violence and abuse. Retrieved April 17,

2010, from http://helpguide.org/mental/domestic_violence_abuse_types_signs_

causes_effects.htm#top

3. http://www.censusindia.net

4.  http://www.inhw.org/female-foeticide-in-india

5. http://www.asafeplaceforhelp.org/batteredwomenstatistics.htm

 

221  

Chapter14 Problems and Concerns : The Aged

Introduction 

Aging  is a natural process which all  living beings go  through. It is the process by which the

relative size of the young age population decreases and old age population increases as a result of

the transition. A person’s life is normally divided into five main stages namely infancy,

childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. Old age is an integral part of human life cycle.

This stage is considered as an unavoidable, undesirable, unwelcome and problem ridden phase of

life. Everyone has to go through the trials and tribulations associated with this phase, since one

becomes dependent due to one’s physical infirmity. Many people experience loneliness and

depression in old age, either as a result of living alone or due to lack of close family ties and

reduced connections with their culture of origin, which results in an inability to actively

participate in the community activities. However, in spite of the problems being faced by the

Chapter 14.I :    The Aged 

Highlights

Introduction

Demography of ageing

Theories of old age

Problems of the Aged

Role of Government and Social Security

222  

elderly, p

families.

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223  

The UN agreed cut off is 60+ years to refer to the older population. In most contemporary

Western countries, 60 or 65 is the age of

eligibility for retirement and old-age social

programs. However, in the Indian context,

the age of 60 years has been adopted by the

census of India for the purpose of

classifying a person as old, which coincides

with the age of retirement in government sector.

Signs of Old Age

Certain physical signs mark an individual as old: tooth decay, balding or gray hair,

hunched back, grey hair, wrinkles, hearing loss, vision impairment, cognitive slowing,

slow pace of walk are all signals that one is becoming old.

Certain age-related chronic diseases such as arthritis, high blood pressure, high

cholesterol, diabetes, heart disease etc.

THOSE WHO STUDY AGING

GERENTOLOGISTS

study what is it like to be an older adult in society

SOCIAL GERONTOLOGIST

study sociological aspect of aging

Do you know

United Nations (UN) International Day of

Older Persons is celebrated annually on

October 1 to recognise the contributions of

older persons.

224  

Changing social roles include retiring from full-time employment, becoming a

grandparent, drawing a pension, being considered incompetent by the society

 

Activity 14.1

You must have seen many online ads which highlight the notion that people may look

and feel a different age than their actual years with the help of cosmetic surgery and other

related offers. This may provide a ‘young look’ to the old.

i) Search and find such ads.

ii) Find out the pros and cons of cosmetic surgery.

Theories Pertaining to Ageing

1. The Disengagement Theory views aging as a process through which society and the

individual gradually withdraw or disengage from each other. There is transfer of power

from the old to the young making it possible for society to continue to function.

2. The Activity Theory asserts that in order to be happy in old age, individuals need to be

active. It argues that if existing roles and relationships are lost it is important to replace

them. Replacement to roles and relationships is necessary because when activity level

drops, there is corresponding drop in level of satisfaction.

The Disengagement 

Theory

The Activity Theory

The Continuity Theory

Modernisation Theory

The Age Stratification 

Theory

225  

3. The Continuity Theory is also known as the Development Theory. It states that older

adults try to preserve and maintain internal and external structures by using strategies that

maintain continuity. Continuity theory has excellent potential for explaining how people

adopt to their own aging.

4. Modernisation Theory holds that elderly persons typically fail to change to satisfy the

norms of the modernisation process like material economy, achievement orientation,

technological maturity and mass consumption.

5. The Age Stratification Theory provides a basis for explaining whatever forms and

levels of inequality might exist between the young and old in given societies. According

to this theory, the relative inequality of the aged at any given time and in any cultural

situation depends upon two types of experiences: their typical life course experiences,

due mostly to the physical and mental changes that take place and the historically based

experiences they have as part of the age cohort to which they belong.

Hindi film Piku: Old age problems in India

The Hindi film Piku explores the relationship between an elderly father and his daughter

on whom he depends completely.

