Preface to the Oilgae Report Academic Edition

Preface to the Oilgae Report Academic Edition Algae fuels present an exciting opportunity. There is a strong view among industry professionals that algae represent the most optimal feedstock for biofuel production in the long run. It is also widely accepted that algae alone – and no other bio-feedstock - have the ability to replace the entire global fossil fuel requirements. Such a significant opportunity has resulted in companies both large and small investing in algal energy. Algae present multiple possibilities for fuel end-products – biodiesel, ethanol, methane, jet fuel, biocrude and more – via a wide range of process routes. Each of these process routes presents its own set of opportunities, parameters, dynamics and challenges. While academic research into algae fuels started over three decades ago, the intensity of research activities has accelerated tremendously in the past few years. This has been a consequence of the realization of algae’s potential as a source of biofuel. As of Jun, 2010, over a hundred universities worldwide have serious research programmes in algae biofuels. All these efforts will benefit enormously if a comprehensive resource is available that brings them up-to-date on the various research activities, status of past and on-going efforts, and critical data for assessing the technical and economic feasibility of algae fuels. Such a comprehensive resource has the potential to save many months of research and analysis. The Oilgae Report Academic Edition was developed to satisfy this clear need in the academic community. The report is the most detailed report dealing with all aspects of the algae fuel industry. The report is divided into three main sections:

Concepts and Cultivation Diverse Energy Products from Algae Processes & Challenges

Each section provides in-depth information, details and updates on the most critical aspects relevant to it, with an emphasis on research efforts. The objective of the Oilgae Report Academic Edition is to facilitate ongoing and planned research efforts – specifically applied research efforts. The emphasis hence is on providing extensive review of research data, and related updates and insights. In addition, the report has made special efforts in identifying the core challenges faced in each aspect of the algae fuels value chain. It also provides inputs on the current efforts and possible solutions to overcome these challenges.

2 Oilgae Report Academic Edition

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Home of algal energy

The report has been developed with over two years of in-depth research, and has been developed with inputs from biotechnology researchers, biofuel industry experts, and professionals who have been constantly interacting with the algae fuels industry for over four years. The Oilgae Report Academic Edition will be an invaluable guide to those in the academic and research domains keen on keen on undertaking research in one of the most exciting renewable energy domains.


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List of Contents

SECTION 1 – CONCEPTS & CULTIVATION 8

1. Energy from Algae - Introduction 9 1.1 Algae 9 1.2 Energy from Algae 11 1.3 History & Current Status of Energy from Algae 12 1.4 Algae & Alternative Energy 13 1.5 Big Challenges & Big Payoffs 14 1.6 Energy “Products” from Algae 15 1.7 Determining the Optimal “Energy Product” 17 1.8 Algae to Energy – Summary of Processes for Each Energy Product 17 1.9 Trends & Future of Energy from Algae 19 1.10 Factoids 19

2. Algal Strain Selection 22 2.1 Importance of Algal Strain Selection 22 2.2 Parameters for Strain Selection 23 2.3 Strains with High Oil Content & Suitable for Mass Production 23 2.4 Strains with High Carbohydrate Content 29 2.5 Strains – Factoids 30 2.6 Challenges & Efforts 30

3. Algae Cultivation 36 3.1 Introduction & Concepts 36 3.2 Algaculture 38 3.3 Algae Cultivation in Various Scales 45 3.4 Different Methods of Cultivation 62 3.5 Algae Cultivation – Factoids 62 3.6 Worldwide Locations with Algae Farms & Algae Cultivation 64 3.7 Algae Cultivation Challenges & Efforts 66 3.8 Research & Publications 73 3.9 Reference 75

4. Photobioreactors 85 4.1 Concepts 85 4.2 Types of Bioreactors Used for Algae Cultivation 87 4.3 Parts & Components 91 4.4 Design Principles 91 4.5 Costs 94 4.6 PBR Manufacturers & Suppliers 96 4.7 Photobioreactors – Q&A 99 4.8 Research Done on Bioreactors and Photobioreactors 102 4.9 Challenges in Photobioreactor 106 4.10 Photobioreactor Updates and Factoids 109 4.11 Useful Resource 110

5. Harvesting 112 5.1 Introduction 112 5.2 Methods of Harvesting 112

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5.3 Case Studies & Examples 117 5.4 Trends & Latest in Harvesting Methods 118 5.5 Challenges & Efforts 120

SECTION 2 – PROCESSES & CHALLENGES 127

6. Algae Grown in Open Ponds, Closed Ponds & Photobioreactor 128 6.1 Introduction 128 6.2 Open-Ponds / Raceway-Type Ponds and Lakes 130 6.3 Details on Raceway Ponds 130 6.4 Algal Cultivation in Open Ponds – Companies and Universities 133 6.5 Challenges in Open Pond Algae Cultivation 135 6.6 Algae Cultivation in Open Ponds – Q&A 142 6.7 Algae Grown in Closed Ponds 144 6.8 Algae Cultivation in Closed Ponds – Case Studies 145 6.9 Algae Cultivation in Closed Ponds – Q&A 147 6.10 Algae Grown in Photobioreactors 147

7. Algae Grown in Sewage & Wastewater 149 7.1 Concepts 149 7.2 Process 152 7.3 Algae Strains that Grow Well in Municipal and Industrial Wastewater 162 7.4 Prominent Companies Growing Algae in Wastewater 166 7.5 Case Studies 167 7.6 Challenges Associated with Growing Algae in Sewage 171 7.7 Updates & Factoids 172 7.8 Algae Cultivation in Sewage – Q&A 176 7.9 Research & Experiments 180 7.10 Sewage & Wastewater Reference 186

8. Algae Grown in Desert 193 8.1 Introduction 193 8.2 Algae Strains that Grow Well in Desert Conditions 194 8.3 Algae Cultivated in Deserts – Companies & Updates 194 8.4 Desert Based Algae Cultivation – Q&A 197 8.5 Desert Cultivation of Algae - Factoids 198 8.6 Research 199

9. Algae Grown in Marine & Saltwater Environment 202 9.1 Introduction 202 9.2 Algae Strains that Grow Well in Marine or Saltwater Environment 203 9.3 Prominent Companies Growing Algae in Saltwater 203 9.4 Cultivating Algae in Marine Environments – Companies & Updates 204 9.5 Marine Algae Cultivation – Q&A 209 9.6 Research 213 9.7 References 214

10. Algae Grown in Freshwater 217 10.1 Introduction 217 10.2 Freshwater Algae Strains with High Oil or Carbohydrate Content 218 10.3 Prominent Companies Growing Algae in Freshwater 221 10.4 Cultivating Algae in Freshwater – Companies & Updates 221



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11. Algae Grown Next to Major CO2 Emitting Industries 226 11.1 Introduction & Concepts 226 11.2 Algal Species Suited for CO2 Capture of Power Plant Emissions 231 11.3 Methods & Processes 232 11.4 Case Studies 237 11.5 Challenges while Using Algae for CO2 Capture 248 11.6 Research and Data for Algae-based CO2 Capture 252 11.7 Algae-based CO2 Capture - Factoids 261 11.8 Algae Cultivation Coupled with CO2 from Power Plants – Q&A 266 11.9 Prominent CO2 Emitting Industries 269 11.10 Status of Current CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS) Technologies 270 11.11 Latest Developments in CO2 Sequestration 276 11.12 Reference 278

12. Non-Fuel Applications of Algae 282 12.1 Introduction 282 12.2 Applications of Algae 283 12.3 Summary of Uses / Applications of Algae 296 12.4 Prominent Companies in Non-fuel Algal Products 301

SECTION 3 - ENERGY PRODUCTS FROM ALGAE 305

13. Biodiesel from Algae 306 13.1 Introduction to Biodiesel 306 13.2 Growth of Biodiesel 307 13.3 Biodiesel from Algae 309 13.4 Why Isn’t Algal Biodiesel Currently Produced on a Large-scale? 310 13.5 Oil Yields from Algae 311 13.6 Oil Extraction from Algae 318 13.7 Converting Algae Oil into Biodiesel 325

14. Hydrogen from Algae 333 14.1 Introduction 333 14.2 Methodologies for Producing Hydrogen from Algae 334 14.3 Factoids 340 14.4 Current Methods of Hydrogen Production 342 14.5 Current & Future Uses of Hydrogen 345 14.6 Why Hasn’t The Hydrogen Economy Bloomed? – Problems with Hydrogen 346

15. Methane from Algae 348 15.1 Introduction 348 15.2 Methods of Producing Methane from Algae 349 15.3 Methane from Algae – Other Research & Factoids 351 15.4 Traditional Methods of Methane Production 352 15.5 Methane – Current & Future Uses 353 15.6 What’s New in Methane? 354

