Section 4 166Section 4 166

Terry Wrigley

Introduction

T oo much traditional school learning has been a form of alienated labour. Rather like factory work:

the pupil is told what to do

• howlongtodoitfor

• thenhandsovertheproduct,nottoarealuseroraudiencebuttotheteacher

• eventuallygettingback,inexchange,amarkfromtheteacher,asasurrogatewage.

Theactivityandproductmayhavenomeaning to theproducer– thepupil; it is justanother task to be carried out because told to do so by the teacher. Frequently the endoftheactivityismarkedbytheclock,ratherthanbytaskcompletion,andextrinsicrewards(praisefromtheteacher,meritstickers,etc.)canneverfinallycompensateforalackofintrinsicmeaning.Touseaneconomicmetaphor,inthissituationlearninghasanexchangevalueratherthanausevalue.

Thissenseofalienationis,Ibelieve,particularlydamaginginpoorerneighbourhoods,yet there is a tendency for less engaged learners to be disengaged still further by a diet ofexercises.Ontheotherhand,myownfieldworkinmoresuccessfulinner-cityschoolsrevealedpedagogiesbasedonconnectingwith learners’ communitiesand interests,meaningfullearning,andasenseofaudienceandworthwhileproduct.

The predominance of ‘learning because you’re told to’ is not of course the norm ineveryclassroomorschool,orineverycountry.Sadly,however,whatpassesfor‘schoolimprovement’inBritainhastendedtoreinforcethistraditionratherthanchangeit.WehavealottolearnfromScandinavianschools,wherestrategiessuchasStorylinehavefound fertile ground.

RecentgovernmentreformsinEnglandhaveestablishedaneventighterdisciplineoverlearning, on top of the already standardised curriculum.Teachers are being recom-mendedtoplanstrictlytimed‘four-partlessons’,involvingcompletionoffourdifferentsectionswithinanhour.Typicallythefirstpartisspellingorarithmeticpractice,rather

Projects, Stories and Challenges: More Open Architectures for School Learning

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thananattempttoengagelearners’interestinthelesson’smaintheme.Thereisverylittleexplorationorexchangeofideas;evenwhenpupilsaresetto‘discuss’or‘problem-solve’insmallgroups,theydosoagainsttheclock,resultinginaparodyofprogressivemethods. It isencouraging that thenewScottishcurriculum reformA Curriculum for Excellence (www.ltscotland.org.uk/curriculumforexcellence/index.asp)seekstoreducethecompulsorycontentinordertogivetimeformorein-depthlearningandricherformsofpupilparticipation. Itscentralprinciples requirenewkindsofpedagogies,oroneswhichhaveflourished incountrieswithdifferenteducational traditionsandagreateremphasisondemocraticlearning.OneofthesepedagogiesisStoryline,andit isthepurposeof this chapter toexamine its relationshipwith relatedpedagogies, empha-sising in particular how these can be successfully used in secondary as well as primary schools.

Insecondaryschools, ithasbecomevery important to rediscoverpedagogieswhichinvolvemoreauthenticandsatisfyinglearning–formssuchasprojectmethod,Storyline,ordesignchallenges.Iseetheseasafamilyof‘openarchitectures’.Theyinvolveashiftof focus from thesingleone-hour lesson to longerperiodsof time.Theycancreatespaces for learners to exercise their voice and agency. They involve activities andproductswhichbelongauthenticallytothelearners,anaudiencewhichiswiderthantheteacher-as-assessor,andsometimesleadtorealandsignificantoutcomes.

I use the term ‘openarchitectures’ to distinguish themon theonehand from tightlyregulatedstructuressuchasthe‘four-partlesson’,andontheother,fromsomeearlierformsof‘progressive’or‘child-centred’learningwhichwereoftenlackinginstructureandhighlyindividualised.Forexample,muchofthetopic-workor‘projects’inBritishschoolsintheprogressiveperiodofthe1970sandearly1980sinvolvedpupilscollectingdataasisolatedindividuals.Oftenthe‘topics’or‘projects’ofthatperiodwerelowincognitivechallenge–akindofcollectioncurriculum,ratherthanproblem-solving–withtoomuchtimespentcopying,inaslightlymodifiedform,fromreferencebooks.

ThemethodswhichIamcalling‘openarchitectures’involveindividualandsmall-groupresearch,butwithinaframeofcollectivesocialactivityanddiscussion.Thestructuregives a sense of security and direction to teachers and pupils alike, but providessubstantialflexibilityandchoice,spaceforinitiative,andself-directedlearning.Whenwell planned, theyare cognitively challenging, andwith strongaffective, ethical andaesthetic dimensions.

Theremainderofthispaperisinthreeparts.Thefirstpartofthepaperwillprovideanoutlineofthesethreemethods.Iwillthen,inparttwo,discusstheiradvantages,aswellassomekeydifferencesbetweenthem.Finally,Iwillprovidesomeexamplestoshowthattheyarejustasvalidforolderlearners.

The three ‘open architectures’

1 Project method ProjectmethodwasdevelopedbyeducationalistJohnDeweyandhiscolleagueWH

Kirkpatrick (1918) in theUSA in theearly20thCentury. Ithasbeenelaborated,withvariations,acrossNorthernEurope,butwithacommonemphasisonsolvingreal-worldchallengesor problemsanda combination of plenarywith small groupor individuallearning.Unliketheindividualistic‘projects’aspractisedinBritishschoolsinthe1970s,

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whichremovedtheresearchstagefromitswidercontext,projectsshouldcombineasenseofcollectivitywithpersonalchoice,negotiationandgroupenquiry.