Almost every Indian caring for the elderly at home could identify with the dichotomy and

dilemma faced by young Piku who is trying to balance her career and personal life while

caring for a dominating, and at times, hypochondriac father, whom she loves but whose

old-age antics prove to be a constant stress in her life.

Piku has come at a time when most of young India is grappling with geriatric care issues. If

Activity 3

) Discuss in your class the problems being faced by family members when they have interface with the elders and conclude the discussion with suitable suggestions.   

226  

Problems of the Aged

Problems of the Aged

Health Problems

Economic Insecurity

Incomplete Preparedness for Old Age

Housing Related Problems

Social Problems

Psychological Problems

Role related Problems

Ageing is the natural stage of human life and it brings with it innumerable difficulties for the

people who have grown old. These problems can be put under the sub-heads of health, economic

insecurity, physiological and housing problems and elder abuse.

Health Problems

we go by the United Nations Population Fund report, they are set to become worse. The

report projects that the number of people over 60 will increase from around 100 million

now to more than 300 million by 2050 putting an additional strain on families, health and

welfare services.

227  

During the course of old age metabolism processes slow down. People became weak both

physically and mentally. They are more prone to sickness, diseases, syndromes, etc. The

immunity of a person is lowered. Older people are mostly vulnerable to non-communicable

diseases. Reducing health due to increasing age is complicated by non-availability to good

quality age-sensitive health care for a large proportion of older persons. In addition to this, lack

of information and knowledge in combination with high costs of disease management puts old-

age care beyond the reach of older persons, especially those who are poor and disadvantaged.

Economic Insecurity

228  

This problem arises when elderly are unable to sustain themselves economically. They either

lack the capacity to be productive or are negatively affected by the declining opportunities for

productive employment. Retirement and reduced income tend to create a feeling that one’s

usefulness is essentially over and activities are restricted. They lose their status, face

sluggishness in physical and mental abilities, decrease in access to resources, and suffer from

lack of awareness about the rights and entitlements with changing times. Hence, they may have

to face financial insecurity at that age.

Incomplete Preparedness for Old Age

Majority of the people enter old age with very little or no awareness of what it is about to befall

them. While demographically the age of 60 years is acknowledged as the time when a person can

be called a senior citizen, however, there is no other clear indicator available to the people

belonging to this category. Each individual has a different trigger point after which s/he feels that

s/he is physiologically and functionally old enough. This trigger point can be before or after 60

years of age. In India there is absence of formal awareness programs that prepare people for old

age. This problem of preparedness can be prevented through an initiative to spread awareness

that should be started within the work place where Human Resource Department needs to take an

active role in preparing employees to face retirement and deal with old age issues. For those who

work in unorganized sector or are self-employed, this work or awareness generation can be done

by government departments or NGOs.

Housing Problems

Housing for elderly should be suitable not only to the living pattern which they have established

in optimum health, but also to conditions of failing health and illness. Majority of housing that is

there for elderly may be found not adequate and not suitable to their needs. The sizeable

populations of elderly widows and elderly males have been facing problem of shortage of

peaceful place to live in. A common complaint of many elderly is the feeling of loneliness and

sense of being isolated within their own homes. In most cases isolation is imposed purposefully

by the families or communities where the old age people live in.

Social Problems

229  

Change in socio-economic status adversely affects the individual's way of life in old age.

Changing lifestyles and values, job culture, various means of distractions like the internet,

television, societal shift such as nuclear family structures and redefined priorities have led to

increased neglect of the elderly by families or communities. Consequently, a feeling of isolation

sets in among them. The aged believe that old age has affected their role in the family and

society. They feel that they are not consulted by the family members while making decisions and

ignored by the society because of their physical illness and economic dependence.

Psychological Problems

With the onset of old age the mindset of the elderly also changes. First of all, the fear of facing

unpredictable old age problems is faced by both rational and irrational elderly persons. Idleness

is another issue since the aged are made to believe that they are not physically productive or

useful. This leads to low self-esteem, withdrawal from responsibilities and depression. All this

has a huge negative emotional impact on a person’s life.

