Professionals and their workplaces in emerging markets – a research agenda

There is wide consensus that the professions are ‘stabilising elements in society’ contributing to the sense of order, fairness and ‘peaceful evolution’ (Carr-Saunders and Wilson, 1933: 497). Thus, especially in the dynamic and volatile economic contexts that characterize emerging markets, professions provide a set of essential foundations to economic development. However, while thereis ample evidence of the growth of the traditional professions—like accounting, engineering, law, and medicine—in developing economies, there are also major obstacles – like unfamiliar legal systems, absence of rule-of-law cultures, and political instability (Russell,2013). But there is a chronic shortage of research on professionals and their organizations in emerging markets. This brief essay is intended to explain the manyfascinating and vital opportunities for research in theseareas.

In a recent review essay, Brock et al. (2014) express a need to recognize the decreasing monopoly of Western concepts, theories, and data on professional organization. By their nature, the professions have strong traditional roots, and are often thought of as being strongly embedded in Western institutions (Muzio, et al., 2013; Seabrooke and Tsingou, 2015). However, history tells us that the accounting profession originated in the Middle East (Mattessich, 2000), architecture has roots in China (Sickman and Soper, 1956), medicine has early connections to Ancient Egypt and India (Jackson, 2011), and evidence of early mining and construction have been found in Peru (D'Altroy, 2002;Purdue University, 2008). Yet we see very few studies of African, Asian, Middle-Eastern, or South American professionals and their workplaces. In this essay we willexamine this situation, and present a research agenda for

research on professionals and their workplaces in emerging economies. As a framework we will use the five categories of professional organization research developed by Brock, et al. (2014); and as such we will discuss (1) organizational models and structures, (2) micro-organizational issues, (3) diversity, (4) new professions, and (5) societal issues. For each category we begin with a recent news item concerning emerging market professionals, outline underlying scholarly issues, and present some examples of significant indicative research. Finally, the importance and opportunities for research in emerging economies is presented along with some examples and directions for future work.

Organizational models and structures

In March 2015, Infosys acquired Panaya, Inc., a leading provider of automation technology for large-scale enterprise software management i.

Most of what is written on professional organizations is based on models developed by American sociologists in the 1960s (Scott, 1965; Hall, 1968; Montagna, 1968; Bucher and Stelling, 1969), with the resulting archetypal model characterized by low levels ofdifferentiation, power resting with the professional experts, and managers just in support roles. Organizational and professional values were assumed to bequite incompatible (Blau and Scott, 1962). This stream ofresearch was continued in the management field by Mintzberg (1979) who outlined the “professional bureaucracy” as an organizational type where the expert operators were dominant; and the collegial, decentralized, “professional partnership” (or P2) model (Greenwood, et al., 1990), where the professionals were at once the operators, managers, and owners of the firm. A few years later Cooper, et al. (1996) showed how increasingly competitive markets, deregulation, and globalization have induced some professional organizations to adopt more corporate and managerial modes of operation -- their “managed professional

business” form (MPB) posited new managerial structures being superimposed over the traditional professional cultures and processes.

International dimensions to professional services became apparent in the wake of the GATT/WTO Uruguay Roundconcluded in 1994, opening up further opportunities for internationalization of services in general. These developments were reflected in the “global professional network” (GPN) model by Brock, et al. (1999, 2007), characterized by global scope, more formal managerial systems, more individualized reward systems, increasing corporate governance, and significant diversification. Subsequent studies by Boussebaa and colleagues (2012), Covaleski, et al. (2003), Faulconbridge and Muzio (2008),Muzio and Faulconbridge (2013), Segal-Horn and Dean (2009) – to name a few – have been valuable in understanding the global organizational aspects of contemporary professional firms.

Technological advances have simultaneously driven change in all organizations, and very much so with knowledge-intensive professional firms. Susskind (2008) describes technology-driven organizational change leadingto the development of alternative organizational modes centered on network forms and virtual structures in thesecontexts. Traditional structures are likely to make way for more decentralized and self-organized organizations, with individualized performance metrics (Teece, 2003). Reihlen and Mone (2012) describe the evolution of the professional form model, with less of its original features—like professional autonomy and occupational control—towards a “trans-professional model” featuring reflective knowledge production and decentralized control.

