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ED 362 443 SO 023 287

TITLE A Guide to Curriculum Development in SocialStudies.

INSTITUTION Connecticut State Dept. of Education, Hartford.PUB DATE 92NOTE 116p.

PUB TYPE Guides Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Citizenship Education; Curriculum Design; *Curriculum

Development; Elementary Secondary Education;Instructional Materials; Multicultural Education;*Social Studies; *State Curriculum Guides; TeachingMethods

IDENTIFIERS *Connecticut

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this guide is to assist curriculum

planners in local school districts as they develop and implementtheir own programs of study. The guide is written for severalaudiences, including: boards of education; district, school, anddepartmental administrators; curriculum committees; and classroomteachers. The guide begins with a brief overview of the socialstudies field and then introduces identifiable curriculum developmenttasks. These tasks, described in Chapter 1, are the organizingprinciples upon which this guide is based. Following preliminaryquestions, establishing a rationale and evaluating the presentprogram, curriculum developers will find cognitive and affectivegoals in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 introduces alternative designs for ascope and sequence that provide information for local curriculumdecision making. Chapter 4 surveys a wide variety of social studiesteaching techniques, followed in Chapter 5 by guidelines for thedevelopment or procurement of teaching materials. Methods toimplement and evaluate the newly revised or designed curriculumconclude the development process in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 shows howthe social studies curriculum development process can be used toaddress multiculturalism. Ten appendices are included, among them:"Statewide Educational Goals for Students 1991-1995"; "Teaching aboutControversial Issues"; and "A Code of Ethics for the Social StudiesProfession." (Author/DB)

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A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

AIL

STATE OF CONNECTICUT BOARD OF EDUCATION 1992

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

State of Connecticut

Lowell P. Weicker, Jr., Governor

Board of Education

John F. Mannix, ChairpersonLucas Isidro, Vice ChairpersonGlenda M. ArmstrongGeorge T. CarofinoMarcial CuevasBeverly P. GreenbergMichael HelfgottJohn RiegeAlphonse Wright

Andrew G. De Rocco (ex officio)Commissioner of Higher Education

Vincent L. FerrandinoCommissioner of Education

Frank A. AltieriDeputy CommissionerFinance and Operations

Marilyn A. CampbellDeputy CommissionerProgram and Support Services

3

A GUIDE TOCURRICULUM DEVELOPMENTIN SOCIAL STUDIES

Photography by Mark Gaier

Cover by Graph Com

5

iii

CONTENTSAcknowledgments

ForewordPreface

Chapter 1: Definition and Process -1

6

DefinitionPast is Prologue

Connecticut RequirementsCurriculum ProcessA Continual Process

Process TasksEvaluation of Existing Curriculum

Needs AssessmentA Rationale

Chapter 2: Goals and Themes - 9

Social Studies GoalsThe Essentials of the Social Studies

NCSS Curriculum GuidelinesKnowledge

General ObjectivesSpecific Objectives

Organizing Content KnowledgeThinking

Essential Skills for Social StudiesInductive Strategy

ValuingConnecticut's Common Core of Learing

ControversyParticipating

Affective ObjectivesCivic Participation

Major ThemesCause and Effect

CitizenshipCommunity

Continuity and ChangeCultural Pluralism

CultureEqual Opportunity

Freedom and justiceGovernment and Authority

Human /Environmental InteractionHuman Rights

Independence/InterdependenceScarcity and Choice

World Peace

Chapter 3: Scope and Sequence Alternatives 29

Five Alternative OptionsDesigning a Scope and Sequence

Global EducationNCSS 1983 Task Force Report

Building a History CurriculumCharting a Course

Making the DecisionStudent Intellectual Maturity

Student Interest LevelsBalance

ContinuityImportance

Community ResourcesTeacher Resources

Time Allotment

Chapter 4: Instructional Approaches 39

Varied Learning ActivitiesLearning Activities Mix

Specific Instructional ApproachesReading

Directed DiscussionGroup Interaction

Cooperative LearningWriting

Decision MakingQuestioning

Conceptual DevelopmentDrill and Lecture

Case StudiesSimulations

Role-PlayingCharting and Clustering

Affective StrategiesIndependent Study

TechnologiesEvaluation Flexibility

Objective Tests and WritingShort- and Long-Term Evaluation

Assessment and InstructionMainstreaming

Chapter 5: Instructional Materials 51

7iv

Examination and EvaluationLocally Designed Materials

Criteria for SelectionSurvey and Decision

Technology ResourcesComputers

Drill and Practice

TutorialsSimulations

Word ProcessingDatabases

Desktop PublishingVideo

TelecommunicationsInteractive Videodiscs

Nonprint MaterialsLibrak f Media Resources

Chapter 6: Curriculum Implementation and Evaluation 59

ImplementationPiloting

Staff OrientationSpecial Materials and Support Services

Staff DevelopmentEvaluation

Standards AssessmentOngoing Effort

Chapter 7: Citizenship and Multicultural Education 67

CitizenshipDefinition

Goals and ThemesNCSS Multiethnic Guidelines

Connecticut's Common Core of LearningA Conceptual Curriculum Model

Content: Curriculum ApproachesContributions Approach

Additive ApproachTransformation Approach

Decision-Making and Social Participation ApproachMixing and Blending the Approaches

Interdisciplinary AlternativesEthnic Group AlternativesInstructional. Techniques

Instructional MaterialsCurriculum Implementation and Evaluation

Connecticut Curriculum Recommendations

AppendicesAppendix A: Legislation 81

Appendix B: Statewide Educational Goals for Students - 1991-1995 - 83Appendix C: Organizational Resources for Social Studies Education - 85

Appendix D: Resources for Curriculum Planning - 91Appendix E: Teaching About Controversial Issues 97

Appendix F: Framework to Guide Strategic Reading Behavior - 99Appendix G: Writing In the Social Studies -101

Appendix H: Developing A Multicultural Curriculum -103Appendix 1: Instructional Television Resources -107

Appendix J: A Code of Ethics for the Social Studies Profession 109

v8

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The evolution of curriculum is a continuing process. This edition of the Guide to Curriculum Development in SocialStudies reflects numerous changes that have taken place in the last few years. The Connecticut State Department ofEducation is indebted to the Social Studies Advisory Committee, the writers, the editors, authors of publicationsproviding permission to use their materials, and those who commented on the draft, ranging from nationally knownsocial studies educators to some SO Connecticut social studies teachers, social studies supervisors and administrators.

Members of the Connecticut Social Studies Advisory Committee include the following:

Jacqueline Abbott, Eastern Connecticut State UniversityRichard C. Harper, University of BridgeportJoan Hogan, Glastonbury Public SchoolsEdward Lazaroff, Killing ly Public SchoolsTedd Levy, Norwalk Public SchoolsDavid Manning, West Hartford Public SchoolsMarcia Massey, Hartford Public SchoolsMarta Matos, Bristol Public Schools

Lamont D. Thomas of the Umversity of Bridgeport contributed to the writing of this document. A special appreciationto James A. Banks of the University of Washington for permission to use materials from his multicultural writings inChapter 7. Special thanks to Don Goranson, who improved the document through his fine editorial abilities.

The document was reviewed by Salvatore J. Natoli, editor of Social Education and director of publications for theNational Council for the Social Studies, and Bruce E. Tipple, president of Learning Designs, Inc.

Daniel W. GreggConsultant in Social Studies

vi 9

FOREWORD

The State Board of Education's most fundamental commitment is to educational equity and excellence for allConnecticut students. The depth and richness of that commitment is thoughtfully, thoroughly and forcefullyexpressed in Challenge for Excellence: Connecticut's Comprehensive Plan for Elementary. Secondary,Vocational, Career and Adult Education 1991-1995. This series of curriculum guides, developed for the 1990s,represents an important element in the Board's efforts to achieve Goal VI of its Comprehensive Plan: ToImprove the Quality of Instruction and Curriculum.

These books also are published to carry out the State Board's statutory responsibility to "prepare such coursesof study and publish such curriculum guides ... as it determines necessary to assist school districts to carry outthe duties prescribed by law." The letter of the law which requires the Board to provide these materials isclear, and clearly important. More important, however, is the manner in which the Board embraces the task ofmeeting the spirit of the law.

The Statewide Educational Goals for Students 1991-1995 (part of the Comprehensive Plan adopted by the StateBoard in April 1990) and Connecticut's Common Core of Learning (adopted in January 1987) together are theheart and soul of the achievement we envision for all Connecticut students. This vision can only become reality,however, at the district level through the creativity, talents and special understanding that local educationprofessionals and citizens bring to the K-12 curriculum planning process. These curriculum guides arespecifically designed to help districts develop state-of-the-art learning programs and opportunities in each ofthe 11 mandated curriculum areas: the arts; career education; consumer education; foreign language; health andsafety; language arts; mathematics; physical education; science; social studies; and vocational education.

In these guides we have endeavored to present meaningful and up-to-date ideas consistent with the StateBoard's goals for public education. Central to this effort are the convictions that (1) all children can learn andare entitled to an appropriate education; (2) diversity is enriching to school systems and all students benefitfrom the opportunities that diversity affords; (3) no single method of instruction is adequate to meet theeducational needs of all children; (4) schools share the responsibility to maximize the comprehensivedevelopment of students; (5) mastery of knowledge and the ability to manipulate ideas are essential to beingproductive citizens; and (6) schools are but one vehicle through which education can be fostered the vitalrole families play in supporting student learning must be recognized and families and the public schools mustcooperate effectively to maximize student achievement.

The Statewide Educational Goals for Students, Connecticut's Common Core of Learning and these curriculumguides describe what can and should happen in quality K-12 educational settings. This series seeks to firmlyestablish the principle that the individual student is the beneficiary of these curriculums. The State Board ofEducation's mission is to educate students to think, explore and apply a variety of knowledge in ways thatreward them and that contribute to growth in our society.

The guides have been developed under the direction of subject-area specialists in the State Department ofEducation, with the assistance of advisory committee members chosen from schools, universities and, in somecases, other agencies or community groups. These individuals have brought to the task a rich variety ofexperience and a shared commitment to the education of Connecticut students. Procedures suggested in theseguides, while strongly recommended, are optional; the content represents expert professional opinion ratherthan state requirements. (In cases where state statutes prescribe certain content, the appropriate statute iscited.)

It is our hope that these guides will be used as resources in an ongoing curriculum planning process that has as itsfocus the lifelong achievement and well-being of all Connecticut students.

\)?4/1/41.Vincent L. FerrandinoCommissioner of Education

vii 1 0

PREFACE

The purpose of A Guide to Curriculum Development in Social Studies is to assist curriculum planners in local schooldistricts as they develop and implement their own programs of study. Each soda/ studies curriculum must providestudents with an equal opportunity to receive a planned, ongoing and systematic program of suitable educationalexperience's.

The g side targets several constituencies. It is written for boards of education and for district, school and departmentaladministrators charged with the direction and management of overall educational responsibilities. But the guide iswritten primarily for curriculum committees and the classroom teachers who both sit on these committees and havethe primary responsibility for effective social studies education.

The guide begins with a brief overview of the evolution of the social studies field and then introduces identifiablecurriculum development tasks. Those tasks, described in Chapter 1, are the organizing principles upon which thisguide is based. Following preliminary questions, establishing a rationale and evaluating the present program,curriculum developers will find cognitive and affective goals in Chaper 2. Chapter 3 introduces alternative designsfor a scope and sequence that provide information for local curriculum decision making. Chapter 4 surveys a widevariety of social studies teaching techniques, followed in Chapter 5 by guidelines for the development or procurementof teaching materials. Methods to implement and evaluate the newly revised or designed curriculum conclude thedevelopment process in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 shows how the social studies curriculum development process can beused to address multiculturalism.

Students moving through our school systems face an increasingly interconnected and technology-oriented world.They need to be well grounded in the social studies in order to be prepared, knowledgeable and skilled citizens whowill be prod uctive and participate in our democratic system. There has never been a more critical need for our nation'syouth to understand that our government must exist for the common good. The social studies curriculum is animportant means to assist students in being knowledgeable of their rights and responsibilities as citizens. If this guideis useful in helping them to achieve this knowledge and these skills and attitudes toward themselves and their fellowcitizens, then the goals of all those involved in the preparation of this document will have been realized.

DEFINITION AND PROCESS 1

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DEFINITIONPast is Prologue

Connecticut Requirements

CURRICULUM PROCESSA Continual Process

Process TasksEvaluation of Existing Curriculum

Needs AssessmentA Rationale

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DEFINITION AND PROCESS AIIMIIIMIMMII11111WCHAPTER 1

This chapter provides a foundation for the curriculumdevelopment process. It offers a working definition ofsocial studies, stresses the interdisciplinary nature of thefield and recaps major developments in the teaching ofsocial studies. Preliminary but important steps in thedevelopment process follow, including instructions forreaders who might have specific curriculum goals otherthan beginning anew..

DEFINITION

Against a background of controversy and debate, im-plicit in the nature of social studies, the profession hasstruggled to articulate a definition for the field. Thefollowing working definition emerges:

Social studies is the integration of knowl-edge and human experience for thepurpose of citizenship education. Citi-zenship education implies both theprotection of rights and responsibilitieswithin the United States of America andwithin the larger human community, aswell as a commitment to work effec-tively with diverse peoples and to acceptdifferences in cultures, values and inresponses to social issues.

The enormous challenge for professionals is to devise anappropriate enabling curriculum guide at the local level.

Social studies is one of the most important aca-demic areas in the school curriculum for broadeningstudent horizons, both intellectually and socially. Hu-ma ni ties a nd social science curriculums approach humaninteraction through the widest perspectives. Social stud-io stems from a thorough grounding in history andgeography, which interrelate with the behavioral sciencesof philosophy, economics,poli tical science, anthropology,sociology and psychology, plus art, literature, music andreligion. Because it is concerned with interactions be-tween individuals and groups in both time and space,social studies can provide youth with the knowledge,values and skills necessary for future survival. Socialstudies seeks to prepare youth to be informed, humane,rational and participating citizens..

Past is Prologue

People who develop or revise curriculum today can drawlessons from past educational development. Much of the

present debate involves the relationships between theevolution of theoretical foundations of curriculum andthe applied instructional materials used in the classroom

otherwise called scope and sequence. Scope and se-quence refers to the range and order of the curriculum.Issues in scope and sequence are the battlefields on whicheducational decisions have been fought in the past andwhere they will be won or lost in the future.

The taproots of the social studies curriculumgrow from the recommendations of the 1916 NationalEducation Association (NEA) Committee on the SocialStudies. That year an NEA report adopted a heavy his-tory-oriented scope and sequence, but also reflected thestrong hand of John Dewey's "functional" learning. Thereport stressed the need for "the cultivation of goodcitizenship" and offered the following scope and sequencefor Grades 7-12:

Grade 7, European History and Geography;Grade 8, United States History;Grade 9, Civics;Grade 10, European History;Grade 11, United States History; andGrade 12, Government or Problems of De-mocracy.

In contrast with earlier thinking, this 1916 scopeand sequence began the move away from a history-dominated discipline toward a more functional, contem-porary-centered approach. This model established thepattern for most of the social studies programs whichexist today.

During the 1930s and 40s, the first systematicattempt to examine social studies objectives appeared inthe volumes of Lhe American Historical Association. Acommission headed by Charles A. Beard reported thatthe fundamental purpose of the social studies was thecreation of students "equipped with practical knowledgeand inspired by ideals so that they can make their wayand fulfill their mission in a changing society which ispart of a world complex." The National Council for theSocial Studies (NCSS), with James A. Michener as editor,published experimental scope and sequence curriculumswhich considered various alternatives to the citizenshiptheme. Traditional historians rebutted that the waywardtrend in social studies neglected American history. UnitedStates historian Allan Nevins went so far as to label socialstudies curriculums "social slush."

The debate placed academic purists and socialreconstructionists in opposite camps, but it fostered no-table changes. Since the mid-1930s, Paul Hanna's modelformulating the "expanded horizons" has become thestandard for the elementary social studies curriculum.He initiated a K-6 social studies program which, for the

2

13

DEFINITION AND PROCESS CHAPTER 1

first time, clearly catered to the developmental stages ofthe child. Hanna's K-6 scope and sequence model in-chided the following:

Grade 1, Family and School;Grade 2, Neighborhood and Community;Grade 3, Local Communities: City and County;Grade 4, State;Grade 5, United States National Community;andGrade 6, World Communities.

Meanwhile, theories were advanced for studentsat a higher grade level. In the 1950s, some theorists calledfor reflective analysis based upon critical thinking. Theyargued that something was needed to break social studiesout of the all-too-prevalent "life-adjustment box." Previ-ously "closed areas" of our society would be examined,such as race relations, social class, sex and marriage.

The Soviet Union's launching of Sputnik in 1957caused significant repercussions. Experts decriedAmerica's scientific unpreparedness and called for morerational inquiry in education. The "new social studies"attempted to meet the need with a curriculum that ap-plied reflective analysis and the scientific method to thestudy of history and the social sciences. A dazzling arrayof curriculum projects resulted, and they received amplefederal funding. By the mid-1960s, the Vietnam War andthe civil rights movement pushed the nation to applymoral and social values to domestic and foreign policy.Rap sessions, mini-courses, values education and areastudies became integral parts of the social studies cur-riculum.

The field of social studies was in an obvious stateof disarray and needed direction. Educators were hear-ing a cry for the old "hickory stick" by the end of the 1970s:"back-to-basics," more discipline and greater account-ability. Criticism reflected a backlash to the immediatelypreceding self-discovery curriculums. Detractors askedwhere all the fundamentals had gone, and why the teach-ers who upheld moral, religious and family values haddisappeared. Those were basic to our national heritage,detractors charged.

Fragmentation within the field forced the Na-tional Council for the Social Studies into action. In 1979,NCSS published a sweeping statement on the essentialsof a social studies curriculum (see Chapter 2), with pointsso widely accepted that they have since undergone onlyminimal revision. Three years later the NCSS boardorganized a task force to study and make recommenda-tions for a social studies scope and sequence. Thatproposal laid important groundwork for the most thor-ough examination yet undertaken, a study which pub-

lished Nee proposals for scope and sequence ad opted byNCSS in 1989. Two other groups also engaged in at-tempts to provide new direction in scope and sequence:the Bradley Commission on Social Studies in the Schoolsin 1988, and the National Commission on the SocialStudies in 1989 (see Chapter 3).

"Past is prologue," reads the motto over theNational Archives in Washington, D.C., and this is appro-priate for the development of curriculum guides. Thefield of social studies has strengthened a once strictlyhistory curriculum with the social sciences to produce afunctionally designed learning system that promotes citi-zenship in our democracy. Curriculum revision oftenreacts to social change, and it often moves from emphasisupon subject matter to social issues and individual devel-opment. Patterns of scope and sequence have fluctuatedaccordingly. The past reminds us that debateabout socialstudies issues is healthy, indeed necessary, for curricu-lum development. Professional guidelines are essential.They draw upon social studies research and experience.Social studies continues to evolve within the parametersof scholarship and citizenship. Successful curriculumdevelopment will help to strengthen both..

Connecticut Requirements

The State of Connecticut has established social studiesrequirements. Connecticut statutes mandate the teach-ing of "social studies, including but not limited to citizen-ship, economics, geography, government, and history."They further require "a program of United States history,including instruction in United States government at alllevels, and in the duties, responsibilities and rights ofUnited States citizenship. No student shall be graduated. who has not been found to be familiar with saidsubjects." As of 1988, every student in high school mustbefore graduation successfullycomplete three years inthe social studies (see Appendix A: Legislation).

CURRICULUM PROCESS

The curriculum development process, like learning, isnever ending. This is not to deny the indelible constancyof tradition, upon which the social studies field is based.But never-ending change, whether in the subject matteror the student population, necessitates constant reassess-ment. Intellectual data will prompt reassessment of ahypothesis just as the social, racial or economic complex-ion of the student body may necessitate new teachinggoals, content and approaches..

3

14

DEFINITION AND PROCESS

A Continual Process

Continual reassessment involves costly decisions. To tella teacher that a written curriculum must continuallyundergo revision raises a safe assumption: the teacherwill be handed the job. The routine practice is to mobilizetired teachers at day's end to confront a task which, ifproperly undertaken, will require firm administrativesupport, uninterrupted time, adequate resources andmeaningful rewards. Teachers will have a stake in theoutcome, but they probably will ignore the curriculum ifthey perceive it simply to be shallow showcase material.Too often, conventional curriculum guides are neitherused, usable nor reliable indicators of what teachersreally do in their classrooms. School board members atthe opposite end of the spectrum may resist the notion ofcontinuous revision in the belief that properly completedcurriculum guides are too time consuming and costly.

Process Tasks

The curriculum development process has eight specifictasks that will provide the organizing structure for thisguide. Although the list appears linear, it can be enteredat almost any point. The curriculum committee will needto study the tasks in order to determine where the districtis on the continuum and, therefore, where to initiate theprocess.

Some committees may choose to begin revisionof a generally satisfactory curriculum with the evaluationquestionnaire cited in this chapter and then proceed toevaluation instruments (see Chapter 6). This approachwill differ from developers primarily concerned with thelocal district's scope and sequence (see Chapter 3). Mostcommittees will follow the tasks, and therefore thisguide,as d esigned . The eight tasks and their respectivechaptersfollow:

evaluate existing curriculum, Chapter 1;assess needs, Chapter 1;develop a rationale, Chapter 1;identify goals, objectives and themes, Chapter2;

establish scope and sequence, Chapter 3;determine instructional approaches, Chapter4;select instructional materials, Chapter 5; andimplement and evaluate, Chapter 6.

An example of how to incorporate curriculum change isprovided in Chapter 7..

Evaluation of Existing Curriculum

Broad preliminary questions are likely to spark debateamong curriculum developers. Questions should be de-signed to clarify each committee member's perceptionsabout the theoretical underpinnings of the social studiesfield. The following questions will serve as a startingpoint:

Should the major social studies disciplines beconsidered as distinct disciplines or be inte-grated into a unified structure?Should cultural values be transmitted andinculcated or examined reflectively andevaluated critically?What should be the balance between acquisi-tion of knowledge and application of socialstudies skills?What implications do new technologies havefor the delivery, coverage and evaluation ofsocial studies?

Committee members may wish to write downtheir own questions or verbalize them immediately; thesooner prejudices and hidden agendas are brought tolight, the more quickly a committee can engage in theappointed task. Quest ions about developingan approachto student learning should arise early and be asked con-stantly. Questions such as those that follow go to the veryheart of the process.

How should students develop a knowledgebase o f key concepts, generalizations and con-tent from the social studies?How should students develop an under-standing of basic national values?How should students develop skills for livingin a multicultural society?How should students become well informedabout the issues and problems that face thelocal community, nation and world?How should students participate in a varietyof learning experiences that explore their citi-zenship roles in the community, nation andworld?How should students be prepared to partici-pate actively in the democratic process?How should students choose activities thatare important to their interests and needs?How should students be evaluated?

Challenge for Excellence: Connecticut's Compre-hensive Plan for Elementary, Secondary, Vocational, Career

4

15


and Adult Education: A Policy Plan- 1991-1995indudes fivestatewide educational goals for students. Each of thesegoals (see Appendix B), if rephrased as student learningoutcomes, also can constitute a model to evaluate adistrict's curriculum. Three alternative evaluation ques-tionnaires can be found in Chapter 6..

Needs Assessment

A needs assessment will help to identify special needs ofthe local community as well as those of the district'sstudents, teachers and administrators. Needs assessmentis a multifaceted process. A Guide to Curriculum Develop-ment: Purposes, Practices and Procedures (see current edi-tion), published by the Connecticut State Board of Edu-cation, has more information about how to conduct aneeds assessment. An adequate needs assessment hastwo very important purposes. First, it alerts school per-sonnel and the community that curriculum change isbeing considered. Second, it guides the construction of acurriculum that will best meet the needs of all concernedgroups. The four areas of a needs assessment include thefollowing:

examine both present and future studentneeds;explore teachers' perceptions of necessarychange(s);invite community members to express viewsof what a district's social studies programshould include; andsolicit various interest groups for their ideas..

A Rationale

A rationale gives focus, coherence and justification fordevising a curriculum plan. The unpredictable flow of

educational funding at local, state and national levelscreates uncertainty at best and, at worst, a struggle forlimited funds. The "back-to-basics" point of view per-ceives social studies within very narrow limits; that lim-ited frame of reference can thwart the increasingly broadoutlook that the discipline demands. Schools, and socialstudies programs in particular, become battlegrou nd s onwhich community groups clash over fundamental val-ues.

A courageous, clearly written rationale will helpstrengthen the district's hand in arguing for diversity,equal representation of ideas and a global perspective.DI-defined social studies programs are easy targets forspecial interest groups seeking to use the schools topromote their particular cause or viewpoint. Curriculumdesigners must defend their position that discussingcontroversial issues and studying different viewpointsare central to social studies.

The accompanying questionnaire, "Sample Ra-tionale Evaluation," and its "Small Group Ranking ofStatements" chart (see pages 6 and 7) will assist thecommittee in organizing its thoughts for a rationale. Butit may be useful in other ways as well, such as rekindlingphilosophical discussions among all K-12 social studiesteachers. Teachers ask for well-defended conceparguments from their students and should demand thesame from themselves.

The curriculum development process ha s begu n.The committee has evaluated the existing curriculum,assessed needs and developed a rationale. Now localsocial studies goals, objectives and themes can beestablished..

(Sample Rationale Evaluation andSmall Croup Ranking of Statements

appear on pages 6 and 7.)

5

16

DEFINITION AND PROCESS CHAPTER. 1

Sample Rationale Evaluation

1. Rank the position from 1 to 6 in order of preference in the spaces provided in the left column.2. With a small group of 5 to 7 individuals (colleagues, parents or students), combine the individual rankings on the

following grid (page 7) and add the total for each statement.3. Discuss statements about which there is agreement and disagreement. Can the a reas of disagreement be resolved?4. Use the areas of agnement to help construct a rationale for your social studies program.

(a) The main purpose of social studies in the school curriculum is to help develop a just and humane society.It aims to produce students who act intelligently in addressing social problems and who become activeworkers for social justice in the context of democratic values.

(b) The main purpose of the social studies in the school curriculum is to meet the ongoing needs of childrenand adolescents in a highly complex and rapidly changing society. The social studies program should aimto produce students with well-integrated personalities, strong self- concepts, and without undue anxietyand personal problems.

(c) The main purpose of the social studies in the school curriculum is to keep alive the nation's and theworld's historical record. It aims to develop students who will master the best of what has been writtenand said in the various fields that comprise the social studies.

(d) The main purpose of the social studies in the school curriculum is to produce adults who are contributingmembers of society. It aims to develop individuals who become conscientious consumer-producers andlaw-abiding citizens.

(e) The main purpose of the social studies in the school curriculum is the intellectual development ofstudents. It aims to produce students who become independent learners, interested in studying humanactivities in more meaningful ways.

(f)

From A Guide To Curriculum Planning In Social Studies,Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction,

1986. Used with permission.

6

17


Small Group Ranking of Statements

Statement

Individual Rankings

Total

a

b

c

d

e

f

References

Connecticut State Board of Education. Challenge for Ex-cellence: Connecticut's Comprehensive Plantar Elementary,Secondary, Vocational, Career and Adult Education: APolicy Plan 1991-1995. Hartford, CT: ConnecticutState Board of Education, 1990.

Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. A Guide toCurriculum Planning in Social Studies. Madison, WI:Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1986.

Resources

Barr, Robert D.; Barth, James L.; and Shermis, Samuel S.Defining the Social Studies. Washington, DC: NationalCouncil for the Social Studies, Bulletin 51,1977.

Bradley Commission on History in the Schools. Buildinga History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History inSchools. Washington, DC: Educational ExcellenceNetwork, 1988.

From A Guide To Curriculum Planning In Social Studies,Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction,

1986. Used with permission.

Connecticut State Board of Education. A Guide to Cur-riculum Development: Purposes, Practices and Proce-dures. Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Board of Edu-cation (see current edition).

National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools.Charting A Course: Social Studies for the 21st Century.Washington, DC: National Commission on SocialStudies in the Schools, 1989.

National Council for the Social Studies. "Report of the AdHoc Committee on Scope and Sequence." Social Edu-cation, 53 (October 1989), pp. 375-403.

Parker, Walter C. Renewing the Social Studies Curriculum.Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development, 1991.

Sizer, Theodore R. Horace's School: Redesigning TheAmerican High School. Boston, MA: Houghton MifflinCo., 1992.

GOALS AND THEMES 2

If a nation expects to be ignorant and freein a state of civilization, it expects what never

was and never will he."Thomas Jefferson

SOCIAL STUDIES GOALSThe Essentials of the Social Studies

NCSS Curriculum Guidelines

KNOWLEDGEGeneral ObjectivesSpecific Objectives

Organizing Content Knowledge

THINKINGEssential Skills for Social Studies

Inductive Strategy

VALUINGConnecticut's Common Core of Learning

Controversy

PARTICIPATINGAffective Objectives

Civic Participation

MAJOR THEMESCause and Effect

CitizenshipCommunity

Continuity and ChangeCultural Pluralism

CultureEqual Opportunity

Freedom and JusticeGovernment and Authority

Human/Environmental InteractionHuman Rights

Independence/InterdependenceScarcity and Choice

World Peace

9

19 LUPY AVAILABLE

GOALS AND THEMES

Four principal goals are essential to the field of socialstudies. Each raises a host of related issues which willaffect how curriculum developers implement the goals intheir programs. This chapter analyzes the four goals:knowledge, thinking, valuing and participating. Thechapter also proposes unifying themes for the K-12 socialstudies program.

SOCIAL STUDIES GOALS

If the social studies field accepts Thomas Jefferson's ad-vice to "inform the people's discretion through instruc-tion," an overall goal would be to adequately informcitizens to be capable decision makers and contributors tothe enrichment of democracy. How can we best facilitateresponsible and effective citizenship within democraticcommunities? Broadly construed, the question can besubdivided into four questions:

What knowledge should the effective citizenhave?What skills should the effective citizen pos-sess?What values need the effective citizen hold?How should the effective citizen participate incommunity life?

The operative words in these open-ended ques-tions are knowledge, skills, values and participate. Honestand well-intentioned people will have legitimately dif-ferent ways of answering them. Moreover, each of thefour can be applied to a variety of social studies issues,such as the role of history and the various social sciencedisciplines; the interdisciplinary aspects of the humani-ties, the sciences and the arts; the use of controversialissues; and the degree of student participation. Whencurriculum developersapply questions about knowledge,skills, values and participation, they need no t be remindedthat a social studies curriculum is an unfinished agenda.

In 1980, the National Council for the Social Stud-ies agreed upon a slightly revised version of its earlier"essentials" for the field. This statement (pages 10-12) isprinted in its entirety to provide maximum exposure tocurriculum developers..

The Essentialsof the Social Studies

Citizen participation in public life is es-sential to the health of our democraticsystem. Effective social studies programs

help prepare young people who canidentify, understand and work to solvethe problems that face our increasinglydiverse nation and interdependentworld. Organized according to a profes-sionally designed scope and sequence,such programs:

1. Begin in preschool and continuethroughout formal education andinclude a range of related electivesat the secondary level.

2. Foster individual and culturalidentity.

3. Include observation of and partici-pation in the school and communityas part of the curriculum.

4. Deal with critical issues and theworld as it really is.

5. Prepare students to make decisionsbased on American principles.

6. Demand high standards of perfor-mance and measure student successby means that require more than thememorization of information.

7. Depend on innovative teachersbroadly prepared in history, thehumanities, the social sciences,educational theory and practice.

8. Involve community members as re-sources for program developmentand student involvement.

9. Lead to citizenship participation inpublic affairs.

In 1979, the National Councilfor the Social Studies joined with elevenother professional associations to reaf-firm the value of a balanced education.We now enumerate the essentials of ex-emplary social studies programs. Suchprograms contribute not only to the de-velopment of students' capacity to readand compute, but also link knowledgeand skills with an understanding of andcommitment to democratic principlesand their application.

From "Essentials of the Social Studies,"NCSS Tool Kit (from "Essentials of Education Statement,"

1980), National Council for the Social Studies, 1988.Used with permission.

1070U

GOALS AND THEMES CHAPTER 2

Knowledge

Students need knowledge of the worldat largeand the world at hand, the worldsof individuals and the world of institu-tions, the world past, the world presentand future. An exemplary social studiescurriculum links information presentedin the classroom with experiences gainedby students through social and civic ob-servation, analysis and participation.

Classroom instruction whichrelates content to information drawnfrom the media and from experiencefocuses on the following areas of knowl-edge:

Historyand culture of our nation andthe worldGeography: physical, political, cul-tural and economicGovernment: theories, systems,structures and processesEconomics: theories, systems, struc-tures and processesSocial institutions: the individual,the group, the community and thesocietyIntergroup and interpersonal rela-tionshipsWorldwide relationships of all sortsbetween and among nations, races,cultures and institutions

From this knowledge base, ex-emplary programs teach skills, conceptsand generalizations that can help stu-dents understand the sweep of humanaffairs and ways of managing conflictconsistent with democratic procedures.

Democratic Beliefs

Fundamental beliefs drawn from theDeclaration of Independence and theUnited States Constitution with its Billof Rights form the basic principles of ourdemocratic constitutional order. Exem-plary school programs do not indoctri-nate students to accept these ideasblindly, but present knowledge abouttheir historical derivation and contem-

porary application essential to under-standing our society and its institutions.Not only should such ideas be discussedas they relate to the curriculum and tocurrent affairs, they should also be mir-rored by teachers in their classroomsand embodied in the school's daily op-erations.