InDenmarkithasstrongofficialendorsementasaformoflearningwhichfulfilstheneedsoftheprogressive1993EducationLaw,whichplacesgreatimportanceondemocraticlearning and learning for democracy.

Schools should prepare pupils for joint decision-making, co-responsibility, rights and duties in a society based on freedom and active democratic participation. Teaching and the daily life of schools must therefore be built on principles of intel-lectual freedom, equality and democracy(DanishParliament,1993:ch1,§1).

A classic structure for projects is exemplified in the guidance for social studies(Samfundsfag).Hereamethodisdescribedconsistingoffourstages:

i Theteacherseekstoengagetheclass’sinterestinacommonthemeorsituation.Alter-natively,acurrentissueisraisedbysomeofthepupils,e.g.basedonrecentnewsoralocal situation.

ii Initialdiscussion(whole-class,alsogroups) identifies interestingaspectsand issues.Duringthisstage,theteachersuggestswaysofdrawingondisciplinaryknowledgeandtechniquestosupportunderstandingandinvestigation.

iii Smallgroups(orindividuals)undertakespecificresearch.

iv Theypresenttheirfindingstothewholeclass.It issuggestedthatthisstageshould,wherepossible,bemorethanjustsharinginformation,andthatpupilsshoulddesignactivities which stimulate further engaged discussion in the class (Undervisnings-ministeriet,1995).

Thispresentsmanyopportunitiesfor initiativeandpersonal learning,butalsofor theteachertodeveloppupils’ideasorchallengemisunderstandings.Furthervariationsarepossible,dependingonthetopic.

Manyprojectsinvolvedirectinvolvementintheworld.Forexample,theymightinvolveaddingafifthstage,takingpupils’findingsandconcernsoutintothewidercommunity.Alternatively,theproblemwhichgeneratestheprojectmightbearealproblemregardingthe neighbourhood, for example its hospital, environmental problems or leisurefacilities.

2 Storyline Storyline isa formof thematicworkstructuredbyanarrative.Thiscanbebasedon

awrittennarrativesuchasanovel,butgenerallythebareoutlineofastoryformstheskeleton.

• Ittypicallybeginswithasituationorlocation,proposedbytheteacher.

• Thenparticipantsinventrolesforthemselves–hotelstafforfamiliesinatown,forexample.

• The teacher’splansmove thestory forward,perhapsby the teacherannouncinganevent,perhapsthroughaplannedinterventionbyavisitorinrole.Eachsucheventisthestimulusforatypeoflearneractivity:research;fictionalorformalwriting;improviseddramaorart;discussionordebate.

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Storyline is strongly experiential, using graphic and dramatic representation. Pupilssituate themselves within the narrative, often by playing the characters they haveinvented. The learning activities follow a narrative sequence, and are triggered bydramatic turns written into the story.

Thus,inaStorylineinventedbyScottishteachersbasedon8thCenturyVikinginvasions,theinitialsituationisanemptybay,depictedasamural.Thepupils,havinginventedcharacters in family groups for themselves, read about housing in this period, painthousesandstickthemontothemural.Onedaytheyarriveatschooltofindashipinthebay,whichtheythendiscoverisaVikingship.Laterinthenarrative,theyarrivetofindtheshipmissing,andalife-sizefigureofaVikingwarrioronthewall.Thepupils,inrole,launchintoapassionateconfrontationwiththestrandedViking:shouldtheykillhim?drownhim?handhimoverasaslavetothefamilieshehaswronged?ordrawonhisskillsasthenewblacksmith?Thevillagers’ethicaldilemmaisbasedontheseoptions,rangingfromexecutiontoassimilation.

Typically,eachdramaticturnleadstoaparticularmediumorgenreoflearneractivity–painting,drama,debate,research,writing.However,itisuptoeachpupilorgrouphowto respond within that medium or genre.

Becauseofitsnarrativeform,includingstrongvisualanddramaticelements,Storylinehasoftenbeenjudgedtobeparticularlysuitableforyoungchildren.ThiswasclearlytheassumptionofitsScottishinventors.However,therearenowmanyScandinavianexamplesof itssuccessfulusewitholderadolescents,andevenwithadult learners.Exampleslaterinthischapterwillillustratethis.

3 Design challenges DesignchallengesareacorefeatureofthemethodpromotedinBritainasCriticalSkills

(www.criticalskills.co.uk, orWeatherley et al., 2003). (It was originally devised by ateamattheUniversityofSyracuse,USA,asEducationbyDesign.)Thismethodis,ineffect,pulledforwardbyitsfinaltaskorproduct–likethrowingoutananchorandthenpullingyourselftowardsitontherope.Insomewaysitresemblesprojectmethod,butisdrivenfromtheend(thechallenge),ratherthanthestart(theproblemorproblematicsituation).

Design challenges involve problems that require investigation and lead to creativesolutions,whicharesharedwiththerestoftheclassorpresentedtoanaudience.Thestartingpoint–likethatofprojectmethod–caninvolveanarrativeordramaticscenario,which helps learners engage.