16. Ethanol from Algae 357 16.1 Introduction 357 16.2 Ethanol from Algae - Concepts & Methodologies 359 16.3 Efforts & Examples for Ethanol from Algae 364 16.4 Examples of Companies in Algae to Ethanol 365



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16.5 Algae & Cellulosic Ethanol 368 16.6 Current Methods of Ethanol Production 372 16.7 Ethanol – Latest Technology & Methods 373

17. Other Energy Products – Syngas, Other Hydrocarbon Fuels, Energy from Combustion of Algae Biomass 376

17.1 Syngas and its Importance to Hydrocarbon Fuels 376 17.2 Production of Syngas 377 17.3 Products from Syngas 379 17.4 Syngas from Algae 380 17.5 Producing Other Hydrocarbon Fuels from Algae 382 17.6 Direct Combustion of the Algal Biomass to Produce Heat or Electricity 385 17.7 Trends in Thermochemical Technologies 387 17.8 Reference – Will the Future of Refineries be Biorefineries? 394 17.9 Examples of Bio-based Refinery Products 398 17.10 Reference 404

18. Algae Meal / Cake 408 18.1 Introduction 408 18.2 Properties 409 18.3 Uses 409 18.4 Industries that Use Left-over Algae Cake 410

SECTION 4 – COSTS 412

19. Cost of Making Oil from Algae 413 19.1 Introduction 413 19.2 Details of Costs 415 19.3 Representative Cost of Biodiesel Production from Algae 420 19.4 Costs - Reference 423

SECTION 5 – REFERENCES 428

20. Companies, Apex Bodies, Organizations, Universities & Experts 429 20.1 Introduction 429 20.2 Companies 429 20.3 Organizations 431 20.4 Universities & Research Institutes 432 20.5 Algae Energy Developments around the World 490

21. Culture Collection Centers 504 21.1 Introduction 504 21.2 List of Algae Culture Collection Centres 504 21.3 Algae Culture Collection Centres Countrywise – from World Data Centre for Microorganisms (WDCM) 506 21.4 Companies Selling Algae Cultures 510

22. Future Trends 511 22.1 Perspectives 511 22.2 Predictions 513 22.3 Future Research Needs – Thoughts from the ASP Team 515


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List of Tables 517

List of Figures 521


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Section 1 – Concepts & Cultivation

CHAPTERS

1. Energy from Algae - Introduction 2. Algal Strain Selection 3. Algae Cultivation 4. Photobioreactors 5. Harvesting


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1. Energy from Algae - Introduction 1.1 Algae 1.2 Energy from Algae 1.3 History & Current Status of Energy from Algae 1.4 Algae Energy & Alternative Energy 1.5 Big Challenges & Big Payoffs 1.6 Energy “Products” from Algae 1.7 Determining the Optimal “Energy Product” 1.8 Algae to Energy – Summary of Processes for Each Energy Product 1.9 Trends & Future of Energy from Algae 1.10 Factoids

HIGHLIGHTS

Algae provide much higher yields of biomass and fuels than comparable energy crops.

While biodiesel by far is the most obvious energy product, algae can also be processed to obtain a whole basket of energy products – ethanol, diesel, gasoline, aviation fuel, hydrogen and other hydrocarbons.

Upstream processes such as strain selection, cultivation and harvesting present challenges that are unique to the algae industry and hence deserve closer attention than downstream processes.

For an entrepreneur considering a venture into the algae energy field, the first challenge will be to determine the most optimum product to produce.

1.1 Algae Algae, ranging from single-celled microalgae to large seaweeds, are the simplest and most abundant form of plant life, responsible for more than half of the world's primary production of oxygen. The main branches/lines of algae are:

Chromista - this line includes the brown algae, golden brown algae, and diatoms. The plastids in these algae contain chlorophylls a and c.

The Red Line – red algae can often be seen coating wave washed rocks. A

characteristic of red algae is that their plastids contain only one type of chlorophyll - chlorophyll a. This is different from green algae and plants which have both chlorophyll a and b.


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Dinoflagellates – these evolved on a separate line that includes, surprisingly, the ciliated protists.

The Euglenids – this independent line of single-celled organisms that include

both photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic species. The Green Line is related to plants. Plants and green algae have chlorophylls a

and b. The three most prominent lines of algae are the brown algae (Chromista), the red algae, and the green algae, of which some of the most complex forms are found among the green algae. This lineage (green algae) eventually led to the higher land plants. The point where these non-algal plants begin and algae stop is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with protective cell layers, a characteristic not found in the other alga groups. Algae are an extremely important species. For one, they produce more oxygen than all the plants in the world combined! For another, they form an important food source for many animals such as little shrimps and huge whales. Thus, they are at the bottom of the food chain with many living things depending upon them. With the recent research and interest into using algae for producing biofuels, they have the potential to become even more important. In the right conditions, algae can harness the energy of sunlight very effectively, allowing them to double their mass very quickly. This rapid growth has sometimes caused problems in recent years as algal blooms, fed by runoff of fertilizers from agricultural land, choke waterways. Microalgae, specifically, possess several attractive characteristics in the context of energy and biofuels:

They provide much higher yields of biomass and fuels, 10-100 times higher than comparable energy crops.

They can be grown under conditions which are unsuitable for conventional crop production.

Microalgae are capable of fixing CO2 in the atmosphere, thus facilitating the reduction of increasing atmospheric CO2 levels, which are now considered a global problem.

Algae biofuel is non-toxic, contains no sulfur, and is highly biodegradable.


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1.2 Energy from Algae Oil and Biodiesel from Algae Algae produce oil, and because of their growth rate and yields, they could produce a lot more than other energy crops. Some estimates suggest that microalgae are capable of producing up to 15,000 gallons of oil per hectare a year. This could be converted into fuels, chemicals and more. Macroalgae produce only small amounts of lipid, which function mainly as structural components of the cell membranes, and produce carbohydrates for use as their primary energy storage compound. In contrast, many microalgae (microscopic, photosynthetic organisms that live in saline or freshwater environments) produce lipids as the primary storage molecule. Microalgae contain lipids and fatty acids as membrane components, storage products, metabolites and sources of energy. The lipid appears primarily as droplets within the cytoplasm, not within the chloroplast or other cellular organelles. The lipid droplets often appear adjacent to a mitochondrion. Some microalgal strains have been found to contain proportionally high levels of lipids (over 30%). These microalgal strains with high oil or lipid content are of great interest in the search for a sustainable feedstock for the production of biodiesel.

Lipid Content of Algae

Some algae species can produce lipids up to 50% of their body weight in the form of TAGs (Tri-alkyl glycerides). TAGs consist of three long chains of fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone. Algal lipids are primarily triglycerides with fractions of isoprenoids, phospholipids, glycolipids, and hydrocarbons. They contain more oxygen and are more viscous than crude petroleum. The two most promising fuel conversion options are transesterification to produce fuels similar to diesel fuels and catalytic conversion to produce gasoline and other transportation fuels such as aviation kerosene.


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To a large extent, research into energy from algae has so far focused on deriving oil from microalgae. In the last few years some of the researchers have started exploring other ways to derive energy from algae - while microalgal lipids represent the premium energy product, the energy trapped in the other biomass constituents can also be used; e.g, the cell residue after lipid extraction can be digested anaerobically to produce methane, or algae species high in starch content can be used for fermenting to ethanol.

A Whole Range of Energy Products As mentioned above, oil/biodiesel is not the only one of the energy products that can be obtained from algae. While biodiesel by far is the most obvious energy product, algae can also be processed to derive a whole basket of energy products – ethanol, diesel, gasoline, aviation fuel, hydrogen and other hydrocarbons. It is also worth exploring if the algal biomass (after extraction of oil) could be directly used as a combustion fuel. The methods used for producing the various fuel / energy end products are varied. It is also possible to produce the same end product (for instance, hydrogen) through different processes and methods. Based on an analysis of the current activities in the algae fuels industry, it can be said that there are a number of ongoing efforts on different methodologies / processes as well as fuel end products from algae. For instance, thermochemical processes such as gasification and Fischer-Tropsch combinations are being explored. From a product viewpoint, some companies are attempting to produce fuels such as jet fuel (JP-8) and gasoline equivalents from algae, rather than just biodiesel or ethanol. The next few years will likely see the number of such efforts increase significantly.