These democratic bel ief s dependupon such practices as due process, equalprotection and civic participation, andare rooted in the concepts of:

JusticeEqualityResponsibilityFreedomDiversityPrivacy

Thinking Skills

It is important that students connectknowledge with beliefs and action. Todo that, thinking skill s can be developedthrough constant systematic practicethroughout the years of formal school-ing. Fundamental to the goals of socialstudies education are those skills whichhelp assure rational behavior in socialsettings.

In addition to strengtheningreading a nd computation, there isa widevariety of thinking skills essential to thesocial studies which can be grouped intofour major categories:

Data-Gathering Skills. Learning to:Acquire information by observationLocate information from a variety of

sourcesCompile, organize and evaluate in-

formationExtract and interpret informationCommunicate orally and in writingIntellectual Skills. Learning to:Compare things, ideas, events and

situations on the basisof similaritiesand differences

Classify or group items in categoriesAsk appropriate and searching ques-

tions


Draw conclusions or inferences fromevidence

Arrive at general ideasMake sensible predictions from gen-

eralizationsDecision-Making Skills. Learningto:Consider alternative solutionsConsider the consequences of each

solutionMake decisions and justify them in

relationship to democratic prin-ciples

Act, based on those decisionsInterpersonal Skills. Learning to:See things from the point of view of

othersUnderstand one's own beliefs, feel-

ings,abilitiesand shortcomingsandhow they affect relations with oth-ers

Use group generalizations withoutstereotyping and arbitrarily classi-fying individuals

Recognize value in individuals dif-ferent from one's self and groupsdifferent from one's own

Work effectively with others as agroup member

Give and receive constructive criti-cism

Accept responsibility and respect therights and property of others

Participation Skills

As a civic participant, the individualuses the knowledge, beliefs and skillslearned in the school, the social studiesclassroom, the commu ni ty and t he famil yas the basis for action.

Connecting the classroom withthe community provides many oppor-tunities for students to learn the basicskills of participation, from observationto advocacy. To teach participation,social studies programs need to em-phasize the following kinds of skills:

Work effectively in groups - orga-nizing, planning, making decisions,taking action

Form coalitions of interest with othergroupsPersuade, compromise, bargainPractice patience and perseverancein working for one's goalDevelop experience in cross-culturalsituations

Civic Action

Social studies programs which combinethe acquisition of knowledge and skillswith an understanding of theapplicationof democratic beliefs to life throughpractice at social participation representan ideal professional standard. Work-ing to achieve that trleal is vital to thefuture of our society. However, even ifexcellent programs of social studieseducation were in place, there wouldoften remain a missing element - the willto take part in public affairs. Formaleducation led by creative and humaneteachers can provide the knowledge, thetools, the commitment for a thoughtfulconsideration of issues and can evenstimulate the desire to be active. But toachieve full participation, our diversesociety must value and model involve-ment to emphasize for young people themerit of taking part in public life.

From "Essentials of the Social Studies,"NCSS Tool Kit (from "Essentials of Education Statement,"

1980). National Council for the Social Studies, 1988.Used with permission.

NCSS Curriculum Guidelines

The NCSS "Curriculum Guidelines" (1980) can providestandards useful to curriculum developers before theyconsider knowledge, skills, values and participationseparately. These are designed to assist in the measure-ment of programs and to suggest competencies that shouldbe developed. Descriptive subheadings of the nineguidelines follow.

The social studies program should be directlyrelated to the age, maturity and concerns ofstudents.The social studies program should deal withthe real social world.

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22

GOALS AND THEMES CHAPTER 2AM.

The social studies program should draw fromcurrently valid knowledge representative ofhuman experience, culture and beliefs.Objectives should be thoughtfully selectedand dearly stated in such form as to furnishdirection to the program.Learning activities should engage the studentdirectly and actively in the learning process.Strategies of instruction and learning activitiesshould rely on a broad range of learning re-sources.The social studies program must facilitate theorganization of experience.Evaluation should be useful, systematic,comprehensive and valid for the objectives ofthe program.Social studies education should receive vig-crous support as a vital and responsible partof the school programs

KNOWLEDGE

The basis of social studies is information. Bu t informationis one-dimensional,linear and fragmented unless learnedwithin the context of a larger idea. Unlike isolated socialstudies facts, knowledge is useful since it shows rela-tionships between different pieces of information.Knowledge is best related in theories and results fromconceptualization and, as such, is the central goal forsocial studies. Wisdom applies information andknowledge to resolve hu man dilemmas and create dreams.Social studies information, knowledge and wisdom ap-ply to three broad areas: United States studies, globalstudies and the social science disciplines. These broadareas are mentioned repeatedly in state and nationalguidelines for implementation at thelocal

General Objectives

Helpful guidelines enable curriculum developers andteachers to determine a local district's cognitive goals. In1978, theConnecticut Assessment of Educational Progress(CAEP) cited the following goals in citizenship and socialstudies:

have knowledge of local, state and UnitedStates history;have knowledge about the historical devel-opment and contributions of past and presentcivilizations;know the main structure, function and pro-

cesses of all levels of United States govern-ment;have knowledge about the ideology and prac-tices of different political systems;understand the nature of conflict among in-dividuals, groups and nations and evaluatealternative methods of resolving conflict;recognize rights and liberties essential to apluralistic society and how they are guaran-teed;understand the duties and responsibilities ofUnited States citizenship;understand that political opposition andspecial interest groups have a legitimate andimportant role in democratic society;have knowledge about the economic systemsand economic behavior;have knowledge about the relationships be-tween human beings and their physical en-vironments and understand some of the con-sequences of their relationships;have knowledgeabout social organization andrelationshipsbetween humans a nd their socialenvironments and understand some of theconsequences of these relationships;have knowledge about "cultural universals,"such as needs for shelter, communication,family organization and religion, and recog-'axe that needs are satisfied in different waysin various cultures;recognize that culture defines beliefs, valuesand institutions, and influences behavior; anddemonstrate skill in locating, compiling andweighing the evidence and data necessary forclarifying issues and making decisions.

Five years later CAEP conducted testing acrossthe state and then published the results. Shortcomings inthe teaching of social studies included the lack of a globalperspective, as well as certain areas of United Statesstudies and the social sciences. CAEP's 1983 recom-mendations included the following:

offer students a "global perspective" whenpresenting content in all social studies disci-plines;teach students about the U.S. political andeconomic systems, with greater emphasis oncomparisons with other systems;emphasize the personal relevance and mod-ern-day implications of social studies con-cepts; andincorporate geography throughout the socialstudies curriculum.

GOALS AND THEMES

In 1981 NCSS issued the following position statementon global education.

The social studies should emphasize:

that the human experience is an increasinglyglobalized phenomenon in which people areconstantly being influenced by transnational,cross-cultural, multicultural and multiethnicinteractions;the variety of actors on the world stage;that humankind is an integral part of theworld environment;the linkages between present social, politicaland ecological reali ties, and alternative futu res;andcitizen participation in world affairs.

A national report on global education from TheStudy Commission on Global Education made the fol-lowing additional recommendations in 1987:

Two of the greatest changes affecting the nationtoday are:

I. the increasing internationalization of theworld, and

2. the increasing diversification of this nation'spopulation along racial, ethnic and culturallines.

Curricular areas need to emphasize:

I. the interrelationship of physical, biological,economic and political systems;

2. world civilizations as they relate to our own;3. the diversity of cultural patterns in the world

and in the United States; and4. training in policy analysis of domestic and

international issues.

Recommendations include the following:

1. At theelementary level, students should studya variety of cultures at home and abroad.

2. Elementary students should become ac-quainted with at least two cultures, one ofthem non-European.

3. High schools should offer continuing study ofthe physical and cultural geography of theworld.

4. States should support centers for developingcurriculums on foreign cultures.

Adapted front The United StatesPrtpares for its Future:

Global Perspectives in Education, GlobalPerspectives in Education, Inc., 1987.

Social studies goals for the primary grades aresubstantially the same as those for social studies in gen-eral, but the context for achieving them is different. Amajor social studies goal for young children is develop-ing a positive self-concept. Another is to acquire knowl-edge and explore the multiricity of cultures within so-ciety and the world. The concept of time is difficult foryoung learners, but they do need a sense of the past inorder to understand their heritage. Spatial relationshipsare equally difficult but important to establish.

Cognitive goals have been established for, allhigh school graduates in Connecticut's Common Core ofLearning. Adopted by the State Board of Education in1987, the Common Core presents a broad array of out-comes for students in a variety of disciplines. Socialstudies curriculum developers will find the followingspecific student expectations in the Common Core:

able to:Each graduating social studies student should be

recognize and analyze events, personalities,trends and beliefs that have shaped the historyan culture of Connecticut, the United Statesand the world;demonstrate a knowledge of United Stateshistory and government and understand theduties, responsibilities and rights of UnitedStates citizenship;understand the basic concepts of economics;analyze and compare the political and eco-nomic beliefs and systemsof the United Stateswith those of other nations;apply major concepts drawn from the disci-plines of history and the social sciencesanthropology,economics, geography, law andgovernment, philosophy, political science,psychology and sociology to hypotheticaland real situations;demonstrate basic knowledge of world geog-raphy;

14


apply critical thinking skills and knowledgefrom history and the social sciences to thedecision-making process and the analysis ofcontroversial issues in order to understanethe present and anticipate the future;understand the roles played by various racial,ethnic and religious groups in developing thenation's pluralistic society; andappreciate the mutual dependence of all peoplein the world and understand that our lives arepart of a global community joined by eco-nomic, social, cultural and civic concerns..

Specific Objectives

Teachers and curriculum developers have a number ofresources available for specific knowledge objectives.Some sources, such as the Illinois State Board of Educa-tion, list specific social studies objectives and activities.Other state curriculum publications provide specificcognitive objecH yes, questions and activities. Wisconsin's1986 Guide to Curriculum Planning in Social Studies is onesuch publication.

ProfesMonal organizations are important con-tacts as well. The Joint Council on Economic Educationand the American Bar Association offer curriculum as-sistance. Publications of the National Council for theSocial Studies, the Association for Supervision and Cur-riculum Development and the Social Science EducationConsortium in Boulder, CO, may be useful. The annualNortheast Regional Conference on the Social Studies, theConnecticut Council for the Social Studies, and collegeand university curriculum libraries can be of assistance.Outside social studies consultants may be employed. TheCon necticutSta teDepartment of Education'ssocial studiesconsultant also is available for assistance. Social StudiesUpdate, published three times during the academic yearout of the state consultant's office, contains the latestcurriculum resources and developments and teacher in-formation. (See also Appendix C, Organizational Re-sources for Social Studies Education and Appendix D,Resources for Curriculum Planning.).

Organizing Content Knowledge

In recent years, several areas within the social studieshave created models for developing a fundamentalknowledge base recommended for K-12 students. Theseknowledge-base models develop themes or concepts thatcan serve as guides for resource development, teacherplanning and student assessment.

History

The Bradley Commission on History in Schools in 1988published Building a History Curriculum: Guideline-, forTeaching History in Schools, which identifies six vital themesand narratives essential for organizing K-12 instructionin history. These themes, which follow, are used toorganize topics for studying American history, westerncivilization and world history.

Civilization, cultural diffusion and innovation.The evolution of isuman skills and the means ofexerting power over nature and people. The rise,interaction and decline of successive centers ofsuch skills and power. The cultural flowering ofmajor civilizations in the arts, literature andthought. The role of social, religious and politicalpatronage of the arts and learning. The impor-tance of the city in different eras and places.Human interaction with the environment. Therelationships among geography, technology andculture, and their effects on economic, social andpolitical developments. The choices made pos-sible by climate, resources and location, and theeffect of culture and human values on suchchoices. The gains and losses of technologicalchange. The central role of agriculture. The effectof d isea se and disease fighting on plants, animalsand human beings.Values, beliefs, political ideas and institutions.The origins and spread of influential religionsand ideologies. The evolution of political andsocial institutions, at various stages of industrialand commercial development. The interplayamong ideas, material conditions, moral valuesand leadership, especially in the evolution ofdemocratic societies. The tensions between theaspirations for freedom and security, for libertyand equality, ford istinction and commonality, inhuman affairs.Conflict and cooperation. The many and vari-ous causes of war, and of approaches to peace-making and war prevention. Relations betweendomestic affairs and ways of dealing with theoutside world. Contrasts between internationalconflict and cooperation, between isolation andinterdependence. The consequences of war andpeace for societies and their cultures.Comparative histor,c of major developments.The characteristics of revolutionary, reactionary,and reform periods across time and place. Im-perialism, ancient and modern. Comparativeinstances of slavery and emancipation, feudalismand central ization, hu man successes and failures,

15


of wisdom and folly. Comparative elites andaristocracies; the role of family, wealth and merit.Patterns of social and political interaction. Thechanging patterns of class, ethnic, racial andgender structures and relations. Immigration,migration and social mobility. The effects ofschooling. The new prominence of women, mi-norities and the common people in the study ofhistory and their relation to political power andinfluential elites. The characteristics ofmulticultural societies; forces for unity and dis-unity.

From Building a History Curriculum:Guidelines pr Teaching I lislory in Schools.

Bradley Commission on History in Schools, 1988.Used with permission of National Council for History in Schools,

26915 Westwood Road, Suite B2, Westlake, OH 44145.

Geography

In 1984, the Association of American Geographers andNational Council for Geographic Education publishedGuidelines for Geographic Education, a document designedto organize geographical understanding around the fivecentral themes that follow.

Location: Position on the Earth's Surface. Ab-solute and relative location are two ways of de-scribing the position of places on the Earth'ssurface. In many instances, it is important toidentify absolute locations as precise points onthe Earth. The coordinates of latitude and lon-gitude are widely accepted and useful ways ofportraying exact locations. Determining relativelocation the position of one place with respectto other important places is equally significant.Place: Natural and Cultural Characteristics. Allplaces on Earth have distinct natural and culturalcharacteristics that distinguish them from otherplaces. The natural characteristics derive fromgeological, hydrological, atmospheric and bio-logical processes that produce land forms, waterbodies, climate, soils, natural vegetation andanimal life. Human ideas and actions also shapethe character of places which vary in population,composition, settlement patterns, architecture,kinds of economic and recreational activities,and transportation and communica tion networks.One place may also differ from another in thebeliefs of people who live there, by their lan-guages, and by their forms of economic, socialand political organization. Taken together, thenatural and human characteristics of places

provide keys to identifying and interpretingsimple and complex interrelations betweenpeople and their environments.Relationships Within Places: Humans and En-vironments. All places on Earth have ad vantagesand disadvantages for human settlement. Highpopulation densities have developed on floodplains, for example, where people could takeadvantage of level ground, fertile soils, waterresources and opportunities for river transpor-tation. By contrast, population densities areusually low in deserts. Yet flood plains areperiodically subjected to severe damage, andsome desert areas have been modified to supportlarge population concentrations. People modifyand adapt to natura' settings in ways that revealcultural values, economic and political circum-stances and technological abilities. It is impor-tant to understand how such human-environ-ment relationships develop and what the conse-quences are for people and the environment.Movement: Humans Interacting on the Earth.Human beings are unevenly distributed acrossthe face of the Earth. Some live on farms or in thecountry; others live in towns, villages or cities.Yet these people interact with each other; theytravel from one place to another; communicatewith each other; or rely upon products, informa-tion or ideas that come from beyond their im-mediateenvironments. Themost visible evidenceof the interaction of places are the transportationand communication lines that link different partsof a large country such as the United States, andinterconnect virtually every part of the world.Interaction continues to change as transportationand communication technologies cllange.Regions: How They Form and Change. The basicunit of geographic stud, , the region, is any areathat displays unity in terms of selected criteria.Regions show the extent of political power, suchas nations, provinces, countries or cities. Yetthere are almost countless ways to definemeaningful regions, depending on the issuesand problems being considered. Some regionsare defined by a single characteristic, such astheir governmental unit, language group or typeof landforms; others by the interplay of manycomplex features. The idea of regions is used asa tool to examine, define, describe, explain andanalyze the human and natural environments.Thus, regions are convenient and manageableunits upon which to build one's knowledge ofthe world. They provide a context for studyingevents in the past and present, and they can be

16

26

GOALS AND THEMESmmemss..

CHAPTER 2

used as an intermediate step between one'sknowledge of localities and the entire planet.Region is a way of organizing geographic infor-mation.

economic institutions and incentivesexchange, money and interdependence

Microeconomic Conceptsmarkets and pricessupply and demandcompetition and market structureincome distributionmarket failuresthe role of government

Macroeconomic Conceptsgross national productaggregate supplyaggregate demandunemploymentinflation and deflationmonetary policyfiscal policy

International Economic Conceptsabsolute and comparative advantagesand barriers to tradebalance of payments and exchangeratesinternational aspects of growth andstability.

From Guidelines for Geographic Education.Association of American Geographers and National

Council for Geographic Education, 1984.Used with permission.

Civic Education

ln C IV ITAS: A Framework for Civic Education, published in1991 by the Center for Civic Education, three goals wereoutlined in order to promote the acquisition of knowledgeand participation in ourconstitutional democracy. Thesegoals, which are used to develop resource materials forstudy in the political process, follow.

Civic Virtue. To foster among citizens the devel-opment of those civic dispositions and commit-ments to fundamental values and principles re-quired for competent and responsible ci tizenshi p.Civic Participation. To develop among citizensthe participatory skills required to monitor andinfluence the formulation, implementation, ad-judication and enforcement of public policy, aswell as to participate in voluntary efforts to solveneighborhood and community problems.Civic Knowledge and Intellectual Skills. Toprovide citizens the knowledge and intellectualskills required to monitor and influence the for-mulation, implementation, adjudication andenforcement of public policy, as well as to par-ticipate in volunta ryefforts to solve neighborhoodand community problems.

Economics

In 1984, the Joint Council on Economic Education pub-lished the Master Curriculum Guide in Economics: AFramework for Teaching the Bask Concepts. Twenty-twoeconomics concepts were identified as being essential forstudent economic literacy. These concepts, which follow,are now used extensively In most economics.related cur-riculum materials available to schools.

Fundamental Economic Conceptsscarcityopportunity, cost and trade-offsproductivityeconomic systems

From Master Curriculum Guide in Economics:A Framework For Teaching the Basic Concepts.Joint Council on Economic Education, 1984.

Used with permission.

THINKING

Thinking is the most fundamental of all social studiesskills. It is a process for problem solving, decision makingand conceptualizing. Critical thinking skills distinguishbetween verifiable facts and value claims, determine thecredibility of a source, detect bias and determine thestrength of an argument. Creative thinking skills dealwith inventiveness, insightfulness and originality.Thinking skills relate to understanding time and spatialrelationships by analyzing and interpreting history, thesocial sciences and the humanities. Thinking calls for anintegrated skills network which includes all levels ofBloom's taxonomy.

Connecticut's Common Core of Learning (1987) setsa standard to which curriculum developers might relatecontent and skills. It does so for social studies with thesewords: "apply critical thinking skills and knowledgefrom history and the social sciences to the decision-making process and the analysis of controversial issues inorder to understand the present and anticipate the future."Skills and competencies applicable to all disciplines

17

7


including reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewingand quantitative skills are in the Common Core. Theseareas will help to provide the critical intellectual founda-tions for broader acquisition of knowledge.

The 1989 report of the NCSS Ta sk Force on Scopeand Sequence presents a revised sequential developmentof essential skills for systematic instruction and practice.These skills, which are reprinted with the permission ofNCSS, appear on pages 19-22..

Inductive Strategy

Recommendations for skill development from the 1982-83 Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress testsreinforce the importance of teaching problem solving andlogical analysis. They also emphasize the importance ofteaching cause and effect, interpretation over recitation,and interpretive reading skills for graphs, charts andtables, Thinking skills may be taught inductively ordeduciively, as a new skill or to practice ones previouslytaught. The following five-step process from Beyer (1987)illustrates an inductive strategy for introducing a think-ing skill:

Step 1 Introduce the SkillState that learning the skill is today'sobjective.Give the skill a label or name.Give synonyms for the skill label.State a tentative or working definition.State ways the skill has been used:

in student's personal experiences,in school activities,in this course.

Explain why the skill is useful and worthlearning.

18

Step 2 Execute the SkillStudents use the skill (as best one can) toaccomplish a task.Work in pairs, triads or groups.Use subject matter familiar to studentsand appropriate to course (or, if neces-sary, from students' experience).

Step 3 Reflect on What was DoneStudents report what went on in theirheads as they engaged in the skili.Identify the steps or rules used and se-quence of each.Clarify the procedure and any criteriaused.Focus on the skill and its attributes.

Step 4 Apply the Skill to New DataStudents use what has been discussedabout the skill to completes second task.Work in pairs, triads or groups.Use subject matter appropriate to thecourse but in the same structure andmedia as in Step 2.

Step 5 Review the SkillStudents report .vhat they did in theirheads as they applied the skill.Review the steps or procedures t ha t seemto constitute the skill.Review the rules that direct use of theskill as well as when it is to be used.State the relationsh ip of this skill to otherRskeillse.

w or revise the skill definition.State where the skill can be used in per-sonal or out-of-school situations..

From Practical Strategies for the Teaching of Thinking.Beyer, Barry K. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon,

Inc, 1987. Used wIlh permission,

2

COALS AND THEMES CHAPTER 2

Essential Skills For Social Studies NCSS

I. Skills Related To Acquiring Information

K-331

1

1

1

1

1

1

31

1

1

4

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

A. Reading Skills

4-6 7-9 10-12 1.4 3 1

4 3 2

4 4 2a 3 32 3 42 3 42 3 42 3 43 3 22 3 42 4 4

2 3 4

2.4 2 2

3 4 34 3 3

4 4 3

3.3 3 43 3 3

B. Study Skills

1.3 2 23 2 1

2 2 32 3 32 3 3

2.2 3 32 3 32 3 22 3 32 3 3

Note - Numbers at left relate torecommended emphasis u follows:1, minInuuninone; 2, some; 3, major;and 4, intense.

ComprehensionRead to get literal meaningUse chapter and section headings, topic sentences and summarysentences to select main ideasDifferentiate main and subordinate ideasSelect passages that are pertinent to the topic studiedInterpret what is read by drawing inferencesDetect cause and effect relationshipsDistinguish between the fact and opinion; recognize propagandaRecognize author biasUse picture clues and picture captions to aid comprehensionUse literature to enrich meaningRead for a variety of purposes: critically, analytically, to predictoutcomes, to answera question, to form an opinion, to skim for factsRead various forms of printed material: books, magazines, news-papers, directories, schedules, journals

VocabularyUse usual word attack skills: sight recognition, phonetic analysis,structural analysisUse context clues to gain meaningUse appropriate sources to gain meaning of essential terms andvocabulary: glossary, dictionary, text, word listsRecognize and understand an increasing number of social studiesterms

Rate of ReadingAdjust speed of reading to suit purposeAdjust rate of reading to difficulty of the material

Find informationUse various parts of a book (index, table of contents, etc.)Use key words, letters of volumes, index and cross references tofind informationEvaluate sources of information print, visual, electronicUse appropriate source of informationUse the community as a resource

Arrange Information in Usable FormsMake outline of topicPrepare summariesMake timelinesTake notesKeep records

19

(continued)


K-31

441

1

21

1

1

1

22

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

4-6 7-9 10-122 3 3 Use italics, marginal notes and footnotes3 2 2 Listen for information3 3 2 Follow directions2 3 4 Write reports and research papers2 3 4 Prepare a bibliography

C. Reference and Information Search Skills

1. The Library2 3 3 Use card catalog to locate books2 3 3 Use Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature and other indexes2 3 3 Use COMCATS (Computer Catalog Service)2 2 2 Use public library telephone information service

1 Special References1 2 3 Almanacs4 2 1 Encyclopedias4 2 1 Dictionary3 2 2 Indexes1 2 3 Government publications1 2 3 Microfiche2 3 3 Periodicals2 2 3 News sources: newspapers, news magazines, TV, radio, video-

tapes, artifacts

3. Maps, Globes, Graphics4 3 2 Orient a map and note directions3 4 2 Locate places on map and globe2 3 2 Use scale and compute distances2 3 4 Interpret map symbols and visualize what they mean2 2 2 Compare maps and make inferences1 3 3 Express relative location2 3 4 Interpret graphs2 3 4 Detect bias in visual material2 3 4 Interpret social and political messages of cartoons2 3 4 Interpret history through artifacts

4. Community Resources2 3 3 Use sources of information in the community2 3 3 Conduct interviews of individuals in the community2 3 3 Use community newspapers

D. Technical Skills Unique to Electronic Devices

1.2 3 3

2 3 3

2.2 2 2

ComputerOperate a computer using prepared instructional or referenceprogramsOperate a computer to enter and retrieve information gatheredfrom a variety of sources

Telephone and Television Information NetworksAbility to access information through networks

20

30

(continued)

COALS AND THEMES CHAPTER 2

II. Skills Related To Organizing And Using InformationA. Thinking Skills

K-3 4-6 7-9 10-12 1. Classify Information1 2 3 3 Identify relevant factual material1 2 3 3 Sense relationship between items of factual information2 2 3 3 Group data in categories according to appropriate criteria2 2 3 3 Place in proper sequence:

(1) order of occurrence(2) order of importance

2 2 3 3 Place data in tabular form: charts, graphs, illustrations

2. Interpret Information1 2 3 3 State relationships between categories of information1 2 3 4 Note cause and effect relationships1 2 3 4 Draw inferences from factual material1 2 3 4 Predict likely outcomes based on factual information1 2 3 4 Recognize the value dimension of interpreting factual material1 2 3 3 Recognize instances in which more than one interpretation of

factual material is valid

3. Analyze Information1 3 3 3 Form a simple organization of key ideas related to a topic1 2 3 3 Separate a topic into major components according to appropriate

criteria1 2 3 3 Examine critically relationships between and among elements of a

topic1 2 3 4 Detect bias in data presented in various forms: graphics, tabular,

visual, print1 2 3 4 Compare and contrast credibility of differing accounts of the same

event

4. Summarize Information1 2 3 3 Extract significant ideas from supporting, illustrative details1 2 3 3 Combine critical concepts into a statement of conclusions based on

information1 2 2 2 Restate major ideas of a complex topic in concise form1 2 3 4 Form opinion based on critical examination of relevant information1 2 3 4 State hypotheses for further study

5. Synthesize Information1 2 3 3 Propose a new plan of operation, create a new system, or devise a

futuristic scheme based on available information1 2 2 2 Reinterpret events in terms of what might have happened, and show

the likely effects on subsequent events1 2 3 3 Present visually (chart, graph, diagram, model, etc.) information

extracted from print1 1 2 3 Prepare a research paper that requires a creative solution to a

problem1 4 4 4 Communicate orally and in writing

6. Evaluate Information1 2 3 3 Determine whether or not the information is pertinent to the topic1 1 2 3 Estimate the adequacy of the information

(continued)

21


K-31

4-61

7-92

10-123 Test the validity of the information, using such criteria as source,

objectivity, technical correctness, currencyB. Decision-Making Skills

3 3 2 1 Identify a situation in which a decision is required3 3 2 2 Secure needed factual information relevant to making the decision3 3 2 1 Recognize the values implicit in the situation and the issues that

flow from them4 3 2 1 Identify alternative courses of action and predict likely conse-

quences of each3 3 2 1 Make decision based on the data obtained4 3 2 1 Take action to implement the decision

C. Metacognitive Skills

1 2 3 4 Select an appropriate strategy to solve a problem1 2 3 4 Self-monitor one's thinking process

III. Skills Related To Interpersonal Relationships and Social ParticipationA. Personal Skills

K-3 4-6 7-9 10-121 2 3 4 Express personal convictions1 2 3 3 Communicate own beliefs, feelings and convictions1 2 3 4 Adjust own behavior to fit the dynamics of various groups and

situations1 2 3 3 Recognize the mutual relationship between human beings in satis-

fying one another's needs

B. Group Interaction Skills

1 2 2 3 Contribute to the development of a supportive climate in groups3 3 3 3 Participate in making rules and guidelines for group life3 3 3 3 Serve as a leader or follower3 3 3 3 Assist in setting goals for the group1 2 3 3 Participate in delegating duties, organizing, planning, making

decisions and taking action in a group setting2 2 3 3 Participate in persuading, compromising, debating and negotiat-

ing in the resolution of conflicts and differences

C. Social and Political Participation Skills

1 2 3 4 Keep informed on issues that affect society1 2 3 4 Identify situations in which social action is required1 2 3 4 Work individually or with others to decide on an appropriate

course of action1 2 3 4 Work to influence those In positions of social power to strive for

extensions of freedom, social justice and human rights1 2 3 4 Accept and fulfill social responsibilities associated with citizenship

in a free society.

22

From "Essential Skills (or Social Stucli."NCSS Task Force on Scope and Sequence, 1989,


32


VALUING

The principles of democracy serve as the organizingvalues for social studies teaching and learning. Curricu-lum developers need to protect the sanctity of the class-room as the locale for the free exchange of ideas. As in theGhanaian "palaver hut" and the Agora (the market placeof the Athenian city state) classroom learning is maxi-mized by an individual's need to know. And values areto be studied within time and spatial perspectives, culturalcontent and contemporary relevance..

Connecticut's Common Core of Learning

ConnecticursCommonOreof Learning identifies values thatshould be applied to specific subject matter. It states theimportance of understanding roles played by variousracial, ethnic and religious groups in developing thenation's pluralistic society. Moreover, graduating socialstudies students should appreciate the importance of amutual interdependence of all people in the world. TheCommon Core includes the following attributes and atti-tudes for the social studies curriculum:

Positive Self-Concept. As part of education inGrades K-12, each student should be able to:

appreciate his/her worth as a uniqueand capable individual and exhibit self-esteem;develop a sense of personal effective-ness and a belief in his/her ability toshape his/her future;develop an understanding of his/herstrengths and weaknesses and the abil-ity to maximize strengths and rectify orcompensate for weaknesses.

Motivation and Persistence. As part of educa-tion in Grades K-12, each student should be able to:

experience the pride of accomplishmentthat results from hard work and persis-tence;act through a desire to succeed ratherthan a fear of failure, while recognizingthat failure is a part of everyone's expe-rience;strive toward and take the risks neces-sary for accomplishing tasks and fulfill-ing personal ambitions.

Responsibility and Self-Reliance. As part ofeducation in Grades K-12, each student should be able to:

assume the primary responsibility foridenti fying hi s/ her needs and settingreasonable goals;initiate actions and assume responsi-bility for the consequences of thoseactions;demonstrate dependability;demonstrate self-control.

Intellectual Curiosity. As part of education inGrades K-12, each student should be able to:

demonstrate a questioning attitude,open-mindedness and curiosity;demonstrate independence ofthought necessary for leadership andcreativity;pursue lifelong learning.

Interpersonal Relations. As part of education inGrades K-12, each student should be able to:

develop productive and satisfyingrelationships with others based uponmutual respect;develop a sensitivity to and an un-derstanding of the needs, opinions,concerns and customs of others;participateactively in reaching groupdecisions;appreciate the roles and responsibili-ties of parents, children and families.

Sense of Community. As part of education inGrades K-12, each student should be able to:

develop a sense of belonging to agroup larger than friends, family andco-workers;develop an understanding of the im-portance of each individual to theimprovement of the quality of life forall in the community;examine and assess the values, stan-dards and traditions of the commu-nity;understand and appreciate his/herown historical and ethnic heritage, aswell as that of others representedwithin the larger community.

23

:33


Moral and Ethical Values. As part of educationin Grades K-12, each student should be able to:

recognize the necessity for moral andethical conduct in a society;recognize that values affect choicesand conflicts;develop personal criteria for makinginformed moral judgments and ethi-cal decisions.

Controversy

Values raise the issue of controversy. Controversialissues and studying different viewpoints are essential tosocial studies. The uneven evolution of social studiesduring this century speaks for itself, and the futureprom-ises more of the same.

The 1974 NCSS Position Statement on the Free-dom to Teach and the Freedom to Learn declares:

Ultimately, freedom to teach and to learnwill exist only if a continuing effort ismade to educate all Americans regard-ing these important freedoms. Profes-sional educators must set an example intheir communities that illustrates theirrespect for schools and classrooms as afree marketplace of ideas as well as anappreciation for the concerns of parentsand other members of the communitywho legitimately disagree. By showingour faith as educators in the clash ofopposing viewpoints, we can hope toachieve a society that functions accord-ing to this precept.

The Connecticut State Board of Education's 1978policy sta tement, 'Teaching About Controversial Issues,"begins: "Learning to deal with controversial issues is oneof the basic competencies all students should acquire"(see Appendix E). Subjects or questions which evokesignificantly different opinions due to differing valuesystems are to be expected. Teachers should assist stu-dents to identify and evaluate relevant information andto make independent judgments.

The State Board further declared that academicfreedom "is the freedom to teach and to learn," but thatwithfreedomcomesresponsibility. Because public schoolsare a public trust, access to ideas and opportunities toconsider materials may not be defined by the interests ofa single viewpoint. Schools should teach how to think, notwhat to think, and that studying an idea does not meanendorsement of the idea. Classrooms are forums forinquiry, not for indoctrination. The State Board declared

that local school boards should develop and make avail-able their own written policies which support the state'sconcept of teaching about controversial issues..