On the other hand, several researchers have focused on the continuity – i.e., lack of change – in professional organizations (Pinnington and Morris, 2003;

Faulconbridge and Muzio, 2008). Further, Brock, et al. (2014) point out that the professional services field is increasingly fragmented around multiple business models, organizational solutions, services, cultures, jurisdictions, and market-places. Finally, there is a growing body of research that demonstrates that contemporary professional organizations are hybrids that combine multiple logics in addition to professionalism – such as corporate and managerial logics (e.g., Battilana and Dorado, 2010; Faulconbridge and Muzio, 2008; Noordegraaf, 2015; Postma, et al. 2015).

Our Infosys example demonstrates how a contemporary emerging market professional firm has embraced organizational change – in this case via an acquisition –and thus strengthened its global competitive position. One interesting aspect to the example is diversification – in this case from consulting to information technology – which is a key area in practice as well as for researchers (eg, see Brock and Yaffe, 2008; The firm’s professional capability is thus strengthened by the tools, capability, and potential of the acquired firm. Another aspect is the direction of the acquisition from the emerging (Indian) to the developed (Israeli) economy.Based on the literature presented earlier we can interpret this example as overcoming the incompatibility of organizational cultures mentioned by Blau and Scott (1962), adopting the GPN model (Brock, et al., 2007), andembracing the potential for coexisting hybrid logics (Faulconbridge and Muzio, 2008; Noordegraaf, 2015). Researchers are encouraged to explore similar cases of organizational development in emerging markets in the light of these and other theoretical lenses.

Micro-organizational issues

Booz Allen’s MENA (Middle East North Africa) business focusses on improving the speed and innovation of engineering and scientific capabilities.ii

Much has been written about the distinctive internalorganizational processes of professionals and their organizations. A key issue is the external affiliation that professionals have with their professions, creating (at least) dual loyalties (to employer and profession); and thus relative independence of professionals, and collegiality that crosses organizational boundaries. The resulting micro-organizational complexity, with concomitant challenges to organizational leadership and motivation efforts, was reflected in the popularity of the “herding cats” concept (Brock, et al., 2014; Løwendahl, 2005).

Professional firms themselves solved the micro-organizational dilemma by instituting an internal contestfor tenure and promotion. This resulted in quite distinctive structures and a clear set of roles based on seniority: ‘There were partners and there were associates’ (Sherer, 1995: 673). Career systems were ‘up-or-out’ encompassing the binary mechanism of either promotion up to partner or exit out of the firm. A more informal way of describing this traditional hierarchy was: finders, minders and grinders. Thus the role of partners was to secure work from clients (often called ‘rainmaking’); the role of senior associates (and junior partners) was to manage projects and teams; and the role of associates was to do the routine work.

Enter the contemporary era of deregulation, commercialization and globalization; and suddenly many old norms, adages, and practices no longer apply, leadingBrock, et al (2014: 6) to suggest that “Herding cats isn’t what it used to be!” They describe how firms are changing their career and reward systems away from the normative professional models described earlier, with

increasing emphases on efficiency and profitability. The structural consequences are increasing formalization, standardization and coordination; and further dilution ofthe partnership model.

A wide range of literature has documented the trend away from traditional partnership governance, be it to explicit corporate governance or simply retention of partnership terminology but with decreased power (Brock, et al., 1999, 2007; Galanter and Henderson, 2008; Greenwood and Empson, 2003; von Nordenflycht, 2014; Teece, 2003). Brock and Yaffe (2008) point to a practicalissue relevant to professional firms operating internationally – namely that increasing cultural and geographic distances add significant complexity to the (often sensitive) negotiations needed to sustain collegial, partnership governance. Another trend relevantto emerging economies is the spread of outsourcing and off-shoring practices (Sako, 2013).