IwitnessedoneexampleinaScottishsecondaryschool,designedtoengageaclassof12-year-oldsintheirfirstmonthattheschool.Itlastedtwodays,involvedasmallteamofteachers,andhelpedtheseteacherstoidentifyandassessthepriorknowledgeofthesenewcomerstotheschool:ICT(internet,powerpoint),writing,libraryskillsandsoon.Itbeganwithavideomessagefrom‘theEmperoroftheGalaxy’,announcinghisplans to build a superhighway across space from the capital to a new holiday resort. Unfortunately,theplanmeantdestroyingEarth.Theearthlings’challengewastoprovethattheirworldwasworthsaving.Eachgroupchoseaparticularargumenttopursue–diversityofanimalspecies,humancultures,etc.Itdrewuponlearninginarangeofdisciplines.

The organisation which promotes this way of learning places strong emphasis in its trainingon tight cooperation to complete taskswithin a tight deadline,which in turn

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requires the acquisition of particular organisational skills and roles. This can be aweaknessaswellasastrength,because thepacecanalso reduce thescope forreflectionanddiscussion.However,thisisnotanecessaryaspectofdesignchallengesper se.

Open architectures: characteristics and benefits

Thesevarious‘openarchitectures’havemanyfeaturesincommon,suchas:

• engaginglearnersthroughameaningfulsituationortheme

• integratingbroadskillsdevelopmentwithacross-curricularapproachtoknowledge

• encouragingco-operation,negotiationandplanning(oftencalled‘softskills’)

• developingkeyskills(languageandliteracy,mathematics,ICT,research,visualpresentationaswellastheabove‘softskills’)

• providingacommonframeworkwhilstgivingspaceforinitiativeandcreativity

• workingtowardsafulfillingoutcome,suchasafinalperformanceorpresentation,witha sense of product and audience.

Thefirstfourpointsemphasisethattheholisticnatureofthesemethodsinvolvesinter-disciplinarityratherthantheneglectofsubjectlearning.Anumberofpoints,includingthefirst,fifthandsixth,showwhy thesemethodsaresomotivating; thecontextuali-sation,choiceandmeaningfuloutcomemeanthatthis isengagedlearning,reducingtheneedforteacherstoprovideextrinsicmotivation.

Therelationshipbetweenexperiencedrealityandabstractrepresentationisarecurrentand unresolved pedagogical problem. It is both a psychological and a sociologicalissue.Piagetidentifiedage-relatedstagesofmaturation,butAdeyandShayer’s(1994)researchhasshownthatdevelopmenttowardsabstractreasoningmayalsobedelayedinpoorerurbancontexts.Bernstein(1972)arguedthatworking-classchildrenaremoreskilledincontextualisedthanabstractusesoflanguage,butdescribedthisintermsofalanguagedeficitonthepartofthechildrenandtheirfamilies;hefailedtoaskwhetherteachersmightbeabletocontextualiselearningmorefully.Muchmorepositively,Bruner(1968andelsewhere)emphasisesthevalueofnarrative,anddecriesthepedagogicalmonopolyofabstractacademicdiscourse.Thisdebatehasaveryspecificrelevanceforthethree‘openarchitectures’discussedinthischapter,andforStorylineinparticular.

Projects,DesignChallenges andStoryline rely upon real or realistic situations as afoundation for developing specific concepts and skills. This accordswith the notionofmultiple intelligences and learning styles, as the full sensory range canbeused.Increasinglywearecomingtounderstandthatintelligenceisnot,intheend,amatterofmanipulatingabstractsymbolsdivorcedfromreality,butoftheabilitytousesymbolicrepresentations to help us operate intelligently, solve problems and develop ideas.Symbolicrepresentationsrangefromhighlyabstractonessuchasalgebra,toconcreterepresentationssuchasanelectricalcircuitwithabatteryandbulb.Narrativelanguagecanmakelearningmoreaccessiblethanabstractacademicexplanations(Bruner1968),yet,ontheotherhand,theoriesexpressedinamoreabstractmodecanbetransferredfrom one situation to another. This suggests the need to shift easily between concrete and abstractmodes to develop understanding. (For amore detailed argument, seeWrigley,2006.)

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Wartofsky(1973)referstomicroworlds,aspecialcategoryofrepresentationssuchasnovels,worksofart,simulationsandsoon.Theseprovidearichsensoryexperience,justliketherealworld,buttheyare‘off-line’experiences,inthattheydonothavethematerialconsequencesofreal-lifeaction.Itisaformoflearningthroughplay;wecantakerisksandimaginedifferentwaysofliving,inventdifferentidentitiesforourselves,explore lifeunderdifferentrules,culturesandsocieties,andenvisageafuturewhichisdifferentfromtoday.Atthesametime,moreabstractreasoningisnotprecluded,aswecanstepoutofthemicroworld(ratherlikethedebriefingafteraroleplay)todiscussthechoiceswehavemade in role,or to compare themicroworldwithoureverydayrealities.