PARTICIPATING

Students can demonstrate that they have learned theessentials of social studies through various forms ofparticipation. Affective objectives can be evaluated in theclassroom forum, such as those agreed upon by theNational Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) inits second assessment of citizenship and social studies in1974. The NAEP affective objectives follow:

Expresses awareness of some of the beliefsand values expressed by people and recognizesthat the conditions, times and places in whichpeople live influence their beliefs, values andbehaviors.Developsthe human rela lions skills necessaryto communicate and work with others.Understands waysin which beliefs and valuesarc transmitted in various cultures.Examines own beliefs and values and theinterrelationships between and amongbeliefs,values and behavior.Expressesawarenessof the characteristicsthatgive one identity.Expresses awareness of one's goals (aspira-tions), the goals of the groups with which oneidentifies and the fit between those goals.Expresses awareness of the relative strengthsof oneself and the groups with which oneidentifies and recognizes the societal barriersto full development that may exist.Assesses the extent to which one has controlover the setting and achievement of personalgoals in light of what one knows about oneself,the groups with which one identifies and thesocietal barriers to full development.Suggests ways of maximizing one's effective-ness.Displays an awareness of a quality of humanlifeand an interest in waysin which thequalitycan be improved.Explains and supports rights and freedomsimportant in human development.Participates in family, school and communitylife on the basisof rational decisions involvingone'sown valuesand the conflict among thesevalues..

From Social Studies Objectives, 2nd Assessment.

National Assessment of Educational Progress, 1974.

24

34

GOALS AND THEMES CHAIR 2

Civic Participation

In CIVITAS: A Framework for Civic Education (Center forCivic Education, 1991), the following commentary oncivic participation is available:

The ultimate goal of civic education isthe widespread participation in thegovernance of the groups to which theybelong by citizens who are knowledge-able, competent and committed to therealization of the fundamental valuesand principles of our constitutional de-mocracy. The focus of civic educationform the earliest grade levels should beto prepare students to take part in in thegovernance of groups beginning withtheir classes, schools and social groupsand then, at appropriate levels, dealingwith formal political institutions andprocesses. By the end of secondary schoolthis education should have culminatedspecifically in the development amongstudents of knowledge, skills and moralcommitments required for responsibleparticipation in monitoring and influ-encing public policy.

To be consistent with the valuesand principles of constitutional democ-racy, the student's decision to participatemust be freely made. It is typical of someauthoritarian systems to demand par-ticipation in order to "legitimize" theirpowers and to penalize those who do notvote or adhere in other ways to theirnotions of the proper role of the subject.A constitutional democracy, on the otherhand, must rely upon education andexample to inspire participation, a taskwhich clearly indicates the importanceof the civic mission of our schools. In-structional programs based upon a civiceducation curriculum framework shouldinspire among students a commitmentto participate in governance by:

providing the lulowledge andskills required to participateeffectively;providing practical experi-ence in participation de-signed to foster among stu-dents a sense of competenceand efficacy; and

the development of an un-derstanding of the impor-tance of citizen participation.

Adapted with permission, CIVITAS: AFramework for Civic Education, p. 39.

Copyright Center for Civic Education, 1991.

Effective social participation within the school,family and community is the long-term goal for a socialstudies education. While districts may choose to articu-late this goal, they should provide as many opportunitiesas possible for students to experience democracy in action.Possibilities range from in-school interviews with com-munity business figures, environmental experts andelected representatives to witnessing town meetings,lobbying at the state capitol or investigating an issuewithin the community..

MAJOR THEMES

Today, many K-12 social studies teachers seek greaterthematic unity, continuity and focus within the field.They feel the impact of the burgeoning information ex-plosion upon social studies. They must "cover" in-creasingly larger amounts of material. Themes - whichare more widely applicable organizing ideas than grade-level concepts such as imperialism, rebellion and trans-portation - can help provide the necessary intellectualcontinuity. They are the ideas we hope students willremember long afterward. The following major themesare proposed to unify and focus social studies teaching..

Cause and Effect

All acts and events have causes and effects, but manytimes the consequences are unintentional. Social studiescontent, ranging from the multiple aspects of history tothe interrelationship among the social sciences, rarelyencounters examples of simple causation. Reliable casesof predictability are affected by soc ia I, economic, politicalor psychological factors. For example, causes of chattelslavery, the Civil War, World War I and the Holocaust aremultifaceted..

Citizenship

Citizenship is one of the principal goals for social studies.It involves the rights and responsibilities of a nation suchas ours. Knowledge, skills, values and participation

25

35


involving citizenship need to be raised when studyingour own nation within the context of the global commu-nity. Examples of relevant questions include the following:What traditions perpetuate the most effective qualities ofgood citizenship? How has cu ltural diversity affected thequality of citizenship in this republic over the years?.

Community

A community provides an identity, value structure, eco-nomic base and common governance for a group ofpeople. Families, schools, jobs, places of worship, raceand language help to mold dose -knit relationships. Forexample, questions will arise about what criteria applyequally to such different communities as a nuclear family,sports team, town or the United Nations..

Continuity and Change

Constants and variables interact to shape the lives ofindividuals, groups and national entities. All culturesmaintain certain essential aspects of continuity. The paceof change, however, can range from slow and methodicalto rapid. Discussions at all grade levels will depend uponthe inherent conflicts which arise between continuity andchange. For example, social studies students need tounderstand that peoples, events and ideas will constantlyevolve and interact to affect each other..

Cultural Pluralism

Cultural pluralism, the concept of people with differingvalues, traditions and languages living side-by-side, is areality in this country. Each culture contributes its tradi-tions, perspectives and beliefs to the whole society. Forexample, a rich United States heritage is expressed, de-fined and reinforced in this nation's differing music,literature and food. This diversity is a microcosm of theglobal community..

Culture

Every human society has particular patterns of behaviorsand beliefs that make up its culture and comprise thecontent of social studies. Students learn to recognizeexamples of nonmaterial culture: indigenous customs,social institutions, attitudes and language. They also seeand touch the material culture which arises from the

belief systems artifacts such as tools, utensils, works ofart and machinery. They learn how material andnonmaterial culture come together to serve human need,and they can do so with less likelihood of judgment orsuperiority than when studying comparative pckiticalsystems..

Equal Opportunity

Equal opportunity is one of the goals of a democraticsystem; the chance for individuals and groups to effec-tively function in society regardless of race, gender, beliefor color. Social studies students need to understand thehistorical significance of these principles in order to beable to test and revise their attitudes. For example,students can evaluate the extent to which racism, sexism,bigotry, stereotyping and blind stubbornness mightpersist..

Freedom and Justice

Freedom and justice are enjoyed by citizens of the UnitedStates. These include the freedoms to believe, think andact as individuals; the freedoms of religion, press, speech,assembly and petition; as well as the freedoms of inquiry,criticism and to receive a public education. Social studiesis an academic field where vigilance should be encour-aged to protect "equal justice under the law.".

Government and Authority

Governments are established to provide security andessential public services. Authority is legitimate power.Our federal democratic republic, guaranteed by a writtenconstitution, succeeds or fails according to the electedrepresentatives. How well social studies students shoul-der those future responsibilities may depend upon chal-lenges afforded them in class.

Human/Environmental Interaction

The relationship of humans to their physical environ-ments is critical to the quality of life. Social studies mustprovide the foundation for promoting responsible envi-ronmental attitudes and behaviors..

26

36


Human Rights

Human rights pertain to an individual, group, nation orall people universally, and they arise from normativestandards of civility, ethics and morality. Human rightsraise many questions for social studies. For example, dohuman rights include the right to speak freely, to petitionand to overthrow an unjust government?.

Independence and Interdependence

The conflict between a desire for independence and thereality of interdependence is a mixed blessing. Theprinciple of specialization, characteristic of modem eco-nomic systems, inextricably binds nations together just asit does individuals, unions and corporations. Socialstudies discussions often will focus on this theme. Forexample, how independent and/or interdependent is afamily within a community, town or state?.

Scarcity and Choice

Ongoing conflictexists between unlimited economic needsand limited natural and human resources. Goods andservices are limited by available resources, forcing indi-viduals and societies to continuously make choices. Abalance must be struck between the concepts of scarcityand choice and those of sufficiency and sharing. Socialstudies students can deal with these economic questionsat any grade level..

World Peace

The tree of peace is rooted in justice, but justice accordingto whom? Wide differences of opinion exist on how bestto attain peace. Some advocate peace through militarystrength. Others prefer to remove the causes of conflict.Conflict resolution raises probing questions, questionswhich social studies students should continue to ask.

This chapter has established the foundationsupon which social studies professionals and administra-tors can devise or revise local goals related to knowledge,skills, values and participation. These themes may beapplied to an individual social studies course or used tounify an entire district's social studies curriculum. Chip-

ter 3 contains a discussion of how such issues should beintegrated into a K-12 scope and sequence.

References

Association of American Geographers and NationalCouncil for Geographic Education. Guidelines for Geo-graphic Education. Washington, DC: Association ofAmerican Geographers and National Council forGeographic Education, 1984.

Beyer, Barry K. Practical Strategies for the Teaching ofThinking. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc, 1987.

Bradley Commission on History in Schools. Building aHistory Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History inSchools. Washington, DC: Educational ExcellenceNetwork, 1988.

Center for Civic Education. CIVITAS: A Framework forCivic Education. Calabasas, CA: Center for Civic Edu-cation, 1991.

Connecticut State Board of Education. Connecticut As-sessment of Educational Progress in Citizenship and SocialStudies. Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Board ofEducation, 1978.

Connecticut State Board of Education. Connecticut As-sessment of Educational Progress, 1982 -83. Social Studio.Annual Report Series, Dec. 1983. See also, "Overviewof the Assessment."

Connecticut State Board of Education. Connecticut'sCommon Core of Learning. Hartford, CT: ConnecticutState Board of Education, 1987.

Connecticut State Board of Education. Teaching AboutControversial Issues. Policy statement adopted on Octo-ber 4,1978.

Joint Council on Economic Education. Master CurriculumGuide in Economics: A Framework for Teaching the BasicConcepts. New York: Joint Council on EconomicEducation, 1984.

National Assessment of Educational Progress. SocialStudies Objectives, Second Assessment. Washington, DC:National Assessment of Educational Progress, 1974.

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37

GOALS AND THEM1ES

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). "Revi-sion of the NCSS Social Studies Curriculum Guide-lines." Social Education. 43 (April 1979): pp. 261-278.

NCSS. "Essentials of Education Statement." The Tool Kit.Washington, DC: NCSS, 1980.

NCSS. "Including the Study about Religions in the SocialStudies Curriculum: A Position Statement and Guide-lines." Social Education, May 1985, pp. 413-14.

NCSS. "Position Statement on the Freedom to Teach andthe Freedom to Learn." Washington, DC: NCSS, 1974.

NCSS. 'Position Statement on Global Education." SocialEducation, January 1982, pp. 36-38.

NCSS Task Force on Scope and Sequence. "In Search ofa Scope and Sequence for Social Studies." Social Edu-cation, 53 (October 1989): pp. 376-387.

The Study Commission on Global Education. The UnitedStates Prepares for its Future Global Perspectives in Edu-cation. New York: Global Perspectives in Education,Inc., 1987.

Resources

Hyman, Marsha and Slomianko, Joshua. Thinking SkillsInstruction: Concepts and Techniques. Washington, DC:National Education Association, 1989.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). "Build-ing Support for the Social Studies." The Tool Kit.Washington, DC: NCSS, 1988.

NCSS. "Controversial Issues in the Social Studies: AContemporary Perspective." 45th Yearbook of NCSS.Washington, DC: NCSS, 1975.

NCSS. "Developing Decision-Making Skills." 47thYearbook of NCSS. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1977.

NCSS. "Social Studies for Early Childhood/ElementarySchool Children: Preparing for the 21st Century." TheTool Kit. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1988.


SCOPE AND SEQUENCE ALTERNATIVES 3

"Encounters over scope and sequenceare the battlefields on which educational

decisions are fought and won or lost."Thomas L Dynneson and Richard E. Gross

FIVE ALTERNATIVE OPTIONSDesigning a Scope and Sequence

Global EducationNCSS 1983 Task Force Report

Building a History CurriculumCharting a Course

MAKING THE DECISIONStudent Intellectual Maturity

Student Interest LevelsBalance

ContinuityImportance

Community ResourcesTeacher Resources

Time Allotment

(

+.

293 EST AVAILABI E

SCOPE AND SEQUENCE ALTERNATIVES CHAPTER 3

This chapter will discuss scope and sequence, or therange and order of social studies courses for a K-12curriculum. Chapter 1 reviewed the earliest scope andsequence, one proposed in 1916 by the National Educa-tion Association. Many districts arelikely to discover thattheir own secondary programs roughly resemble thatearlier scope and sequence, with geography at Grade 7,United States history at Grades 8 and 11, civics at Grade9, European history at Grade 10 and problems of democ-racy at Grade 12. Likewise, the general patterns of an"expanding horizons" set for primary, elementary andintermediate grades articulated a few decades later stillare widely accepted today. This chapter will present fivealternatives to the traditional scope and sequence so thatthe local district either can initiate or alter its K-12 pro-gram in light of its new curriculum evaluation, needsassessment and goals..

FIVE ALTERNATIVE OPTIONS

Virtually every school system in the country offers socialstudies. Whether by accident or design, the topics, skillsand issues addressed in the K-12 social stud ies experiencerepresent a range and order of subjects. When a districthas allowed a program to evolve without a plan, its scopeand sequence may make little sense. Scope and sequencefrequently evolves from tradition -a K-6 textbook series,secondary school course textbooks and teacher expertise.

The National Council for the Social Studies(NCSS) does not have a nationally defined or research-based scope and sequence, nor does Connecticut man-date one of its own. Some would call for a single structurein order to unify the range and order of social studiesthroughout the state or nation. Few question the advan-tages for doing so on grounds of simplicity and unifor-mity. Standardized assessment would be more effectivewlth increased accountability. However, most profes-sionals reject a single scope and sequence for a variety ofobvious reasons, not the least of which is the very socialnature of the field described in earlier chapters.

Academic and classroom professionals are de-termined to come to more consensus. In December of1986, NCSS devoted its entire issue of Social Education toviable alternatives for scope and sequence. The articlesreflect the broad considerations involved in the debateabout the optimum structure for teaching an intellectualfield premised upon fostering democratic citizenship.This guide draws material from that publication and theNCSS 1983 Task Force Report with its own proposal forscope and sequence, in order to provide local schooldistricts with five options- the best available thinking onthe subject. The first alternative is the "1983 Task Force

Report" and revisions recommended in 1988 by the NCSSAd Hoc Committee on Scope and Sequence. "Designinga Scope and Sequence" and "Global Education" are mod-els two and three.

A fourth alternative, a history-centered approach,is offered in both the California Department of Education'sHistory- Social Science Framework (1988) and the BradleyCommission's Building a History Curriculum: Guidelinesfor Teaching History in Schools (1988). A scope and se-quence design for the future - a fifth alternative - issuggested in the 1989 publication of the National Com-mission on Social Studies in the Schools, Chartinga CourseSocial Studies for the 21st Century.

To repeat an adaptation of Shakespearean logicnoted in the opening article in Social Education (Nov./Dec.1986), "The problem, Dear Brutus, may not be in ourscope and sequences, but in our failure to stake out clearand achievable goals for the school area called socialstudies." While local curriculum developers may findsolace in t "act that academic professionals themselvesdisagree ogi goals, they will recognize the importance oflocally devised goals and the necessity to adapt them tolocal student needs.

The scope and sequence proposals have com-monly shared goals. A local school district's social studiesscope and sequence goals can be evaluated with thefollowing criteria, us:7% a scale from 1 (nonexistent) to 5(very clear):

a clear commitment to democratic values;a need for students to know, take pride inand be able to call upon their historical roots;a need for students to know the structure andfunction of their governing and economicinstitutions, and to be able to compare themto others;a need to engage in more active civic par-ticipation;a call for learning that commits students toactive learning - social interaction; anda recognition of other culturesand the varyingvalues systems that exist throughout theworld..

Designing A Scope And Sequence

Proponents of the "Designing A Scope and Sequence"view state that, beca use ed ucafion must be defi ned withinthe context of a particular society, education is responsiblefor maintaining cultural heritage. The field of socialstudies has the major integrative function of maintainingthat heritage and improving the individual and society.

30 4 0

SCOPE AND SEQUENCE ALTERNATIVESvemashass

This can only be accomplished effectively at the locallevel, where the majority of decisions about scope andsequence must be made. Under this proposal, the follow-ing major themes appear at each grade level, K-12 :

cultural heritageglobal perspectivepolitics/economicstradition and changesocial historyspatial relationshipssocial contractstechnologypeace/interdependencecitizenship

The order for content in this model is less im-portant than itscurrencyand accuracy. The social studiescurriculum is organized in the following pattern:

Primary Grades (K-2): My Orientation to theWorldintermediate Crades (3-5): Expanding MyWorld HorizonsMiddle School Grades (6-8): Viewing theWorld from Different PerspectivesSecondary Grades (9-12): Assuming Full Citi-zenship In a Changing Worlds

Above themes and model from "Dasigning A Scopeand Sequence," Social Educerion, October 1959, pp. 388-398.

Global Education

Like the preceding alternative for a district's scope andsequence, suggestions for specific content by grade levelin the global education curriculum are left to local plan-

CHAPTER 341111111111111MIMANIMP IM111111111111

nem This curriculum enlarges the vision and meaning ofcitizenship beyond the local community, state and nationto the global community. It is based upon the reality that,because we live in an interdependent, multiboundaryworld, current and future problems no longer can besolved at a national level. And as citizens c =f one of themost dominant world powers, the nation's young peopleshould be prepared to deal with pluralism, interdepen-dence and change. The content for this design comesfrom history and the social sciences as well as the naturalsciences, journalism and future studies.

This curriculum plan is based upon four essentialelements that are organized around fi ve conceptual themesand four persistent problem themes. These areas areoutlined as follows:

Element'the study of systenisthe study of human valuesthe study of persistent issues and prob-lemsthe study of global history

Conceptual Themesinterdependencechangeculturescarcityconflict

Persistent Problem Themespeace and securitynational/international developmentenvironmental problemshuman rights

The K-12 global education model is shown inFigure 1 on page 32..

31 4!

SCOPE AND SE UENCE ALTERNATIVES CHAPTER 3

K-12 GLOBAL EDUCATION MODEL

Grade

K

Conceptual Theme

All conceptual themes throughsocialization and structural play

Persistent Problem Theme

1 Interdependence and scarcity Environmental problems2 Change and culture Development3 Conflict Peace and security4 Culture and interdependence Environmental problems5 interdependence,.conflict and

scarcityHuman rights

6 Change, culture, conflictand interdependence

Development

Grade Content-Specific Study

7 Global systems8 Human values9 Historical and global interdependence10 History of the United States and world11 Modern world12 contemporary global problems and

issues /community participation

Figure 1

Adapted from "Social Studies within aGlobal Education!' Social Education,

October 1989, pp. 399-403.

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42

Score AND SE9UENC ALTERNATIVES

NCSS 1983 Task Force Report

CHAPTER 3

The third alternative is based upon several assumptions.Critical thinking is the major outcome of social studiesand, therefore, that essential skill will be central to eachgrade level. All subject matter will be considered withina global frame of reference. All teachers share the respon-sibility fur extending and refining skills. The skills are tobe taught and applied at all grade levels. And teacherswilt be actively sensitive to socialization as well as socialcriticism - the dual and often-contradictory thrust ofsocial studies. These skills will ensure the necessarysocialization of citizens while fostering the spark of socialcriticism which keeps freedom alive.

This is the NCSS 1983 Task Force K-12 model:

Kindergarten:

Grade 1:

Grade 2:

Grade 3:

Grade 4:

Grade 5:

Grade 6:

Grade 7:

Grade 8:

Grade 9:

Grade 10:

Grade 11:

Grade 12:

Awareness of self in a socialsettingThe individual in primarysocial groups: understand-ing school and family lifeMeeting basic needs innearby social groups: thecommunity, the neighbor-hoodSharing Earth-space withothers: the communityHuman life in varied envi-ronments: the regionPeople of the Americas: theUnited States and its closeneighborsPeople and cultures: theeastern hemisphereA changing world of manynations: global viewBuilding a strong and freenation: United StatesSystems that make a demo-cratic society work: law, jus-tice and economicsOrigins of major cultures: aworld historyThe maturing of America:United States historyOne-year course or coursesrequired; selection(s) to bemade from the following:

1. Issues and problems of modern society2. Introduction to the social sciences3. The arts in human society4. International area studies5. Social science electives.

Adapted from In Search of a Scope and Sequencefor Social Studies." Social Education,

October 1989, pp. 380-382.

Building A History Curriculum

The movement toward a history-centered curriculumcame in response to widespread concern over a perceivedinadequacy-both in quality and quantity - of the historytaught in American elementary and secondary classrooms.Both the History Social Studies Framework (California,1988)and Building a History Curriculum (Bradley Commission,1988) provide history-centered curriculums.

The Bradley Commission report offered threevaria ins:

a traditional expanding horizon with historyas the primary focus;one connecting history, geography, biogra-phy, literature and the arts together with pri-mary sources; andthe California History Social Science Frame-work that, with the following grade -levelbreakdown, offers an infusion of historical,litericy and biographical materials.

K Learning and working now and longago

1 A child's place in time and space2 People who make a difference3 Continuity and change: local and na-

tional history4 A changing state5 United States history and geography:

making a new nation6 - World history and geography: ancient

civilizations7 - World history and geography to 17898 - United States history and geography to

1914

33

4 3

SCOPE AND SEQUENCE ALTERNATIVES RAP'I'ER

9 Social studies electives10 World history, culture and geography

since 178911 United States history and geography,

20th century12 American government: social studies

elective

Adapted from Basting A liken Curriculum:Guideline s for Tucking History in Wools. Bradley

C.onumbraion, 1988, pp. 16-21.

Charting A Course

The National Commission on Social Studies in the Schoolswas born out of the concern over a lack of synthesis insocial studies and a lack of coherence in history, geogra-phy and the social studies at all levels. For the first timein more than 50 years, all major organizations and repre-sentatives of the concerned public sought to develop aconsensus for direction in the social studies for the 21stcentury.

The proposed K-12 curriculum is based on de-veloping a coexistence of increasing diversity and cher-ished tradition to cultivate participatory citizenship andencourage the growth of independent, knowledgeableyoung adults who will conduct their lives in accord withdemocratic principles and values. The following K-12curriculum was proposed by the commission:

Grades K-3International perspective and multi-cultural experiencesCitizenship/decision makingIntroduction of basic concepts drawnfrom social studies areasExamination of environments near andfar awayDevelopment of the concept of commu-nityStories about and descriptions of differ-ent types of peopleGeographic skillsHeroes, heroines and common peopleStimulation of children's imaginationsto achieve a variety of human social ex-periencesIntegration of reading, mathematics andsocial studiesUse of holidays to introduce ideas andcustoms

Grades 4-6One year each of United States history,world history and geography, taught inany order

Grades 7-8Two-year sequence of local communityand a study of the nation

Grades 9-12World and American history and geog-raphy to 1750World and American history and geog-raphy, 1750-1900World and American hatory and geog-raphy since 1900Government/economics and othercourse options.

Adapted from Charting a Course: Social Studies forthe 21st Century. National Commissionon Social Studios in the Schools, 1989.

MAKING THE DECISION

Before developing a new social studies scope and se-quence, the curriculum development committee shouldexamine the current one for strengths to be retained.Examination of commercial programs and scopes andsequences from other districts may be useful. The com-mittee also should consider the importance of introduc-ing a defined, coordinated program for all grades if sucha program does not already exist. Several considerationsshould be included in the task of constructing the socialstudies scope and sequence..

Student Intellectual Maturity

The committee should recognize the essential fact thatstudents vary in their abilities to work with abstractconcepts. Jean Piaget maintained that students progressdevelopmentally from concrete to abstract, with a con-comitant need for hands-on experiences in the earlygrades and for the less intellectually mature students atall grade levels.

Figure 2 (page 35) represents one mode of thisprogression. It represents experience modes used bystudents for symbolizing, observing and doing. Somemodes are more concrete or abstract than others. Theseexperience modes should be considered when develop-ing student learning activities in the social stud i es con ten tareas.

34

44

SCOPE AND SEQUENCE ALTERNATIVES CHAPTER 3.11111111:111=1.1119

Experience Mode Chart

Concrete Abstract

ReadingSpeaking

Symbolizing TablesChartsGraphsCartoons

PhotosVideos

Observing ExhibitsField Trips

DemonstrationsDrama

SimulationDoing Role Play

WritingProjects

DebateDatabase

Manipulation and Analysis

Jerome Bruner (1966) offers a slightly alteredview of this model. Bruner maintains that, "any subjectcan be taught effectively in some intellectually honestform to any child at any stage of development." Studentscan understand abstract concepts at a very early age,although they may require concrete instructional tech-niques. A curriculum committee need not shy away fromabstract content so long as instructional techniques andmaterials are available to help less mature students graspthe concepts..

Student Interest Levels

Most topics can be made interesting to most studentsmost of the time. A curriculum committee may identifystudent interests at each grade level. One way would beto give an interest inventory to a selected student sampleand consider its results in developing the scope andsequence. The local community's needs and attitudesalso can provide clues to student interests. As studentsbecome involved in community activities such as sports,scouting and the world of work, certain topics are morelikely to attract their interest.

Figure 2

There also are psychological clues about whatstudent interests might be. Erikson's stages of develop-ment (in Miller, 1976) have applicability for schooling,and these seem most pertinent:

initiative versus guilt: child tests autonomyand begins realizing he or she is a personwho can act and who can wonder what he orshe will be (ages 4-7);industry versus inferiority: child tries tomaster some of the tools and techniques ofthe cultuk.e, developing feelings of compe-tence if successful, or of inferiority if unsuc-cessful (ages 7-11); andidentity versus identitydiffusion: adolescentdevelops sense of self-concept and of futureand expects recognition from the immediatecommunity, or the adolescent does not relatesuccessfully to the environment (ages 12-18).

Another model is designed primarily for cl-ement'ary children. Hoffman and Ryan (in Miller, 1976)suggest four developmental stages to which a teachermight match appropriate learning. These stages are:

35

4 5

SCOPE AND SEQUENCE ALTERNATIVES CHAPTER 3

initial exploratory stagepri marl ly preschoolchildren exploring the physical and socialenvironment;structured and dependent stage preschooluntil about 10, dependent on adults andothers to stimulate and structure what isdone;structured independent stage from 10 untilearly teens, some independent choices butenvirons int determined by adults; andindependent exploratory stageadolescence(some elementary children reach it), chooseslearning activities and develops alternatives.

Developers of the social studies scope and sequence maywish to take into account the stages of developmentdescribed by Erikson and by Hoffman and Ryan..

Balance

The committee must examine the content carefully forbalance. The members must have, in Charles Keller'swords, "the courage to omit." They might ask thesequestions:

Does the K-12 program expose students to awide range of cul tures, issues, problems andgeographic regions?Does the program include a broad range ofsocial science and historical concepts?Are state and local history and governmentincluded at appropriate points in the cur-riculum?Does each grade level have assigned skills,values, experiences and social participationactivities?Is there unnecessary repetition in the scopeand sequence?.

Continuity

Curriculum developers should evaluate the scope andsequence to determine if it has a logical, integrated flowof knowledge, skills, values and participation. Thecommittee need not debate endlessly whether a studentneeds to know latitude and longitude before studying lifein Japan. The conurti ttee does, however, need to considerhow each might be taught without knowledge of theother, and how teachers might build on a knowledge ofone to teach the other. In short, a sequence is not inher-ently right or wrong. Planners must define a logical

sequence that ensures continuity and uses previouslylearned knowledge and skills..

Importance

Here the developers risk attracting the ire of every inter-est group, as well as the pressure to adopt what is cur-rently in vogue. One test that can be applied is to ask howand when thetopic, skill, concept or issue under d iscussionwill be used in the students' future social studies expe-riences. If theinfonnation isnot to be used in relationshipto something more general and to build toward some-thing else in the K-12 sequence, it probably is notimportant..

Community Resources

Individual districts have unique resources which are ofparticular interest or importance to specific age groups.A local museum may have a staff that works especiallywell with young children. A local business may notpermit tours until students are a certain age. In planninga social studies sequence, curriculum developers shouldplace topics and activities at the levels that will allow themost advantageous use of local resources..

Teacher Resources

The curriculumcommittee should consider staffstrengthsand weaknesses and should resolve the following ques-tions:

Is it worth altering a sequence drastically ifteachers with known skills in certain topicswill no longer be able to teach those topics?Should the grade level with the least-expe-rienced staff be asked to make the greatestadjustment for the new social studies pro-gram?

If either answer is "yes," the committee should plan whatassistance and support will be necessary to ensure thebest results..

Time Allotment

The Connecticut State Board of Education's A Guide toCurriculum Development: Purposes, Practices and Procedures

36

46

SCOPE AND SEQUENCE ALTERNATIVES

(see most current edition) discusses time allotments forthe various content areas in terms of the total schoolprogram. The amount of time allotted to any one subjectarea is governed by a number of factors: the philosophyand goals of the district, the separateness or interdiadpli-na ry role of the content area, the instructional needs of thestudents, and the scope and sequence.

Based on Connecticut's legal requirement thateach student have at least 900 instructional hours perschool year (180 days), or an average five-hour instruc-tional day, the following time allotment is recommendedfor social studies:

Grades 1 - 3, 75 to 150 minutes per week;Grades 4 - 6,120 to 200 minutes per week; andGrades 7 -12, five periods per week.

It must be remembered, however, that most primaryteachers are teaching social studies throughout the day,for whenever they are dealing with social studies contentin the reading lesson, with interpersonal relationshipsand with the students' adjustments to their peer groups,social studies learning should be taking place.

The scope and sequence is determined after con-sideration of what is best in the current curriculum, whatis desired in the new curriculum and what local resourcesand constraints exist. The scope and sequence also mustreflect the needs of all social studies students with theirdiverse intellectual and physical capabilities. After anappropriate scope and sequence is established, instruc-tional techniques then must be considered.a

References

Bradley Commission on History in the Schools. Buildinga History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History inSchools. Washington, DC: Educational ExcellenceNetwork, 1988.

Bruner,Jerome. Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press, 1966.

California Department of Education. History SocialScience Framework Sacramento, CA: California De-partments)/ Education, 1988.

Miller, John P. Humanizing the Classroom: Models of Teach-ing in Affective Education. New York: Praeger Publi-cations, 1976.

National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools.Charting a Course: Social Studies for the 21st Century.Washington, DC: National Commission on SocialStudies in the Schools, November 1989.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). "InSearch of Scope and Sequence for Social Studies." SocialEducation, 53 (October 1989): pp. 376-387.

NCSS. Models on "Global Education" and "Designing aScopeand Sequence." Social Education, 53 (October 1989):pp. 388-403.

NCSS. "Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Scope andSequence." Social Education, 53 (October 1989): pp. 375,6.

NCSS. "1983 Task Force Report on Scope and Sequence."Social Education, April 1984.

Resources

Connecticut State Board of Education. A Guide to Cur-riculum Development: Purposes, Practices and Procedures.Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Board of Education,(see current edition).

Dynneson, Thomas L., and Gross, Richard E. "A Centuryof Encounter." Social Education, 50 (November/De-cember 1986): pp. 486-488.

Parlar, Walter C. Renewing the Social Studies Curriculum.Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development, 1991.

INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES 4

( 14 r

"laforma Hon is No subetibite for thiNkiNg aridthiNkiNg is No substitute for ixfonNatiou. The

diltmosul is that there is Never moues Haw to teachall the iNfoinuation that could usefully be taught."

Edward DeBono

VARIED LEARNING ACTIVITIESLearning Activities Mix

SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHESReading

Directed DiscussionGroup Interaction

Cooperative Learning4,' ' 3' -- ---;:i4 Writing

...3. - rtfellittFOLE

7,r, Decision Making

''''''s; Questioning

OCEAN i a it, 74) li 7 Conceptual DevelopmentAortic . .,

. 1,..,), Drill and Lecture,

J ..,

Case Studies`-eXL' "'"- '

' vi,, Simulations

,_ ±4 Role-PlayingA.11. Charting and Clustering'4.

Affective StrategiesIndependent Study

TechnologiesEvaluation Flexibility

Objective Tests and WritingShort- and Long-Term Evaluation... _ .

_i .;cs: Assessment and InstructionMainstreaming

. a

394 8 COPY AVAILABLE

INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES CHAPTER 4

Since a teacher's most critical role is to properly instructstud en t s, ef fectiveness depend s upon successful commu-nication. This chapter considers a wide variety of ap-proaches to communicate the diverse social studies con-tent. While a small number of teachers always will beeminently successful in the traditional lecture mode, thevast majority will not. Today's subject matter, deliverysystems and student populations need diverse instruc-tional approaches..

VARIED LEARNING ACTIVITIES

The teacher's pivotal role ranges from being the dis-penser of information to the facilitator for the discovery ofmeaning. Thatrole is influenced by a number of variables.Diversity of student s by sex, age, race, religion, language,emotional stability and intellectual ability means thatstandard instructional techniques may no longer be ef-fective. Students' learning styles differ. Some studentsare predominantly visual learners, while others are au-dit°, y learners. Some may be concrete sequential objectivelearners, and others random abstract intuitive learners.Not all will come from backgrounds which respect uni-form patterns of authority. Old expectations may notapply.