A few fascinating studies on these topics have emerged from emerging economy context. Sejjaaka and Kaawaase’s (2014) Ugandan study finds that job satisfaction to be a strong predictor of organizational commitment, while professionalism and rewards seem to be relatively weak predictors. Ramos, et al. (2013) investigate professional salaries in Chile, finding that they are explained not only on the basis of traditional human capital variables but also of variables indicative of other cognitive and noncognitive skills. Oluwatayo and Amole’s work on Nigerian architects (2011) suggest that workforce characteristics are more important than the management of the workforce in determining performance of architectural firms. These studies bode well, but are unfortunately few in number.

Innovation in the professional work is becoming a crucial capability as professional work becomes more

competitive. Kvålshaugen, et al., (2015) studied various innovation capabilities needed for internationalizing professional firms. They found two kinds – namely operational capabilities (understanding customer needs, internal learning, formalization, external and relationallearning, commercialization and integration); as well as two dynamic capabilities (learning/knowledge accumulation, and scaling/expanding). And Kiss, et al. (2012) provide an excellent research agenda for the related area of international entrepreneurship research in emerging economies.

Micro-organizational challenges in the professions are not make any easier by the dynamic emerging market context, Yes, contemporary professional firms need to payregard to efficiency and profitability; and it seems thatthe partnership form’s demise is more imminent in emerging markets (Greenwood and Empson, 2003; von Nordenflycht, 2014). Yet our Booz Allen’s MENA example suggests a way forward for emerging market professional firms -- speed, innovation and connecting to other professional disciplines – in this case, the applied sciences. Similarly, our future research in these areas should be of benefit to other professional firms in thesedynamic environments.

Diversity, inclusion and the professions

Think Chinese women are demure lotus blossoms? …Among the professional class in China, at least, women are enjoying extraordinary success and are often surpassing their Western sisters. Several recent articles have explored this phenomenon.iii

It is a matter of fact that women and minorities have traditionally been significantly underrepresented inelite professions (Muzio and Tomlinson, 2012; Schiffel, et al., 2013; Wilkins and Gulati, 1996), and this would

be troubling enough were it not for the espoused role of the professions as bastions of society (Carr-Saunders andWilson, 1933). The trends described above towards business-like settings for professional workers have a series of effects on diversity and inclusion in professional organizations. Critical research in these areas is evolving for example, studies of gender in the advertising profession (Ibarra, 1992), financial executives (Blair-Loy, 2001), law (Kay and Hagan, 1998), as well as law, teaching and management (Bolton and Muzio, 2008); and race in law (Dinovitzer and Garth 2007;Payne-Pikus, et al., 2010). These projects indicate how women and other minority professionals are often relegated to less permanent and lucrative roles in their organizations. It also seems increasingly clear that keyconcepts such as merit, quality, commitment, and even professional appearance (Heinz, et al., 2005; Sommerlad and Sanderson, 1998; Haynes, 2007; 2012; Tomlinson et al., 2013) based on norms of white middle class men, and lead to a variety of implicit and explicit discriminatoryprocesses. Thus the remark by Wilkins and Gulati (1996) that the ‘tournaments’ that regulate entry and rewards ofprofessionals are staged in gendered and classed arenas.

Developments over the last generation have signalled many reversals in some of the abovementioned trends. The phenomenon of boutique firms comprised mainly of professionals from one minority group has provided a pathway into the professions to segments of the population once excluded contributing to broader institutional forces enabling more diversity and inclusion in the professions (Bolton and Muzio, 2008; Wald, 2008; Wilkins, 2007). In a study of earnings of managerial accountants Schiffel, et al., (2013) note that, while average earning for women are still below those for men, there are clear signs of systemic reduction in the gap.