Role related Problems

With the onset of old age several roles are lost or restricted. Although the elderly become weak

but they are not keen to let go and relinquish their authoritative position in the family and still

want to be key decision makers of family matters and business issues. The younger generation in

the family starts imposing their power on them. This may create tension in the family and

conflict between the young and old generation.

Remedial Measures for the Problems of the Elderly

Today, all the developed countries have undertaken various social, legislative, reformative and

welfare measures to protect the interests of the old people.

1. Due to severe adjustment problems with the family members the elderly are left to sustain

by themselves after being neglected by their own children. Such old people many a times

suffer from emotional problems and depression. They can, however, take shelter in Old

Age Homes which are found in many countries across the world and provide physical

protection, medical aid and economic security to the old.

230  

2. In global era various welfare schemes have been started to give protection to the elderly

such as old age allowance, pension, accidental benefits, free medical aid etc. In order to

provide economic security various labour legislations and welfare schemes have been

introduced which include provident fund, gratuity, life insurance, etc.

Measures for bringing Relief to Elderly

Nevertheless, a lot still needs to be done for the aged.

1. Various measures have been taken to benefit the elderly of the society. However, it is

required that even after retirement, those who are able to be productive for the society, be

provided with suitable job opportunities. This way, society can make best use of their

services and professional experiences.

231  

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N EM

232  

Since independence the Indian government has been committed to supporting the old people in

our society with certain interventionist welfare methods. The year 1999 was declared by the UN

as the International Year of Older Persons, followed on 13th Jan 1999, by the Government of

India approving the National Policy for Older Persons for accelerating welfare measures and

empowering the elderly in ways beneficial to them. Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and

Senior Citizens Act, 2007 provides legal sanctions to the rights of the elderly. In addition,

constitutional provisions for old age security, old age pension, establishing old age homes,

expanding geriatric services, liberalizing housing policy for elders have also been undertaken. 

BOX 

Social Security Benefits 

In the context of changing intergenerational relationships, economic dependence on children is a

major factor determining the quality of life of elderly. As such, social security by the state

assumes great importance. Unfortunately, at present, there is very little in terms of social security

from the state in India. Only those who work in the public sector or for large private companies

have benefits such as pensions and provident funds. However, for the most of the 90 per cent of

elderly persons who work in the informal sector, there are scarcely any benefits. The only

available benefits for the poor are:

a. The National Old Age Pension of 75 rupees per month, which is universal but available only to destitute people over the age of 65 years.

233  

b. Various state schemes, with benefits ranging between Rs.60 to Rs. 250 per month, meant generally for people aged 65+ and below the poverty line, and c. Benefits for widows below Rs. 150 per month. 

With the constantly increasing cost of health care and housing, these benefits fall far short of

supporting even minimal basic needs. The right of parents without any means of their own to be

supported by their children has been recognized by section 125(I) (d) of the Code of Criminal

Procedure 1973, and section 20 (3) of the Hindu Adaptation and Maintenance Act, 1956. More

recently, in 1996, the Government of the state of Himachal Pradesh passed the Parents’

Maintenance Bill requiring children to take care of parents with no means and to provide

assistance to those neglected by their children. The Governments of Maharashtra, Goa and others

are in the process of passing similar bills.

National Policy for Older Persons

The central government came out with the National Policy for Older Persons in 1999 to promote the

health, safety, social security and well being of senior citizens in India. The Policy recognizes a person

aged 60 years and above as a senior citizen. This policy strives to encourage families to take care of their

older family members. It also enables and supports voluntary and non-governmental organizations to

supplement the care provided by the family and provide care and protection to vulnerable elderly people.

The policy has identified a number of areas of intervention ~ financial security, healthcare and nutrition,

shelter, education, welfare, protection of life and properly etc. for the wellbeing of older persons in the

country. The main objective of this policy is to make older people fully independent citizens.

This policy has resulted in the launch of new schemes such as-

1. Strengthening of primary health care system to enable it to meet the

health care needs of older persons

2. Training and orientation to medical and paramedical personnel in health

care of the elderly.

3. Promotion of the concept of healthy ageing.

4. Assistance to societies for production and distribution of material on geriatric care.

5. Provision of separate queues and reservation of beds for elderly

patients in hospitals.