The following learning activities mix suggestshow social studies can be enriched by offering variety.The activities reaffirm the advantages of presenting anidea in several ways. Weekly lesson plans, courses orunits can effectively mix the learning styles of students.Thelearningactivitiesmix is adapted from an unpublishedwork by James G. Lengel and is used with permission..

Learning Activities Mix

We have known for a long time that people learn indifferent ways. We all enjoy variety, and pupils in schooloften need several embodiments of an idea in order tomake sense out of it. As weekly lessons, courses or unitsare planned, teachers should try to mix the learning stylesin which students participate. Here are some ideas to getyou thinking:

Visual mode symbols, pictures, cartoons,photographs, tables, charts, graphs, maps for interpreta-tion, comparison, problem identification.

Original sources written, or spoken; contem-porary or ancient; the more detailed and concrete thebetter. Edit if necessary, but don't predigest it. The morecontroversial, the better. Get all sides of an issue.

Audio mode tape recordings (actual or staged),speeches, plays, natural sounds; for analysis, transcription,identification of characters.

Project mode constructing, painting, makingcollages, drawings, models, dioramas, recreations, re-productions, antiques, artifacts.

Advocacy mode speeches, debates, role-play-ing, simulation, argument, mock trial; preparation, de-livery, recording and analysis.

Writing mode research, journals, simulatedletters, news articles, speeches, stream-of-consciousness,plays and short stories.

Reading mode secondary source (textbook),original sources, newspapers, letters, plays, advertise-ments, journals, records and lists.

Group-Work mode small group decision mak-ing or arguing, simulation, team advocacy, grou p projects.

Manipulative mode computer databaseanalysis, simulation and video analysis.

At least five of these modes should be used each week sothat a variety of learning styles is encountered. Forexample:

Monday read background; visually examinemaps of the area under study.

Tuesday listen to an audiotape of a speech onthe issue, begin group preparation of a debate.

Wednesdayread original accoun t s of the event;students write their own analysis of the situation.

Thursday prepare group debate arguments;research needed data from books, graphs and tables;introduce computer analysis of data.

Friday conduct debate; use dramatic photos tomake a point; analyze debate points.

(Editos Note: While descriptions would indicate a mix ofactivities appropriate for secondary school students, the variationof methods employed would be appropriate for all levels.).

Adapted from unpublished work byJamas C. Lange'. Used with permission.

INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES11111:SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONALAPPROACHES

Curriculum developers and teachers will find that thefollowing instructional approaches are suitable for vary-ing Ti ages of students and content..

Reading

Content-area teachers often assume erroneously that stu-dents comprehend reading assignments. One practicalstrategy to improve reading skills is the Framework toGuide Strategic Reading Behavior (see Appendix F). Thisthinking strategy prompts students to predict what theassignment will be, to absorb information as it is read; toreject or revise predictions, and to develop habits oftesting predictions through reasoning. This practice helpsstudents to set their own purposes for reading and toestablish a dialogue with the author.

The more thoroughly teachers prepare studentsfor the assigned reading, the more likely students willcomprehend the material. Previewing the headings,italicized words and summary statements helps to es-tablish the purpose for reading. Silent reading followedby discussion is a form of rereading the content. Analysisof the author's arguments calls upon critical thinkingskills. Extension activities provide students with op-portunities to incorporate new ideas (see Appendix F)..

Directed Discussion

Discussions permit the teacher to focus upon a designedintellectual task. The goal is to direct student thinking, toraise desired questions and to marshal specific informa-tion from students and resources. The degree of flexibilitywill depend upon the teacher. Questions such as thosethat follow often help teachers to structure the learningexperiences toward convergent thinking.

What is the purpose for the discussion?Is the topic worth thinking and talking about?Is the atmosphere free and respectful of stu-dent ideas?Do students have su fficient time to thi nk aboutquestions?Are students seated in ways that encourageinteraction?

In contrast, open discussions permit students toexpress more freely their opinions about the topic. A

CHAPTER

discussion will raise questions students will want to ask,such as about the bias of sources, the roles of historicalcharacters or why a topic makes no sense. Both teacherand student questions will channel the learning experiencetoward divergent thinking..

Group Interaction

Group interaction serves many purposes: sharing workamong students, developing social skills of cooperationand problem solving, stimulating discussion of diversepoints of view, developing student responsibility, andorganizing and acting on plans of action. Group interac-tion takes various forms, quite different from directeddiscussions. These include peer writing and editing,publication, collaborative learning, group research andprojects, committee work, panel discussions, presenta-tions and reports, dramatizations, and buzz groups orround-table discussions.

Interaction techniques may contribute to all fourmajor social studies goals, not just social participation(others include knowing, thinking and valuing). Andthey take advantage of the wide diversity of students. Alllearners may profitably gain knowledge and developrespect for one anothers' abilities..

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is a tightly structured form ofgro upinteraction. It creates an authority of peer group influenceroughly comparable to democratic decision making.Teachers withdraw from center stage and listen to thelanguage of learning. Students find meanings for them-selves, not preordained teacher truths. The techniquepromotes social studies knowledge and participationwhile using skills and values. Learning becomes some-thing people do and the groups become the c-enter forlearning. Student roles change as well. The techniquecuts against student competition, intellectual hoarding,distrust of peers and passivity. It builds self-confidenceand group interaction.

Concrete tasks, such as asking groups of four tofive to discuss a controversial question raised by the textand to come to a conclusion, can help keep discussions ontarget. The task must be well planned, with a wide rangeof opinion and no clear right or wronganswers. Boredomand frustration set in if the assigned task is too complex.Teachers might wish to explore why Reconstruction ofthe Confederacy failed, how teenagers should respond toparticular teenage-related legislation, or why unemploy-ment for black teenagers is disproportionately higherthan for white teenagers..

4)

5t)

INSTRUCIIONAL APPROACHES CHAPTER 4

Writing

For too long, social studies teachershave relegated writingonly to testing what students have learned, rather thanallowing writing to enhance the learning process. Thewriting process strengthens the learning process. Itpromotes thinking about content by encouraging studentsto write and revise thoughts on paper. Writing, likethinking, takes time. Meaning is rarely thought up andthen written down. Rather, it evolves through revisions.It becomes focused and gains refinement. Peer editingthrough group interaction raises such issues as what thereader likes about the piece, what the reader hears thepiece saying, and what the reader would like to knowmore about. Revising and editing strategies that involvestudents working together help to establish writing as ameans to promote learning.

Writing assignments are limited only by imagi-nation. Content from geography, sociology, anthropol-ogy and history can be taught through writing. Socialstudies writing techniques, such as those that commitstudents to establishing a voice and an audience, promote

decision making (see Appendix G, Writing in the SocialStudies)..

Decision Making

Decision-making techniques fostercritical thinking. Theyarise from the inquiry approach: defining a problem,hypothesizing, testing, developing a conclusion and ap-plying the conclusion to the data. The decisions mayrelate to intellectual, social, economic, political, historicalor personal problems. Decision making engages all of themajor social studies goals knowing, thinking, valuingand participating. One model that can be applied tonumerous social studies situations helps to teach studentshow to analyze before making a decision. Studentscompile a simple chart for each problem as shown inFigure 3 (Decision-Making Model). Another model(Figure 4), given in Thomas and Brubaker's Decisions inTeaching Elementary Social Studies (1971), shows a varia-tion of the inquiry approach.

Decision-Making Model

Problem Options Predicted Consequences Choice

1.

2.3.4.

a.b.c.d.

Figure 3

Problem

Interpret

Report results

Thomas and Brubaker Model

Analyze into component parts

Organize

Evaluate and act

fPlan data collection

I Collect data _1

Figure 4

From Deciskms in Teaching Elementary Social Studies,

by Thomas and Brubaker, Wadsworth Publishing, 1971.

42

51


K-12 students make decisions every day, some of themmuch more complex than would be asked in class. Thechallenge is to present situations in the classroom that aresufficiently meaningful so decision-making skills mightbe applied elsewhere..

Questioning

Socrates' emphasis upon questioning to seek truth andmeaning sets the model for modern learning. In today'sAmerican classroom, as in the Athenian marketplace,learning is probed through a barrage of questions. Differ-ences between classical Athens And today's Americanclassroom need not hide the truth that probing unan-swered questions is as basic to education as it was to thefounding of the United States of America. The diversityof students in the classroom simply multiplies the diver-si ty ofquestions that teachers must expect. Teachers needto ask questions at all cognitive levels and encouragestudents to do the same.

Questions have been proven to fulfill a variety offunctions, some of which Wesley and Wronski, in TeachingSocial Studies in the High School (1964), identify as follows:

stimulate interest;supply incentives;emphasize important points;develop varied types of thinking;afford students with opportunities for inter-action;establish relationships;organize content;ensure adequate interpretations;secure attention;present problems rhetorically;provide review and drill;discover errors and misunderstandings; andtest the student.

illustrationclassificationgeneralizationdefinitionproofdescriptioncharacterizationrelationshipsummarycriticismapplicationorganizationalternativeanalysissynthesis

Conceptual Development

The teaching of concepts helps students relate a vastamount of information to key ideas. Without this linkage,the information is little better than trivia that confusesand distracts meaningful education. Concepts enablestudents to compare, contrast, synthesize and evaluatecontent. Teachers can help students to build concepts atthe concrete or abstract levels, with methods suggestedby Fraenkel in Helping Students Think and Value (1973).Fraenkel suggests that methods for use by all types ofstudents can be developed by:

Listing question(s): What do you see?Groupingquestion(s): What i terns go together?Explaining questi on(s): When did you put themtogether?Labeling question(s): What do you call thisgroup?Explaining question(s): Why did you give itthat label?Recombining question(s): Can some of thesebelong in more than one geour

Wesley and Wronski also suggest that the manydifferent types of questions fall into categories such as thefollowing:

Fraenkel's teaching concepts would involve the follow-ing classroom instructional procedures. The teacher:

recall states the concept;qualified recall gives examples;comparison gives nonexamples;contrast asks for attributes;evaluation asks for definition;cause asks for identification; andeffect asks for an original example..

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52

INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

Drill and Lecture

Repetitive use of certain information or skills seems mostappropriate for basic items necessary for all students.Possible examples might include basic political scienceterms, the names of the 50 states, the use of latitude andlongitude or the development of cost-benefit tables. Theteacher's challenge is to include necessary drill withoutboring the students. Repetitive exercises may be scat-tered throughout the year in order to ensure mastery,rather than bunching the exercises in a unit of work.Computers may be used for variety.

The lecture method is appropriate when theteacher wishes to give students a great deal of factualinformation or presen t di ffering interpretations from thoseavailable in writing. This oral presentation techniquealso may be useful to outside speakers, as well as classmembers whose expertise can be shared.

Case Studies

The case study approach has been adapted successfullyfrom law and business schools to the teaching of historic,economic, political, social and legal issues in social stud-ies. Documents tionof various sidesof an issue ispresentedto students, guiding them to recognize the conflictingvalues, premises and interests involved. The discussionor role-playing that can develop serve to broaden under-standings and clarify values. Case studies are useful inhelping students to developeritical reading and thinkingskills.

For students who have special needs, case studymaterials can be taped, presented in visual clips, ordemonstrated by using maps and charts..

Simulations

Simulations provide mechanisms for students to exploretopics in formats that encourage thought, decision mak-ing and participation. They allow students to examinemodels of reality and to have the fun and excitement ofparticipating in that reality. No simulation is worthwhileas a teaching tool, however, unless a careful debriefingtakes place. As students examine what happened andwhat they learned in the activity, they clarify the experi-ence.

With contemporary curricular pressures, a com-mittee must consider certain questions before planning touse a simulation. These questions might include thefollowing:

CHAPTER 4

How much time is involved for introduction?For play? For debriefing?How many students can participate?For what kinds of students is it suitable?What background information is required?What is the most appropriate classroom use?Is the simulation sufficiently valuable to jus-tify the time involved?Is this the best way to achieve instructionalgoals?

If the responses are sufficiently positive, the simulationshould be considered for inclusion in the curriculum.

Simulations often are useful with students hay-ng I earning difficulties. Simulations require more verbal

skill than reading, and they motivate students to partici-pate and develop e sense of self-worth. In planningtechniques for handling i ndividua I dif ferences, therefore,simulations should receive serious consideration..

Role-Playing

Developing a need for empathy and understanding o;remote or abstract events can be modeled effectivelythrough simple role-plays. The main characters andissues can be illuminated by assigning roles (with orwithout role cards), and describing a brief scenario. Theacting out of roles within the context of the situationdramatizes the context of the event. This can clarify thefacts of an event or the purposes of a process, or it candemonstrate value conflicts.

The best simulations often are structured role-plays. For example, law-related education makes ex-tensive use of mock trials that provide participatoryexperiences for students while clarifying concepts. Themock United Nations sponsored by the World AffairsCenter of Hartford is another example. These role-playsare more complex than those a teacher might devise buthave the same learning potential..

Charting and Clustering

Thoughts may be organized visually into charts andclusters to permit individuals or groups to gather andcategorize information. This is particularly helpful in thedevelopment of thinking skills. Specific tasks includedata retrieval, comparisons, relationships and organiza-tion. Figure 5 (page 45) gives two examples of charts.

44

53


Examples of Charting

Comparison Group Homes Tools Weapons

American Indians Longhouse Stone Axe Bow and Arrow

Settlers Log Cabin Adze Gun

Invention Consequence

Printing press Spread of information

A variation of charting is the clustering or web-bing technique. This can be used to illustrate graphicallyaccumulated knowledge, or as a brainstorming tech-nique to stimulate associative thinking. Discussions maybegin by the teacher visually clustering thoughts on the

Figure 5

chalkboard. Studentsmaycluster thoughts as a prewritingdevice in order to decide the direction to take in a piece ofwriting. Unlike outlining, which makes assumptionsabout sequential mental order, the clustering shown inFigure 6 permits great flexibility..

physical fitn ss

Sparta

Athens

Example of Clustering

rGreeks

jcropolis

Temples


Affective Strategies

Social studies materials are value laden because the goalsof democratic citizenship presume the internalization ofa set of values. Intellectual freedom and democratictolerance discourage direct indoctrination (see page 11,Democratic Beliefs, part of the NCSS "Essentials of theSocial Studies"). Therefore, open examination of andconfrontation with value conflicts characterize the mostwidely accepted social studies materials.

Values decision-making processes are available.A full explanation is found in "Values Education: Ratio-nale, Strategies and Procedures," the 41st Yearbook of theNational Council for the Social Studies (1971). One model ofthe process includes the following components:

identifying and clarifying the values ques-tion;assembling purported facts;assessing the truth of purported facts;clarifying the relevance of facts;arriving at a tentative values decision; andtesting the values principle implied in thedecision..

Independent Study

This technique may take several forms, all of which givemajor responsibility to the learner for shaping how andwhat will be learned. Independent study includes projects,group work, research reports, community action andinternships. Independent study usually extends over aperiod of days or weeks. Students receive guidance fromteachers and/or consultants. Any independent studyinvolves planning, setting purposes, gathering informa-tion and/or experience, reporting and assessing the re-sults.

A more structured method of independent studyhas been developed for dealing with talented and un-derachieving students. Under this plan, students firstdecide how long they will spend on a curriculum topic orunit, thus controlling the element of time. Students thendetermine what materials they will use for their study.The next step allows students to sequence the materialsand topics in the curriculum. This may involve the sub-stitution of new topics for those included in the existingcurriculum. Finally, students evaluate their own perfor-mance. This process is not always completed, but it doesallow the students to take control over some measure oftheir instruction.

Technologies

Integrating technology into classroom instruction is oneof the most important initiatives in education today.Teachers and students are exploring exciting new Team-ing approaches that recent developments in technologyhave made possible. Using a variety of technologiesfrom computers to interactive video to telecommunica-tions teachers and students engage in dialogue, ex-ploration and experimentation with students around theworld. Learning takes on a realism and significance noteasily achieved via traditional methods.

A technology-integrated social studies curricu-lum is an enriched program of study that motivates andencourages excellence in students across all abilities,disciplines and grade levels. When technology is anintegral part of the instructional program, it opens awealth of learning opportunities in areas such as globaleducation, cartography, multicultural education, cultureand diversity, international relations, global issues, socialand political char ge, and citizenship. Studerts can wit-ness events as they happen or examine the historicalrecord. They can tap into on-line sources for informationfrom library media centers, television and media asso-ciations, political and social watch groups, research in-stitutes and educational institutions.

To encourage innovative uses of technology insocial studies instruction, educational publishers areproducing multidisciplinary units which Integra to printedtexts, newspapers, computer software, videotapes, CDand laser videodisc materials, and other informationsources into comprehensive, in-depth and effective pre-sentations for classroom use. A useful tool for developinga technology-integrated instructional program isConnecticut's Guide to Program Development in LearningResources and Technology (1991). As teachers and studentsbecome more comfortable with technology, they will bebetter prepared to face the challenges and opportunitiesof the 21st century. Chapter 5 will describe in greaterdetail the advances in technology and learning reinucesavailable to teachers and students in the social studies.

46

Evaluation Flexibility

Evaluation of student learning, whether by standardizedtesting or a teacher's observation, also is an instructionaltechnique. Too often students perceive evaluation asdestructive. If that impression recurs, students usuallyhave good justification. Teachers, students might say,only look for mistakes. Teachers may find fault for


educationally valid reasons, but many are easy prey tothe errors approach which they themselves were sub-jected to as students. Papers returned only with red inkthat catalogs a litany of sins reinforce negative learning.Objective tests, not the answers, may fail as well. Thosewhich only test short-term recall and are devoid of con-ceptual or thematic development may be justly criticized.Such tests are overused because they are easy to correct,easy to administer and save time.

Evaluation also need not occur only at the end ofa unit when a test is taken, a project is due, a researchpaper is handed in or an oral presentation is completed.Social studies teachers at the intermediate and secondarylevels, where the curriculum demands increased ac-countability, are prone to overlook continual assessment.But evaluation should bean ongoing process in classes K-12. Registry of student progress may be drawn fromindividual student verbal responses, individual or groupconferences, participation and contributions during groupinteraction, agreed-upon criteria for written entries instudents' thinking logs, and prequizzes or pretests. Thetraditional social studies emphasis upon product at theexpense of process should be reconsidered if thinkingskills, democratic values and social participation indeedare accepted social studies goals.

Other considerations also are important. Not allstudents' learning styles allow proper responses on ob-jective or essay tests. Some have learning or languagehandicaps that require test modifications. This can be assimple as allowing a student to respond orally into a taperecorder or having test questions read to nonreaders. Inthe primary grades, oral reading of questions eliminatest he read ing variable. Modifications can be more complex,such as a set of alternatives from which students orteachers may choose. For example, students may beasked to demonstrate their mastery of an objective bytaking a written test, completing an essay, producing aproduct, role-playing or by speaking out in a discussion.Flexibility in evaluation helps social studies students feelthat they have some control and choice in assessment. Anexample of this flexibility from a high school course onChina appears below.

Objective; To identify the chief characteristicsof culture in the rural and urbanareas of China.

Evaluation;1. Pretend you are a magazine writer. Pre-

pare an article titled: "ContrastingLifestyles the Rural and Urban Citi-zen." Or be the staff artist and prepare aseries of sketches on the topic.

2. Make a chart on rural and urban life inChina. Include comparisons of such as-pects as food, housing, clothing, stores,education, transportation, communica-tion, work, religion, culture and recre-ation.

3. Ask the following questions: What arethe most significant aspects of culture inany society? How does rural life in Chinaillustrate these attributes? How doesurban life do so? Compare the two.

4. Work with a small group and prepare amural which illustrates the key charac-teristics of life in the urban and ruralareas of China.

5. Working with a small group, prepare arole-play that illustrates life in the ruraland urban areas of China.

This plan will allow students to choose from amongassessment alternatives the one best suited to their in-terests. A teacher-prepared objective test could be anotheroption.

Student diversity also affects evaluation. Dis-tinction needs to be made about the learning developmentfrom elementary through intermediate to high school.Assessment of primary students' achievement should bestructured differently from that of older students. Thesestudents should have tests that are primarily pictorial orgraphic in nature. Questions should be read or taped toeliminate any reading difficulty. Observational methodsoften are more appropriate than the typical paper-and-pencil tests. In assessing social studies, teachers andcurriculum developers should be very careful not tomake the instruments tests of reading skills. As childrenprogress in language abilities, more formal tests can begiven. Secondary school students can use both objectiveand essay testing and other forms of assessment.

Curriculum developers should consider howteachers at all levels will assess students with limitedacademic abilities or with special nee(' a. Options includevisual tests, including pictures or other graphics, obser-vation scales and checklists, and tape-recorded tests.Conceptual-level testing as well as performance-basedtesting should be done. Adjustments in the testing struc-ture for students with special language needs will developmore accurate social studies achievement results. Thekey factor in developing an evaluation plan for thesestudents should be how to determine what they know insocial studies without allowing their skills or needs tohandicap their performance in any way..

4756


Objective Tests and Writing

Objective tests and essays originally were the majormethods to gather information in order to assess socialstudies achievement. Objective tests still maintain a sig-nificant place in testing studen ts. Traditional true or false,multiple choice, completion and matching tests are usedto assess student comprehension of facts. Items should beconstructed carefully in order to assess how well studentsare meeting a course's listed objectives. Objective testsare limited, however, and other forms of testing that areperformance based or that develop portfolios should beconsidered (see Chapter 6). Tests constructed to demon-strate how well students are achieving objectives arecalled criterion-referenced measures. They provide ex-cellent feedback for students, teachers, parents and ad-ministrators, if properly constructed.

Objective testing also can be used in new ways,and since social studies instruction frequently is struc-tured around concepts, test items can be constructed todetermine the level of students' conceptual development.For example:

Given the name of a concept, the student canselect examples of it.Given the name of a concept, the student canselect nonexamples of it.Given an example of a concept, the studentcan select its name.Given the name of an attribute of a concept,the student can select examples of that at-tribute.Given an example of an attribute of a concept,the student can select the name of the at-tribute.Given a concept, the student can select a rel-evant attribute.Given a concept, the student can select anirrelevant attribute.Given the definition of a concept, the studentcan select its name.Given two concepts, the student can select therelationship between them.

This schema, adapted from Klausmeier's ConceptualLearning and Development: A Cognitive View (1970, showsincreasing complexity of conceptual development endingwith the stage of making generalizations.

The means to evaluate student learning throughwriting no longer are restricted to essay tests, althoughthese traditionally have served as the standard writingformat to evaluate learning. Student thinking on paperalso may be tested by theoptions suggested in Figure 3 on

page 42. The objectives for written testing will determinethe best way to evaluate content, communication skills,conceptual development, values and attitudes, and de-cision-making skills.

Resources are available to provide assistance intest item construction. Among them are the publicationsof the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS),which include both objective and essay items for UnitedStates history, world history and critical thinking skills.Publishers often provide tests to be used in conjunctionwith their programs, and some national and state as-sessment i tems are available. Publications by the NationalWriting Project, Connecticut Writing Project and otherregional writing programs also will provide assistance..

Short- and Long-Term Evaluation

Social studies evaluation occurs both in the short termand long term. In the short term, teacher-devised instru-ments are used most frequently. They can reflect accu-rately the current learning objectives. They may besupplemented by published tests when these closelymatch the program's stated objectives. In the long term,secondary students' achievement often is evaluated withformal examinations. These are either teacher preparedor publisher developed. In some cases, such as UnitedStates hi story or government, standardized tests a re used.Students at both elementary and secondary levels fre-quently take achievement tests as part of a school's over-all evaluation program.

The use of standardized tests to examine studentachievement and to evaluate program effectiveness needsto be considered carefully. In social studies, these testsusually explore areas such as map, globe and referenceskills. Theydo not effectively test conceptual developmentor the content of local social studies programs. The widevariance in local curriculums makes this impossible. Usingthe social studies subtest of a standardized achievementtest battery can waste district funds. Careful examinationusually reveals little or no correlation between what isbeing tested and what is being taught. The resultingcomparisons, therefore, do not determine how well stu-dents perform in terms of a national standard.

There are other forms of long-term evaluation.The Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress (CAEP)has, in the past, been used to assess the citizenship andsocial studies skills of a selected population at specificgrade levels. Likewise, this measure can provide longi-tudinal data on social studies achievement. This is acriterion-referenced measure in which students MC ex-pected to achieve at certain levels for each objective. Theobjectives tested are designed specifically forCon necti cu t..

48

J1


Assessment and Instruction

Student assessment increasingly is being viewed as ameans to improve instruction. The problem with tradi-tional standardized tests is that they often are removedfrom real-life situations. Authentic assessment is the newstandard being introduced to link assessment with im-provement in instruction and learning. Walter Parker(1991) provides the following "attributes of authenticbenchmark assessments:"

Tasks go to the heart of essential learnings, i.e.,they ask for exhibitions of understandingsand abilities that matter.Tasks resemble interdisciplinary real-lifechallenges, not schoolish busywork that isartificially neat, fragmented and easy to grade.Tasks are standard-setting; they point stu-dents toward higher, richer levels of know-ing.Tasks are worth striving toward and practic-ing for.Tasks are known to students well in advance.Tasks are few in number; hence, they arerepresentative.Tasks strike teachers as worth the trouble.Tasks generally involve a higher-order chal-lenge- a challenge for which students have togo beyond the routine use of previouslylearned information.All tasks are attempted by all students.

From Renewing the Social Studies Curriculum byWalter C. Parker, 1991. Used with permission

of the Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development.

A different approach to assessment requires de-veloping "thoughtful classrooms" -classrooms tha t allowin-depth study for students to develop complex under-standings. To create these "thoughtful classrooms," FredNewmann (1988) offers the following dimensions:

a few topicsare examined in depth rather thanmany topics covered superficially;lessons have substantial coherence and con-tinuity;students are given time to think - to prepareresponses to questions;the teacher asks challenging questions andstructures challenging tasks;

the teacher is a model of thoughtfulness; andstudents offer explanations and reasons fortheir conclusions.

Adapted from "Can Depth Replace Coverage in theI ligh School Curriculum," by Fred M. Newman,

Phi Della Kappart,1988.

In this era of accountability, assessment increasingly isbeing considered as the means to educational reform.Authentic assessment and "thoughtful classrooms" pro-vide the approach that can verify and create an environ-ment conducive to student learning..

Mainstreaming

All instructional approaches are affected by main-streaming. Laws that require access to an education thatis as nearly "normal" as possible have given rise to thisconcept. Mainstreaming helps toavoid detrimental effectsto the self-concept of the child. I t requ ires that all studentshave access to the wide range of educational materialsand it can contribute a special view or outlook to a peergroup.

Mainstreaming has various implications forteaching social studies. The particular disability will de-termine the nature of support needed. Mobilitydisabilitiesmay limit certain types of investigations, such as fieldtrips, plus some simulations and role-playing. The use ofconcrete materials for students with motor dysfunctionsmay call for some crea ti ve adjustment. Visual and hearingimpairments may require the taping or reading of mate-rials. Interpretations of charts and photographs may bemore difficult. Hearing aids and "phonic ears" may assisthearing-impaired students where sign language is notpracticed. Students with learning disabilities often needone-to-one tutoring, as advised by the learning disabilityspecialist. 'Task modification and alternative modes ofinstruction may help to relieve the pressure on a strugglingstudent.

A curriculum requires appropriate instructionalapproaches and programming for a wide range of K-12students. Strategies that are selected will depend uponlocal student diversity plus the level of developmentallearning. Instructional techniques also are influenced bythe social studies content and student materials. Chapter5 deals with the development and selection of theseinstructional materials.

49

53


References

Coombs, Jerrold R., and Meux, Milton. "Teaching Strate-gies for Value Analysis," Values Education: Rationale,Strategies, and Procedures. L.E. Metcalf, ed. Washing-ton,DC: 41st Yearbook of the National Council for the SocialStudies, 1971.

Connecticut State Board of Education. Connecticut As-sessment of Educational Progress. Hartford, CT: Con-necticut State Board of Education, 1983.

Connecticut State Board of Education. A Guide to ProgramDevelopment in Learning Resources and Technology.Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Board of Education,1991.

Daigon, Arthur, and Ellis, Arthur K. Teaching and LearningElementary Social Studies,2nd edition. I3oston,M A: Allyn& Bacon, Inc., 1981.

Fraenkel, Jack R. Helping Students Think and Value: Strat-egies for Teaching the Social Studies. Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973.

Klausmeier, Herbert J.; Ghatala, Elizabeth S.; and Frayer,Dorothy A. Conceptual Learning and Development: ACognitive View. New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1974.

Newmann, Fred M. "Can Depth Replace Coverage in theHigh School Curriculum?" Phi Delta Kappan 69, 5:346,1988.


Thomas, R. Murray, and Brubaker, Dale L. Decisions inTeaching Elementary Social Studies. Belmont, CA:Wadsworth Publishing, 1971.

Wesley, Edgar, and Wronski, Stanley. Teaching SocialStudies in the High School. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heathand Co., 1964.

Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. A Guide toCurriculum Planning in Reading. Madison, WI: Wis-consin Department of Public Instruction, 1986.


Resources

Aulls, Mark W. Developmental and Remedial Reading in theMiddle Grades. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1978.

Murray, Donald. A Writer Teaches Writing. Boston, MA:Houghton Mifflin Co., 1985.

National Council for the Social Studies. "Student As-sessment in Social Studies," special section edited byPat Nickell. Social Education, 56:2, February 1992.

Raths, Louis; Harmin, Merrill; and Simon, Sidney. Valuesin the Classroom. Columbus, OH: Charles E. MerrillPublishing Co., 1966.

Rico, Gabriele Lusser. Writing the Natural Way. Los An-geles, CA: J.P. Tarcher, Inc., 1983.

Stauffer, Russell. Directing Reading Maturity as a CognitiveProcess. New York: Harper & Row, 1970.

Trimbor, John. "Collaborative Learning and TeachingWriting." Perspectives on Research and Scholarship inComposition. Ben W. McClelland and Timothy R.Donovan, eds. New York: Modem Language Associa-tion, 1985.

5° 53

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

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Examination and EvaluationLocally Designed Mate-4

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Drill and PracticeTutorials

SimulationsWord Processing

DatabasesDesktop Publishing

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Interactive VideodiscsNonprint Materials

Library Media Resources

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51

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This chapter will provide teachers and curriculum plan-ners with guidelines about the development of locallydesigned materials and the selection of commerciallydistributed print and nonprint materials. Here the issueis a rich diversity of instructional materials to enhance thevaried teaching techniques discussed in Chapter 4.8

Examination and Evaluation

Inaccuracies and stereotypes persist in humanities, socialscience and history materials. Bland textbooks remain aswell, and they still conjure up anger and confusion froma diverse student population which justly criticizes themfor irrelevance and insensitivity. These familiar problemsprovide one of the strongest reasons for developing analternative approach to diversifying instructional mate-rials.

Published materials need to be evaluated forstereotypes, and care should be used to eliminate stereo-types in materials produced locally. While publishershave made obvious improvement in eliminating genderstereotypes, these clearly persist in some publishededucational materials and should be analyzed using ac-cepted guidelines.

A first step toward determining the degree ofgender stereotyping is the use of guidelines based uponthe following criteria adapted from Patton's Improving theUse of Social Studies Textbooks (1980):

portrayal of females in passive settings, whilemales are portrayed in vigorous activities;use of masculine language to describe hypo-thetical persons;female interests characterized as self, homeand school, while male interests are character-ized as the community and world;disproportionate coverage of male roles andproblems as compared to the roles and prob-lems of females;males portrayed as main characters or exem-plary persons disproportionately to femalesas main characters or exemplary persons;males shown more frequently in illustrationsthan females in similar settings;females portrayed in nurturing occupations,while malesare portrayed in high-status careerroles; andthe female identity defined by using the maleas a reference.

If the preliminary analysis reveals evidence of genderstereotyping in one or more of these areas, a more exten-sive examination may be necessary Disproportionate

CHAPTER 5MINNI1111Ell

representations will suggest a number of factors, includ-ing a lack of written documentary evidence. MulticulturalEducation: Isms and Perspectives (Banks and Banks, 1989)and A Guide toDeveloping Multicultural,Nomexist EducationAcross the Curriculum (Iowa Department of Education,1989) are excellent resources for use in more extensiveanalyses.

The pluralistic nature of our society is misrepre-sented by materials that perpetuate ethnic stereotypes.Many Americans are strengthened by their ethnic heritage;conversely, others experience discrimination because oftheir ethnic affiliations. The National Council for theSocial Studies (NCSS) underscores ethnic diversity as apositive, integral ingredient in American society. TheNCSS "Curriculum G uidel ines for Mul tiethnic Education"provide guidance for designing, implementing andevaluating ethnic studies programs (see Chapter 7). Anumber of criteria can be used to detect the presence ofethnic stereotyping in social studies materials. The fol-lowing guidelines, also adapted from Patton, are useful:

the pluralistic qualities of the nation are notcharacterized in print and visuals;etImic indi viduals or families are not accuratelydepicted in illustrations and photographs;attempts are not made to avoid presentingstereotypes of ethnics in their historic andcontemporary roles;members of ethnic groups are only presentedas prominent individuals;only the negative aspects of an ethnic group'sparticipation in American society are rekiectedin the materials;the most significant aspects of an ethnicgroup's values and traditions are not por-trayed; andaccurate, scholarly and current information isnot presented on all ethnic groups.

f the preliminary analysis reveals evidence of tokenism,omissions or lack of balance, a more extensive examina-tion may be necessary. The curriculum committee mustbe wary, however, because not all of the questions willapply to every set of materials. Strained inclusion ofethnic groups is as unacceptable as their exclusion..