Storylineinparticularoperatesinakindofmicroworld–asimulationofreality,butwhichmightbeverydifferentfromoureverydaylives.Itdrawsonalloursenses,andrequiresustoexploretheworldandexpressourideasandfeelingsinarangeofmediaandgenres.Althoughprojectsofteninvolveactionintherealworld,thefictionalqualityofStorylinegivesscopeforvicariousexperienceswhichwouldotherwisebetoodangerous.Itis,asWartofsky(1973)argues,an‘off-line’imitationofreality.ThefollowingextractfromamajorDanish‘handbook’aboutStorylineshowshowtransferringasensitiveissueintoafictional/narrativecontexthastheadvantage(paradoxically)ofmakingitbothmorerealandless‘personal’.

We can all agree that Healthy Eating should be a concrete project, but what about The Problem of Overweight Children? We could hardly begin by weighing the largest pupils in the class! …Should we simply avoid dealing with problems such as teasing, alcoholism, criminality, divorce, AIDS or death because they are too sensitive? In a fictional family, however, such problems can be taken up more safely…

Pupils may have a better chance to develop the ability to act in the real world by tackling the problems of a fictitious situation, in a fantasy world or simulation of the real one. These might involve people we would not wish to meet, including characters from history, or complex actions in an imaginary world. We can pursue solutions to difficult political, social, environmental and emotional problems (FalkenbergandHåkonsson,2000:96).

ThesewritersalsodiscussthepowerofStorylinetodeveloptheabilitytoact(handlekom-petence)asdemocraticcitizens.Suchactionrequiresengagedlearning,sinceitinvolvesawillandcouragetoactaswellastheknowledgeandskill,andrequiresustomakecriticalethicalchoices(ibid:82).Unlikeformsofsocialisationwhichassimilateusintosetpatternsofbehaviour,educationinawidersense(dannelseinDanish;BildunginGerman)involvesconfrontationwithproblemsandethicaldilemmas.Itisemancipatorysocialformation(ibid:83).

Aswellas insight inafieldofknowledge,being trulyeducated involvesestablishingcriteriaforhowyouwilluseyourknowledge,andacceptingresponsibilityfordecidinghow,whenandforwhatyouwillusethisknowledge(Nielsen,1973:40).

Suchconsiderationsalsoapply,invaryingdegrees,toprojectsanddesignchallenges.Allthreemethodsinvolvelearnersinprocessesofcollaborationinwhichsocialvaluesaredeveloped(considerationofotherswithintheteam,awillingnesstonegotiateandreachacompromise,butalso,wherenecessary,toargueandconvinceothers.)Theyoftenconnectcognitivewithaffectiveandethicalunderstanding.Theyenableteachers

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to build, not simply ‘learning communities’, but ‘communities of common concern’(Chomsky).

Theyprovidescopefornewformsofdifferentiationwithinamixed-abilityclass,whichfitswellwiththeAssessmentisforLearninginitiative.Withinthecommontheme,individuallearners can be steered towards a particular activity, and the teacher can discussspecific targetswith individuals.Gradually,where this tradition iswelldeveloped (asinDenmark),thelearnersbecomemoreawareoftheirowndevelopmentandhowtoprogress,andbegintosettheirowntargetsanddesigntheirspecificcontributionstothecommon theme with this in mind.

Theyalsoconnectwellwithreformstowardsauthenticassessment,suchastheRichTasks pilot in Queensland, Australia (education.qld.gov.au/corporate/newbasics).Althoughitisdifficulttoconceiveofthesereplacingqualifyingexaminationsattheendofsecondaryeducationhere,theycouldusefullycomplementthem.AtpresentScottishpupils atHigher or Intermediate levels sit a succession of set tests during the year(popularlyknownasNABs),inadditiontotheirfinalexam.Thereisnoreasonwhy‘richtasks’couldnotbeusedintheirplace.

ARichTaskisaculminatingperformanceordemonstrationorproductthatispurposefulandmodelsaliferole.Itpresentssubstantive,realproblemstosolve,andengageslearnersinformsofpragmaticsocial action that have real value in the world. The problems require identification, analysis andresolution,andrequirestudentstoanalyse,theoriseandengageintellectuallywiththeworld.Inthisway,tasksconnecttotheworldoutsidetheclassroom.

Richtasksareindividualorteampresentations,basedonresearchandproblem-solving.Theyinvolvearangeofskills,andoftenconnectknowledgefromdifferentsubjects.Thechallengeisconstructedinsuchawaythatitismeaningfultothelearners,e.g.involvingalocalcontext,andmaybepresentedtoawideraudience.

Examples of Rich Tasks for 16-18 year olds

Improving health and wellbeing in the community

Thisinvolvesstudyingthelocalsituationthroughbooks,statisticsandinterviews,andgainingknowledge of some health issues.

National identity: influences and perspectives Involvesthecreation,productionandpresentationofapowerful,filmeddocumentarythatincor-

porates informationgleanedfromresearchand interviewswithpeople fromdifferentculturalbackgrounds.

Opinion-making oracy Studentswillmake forcefulspeechesonan issueof internationalornationalsignificance to

different audiences.

The shape we’re in Students usemathematical skills to investigate alternative shapesand/or dimensions for at

leastonecontainer,adomesticobject,amechanicaldeviceandanobjectfromnature.Theythenpresentanalternativedesignforoneofthese,explainingthemathematics.

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Using the open architectures with older learners

It iswell known thatStorylinewasfirst developed inScotlandasapedagogy for youngerchildren.Thenarrativeformwasseenasmoresuitedtotheirneedsthanotherformsofthematicwork.However,liketheothermethods,itcanalsobeusedverysuccessfullywitholder learners,as the followingexamplesshow.Theexamplesbelowalso illus-tratehowtheprincipleofopenarchitecturescandevelophybridforms,particularlybyenhancingaprojectordesignchallengewithnarrativesordramaticsimulations.