1.3 History & Current Status of Energy from Algae According to the most common theory, the world's oil reserves are formed from millennia-old algae trapped between layers of sedimentary rocks and transformed by prolonged pressure and temperature. Would it not be a fitting use of human ingenuity to unlock the potential of algae directly? Algae are a compact crop; if they replaced current oil crops they could, in theory, relieve the food-versus-fuel pressure on agricultural land, allowing food prices to fall again and restoring biofuel’s place as the Great Green Hope. If algae biofuels become economically competitive, they offer an advantage over more radical options like hydrogen fuel cells, by fitting into the existing transportation infrastructure. Unlike food crops like corn or canola that at most yield several hundred gallons of biodiesel per acre, potential algal yields of 15,000 gallons per hectare mitigate worries that algae will compete for the land we currently use to grow food.


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The potential of algae as biofuel feedstock has now been recognized, and a number of companies have started putting in significant efforts towards this. The realization of algae’s potential as an energy feedstock is not new. For example, the U.S. Department of Energy’s Aquatic Species Programme (ASP), did over a decade of research (between 1978 and 1996), and found that algae were only economically viable as a biofuel at oil prices of more than $60 a barrel. The Clinton administration ended the programme after spending about $25 million as low oil prices of the day made it unattractive economically. In Japan the Research for Innovative Technology of the Earth programme extensively studied uses for microalgae. The programme concentrated on systems to grow algae but it was stopped after an investment of more than $100 million as the technology was seen as infeasible at the low crude prices prevailing then. Since 2002, there have been a number of commercial and research efforts in the algae energy field, and the activities have further accelerated starting 2008. While most of the efforts in the first few years focused on biodiesel as the end-product, recently a number of efforts have recently been initiated to explore the viability of using algae as feedstock for other energy products.

1.4 Algae & Alternative Energy The alternative energy domain is a vast field with a number of alternative energy sources being tried out. As the table below shows, algae have the potential to be one of the key components in our alternative energy future as they can contribute to a number of energy end products. Where do algae fit in the energy map? Algae represent one of the biomass feedstocks using which electricity, liquid fuels or hydrogen could be produced. The following table illustrates this.

Algae & Alternative Energy

Alternative Renewable Energy Alternative Non-renewable Energy

Solar Nuclear Energy

Wind Coal to Liquid

Biomass

Electricity *

Liquid fuels o Ethanol * o Biodiesel * o Other Biofuels (eg: biobutanol, bio-

kerosene) *

Hydrogen *(1)

Gas Hydrates


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*: represents the renewable energy domains where algae can play a role (1): Hydrogen is a carrier of energy rather than an energy source in itself

1.5 Big Challenges & Big Payoffs Deriving energy from algae presents a number of challenges – these challenges are detailed in the subsequent chapters. At the same time, the pay-offs for those who are willing to make efforts to overcome the challenges are huge as well – they get a chance to be a significant contributor to the post-fossil-fuel world.

Revenues of Top 5 Oil Companies (2008, US$ billion)1

Company Revenues 2009

(US$ billion)

Royal Dutch/Shell 458

ExxonMobil 442

BP 367

Chevron 263

ConocoPhillips 231

In total, the revenues of the top 5 oil companies in the world alone totaled an incredible $1.761 trillion, which is more than the GDP of most countries in the world - except the top 7 countries! (In 2008, Russia, the 8th largest country by GDP, had a nominal GDP of 1.68 trillion US$) The above total shows the payoff that awaits companies that are able to do well in deriving energy from algae. As algae are possibly the only feedstock which have a theoretical possibility of completely replacing fossil fuels, companies that succeed in getting oil and energy from algae in sustainable and cost effective ways have a chance at becoming the big oil companies of the future.

1 Source: http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2009/snapshots/6388.html

Geothermal Oil from Tar Sands

Tidal & Wave Energy Oil from Oil Shale

Hydro-electricity Shale Gas

Hydrogen * (1)

http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2009/snapshots/6388.html


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1.6 Energy “Products” from Algae A serious study of the energy domain and of algae points to a wide basket of energy outputs that can be theoretically derived from algae – all the way from gasoline to hydrogen to LPG. While it is unlikely that some of these options might work out in the short to medium term owing to both economic and technical feasibility, it will be useful for an entrepreneur considering entering the energy from algae domain to do background research on each of the options. In order to understand the range of energy products that can be derived from algae, it is important to appreciate the following dimensions: Biomass Composition Conventional Processes Used in the Fossil Fuel and Related Industries

Biomass Composition Algae are the simplest form of plants. Thus, any understanding of the constituents of algae needs an understanding of plants. For our purposes, what is important is the composition of plant materials. The three primary constituents of all plants are carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Each of these could be further divided into numerous types, but what is common for all these three (proteins, carbohydrates and lipids) is that they comprise carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In theory, a variety of hydrocarbon fuels can be derived from this composition in plants. Such an inference also implies that a similar variety of hydrocarbons can be derived, in theory, from algae as well.

Conventional Processes in the Fossil Fuel and Related Industries The fossil fuels we use today are of biological origin – they are the result of geological actions on biological matter over millions of years. Hence it will be useful to understand the processes that are being used today in the fossil fuel industry (for instance, at the petroleum refineries and petrochemical plants) to evaluate if any of those processes - or their variants - could be used for deriving energy from algae. It will also be useful to analyse the processes that are being used in the various other segments of the alternative energy industry – both non-renewable and renewable – for evaluating their suitability for use in deriving energy from algae.


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The Energy Product Basket from Algae With the above two dimensions (Biomass Composition & Conventional Processes) taken into consideration, it is possible to enlist the various energy products that can be derived from algae. Of these, biodiesel (and to a certain extent ethanol) are the products which most companies are attempting, but these are early days and it is not entirely certain that biodiesel or ethanol are the “optimal” energy products from algae. The following is the list of fuels that can be obtained from algae: Biodiesel Ethanol Hydrogen Methane Biomass – where algae biomass is directly used for combustion Other hydrocarbon fuel variants, such as JP-8 fuel, gasoline, biobutanol etc.

Upstream and Downstream Processes The “upstream” processes for algae oil comprise processes quite unique to this industry. Some of these processes - algal strain selection or cultivation for instance – need a different approach than that for traditional plants. The “downstream” unit operations for algal oil, which comprise extraction and conversion of the harvested and dewatered algae into final fuel products, in contrast, are conventional technologies currently practiced on a large scale, e.g. biodiesel is currently produced from vegetable oils via transesterification (several algae species have lipids, starch, and protein compositions similar to soy and canola beans). Consequently the same facilities can be adapted to produce biodiesel from algae and conventional agricultural feeds. Thus, the most challenging processes are not the downstream processes. It is true that extraction and conversion to energy products are expensive today and hence do present some challenges, but these challenges are not completely specific to the algae feedstock. To a large extent, the downstream challenges are mostly engineering challenges, and one can hence expect these to be relatively easier than the biological and ecosystem challenges presented by the upstream processes, challenges that are unique to the algae industry and hence deserve closer attention. Whatever be the final energy product/s, the following represent the processes involved: 1) Strain selection 2) Cultivation / growth 3) Harvesting


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4) Extraction, and 5) Conversion to an energy product

(Note: In cases where gasification, fermentation or anaerobic digestion of biomass is attempted, the oil extraction step is not needed) It is important that one considers the entire process as a whole – with all the attendant steps as noted above – while trying to derive energy from algae. The design of a microalgae mass culture for instance should not be thought of independently from designing a harvesting or the extraction system, or for that matter independently of the final product that is desired. For cultivation, the design must be tailored to the characteristics of the culture organism, while selection of species must be done such that it contributes to economic construction and operation of the facility. The selected algae must be environmentally tolerant, have high growth rates, and produce large quantities of lipids or carbohydrates. The choice of a suitable species also affects harvesting ease. The composition of the algal biomass in addition will determine the most optimal end products. Thus, all the areas of development have some amount of interdependence.

1.7 Determining the Optimal “Energy Product” For an entrepreneur considering a venture into the algae energy field, the first challenge will be to determine the best product to produce. Deciding the optimal energy product requires detailed analysis on the part of the entrepreneur. This report will provide inputs and frameworks for analysis, as well as data that can be used for the analysis. Determining the optimal energy product is not a scientific exercise alone; the decision could be based on business and economic related factors as well. For example, an entrepreneur might wish to concentrate on the aviation market in her region and hence decide to focus on producing aviation jet fuel (JP8) at the lowest possible cost from algae. The section corresponding to each energy product provides more details on the potential, processes and challenges for each energy product. These data will be useful for evaluating the various product options.

1.8 Algae to Energy – Summary of Processes for Each Energy Product In order to derive the various energy products from algae, the algal biomass needs to be put through different processes. The main categories of processes used to derive algae energy products are:

Combination of Thermal and Chemical processes (Thermochemical processes) – eg.