Locally Designed Materials

One obvious alternative to published materials that donot indude females and members of diverse ethnic groupsis for local districts to generate materials of their own.School systems increasingly are drawing upon the exper-tise of their own teachers to design precisely what is

52

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS CHAPTER 5

needed. Local corporate and nonprofit institutions oftenare willing to help underwrite meaningful educationalchange. School districts also should encourage relevantprofessional development at the state and local levels.Many districts also offer mini-grant programs.

Teacher- or student-designed materials may bethe most immediately productive learning devices, themost useful long-term educational materials and themost cost-effective. Social studies teaching can result inthe production of educationally viable clay models,drawings, paintings and simulated artifacts. Tangiblereplicas from past history can be filmed, reproduced andused in subsequent years. Student-generated diaries,journals, reports and newspapers can be "published" andcirculated among social studies students. Audio and/orvideotapes can preserve oral history interviews for futureclasses, plus record dramatizations, demonstrations, ex-hibits, collections, outside speakers, museum tours andfield trips for later use. Curriculum archives should beorganized to hold the locally developed instructionalmaterials.

Substantial benefits can result from the develop-ment of materials at the local level. They include localpride among teachers and students an additional mo-tivation to learn; the production of materials that matchlocal goals; and teacher remuneration for active learning.Locally developed materials also should meet the goalsoutlined in Connecticut's Common Core of Learning (1987).a

Criteria for Selection

Before examining any instructional materials, the cur-riculum committee should have before it the rationaleand goals, the selected objectives and content, and theinstructional techniques which are to be stressed. Becauseschool systems literally buy into the system of commer-cially published textbooks, careful scrutiny of packagededucational materials remains one of the highest priori-ties for a curriculum committee. All elements of cur-riculum planning should be complete prior to initiatingthe selection of materials.

Students are entitled to instructional materials ofthe highest caliber presented in the most timely andpersuasive manner. Watered-down curriculum materi-als, whether written, audiovisual or in computer software,likely will bypass all students. Poor readability posesspecial problems, which imply that steps must be taken toensure understanding. The obvious challenge is to searchfor materials which stress the concrete over the abstract,the tangible over the elusive, and the straightforwardover the complex, without playing to the lowest commondenominator.

Sec. 10-18a of the Connecticut General Statutesrequires that content of textbooks and other instructionalmaterials ". . accurately present the achievements andaccomplishments of individuals and groups from allethnic and racial backgrounds and of both sexes.".

Survey and Decision

What sources provide reliable and current informationabout commercially published classroom materials? So-

cial Education, the journal of the National Council for theSocial Studies, frequently raises i ssues such as assessmentof instructional materials. It is very important for thesocial studies curriculum committee to be aware of cur-rent trends in textbook publishing and of diverse pointsof view. Local curriculum decision makers must informpublishers of their needs so appropriate materials can bedeveloped.

Another very informative source is the SocialStudies Materials and Resources Data Book published by theSocial Science Education Consortium (SSEC) in Boulder,CO. This book annotates elementary and secondarycurriculum materials as well as teacher resource materi-als. It lists title, author, publisher, publication date, gradelevel, materials, cost, overview, analysis, required orsuggested time for coverage, and readability. These andother sources, such as the NCSS Tool Kit and works byWilliam E. Patton, James Davis and Frances Haley, 0. L.Davis, Jr., and James D. Carroll are listed in the Resourcesand References sections at the end of this chapter.

Teachers and curriculum developers can obtainexamination copies from publishers. A book's preface orintroduction, teacher's guide, stated rationale and sug-gestions for collateral materials will either whet the ap-petite or prevent a further waste of time. Other consid-erations include the book's clarity, sense of authority,scholarly interpretation, significance, content, format,readability, elimination of stereotypes and ability to en-gage students. Unfortunately, students too often areconsidered inconsequential in the textbook-selectionprocess. Feedback should be sought from this intendedcaptive audience.

Finally, there is an overriding financial consider-ation. As materials a re being evaluated, committees needto perform cost-benefit analyses and seek materials that:

seem suitable to the maturity level of the stu-dents;further the selected educational goals andobjectives;are thehighestquality available forthemoney;anddo not sacrifice instructional quality in orderto save money..

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TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES

As described in Connecticut's Guide to Program Develop.ment in Learning Resources and Technology (1991), a tech-nology-integrated curriculum in social studies is an en-riched program of study that motivates and encouragesexcellence in students of all abilities and grade levels.When technology resources are used effectively in socialstudies instruction, students can access information inways never possible before..

Computers

Computers have the potential to revolutionize instruc-tion. They are powerful, versatile tools in the classroom.As independent, stand-alone units, computers can beused by students working in teams, pairs or as individuals,or by teachers as an "electronic chalkboard." Connectedto a telephone line and modem, the computer becomes avaluable tool for conducting online research and datagathering, communicating with others over vast distances,teleconferencing and participating in interactive simula-tions in international forums. When classroom comput-ers are networked to a central fileserver, students canaccess online encyclopedias (such as Grolier's orCompton's) housed on CDs in the library media center.Students also can participate in joint activities with otherclasses and take advantage of interactive software that isnot available for stand-alone computer systems.

A complete compu ter software collection includescomputer-aided instruction (CAI) or drill and practice,tutorials, applications (keyboarding, word processing,spreadsheet, database, teleconrununica lions, gra phics a nddesktop publishing), simulations, and interactive activi-ties that challenge students to apply problem-solving andcritical-thinking skills. In addition, computers serve asthe host vehicle for a variety of peripherals and attach-ments, including cameras and camcorders, CD players,videodisc players, printers, fax machines, televisions andVCRs. Computers can record and reproduce sound,voiceand music. They can capture anti display voice, video anddata. They can run videos directly on the computermonitor or as part of a slide show presentation throughthe emerging technology of compressed video. But mostimportantly, computers can encourage studen ts to engagein active, creative learning. This occurs when computers

and other technologies are integrated into the curriculumand classroom instruction.a

Drill and Practice

Computer-aided instruction (CAI) had, until recently,referred to drill and practice exercises in which conceptsand skills were addressed through rote learning. Today'sdrill and practice software, however, has overcome someof the repetitiveness associated with earlier versions byincorporating more exploratory and problem-solvingactivities into the exercises. The Ripple and All Star Drillare examples of drill and practice software.

7utorials

Like drill and practice programs, tutorials provide stu-dents witha variety of multilevel exercises and issuesthatthey can explore on their own with the computer as aguide. Tutorials can encourage students to improve theirmap-reading skills or understanding of historical eventsthrough explanatory text and visual aids which accom-pany each activity. PC Globe and Research Paper Writer areexamples of tutorial programs in the social studies..

54

Simulations

Simulations combine role-playing, debate, deci sion mak-ing, problem solving, critical thinking, "what if" experi-men ta tion, and discussion skills to address complex issuesand events. Students interact with one another and withthe challenging real-life dilemmas posed by the softwareand videos. Interactive software programs encouragestudents to use their best problem-solving and critical-thinking skills as they "travel" around the world orthrough history. Online interactive simulations, such asNational Geographic Society's Kidsnet, and AT&T's Dis-tance Learning projects (international classroom collabo-rations), afford students an opportunity work coopera-tively on global studies and global issues with studentsaround the world. Other examples include Decisions,Decisions, GTV: A Geographic Perspective on AmericanHistory, and Where in the World is Carmen San Diego,

r)

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS CHAPTER 5'.=alleMaN(.4

Word Processing

Computers are excellent tools for researching informa-tion, outlining, writing and integrating information fromtexts, tables, graphs and graphic images into a singledocument. Students can easily enter and manipulatetextual information, edit grammar and syntax, and use aspelling checker and thesaurus that comes with mostword processing programs. Word processing is an es-sential skill for students and teachers to acquire andmaster, and one that will be an asset to them in socialstudies research writing. Some examples of word pro-cessing programs are Bank Street Writer and Appkworksa

Databases

A powerful aspect of technology is its ability to store,retrieve, manipulate and analyze information containedin databases. Databases are collections of raw data anddescriptive information listed by field names or identifi-ers which enable students to conduct research, sort infor-mation into usable units, and manipulate data as part ofsocial studies inquiry. Small databases may be kept ondisks, moderately large databases on hard disks and fileservers, and massive databases (such as encyclopedias)are found on CD discs and mainframe computers. With acomputer, modem and telephone line, students can accessvarious online databases, such as Dow Jones, or conductsurveys via electronic mail systems or electronic bulletinboards. Databases are an integral part of social studiesinquiry. Some examples of databases are Timeliner and PCGlobe; databases available on CD discs are ABC News In-teractive and Grolier's Encyclopedia..

Desktop Publishing

A technology-integrated social studies curriculum in-vites opportunities for students to engage in desktoppublishing as they work to create social studies researchreports. Desktop publishing calls upon a vast array ofskills reading, research, writing, graphics, art, layout,design, etc. and encourages students to apply theirknowledge and skills in producing materials that focuson real issues from the student's perspective. PageMakerand Children's Writing are examples of desktop publish-ing programs..

Video

Television is an effective means of bringing the world intothe social studies classroom. A broad array of socialstudies video programs is available to Connecticut schooldistricts through broadcast by Connecticut Public Tele-vision and carried by all cable systems in the state. Theschedule for each school year is found in the InstructionalTelevision Schedule and Resource Guide, published by theConnecticut State Board of Education. A sample listing ofsocial studies-related video programs is included in Ap-pendix I, Instructional Television Resources. All pro-grams included in the appendix have extended "recordand use" rights that allow school districts to record pro-grams at the time of broadcast. In certain cases anarranged copying service may be available for new pro-grams being released. In addition, teacher's guides areavailable to Connecticut users. Just as the video replacedthe 16mm projector, the interactive discs and telecom-munications technology that link computers with televi-sion eventually will create new instructional tools forstudent learning..

Telecommunications

When technology is an integral part of the instructionalprogram, a wealth of teaming opportunitiescan be openedup in a variety of social studies areas. Students canwitness events as they happen or examine the contexts ofthe historical record. They can tap into online sources forinformation from library media centers, television andmedia associations, research institutes and educationalinstitutions. Telecommunications in the classroom canbe accomplished via voice, data or video contact through:

a computer, modem and telephone line (aspeaker phone is an asset);instructional television, which is part of adistance learning network; andsatellite teleconferences.

Through telecommunications, students can par-ticipate in interactive simulations, teleconferences, Jointresearch projects and impact studies with students athome and abroad through programs such as those listedon page 56.

55

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INSTRUCTIONAL. MATERIALS CHAPTER 5

Research Projects - National GeographicSociety's Kidsnet, research projects on variousthemes and topics; andInstate Telecommunications - ConnecticutState Department of Education's KnowledgeNetwork and Instructional Televisionprogramming..

Interactive Videodiscs

One of the most promising of the emerging technologiesis the interactive or laser videodisc. Students learn byviewing, discussing, researching, role-playing and de-bating issues that are presented through the interplay oftext, graphic images, charts and tables, and full motionvideos. With a barcode reader, students and teachers canscan through the enormous masses of information storedon the videodiscs in a matter of seconds. Used in con-junction with texts, computers and other print materials(such as newspapers and periodicals), videodiscs bringthe world into the classroom in a manner that is bothcaptivating and :ealistic.

Nonprint Materials

Nonprint materials increasingly are important in socialstudies instruction, yet often they are selected with littleprior appraisal of their usefulness. The social studiescommittee should select filmstrips, videotapes, records,films, laserdiscs, CDs, software, artifacts and othernonprint materials as carefully as they select textbooksand other printed materials. Nonprint materials need tcbe examined for gender and ethnic stereotyping andtreatment of the exceptional students just as carefully asprint materials.

Evaluations of nonprint materials are availablefrom many sources. Professional journals usually includecomments from teachers about materials recently released.Media specialists can provide valuable information. Of-ten, nonprint materials are previewed by committeesbefore adoption. When materials are being examined,they should be judged by the same criteria that thecommittee has selected for print materials. They should:

be clear and easy for pupils to comprehend;provide information best presented in a givenformat;allow students with differing learning stylesto use them readily;justify cost;provide unique learning opportunities;

show no evidence of bias;be easy to use; andinvolve the students more than a text can..

Library Media Resources

Most of a school's resources to support teaching andlearning are either housed or accessed through the librarymedia center. No longer just a book room, the librarymedia center has the technology, motivational and in-formational resources that offer students and teachers avariety of alternatives for accomplishing learning objec-tives. The library media center is the central access pointfor all resources located in the school. The library mediaspecialist serves as a link to resources available outsidethe school.

A carefully selected and organized collectionwill support goals for social studies education by pro-viding print and nonprint materials that will give breadthand depth to classroom instruction. The collection willcontain materials that represent diverse perspectives onissues; introduce students to books, videos and othermaterials by or about people around the world; andsupply up-to-the-minute information on world eventsusing online databases. Through interlibrary loan, ad=di tional materials can be located to support specific unitsor projects.

The school library media specialist not only is amanager of the learning resources collections, but also ateacher trained in curriculum and instructional develop-ment who is available to:

give instruction and guidance to students inlearning to locate and use information from avariety of sources and in a wide range offormats, integrating these skills into existingcurriculum;cooperate in designing units of instruction soas to include options for student learning andto acquire appropriate resources for studentsof all ability levels and learning styles tocomplete assignments;build collections that will better respond tocurriculum goals and objectives;supply reviews and/or arrange for previewsof materials being considered for purchase;provide reading guidance to students to en-hance curriculum emphasis, such as culturalpluralism and understanding of geographicalconcepts;participate as a partner in curriculum designor revision, offering suggestions for supple-

56 ,...

6 a


mentary materials, exploring new technolo-gies for curricular applications and buildingcollections that will support the curriculum;train students or teachers in the use of newmedia formats and their accompanying tech-nology; andexplain media services, such as video record-ing, interlibrary loan, production of instruc-tional materials, computer fileserver and othertelecommunications.

In addition to the library media specialist, manyschools now have access to additional learning resourcesand technology teachers who can offer services and in-struction that will promote learning in the social studies.They may include computer teachers, distance learningcoordinators or district-level staff. Often they are able toincorporate principles of social studies education intoassignments and pursue cooperative acquisitions or sitelicenses that will result in better prices and more exten-sive use of the equipment and materials purchased.

Social studies curriculum developers have theresponsibility to oversee the appropriate developmentand selection of printand nonprint instructional materials.They should carefully match the materials with localgoals, student needs, financial constraints, and the ex-pertise and support from the teaching staff members.They will approve of basic and supplementary materialsthat can be used to adjust the curriculum for individualdifferences, and then be certain ample ti me is allowed forteachers to familiarize themselves with the material priorto use.*

References

Connecticut State Department of Education. Connecticut'sCommon Core of Learning. Hartford, CT: ConnecticutState Department of Education, 1987.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). "Cur-riculum Guidelines for Multiethnic Education."Washington, DC: NCSS, 1976.

Patton, William E. Improving the Use of Sodal StudiesTextbooks. Bulletin 63. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1980.

Resources

Banks, James A., and Banks, Cherry A. McGee.Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives. Bos-ton, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1989.

Budin, Howard; Kendall, Diane S.; and Lengel, James.Using Computers in the Social Studies. Computers in theCurriculum Series edi ted by Howard Budin and DianeS. Kendall. New York: Teacher's College Press, 1986.

Carroll, James D. and others. We the People: A Review ofU.S. Government and Civics Textbooks. Washington, DC:People for the American Way, 1987.

Connecticut State Board of Education. A Guide to Pro,;ramDevelopment in Learning Resources and Technology.Harlord, CT: Connecticut State Department of Edu-cation, 1991.

Connecticut State Department of Education. "SocialStudies Survey of Connecticut Schools, 1984." Hart-ford, CT: Connecticut State Department of Education,1986.

Davis, James, and Haley, Frances. Planning a Social Stud-ies Program: Activities, Guidelines, and Resources.Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium(SSEC), 1983.

Davis, 0. L.; Ponder, Gerald; Burlbaw, Lynn M.; Garza-Lubeck, Maria; and Moss, Alfred. Looking at History,A Review of Major U. S. History Text books. Washington,DC: People for the American Way, 1986.

Hass, John D. "A Social Studies Professional Library."Social Education (January 1987): pp. 60-72.

Hodges, James 0. "Resources for Teaching with Comput-ers," Social Education (January 1987): pp. 54-59.

Iowa Department of Education. A Guide to DevelopingMulticultural, Nonsexist Education Across the Curriculum .

Des Moines, IA: Iowa Department of Education, 1989.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). BuildingSupport for the Social Studies: The Tool Kit. Washington,DC: NCSS, 1988.

NCSS. "Guidelines for Teaching Science-Related SocialIssues." Social Education (April 1983): pp. 258-261.

Social Science Education Consortium. Social StudiesMaterials and Resources Data Book, Boulder, CO: SocialScience Education Consortium, 1990.

57

LP

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

AND EVALUATION

N-

'11444.

"Tor every complicated problem, there is asolutloa that is short, simple, arid wrong."

H. L. Mencken

IMPLEMENTATIONPiloting

Staff OrientationSpecial Materials and Support Services

Staff Development

EVALUATIONStandards Assessment

Ongoing Effort

AST COPY AVAILABLE59 (3'7

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION CHAPTER 6

Curriculum developers who have followed this guidesequentially in order to develop a new curriculum will beprepared to implement and evaluate their program. Thosewho are revising and refining an existing curriculum maybegin with one or more evaluation instruments beforemaking a needs assessment. In either case, Chapter 6 willoffer various means to assure a smooth transition for thenew curriculum and methods to test its effectiveness.a

IMPLEMENTATION

Implementation customarily involves piloting the cur-riculum on a limited basis to determine its effectiveness.Other elements include staff orientation, special materi-als, support services, staff development activities and thecontinuous review and revision process. Implementationof a program is constant..

Piloting

A limited use of the new social studies curriculum mightbe the first step in implementation. Teachers at oneelementary school might use it for the first year, allowingthe committee to examine the fully functioning program.If it is a large school, only one teacher at each grade levelmight be asked to try the new program. Likewise, newcourses at the secondary level might be piloted with asingle class.

Piloting must be monitored carefully. Pilotteachers need the same level of services that full imple-mentation requires. They must participate in programorientation, becoming aware not only of their own pro-gram, but also of how it fits into the K-12 sequence. Theyalso must have appropriate materials, both student andprofessional. They must have the support of eithercommittee members or a district curriculum specialist.They should receive the necessary training, includingopportunities to observe how the materials are used inother districts. And they must participate in a carefulevaluation of the pilot. The pilot testing of a new orrevised curriculum often leads to some revisions prior todistrictwide implementation.

Several points should be considered before uni-versal use of the new or revised curriculum. Implementa-tion should be planned so that a teacher:

introduces no more than one new programeach year;is not asked to implement a program unlessthe required materials are available;is not asked to teach a new program withoutsome orientation and awareness of its place inthe overall curriculum;

is not expected to teach from a new courseoutline unless someone can respond to ques-tions;can attend staff development sessions thatpresent new techniques, difficult materials orbackground information; andfeels free to suggest program improvements..

Staff Orientation

Planning for staff orientation can be a significant factor inthe program's success. If lines of communication havebeen maintained throughout the development process,teachers will be expecting change. Course outlines andmaterials should be available and orientation shouldoccur well in advance of the new program's implemen-tation. The scope of the orientation depends on curricu-lum difficulty, the amount of change and the quality ofprior staff communication.

In planning for orientation, curriculum develop-ers should be certain that they have:

prepared outlines for each teacher at eachgrade level;provided teacher's guides and other materi-als;developed the K-12 sequence;planned to highlight the changes and thereasons for them;planned for a large-group introduction of theK-12 program, followed by a small-group ex-amination at each grade level;prepared materials that explain availablesupport services, planned in-service trainingand expected teacher evaluation; andplanned an administrative orientation priorto the teacher orientation.

Special Materials and Support Services

Implementation may require special materials. If newinstructional techniques are being introduced, a first stepmay be selecting and purchasing videotapes, software orother teaching materials. Rooks such as those providingbackground information in a field not previously taught,e.g., anthropology, or those providing training materials,may be added to the professional library. Films may beobtained for use as part of the administrative and teacherorientation. If computer instruction is being introduced,appropriate teaching materials may be necessary. Thecommittee should evaluate the implementation plan andidentify any resources required.

6° GS


Support services are essential for successful cur-riculum implementation. Small school districts often usecurriculum committee members to respond to questions.They may beassisted by principals who have been alertedto possible problems. Larger school districts may have acurriculum consultant who is available for demonstra-tions, questions or other assistance.

Support services also may come from sourcesoutside the school, such as community members whoserve as resources on specific topics, or regional educa-tional service centers that loan materials or provide per-sonnel (see Appendix C). Meetings of state, regional andnational organizations often include sessions that aredirectly related to new curriculum topics. The committeeshould identify in the curriculum some of the possiblesupport services. For information on additional resources,see Appendix D, Resources for Curriculum Planning.

Staff Development

The nat ure of staff development often spells the differencebetween success and failure. Extensive in-service pro-grams may be necessary in order to plan for implemen-tation. Program planners should consider

teachers' experiences with similar curricu-lums;teachers' backgrounds and knowledge;familiarity with the instructional techniques;commonalty of the evaluation instruments;available time;available leadership;information needed to make adjustments forstudents with special needs;the degree to which participants and studentswill use the materials in the same ways; andthe neces.4ty for staff development after thefirst implementation year, e.g., for new teach-ers and teachers transferred to new gradelevels.

The following staff development models (A, Ban i C) are examples of how the committee might struc-ture what is planned.

Model A Minimum

Scheduling: Four sessions, two to three hourseach; before implementation, atfirst quarter's end, at firstsemester's end, at first year's end.

Program: First session

K-12 scope and sequenceprogram componentsunit structure illustrating content, tech-niques, materialslesson structure illustrating objectives,techniques, partsevaluation, short and long termsummary and questions

Program: Follow-through sessions

single-topic discussionmutual success and failure discussionevaluation, including suggestions forchangesummary and suggestions for futuresessions

Model B Moderate

Scheduling: Six sessions, two to three hourseach; three before implementationand one each at first quarter's end,at first semester's end and at firstyear's end.

Program: Introductory sessions

K-12 scope and sequenceprogram componentsunit structureinstructional techniques, e.g., technolo-giesevaluation techniques, e.g., interview-inglesson structuredemonstrations of techniques by par-ticipantssummary and questions


61

upcoming unitsevaluation methods reviewsingle-topic discussionmutual success and failure discussionevaluation, including suggestions forchangeways of using local resourcessummary and suggestions for futuresessions

URRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION CHAPTER 6

Model C - In-Depth

Scheduling: A minimum of 10 two-hour ses-sions; two before implementation,plus follow-through sessions ateach semester's end.

Program: Course

Session 1:

Session 2:

Session 3:

Session 4:

Session 5:

Session 6:

Session 7:

Session 8:Session 9:

Session 10:

scope and sequence, programcomponents, unit structure,a look at unit oneintroduction to instructionaltechniques, lesson format,questionsconceptual developmentandmicro-teachinggeneralizing and micro-teachingdecision making, inquiry andmicro-teachingvaluing, including micro-teachingskills development, includ-ing micro-teachingrole-playing and simulationmatching student needs andactivitiesevaluating student progress


shared concernsspecific-topic discussionprogram adaptation for students withspecial needsways of using local resourcesevaluation and revision

EVALUATION

Like implementation, evaluation is an ongoing process;an adequate means to evaluate the curriculumis essen fiatin order to create opportunities for improvement. One

critical aspect is the feedback that evaluation providescurriculum developers. Student achievement data thatare consistently low may mean that curriculum revisionis in order. Criterion-referenced measures, if used, canpinpoint precise areas of need. Standardized test infor-mation can pinpoint problems, particularly in the basicskills. Curriculum developers, however, must seek spe-cific information that goes beyond these measures.

There are many ways to gather data. Needsassessments, informal discussions, tabulation of achieve-ment results, specific materials-evaluation instrumentsand carefully developed effectiveness measures of pilottesting all are possibilities. The curriculum committeeshould build into the program a monitoring system forfeedback on its successes and failures..

Standards Assessment

All social studies programs should be evaluated accord-ing to standards and to the curriculum as it is actuallypracticed. The social studies standards assessment thatfollows (pages 63 and 64) was developed by the advisorycommittee for this guide and will assist curriculum devel-opers in working toward this goal. Directions for thestandards assessment follow:

1. Rank each of the following standards(questions) for extent of treatment in theexisting social studies curriculum. The scaleranges from I (minimal or no treatment) to 5(extensive treatment).

2. Write a brief supporting statement thatprovides evidence of the treatment rating.

3. Summarize and discuss - as a social studiesstaff or curriculum committee the treatmentfindings; resolve disagreements.

4. Use points of agreement to set priorities forsocial studies curriculum areas that need tobe addressed.

62 ill


Social Studies Standards Assessment

(a) To what extent does the social studies program reflect skills and competencies, attributes and attitudes,and understandings and applications identified in Connecticut's Common Core of Learning?

(b) To what extent does the social studies progra m include instruction in citizenship, economics, geography,government and history in a planned, ongoing and systematic manner?

(c) To what extent does the school ensure that all students are knowledgeable in United States history,including instruction in United States government at all levels, and in the duties, responsibilities andrights of citizenship?

(d) To what extent do the social studies program and materials include a multicultural perspective thatreflects accurately our nation's pluralistic society?

(e) To what extent do the social studies program and materials offer perspectives from a non-Western pointof view?

(f) To what extent do the program and materials encourage the discussion of controversial issues, with abalanced representation of opposing points of view?

(g) To what extent do the social studies program and materials relate directly to the age, maturity andconcerns of students?

(h) Are planned, ongoing and systematic professional development activities available to teachers?

(continued)

63i1

S

URRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION CHAPTER 6

Social Studies Standards Assessment (continued)

(i) To what extent does the social studies program offer a wide variety of teaching strategies that involvestudents in active learning?

(j) To what extent do strategies of instruction and learning activities rely on a broad range of learningresources in addition to the textbook?

(k) To what extent does the social studies program have access to and utilize computers and othertechnologies for instructional purposes?

(1) To what extent is student assessment used to improve the social studies program?

(m) To what extent is there K-12 coordination of and articulation within the social studies program?

(n) To what extent does the social studies program provide for students to engage in community serviceactivities and participate in civic affairs of school and community?

(o) To what extent does the social studies program accommodate students in need of special or supplementalinstruction and, at the same time, achieve the goal of democratic participation through heterogeneousgrouping practices?

(p) To what extent does the program implement new perspectives in the social studies?

64


As evaluation data are collected from manysources, the persons charged with curriculum responsi-bility should translate these data and recommend cur-riculum revision or reciesign. :he social studies curricu-lum should be responsive to feedback and should changeas the need for change is demonstrated through assess-ment results..

Ongoing Effort

For a social studies program to be effective, it mustreceive continuous attention and maintenance. Thegreatest challenge to the discipline is the integration ofhuman knowledge and experience into a form that can beeffectively managed and included in the K-12 studentexperience. The motto must not be what might be added,but what is most important and what might be left out.The social studies field is too important to be relegated tothe position of the "curriculum dump," the place forimportant agendas that seemingly cannot be placed inother areas of the curriculum. The purpose of this guide

is to assist curriculum decision makers and practitionersin addressing important social studies issues necessaryfor implementing a planned, ongoing and systematiccurriculum.

At this stage the curriculum revision processmust begin where it began in Chapter 1. Revisionincludesthe developmental tasks identified on page 4. Chapter 7will provide an example that a social studies curriculumcommittee can use to take an emerging issue or perspectiveand apply the concepts outlined in Chapters 1-6 to ac-complish program revision..

Resources

Connecticut State Department of Education. Connecticut'sCommon Core of Learning. Hartford, CT: ConnecticutState Department of Education, 1987.

Parker, Walter C. Renewing the Social Studies Curriculum.Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Cur-riculum Development, 1991.

65

3

CITIZENSHIP AND MULTICULTURAL

EDUCATION 7

"Ilse purpose of admottion . is to create is person the abilityto look at the world for himself, to snake his own decisions ...

But no society is really modems to have that kind of person around.What societies really . . . wait is citizenry which

will simply obey the rules of the society. If a society succeedsis this, that society is about to perish."

Jame. Baldwin

CITIZENSHIPDefinition

GOALS AND THEMESNCSS Multiethnic Guidelines

Connecticut's Common Core of LearningA Conceptual Curriculum Model

CONTENT: CURRICULUM APPROACHESContributions Approach

Additive ApproachTransformation Approach

Decision-Making and Social Participation ApproachMixing and Blending the Approaches

Interdisciplinary AlternativesEthnic Group Alternatives

INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUESINSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION-Connecticut Curriculum Recommendations

67

4 4EST COPY MILANI

CITIZENSHIP AND MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION CHAPTER 7

This final chapter develops an essential premise: themeaning of citizenship as it relates to cultural diversity,values and responses. It examines the meaning ofmulticultural education, considers its goals and themes,presents examples of various content alternatives, raisesissues bearing upon instructional techniques, offers crite-ria for selection of student materials, and concludes withconsiderations on implementation and evaluation. Thismodel has applications that can be modified for use inother curricular areas..

CITIZENSHIP

Understanding the critical role of citizenship in educationis fundamental to the preservation of a democratic soci-ety in the United States. In a 1963 presentation to teachers,James Baldwin expressed alarm as he observed the viewsdisplayed by American society. "The purpose of educa-tion," Baldwin said, "is to create in a person the ability tolook at the world for himself, to make his own decisions

. . But no society is really anxious to have that kind ofperson around. What societies really . . . want is acitizenry which will simply obey the rules of the society.If a society succeeds in this, that society is about toperish." This observation is as appropriate for today as itwas nearly 30 years ago, when the United States wasgrappling with fundamental issues related to diversityand equality.

Social studies was defined in Chapter 1 as "theintegration of knowledge and human experience for thepurpose of citizenship education." Furthermore, citi-zenship was said to foster the protection of individualrights and responsibilities as well as cultural diversity,values and responses. The concept of democracy protect-ing both individualism and collective cultural valuesruns to the heart of America's evolutionary process.From the arrival of forerunners of Native Americans tothe most recent flow of immigrants upon our shores, weare members of a pluralistic society, all guaranteed cer-tain rights and liberties legally constituted in a documentwritten more than 200 years ago.

If multicultural values and responses are a dis-tinct characteristic of our American tradition, they deservespecial attention and should become integrated into oureducational system. These values and responses link the

democratic ideal of parity with Thomas Jefferson's adviceto "inform the people's discretion through instruction."

Definition

Multicultural education is an idea, a reform movementand a process, according to one of this nation's leadingauthorities on the subject, James A. Banks. It is the ideathat all learners should be provided with equal access toeducation regardless of culture, age, gender, social class,religion, race or exceptionality. It is intimately connectedto helping all students succeed and, therefore, must notbe viewed as a passing fad. As a reform movement,multicultural education encompasses the total schoolenvironment and consists of a number of major identifi-able variables and factors (see Figure 7, on page 69, TheSchool as a Social System). As a process, multiculturaleducation is ongoing in order to eliminate setbacks toliberty and justice for all.

A major goal of multicultural education is to helpstudents develop the knowledge, attitudes and skillsneeded to function within their own microcultures, othermicrocultures, the U.S. macroculture, and within theglobal community. To achieve this goal, educators mustdistinguish between the local and international dimen-sions of multicultural education. Focusing on the culturalexperiences of people as they exist outside the UnitedStates should not be a substitute for addressing ethnicand cultural issues present within the boundaries of theUnited States.

While international aspects of multicultural edu-cation are important and can shed light on the back-grounds of people living within the United States, theyoften can lead to assumptions about ethnic and culturalgroups that are not true. Too often this becomes a meansto escape the realities of multicultural issues for schoolsdominated by majority populations contigtous to neigh-boring school districts that may have large minoritypopulations. Helping students learn about diversity intheir surrounding environments is a cost-effective way tobegin exploration of multicultural diversity in the globalcommunity. Figure8 on page 70 can assist the curriculu mdesigner in developing appropriate programs and prac-tices and in distinguishing between the various levels ofimplementing pluralism in American schools.

687 5

CITIZENSHIP Arm MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION CHAPTER 7

The School as a Social System

School Staff:attitudes,

perceptions,beliefs and

actions

Teaching Stylesand Strategies

FormalizedCurriculum andCourse of Study

School Policyand Politics

School Culture andHidden Curriculum

Learning Stylesof the School

Languages andDialects of the

School

InstructionalMaterials

Assessment andTesting Procedures

CounselingProgram

CommunityParticipation

and Input

Figure 7

From Mullin,' .4ral Education: Issues and Perspectives,James A. Banks and Cherry A. McGee Banks, editors.

Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1989. Used with permission.

69


Programs and Practices Related to Pluralism in American Schools

Program andPractice Focus Objectives Strategies

MuldculturalEducation

Cukorel groups In the UnitedStates, sapidity those dotexperience rollick* anddiscrimindica In American'moiety.

Multiethnic Ethnic groups within theEducation United States.

To help reduce dieorininetion spinet seams- Cresting a school mirrosphire that toe pod-Wed oulturd grows and to provide al color- tie institutionel norms toward a range et di-al groups with stool educational apporturi- turd groups in the United States.ties.