Wearenow inabetterposition thanprogressive teachersof the1970sand1980s,since theoriesofSocialConstructivismaremorestronglydevelopedandaccessiblenow.Then, versions of ‘child-centred’ progressivismwere popularwhichwere oftenindividualistic,andwhichsometimescollapsed intocollecting information rather thandebatingandsolvingproblems.Theopenarchitecturesdescribedhereprovideopportu-nitiesforpersonalchoiceandsmallgroups,whilstmaintainingcohesionwithintheclassandsharingexperience,knowledgeandideas.

Theories of Social Constructivism are sometimes called ‘child-centred’, but this ismisleading as they also rely very much on the teacher’s well-judged planning andintervention.KeyprinciplesofSocialConstructivism,asnowunderstood, includethefollowing:

• Pupilsalreadyhavetheirownunderstandingoftheirworld,andteachersneedtodiscover/uncoverwhatitis,sothattheycanbuildonitandifnecessarychallengeandchange it.

• Itisvaluabletostartwithanimmersioninrealexperienceorasimulation,sothatthelearnerscanexploreasituationwiththeirdifferentsenses,speakaboutitinlanguagewhichisfamiliar,andappreciatesomeoftheissuesandproblems.

• Indiscussionwiththeteacher,andoftenworkingingroups,learnersgraduallycometoamoreadequate,ordeeper,ormoretheoreticalunderstanding,includingdevelopingnew language and concepts.

• Finally,thelearnersareencouragedtotransferthesenewideastodifferentsituations.

Pedagogies based on such principles have a place for both narrative and abstractlanguage; indeed, theydependuponamovementbetween these twomodes. Theyinvolve a sensitivity to the learner’s worldview and experience, and give scope fordiscovery and creativity, but reconcile thiswith the reality of thematerial and socialworld beyond individual subjectivity. Indeed, learning is often driven by encountersbetween subjective views and external experiences, between specific stories andgeneral theorisations.

SocialConstructivismdrawsheavilyonVygotsky’sunderstanding that language isapsychologicaltool.Heelaboratesthenotionofthetoolsweusewhenwemakethings,intolanguageasatooltohelpusachievebothphysicalandintellectualtasks.Neitherareindividualconstructs–theyareinheritedfromaculture.Wartofsky(1993)extendsthisbyseeingtheenhancedpossibilitiesofmicroworldsascomplexanddynamicmulti-sensorysignifiers.(Hereferstothemastertiaryartefacts,bycomparisonwithlanguageasasecondaryartefact,andphysicaltoolsasprimaryartefacts.)

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Examples of the Use of Open Architectures

The following examples, based on the use of open architectures with older learners in aScottish context, will hopefully demonstrate the rich possibilities of project method,design challenges and Storyline.Although the notion of a microworld applies mostobviouslytoStoryline,projectsanddesignchallengesareoftenhybridisedtoincludeamicroworld(drama,roleplay,stories).Allthreeallowamovementinandoutoftheaction,betweennarrativeandabstracttheoreticallanguage.Learnersparticipateintheaction,andthenstepbacktoconsiderit.

The refugee project IhaveusedthisprojectwithmyteachingstudentsattheUniversityofEdinburgh,inorder

tounderstandissuesrelatingtoasylum-seekersandrefugees,butalsotointroducewiderthemesofcitizenship.Approximately20studentsformatwo-hourweeklyworkshopfortheEducationforCitizenshipelective,aspartofaone-yearpostgraduatediplomawhichqualifiesthemtoteachinsecondaryschools.

It begins with a simulation based on a mythical dystopic future: a military coup inScotland.ThetanksrollingdowntheRoyalMilearenot theMilitaryTattoo.Groupedinto families, the students react to a sequence of news broadcasts.At one point, amemberofeachfamilyhastogointohiding.Eventually,conditionsbecomesobadthatthewholefamilydecidestoflee,butwhereto?Andwhatwillhappenwhentheyreachtheirdestination?

ThentwoparticipantsareaskedtoactoutaninterviewbasedonthetrueexperienceofarefugeeImetfromAfghanistan;hehadbeenaskedaseriesofquestionstotestwhetherhereallycamefromthatcountry.ThestudentsinvariablyfinditimpossibletoanswerwhichScottishnewspaperhas thebiggest circulationorwhat is the longestriver,andareaccusedofnotbeingrefugeesfleeingfrompersecutioninScotland,butofbeing‘economicmigrants’fromsomeothercountry.

The discussion that follows reveals a wide range of understanding and views, andgeneratesmanydifferentsub-topicsforfurtherresearch.Differentgroupsopttoinves-tigatefactualquestions(reasonsforflight,countriesoforigin,regulations,maintenance),or ideologicalones(thenatureofnational identity,attitudestomigration,xenophobiaandracism,moralresponsibility,thearmstrade).

Finally,eachresearchgroup teaches therest, includingactivities tostimulate furtherdiscussion.Somegroupschoosetocontinuewiththeirchosentopicslaterduringtheyear.