Gasification+Fischer-Tropsch


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Combination of Mechanical and Chemical Processes – eg. Oil Extraction + Transesterification Thermal Processes – eg. Combustion Biochemical Processes – eg. Fermentation

The good news is that most of the categories of processes (except perhaps some types of biochemical processes) mentioned above are fairly well-known in terms of real life usage, and almost every one of them has been used for decades in industry. However, efforts to use these processes to derive energy products from algae are still in the early stages.

Transesterification

Methanation

Fischer Tropsch

Fermentation

Biophotolysis

Combustion / Gasification / pyrolysis

Algal Biomass

Gasoline Wax Naphtha Kerosene Diesel

Electricity

Hydrogen

Ethanol

Ethylene

Acetic Acid

Formaldehyde

Methyl Acetate

DME

Fermentation

IGCC/ IC /Fuel cell

Methane

Gasification

Catalytic Synthesis

Syngas Methanol

Algal Oil

Anaerobic digestion

Extraction

Paths to the Various Energy Products from Algae


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The summary of the prominent processes for various energy end products is mentioned below. More details on each process are provided in the various chapters that follow.

Summary of Prominent Processes for the Main Energy Products from Algae

Final Product Processes

Biodiesel Oil extraction and transesterification

Ethanol Fermentation and distillation

Methane Anaerobic digestion of biomass Methanation of syngas produced from biomass

Hydrogen Biochemical processes in algae Gasification / pyrolysis of biomass and processing of resulting

syngas.

Heat & Electricity Direct combustion of algal biomass Gasification of biomass

Other Hydrocarbon Fuels

Gasification/pyrolysis of biomass and processing of resulting syngas

Note: The processes mentioned in the table are the most prominent processes being used today for the corresponding end-products. It is possible to produce many of the end products via a few other less-used processes as well

1.9 Trends & Future of Energy from Algae Owing to its nascent status, the future of fuels from algae is a difficult area to make precise predictions. Based on all the facts and happenings, the following are what we predict: (Apr 2010) 1. In the next 2-3 years, one or more companies will be able to prove that they can

indeed produce fuel from algae in a cost-effective manner in laboratory conditions 2. In the next 5-7 years, one or more companies will be able to start supplying fuel

from algae commercially, though possibly not on a nationwide basis 3. In about 10 years from now (2020), fuel from algae could indeed start meeting a

significant part of our energy needs.

1.10 Factoids

Some Facts on Algae & Energy from Algae Micro-algae are the fastest growing photosynthesizing organisms. They can

complete an entire growing cycle every few days.


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Under optimum growing conditions micro-algae are reported to produce up to

10,000 gallons of oil/hectare/year. Some research suggests that it could be as high as 15,000 gallons per hectare per year.

Different algae species produce different amounts of oil. Some algae (diatoms for instance) produce up to 40% oil by weight2.

Some commercial efforts into large scale algal-cultivation systems are looking to tie in to existing infrastructures, such as coal power plants or sewage treatment facilities. This approach not only provides the raw materials for the system, such as CO2 and nutrients; but it changes those wastes into resources. In fact, some consider that algae's real contribution might not be just in reducing carbon emissions but rather in offering a viable holistic approach to integrating waste and resources. It will be interesting to turn the industrial waste products from brewing beer, making concrete, produce CO2, or burning fossil fuels into clean, green energy. And on top of that, some systems promise turning dirty, nutrient filled sewage into fresh water. These appear to be better ways to turn waste into a revenue stream and low-carbon energy, while at the same time mitigating air and water pollution, providing a win-win situation for producer, consumer, and the environment.

2 http://www.castoroil.in/reference/plant_oils/uses/fuel/sources/algae/biodiesel_algae.html

http://www.castoroil.in/reference/plant_oils/uses/fuel/sources/algae/biodiesel_algae.html


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SUMMARY

1. Algae can be broadly classified into microalgae and macroalgae.

2. Microalgae, owing to their relatively high oil content can be feedstocks for biodiesel

while macroalgae can be the feedstock for ethanol.

3. Apart from biodiesel and ethanol, algae can also be used as feedstock to produce

other energy products including electricity.

4. The primary advantages of algae as a feedstock for fuels are their high yield, ability

to grow in a range of environments, and potential for bioremediation.

5. The upstream processes (and their challenges) in the algae energy value chain are

more unique and hence deserve closer attention than the downstream processes.


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2. Algal Strain Selection 2.1 Importance of Algal Strain Selection 2.2 Parameters for Strain Selection 2.3 Strains with High Oil Content & Suitable for Mass Production 2.4 Strains with High Carbohydrate Content 2.5 Strains – Factoids 2.6 Challenges & Efforts

HIGHLIGHTS

It is estimated that there are over 30,000 strains of algae, and hence choosing the most suitable strain for a specific type of culture medium and for a desired type of final energy product could be a resource intensive exercise.

Choosing the most suitable algal strain needs consideration of parameters, such as the end products available, energy yield, performance in mass culture, and complexity of structure.

While microalgae are currently the more preferred choice owing to their high oil content, macroalgae have their advantages as well, and thus could be considered in future as a biofuel feedstock.

2.1 Importance of Algal Strain Selection Estimates show that there are over 30,000 different strains of algae. While such a large number might indicate exceptional potential for energy production from algae, in reality, only a small percentage of these could be used to derive energy in an economically sustainable manner. There are a number of reasons behind this fact and these will be detailed in subsequent chapters. What such a fact indicates however is that it is critical that the most suitable strain is chosen for a specific type of culture medium and for a desired type of final energy product. For instance, if the end-product is biodiesel, it is crucial that you identify reliable algal strains that are capable of producing high levels of algae oil as well as being resistant to contamination, adaptable to temperature extremes, tolerant of high oxygen levels and suited to local water conditions in growth ponds. The above points make it very clear that: (a) Selecting the right strain is of critical importance in making fuel from algae

economically viable and sustainable (b) It is likely that considerable resources need to be dedicated to such an algal strain

selection exercise.


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2.2 Parameters for Strain Selection Based on an analysis of a number of studies published in this area, the following criteria are the most important for selection of strains: Energy yield (growth rate x energy content) Type of fuel products available from biomass - It is essential to decide on the type of

fuel (biodiesel, ethanol, jet fuel) before choosing the strain. Environmental tolerance range - Includes tolerance to temperature, salinity, pH

based on the area in which culturing is done Performance in mass culture - Includes properties such as highly competitive nature

and resistance to predators Media supplementation requirements - Includes requirement of vitamins and

minerals for the growth of particular strain Amount of culture and composition data available on the clone or strain Less complex structure – Less complex the structure, more easy to extract oil

2.3 Strains with High Oil Content & Suitable for Mass Production The following species listed are currently being studied for their suitability as a mass-oil producing crop, across various locations worldwide.

Bacilliarophy (diatom algae) This was one of the favoured algae by NREL researchers during the Aquatic Species Program (ASP). The diatom algae need silicon in the water to grow, whereas green algae require nitrogen to grow. Under nutrient deficiency the algae produced more oils per weight of algae; however the algae growths also were significantly less. While certain green algae strains are very tolerant to temperature fluctuations, diatoms have a relatively narrow temperature range. Approximate oil content of two species of diatoms: Chaetoceros muelleri (33%) Nitzschia communis (45 – 50%)

Botryococcus braunii A green alga, Botryococcus comes up repeatedly in nearly every forum, initiative and discussion about the potential to create biodiesel from algae. This strain specifically can


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produce hydrocarbons which represent 86% of its dry weight3 (weight of the algae with all water removed). It is a green alga that is very unique in its ability to produce these hydrocarbons. Botryococcus is believed to be an ascendant of the organic compounds which make up most of the world’s fossil fuel deposits. On the flip side, Botryococcus could pose problems as feedstock for lipid based fuel production due to its slow growth (one doubling every 72 hours). However, research (Qin) has showed that the doubling time could be reduced to 48 hours in its optimal growth environment. Solix Biofuels, one of the prominent algae biofuels company is reported to be using this strain. When colonies of the strain are grown, they show up as floating mass blooms enabling easy skimming harvesting off of the top of the growth medium. According to research done at Flinders University in Australia, optimal growth conditions to ensure maximum biomass and maximum hydrocarbon output are: Ambient temperature of 23 degrees Celsius (73.4 o F) A light intensity of 30-60 W/m2 A photoperiod of 12 hours light and 12 hours dark Salinity of 8.8% (brackish waters) With these conditions satisfied, strain cells doubled approximately every two days. Oil content range: 25-60%

Dunaliella Spp. Dunaliella, a green alga grows in a wide range of marine and freshwater habitats such as oceans, brine lakes, salt marshes and salt-water ditches near the sea, predominantly in water bodies containing more than 10% salt. The oil content is approximately 25% dry weight4. Oil content range: 20-25%