234  

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235  

Answer the following True/False

1. The Imposing of power by young on elderly of the family creates?

(a) Love (b) tension (c) stress (d) conflict

2. What does the shift in family structure makes elders feel ?

(a) Neglected (b) poor (c) angry (d) weak

3. By which act does the maintenance and welfare of parents and senior citizens take place?

(a) Senior Citizen’s Act 2009 (b) Senior Citizen’s Act 2008 (c) Senior Citizen’s Act 2007

(d) Senior Citizen’s Act 2006

4. What is the other name for Continuity theory?

(a) Undeveloped theory (b) Developing theory (c) Development theory (d)

Non Continuity theory

Fill in the blanks with appropriate words

4. The study of social and sociological aspects of aging is called __________

5. Arthiritis, high blood pressure, diabetes, heart disease etc are age related

__________diseases.

6. The most challenging phenomenon worldwide in 21st century is

____________population.

7. The new housing system for the elderly is known as __________.

8. The __________ department can take an active role in preparing employees to

face retirement and old age issues

Answer the following True/False

1. The Parents’ Maintenance bill was passed in Himachal Pradesh. 2. The inequality between the young and old in society is explained in

Modernization theory.

3. Elderly do not have any role problems.

4. The elderly experience financial insecurity at this age.

5. Elders are not considered much productive due to age factor.

236  

Match the following

Column A Column B

1. Withdrawing from society Activity Theory

2. Change in Socio economic status Social Problems

3. Elders should be more active Disengagement Theory

4. Field of study that aims to study the process

Of aging Economic Insecurity

5. Unable to sustain themselves Gerentology

Answer the following in one word

6. What is the science that aims to understand the process of aging and its challenges

called?

7. According to UN what is the cut off age for ‘older population’?

8. How much would India’s elderly population go up to by 2020?

9. Which Hindi movie is about an old father and his daughter?

10. On which day is the UN International Day for Older Persons celebrated?

Answer the following in 10-15 words each word

a. Which are the five stages of a man’s life?

b. What is the age of retirement in India?

c. How can the aging process be minimized?

d. Define ‘Trigger point’.

e. What do you mean by ‘Grey population’?

Answer the following short questions in 30-35 words each

i. What are the physical signs which mark an individual as old?

237  

ii. What are the causes of loneliness and depression found among the old in

society?

iii. What type of treatments can be given to the older people

iv. Define ‘Sociotherapy’.

v. In which type of family are problems of old age relatively less? Why?

Answer the following short questions in 75-85 words each

1. How does the Government help in the rehabilitation of the elderly?

2. Highlight the housing and health problems faced by the elders in our society?

3. What do you understand by ‘Social Security benefits’?

Answer the following long answer questions in 250-300 words each:

1. Elaborate on the theories of Old Age.

2. Explain the various problems faced by elderly in society.

3. How can the problems of the elderly be solved?

References

1. http://www.socialjustice.nic.in/oldageact.php 

2. http://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l170‐Rights‐Of‐Senior‐Citizen.html 

3. https://www.google.com/search?q=elderly&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjWusi

n8PXJAhVMcY4KHRa0C_EQ_AUICCgC&biw=1440&bih=789#tbm=isch&q=elderly+in+India&imgr

c=65‐HIgSzW00yQM%3A 

4. https://www.google.com/search?q=elderly&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjWusi

n8PXJAhVMcY4KHRa0C_EQ_AUICCgC&biw=1440&bih=789#tbm=isch&q=l+Policy+for+elderly+in

+India&imgdii=xuLLTulfV4iyeM%3A%3BxuLLTulfV4iyeM%3A%3BCM3JV_J4aqFYQM%3A&imgrc=

xuLLTulfV4iyeM%3A 

5. C.N. Shankar Rao  (2010),  ‘Principles of Sociology with an  Introduction to Social Thought’. New 

Delhi, S. Chand & Company LTD. 