To help reduce discrirrinedon tamed victim-ized ethnic groups and to provide statismfrom ell ethnic groups equal educationalopportunities.To help reduce ethnic isolation, encapsula-tion, and prierization.

Modifying the total school welcomes* tomake it more reflective of the ethnic diversitywithin Amt neon society.

Ethnic Suedes Ethnics groups within theUnited States.

To help students make reflective decisions onIssues reeled to ethnicity and to take actionto *nimbi racial and ethnic potions tddiroMyriam society.To hip students develop valid concepts, gen-erdentions, and theorise about ethnic groupsin the (kited States end So clarify their Mi-totic coward thorn.To help @Wares develop ethic kersoy.

Modifying course **dives, teaching strate-gies. materiels, and evalustion techniques sothat they include content and informationabout ethic groups in the United Swag.

Global Nedon-states and WeeEducation throughout the world.

To help students understand the hiol* inter-dependent nature of world society and toacquire knowledge of other nations.To help students develop the sites and ',Al-cides needed to Moonlit refloodv citizens of

globd world society.

Refanning the curriculum so that It helps titu-direr to develop an urderstanding of the t iri-ow melons end cultures in the world.Implementing teaching strategies end mown-sie that help students to develop more posi-tive attitudes toward outguns and middleoutside the United Same.

Figure 8

From Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies, 4th edition,by James A. Banks. Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1987. Used with permission.

The term multicultural, like others such as multi-racial and multiethnic, help to describe this nation's historyof pluralism. Voluntary immigrants, primarily from Eu-ropean countries, continually enriched America's cul-tural diversity throughout the 19th century. At the turn ofthe century, the inscription upon the newlyerected Statueof Liberty summed up the past outreach to newcomers:"Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled massesyearning to breathe free."

Yet, pluralism had its limits. Xenophobia sweptthe country as free access to American shores ended. Evenbefore the inscription was placed on the Statue of Liberty,restrictions from certain countries already had begunand, by the end of World War I, nativists successfullyerected immigration quotas. The Immigration Act of 1917was designed to halt the immigration of Southeastern,Central and Eastern European groups. The ImmigrationAct of 1924 drastically limited the number of immigrantsthat could enter the United States from all European

nations, except those in Northern and Western Europe.White Anglo-Saxon Protestants, whose sociological tra-ditions and values in earlier times had been a prerequi-site for social acceptability, now were being threatenedby competing lifestyles and the sheer number of immi-grants. Cultural assimilation became less successful.Within the nation, African Americans (forcedimmigrants)and Native Americans (forced migrants), basically re-mained outsiders. The assimilationist idea of the "meltingpot," in which ethnicity and race are not important:dentities, deeply influenced American society. Yet, de-spite the persistence of this belief, ethnic differencescontinue to exist fo- several reasons, including discrimi-natory practices that prevent inclusion, the desire bysome groups to retain ethnic values, and continuingimmigration to the United States.

Cultural pluralism more closely describes thereality of our diversity today. Rather than a model forcultural assimilation as suggested by the "melting pot"

70

rr


metaphor, many see American societyresembl ing a "saladbowl," in which each cultural group contributes itsuniqueness to the total society while maintaining its owntraditions. Cultural pluralists not only accept culturaldiversity, they value its preservation.

Multiethnic theoristscaution against the extremesof cultural pluralism, however, when group rights andseparate ethnic values prevent a larger cultural unity. Insuch cases, they reject both extremes assimilation andcultural pluralism and prefer a middle ground. Thisthird position i s multiethnic ideology, which describes anopen society i n which both minorities and majorities haveequal opportunities to function and participate.

The ideas embodied in multiculturalism havecontributed to one of the most persistent social themes inUnited States history. Since the 1970s, cultural awarenesshas been on the rise, inspired by the civil rights movementand the struggle for equality for members of minoritygroups and majority group members such as PolishAmericans, Italian Americans and Swedish Americansseeking a greater knowledge of their past. Alex Haley'sRoots has added even greater credibility to the nation'sgrowing quest for individual as well as cultural roots.Haley's cynosure validates the search by every Ameri-can, not just his brethren of African descent. The currentidea, reform movement and process for multiculturaleducation rests upon the bedrock of interactive culturalpluralism or multiethnic ideology.

Other definitions also are important. For ex-ample, multiethnic educa tion depends upon the meaningof ethnicgroup,as it does upon a number of other concepts.Ethnic group usually is defined as an involuntary coilec-tive of people which shares feelings of common identity,unity and interdependence. Membership serves usefulfunctions, such as providing a network of preferredfriendships and institutions, a means to perpetrate cul-tural patterns, and a way to identify others. An additionalfactor is identity on the grounds of race, such as AfricanAmericans, Asian Americans and Latino Americans. Thestudy of the d ynamics of ethnic group rela tionsh ips helpsto explain some of the successes and failures in theAmericans' upwardly mobile quest for political and eco-nomic power..

GOALS AND THEMES

Multicultural education is a goal on both the national andlocal levels. It is a goal of the National Council for theSocial Studies (NCSS), which seeks to have impact bothon curriculum materials and the school environment,

The "Curriculum Guidelines for Multiethnic Education,"published in 1976 by NCSS, follow..

NCSS Multiethnic Guidelines

Ethnic pluralism should permeate the totalschool environment.School policies and procedures should fosterpositive multiethnic interactions and un-derstanding among students, teachers andthe support staff.The curriculum should reflect the ethniclearning styles of the students with the schoolcommunity.The multiethnic curriculum should providestudents with continuous opportunities todevelop a better sense of self.The curriculum should help students to un-derstand the totality of the experiences ofAmerican ethnic groups.The multiethnic curriculum should help stu-dents understand that there is always aconflict between ideals and realities in hu-man societies.The multiethnic curriculum should promotevalues, attitudes and behaviors which sup-port ethnic pluralism.The multiethnic curriculum should helpstudents develop their decision-makingabilities, social participation skillsand a senseof political efficacy as necessary bases foreffective citizenship in an ethnically plural-istic nation.The multiethnic curriculum should help stu-dents develop the skills necessary for effec-tive interpersonal and interethnic group in-teractions.The multiethnic curriculum should be com-prehensive in scope and sequence, shouldpresent holistic views of ethnic groups andshould be an integral part of the total schoolcurriculum.The multiethnic curriculum should includethecontinuous studyofthecultures ,historicalexperiences, social realities and existentialconditions of ethnic groups, including a va-riety of racial compositions.Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary ap-proaches should be used in designing andimplementing the multiethnic curriculum.

71

Pi 8

CITIZENSHIP AND MULTICULTURAL. EDUCATION CHAPTER 7

The curriculum should use comparative ap-proaches in the study of ethnic groups andethnicity.The cu rriculum sho uld help students to viewand interpret events, situations and conflictfrom diverse ethnic perspectives and pointsof view.The curriculum should conceptualize anddescribe the development of the United Statesas a multidirectional society.The curriculum should make maximum useof local community resources.

From "Curriculum Guidelinesfor Multiethnic Education,"

NC55, 1976. Used with permission.

As a corollary to multiethnic education, NCSS also em-phasizes global education (see page 14)..

Connecticut's Common Core of Learning

Connecticut's Common Core of Learning points out that "apositive sel f-imageand self-esteem are crucial to learning."Education for pluralistic values depends upon positiveattributes and attitudes, namely the idea ilia effectivelearning is enhanced by a student's positive self-concept,motivation and persistence, intellectual curiosity, inter-personal relations, a sense of community, plus moral andethical values. Content goals in the Common Core relatingto history and the social sciences emphasize studentunderstanding of "the roles played by various -acial,ethnic and religious groups in developing the nation'spluralistic society."

Goals and themes applicable to multiculturaleducation appear within this guide. Chapter 2 suggeststhat curriculums focusing on pluralism will draw from aknowledge base about this country, thinking skills tocreate and interpret meaning, and first-hand participa-tion. The sections in Chapter 2 about valuing and majorthemes also are useful for multicultural education. Thesethemes include cultural pluralism, continuity and change,community, culture, equal opportunity, freedom andjustice, human rights, interdependence,and world peace.

The key goal for multicultural education, accord-ing to James Banks, is to promote student problem solv-ing and tc. develop decision-making skills. Banks' modelfor multicultural education involves scientific, higher-level and interdisciplinary knowledge, from which thestudent identifies his or her values, determines the con-flict, identifies the value alternatives, and freely choosesthe alternatives. The student also freely accepts thepossible consequences of the action.

A Conceptual Curriculum Model

Banks' conceptual multiethnic curriculum model is inter-disciplinary. Thus, it draws knowledge from a combina-tion of traditional content areas. For example, the keyconcept of cuifurecan be enriched by comparing differentethnic groups in social studies, examining samples fromliterature in language artc, and gaining different perspec-tives through the study of music, drama, art and science.

Banks' curriculum model begins with lower-level empirical statements about limited phenomena -orfacts - such as, "In 1981, 55,600 Vietnamese immigrantscame to the United States." Facts must be subject to proofand not normative or value statements. Concepts follow,i.e., words or phrases which categorize or classify a largenumber of factual observations such as assimilation, ac-culturation, discrimination and power. Immigration,another example, will be supported by a number of facts,such as the number of Vietnamese immigrants admittedin 1981 (above).

Key concepts appropriate for multicultural in-struction in social studies areas follow.

Historyimmigrationmigrationcontinuity and change

Geographylocationplacemovementhuman/environmental interactionsregions

Anthropologydiversityacculturationassimilationculturelanguage

Psychologyself-conceptperceptionindividual differenceattitudes

Sociologyethnic groupdiscriminationprejudicevaluesfamily

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communityintergroup relationships

Governmentpowerrules and lawcitizenshipresponsibilitydecision making

Economicsscarcityopportunity/costunemploymentinterdependence

Generalizations comprise two or more conceptsthat share a relationship. Similar to facts, they can beverified. Generalizations may summarize a large num-ber of facts. They may be a lower level of generalization,such as, "Chinese immigrants in America establishedvarious forms of social organization," or a higher level ofgeneralization, such as, "Forms of social organizationsemerge in all human societies."

Theory is the highest level of knowledge in theBanks' continuum and the most useful in predictinghuman behavior. Theory, therefore, is the ultimate goalof the multiethnic model. Theory is the final step in thedeductive process, just as the thesis is for the inquirymodel in science and social studies. The conceptualmodel for developing a lesson or series of lessons onmigration - illustrated below begins with the requiredknowledge base. Appendix H (Developing AMulticultural Curriculum) shows how a multiculturalunit on migration can be developed using the full di-mensions of the multicultural definition and by combiningpedagogy with the necessary content and skills.

Conceptual Model for Developinga Lesson or Unit on Migration

Concept: Migration

Key Generalization: People migrate voluntarilyor involuntarily for many of reasons, and economics isone.

Intermediate Generalizations: Most ethnicgroups came to the United States voluntarily and movedwithin it to improve their economic conditions. However,some ethnic groups either were forced to come to theUnited States or were forced to move from one region toanother.

Lower-Level Generalizations: Puerto Ricanvoluntary migration to the United States often has re-flected economic trends. American Indians were forciblyremoved from their lands within the United States aswhite settlers moved west. During the early history of theUnited States, African Americans were forcibly broughtas slaves to support labor needs. In the late 1800s, ChineseAmericans voluntarily immigrated to the United Statesseeking better economic opportunity.

Goals and themes also maybe written in terms ofstudent outcomes. These goals are designed to examinethe underlying theory that cultural differences do notimply cultural deficiencies. Some goals might include:

understanding self and others acting within acultural context;recognizing cultural diversity within theUnited States and the world;understanding how group membership con-tributes to value, attitude and behavioral de-termination;understanding the interrelationship of dis-crimination, bias, prejudice and stereotyping;anddemonstrating and employing skills for ef-fective social interaction among different ra-cial, cultural, ethnic, religious, gender andexceptionality factors.

CONTENT: CURRICULUM APPROACHES

Multicultural education is a perspective, not a discipline.It is inappropriate, therefore, to look at multiculturaleducation in terms of a scope and sequence traditionallypresented from a discipline point of view. For this reason,understanding the various curriculum approaches andinterdisciplinary alternatives is fundamental in viewingmulticultural education as a reform movement that canhave a significant impact on the curriculum of a school.Banks identifies several approaches to integrating ethniccontent into the curriculum that has evolved since the1960s. The following information on the various ap-proaches is adapted with permission from MulticulturalEducation: Issues and Perspectives (1989), Allyn and Bacon,by James A. Banks and Cherry A. McGee-Banks..

Contributions Approach

The contributions approach to integration is among thoseused most frequently and often is used extensively dur-ing the first phase of an ethnic revival movement. This

73 r,


approach is cha racterized by the addition of ethnic heroesor heroines into the curriculum. The mainstream curricu-lum would remain unchanged in terms of its basic struc-ture, goals and salient characteristics.

The famous peopk and holidays approach is a variantof the contributions approach. In this approach, ethniccontent is limited primarily to special days, weeks andmonths related to ethnic events and celebrations. ThreeKings Day, Hanukkah, Martin Luther King's Birthday,Puerto Rican Discovery Day and Black History Month areexamples of ethnic observances that are celebrated in theschools. During these celebrations, teachers involve stu-dents in lessons, experiences and pageants related to theethnic holiday or observance. When this approach isused, the class studies little or nothing about the ethnicgroups before or after the special event.

The contributions approach is the easiest way forteachers to integrate the core curriculum with ethniccontent. However, it has several serious limitations.Students do not attain a global view of the role of ethnicand cultural groups in U.S. society. Rather, they seeethnic issues and events primarily as an addition to thecurriculum and, consequently, as an appendage to themain story of thedevelopment of the nation. The teachingof ethnic issues with the use of famous people, holidaysand contributions also tends to gloss over importantconcepts and issues related to the victimization and op-pression of ethnic groups and their struggles againstracism and for power. Issues such as racism, poverty andoppression tend to be evaded in thecontributions approachto curriculum integration. The focus, rather, tends to beon success and validation of the Horatio Alger myth thatevery American who is willing to work hard can go fromrags to riches and pull himself or herself up by thebootstraps.

The contributions approach often results in thetrivialization of ethnic cultures, the study of their obscureand exotic characteristics, and the reinforcement of ste-reotypes and misconceptions. With this focus, studentsare not helped to understand these cultures as completeand dynamic wholes..

Additive Approach

Another important approach to the integration of ethniccontent is the addition of content, concepts, themes andperspectives to the curriculum without changing its basicstructure, purposes and characteristics. The additive ap-proach often is accomplished by the addition of a book,unit or course to the curriculum without changing itsubstantially.

The additive approach allows teachers to insertethnic content without restructuring the curriculum, aprocess that would take substantial time, effort, trainingand rethinking as to purposes, nature and goals. Theadditive approach can be the first phase in a more radicalcurriculum reform effort designed to restructure the totalcurriculum and integrate it with ethnic content, per-spectives and frames of reference. This approach, how-ever, shares several disadvantages with the contributionsapproach. The most important shortcoming is that itusually results in the viewing of ethnic content from theperspectives of mainstream historians, writers, artistsand scientists, because it does not involve a restructuringof the curriculum.

The events, concepts, issues and problems arcselected for study through the use of mainstream centricand Eurocentric criteria and perspectives. When teach-ing a unit such as "The Westward Movement" in a fifthgrade class, the teacher may integrate the unit by addingcontent about the Lakota (Sioux) Indians. However, theunit remains mainstream centric and focused because ofits perspective and point of view. "The WestwardMovement" unit is both mainstream centric andEurocentric because of its focus on the movement ofEuropean Americans from the eastern to the western partof the United States. The Lakota Indians were already inthe West and, consequently, were not moving west. Theunit might be called, "The Invasion from the East," fromthe point of view of the Lakota. An objective title for theunit might be, 'Two Cultures Meet in the Americas."

The additive approach also fails to help students toview society from diverse culturaland ethnic perspectivesand to understand the ways in which the histories andcultures of the nation's di verse ethnic, racial, cultural andreligious groups are inextricably bound..

Transformation Approach

The transformation approach differs fundamentally fromthe contributions and additive approaches. Transformationchanges the basic assumptions of the curriculum andenables students to view concepts, issues, themes andproblems from several ethnic perspectives and points ofview. The key curriculum issue involved in the transfor-mation approach is not the addition of a long list of ethnicgroups, heroes or heroines, and contributions, but ratherthe infusion of perspectives, frames of reference, andcontent from various groups that will extend studentunderstandings of the nature, development and com-plexity of U.S. society. When students are studying therevolution in the British colonies, the perspectives of theAnglo revolutionaries, Anglo loyalists, Afro-Americans,

CMZENSHIP AND MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION CHAPTER 7

Native Americans and the British all are essential in orderto attain a thorough understanding of this significantevent in U.S. history.

When studying U.S. history, language, music,arts, science and mathematics, the emphasis should notbe on the ways in which various ethnic and culturalgroups have contributed to mainstream U.S. society andculture. The emphasis, rather, should be on how thecommon U.S. culture and society emerged from a complexsynthesis and interaction of the diverse cultural elementsthat originated within the various cultural, racial, ethnicand religious groups that make up American society.One of the ironies of conquest is that those who areconquered often have a deep influence on the cultures ofthe conquerors..

Decision-Making andSocial Participation Approach

This approach includes all of the elements of the trans-formation approach but adds components that requirestudents to make decisions and take actions related to theconcept, issue or problem they have studied in the unit. Inthis approach, students might study a social problemsuch as, ""What actions should we take to reduce prejudiceand discrimination in our school?" They would gatherpertinent data, analyze their values and beliefs, synthe-size their knowledge and values, identify alternativecourses of action, and then decide what, if any, actionsthey would take to reduce prejudice and discrimination.Major goals of the decision-making and social participationapproach are to teach students thinking and decision-making skills, empower them and help them acquire asense of political efficacy.*

Mixing and Blending the Approaches

The four approaches to integrating ethnic con tent into thecurriculum often are mixed and blended in actual teach-ing situations. The contributions approach also can be usedas a vehicle to move toward other more intellectuallychallengingapproaches, such as the transformation and thedecision-making and social participation approaches. It isnot realistic to expect a teacher to move directly from ahighly mainstream centric curriculum to one that focuseson decision making and social participation. Rather, themove from the first to higher levels of ethnic contentintegration into the curriculum is likely to be gradual andcumulative as shown in right column from Ba'nks, 1990.

Appendix H illustrates one way to apply several curricu-lum approaches to a unit on migration.

For instruction to move beyond the contributionsapproach, teachers must be armed with knowledge. Tak-ing courses that focus on content knowledge of specificethnic groups is an essential first step.

Adapted from Multicultural EducatumIssues and Perspectit1/2,, by taws A

and Cherry A. McGee Ranks. Allyn and Bacon, 1989.Adapted and used with permission.

Levels of Integration of Ethnic Content

Level 1, contributions approach - focuses on fa-mous people, holidays and discrete cultural ele-ments.

Level 2, additive approach - content, concepts,themes and perspectives are added to the cur-riculum without changing its structure.

Level 3, transformation approach - the structure ofthe curriculum is changed to enable students toview concepts, issues, events and themes fromthe perspective of diverse ethnic and culturalgroups.

Level 4, decision-making and social participationapproach - students make decisions on importantsocial issues and engage in participatory activi-ties to help solve them..

Adapted from "Approaches to Multicultural Curriculum Reform,"James A. Banks. Multicultural Leader, 14,40

Used with permiscion.

Interdisciplinary Alternatives

The choice of content for multicultural education en-compasses the breadth of our national experience.Multicultural education is a perspective necessary areform the social studies and, in fact, all disciplines.

Students will gain a global understanding of aconcept such as culture only by viewing ethnic culturesfrom the perspectives of a variety of disciplines. Thestrategy to "dump" responsibility for multiculturaleducation on a single discipline such as the social studiesclearly is inappropriate if students are to understand thefull dimensions of culture. Curriculum planners need totake strong action to encompass the total school envi-ronment.


The following list of disciplines and key or focusquestions adapted from Banks (1987) will serve to illus-trate how various disciplines can contribute to studentunderstanding of culture.

Social Studies. In what ways are the cultures ofethnic groups such as Afro-Americans, JewishAmericans, and Mexican Americans similar anddifferent? Why?

Reading and Literature. How do the fiction andother literary works by American ethnic authorsreveal characteristics and components of theircultures?

Music. What does the music of an ethnic groupreveal about its values, symbols and culture?

Drama. What do plays written by ethnic authorsreveal about their cultures?

Physical Education. How do ethnic groups ex-press their cultures, values, aspirations andfrustrations in their dances and creative move-ments?

Art. What does the art of an ethnic group revealabout its lifestyles, perceptions, values, historyand culture?

Language Arts. How does the language of anethnic group express and reflect its values andculture? What can we learn about an ethnicgroup by studying its symbols and communica-tion styles, both verbal and nonverbal?

Home Economics. What do ethnic foods revealabout arr, ethnic group's vai ues and culture? Whatcan we learn about an ethnic culture by studyingits foods?

Science. How do the physical characteristics ofan ethnic group influence its interactions withother groups, intragroup relationships and itstotal culture?

Mathematics. What is the relationship betweenthe number system used within a society and itsculture? What do the symbol systems within aculture reveal about it? Historically, what con-tributions have different ethnic groups made toour number system?

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Language. How does language contribute tomaintaining the culture of the ethnic group?

Health. How do the cultural values of an ethnicgroup influence decisions on health?

Adapted from Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies,by James A. Banks. Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1987.


Ethnic Group Alternatives

Another curriculum alternative considers the full rangeof ethnic groups within the United States. Making deci-sionson which groups should be included in the curricu-lum ultimately will be made by the teachers involved,using both social and value knowledge, that is, bothcognitive and affective knowledge. Thus, value judg-ments a re inseparable from content. For the same reason,the study of a cultural group in isolation for chronologicalpurposes, with interaction along the continuum, riskstokenism and an unrealistic social compartmentalization.Suggestions that follow indicate possible content-relatedtopics for the study of ethnic groups or groupings ac-cording to the conceptual model described earlier.

African AmericansSlave TradeColonization MovementCivil War and ReconstructionWorld War 1Black OrganizationsCivil Rights Movement

American IndiansOrigins of American IndiansDiversity of Indian Cul h.-2sTreaties and Indian Rt., ivalFederal Indian PolicyFishing Rights and Land Claims

Chinese AmericansImmigration East to WestImmigration RestrictionChinatowns

Cuban AmericansThe Cuban RevolutionImmigration to the U.S.Adaptation to American Life

53


European Ethnic CroupsThe Spanish in the AmericasEnglish ColonizationEarly European ImmigrationAnglo-Saxon Cultural DominanceSouthern and Eastern European Immi-grantsEthnic RevivalAssimilation

Filipino AmericansImmigration East to West

Indochinese AmericansPeoples and Cultures of IndochinaThe Vietnamese EvacuationRefugee CampsCultural Adjustment in the U.S.

Japanese AmericansImmigration East to WestInternment

Jewish AmericansHistorical RootsGerman-Jewish ImmigrationRise of Anti-SemitismThe New ImmigrationThe HolocaustZionism

Mexican AmericansThe Spanish ConquestMexican-American WarMigration North from MexicoChicano Movement

Puerto RicansEthnic Heritage: Taino Indian, Africanan SpanishUnited States RuleCommonwealth of Puerto RicoMigration to U.S. MainlandMainland Puerto Rican CommunityThe Status Question

INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES

In a curriculum area based upon value-laden interdisci-plinary content, and in which the object is for students todevelop decision-making skills, the teaching environ-ment will need to be receptive. Students will question,

investigate and decide upon statistical social data as wellas their own personal feelings and reactions. Groundrules will need to allow the teacher to be an involvedobserver, cultural mediator and change agent.

Chapter 4 covered a host of appropriate instruc-tional skills. Questioning, group interaction, cooperativelearning, case studies and role-playing are just a few.Decision-making skills, however, should be reflective,meaning that students not only evaluate the evidencebased upon given data, but are prepared to resolve per-sonal problems and then act upon the solutions. Theresulting scientific inquiry model closely approximatesthat appropriated for the "new" social studies in the1960s.

A brief illustration in James Banks' MultiethnicEducation (1988) adapts reflective decision making to asample teaching unit. The question in this unit is whetheror not racial integration should be a goal in a pluralisticdemocratic nation or, rephrased, "What action should wetake regarding integration?"

An infinite number of hypotheses may be pro-posed. One example is, "If minorities are required tomeet qualifications similar to whites, then most institu-tions will remain predominately white." Key conceptswill need to be defined, such as discrimination, assimi-lation, powerlessness and separatism. The concepts,supporting facts and different levels of generalizationshould be drawn from several disciplines. The exami-nation will show students the highly volatile nature of theevidence. Teachers may choose to present readings fromopposite positions and then ask students to analyze theevidence.

Teaching strategy not only calls for social inquiryfrom existing external data, but requires an inquiry into ateacher'sown valuesand attitudes regarding multiculturalinteraction. Banks suggests several alternatives. Mem-bers of small groups may defend or reject one positionencountered during their study forced busing, interra-cial marriage, reverse discrimination or interracial dating

and then discuss those opinions in the larger group.Students then would be asked to identify alter-

native courses of action and list possible consequences.The alternatives may include further study projects,classroom activities, school wi de projects, or communityand townwide activities. At this point, if not earlier,participating learners have an ownership in the proposedsolutions and consequences. Moreover, when reassess-ment of these social hypotheses and solutions occur,students will be engaged in one of the ultimate socialstudies goals, that of developing thinking skills.

A logical starting point for young children toexperience multicultural activities is to connect all ac-tivities to individual students and their families. Using

77


culture as a conceptual theme, these activities then shouldbe extended to place children and families within thebroader context of their communities. All multiculturalactivities should be concrete and centered on the dailylives of children and their families, and may includelanguages used by children and their families, values,how families feed themselves, the work that familymembers do in and out of the home and the variouscompositions of different families. Such activities, whilehelping children to understand and appreciate their owncultures, also will help them to understand that everyoneha sa culture and that there are similarities and differenceswithin ethnic groups, as well as among different ethnicgroups of various cultures.

For younger children, multicultural activitiesshould permeate the daily classroom experiences, con-necting such learning and acti vity cen ters and curriculumareas as language arts, mathematics, science, art andothers. For example, photographs may be used to makebooks about individual children, their families andcommunities. This may lay the foundation for readingabout children and families beyond the immediate en-vironment. Children may deal with various types ofmeasurement when preparing food or dealing with d is-tancesas they develop rnapsof their communities. Variousartifacts used by different ethnic groups may be placed inthe drama ti c play area, e.g., cooking utensils, everyday orceremonial clothing, and other aetifacts.

Multicultural education frequently involvesstrategies for prejudice reduction, and teachers may wantto seek further in-service training on related theories,research and strategies. Another problem for adminis-trators and teachers is that mainstream thinking suggestsall ethnic newcomers must conform to the universalvalues of the common culture and he committed to itsideology, as opposed to helping t, idents to functioneffectively within the common culture as well as theirown and other ethnic cultures. Teachers must viewsociety from diverse ethnic perspectives rather than justthat of the common culture..


In a society where diversity abounds, locating suitablecurriculum materials can be a challenge. Further com-plicating the challenge is thefact that many materials maynot be readily obtained from major education publishers.A combination of materials drawn from major publishersand the skill of the teacher in using student and commu-nity resources is the best solution.

Many of the best resources are found throughprofessional and ethnic organizations that either publishmaterials or develop bibliographies. One of the bestpublications that lists and reviews current ethnic litera-ture is The Bulletin, published quarterly by the Council onInterracial Books for Children. The Anti-DefamationLeague of B'nai B'rith and the Japanese American Cur-riculum Project also are known for their multiculturalresources appropriate for use in the nation's schools. InMay of each year Social Education, the official journal ofthe National Council for the Social Studies, publishes asupplement on children's books. Teachers also are urgedto read reviews in magazines and newspapers and tobrowse in bookstores that specialize in children's books.James A. Banks, in Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies,Fifth Edition (1990), offers a comprehensive listing of ap-propriate student and teacher books for ethnic groups.Finally, the school or district media specialist is an invalu-able resource for locating appropriate multicultural ma-terials.

Guidelines for selection also can be useful (seeChapter 5). In addition, Banks (1987) offers the followinggeneral guidelines for selecting ethnic studies materials:

78

Books and other materials should accuratelyportray the perspectives, atti tudes and feelingsof ethnic groups.Fictional works should have strong ethniccharacters.Books should describe settings and experi-ences with which all students can identify andyet accurately reflect ethnic cultures andlifestyles.The protagonists in books with ethnic themesshould have ethnic characteristics but shouldface conflicts and problems that are universalto all cultures and groups.The illustrations in books should be accurate,ethnically sensi tive and technically well done.Ethnic materials should not contain racistconcepts, clichés, phrases or words.Factual materials should be historically ac-curate.Multiethnic resources and basal textbooksshould discuss major events and documentsrelated to ethnic history.

Adapted from Teaching Strategies for EthnicStudies, by Jame,. A Flank,.. Allyn and Bacon, 1gS7

Used with perritilston.


Curriculum developers are responsible for selecting ma-terials based upon local goals, student needs, financialconstraints, and the expertise and support of the teachingstaff. Preparing to select materials with a multiculturalperspective may require additional expertise in order toensure the use of resources that accurately portray ourdiverse society..

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATIONAND EVALUATION

Curriculum commit tees should not undertake lightly theimplementation of multicultural education. By the verynature of the social studies, multicultural content andattitudes exist throughout the curri cul um, whether in tro-duced by inference, by way of teacher interest, or inten-tionally within a given course. Past experience showsthat ethnic studies frequently come as an addition to thecurriculum separate from the mainstream, such as in thestudy of unique customs and/or in the celebration ofcultural holidays.

Old assumptions have to be questioned whenthey are viewed as a process for curriculum reform. Iscurrent teaching of Western societies presented from themainstream perspective, i.e., a Eurocentric perspective?is no other frame of reference considered, and are no non-Western courses added? If so, what are the implicationsof these traditional approaches?

The traditional Western course selection, plusadditions such as African, Asian and/or black studies isanother common practice. The risk in this methodologyis that the additions are per..:eived from the sameEurocentric perspective: African or Asian cultures beingmeasured by Western standards.

A third model, the multiethnic approach, dealsdifferently with course content. Courses employ relativelysimilar concepts, thews, issuesand events. When studiedtogether, they are elfaluated on a conceptual rather thanan ethnocentric basis. Banks suggests a fourth model,which he calls "the ultimate goal in curriculum reform."That is the ethnonational model, in which students viewconcepts from the perspective of various groups withdifferent nations.

Implementation and evaluation are at Ppt .siteends of the curriculum development process. But actually,

79

they come together, because implementation should trig-ger the evaluation process. If a school is to respondseriously to the multicultural curriculum needs of stu-dents and society, it must constantly examine character-istics that create a multicultural school..

Connecticut Curriculum Recommendations

The six findings published in 1990 by Connecticut'sGovernor's Commission on Quality and Integrated Edu-cation are important to consider. The second finding- "Aquality education requires an integrated student bodyand faculty and a curriculum that reflects the heritage ofmany cultures" contained the following recommenda-tions:

Educational goals and the school environ-ment must welcome and accommodate inte-grated education;The curriculum should impart an expectationthat all students will become successful learn-ers;The curriculum, both written and informal,should be multicultural, reflecting the heri-tage of many cultures;Instructional materials and library collectionstoo must mirror the heritage of many cultures;In appraising the education of all our chil-dren, we must use appropriate assessments;Schools should supplement a muiticul -turalenvironment with complementary assemblyprograms, field trips, etc.; andThe school leadership must remain open andresponsive to constructive proposals fromstaff, parents and their organizations.

In the final analysis, as reflected in the curricul umrecommendations above,implementationof multiculturaleducation needs parent and community involvement.Parents and community leaders validate educational re-form, spread ideas, and provide the essential underpin-ning for continued success. Education is not the teacher'sjob alone; parental support for multicultural school re-form increases the likelihood for success..


References

Baldwin, James. "A Talk to Teachers." The Price of theTicket. New York: St. Martin's/lvlarek, 1985.

Banks, James A., and Banks, Cherry A. McGee, editors.Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives. Boston:Allyn and Bacon, 1989.

Banks, James A. Multiethnic Education: Theory and Prac-tice, Second Edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1988.

Banks, James A. Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies, FifthEdition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990.

Banks, James A. "Approaches to Multicultural Curricu-lum Reform." Multicultural Leader, 1990 1(2): 1-3.

Connecticut's Governor's Commission on Quality andIn teg,1 ated Education. Crossing the Bridge to Equality andExcellence: A Vision of Quality and Integrated Educationfor Connecticut. Hartford, CT: 1990.

ConnecticutState Department of Education. Connecticut'sCommon Core of Learning, Hartford, CT: ConnecticutState Department of Education, 1987.

National Council for the Social Studies. "CurriculumGuidelines for Multiethnic Education," Washington,DC: NCSS, 1976.

Resources

Banks, James A. "The Battle Over the Canon: CulturalDiversity and Curriculum Reform." Allyn and Bacon'sEducator's Forum, Volume 1. Boston: Allyn and Bacon,Fall 1989.

Bennett, Christine 1. Comprehensive Multicultural Educa-tion, Second Edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990.

Iowa Department of Education. A Guide to DevelopingMulticultural, Nonsexist E ducation Across the Curricul um .Des Moines, IA: Iowa Department of Education, 1989.