3http://74.125.153.132/search?q=cache:ZbtHeIQki3wJ:algafarm.com/resources/IOE499reportalgaestrains.doc+This+strain+specifically+can+produce+hydrocarbons+which+represent+86%25+of+its+dry+weight&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in 4 Ami Ben-Amotz ., (1995). New Mode of Dunaliella Biotechnology: Two-Phase Growth for Β-Carotene

Production. Journal of Applied Phycology, Vol 7, (1) Feb. Retrieved from: http://www.springerlink.com/content/g8p130n72153k650/fulltext.pdf

http://74.125.153.132/search?q=cache:ZbtHeIQki3wJ:algafarm.com/resources/IOE499reportalgaestrains.doc+This+strain+specifically+can+produce+hydrocarbons+which+represent+86%25+of+its+dry+weight&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in



http://www.springerlink.com/content/g8p130n72153k650/fulltext.pdf


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Dunaliella tertiolecta A marine chlorophyte, this unicellular alga strain is reported to have oil yield of about 37% (organic basis). D. tertiolecta is a fast growing strain and that means it has a high CO2 sequestration rate as well. The ASP Program of NREL noted the following about the Dunaliella species: In Dunaliella neutral lipids accounted for 58.5% of the lipid mass, whereas phospholipids and galactolipids were 22.9% and 10.9% of the lipid mass, respectively. Isoprenoid hydrocarbons (including β-carotene) and aliphatic hydrocarbons (in which the major components were tentatively identified as straight chain and methyl-branched C17 and C19 hydrocarbons with various degrees of unsaturation) represented 7.0% and 5.2% of the lipids, respectively. The major fatty acids present were palmitic (20.6%), linolenic (12.5%), linoleic (10.7%) and palmitoleic (7.8%).” Oil content range: Approx 40%

Euglena gracilis Algae belonging to the Euglena species are protists that can eat food like animals do (partly heterotrophic) and can make food like plants do (partly autotrophic). Many Euglenas contain chloroplasts and chlorophyll a and b. Euglena species live in fresh water, salt water and in the soil. When the water dries up, a Euglena forms a protective wall around itself and lies dormant in the form of a spore until the environment improves. The ASP Program of NREL noted that “Euglena is unique compared to most algae of interest to the ASP as potential producers of biodiesel. Euglena produces both lipid (primarily in form of the wax ester myristyl-miristate) and carbohydrate (the major product is paramylum, a β-1, 3-glucan) as storage products.” Euglena has a lipid content of 14-20% by dry weight. The optimal temperature requirement is 27-31 degrees Celsius (80.6-87.8 degrees Fahrenheit). The strain enjoys a carbon dioxide concentration within the medium of 4% and an oxygen concentration of 20%. The lighting requirement for the strain is a photosynthetic photon flux of 100 micromoles m-2 s-1. Euglena can be acquired easily from a variety of public sources. Oil content range: 14-20%

Isochrysis galbana Isochrysis galbana is a microalga that has been shown to be an outstanding food for various bivalve larvae.


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Isochrysis is a small golden/brown flagellate that is very commonly used in the aquaculture industry. It is high in DHA and often used to enrich zooplankton such as rotifers or Artemia. Isochrysis is a primary alga used in shellfish hatcheries and used in some shrimp hatcheries. Isochrysis has been widely used as a mariculture feed due to its high content of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (Jeffrey et al., 1994). Isochrysis galbana does not have an established genetic system, and has a growth rate of ~0.6 doublings / day5. Oil content range: 25-30%

Nannochloropsis salina Nannochloropsis is a small green algae that are extensively used in the aquaculture industry for growing small zooplankton such as rotifers. It is also used in reef tanks for feeding corals and other filter feeders. Nannochloropsis salina is also called Nannochloris oculata, and is a yellow-green alga. In the same group are Nannochloris atomus, Nannochloris maculata, Nannochloropsis gaditana, and Nannochloropsis oculata Oil content range: 25-30%

Nannochloris sp. Nannochloris is a species of green algae in the family Coccomyxaceae. Oil content range: 20-35%

Neochloris oleoabundans Neochloris oleoabundans is a microalga belonging in the class Chlorophyceae, a class of green algae. Chlorophyceae share many similarities with the higher plants, including the presence of asymmetrical flagellated cells, breakdown of the nuclear envelope at mitosis, and the presence of phytochromes, flavonoids, and the chemical precursors to the cuticle.

5 Enrique V. E, Roberto. M & Filiberto. N. (2001). Protein, Carbohydrate, Lipid and Chlorophyll A Content In Isochrysis Aff. Galbana (Clone T-Iso) Cultured With a Low Cost Alternative to the F/2 Medium. Aquacultural Engineering, Vol 25(4), Jan, Pages 207-216. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T4C-44M2WPC-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1070583966&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=98488d1fb4c53eb32794dc34bdc386e4

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T4C-44M2WPC-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1070583966&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=98488d1fb4c53eb32794dc34bdc386e4





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Neochloris oleoabundans does not have an established genetic system, and has a growth rate of ~0.6 doublings / day. It has lipid content of 35 – 54% dry weight. Mean unsaturated fatty acids (UFA)6 as % TFA is significantly higher in N. oleoabundans. The average pH for cultivation is 7.01. Oil content range: 35-54%

Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum is a diatom. It is the only species in the genus Phaeodactylum. Phaeodactylum tricornutum is one of two diatoms to have its genome sequenced (the other being Thalassiosira pseudonana). This algae species grows in wide range of regions - from France and Germany in Europe to Novia Scotia in North America. In terms of use by the industry, Solazyme announced in Feb 2008 that it had introduced a fundamental metabolic change in Phaeodactylum tricornutum so that it no longer required light to grow. Oil content range: 20-30%

Pleurochrysis carterae Pleurochrysis carterae is a unicellular coccolithophorid alga that has the ability to calcify subcellularly. It is a member of the class Haptophyta (Prymnesiophyceae). They produce calcified scales, known as coccoliths, which are deposited on the surface of the cell resulting in the formation of a coccosphere. Pleurochrysis carterae has a growth rate of ~0.6 doublings / day. On the flip side, the following could be some of the bottlenecks while using this strain:

The high amount of calcium in this strain might present a problem for oil extraction.

It is not a good choice for regions which have hot climate since it requires more than 15 to 20°C conditions.

Oil content range: 20-25%

Prymnesium parvum

6 Gatenby Catherine M., Orcutt David M. (2003), Biochemical Composition of Three Algal Species Proposed as Food for Captive Freshwater Mussels, Journal of applied phycology, vol. 15, pp. 1-11. Retrieved from: http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14695026

http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14695026


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Prymnesium parvum is a toxic alga. It is a haptophyte, belonging to Haptophyta (Prymnesiophyta). It is a flagellated alga that is normally found suspended in the water column. It was first identified in North America in 1985. Toxin production mainly leads to fish kills and appears to have little effect on cattle or humans. New evidence has shown that the toxins produced by this alga are induced by physiological stresses, such as N and P depletion due to competition with the environment. P. parvum grows in a salinity range of 0.1%-10% with an optimum at 0.3-6% although strains collected in different places appear to have different salinity tolerances. The alga produces dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) and other unknown polyols, likely as an adaptation to osmoregulation. The temperature range which allows survival of P. parvum is between 2 and 30oC. Growth as low as pH of 5.8 has been observed, but cells typically prefer higher pH ranges. The organism is capable of heterotrophic growth in the dark in the presence of glycerol and grazes on bacteria, especially when phosphate is limiting. It has therefore been hypothesized that P. parvum satisfies its phosphate needs by eating bacteria. P. parvum can use a wide range of nitrogen sources, including ammonium, nitrate, amino acids (which ones apparently depends of pH), creatine, but is unable to use urea. Known as golden algae, Prymnesium has lipid content on average of 22-38%. The difficulty that comes with prymnesium is that it could prove problematic when dealt with in large quantities, owing to its toxicity. Oil content range: 22-38%

Scenedesmus dimorphus Scenedesmus dimorphus is a unicellular alga in the class Chlorophyceae. While this is one of the preferred species for oil yield for biodiesel (some studies indicating it could have as high as 40% lipids by weight), one of the problems with Scenedesmus is that it is heavy, and forms thick sediments if it is not kept in constant agitation. Scenedesmus has a lipid content of 16-40%. According to many professionals, Scenedesmus is a very promising strain that should be further researched. The optimal growth temperature falls between 30-35oC (86-95oF). This is one of the favourites of the high-yield oil for biodiesel, but one problem is that it produces thick sediments if it is not shaken suitably. Scenedesmus can be acquired from a variety of public sources. Oil content range: 16-40%


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Tetraselmis chui Tetraselmis chui is a marine unicellular alga. Tetraselmis spp. is large green flagellates with a very high lipid level. They contain natural amino acids that stimulate feeding in marine animals. They are an excellent feed for larval shrimp. Tetraselmis chui does not have an established genetic system, and has a growth rate of ~0.6 doublings / day. Oil content range: 40-45%

Tetraselmis suecica Tetraselmis suecica is a green alga, a marine phytoplankton commonly utilized in aquaculture. Oil content range: 20-30%

2.4 Strains with High Carbohydrate Content

Microalgae Strains with High Carbohydrate Content (by dry weight)

Species Carbohydrate Lipids

Scenedesmus dimorphus 21-52 16-40

Spirogyra sp. 33-64 11-21

Euglena gracilis 14-18 14-20

Prymnesium parvum 25-33 22-38

Porphyridium cruentum 40-57 9-14

Anabaena cylindrica 25-30 4-7

Source: Becker, (1994).