 

 

 

238  

 

Introduction

There are more than one billion people in the world who live with some form of disability. Many of us have disabled people as friends or family, who have difficulties in day to day life. The term disability carries with it a connotation of a lack of deficiency whether mental, physical or sensory. It has been defined primarily in terms of medical deficit. Moreover the word disability is itself not a homogenous category as it includes different kinds of bodily variations, physical impairments, sensory deficits and mental or learning inadequacies which may be either congenital or acquired.

People with disabilities are subject to multiple deprivations with limited access to basic services, including education, employment, rehabilitation facilities etc. widespread social stigma plays a major role in hindering their normal social and economic life.

Definitions

According to WHO, “Disability is an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions. Impairment is a problem in body function or structure; an activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or activity; while a participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situation.”

WHO (1980) established the International Classification of impairment, disability and handicap.

Impairment: It refers to the loss or abnormality of psychological, physical or anatomical structure or function at the system or organ level that may or may not result in disability. Disability refers to an individual limitation or restriction of an activity as the result of impairment.

Chapter 14.II:    Disability 

Highlights

14.ii.1 .Meaning  

14.ii.2 .Magnitude of disability in India 

14.ii.3 Types of disability  

14.ii.4 Social model of Disability  

14ii.5 Problems of the disabled 

 

Box

Many among you must have seen the movie ‘Tare Zameen Par” or ‘Iqbal’. Did you empathize with the differently abled child shown in movie or did you have pity on their limitations. The roots of such attitudes lie in the cultural perception that views an impaired body as a result of fate. Destiny is seen as the culprit and disabled people are the victims. The words impairment, disability and handicap are often used interchangeably.

239  

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240  

3. Hearing Disability: People who cannot hear sounds at or above a certain intensity (loudness) level are classified as deaf or hard of hearing.

4. Mental Disability: This manifests before the age of 18 years and refers to substantial limitations in present functioning. It is characterized by significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable adaptive skill areas: communication, self care, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health & safety, functional academics, leisure and work.

5. Speech Disability: persons who cannot speak, speak limited words or with loss of voice or with stammering voice are classified as being speech disabled.

Causes of Disability

Main causes of disability are:

1. Malnutrition 2. Disease 3. Congenital factor 4. Accident 5. Exposure to chemical substance 6. Stress

Social model of disability

The social model disability is understood as an unequal relationship within a society in which the needs of people with impairments are given no consideration. These barriers prevent them from getting going equal access to information, education, employment, public transport having a social recreational the social model of disability sees the issues of disability as socially created problem and therefore social action and collective responsibility of society at large to make the environmental modification necessary for the full participation of Persons with disability in all areas of social life

Creating buildings that are accessible

Producing information in accessible formats

Challenging stereotypes and assumptions

Ending segregated services

Disabled people doing things for themselves

Disabled people having full rights under the law

Emphasis is now placed upon highlighting the social aspects of disability. The newly devised classification has abandoned the word ‘disability’ and ‘handicap’ altogether and replacing these terms with ‘activities’ and ‘participation’. It emphasizes the dynamic relationship between the health condition of the individual, together with their own ‘personal’ characteristics as well as the broader social environment.

Problems encountered by the Disabled

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242  

The Bill increases reservation for disabled people in the government offices and educational institutions to 5% from 3% .

It also mandates local governments to provide appropriate incentives to employees in the private sectors to ensure that at least 5% of the work force comprise of people with disabilities.

Of the additional quota 1% is for people with mental disabilities and people with multiple disabilities.

Recent developments to promote inclusion with anti-discrimination legislations, equal opportunities and polices and programmes of positive action for the welfare of the disabled is widely recognized. However this would be only possible with a committed and dedicated manpower working for them and towards this objective The Rehabilitation Council of India was set up in 1986. It is an autonomous body to ensure uniform standards of training professionals in the rehabilitation of disabled persons. It has been given statutory status through an Act of Parliament, namely The Rehabilitation Council Act , enable the Rehabilitation Council to regulate the training of the rehabilitation professionals. The Act provides for monitoring the training of rehabilitation professional and personnel promoting research in rehabilitation as special education as additional objectives of the ACT.