Storyline: ‘There’s black gold in them thaar hills!’ ThisStorylinewasdevelopedforuseinEducationforCitizenshipinScottishsecondary

schools.Itcouldbeusedasaninter-subjectcollaboration,perhapsasaoneortwodayreleasefromnormaltimetable;withinasinglesubject(Geography,English,etc.)acrossseveral weeks, including homework; or by agreement between teachers of varioussubjects.

Setting:Kilgallonisasmallcoastaltown(population11,000).Itisaclose-knitcommunity,withonesecondaryandtwoprimaryschools.Itsmainindustriesarefishingandtourism.

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Therehasbeenarecentincreaseintouristnumbers,because:

• beautifulcleanbeachesandwaterattractsurfers;

• ChulimHillsandGalRiverattractwalkersandfishermen;

• GorrieMarshesareasiteofspecialscientificinterest.Variedplantlifeandnestinggrounds for rare birds attract naturalists and birdwatchers.

However,thisresultsinonlyseasonalemployment.Theothersourceofemploymentis fishing,but therehasbeenageneraldecline,with60%fewer jobsthan15yearsago,whichhasledtounemployment.Altogether,thetown’spopulationisdeclining,andmanyyoungpeoplemoveaway.

Possibleroles:fishermen,environmentalists,hoteliers,localbusinessdevelopers,localtourismagencies,youngunemployed,schoolchildren,oilcompanyexecutives,surfers

Possibleevents:

• Americanoilcompanyappliestodoexploratorydrilling(nearGorrieMarshesandbeaches)with75%chanceoffindingsubstantialreserves

• oilcompanywantstoputapipelineacrossschoolplayingfields

• alternativeplanofreprocessing/storagefacilitytobebuiltnearKilgallonproposed

• studysuggestsmanynewjobshavebeencreated,butahighproportiongiventoAmericanincomersowingtolackoflocalspecialists

• jobsgiventolocalsaremoremenial,withlittlechanceoflong-termpromotion

• touristnumbersstarttofall–buthotelsarestillfull!

• Windfall!Thelocalcouncilhasasurplusofmoney.Theoilcompanyofferstomatchtheirinvestmentiftheydecideonbuildinga‘prestige’project–butwhatwillthemoneybespenton?

• Theoildriesup.WhatdoesthefutureholdnowforKilgallon…?

Design challenge

ThisactivityisbasedonamockBBCNewswebpage.AnexistingHTMLpagelayoutfromtheBBCwebsitewasmodified,asaconvincingstimulus,insertingthefollowingnews story:

The Last Drop – No More Oil

Worlddestinedforchaosasitisrevealedoilreserveshaveofficiallyrunout.

TheworldisbracingitselfasitwasannouncedonFridaymorningthattheworld’soilreserveswereofficiallyspent.

AlthoughOPEChadmade predictions stating reserveswould last until 2047, an official revealedtodaythatthesepredictionshadbeenfalsified.

As informationwas still being received by the BBC, speculationwasmounting that theCEOs ofseveralmajoroilcompanieshadbeenarrestedindawnraidsearlierthismorning.

InastatementtoParliament,thePrimeMinisterdeclaredthatthearmedforceshavebeensummonedtoprotecttheremainingoilresourcesatGrangemouthinScotland.

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Pupilsarechallengedtodiscussthesituation,asaclassandingroups;thentoresearchthe impact,examining theafter-effectsofsuchasituation,andhow thehumanracewould cope.

Thefollowingsuggestionsforresearchcouldbeintroduced,but itwouldbebetter toholdtheseinreserve,allowingpupilstogeneratetheirownideas.

• oilpowerstations

• petrol/diesel(cars,trains,boats,planes,tractors)

• agriculture(pesticides,fertilizers)

• consumption(foodtravelsthousandsofmilestoreachyourplate)

• plastic(everything!!skillsinotherindustrieshavebeenlost)

• lawlessness(fuelprotestsin2000justthebeginning)

• wars/foreignpolicy(Iraq)

• climatechange

• Westerneconomies/recession

• alternatives(renewables,nuclear)

Eachgroupwouldfinallymakeapresentation,whichcouldeitherbetoaparliamentorpublicmeeting,orintheformofawebpage.Thiswouldincludefindingsfromtheirresearch but also proposals for action.

Conclusion

It isnot surprising thatStorylineandother formsof thematicworkbegan in lowerprimaryschools, where there is less pressure from pre-established subject-based learningoutcomes,timetablesarelessrigid,andstory-tellingisthenorm.Thereisnoreasonwhytheyshouldnotbeusedinthesecondarystageandbeyond,wheretheywouldconsid-erablyenhancethelearningexperience.Scotland’scurriculumreformA Curriculum for Excellencepresentsboththeopportunityandtheneedforsuchaninitiative.(Ofcoursetheyarenottheonlyformsofexperiential learningwhichweshouldbeexamininginthiscontext:weshouldalsobediscussingenterprise,expeditionarylearning,fieldwork,simulations,andsoon.)

Itis,ofcourse,easiertouseStorylineandtheotheropenarchitecturesIhaveoutlinedhere in school structureswhich afford greater flexibility. Schools inScandinavia arecommonlysub-dividedintosmallerunits,withagroupofteachersattachedtoeach.InNorway,forexample,eachyeargrouphasfiveorsixteacherswhobetweenthemteachthecurriculum,providepastoralsupportandguidance,liaisewithparents,andincludeexpertisetosupportpupilswithadditionallearningneeds.Thisunitfunctionsasasocialandlearningcommunity,andissmallenoughtochangethetimetableatshortnoticeandplanspecialevents.Itis,inmanyways,self-managing.Ihaveseenhoweasyitistointerruptnormaltimetablesandplanstudytripsandprojectsataweek’snotice.