Seefeldt, Carol. Social Studies for the Preschool-PrimaryChild, Second Edition. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill,1984.

Tied t, Pamela L., and Tieclt, Iris M. Multicultural Teaching:A Handbook of Activities, Information and Resources, ThirdEdition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990.

80 C,7

APPENDIX A

LEGISLATION

This series of guides to curriculum development, pub-lished by the State of Connecticut Board of Education,is consistent with the provisions of Sections 10-4 and 10-16b of the Connecticut General Statutes.

Section 70-4. Duties of Board. (a) . . . shallprepare such courses of study and publishsuch curriculum guid es ... as it determinesare necessary to assist school districts tocarry out the duties prescribed by law ...

Section 10-16b. Prescribed courses of study.(a) In the public schools the program ofinstruction offered shall include at leastthe following subject matter, as taught bylegally qualified teachers: the arts; careereducation; consumer education; healthand safety, including, but not limited to,human growth and develor:nent, nutri-tion, first aid, disease prevention, com-munity and consumer health, physical,mental and emotional health, includingyouth suicide prevention, substance abuseprevention and safety and accident pre-vention; language arts, including read-ing, writing, grammar, speaking andspelling; mathematics; physical education;science; social studies, including, but notlimited to, citizenship, economics, geog-raphy, government and history; and inaddition, on at least the secondary level,one or more foreign languages and voca-tional erhcation....

(c) Each local and regional board of educa-tion shall on September 1,1982, and annu-ally thereafter at such time and in suchmanner as the commissioner of educationshall request, attest to the State Board ofEducation that such local or regional boardof education offers at least the program ofinstruction required pursuant to this sec-tion, and that such program of instructionis planned, ongoing and systematic.

(d) The State Board of Education shallmake available curriculum materials andsuch other materials as may assist localand regional boards of education in de-

veloping instructional programs pursu-ant to this section.

Instruction related to United States history,government and duties and responsibilities of citizen-ship shall be provided consistent with the provisions ofSection 10-18 of the Connecticut General Statutes.

Section 10-18. Courses in United States his-tory, government and duties and responsi-bilities of citizenship. (a) All high, prepa-ratory secondary and elementary schools,public or private, whose property is ex-empt from taxation, shall provide a pro-gram of United States history, includinginstruction in United States governmentat the local, state and national levels, aialin the duties, responsibilities, and rightsof United States citizenship. No studentshall be graduated from any such schoolwho has not been found to be familiarwith said subjects.

(b) Th. State Board of Education shall,upon request by a board of education.make samples of materials available foruse in the schools required to teach thecourses provided for in this section, withsupplementary materials for such use.

Textbooks and other general instructional ma-terials used by local or regional boards of educationmust be consistent with the provisions of Section 10-18aof the Connecticut General Statutes.

Section 10-18a. Content of textbooks andother general instructional materials. Exceptwhere a legitimate educational purposewill otherwise be served, each local orregional board of education shall; in se-lecting textbooks and other general in-structional materials select those whichaccurately present the achievements andaccomplishments of individuals andgroups from all ethnic and racial back-grounds and of both sexes. Nothing hereinshall preclude the use of instructional ma-terial and teaching ..hich emphasizes thetraditional family structure.

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LEGISLATION AFFENDIX A

Students graduating from high school mustcomplete three years of social studies instruction con-sistent with the provisions of Section 10-Ma. of theConnecticut General Stahites.

Section 10-221a. High school graduation re-quirements. Report required of State Board ofEducation. (a) Commencing with classesgraduating in 1988, and for each graduat-ing class thereafter, no local or regionalboard of education shall permit any stu-dent to graduate from high school or granta diploma to any student who has notsatisfactorily completed a minimum oftwenty credits ... not fewer than three insocial studies . . . . Determination of eli-gible credits shall be at the discretion ofthe local or regional board of education,provided the primary focus of the curricu-lum of eligible credits corresponds di-rectly to the subject ma tter of the specifiedcourse requirements. These requirementsshall apply to any student requiring spe-cial education pursuant to Section 10-76a,except when the planning and placementteam for such student determines the re-quirement not to be appropriate. For pur-poses of this section, a credit shall consistof not less than the equivalent of a forty-minute class period for each school day of

82

a school year except for a credit or part ofa credit toward high school graduationearned at an institution accredited by theDepartment of Higher Education or re-gionally accredited. Only courses takenin grades nine through twelve, inclusive,shall satisfy this graduation requirement,except that a local or regional board ofeducation may grant a student credit (1)toward meeting a specified course re-quirement upon the successful comple-tion in grade seven or eight of any course,the primary focus of which correspondsdirectly to the subject matter of a specifiedcourse requirement in grades nine totwelve, inclusive; or (2) toward meetingthe high school graduation requirementupon the successful completion ofcoursework at an institution accreditedby the Department of Higher Educationor regionally accredited. One three - creditsemester course, or its equivalent, at suchan institution shall equal one-half creditfor purposes of this section. Notwith-standing the grant of such credit, eachsuch student shall complete at least twentycredits in grades nine to twelve, inclusive,successfully. The State Board of Ed uca-tion shall assist local and regional boardsof education in meeting the requirementsof this section.

APPENDIX B

STATEWIDE EDUCATIONAL GOALS

FOR STUDENTS 1991-1995Goal One: Motivation to Learn

Students must be motivated to learn and to respond to thehigh expectations of their parents, teachers and schooladministrators and to their own inherent need to growand develop. Connecticut public school students will:

develop self-understanding and a positiveself-concept;understand and strive to fulfill their own per-sonal aspirations;develop positive feelings of self-worth whichcontribute to self-reliance, responsible behav-ior, personal growth, health and safety;demonstrate strong motivation and persis-tence to learn; andexhibit an inquisitive attitude, open-mindedness and curiosity.

Goal Two: Mastery of the Basic Skills

Proficiency in the basic skills is essential for acquiringknowledge and for SUCCei.;:3 in our society. Connecticutpublic school students will:

learn to communicate effectively in speechand writing;listen, view and read with understanding;acquire knowledge of and ability in math-ematics;demonstrate skills necessary to locate andeffectively use a variety of sou rces of informa-tion, including print materials, media, com-puters and other technology;demonstrate decision-making, reasoning andproblem-solving skills alone and in groups;anddemonstrate good study skills and skills nec-essary for lifelong learning.

Goal Three: Acquisition of Knowledge

Acquiring knowledge leads to fuller realization of indi-vidual potential and contributes to responsible citizen-ship. Connecticut public school students will:

acquire the knowledge of science and technol-ogy, mathematics, history, social sciences, thecreative and performing arts, literature andlanguages;acquire the knowledge necessary to use com-puters and other technologies for learningand problem solving;acquire an understanding and appreciation ofthe values and the intellectual and artisticachievements of their culture and other cul-tures; andtake full advantageof opportunitiestoexplore,develop and express their own uniquenessand creativity.

Goal Four: Competence in Life Skills

As adults, students will be challenged to function suc-cessfully in multiple roles as a citizen, family member.parent, worker and consumer. Connecticut public schoolstudents will:

demonstrate an ability to make informed ca-reer choices;understand the responsibilities of familymembership and parenthood;demonstrate the ability to undertake the re-sponsibilities of citizenship in their commu-nities, in the state, in the nation and the world;understand human growth and development,the functions of the body, human sexualityand the lifelong value of physical fitness;understand and apply the basic elements ofproper nutrition, avoidance of substanceabuse, prevention and treatment of illnessand management of stress;understand and develop personal goals andaspirations; andupon completion of a secondary-level pro-gram, demonstrate the skills, knowledge andcom petenee required for success in meaningfulemployment, and be qualified to enterpostsecondary education.

83 80

STATEWIDE EDUCATIONAL GOALS FOR STUDENTS 1991-1995 APPENDIX B

Goal Five: Understanding Society's Values

As responsible citizens, students will enrich their family,community and culture and create equal opportunity forall persons to participate in and derive the benefi ts of theirsociety. Connecticut public school students will:

respect and appreciate diversity;understand the inherent strengths in a plu-ralistic society;recognize the necessity for moral and ethicalconduct in society;understand and respond to the vital need fororder under law;

acquire the knowledge to live in harmonywith the environment, and actively practiceconservation of natural resources;respect the humanity trey share with otherpeople and live and work in harmony withothers;acquire and apply an understanding and ap-preciation of the values and achievements oftheir own culture and other cultures; andshow understanding of international issueswhich affect life on our planet and demonstrateskills needed to participate in a global society.

From Challenge For Excellence: Connecticut's ComprehensionPlan for Elementary, Secondary, Vocational, Career and Adult

Education: A Policy Plan 1991-1995.Connecticut State Board of Education, April 1990.

841

APPENDIX C

ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES

FOR SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATIONThis section contains the names and addresses of selectednational and state organizations and agencies that canprovide information and assistance to curriculum devel-opers and teachers of social studies. Also included is a listof selected periodicals that provide information aboutnew developments in the social studies field. A list ofregional educational service centers in ConnecScut also isincluded.

For Connecticut resource information on histori-cal museums, libraries and depositories, research/ser-vice organizations and other teacher resource services.see Connecticut History and Culture: An Histo rical Overviewand Resource Guide for Teachers, Connecticut HistoricalCommission, 59 Prospect St., Hartford, Cf 06106.

Categories and subdivisions in this appr ndix areas follows:

State and National Organizations and Profes-sional Associations

Social Studies GeneralSocial Studies Content AreasSocial Studies Topics

National and State PeriodicalsRegional Educational Service Centers

State and National Organizationsand Professional Associations

Social Studies General

Connecticut Council for the Social StudiesP.O. Box 9122Bolton, CT 06043

National Council for the Social Studies3501 Newark St., NWWashington, DC 20016

Social Science Education Consortium3300 Mitchell LaneBoulder, CO 80301

Social Studies Development CenterERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/

Social Science EducationIndiana University2805 East 10th St.Bloomington, IN 47408

Social Studies Content Areas

Anthropology

American Anthropological Association1703 New Hampshire Ave., NWWashington, DC 20009

Economics

Connecticut Joint Council on Economic EducationUniversity of ConnecticutOne Bishop CircleBox U-55Storrs, CT 06268

Joint Council on Economic Education2 Park Ave.New York, NY 10016

Junior Achievement, Inc.55 Halfway House RoadWindsor Locks, CT 06096

Geography

Association of American Geographers1710 16th St., NWWashington, DC 20009

Connecticut Geographic AllianceUniversity of Connecticut, U -14.8Department of Geography354 Mansfield RoadStorrs, CT 06268

ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES FOR SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION APPENDIX C

National Council for Geographic EducationIndiana University of PennsylvaniaIndiana, PA 15705

National Geographic Society17th and M Streets NWWashington, DC 20036

Government Citizenship and Political Science

American Civil Liberties Union132 West 43rd St.New York, NY 10036

Center for Civic Education5115 Douglas Fir Ave.Calabasas, CA 91302

Close Up Foundation44 Canal PlazaAlexandria, VA 22314

Connecticut Consortium for Law-Related EducationOffice of the Attorney General110 Sherman St.Hartford, Cr 06105

Council for the Advancement of CitizenshipOne Dupont CircleWashington, DC 20036

Office of the Secretary of the State210 Capitol Ave.Hartford, Cr 06106

League of Women Voters of the United States1730 M St., NWWashington, DC 20036

League of Women Voters of ConnecticutSuite 1131890 Dixwell Ave.Hamden, Cr 06514

Special Committee on Youth Education for CitizenshipAmerican Bar Association1155 East 60th St.Chicago, IL 60637

The American Historical Association400 A St., SEWashington, DC 20003

Bradley Commission on History in Schools26915 Westwood Road, Suite A-2Westlake, OH 44145

Mershon CenterOhio State University199 West 10th Ave.Columbus, OH 43201

Association for the Study of Connecticut HistoryCenter for Connecticut StudiesEastern Connecticut State UniversityWillimantic, Cr 06226

Center for Connecticut StudiesEastern Connecticut State UniversityWillimantic, CT 06226

Center for Oral HistoryUniversity of ConnecticutU-103Storrs, CT 06268

Connecticut Historical Commission59 South Prospect St.Hartford, CT 06106

The Connecticut Historical Society1 Elizabeth St.Hartford, Cr 06105

Institute of Local HistoryManchester Community CollegeManchester, Cr 06040

Organization of American Historians112 N. Bryan St.Bloomington, IN 47401

Humanities

Connecticut Humanities Council41 Lawn Ave.Wesleyan StationMiddletown, Cr 06457

National Endowment for the Humanities1100 Pennsylvania Ave., NWWashington, DC 20506

Psychology

American Psychological Association1200 17th St., NWWashington, DC 20036

86

3

ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES FOR SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCKL AON APPENDIX C

Sociology

American Sociological Association1772 N St., NWWashington, DC 20036

Social Studies Topics

International Studies

African-American Institute866 United Nations PlazaNew York, NY 10017

The Asia Society725 Park Ave,New York, NY 10021

Center for Teaching International RelationsUniversity of DenverDenver, CO 80208

Yale Center for International and Area StudiesOutreach Programs

Yale University Box 13 A85 Trumbull St.New Haven, CT 06520

Educators for Social Responsibility23 Garden St.Cambridge, MA 02138

Foreign Policy Association1800 M St., NW, Suite 295Washington, DC 20036

Global Perspectives in Education, Inc.45 John St.Suite 1200New York, NY 10038

Institute of World Affairs375 Twin Lakes RoadSalisbury, CT 06068

The I.N. Thut World Education CenterUniversity of ConnecticutSchool of EducationBox U-32Storrs, CT 06268

Middle East Institute1761 N St., NWWashington, DC 20036

Organization of American States19th and Constitution AvenuesWashington, DC 20006

Stanford Program on Internationaland Cross-Cultural Education (SPICE)

200 Lou Henry Hoover Bldg.Stanford UniversityStanford, CA 94305

U.S. Committee for UNICEF331 East 38th St.New York, NY 10016

World Affairs Center, Inc.250 Constitution PlazaHartford, CT 06105

The World Bank1818 H St., NW, J2203Washington, DC 20433

Instructional Technology and Media

Agency for Instructional TechnologyP.O. Box ABloomington, IN 47402

American Newspaper Publishers AssociationFoundation

The Newspaper CenterBox 17407 Dulles AirportWashington, DC 20041

Prime Time School Television212 W. SuperiorChicago, IL 60610

Teacher's Guide to Television699 Madison Ave.New York, NY 10021

Multicultural Studies

Institute for American Indian StudiesP.O. Box 1260Washington, CT 06793

Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith823 United Nations PlazaNew York, NY 10017

87


Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith419 Whalley Ave.New Haven, CT 06520

Connecticut Afro-American Historical Society444 Orchard St.New Haven, CT 06511

Council on Interracial Books for Children, Inc.1841 BroadwayNew York, NY 10023

Japanese American Curriculum Project, Inc.414 E. Third AvenueSan Mateo, CA 94401

NAACP144 W. 125th St.New York, NY 10027

National Conference on Christians and Jews71 Fifth Ave.New York, NY 10003

Population Education

Population Reference Bureau777 14th St., NW, Suite 800Washington, DC 20005

United States Department of CommerceBureau of the CensusWashington, DC 20233

National and State Periodicals

Educational LeadershipAssociation for Supervision and Curriculum Development225 North Washington St.Alexandria, VA 22314

The History TeacherSociety for History EducationDepartment of HistoryCalifornia State University6101 E. 7th St.Long Beach, CA 90840

Interracial Books for Children Bulletin1841 BroadwayNew York, NY 10023

Journal of Economic EducationHeldref Publications400 Albemarle St., NWWashington, DC 20016

Journal of GeographyNational Council for Geographic EducationIndiana University of PennsylvaniaIndiana, PA 15705

Phi Delta KappanEighth and UnionP.O. Box 789Bloomington, IN 47402

Social Studies and the Young LearnerNational Council for the Social Studies3501 Newark St., NWWashington, DC 20016

Social EducationNational Council for the Social Studies3501 Newark St., NWWashington, DC 20016

The Social StudiesHeldref Publications400 Albemarle St., NWWashington, DC 20016

Social Studies UpdateConnecticut State Department of EducationDivision of Curriculum and Professional DevelopmentBureau of Curriculum and InstructionP.O. Box 2219Hartford, CT 06145

Teaching Political ScienceSAGE PublicationsP.O. Box 776Beverly Hills, CA 90210

Teaching SociologySAGE PublicationsP.O. Box 776Beverly Hills, CA 90210

Yankee PostP.O. Box 9122Bolton, CT 06043


Regional Educational Service Centers

Area Cooperative Educational Services (ACES)205 Skiff St.Hamden, CT 06511-1095

Capitol Region Education Council (CREC)599 Matianuck Ave.Windsor, CT 06095-3598

Cooperative Educational Services (CES)785 Unquowa RoadFairfield, CT 06430-5001

Eastern Connecticut Regional Educational Service Cen-ter (EASTCONN)

376 Hartford TurnpikeNorth Windham 06256-1612

Project LEARNP.O. Box 220East Lyme, CT 06333-0220

Regional Educational Services Concepts Through Uni-fied Effort (RESCUE)

P.O. Box 909355 Goshen RoadLitchfield 06759-0909

and301 Main St.Danbury, CT 06810-5856

89

APPENDIX D

RESOURCES FOR

CURRICULUM PLANNINGIt is essential for the curriculum committee to have ad-equate resources with which to examine alternatives andmake decisions about revising a social studies program.The following selected resources are provided to assistschools in identifying key resources for subject areas andtopics related to the field of social studies. Resourcecategories include planning, instruction and both thetopic and content areas of the social studies curriculum.

Curriculum Content Areas

economics

Gil hard, June, chair. Economics: What and When (Scope andSequence Guidelines,K-12). New York: Joint Council onEconomic Education (JCEE), 1988.

Saunders, Phillip, editor. A Framework for Teaching theBasic Concepts. New York: JCEE, 1984.

Schug, Mark C. Economics for Kids: Ideas for Teaching in theElementary Grades. Washington, DC: National Edu-cation Association, 1986.

Symme. s, S. Stowell, editor. Economic Education: Links tothe Social Studies. Washington, DC: National Councilfor the Social Studies, Bulletin 65,1981.

agasraslut

Backler, Alan. TrendslIssues Paper No. 1: Teaching Geog-raphy in American History. Bloomington, IN: SocialStudies Development Center, ERIC Clearinghouse forSocial Studies/Social Science Education, 1988.

Geographic Education National Implementation Project.K-6 Geography. Themes, Key Ideas and Learning Oppor-tunities. Skokie, IL: Rand McNally and Company,1987.

Joint Committee on Geographic Education. Guidelines forGeographic Education: Elementaryand Secondary Schools.Washington, DC: National Council for GeographicEducation and Association of American Geographers,1984.

Ludwig, Gail S., et. al. Directions in Geography. Wash-ington, DC: National Geographic Society, 1991.

Natoli, Salvatore J., editor. Strengthening Geography in theSocial Studies. Washington, DC: National Council forthe Social Studies, Bulletin 81,1988.

Closciument.CitizenshipazafaliticaLSciumc

Connecticut State Department of Education. Teacher'sRescnoreManualon Voter Education. Hartford,CT,1988.

Hepburn, Mary A. Democratic Education in Schools andClassrooms. Washington, DC: National Council for theSocial Studies (NCSS), Bulletin 70,1983.

Jarolimek, John, and Parker, Walter, editors. Citizenshipand the Critical Role of the Social Studies. Washington,DC: NCSS, Bulletin 72,1984.

Keller,Clair W., and Schillings, Denny L., edi tors. TeachingAbout the Constitution. Washington, DC: NCSS, Bul-letin 80,1987.

NCSS Board of Directors. 'Position Statement: Democ-ratization of Schools." Washington, DC, 1979. Alsoavailable in Building Support for Social Studies: The ToolKit, NCSS, 1988.

NCSS Citizenship Committee. 'Position Statement: Es-sential Characteristics of a Citizenship EducationProgram." Washington, DC, 1984. Also available inBuilding Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit, NCSS,1988.

Quigley,CharlesN.,and Bahmueller, Charles F. CIVITAS:A Framework for Civic Education. Calabasas, CA:Center for Civic Education, 1991.

Hiatars

Bradley Commission on History in the Schools. Buildinga History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History inthe Schools. Washington, DC: Educational ExcellenceNetwork, 1988.

Cheney, Lynne V., chair. American Memory: A Report onthe Humanities in the Nation's Public Schools. Wash-ington, DC: National Endowment for the Humanities,1987.

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57

RESOURCES FOR CURRICULUM PLANNING APPENDIX D

Downey, Matthew T., editor. Teaching AmericanHistory:New Directions. Washington, DC: National Councilfor the Social Studies (NCSS), Bulletin 67,1982.

Downey, Matthew T., editor. History in the Schools.Washington, DC: NCSS, Bulletin 74,1985.

Remy, Richard C., and Woyach, Robert B. "Strengthen-ing World Studies: The Challenge ofConceptualization." Social Education 52 (November/December 1988): 484-488.

liumanitica

Cheney, Lynne V., chair. American Memory: A Report onthe Humanities in the Nation's Public Schools. Wash-ington, DC: National Endowment for the Humanities,1987.

Collier, Christopher. "Literature oiConnecticut History,"The Connecticut Scholar. Middletown, CI': ConnecticutHumanities Council (CHC), Number 6,1983.

Levy, Tedd, and Olson, Betty. The Noblest of Thoughts:Literatureand AmericanHistony. Middletown,CT: CHC,1987.

Curriculum Topics

Future Studies

Haas, John D. Future Studies in the K-12 Curriculum.Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium(SSEC), 1988.

Haas, John D. Teaching About the Future: Tools, Topics andIssues. Boulder, CO: SSEC, 1987.

Human Rights

Branson, Margaret Stimmann, and Torney-Purta, Judith,editors. International Human Rights, Society and theSchools. Washington, DC: National Council for theSocial Studies, 1982.

Connecticut State Department of Education. ResourceGuide Human Rights: T'he Struggk for Freedom, Dignityand Equality. Hartford, CT, 1987.

Sidman, David. Teaching About Human Rights: Issues ofJustice in a Global Age. Denver, CO: Center forTeaching International Relations, 1988.

latemetianalLtaglia

Fersh, Seymour. Asia: Teaching About /Learning From.New York Teachers College Press, 1978.

Goldhawk, Sara, and Kramb, Vera, editors. The NewGlobal Yellow Pages. New York: Global Perspectives inEducation, Inc. (GPE), 1989.

Gorham, Amy, editor. TheGlobalResourceBook. New York:GPE, 1986.

Kniep, Willard, editor. New Steps in Global Education: AHandbook for Curriculum Development. New York: GPE,1987.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) Interna-tional Activities Committee. 'Position Statement:Global Education." Washington, DC, 1981. Alsoavailable in Building Support for Social Studies: The ToolKit, NCSS, 1988.

Multicultural Studies

Banks, James A., and Banks, Cherry A. McGee, editors.Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives. Bos-ton: Allyn and Bacon, 1989.

Banks, James A. Multiethnic Education: Theory and Prac-tice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1988.

Banks, James A. Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies, FifthEdition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990.

Bennett, Christine 1. Comprehensive Multicultural Educa-tion, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990.

Connecticut State Department of Education. Teacher'sResource Manual on MartinLuther King, Jr. Hartford,CT,1988.

Natoli, Salvatore J., editor. 'Special Section: ReducingPrejudice." Social Education 52 (April/May 1988): 264-291.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). 'PositionStatement: Curriculum Guidelines for MultiethnicEducation." Washington, DC, NCSS, 1976.

Tiedt, Pamela L., and Tied t, Iris M. Multicultural Teaching:A Handbook of Activities, Information and Resources, 3rded. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990.

92

h3

RESOURCES FOR CURRICULUM PLANNING APPENDIX 1:31,

Scienceaalumdtinumillircidit

Hickman, Faith M.; Patrick, John J.; and Bybee, Roger W.Science/TechnologylSociety. A Framework for CurriculumReform in Secondary School Science and Social Studies.Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium(SSEC), 1987.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) Scienceand Society Committee. "Position Statement andGuidelines: Teaching Science-Related Social Issues."Washington, DC, 1982. Also available in BuildingSupport for Social Studies: The Tool Kit, NCSS,1988.

Singleton, Laurel R. SciencelTechrwlogylSociety: TrainingManual. Boulder, CO: SSEC, 1988.

StaicAndlaciLllistarit

Roth, David M., editor. Connecticut History: An HistoricalOverview and Resource Guide for Teachers. Hartford, CT:The Connecticut Historical Commission and TheCenter for Connecticut Studies, Eastern ConnecticutState University, 1985.

Schug, Mark C., and Peery, R., editors. Community Study:Applications and Opportunities. Washington, DC: Na-tional Cou,:cil for the Social Studies, Bulletin 73,1984.

Stave, Bruce M., and Sutherland, John F. Talking AboutConnecticut: Oral History in the Nutmeg State. Centerfor Oral History, University of Connecticut and Insti-tuteforLocal History, MandiesterCommunity College,1985.

&Masa

Collie, William E., and Smith, Lee H., editors. 'TeachingAbout Religion: Vistas Unlimited." Social Education 45(January 1981): 15-34.

Hayes, Charles C. A Teacher's Guide Religions Freedom inAmerica. Silver Spring, MD: Americans United Re-search Foundation, 1986.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) Religionin the Schools Committee. 'Position Statement andGuidelines Study AboutReligionsin the Social StudiesCurriculum." Washington, DC, 1984. Also availablein Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit,NCSS, 1988.

Instruction

Budin, Howard, and Kendall, Diane S., editors. "SpecialSection: Computers in Social Studies." Social Education51 (January 1987): 32-59.

Budin, Howard; Kendall, Diane S.; and Lengal, James G.Using Computers in the Social Studies. New York:Teachers College Press, 1986.

Laughlin, Margaret A.; Hartoonian, H. Michael; andSanders, Norris M., editors. From Information to Deci-sion Making: New Challenges for Effective Citizenship.Washington, DC: National Council for the SocialStudies (NCSS), Bulletin 83,1989.

NCSS Ad Hoc Committee on Computer CoursewareEvaluation Guidelines. 'Position Statement andGuidelines: Social Studies MicrocomputerCoursewareEvaluation." Washington, DC, 1983. Also available inBuilding Support for the Social Studies: The Tool Kit,NCSS, 1988.

Walters, Patty, editor. Social Studies Curriculum SoftwareReference Guide, K-12. Cupertino, CA: Apple Com-puter, Inc., 1987.

ladaddisruzWaterials.

Davis, 0.L., Jr., et. al. Looking at History: A Review of MajorU.S. History Textbooks. Washington, DC: People forthe American Way, 1986.

Carroll, James, chair. We the People: A Review of U.S.Government and Civics Textbooks. Washington, DC:People for the American Way, 1987.

Paton, William E., editor. Improving the Use of SocialStudies Textbooks. Washington, DC: National Councilfor the Social Studies, Bulletin 63, 1980.

Sewall, Gilbert. AmericannistoryTextbooks: An Assessmentof Quality. Washington, DC: Educational ExcellenceNetwork, 1987.

Science Education Consortium, Inc. Data Book ofSocial Studies Materials and Resources. Boulder, CO:Social Science Education Consortium, Inc., 1990.

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RESOURCES FOR CURRICULUPA PLANNING APPENDIX D

Tyson-Bernstein, Harriet, and Woodward, Arthur, guesteditors. "Special Section: Coming to Grips with theGreat Textbook Machine." Social Education50 (January1986): 39-70.

SasiaLibulialeaching

Rogers, Vincent.; Roberts, Arthur D.; and Weinland,Thomas P., editors. Teaching Social Studies: PortraitsFrom the Classroom. Washington, DC: NationalCouncil for the Social Studies (NCSS), Bulletin 82,1988.

Rosenzweig, Linda W., editor. Developmental Perspectiveson the Social Studies. Washington, DC: NCSS, Bulletin66,1982.

Social Studies Skills

Beyer, Barry K., guest editor. "Critical Thinking Revis-ited." Social Education 49 (April 1985): 268-308.

Kurfman, Dana, edi tor. Developing Decision Making Skills.Washington, DC: National Council for the SocialStudies, 47th Yearbook, 1977.

Jarolimek, John, et al. "In Search of a Scope and Sequencefor Social Studies," Report of the National Council forthe Social Studies Task Force in Scope and Sequence,November 1,1983. Social Ed uca Hon 48 (Apri11984): 249-273.

Planning

Basic Resources for Curriculum Planning

Bragaw, Donald H., and Wronski, Stanley P., editors.Social Studies and Social Sciences: A Fifty-Year Perspec-tive. Washington, DC: National Council for the SocialStudies (NCSS), Bulletin 78, 1986.

Connecticut State Board of Education. Connecticut'sCommon Core of Learning. Hartford, CT, 1987.

Connecticut State Department of Education. "SocialStudies Curriculum Survey, 1984." Hartford, CT,1986.

Davis, James E., editor. Planning a Social Studies Program:Activities, Guidelines and Resources. Boulder, CO: So-cial Science Education Consortium, Inc., 1983.

Muessig, Raymond H., editor. Social Studies CurriculumImprovement. Washington, DC: NCSS, Bulletin 55,1978.

NCSS. Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit.Washington, DC: NCSS, 1988.

NCSS. "The Essentials of the Social Studies." Washing-ton, DC, 1980. Also available in Building Support forSocial Studies: The Tool Kit, NCSS, 1988.

NCSS. "Revision of the NCSS Social Studies CurriculumGuidelines." Washington, DC. Available in SocialEducation, April 1978, 261-273, and in Building Supportfor Social Studies: The Tool Kit, NCSS, 1988.

Roselle,DanieLrevised by Laurel R.Singleton. "A Parent'sGuide to the Social Studies." Building Support for SocialStudies: The Tool Kit. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1988.

Sgraza.aniLSzatmca

Bragaw, Donald H., et al. "Scopeimd Sequence: Alterna-tives for Social Studies." Social Education 50 (Novern-ber/December) 1986: 484-542.

Curriculum Task Force of the National Commission onSocial Studies in the Schools and the National SocialScience Disciplinary Associations. Charting a Course:Social Studies Curriculum for the 21st Century. Wash-ington, DC: National Commission on Social Studies inthe Schools, 1989.

Jarolimek, John, et al. "In Search of a Scope and Sequencefor Social Studies," Report of the National Council forthe Social Studies Task Force in Scope and Sequence,November 1, 1983. Social Education 48 (April 1984):149-273.

Curriculum Guido

Cal ornia State Board of Educa tion. History-Social ScienceFramework for California Public Schools. Sacramento, CA:California State Department of Education, 1988.


94 itm

RESOURCES FOR CURRICULUM PLANNING APPENDIX D

LarlyShilikaadakowthirs

Atwood, Virginia A., editor. Elementary School SocialStudies: Research as a Guid e loPractice. Washington,DC:National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), Bulle-tin 79,1986.

Connectkvt State Board of Education. A Guide to ProgramDevelopment for Kindergarten, Parts I and II. Hartford,a, 1988.

NCSS Task Force on Early Childhood /Elementary SocialStudies. 'Position Statement: Social Studies for EarlyChildhood and Elementary School Children Preparingfor the 21st Century." Social Education 53 (January 1989):14-23.

NCSS Elementary/Early Childhood Education Commit-tee. 'Position Statement: Social Studies for YoungChildren." Washington, DC, 1984. Also available inBuilding Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit, NCSS,1988.

Seefeldt, Carol. Social Studies for the Preschool-PrimaryChild. Columbus, OH: Charles F. Merrill PublishingCo., 1984.

ShulenUnabuitionAntAiszument

Connecticut State Department of Education. ConnecticutAssessment of Educational Progress,1982-83,Social Studies,"Overview of the Assessment." Hartford, CT, 7984.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) Board ofDirectors. "Position Statement and Guidelines:Graduation Competency Testing in the Social Stud-ies." Washington, DC, 1978. Also available in BuildingSupport for Social Studies: The Tool Kit, NCSS, 1988.

Nickell, Pat, editor. "Student Assessment in Social Stud-ies." Social Education 56 (February 1992): 89-111.


SasialStudigsTrachzuusitIcaching

Connecticut State Board of Education. 'Policy Statement:Academic Freedom and Public Education," adoptedSeptember 9,1981.

Connecticut Sta te Board of Education. "Policy Sta tement:Controversial Issues," adopted October 4, 1978.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) AcademicFreedom Committee. "Position Statement andGuidelines: Academic Freedom," 1967. Also avail-able in Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit,NCSS. Washington, DC, 1988.

NCSS. 'Position Statement and Guidelines: AcademicFreedom and the Social Studies Teacher." Washing-ton, DC, 1969. Also available in Building Support forSocial Studies: The Tool Kit, NCSS, 1988.

NCSS. 'Position Statement: The Freedom to Teach andthe Freedom to Learn." Washington, DC, 1974. Alsoavailable in Building Support for Social Studies: The ToolKit, NCSS, 1988.

NCSS Professional Ethics Committee. 'Position State-ment: A Code of Ethics for the Social Studies Profes-sion." Washington, DC, 1980. Also a va liable n BuildingSupport for Social Studies: The Tool Kit, NCSS, 1988.

NCSS Task Force for Revision of the Teacher EducationStandards. "Position Statement and Guidelines:Standards for the Preparation of Social StudiesTeachers." Washington, DC, 1987. Also available inBuilding Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit, NCSS,1988.

APPENDIX E

TEACHING ABOUT

CONTROVERSIAL ISSUESThe following iol icy statement,'Controversial Issues,"was adopted by the Connecticut State Board of Educa-tion on October 4,1978.