Working Together for a Change

1. Inclusive Education: The need of the hour : Inclusion is an effort to make sure that students with disabilities go to school along with their friends and neighbours while also receiving whatever specially designed instruction and support they need to succeed as learners and to achieve high standards. It means creating conducive learning environment for children with special needs. Education for such children needs planning and adaptation in the curriculum to increase educational opportunities for persons with disabilities.Inclusion presents this challenge not just for students with disabilities but also on behalf of students who are different in other ways. Different culture languages interests are ways of learning all need accommodation and adjustments form educators.

243  

2. Removing barriers, creating inclusion and empowering persons with disabilities: The society in general along with government and social organizations in all regions of the country need to work collectively for simple life style changes including sanitation, cost effective but nutritious diets based on locally available food items so that there is no consequent disability.

3. Disability need not be an obstacle to success: We have moral duty to remove barriers to participation and to invest sufficient funding and expertise to unlock the vast potential of people with disabilities. Changing the way we all think about disability is within our reach. We have to ensure that the disabled people have the right opportunities, enabling environment, rehabilitation and support services ,adequate social protection ,inclusive policies and programs and enforceable new standards and legislation to benefit them and wider community. The rights of people with disabilities are best promoted by people with disabilities themselves.

4. Employment is a key factor in the process of empowerment and inclusion of the people with disabilities into the society: Development of human resources through skills development and inclusive training strategies is crucial for the process of inclusion. Small enterprises provide employment opportunities to people with disabilities and help them lift them out of poverty. The government must recognize the training needs of the people with disabilities and formulate legislation and set labour standards which respect the rights of the people with disabilities to be gainfully employed and earn income.

5. Assistance and support systems are the prerequisites for participating in society: Without support the people with disabilities become dependent on their families which prevents both the person with disability and the family from being economically active. The people with disabilities must be enabled to participate in the community work and other activities or else they would be left marginalized without social protection.

6. Education and spreading awareness is needed to remove the ignorance and prejudice surrounding disability: This education must be a regular component in professional courses and

244  

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245  

Activity 3

You must have heard and seen the efforts of many NGOs working to bring relief to the disabled in our society. Find out about projects undertaken in this direction by some shown in the pictures below or any other NGO about which you have information.

Conclusion

Today there are more than 1.3 billion people living in the world with some form of a disability and the numbers are growing. Around the world people with disability not only face physical barriers but also social, economic and attitudinal barriers. In order to remove invisible barriers we need to change the way we think and talk about people with disabilities. The need of the hour today is that we must change the way we look at people. We must create a new world full of hope and without obstacles. We must learn to think and visualize differently. Only then can we be able to discard the old ideas and beliefs and replace it with new standards that will be useful to all. But to achieve this new world we together have to stimulate and activate disability rights activists for achieving the goal of securing social justice equalization of opportunities and full participation of the people with disabilities in nation building.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Persons with disability experience problems arising from their _________

a. health condition and poverty

b sound discrimination

c restriction in movement

d no family support

2. The term_________-- carries with it the connotation of a deficiency- mental, physical or sensory

a blindness

b mental retardation

c disability

d cerebral palsy

3. Children with physical disability whose non-sensory physical limitations or health problems interfere with school attendance or learning

a orthopaedic disability

b cerebral palsy

c ADHD

d Learning disability

246  

4. Embracing ______________-- disabled individuals assert a positive identity not only in being disabled but also in being impaired

a social model

b affirmative model

c politics of disablement model

d structural model

5. The rights of people with disabilities are best promoted by ___________

a Family and friends

b formulating version politics

c people with disabilities themselves

d social and government construction

True / False

1. The policy on disabilities in India was initiated only due to pressure from international development like UN General Assembly T/F

2. The People with DIsabilities Act 1995 recognizes the need to replace emphasis on medical rehabilitation with emphasis on social rehabilitation T/F

3. Mental Retardation manifest before 10 years of age and refers to limitation in present functioning T/ F

4. Disability implies the consequences of impairment in terms of functional performance and activity. T /F

5. “Affirmative” model of disability seeks to celebrate the difference. T/F

Fill in the blanks

1. _______________________________ a condition where a person suffers from total blindness or visual acquity not including 6/60 or 20/200 vision.