In themore rigidScottish structurewith its complex timetables, it is still possible toplanatwo-daybreakfromtimetable.Thisrarelyhappensatpresent,butwillhopefullybecome more common as A Curriculum for Excellenceisimplemented.Itisalsopossibleforthreeorfoursubjectteacherstocollaborate,orasingleteachercouldorganiseaStoryline, project or challenge lasting severalweeks, including homework.There are

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alsosomesignsinEnglandofasearchforalternativestoahighlyregulatedcurriculumwhichisstiflingcreativity.

Aboveall,weneedtoadoptandadaptnewpedagogiesforanewcurriculum.Recentdecadeshavearguablyseenanarrowingofteachers’pedagogicalrepertoire;thereforewe need greater openness to ideas and practices from overseas. Ironically I firstdiscoveredStorylineonavisit toNorway,whereteacherskeptaskingmeabout ‘theScottishmethod’.Itistimewewelcomeditbackhome.

Acknowledgement

I wish to thank students in my Education for Citizenship elective of the 2006-7 PGDE(Secondary)programmeatEdinburghUniversityfortheircreativityindesigningsomeoftheexamplesinthischapter.Inparticular,theoilthemewasdevelopedbyStephenCarruthers,PaulThomsonandCraigKellagher,andtheHighlandClearancesbyClareMcCaffertyandMairi-ClaireMitchell.

Section 4 178

Appendix: further suggestions

I invited PGDE (Secondary) students frommy 2006-7Education for Citizenship elective at EdinburghUniversity toplaneitheraproject,aStoryline,oradesignchallenge.Threestudentschose topresentoneofeachonthethemeofoil,theeconomyandtheenvironment.TheStorylineanddesignchallengeareoutlinedabove.Theprojectwas illustratedandorganisedaroundamindmap,whichrepresents theteacher’sinitialmappingoutofthedifferentconceptsandconnectionsrelatingtothetheme,anticipatingdiscussionbythepupils.Suchplanningdoesnotpreemptthepupils’owngenerationofideas,butenablestheteachertomakesuggestions,particularlyifsomeaspectofthethemehasnotbeentouched.

Figure 1: oil project

NoiseCorrupt

individualsAir

Very big, powerful

Visual (rigs, ruined landscape)

War (Iraq?)

POLLUTION

OTHER IDEAS

CONFLICT

Influence on local area(s) Government, etc.

Campaigners (locals, environ-mental groups)

COMPANIES

Usually graduate

jobs

AREAS OF OIL INFLUENCE (Locally or Internationally)

Potential to travel

Local examples

Dangerous work environment

(rigs)

Aberdeen, Grangemouth, Shetland.Do they welcome the industry, any

problems with it, what happens when it leaves?

Considerable time away from home

Well-paid desirable

JOBS OIL

AnothergroupchosetheHighlandClearancesastheirtheme.Thiswasaseriesofhistoricevents,akintotheEnclosuresinEngland,inwhicharistocraticlandlordsevictedthepeasantryfromtheirtraditionallandstoprovidespacetograzesheepandcattle.Thisledtoforcedresettlementincoastalvillages,andmassmigrationtothegrowingindustrialcitiesandtoNorthAmerica.

AStorylinewasbuiltonthehistoricevents.Thiswasthenenhancedbyamodernparallel–thefantasythatScotlandhasbeenboughtbyanAmerican(orChineseorRussian)multi-millionaire,andistobeconvertedintoathemepark.Thescaleisextreme,anddeliberatelyprovocative.Albeitfar-fetched,thepurposewastochallengepupilsintothinkingofparallels,inaneraofneo-liberalismandglobalisation,ofextremewealthandpoweroverwhelmingacultureandwayoflife.Thestudentsproposedtreatingthisasadesign-challenge,andtheoverallconceptshowsthepossibilitiesofhybridisingdifferentopenarchitectures.

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StorylineSetting:MuralofaHighlandlandscape.Teacheroutlinesthesituation,perhapsthroughastory.Clanliving

intheHighlands,chiefasclanhead,farmers.Pupilscreatecharacters/families,addingthemtothemural.

Events:1747,andtheHeritableJurisdictionsActhasbeenpassed,statingthatthosewhodonotaccedeare tohave their lands forfeitedandplaced in thehandsofgovernmentsurrogates.Pupilsmustdecidehowtorepresentthisvisuallyontheirdisplay.

1818:thepriceofHighlandwoolhasmorethandoubled,sothelandlordsdecidetoreplacecattlewithsheep,requiringfarfewerpeopletotendthem.Pupils,inroleaspeasants,discusstheirfutures,concludingthathungerandunemploymentwill forcesometoleave.Teacherexplainstheoptionsfaced historically.

Design challenge ThekeyresourceisaletterfromlawyersactingonbehalfofJohnAlbertson,themostpowerfulmedia

tycoonintheworldtoday.AlegalloopholeinarecentlypassedlawhasenabledhimtobuyScotland!Heintendstoturnitintohisownprivatethemepark.Theentirepopulationistobeevicted,forciblyifnecessary.Citizenshavetwodaystoleave.