Our example of the Chinese women shows that merging markets present a fantastic context for research on diversity and inclusion. Our research agenda should probethe ways that certain professional practices and culturesaffect different demographic groups, and the impact that this has on the performance of professional work settings. What are firms doing in this area? How effective are their interventions? What interventions aremost successful and in what circumstances? How do the diversity actions of organizations interact with broader dynamics in the wider political economy? How can the inclusivity of diversity management policies be reconciled with the exclusivity that elite firms celebrate in their recruitment and marketing practices? There is huge potential for research dealing with the career strategies and behaviors of professionals and how they seek to manage the myriad barriers and unequal opportunities they may encounter (Briscoe and Von Nordenflycht, 2014; Tomlinson et al., 2013). Just as Chinese women are embracing contemporary professional roles, our research should help professionals and professional firms in emerging economies embrace diversity and inclusion.

New and emerging professions and professional organizations

Now Hiring: Social Media Manager, Braziliv

The contemporary trends towards deregulation along with technological advances and less restrictive social structures have spawned a variety of new professional projects and generally knowledge intensive occupations, or “knowledge workers” – from airline pilots to management consultancy, information technology, and subspecialties in the medical and other traditional occupations (Alvesson, 1995; Blackler, 1995; Grant, 1996;

Leicht, 2016). There seems to be great potential to harness new knowledge, identifying societal trends, and ‘locking in and stimulating the seemingly inexhaustible demand for new specialties’ (Fincham, 2006: 23). At the same time we have seen the growth of several varieties of managerial expertise – such as public relations, human resource management, diversity managers, operations managers, and logistics officers – are emerging within the corporate setting (Dacin, et al., 2002).

Recent publications have captured a variety of professional projects and their implementation in variousnational contexts. For example, Adamson, et al. (2015) studies executive remuneration consultants – and shows how the development of this professional project may be better understood as part of broader efforts to create and maintain the institution of executive pay-setting practices.  The Liljegren, et al. (2014) analysis of child protection professionals points out different rolesfor laypersons in different counties. Carvalho’s (2014) study of nursing once again employs the “hybrid” concept,describing nursing’s blend of its traditional/scientific basis with managerial values and norms. She concludes that “nurses are naturalizing their coexistence and securing a continuous professionalism.” Harrington’s (2015) study of wealth managers is unique as it includes a sample with good global spread among developed and developing nations—with 23 of her 61 (38%) interviews emanating in North America and Western Europe, the remaining 62% in various emerging economies (14 in Central and South America, 8 in Africa and the middle east, and 16 in Asia).

There is thus an enormous scope for future research on new and emerging professions and professional organizations in developing markets. In particular researchers should explore the intersection between professional workers, organizational units, occupations,

and institutions -- the reworking of these relationships are very much at the heart of the transformation of expertise in these contexts. High on our research agenda should thus appear the exciting world of new professions – such as “social media management” – and the emerging economy context should provide more than enough scope to advance these vital and fascinating projects.

Professionals and the Broader Society

Tata Consultancy Services’ Utilities … partners with more than 90 energy andutility organizations across the globe, supporting more than 75 million waterconsumers, 70 million electricity consumers, and 20 million gas consumersv.

Professionals and the professions have crucial rolesin contemporary society. As stated by Muzio et al. (2013:699) “Professionals and professional service firms are key advisors, analysts, defenders and developers of the major institutions that underpin our economies.” At this stage we are looking beyond the arenas – like civil engineering, healthcare, legal, and taxation systems – which we would naturally expect to be dominated by professionals and professional firms. Coffee (2006) points out that professionals often play crucial roles, responsible for the integrity of core societal and economic institutions; thus we find professionals in gatekeeping roles in financial markets to governmental, regulatory, and civil organizations.

Researchers have recognized the importance of these issues, helping us understand the broader role of professionals in contemporary society. For example, Dezalay and Garth (1998) investigate the role of lawyers in the development of the international arbitration system. Arnold (2005) examines the agency of accounting firms in influencing domestic and global regulation of their industry; while Suddaby et al. (2007) examine theirrole in the emergence of a transnational regulatory

field. Kipping (1999) and McKenna (2006) reveal the rolemanagement consulting –a new profession – in spreading managerial fads and fashions. Recent work by Gabbioneta, et al. (2014) find that pprofessionals’ failure to detectcorporate corruption may be the result of institutional ascription that occurs within professional networks.