Macroalgae Strains with High Carbohydrate Content (by dry weight)

Species Carbohydrate

Ulva retticulata 23.1 ± 5.4

Gracilaria crassa 28.2 ± 3.1

Chaetomorpha crassa 13.4 ± 4.3

Eucheuma denticulatum 15.2


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2.5 Strains – Factoids Strains capable of producing large amounts of lipids tend to do so when they are

starved of nutrients. But starvation also slows growth. Some researchers hope to genetically modify algae to produce more oil. Others have taken a different approach and produced yellow algae that allow light to penetrate further into ponds, promoting more uniform growth.

Researchers at Khon Kaen University (KKU) in Thailand have discovered a new species of algae, which could be used for the commercial production of biodiesel as early as April 2009. The species, labelled KKU-S2, was found on the surface of a freshwater pond at the university, and was quickly identified as a promising source of alternative fuel. Speaking about the discovery, the team leader said, “We can extract oil from this species. Its properties are fit for biodiesel production. Within two days, the number of this alga can double, and within a week or two we can extract oil from it” – Oct 2008

Dunaliella is known for its ability to accumulate significant quantities of lipids suitable for biodiesel and for its ability to accumulate large quantities of beta-carotene, which is currently used for both human/animal nutrition and as an additive to reduce emissions from diesel fuels. It also produces a number of other high value compounds. The laboratory of Dr. Jurgen Polle at Brooklyn College of the City University of New York is an acknowledged leader in Dunaliella physiology and genetics.

The ASP Program recommended that efforts be made to naturally select strains at the locations that would likely be commercial microalgal production sites. In this manner, the algae would be exposed to the prevailing environmental conditions, particularly the indigenous waters.

Some promising macroalgae strains include

Chaetomorpha linum Gracilariopsis longissima Ulva lactuca Sargassum horneri

2.6 Challenges & Efforts

Which is Better - Microalgae or Macroalgae? The selection of strains having high growth rate and high biomass yield is an important area of algae biofuel research. It is a critical task because of the very large number of microalgae and macroalgae species to be considered. In the process of species selection, microalgae are being widely researched as a fuel due to their high photosynthetic efficiency and their ability to produce lipids, a biodiesel


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feedstock. Macroalgae generally contain only negligible amounts of lipids, but are being considered for the natural sugars and other carbohydrates they contain, which can be fermented to produce either biogas or alcohol-based fuels. Thus, there exists significant potential for energy generation from both macroalgae and microalgae. The key barrier to be addressed for optimal strain selection is to identify the microalgae or the macroalgae species with promising lipid yields/ carbohydrate content, and other desirable characteristics for ease of cultivation and processing. In general, one could say that microalgae are the preferred route for biodiesel production using the transesterification route. In the case of macroalgae, either the fermentation route could be used to make ethanol or thermochemical routes could be used to produce a range of hydrocarbon fuels. Another method of using macroalgae is the direct combustion of the biomass to produce heat and electricity. Some researches suggest that ash chemistry restricts the use of macroalgae for direct combustion and gasification, but more research is ongoing in this area.

Role of Genetic Engineering in Strain Selection In recent days, scientists are conducting extensive research to improve algae strains using genetic engineering and thereby enhance production of Biofuel at a larger scale. Genetic approaches in algal biofuel production play a key role because:

They can aid in understanding the regulation of algal lipid metabolism and carbon partitioning under different growth conditions.

They can be used to metabolically engineer or select for abundant lipid production coupled with high biomass accumulation.

They can be used to facilitate large scale processing of microalgae. The critical factors that influence cost during cultivation are biological in nature, and are not engineering-related. These signify a need for productive organisms capable of high levels of conversion of sunlight to biomass and invulnerable to contamination. In order to achieve this, companies are reported to be using genetically modified algae. The following are the companies that are believed to be using or developing genetically enhanced algae in biofuel production.

Algenol Biofuels Aurora Biofuels AXI LLC Kent BioEnergy Corporation Kuehnle AgroSystems


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Planktonix Corporation Sapphire Energy Solazyme Synthetic Genomics Targeted Growth

Algenol Biofuels Inc. - Algenol Biofuels Inc. is pursuing a strategy different from most other algal biofuel companies: it is developing technology to use metabolically enhanced algae to produce ethanol, in a process it calls its DIRECT TO ETHANOL™ technology. The company claims to have engineered cyanobacteria to express the enzymes pyruvate decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase, allowing the algae to convert the common Krebs cycle molecule pyruvate first to acetaldehyde and then to ethanol, linking ethanol production to the photosynthesis that drives algal growth and metabolism. Aurora Biofuels - Aurora Biofuels scientists have developed a proprietary process which allows for the superior selection and breeding of non-transgenic algae. With this novel technique, the company has optimized its base algae strains with an increased ability to process sunlight and carbon dioxide into algal oil. As a result, these algae strains can produce more than twice the amount of oil. Optimized algae have been producing oil in Aurora Biofuels' outdoor pilot ponds for several months, providing strong evidence that these strains will remain robust at the industrial scale and remove more carbon emissions than previously thought possible. AXI, LLC - AXI, LLC, a joint venture between the venture capital firm Allied Minds and the University of Washington, has created a novel technology to create improved strains of algae for the production of biofuels. AXI is initially targeting the development of unique physiological traits that permit efficient growth and processing of algae using proprietary techniques and supported by 25 years of primary phycology research. Kent BioEnergy Corporation - The efforts taken by Kent BioEnergy Corporation are noteworthy. With their experience in culturing algae to identify genetic targets to augment all aspects of algae production, harvesting and processing cycle, the researchers are exploring to develop specialized, high performance microalgae through metabolic pathway modulation, development of enhanced lipid production, non-endogenous gene expression (transgenics), and enhancement of lipid extraction. Kuehnle AgroSystems - Kuehnle AgroSystems is an algae feedstock and strain development company that develops algae by traditional and GMO strategies for the renewable fuel and chemical markets, as well as strains for aquaculture. The company, based in Honolulu, HI, produces customized EliteAlgaeTM and MightyMealTM strains of algae and is also providing algae strains for several federally-funded algae biofuels programs. Kuehnle is developing modified algae for closed bioreactor systems, creating


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platform technology to enable genetic manipulation of multiple species of algae, including custom strain development for end user clients. Planktonix Corporation is utilizing a coalition-based approach for research, development, deployment and commercialization of microcrop-based (green algae and cyanobacteria) biofuels production. The company is developing algae strains for algal and cyanobacterial biomass-to-lipid biodiesel/biocrude production (with a 100,000 GPY pilot production facility planned with coalition partners, targeted to break ground in 2010) Sapphire Energy - The company is developing industrial algae strains through synthetic biology and breeding techniques and is building the technologies and systems for CO2 utilization, cultivation, harvesting and refining. The algae and processes developed are field tested at a New Mexico research and development center where all the processes -from biology to cultivation to harvest and extraction - can be performed at a pilot scale. These processes result in a product called Green Crude which can be refined into gasoline, diesel or jet fuel. Synthetic Genomics Inc. - Synthetic Genomics Inc. was founded to commercialize genomic-driven technologies, and is based on the pioneering research of its founders J. Craig Venter, Ph.D., Nobel Laureate Hamilton O. Smith, M.D., and the leading scientific teams they have assembled. Synthetic Genomics’ team has developed a genetically optimized algal species, so that almost half of the organism’s mass consists of lipids, a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols and other energy storage compounds. Now the team is enhancing the organism further to make even more lipids. Targeted Growth, Inc. (TGI) - TGI is a crop biotechnology company focused on developing products with enhanced yield and improved quality for the agriculture and energy industries. The company is reportedly focusing on cultivation and genetic engineering of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) algae strains for use in production of renewable fuels.

Efforts & Examples in Strain Selection The Aquatic Species Program of the NREL (USA) did not specify any one species or

strain to be the best, though they did conclude that the diatoms and secondly green algae were the most promising.