Dear Citizens,

As you may be aware, I have recently purchased the country of Scotland and intend to develop it as an area of recreation and relaxation for myself and my family and friends. As a conse-quence, you are required to vacate your homes by 6am on Saturday 28th October. Failure to do so will be met by forced eviction.

I am under no legal obligation to compensate you for the loss of your homes, livelihoods and way of life. However, if you feel you have skills or experience which may be of use to me in this project, please contact my employment hotline on 0800 12345678 or visit my website www.21stcenturyclearances.com

Thank you for your co-operation, and I would like to take this opportunity to wish you all the best in your new lives.

Kind regards,

John Albertson Esq.

Theclassdiscussthesituation,andworkouttheiroptions.Theteacheranticipates(provisionally)thattheclass will think of three basic types of action:

• resistingtheeviction

• stayinginScotlandtoworkforMrAlbertson

• emigration.

Theywillworkingroups,eachconsideringtheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofoneoption.Theteachermakes available case studies of other incidences of dispossession and forced eviction, e.g. ChagosIslanders.

Thechallengeisforeachgrouptopresentitsfindingsandproposals,andtheclasswilldebateandthenvoteonthemostsuitablecourseofaction.

Storyline: Rainbow StreetAnotherinterestingandwelldevelopedexampleforsecondaryagepupilswaspostedbypupilsinNorway’sRingstabekkskole,aschoolwhichhasdevelopedacurriculumbasedstronglyonprojectmethod,Storylineandenterprise(seeBolstaded.,2001).OneparticularStorylinewasdevisedforYear9classesinamainly

Section 4 180

whiteareatodeveloptolerance,freedomofbelief,andmulticulturalism.Itisbasedonafictitiousstreetinamulti-ethnicdistrictofOslo.Thefollowingaccountwasprovidedbypupils.ItshowsthepotentialofStorylinefordealingwithcontroversialissuesandforextendingpupils’experienceandunderstandingbeyondtheirown social position and neighbourhood.

Introduction

RainbowStreetdoesn’t reallyexist. It’s the framework foraStoryline.That’sawayofworking inwhichpupilsworktheirwayintorolesasfictionalpeopleinaconvincingsituation.Oftenweformfamilygroups,andtheteacherssetupevents.

Wefirsthadtodecidethenumberofpeople ineachfamily,oursexandageandreligion,our jobsandinterests,andwedrewthehouseswewouldlivein.RainbowStreetismeanttobeinEastOslo,andrepre-sents life in a multicultural society.

Vandalism

Wehadarrivedatschool tosee thatsomebodyhadwrittenon thehousesandsynagogue inRainbowStreet:‘NorwayforNorwegians’;‘Hitlerwasright’;‘Muslimsareparasites’.

ItwasacoldNovembermorning.Thestreet’sinhabitantswerehorrified.‘What’shappened?Whocanhavedonesomethinglikethat?’Therewerestrongreactionsofmistrustbetweenthefamiliesinthefollowingdays.

The preacher

One day, those of us playing childrenwere ordered into a classroom for a special visitor.One of ourteacherswasdressedasapreacher.Hehadabible,andaskedusourreligion.HescowledwhenanybodysaidMuslim,JewishorHindu.HeidolisedtheChristiangodandeverythingtodowithChristianity.Wewerefrightened.Hewasarealfireandbrimstonepreacher.Whenheleft,eachfamilymettodiscusswhathadhappened.Therewasuproar–isn’ttheremeanttobereligiousfreedominNorway?Wesawallreligionsasofequalvalue.

The Klugheim family

One daywewere told that theKlugheims hadmoved into the empty house.They seemed intolerant.Twobrothers,refugeesfromIran,appliedtoconvertthesecondflooroftheirhouseintoasmallmosque,including permission for a call to prayer. The Klugheims sent a protest letter.

Ameetingtookplace.TheMuslimsfeltundervaluedandoppressed.Someoftheotherfamiliesfeltthecalltoprayerwouldbeadisturbance,butafterdiscussionrealisedthattheirobjectionswerelessimportantthanitsvaluefortheMuslims,anditwouldn’tbeveryloud.Welaterfoundgraffitionsomeofourhouses.TheKlugheimchildrenwereourmainsuspects,butwecouldn’tgettothebottomofit.

A visit to Oslo

WevisitedtheInternationalCulturalCentreandMuseumtoseeanexhibitionof immigrationtoNorwaysince1945.Twentypeople’slifestorieswereondisplay,withpicturesandpersonaleffects.ThenAnitafromtheOrganisationagainstPublicDiscriminationspoketousaboutreligion,culture,migrationandracism/discrimination.Wevisitedthesynagogue,andaladyspoketousaboutherconversiontoJudaism.Wehadsomanyquestions.Ithelpedustoprepareforsomewritingaboutreligionandpersonalorientation.Storylinehashelpedusunderstandtolerance,discriminationandracism,throughexperiences–inrole,someofushad facedantagonismbecauseof thecolourofour skinorourculture. Itwasmuchmoreeffectivethanifwe’dsatandlistenedtotheteachertalkingallthetime.Wehaveamuchbettersenseoflivinginamulticulturalsociety.

Section 4 181

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