Learning to deal with controversial issuesisoneof the basic competencies all studentsshould acquire. Controversial issues arethose problems, subjects or questionsabout which there are significant differ-ences of opinion based for the most parton the differences in the values peoplebring to the appraisal of the facts of theissue.

Controversy is inherent in the democraticway of life. The study and discussion ofcontroversial issues is essential to theeducation for citizenship in a free society.Students can become informed individu-als only through the process of examiningevidence, facts and differing viewpoints,by exercising freedom of thought andmoral choice, and by making responsibledecisions. The perpetuation of the fun-damental principles of our society requiresthe guarantee that there be opportunityfor students to read, to gather infonna tion,to speak and to hear alternative view-points, and to reach honest judgmentsaccording to their individual ability.

In order for students to lea rn these compe-tencies, teachers must be free to help stu-dents to identify and evaluate relevantinformation, to learn the techniques ofcritical analysis,and to makeindependentjudgments. They must reinforce thestudent's right to present and supporttheirconclusions beforepersons who haveopposing points of view. Teachers shouldalso endeavor to develop a flexibility ofviewpoint in students so that they are ableto recognize the need for continuous andobjective re-examination of issues in thelight of changing conditions in societyand as new and significant evidence be-

comes available to support a change inpoint of view. Further, teachers shoulddirect the attention of learners, at the ap-propriate levels of maturity, to significantissues and promote a lively exchange ofideas abou t them. Although teachers havethe right to express their own viewpointsand opinions, they d o not have the right toindoctrinate students with their personalviews.

It is recommended that all Connecticutboards of education develop and dis-seminate a written policy which supportsthe concept of teaching about controver-sial issues and resists pressures andchargesby special interest groups seekingto impose only one side of an issue uponthe schools.

The following policy statement, "Academic Freedomand Publ ic ucation," was adopted by the ConnecticutState Board of Education on September 9,1981.

Academic freedom is the freedom to teachand to learn. In defending the freedom toteach and to learn, we affirm the demo-cratic process itself. American publiceducation is the source of much that isessential to our democratic heritage. Noother single institution basso significantly ysustained our national diversity, norhelped voice our shared hopes for an openand tolerant society. Academic freedomis among the strengths of American pub-lic education. Attempts to deny the free-dom to teach and to learn are, therefore,incompatible with the goals of excellenceand equity in thelife of our public schoois.

With freedom comes responsibility. Withrights come obligations. Accordingly,academic freedom in our public schools issubject to certain limitations. Therefore,the State Board of Education affirms that:

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TEACHING ABOUT CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES APPENDIX E

Academic freedom in our public schoolsis properly defined within the context oflaw and the constraints of mutual respectamong individuals. Public schools rep-resent a public trust. They exist to prepareour dildren tobecome partners in a societyof self-governing citizens. Therefore, ac-cess to ideas and opportunities to considerthe broad range of questions and experi-ences which constitute the proper prepa-ration for a life of responsible citizenshipmust not be defined by the interestsof anysingle viewpoint. Teachers, school ad-ministrators, librarians, and school mediaspecialists must be free to select instruc-tional and research materials appropriateto the maturity level of their students.This freedom is itself subject to the reason-able restrictioremandated by law to schoolofficials and administrators. At the sametime, local school officials must demon-strate substantial or legitimate public in-terest in order to justify censorship oro titer proposed restrictions upon teachingand learning. Similarly, local boards ofeducation cannot establish criteria for theselection of library books based solely onthe personal, social or political beliefs ofschool board members. While studentsmust be free to voice their opinions in thecontext of a free inquiry after truth andrespect for their fellow students and schoolpersonnel, student expression whichthreatens to interfere substantially withthe school's function is not warranted byacademic freedom. Students must bemindful that their rights are neither abso-lute nor unlimited. Part of responsiblecitizenship is coming to accept the conse-quences of the freedoms to which one isentitled by law and tradition. Similarly,parents have the right to affect their ownchildren's education, but this right mustbe balanced against the right other par-ents' children have to a suitable range ofeducational experiences. Throughout, thetenets of academic freedom seek to en-

courage a spirit of reasoned communityparticipation in the life and practices ofour public schools.

Since teaching and learning are amongthe missions of our public schools, theState Board of Education affirms the dis-tinction between teaching and indoctrina-tion. Schools should teach students howto think, not what to think. To study anidea is not necessarily to endorse an idea.Public school classrooms are fortffns forinquiry, not arenas for the promulgationof particular viewpoints. While commu-nities have the right to exercise supervisionover their own public school practices andprograms, their participation in the edu-cational life of their schools should respectthe constitutional and intellectual rightsguaranteed school personnel and studentsby American law and tradition.

Accordingly, the State Board of Education,in order to encourage improved educa-tional practices, recommends that localschool boards adopt policies and proce-dures to receive, review, and take actionupon requests that question public schoolpractices and programs. Communitymernbersshouldbeencouraged, and madeaware of their right, to voice their opin-ions about school practices and programsin an appropriate administrative form.The State Board of Education further rec-ommends that local school boards takesteps to encourage informed communityparticipation in the shared work of sus-taining and i mproving our public schools.

Finally, the State Board of Education af-firms that community members and schoolpersonnel should acknowledge togetherthat the purpose of public education is thepursuit of knowledge and the preparationof our children for responsible citizenshipin a society that respects differences andshared freedom.

APPENDIX F

FRAMEWORK To GUIDE

STRATEGIC READING BEHAVIORThe following is adapted from the Wisconsin Depart-ment of Public Instruction's A Guide to Curriculum Mou-nt's:it:Social Studies (1986), pp. 206 - 208, and is used withpermission.

Analyze: Preparing for Reading

Before givinga reading assignment, examine the readingselection or text to determine the features that would helpstudent comprehension and identify rnfarniliar 'vocabu-lary and concepts that might involve difficulties for thestudent. Next, assess the student? experiential back-grounds to dtcide whether or not they have the necessaryconcepts and vocabulary knowledge to achieve a satis-factory level of meaning from the text. If this backgroundis insufficient, it will be necessary to decide how best tohelp students acquire it before they read the selection.Vocabulary instruction research indicates that a focus onconcepts and meanings in familiar contexts is moreprofitable than a rote learning of new words in isolation.Thus, one should teach unfamiliar vocabulary essentialto understanding text material in rich contextual settingsthat are relevant and interesting. Vocabulary instructionshould occur both before and during reading. The fol-lowing are some specific suggestions for preparing stu-dents for reading.

Assess and expand the student? backgroundknowledge and experiences as related to the text orassignment by:

directing questions in order to find what stu-dents know or believe they know;noting misconceptions and offering informa-tion to provide adequate background forcomprehension; andarousing interest and giving students anawareness of the relevancy of text material totheir daily lives.

Introduce necessary vocabulary and fundamen-tal concepts by:

brainstorming with students about the gen-eral meaning of new words;

guiding students to more specific meaning ofnew words in the assigned text;analyzinging the structure of the new words toaid in their recognition (roots, prefixes, suf-

developing a semantic map that links vo-cabulary to larger concepts.

Plan: Setting a Purpose

The more thoroughly teachers prepare students to iden-tify the organization of the text, the more likely studentsare to achieve comprehension. Before reading a selection,students should preview it, examine its organization(such as headings, italicized words and summary state-ments), and develop predictions concerning content.Thro :igh this procedure students identify a purpose fortheir reading. The teacher should focus students' atten-tion on important concepts contained in the text. Forexample, a hist-ary teacher who wants students to un-derstand the events leading to World War II should pointout that a list of such factors may be derived from thereading. If geography or exact chronology is desired, thattoo should be made clear so that students have somesense as to the aspects of text material on which theyshould focus.

Some specific ways to help students seta purposefor their reading follow:

Have students note the basic structure of thetext, including introductions, headings andconclusions or summaries.Discuss titles and subtitles in the assignedmaterial.Direct attention to any graphic aids, maps,pictures or charts.Point out any study aids such as summary ordiscussion questions.Have students note new vocabulary which ishighlighted (italics, bold print, marginalnotes).Have students generate several questions oftheir own as guides during their silent read-ing.

FRAMEWORK To GUIDE STRATEGIC READING BEHAVIOR APPENDIX F

Monitor: Guided Silent Reading

Once reading purposes are dearly in mind, studentsshould read the assigned material silently at their indi-vidual pace. Two ways of promoting effective silentreading include having students create guides (ques-tions, outline, chart) to refer to while reading and guidingstudents to create structured overviews of text material,focusing on identifying main ideas and key facts.

Discuss: Rereading

Following purposeful silent reading, students should beguided in the discussion of the reading content by pro-viding them with an opportuni ty to talk about the conten tin relation to their purposes for reading it. They shoulddiscuss whether the information acquired was sufficientto answer their questions and fulfill expectations. Whererelevant, they should describe how and why purposes forreading changed as they completed the assignment.

Reflect: Critical Thinking

During discussion, students should be asked questionsthat require them to go beyond the specific details and tothink critically about the overall concepts and largermessages in the text. Teachers should have them verifytheir reasons by rereading sections to support interpre-tations or to identify inconsistencies in the writer's rea-soning. Rereading passages can be done either orally orsilently, but always should have a definite purpose.

Suggestions for specific activities involving dis-cussion, reading and reflections follow.

Discuss answers to prereading purpose ques-tions; confirm and verify answers.Interpret information from reading by draw-ing conclusions, making inferences, general-izing, and identifying interrelationships.

Evaluate information by making judgments,determining writer's intent, comparing withother texts, and considering the overall sig-nificance of the information.Reflect upon information by applying to reallife (local and current) situations.Identify topics from reading for further re-search, analysis, discussion and, perhaps,writing.

Apply: Extension Activities

Extension activities serve to help students expand uponinformation gained from the reading. Such activitiesprovide students with opportunities to incorporate newideas and information into their background under-standing.

Some suggestions for extending ideas derivedfrom critical reading include:

Create structured overviews of the centralconcepts.Locating and reading additional informationon one aspect of the material or topic.Relating material through activities such asthose listed below:I. writing a sentence using a key term from

the text;2. writing a framed paragraph;3. summarizing or discussing the main

ideas in exposition or narration (a briefstory, an imaginary dialogue, a dream);

4. writing a newspaper editorial or articleusing the information; and

5. developing a semantic map that linksvocabulary to larger concepts.

Adapted from A Guide to Curriculums Planningin Social Studies, Wisconsin Department

of Public Instruction, 1986. Used with permission.

1001 o5

APPENDIX GWRITING IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES

The following is adapted from the Wisconsin Depart-ment of Public Instruction's A Guide to Curriculum Plan-ning in Social Studies (1986), pp. 204 and 205, and is usedwith permission.

Why should content-area teachers encourage studentsto write?

Writing promotes learning of the subjectmatterby requiring active attempts at makingmeaning, requiring planning and reviewing,connecting prior knowledge with new infor-mation, making students' thought processesvisible and accessible, and helping students todevelop higher-order thinking skills.Students who write about a concept are lesslikely to find the concept confusing.Students who see that writing can be useful ina widevariety of contexts wil t be motivated tobecome better writers.The more students write, the more -relaxedand positive their attitudes toward writingwill be. Students with positive attitudes to-ward writing are more likely to write well.

How can content-area teachers improve methods ofassigning and evaluating writing?

Think of writing as a tool to aid teaming andas a means of communication, as well as ameans of evaluation.Assign frequent short assignmentsrather thana single long one. Repeated practice is im-portant in learning to write.Be clear in expressing the purpose of a writingassignment. Written assignment sheets spe-cific to each assignment provide guidancethrough the writing process and answer manystudents' questions.When planning major writing assignments,provide ample time and opportunity for stu-dents to brainstorm, explore ideas and developtheir ideas through several drafts.Assign some writing that will not beevaluated.Idea logs, notebooks, summaries and briefwritings to clarify concepts will serve a more

useful purpose if they are viewed as means,not ends.Provide feedback as students produce drafts,giving them opportunities to apply teachersuggestions, rather than saving all feedbackfor the final evaluation of a paper.Provide opportunities for students to talkabout their writingtopic. Useminioonferencesand small student groups to provide feedbackduring a student's writing process. Oral com-ments are faster and often more effective thanwritten ones.Pay attention to strengths as well as weak-nesses. Success breeds success.Share successful student writing with the classby readingaloud,mounfirig paperson bulletinboards and using an overhead projector.Focus on one or two concerns at a time. Workfirst with ideas and organization, then withmechanical correctness. Do not expect stu-dents to address everything at once.

What are some types of writing assignments that en-hance the learning of content?

Studentlogs,journals and ideabooks. Informalin nature, these notebooks provide frequent opportuni-ties for writing. Students may use these books to defineterms, clarify concepts, formulate questions, summarizeor evaluate course content or to focus on ideas for classdiscussion. Journal writing might be done for five min-utes at the beginning of a class period to summarize theprevious night's assignment, in the midd le of a discussionto interpret or expand upon material being presented, orat the end of a class to summarize the day's lesson or toprepare for the next day's assignment.

A dictionary of new terms. Each student writesand revises definitions for new terms and keeps them asa cumulative list. Formulating meanings for terms spe-cific to the subject area aids in comprehension; keepingthe list provides an aid to review.

Field notebooks and field journals. These as-signments provide opportunities to describe how peoplein a subject area use and organize language and helpstudents to develop greater skills of observation.

WRITING IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES APPENDIX G

Articles for school and local newspapers.Writing for newspapers allows students to think aboutthe needs of a larger audience other than the teacherand helps them to clarify their ideas of the course's topicsand activities. Such articles also provide recognition forstudents.

Letters to the editor and position papers. Writinggout issues relates course content to real-world concernsand gives students a chance to practice persuasion skills.Position papers encourage students to work withknowledge and their own ideas to probe for answers toquestions and draw conclusions that can be the basis forstimulating interaction.

Story problems. Students learn to incorporateformulas from mathematics lessons in writing their ownproblems. These can be collected from small groups orclasses and used for study or review.

Interviewing. Students develop an awareness ofaudience and call upon a variety of thinking and writingskills in preparing questions, gathering information and

editing answers. Interviews can be either an individualor a small-group activity.

Writing directions for students unfamiliar witha process. This activity requires that students understandthe process and are able to sequence the steps to explainthe process. Addressing an audience other than theteacheremphasizes the importance of being clear,inclusiveand well-organized.

Speech writing and group presentations. Mo-tivation is high when writing is aimed at an audience.Group presentations spark the focus on shared ideas andpeer editing, which improves writing quality.

Peer critiques or self-critiques of activities orprocesses. Written critiques can help students reviewtheir performance in order to identify strengths andweaknesses and plan for improved performance. Theseactivities teach valuable self-monitoring strategies.

What kinds of writing activities should be em-phasized with students at various levels?

Grades K-3 Grades 4-4 Grades 7-9 Grades 10-12

Informal discussions Journals Journals JournalsShow-and-tell Dictation Panel discussions Panel discussionsPantomime Writing from memory (with written Oral presentationsDictating or writing Writing about pictures preparation) Interviews

experiences,captions, or

LettersWritten show-and-tell

Informal oral presen-tations (with written

LettersResearch

observations Writing experiences, preparation) ProfilesReportage directions, captions, Short scripts ReflectionsCalendar or observations Script enactments Generalization andLetters Letters theory

Records ofobservation

Position papers

Basics of usingresearch sources

Position papers

Adapted from A Guide To Curriculum Planning in SocialStudies, Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1986.


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APPENDIX H

DEVELOPING A

MULTICULTURAL CURRICULUMChapter 7 presented the goals, themes and curriculumapproaches to citizenship and multicultural education.Appendix H is i,esigned to provide a framework withinwhich a multicultural curriculum might be developed.Numerous classroom activities will be recommended forconsideration by districts, schools and individual teach-ers.

Some major concepts of a multicultural curricu-lum might include the following:

ethnicitymigrationacculturationenclavesfamilyprejudice/discriminationpower

A list of generalizations under the migration conceptincludes, but is not limited to, the following:

Migration-stimulating conditions, socioeco-nomic conditions affecting migration, andfactors in choosing a destination vary con-siderably from group to group.Historically, new discoveries and technolo-gies have led to changes in settlement patternsand the use of land.People migrate for a variety of reasons, andeconomics is only one among many.Migrations are selective. In both internal andexternal migrations, late adolescents andyoung adults usually are preponderant.Ideas, societies and individuals change as theycome in contact with ideas and achievementsof other societies.The movement of one group of people often isaccompanied by the displacement of another.International migration seems to be more andmore influenced by political factors, and lessa matter of individual choice.

The following activities represent selected rec-ommendations for a unit on migration.

Activity 1, Roots. As an introduction to the mi-gration unit, the students construct a large wall mapshowing the locations from which their ancestors came tothis country. They also show the approximate dates

when their ancestors immigrated. American Indian chil-dren may show migration within the United States orNorth America. This mapping activity is followed by areading assignment based on "immigrant letters" de-scribing the "new world" and encouraging others tocome to the United States.

Activity 2, Migration. This activity is based on areading assignment in which the concept of migration issummarized. It provides a short overview of migration tothe United States and will help students to clarify theirhypotheses developed during the first activity.

Activity 3, What Would You Do? In this small-group activ;ty, students are asked to explain how theywould respond if they were faced with a variety ofsituations, e.g., famine, overcrowding, discrimination,etc. The situations are provided on a series of evidencecards and illustrate migration-stimulating c-mditions.

Activity 4, The Immigrants. Using .ease studiesof immigrants from a variety of backgrounds as sourcesof data, students consider why immigrants left theirhomelands and why they settled where they did. Theythen check many of the hypotheses formulated earlier inthe unit. A second part of the activity illustrates ways inwhich immigration to the United States was encouraged.

Activity 5, A Bri..f History of Immigration. Anoverview of immigration to the United States is the basisfor the first part of this activity. The students read a storyabout the history of immigration and construct time linesof United States immigration. They include on their timelines major world events that have influenced migration.A work sheet helps students to speculate on the extent towhich each of these events influenced migration to theUnited States.

Activity 6, How Did They Get Here? In thisactivity students participate in a simulation illustratingmany of the characteristics of slave trade. Asa part of thedebriefing of this activity, each student readi a briefwritten account of slave trade. Then, working in smallgroups, students compare the inunigra tion of other groups

Chinese, Irish, Norwegian, German, Jewish to theslave trade. They consider how these immigrations aresimilar and different.

Activity 7, Researching an Immigrant Group.To expand their understanding of immigration to theUnited States and to apply some of the concepts andgeneralizations from earlier parts of the unit, studentsengage in a research project in which they focus on agroup other than those treated in the previous activity.To help them find information, the students use books

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DEVELOPING A MULTICULTURAL CURRICULUM APPENDIX H

describing the experiences of various ethnic groups. Theirfindings are presented in maps, charts, drawings, photo-graphs or a short narrative.

Activity 8, What Types of People Migrate? Thisphoto exercise focuses on the way in which migrationtends tobe selective in terms of age and sex. The studentsanalyze photographs of immigrants and formulate hy-potheses about the age, sex and marital status of immi-grants. These hypotheses then are checked against re-source data.

Activity9, Interviewinga Migrant. To get a morepersonal view of the process of migration/immigration,each student conducts a personal interview with someonewho immigrated to the United States or migrated to-thelocal community from elsewhere in this country. Classtime is used to design appropriate interview questionsand to practice interviewing skills. The results of theinterviews are reproduced in writing and/or on tape. Asummary discussioncompares the findingsof thedifferentstudents.

Activity 10, Reactions to Emigration. Through abrief true -false test, students learn about the restrictionsplaced on emigration by various countries from whichpeople came to the United States. Some of these restric-tions were meant to protect the migrants, others weremeant to discourage large-scaleemigration, and still otherswere meant to prevent certain kinds of people fromemigrating. A brief follow-up discussion helps studentsto clarify the reasons behind these restrictions.

Activity 11, The Indochinese Immigration.Throughout most of its history, the United States haswelcomed political refugees. In recent decades refugeeshave come to the United States from eastern Europe,Cuba, and most recently Indochina. Students discussfactors leading to the rapid movement of so many peoplefrom one country to another. They also consider theextent to which the United States is "obligated" to theSoutheast Asians who have come here. Working in smallgroups, students then compare other statistics-either theCubans of the early 1960s, or the Hungarians of the late1950s.

Activity 12, Where Would You Go? In this slideactivity students are asked to consider whether or notthey would like to move to each of 10 locations throughoutthe world. They then consider reasons for feeling as theydo. In addition, they speculate about the problems theywould face in adjusting to a new home. The summarydiscussion helps them to relate this exercise to the expe-riences of immigrants to the United States in the past.

Activity 13, Migration within the United States.In this activity each student reads one of several differentcase studies of migration within the United States. Awork sheet and discussion then help them to comparethese different cases. One of the case studies illustrates

that the movement of one groupof people often is accom-ponied by the displacement of another. Students areencouraged to consider the val:e implications of suchdisplacements. They also compare the experiences ofinternal migrants with immigrants. The story of theexperience of ethnic group migrants moving from ruralto urban areas helps illustrate some problems of adjust-ment in internal migrations.

Activity 14: The Stages of Migration. Studentsare provided with several photographs of people duringphases of the migration process. Working in small groups,the students sequence these photos and then prepare ashort narrative describing the process from beginning toend.

Activity 15, Setting Immigration Policy. Thisactivity gets students involved in an immigration issue inthe United States. Students research a government policyor analyze an immigration case. Then students act ontheir findings using democratic procedures for citizeninvolvement.

The following lesson on the concept of migrationis based upon Activity 3 on page 103.

Lesson Title: What Would You Do?

Objectives: At the conclusion of this activity,students will be better able to list and discuss factorsinfluencing migration and make and justify a decisionbased on limited information.

Materials: Four sets of eight evidence cards andmigration-stimulating conditions response sheets. Evi-dence card text can be photocopied from page 105 and 106and pasted on index cards.

Estimated teaching time: One class period.Guidelines: Divide the class into several small

groups of no more than five students. Then give eachgroup a set of cards, either labeled Conditions in CountryB, C or D. Added to each of these sets (B, C or D) are fourcards describing conditions in the United States duringthe mid-19th century. These cards (describing U. S.conditions) are the same for each set. Cards labeled B, Cor D represent possible conditions in another country atthe same time.

Have each group mix the eight cards they havebeen given and then draw five of those cards at random.On the response sheet each group then classifies the cardsas showing conditions favoring migration or discourag-ing migration. The groups then should decide what theywould do - migrate or stay - under those conditions.After they have indicated their decision, group membersshould provide reasons for their decision. Responsesheets then are collected and posted.

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DEVELOPING A MULTICULTURAL CURRICULUM APPENDIX H

Teachers may want to follow the same proceduretwo more times. In the second experience, one of thegroups that desires to move to the United States is told itcan't go. Then, after the round is complete, the teacherexplains that some countries have been excluded fromentering the United States. A third round could be usedto introduce restriction by job skill, etc.

The following questions then are discussed.

What conditions were most favorable to mi-gration?Did conditions in the United States or in thecountry of origin have a greater influence onmigration?Did some country - B, C or D - have condi-tions which made it more likely for people toemigrate? If so, what were they?How does this help to explain why large num-bers of immigrants came to the United Statesfrom some countries, while very few camefrom other countries?If you wanted to go to the United States butwere not allowed to, how did you feel?What solutions did the group provide to dealwith the dilemma?

The following are to be used to build sets ofevidence cards for use in this lesson (Activity 3).

Conditions in the United States

Three of your uncles have moved to America.They have sent you letters telling about their lives in theNew World. If you ever move to the United States, youmay stay with one of them until you find a job and a placeto live.


There is plenty of open land in the United States.The government will give you the land for free if you liveon it for a certain length of time. Most of this land is verygood for farming.


Last year gold was found in part of the UnitedStates. You have heard people say that the streets of thetowns are paved with gold. It sounds like it is easy foranyone to get rich in America.


A Civil War has begun in the United States. TheNorthern states are fighting the Southern states. Manypeople are being killed and much land and property isbeing destroyed.

Conditions in Country B

You are getting old. All of your children aregrown. They all are married. You have lived in thiscountry all of your life. Although you don't own yourown land, the landowner you work for is a kind man. Hetreats you fairly.


Lately, the economy of your country has beenfacing difficulties. Many factories have had to closedown. You and most of your friends are out of work. Allof your savings have been used up. You do not know howyou will feed your family from now on.


A new government has taken over in yourcountry. It has increased everyone's freedom. Newschools are being built. Working conditions are beingimproved. And people are allowed to practice any reli-gion they choose.


Few people in your country are well-off. Most ofthe people work on farms for large landowners. Theymust pay high rents and they must work very hard. Thelandowners are very rich. But most people who work forthem are very poor.

Conditions in Country C

In the last few years, conditions have been verygood for farming. You have grown bumper crops everyyear. You now own a small farm and have just finishedbuilding a small house.


Some people from America have come to yourtown. They work for mining companies. These peoplesay their companies are looking for people to work forthem. They even will help pay for transportation toAmerica.

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DEVELOPING A MULTICULTURAL CURRICULL M APPENDIX H


A couple of months ago some rebels started arevolution in your country. The government is bitterlyfighting back. You do not like the government, but youare not sure what the rebels will do if they win. You areespecially afraid of being forced to fight in the war.


The rulers of the country you live in treat peopleof your religion very poorly. Your rights are limited.Laws force you to pay high taxes, live in certain placesand serve in the army.

Conditions in Country D

Many new industries have started in your coun-try. These new industries have created many new jobs.People say these industries will grow fast in the next fewyears.

Conditions In Country D

The church in your country has imposed verystrict rules for the people. Since the government controlsthe church, everyone must follow the same religiousrules.


Last year you inherited a large farm from yourgrandfather. In the past your grandfather did very wellon this farm. He raised good crops and also some live-stock.


For two years in a row crops in your country havefailed. Your family has been hungry for weeks. You arenot sure that you can live through another bad year.

Guiding Principles for Developinga Multicultural Curriculum

The following should be considered when making deci-sions about curriculum change, selection of curriculummaterials and development of school policies and proce-dures:

The multicultural curriculum should be in-clusive, not exclusive, of ethnic groups livingin the United States.A multicultural curriculum should includeexperiencesand perspectives of groups livingwithin the boundaries of the school commu-nity as well as groups living outside thecommunity.The multicultural curriculum should helpstudents to view and interpret events, situa-tions and conflict from diverse ethnic per-spectives and points of view.The multicultural curriculum should helpstudents to understand the totality of the ex-periences of ethnic groups living in the UnitedStates.The multicultural curriculum should explorediversity within ethnic groups as well as di-versity between different ethnic groups.The multiailtural curriculum should focus oncomparative and participatory approachesencouraging student involvement and action.The multicultural curriculum should be inti-mately tied to major disciplines taught in theschool and reflect current trends and perspec-tives in those disciplines.School policies and procedures should fosterpositive multicultural interactions and un-derstandings among students, teachers, sup-port staff members and administrators.Students should have personal contact withstudents of different cultural backgrounds ona long-term basis in order to be prepared forresponsible citizenship in an increasinglymulticultural world.

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APPENDIX I

INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION RESOURCESThe Instructional Television Service is one way the Con-necticut State Department of Education provides equitableaccess to a wide range of quality materials designed tosupport instruction in Connecticut schools. The instruc-tional Television Schedule and Resource Guide, publishedannually by the department, lists programs that arebroadcast daily to Connecticut schools, provides infor-mation on recording rights and offers suggestions forusing the programs of the curriculum Each year depart-ment staff members, in cooperation with representativesof school districts across the state, review current instruc-tional television programs and preview new programsthat have not previously been offered in Connecticut.

The social studies programs provided by theConnecticut State Department of Education that are de-scribed below are examples of series broadcast by Con-necticut Public Television and carried by all cable systemsin the state as part of the Instructional Television Service.The current edition of the schedule and resource guideshould be checked for program availability and changes.

History

America Past - sixteen 15-minute programs forhigh school students bring to the classroom dramaticstories in American history. The programs cover theperiod from Colonial times to the beginning of the CivilWar.

Castle- four 15-minute programs for students inGrades 5-10 combine animation and live-action docu-mentary sequences to tell the story of a 13th centuryWelsh castle.

Cathedral- four 15-minu te programs for studentsin Grades 5-10 bring viewers back in time to 1214, telling13th century tales of life and death, faith and despair,prosperity and intrigue.

Connecticut Heritage - ten 30-minute programsfor secondary students explore early Connecticut history.

The Middle Ages - five 20-minute programs formiddle grade students examine the Middle Ages bylooking at daily life and events in England.

People of the First Light - seven 30-minute pro-grams for secondary school students examine NativeAmerican peoples in southern New England. The seriesshows how history and tribal traditions of contemporaryIndian children and adults are integrated into their dailyactivities.

Timely Places - 12 programs for secondary schoolstudents explore various topics and events of Americanhistory in the eastern part of the United States.

Current Issues and Events

Assignment: The World - this weekly 15-minuteprogram for middle grade students uses the electronicfeed of Vis News from around the world.

International Studies

Across Cultures - thirteen 15-minute programsappropriate for middle grad e students help young peoplesee three different cultures through the eyes of the peoplewho are part of the cultures, and to understand theconcepts of interdependence and globs'. culture. Thethree cultural groups presented are the urban people ofOsaka, Japan; the Island Tarahumara people ofCaborochic, Mexico; and the Baoule village people of theIvory Coast.

Economics

Common Cents - ten 15-minute programs for pri-mary grade students show how people are economicallyinterdependent. A variety of resources and techniques,including puppets, actors and actresses, animation, mu-sic and film, are used to introduce and reinforce basiceconomic concepts.

Econ and Me - five 15-minute programs for pri-mary students, one for each of five economic conceptscovered: scarcity, opportunity cost, consumption, pro-duction and interdependence.

Give and Take - twelve 15-minute programs forhigh school students dramatize problem-solving situa-tions that show students how basic economic conceptsrelate to their daily lives.

Trade-offs- fifteen 20-mi nute programs for middlegrade students, designed for students to make economicdecisions that involve both costs and benefits to themselvesand society.

Understanding Taxes - nine 15-minute programsfor high school students examine the American tax sys-tem and the economics of taxation.

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INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION RESOURCES APPENDIX I

Government and Citizenship

Equal Justice Under Law - six 30-minute programsfor high school students examine landmark SupremeCourt decisions that tested our young Constitution andthe Bill of Rights.

This Honorable Court four 30-minute programsfor secondary students offer a behind-the-scenes look atthe Supreme Court by examining the process and debatein deciding a case.

Making Government Work twelve 30-minuteprograms for high school students dramatize the gov-ernment process. Interviews with government officialshelp to prepare students for participation in a democraticsociety.

The U.S. Constitution - six 30-minute programsfor ...econdary students examine the Constitution in adocumentary format, identifying a constitutional themeand citing pertinent sections of the Constitution. Dra-matic episodes follow, showing young people involvedin a related contemporary situation.

Geography

Finding Our Way - sixteen 13-minute programsfor middle grade students introduce map and globeskills.

Geography S kills twelv e 10-minute programs forGrades 7-9 use computer animation to introduce physicalgeography.

Geography in U.S. History - ten 20-minute pro-grams for high school students use geographic and his-torical themes to introduce geographic perspectives tohistorical topics.

Global Geography - ten 15-minute programs(Spanish version also available) for rnid d le grade studentsintroduce the five themes of geography by using geo-graphic problems to look at regions of the world.

World Geography Series - twelve 20-minute pro-grams for Grades 6-9 examine physical, political andsocial geography of various regions and countries of theworld.

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APPENDIX J

A CODE OF ETHICSFOR THE SOCIAL STUDIES PROFESSION

The following statement of ethical principles adopted bythe National Council for the Social Studies in 1980 con-tinues to be the standa rd for all social studies professionals.The statement is used with permission.

Principle 1: It is the ethical responsibility ofsocial studies professionals toset forth, maintain, model andsafeguard standards of instruc-tional competence suited to theachievement of the broad goalsof the social studies.

Principle 2: It is the ethical responsibility ofsocial studies professionals toprovide to every student, inso-far as possible, the knowledge,skills and attitudes necessary tofunction as an effective citizen.

Principle 3: It is the ethical responsibility ofsocial studies professionals tofoster the understanding andexercise of the rights guaran-teed to all citizens under theConstitution of the United Statesand of the responsibilities im-plicit in those rights.

Principle 4: It is the ethical responsibility ofsocial studies professionals tocultivate and maintain an in-structional environment inwhich the free contest of ideas isprized.

Principle 5: It is the ethical responsibility ofsocial studies professionals toadhere to the highest standardsof scholarship in the develop-ment, production, distributionor use of social studies materials.

Principle 6: It is the ethical responsibility ofsocial studies professionals toconcern themselves with theconditions of the school andcommunity with which they areassociated.

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Connecticut StateDepartment of Education

Division of Curriculumand Professional Development

Betty J. Sternberg, Director

Bureau of Curriculum and InstructionGeorge A. Coleman, Chief

Daniel W. GreggConsultant in Social Studies

EditorDonald G. Goranson, Jr.

ProductionJanet I. Montague

Publications OfficeMarsha J. Howland

Director of Publications

It Is the policy of the Connecticut State Board of Education that no person shall be excludedfrom participation in, denied the benefits of, or otherwise discriminated against under anyprogram, including employment, because of race, color, religion, sex, age, national origin,ancestry, marital status, mental retardation, mental or physical disability, including, but notlimited to blindness,

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