HR Biopetroleum has done some experiments with Haematococcus pluvialis. Solazyme - The Company was awarded a Phase I STTR to pursue genetic engineering

of Dunaliella, green eukaryotic microalgae, in June 2006. New Mexico research team is two years from “major” brine-based algae production

test - July, 2008 - In New Mexico, the Center for Excellence for Hazardous Materials Management in Carlsbad said that it is less than two years from a major algae oil


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making demonstration using five strains of algae that have been undergoing research at the center since 2006. The researchers have focused on brine-based algae because of their ability to thrive in salty water and other conditions unsuitable for cultivation of other food crops. The team believes that they can achieve production of up to 8,000 gallons per acre per annum.

Researchers at the University of California at Berkeley have engineered C. reinhardtii which could produce vast amounts of hydrogen through photosynthesis.

Miyamoto et al. (1986) conducted outdoor experiments on hydrogen production by Anabaena cylindrica, in California.

The work of Gaffron and Rubin (1942) demonstrated that Scenedesmus produced hydrogen gas not only under light conditions, but also produced it fermentatively under dark anaerobic conditions, with intracellular starch as a reducing source

Asada and Kawamura (1986) determined that cyanobacteria also produce hydrogen gas auto-fermentatively under dark and anaerobic conditions. Spirulina species were demonstrated to have the highest activity among cyanobacteria tested.

A study was undertaken at the Univ of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia to test two strains of algae for biodiesel production. In this study the team used common species Oedogonium and Spirogyra to compare the amount of biodiesel production. Algal oil and biodiesel production was higher in Oedogonium than Spirogyra sp. However, biomass (after oil extraction) was higher in Spirogyra than Oedogonium sp. Sediments (glycerine, water and pigments). There was no difference of pH between Spirogyra and Oedogonium sp. These results indicate that biodiesel can be produced from both species and Oedogonium is better source than Spirogyra sp.7

7 Sharif Hossain A.B.M., Aishah Salleh, A Nasrulhaq Boyce, Partha prathim and Mohd Naqiuddin. (2008). Biodiesel production from algae as renewable energy. American Journal of Biochemistry and Biotechnology 4(3): 250-254. Retrieved from: http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/ajbb/ajbb43250-254.pdf

http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/ajbb/ajbb43250-254.pdf


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SUMMARY

1. Algae strain selection, while likely to be a resource intensive step, is critical for

the success of algae energy business.

2. There are known species of microalgae that contain high oil content and

macroalgae species that are high in carbohydrates.

3. Some of the strains suggested by NREL suited for efficient fuel production are

the diatoms and the green algae.

4. While currently microalgae are the more preferred class of algae for biofuel

production, in future there could be considerable research in macroalgal species

as well.


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3. Algae Cultivation 3.1 Introduction & Concepts 3.2 Algaculture 3.3 Algae Cultivation in Various Scales 3.3.1 Algae Cultivation in Lab-scale 3.3.1.1 Isolation of Algae 3.3.1.2 Cultivation in Lab Scale 3.3.1.3 Biochemical Analysis of Algal Samples 3.3.2 Algae cultivation in commercial scale 3.3.2.1 Ponds 3.3.2.2 Photobioreactors 3.4 Different Methods of Cultivation 3.5 Algae Cultivation –Factoids 3.6 Worldwide Locations with Algae Farms & Algae Cultivation 3.7 Algae Cultivation Challenges 3.8 Research & Publications 3.9 Reference

HIGHLIGHTS

Cultivating algae for fuel is an area where significant experimentation and research are still required.

Two main methods of algae cultivation in commercial scale are: ponds which could comprise open or closed ponds, and closed photobioreactor systems. Open ponds are more economical than photobioreactors, but photobioreactors provide much higher control of the environment and thus higher yields than open ponds.

The lab-scale algal culture facility is a vital part of all mass cultivation efforts.

The NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA), in its Acquatic Species Program favoured unlined “raceway” ponds which were stirred using a paddle wheel, and had carbon dioxide bubbled through it.

3.1 Introduction & Concepts Similar to plants, algae require primarily three components to grow: sunlight, carbon-di-oxide and water (and nutrients for better growth). Like plants again, they use the sunlight for the process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is an important biochemical process in which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert the energy of sunlight to chemical energy. This chemical energy is used to drive chemical reactions such as the formation of sugars or the fixation of nitrogen into amino acids, the building blocks for protein synthesis.


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Algae capture light energy through photosynthesis and convert inorganic substances into simple sugars using the captured energy. Plant leaves take in carbon from the carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, but algae need carbon in the water. As algae grow so quickly that atmospheric CO2 cannot penetrate the water fast enough to sustain growth, carbon must be added for quick growth. Thus, algae cultivation is an environmentally friendly process for the production of organic material by photosynthesis from carbon dioxide, light energy and water. The water used by algae can be of low quality, including industrial process water, effluent of biological water treatment or other waste water streams. Culturing algae requires the input of light as an energy source for photosynthesis and a sufficient supply of nutrients in dissolved form in the culture medium. In particular, these are: carbon in the form of CO2, water, nitrogen, phosphate and other nutrients including sulphur, potassium, magnesium and trace elements. Two types of algae culture systems are in use. On one hand, there are the ponds which could comprise open systems or closed ponds. On the other hand there are the closed photobioreactor systems which usually take the form of upright, horizontal tube or panel systems. The open systems, in order to increase their efficiency, are generally designed as a continuous culture in which a fixed supply of culture medium or influent ensures constant dilution of the system. The organisms adapt their growth rate to this dilution regime, with the organism best adapted to the environment prevailing in the system winning the competition with the other organisms. A drawback of the common open algae culture systems is the major risk of contamination by undesirable photosynthetic micro-organisms which can be introduced via air or rain. Such infections can be prevented only by choosing a culture medium which is unfavourable for infectious and other undesirable micro-organisms and favourable to growth of the desired alga species, so that the latter can win the competition. In a limited number of cases this is possible. For example, in the open culture of Spirulina a high pH and high alkalinity are selective for this alga species. Apart from Spirulina a number of Chlorella species (such as C. pyrenoidosa and C. vulgaris) and Dunaliella species (inter alia Dunaliella salina) are thus grown on a relatively large scale. The selective advantages which make this possible for these groups of algae are, respectively: the high growth rate which allows the competition from other organisms to be won (in the case of Chlorella sp.) and the salt water environment (in the case of Dunaliella sp.). For most micro-algae species, however, it is the case that the culture conditions are insufficiently selective to enable readily controllable cultivation in large-


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scale open systems. Consequently, the production potential of algae remains largely unused. Even if the application of selective conditions via the composition of the culture medium is possible, this has drawbacks, as the effluent after separation of the biomass cannot be reused. In the cultivation of Spirulina sp., for example, the consequence is that the effluent has a high pH and alkalinity and thus is unusable for many purposes. While cultivation in saltwater-as with Dunaliella sp.-is selective for Dunaliella (and possibly other algae groups) it equally does not lead to a reusable effluent. Culturing selected algae species in an open continuous culture in combination with reuse of the effluent has consequently been very difficult. An alternative to the outlined problems could be to carry out algae cultivation in closed photobioreactors. In these, the process conditions can be accurately controlled, and no infection carrying alga species will occur. A major drawback of the closed photobioreactors resides in the high investment costs which lead to high production costs. Thus, cultivating algae for fuel is an area where more experimentation and research are still required.

3.2 Algaculture Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of algae. A majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae. Macroalgae, commonly known as seaweed, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation on a large scale as microalgae, and are most often harvested wild from the ocean. When cultivating algae, several factors must be considered, and different algae have different requirements. The water must have micro and macro nutrients that are essential for algal growth. Apart from this light, temperature range, and optimum pH that will support the specific algal species should be checked. Nutrients must be controlled so that the algae will not be "starved" and the nutrients will not be wasted. Light must not be too strong nor too weak. Some of the algae mass culture techniques are: Monoculture; Mixed-species algal culture; Open-pond cultures; Photosynthetic cultures; Mixotrophic cultivation of microalgae; Deep mass culture; Batch Culture & Semi-continuous culture.


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Algae Monoculture Often it is desired to grow just one species of algae in each growing vessel. With mixed cultures, one species tends to dominate over time and if a non-dominant species is believed to have particular nutritive value for some larval animal, it is necessary to obtain pure cultures in order to cultivate this species. Individual species cultures are also needed for research purposes. Development of media for a strain should mimic the site from where it is collected hence it is necessary to analyze the collection site.

Photosynthetic Cultures Photosynthetic culture systems are generally flat bioreactors spread out to maximize the surface exposed to light and often draw the analogy to acre-sized photosynthetic “leaves”.