2. ____________________ significant educational discrepancy between estimated intellectual potential and the actual school performance

3. The first policy statement in India which recognized the rights of people with various impairment is equal opportunities is __________________________

4. Emphasis is now placed upon highlighting the ___________________ of disability

247  

5. We need to ensure disabled people have the right opportunities ___________

Very short answer

1. What do you understand by the term disability

2. Distinguish between handicapped and impairment

3. What is inclusion

4. Who are the learning disabled children

5. What is the main thrust of the affirmative model

Short Answer

1. Why is disability a concern for all of us

2 How inclusion is different from integration

3. Give the definition of disability as given by the WHO

4. Explain the disability discourse in India

5. Disability need not be an obstacle to success

LONG ANSWER

1. Write a note on types of disability

2. Explain the social model of disability

3. What are the problems encountered by the disabled

4 In what way legislation can play an important role in empowering the disabled

5. What are the highlights of the Right of Persons with Disabilities Bill 2014

248  

References/credits

C.N. Shankar Rao (2010), ‘Sociology of Indian Society’. Ram Nagar, New Delhi, S. Chand &

Company LTD.

Datt & Sundharam (62nd Revised Edition) (2011), ‘Indian Economy’. Ram Nagar, New Delhi, S.

Chand & Company LTD.

L. L. Sharma (2008), ‘Indian Social Structure and Change’. New Delhi, Rawat Publications.

M. Laxmikanth (2014), ‘Indian Polity for Civil Services Examination’. New Delhi, McGraw Hill

Education (India) Private Limited.

Madhurima (2013), ‘Reading in Sociology’. Jalandhar, New Academic Publishing Co.

Neelam Kumari (2010), ‘A Text Book of Sociology’. Jalandhar, PV Books.

Rajender K. Sharma (), ‘Indian Society, Institutions and Change’. New Delhi, Atlantic Publishers

and Distributers.

Ram Ahuja (2009), ‘Society in India’. Jaipur, Rawat Publications.

S. R. Mynei (2012), ‘Sociology for Law Students’. Allahabad, Law Agency Faridabad.

S.K. Misra (2010), ‘Indian Economy- Its Development experience’. Mumbai, New Delhi,

Himalaya Publishing House.

Samir Gupta (2012), ‘Urban Sociology’. New Delhi, Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

Samita Manna (2013), ‘An Introduction to Social Anthropology’. Delhi, Chandigarh, Dorling

Kingersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

Yogesh Atal (2008), ‘Changing Indian Society’. New Delhi, Rawat Publications.

C.N. Shankar Rao (2010), ‘Principles of Sociology with an Introduction to Social Thought’. New

Delhi, S. Chand & Company LTD.

Internet References

www.sociologyguide.com

Internet References

https://www.google.co.in/search?hl=en&site=imghp&tbm=isch&source=hp&biw=1024&bih=643&q

=Percentage+Share+of+Disabled+Population+by+Sex+India%2C+2011+&oq=Percentage+Share+of

+Disabled+Population+by+Sex+India%2C+2011+&gs_l=img.3...5315.5315.0.6839.1.1.0.0.0.0.152.1

52.0j1.1.0....0...1ac.2.64.img..1.0.0.0o5LrwIXWrg#tbm=isch&tbs=rimg%3ACYIH08p7A-

t1IjgMKyDdGMFvn6gpFFPn4DaGCm53AKO2-iZeyd7w1camoptHIT1AGJtWvdQPAwoU2ne-

cSCojs8VAioSCQwrIN0YwW-fEWQ-a8IaOBvyKhIJqCkUU-fgNoYRAqpP-

249  

fMg4UEqEgkKbncAo7b6JhFRunndorycpioSCV7J3vDVxqaiEQQD8MpJxYI4KhIJm0chPUAYm1Y

R6MyssvsTM6MqEgm91A8DChTadxEPvUSQv94sKCoSCb5xIKiOzxUCEdR0lWBQfjDZ&q=poe

m%20on%20disabled%20in%20India&hl=en&imgrc=dqeV97HdGE9LwM%3A