There are also significant opportunities for fieldwork in emerging markets that cast light on global phenomena. Halliday and Carruthers (2009) for example – drawing on extensive fieldwork in China, Indonesia and Korea – show how global actors (including the IMF, World Bank, the United Nations) and international professional associations developed comprehensive norms for corporate bankruptcy laws, and how national policymakers responded in turn. Wahab, et al. (2015) show how political connections affect various audit fees in their research on Malaysian directors. And Brock and Richardson’s (2013)study of the development of the Israeli accounting profession explores the nexus of national culture, the imposition of institutional structures by a foreign power, and by integration into a global economy.

Emerging markets should be a venue for debates around the agency of professionals and how this affects broader societal and economic institutions in these contexts. And our research agenda needs to include gaining a greater understanding of the relationship between professional associations, multinational corporations, international organizations (such as the EU, WTO and OECD) and these developing nation states thatare often in such rapid transition. There is a great needfor understanding these processes, their effects on globalization and economic development and how they may be changing in light of the rise of emerging economies. Firms like Tata Consultancy Services’ Utilities are thus wonderful research sites, and should increasingly be the subject ofour academic scrutiny; and we should not only encourage

but also analyze their role in the delivery of essential services to broad populations in emerging economies.

The Emerging Market Perspective:

As implied earlier, there is a significant shortfallof research on professionals and their organizations in emerging economies, and the point of this paper is to encourage work in these areas. Quite a few interesting studies have recently appeared in the International Journal of Emerging Markets -- for example the work of Pratoomsuwan, (2012) on audit quality in Thailand; de Waal and Chachage, (2011) on academics in East Africa; Kapil and Kapil (2012) commodity trading advisors in India; Richard, et al. (2008) on Banking in Tanzania; andSwinkels and Rzezniczak (2009) on Polish mutual fund managers. We are on the right track!

Frenkel (2008: 938) pointed out that “academic discourse is … often blind to the importance of geopolitical power relations between the first and third worlds in shaping the activities of MNVs in general, and in the process of knowledge transfer ... in particular.” It seems apparent that professionals and their organizations play an active role in spreading western logics and therefore are part of processes of imperialistdomination (Boussebaa et al., 2012). And since most professional organizations originate from developed and largely Anglo-Saxon economies, we should advance multidisciplinary research on professional organizations that builds on post-colonial literature (Frenkel, 2008).

Some researchers have questioned the “country-of-origin” effect of professionals. For example, Evetts (2003) implies that traditional professionalism may have been relevant for a limited number of occupations (law and medicine), in a certain number of countries (Anglo-Saxon ones), in a specific historical epoch (early to

mid-19th century). And Burrage and Torstendahl (1990) hadalready identified a distinctive Continental route to professionalism, based on state sponsorship and patronage.

This colonial/imperialism angle has been the topic of several significant studies (Boussebaa, et al., 2012, 2014; Boussebaa, forthcoming) showing how colonial and imperial institutional pressures impact on all commercialorganizations, including in the professions. Dezalay andGarth (1998, 2010) examine the effect of Western lawyers on legal systems in developing economies; and Gillis (2014) studies the influence of global accounting firms in China. Cooper et al’s (1998) study of a global accounting entering the former Soviet Union helps us understand the firm’s motives and national institutional forces; and contains important public policy lessons thatare relevant to other emerging markets facing the entry of powerful global firms. The Gallhofer, et al. (2011) study of Syrian accountants helps us understand their perceived weakness versus Anglo-Amercian accounting trends; and how their profession is affected by global competition and international accounting standards. Another study of accountants facing global forces for change by Seal et al. (1996) exposes the angle of transitioning out of the Soviet/socialist system and how that impacts on the profession.

Finally, this short essay has endeavoured to show the importance of research in professionals and professional organization, to explain its relevance to contemporary society in general, and to present a concomitant research agenda. In particular I have pointedout the lack of research in these areas emanating from emerging markets, and have attempted to encourage – by way of examples and proposed directions – a wide variety of fascinating themes, topics, and questions to begin to realize the potential in these promising areas.

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