Mixotrophic Cultivation of Microalgae Mixotrophic culture, which usually gives a high biomass, is very important in high density cultivation of microalgae. Mixotrophic cultures using bioreactor technology may provide a cost-effective alternative cultivation method for microalgae that can utilize organic carbon sources (Chen, 1996). By using these modes of cultivation technology, the requirement for light can be eliminated or reduced, and cell density and productivity can be greatly increased.

Batch Culture The batch culture consists of a single inoculation of cells into a container of fertilized seawater followed by a growing period of several days and finally harvesting when the algal population reaches its maximum or near-maximum density. In practice, algae are transferred to larger culture volumes prior to reaching the stationary phase and the larger culture volumes are then brought to a maximum density and harvested. Batch culture systems are widely applied because of their simplicity and flexibility, enabling change of species and rapid remediation of defects in the system. Although often considered as the most reliable method, batch culture is not necessarily the most efficient method. Batch cultures are harvested just prior to the initiation of the stationary phase and must thus always be maintained for a substantial period of time past the maximum specific growth rate. Also, the quality of the harvested cells may be less predictable than that in continuous systems and for example vary with the timing of the harvest (time of the day, exact growth phase).


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Another disadvantage in batch cultures is the need to prevent contamination during the initial inoculation and early growth period. Because the density of the desired phytoplankton is low and the concentration of nutrients is high, any contaminant with a faster growth rate is capable of outgrowing the culture. Batch cultures also require a lot of labour to harvest, clean, sterilize, refill, and inoculate the containers.

Semi-continuous Culture The semi-continuous technique prolongs the use of large tank cultures by partial periodic harvesting followed immediately by topping up to the original volume and supplementing with nutrients to achieve the original level of enrichment. The culture is grown up again, partially harvested, and so on. Semi-continuous cultures may be indoors or outdoors. Since the culture is not harvested completely, the semi-continuous method yields more algae than the batch method for a given tank size.

Factors that Determine Algal Growth Rate The following are the important factors that determine the growth rate of algae Light - Light is needed for the photosynthesis process Temperature: There is an ideal temperature range that is required for algae to grow Medium/Nutrients - Composition of the water is an important consideration Salinity – While algae may adapt to a wide range of salinity, many species do not

tolerate a large sudden change in salinity. pH - Algae typically need a pH between 7 and 9 to have an optimum growth rate Algae Type - Different types of algae have different growth rates Aeration - The algae need to have contact with air, for its CO2 requirements Alkalinity - High alkalinity promotes calcification and this encourages the rapid

growth of calcifying algae such as red coralline algae and green Halimeda spp. High alkalinity combined with calcium dosing promotes the precipitation of phosphate and this limits algae growth.

Mixing - Mixing prevents sedimentation of algae and makes sure all cells are equally exposed to light

Photoperiod: Light & dark cycles

Temperature The optimal temperature for microalgae cultures is generally between 20 and 30º C Optimal temperatures vary with the species and strain cultured Temperatures lower than 16 º C slow down growth; Temperatures higher than 35 º

C are lethal for a number of species


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Outdoor algal cultures can be cooled by a flow of cold water over the surface of culture system

Controlling the air temperature indoors can be done with air-conditioning units.

Light Light intensity plays an important role, but the requirements vary greatly with the culture depth and the density of the algal culture: at higher depths and cell concentrations the light intensity must be increased to penetrate through the culture. Light may be natural or supplied by fluorescent tubes. Too high light intensity (e.g. direct sun light, small container close to artificial light) may result in photo-inhibition. Also, overheating due to both natural and artificial illumination should be avoided. Fluorescent tubes emitting either in the blue or the red light spectrum should be preferred as these are the most active portions of the light spectrum for photosynthesis8. Some Inputs from the NREL’s ASP Light Program Regarding Effect of Light in Algaculture The photosynthetic efficiency of algal cells grown in ponds may be increased in high

light by using mixing strategies that optimize this photomodulation effect A biophotolysis project tested an optical fiber system for diffusing solar light into

algal cultures, thereby overcoming the light saturation limitation to photosynthetic efficiencies

Cells shifted to a higher light intensity start growing at the rate of the higher light level cultures. However, lipid productivity shoots up to a much higher rate than with either of the steadily illuminated cultures.

Nutrients Algal cultures need to be enriched with nutrients to make up for the deficiencies in the seawater: In 1996, Molisch had observed that mineral nutrient requirements of algae were not different from those of higher plants. The major absolute requirements include carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen, sulphur, potassium and magnesium. Elements like iron and manganese are required in small amounts. Various other elements like calcium, sodium, cobalt, zinc, boron, copper and molybdenum are essential trace elements.9

8 Patrick L and Patrick S. (1996). FAO Fisheries Technical Paper - T361. Manual on the Production and Use of Live Food for Aquaculture. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3732e/w3732e06.htm 9 E.W. Becker

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3732e/w3732e06.htm


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Carbon Requirements Carbon can be supplied in the form of CO2 or in the form of sugars such as glucose, fructose, sucrose etc. A cheap source of sugar is molasses which on average contains 25% glucose, 25% fructose and 30% sucrose. Nitrogen Requirements In general, algae are able to utilize nitrate, ammonia or other organic sources of nitrogen such as urea. In practice, the preferred nitrogen supply is the form of ammonia or urea, either of which is economically more favorable than nitrate or nitrite, which is more expensive and requires energy for assimilation. Phosphorus Reqirements It is essential for almost all cellular processes including biosynthesis of nucleic acids, energy transfer etc. The major form in which algae acquire phosphorus is as inorganic phosphate, either as H2PO4

- and HPO42-

Sulphur Requirements Sulphur is a constituent of essential amino acids like methionine, cysteine and cystine. It is generally provided as inorganic sulphate in the culture medium. Some algae (Chlorella, Euglena) have been reported to be able to utilize organic sulphur sources, such as sulphur containing amino acids. Calcium Requirements Calcium ions may play a role in the maintenance of cytoplasmic membranes, salt formation with colloids and the precipitation of CaCO3. Calcium is involved in the formation of skeletons of certain algae and can be deposited in or on the cell walls of several algae as calcite. Sodium & Potassium Requirements Potassium is a requirement for all algae. Under potassium deficient conditions, growth and photosynthesis are reduced and respiration is high. This nutrient is a co-factor for several enzymes and is involved in protein synthesis and osmotic regulation. Sodium is necessary for all marine and halophilic algae. It has also been proposed that sodium is required in nitrogen fixing algae for the transformation of molecular nitrogen to ammonia. Because sodium and potassium have similar chemical characteristics, it has been assumed that sodium could replace potassium.


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Magnesium Requirements Because of the strategic position, magnesium occupies in the photosynthetic apparatus as a central atom of the chlorophyll molecule. All algal species have an absolute requirement for this element. In several green algae, magnesium deficiency interrupts cell division, resulting in abnormally large etiolated cells. Iron Requirements Iron is a key element in metabolism. It plays an important role in nitrogen assimilation and affects the synthesis of phycocynanin and chlorophyll. It is mostly supplied in the form of chelated complexes, preferably bound to ethylene diamine tetra aceticacid (FeEDTA). Requirements of Trace Elements Trace elements are required in very small amounts of micro-, nano-, or picograms per liter. Trace elements influence the growth in a number of species and have a positive effect on protein growth. The major trace elements in algal media are cobalt, zinc, nickel, manganese, copper, boron, vanadium and molybdenum.

Suggested Non-carbon Enrichment (mL/L)

Nitrogen source* (0.6 M. N) 1 mL

KH2PO4 (0.6M) 1 mL

PII Trace Metals 5 mL

B12 (1 mg/L) 1 mL

Thiamine-HCL (1 mg/L) 1 mL

Biotin (2 mg/L) 1 mL

* Nitrogen source indicated for individual species, ammonium as NH4Cl2, nitrate as KNO3. 250-500 mg/L Na2SiO3.9H2O should be added when cultivating diatoms in this medium Source: Becker, (1994)

Approximate nutrients required to produce 1 ton dry algae mass

CO2 (mass) - 1.8 T Nitrogen requirements (0.8% dw) – 0.008 T Phosphorus requirements (0.6% dw) – 0.006 T Sample nutrients for freshwater algae Ca(NO3)2; KH2PO4; MgSO4; NaHCO3 & trace elements / metals


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NaNO3; MgSO4; NaCl; K2HPO4; KH2PO4; CaCl2 & trace elements / metals Sample nutrients for blue green algae: NaNO3; Na2HPO4; K2HPO4 & trace elements / metals

pH - The pH range for most cultured algal species is between 7 and 9, with the optimum range being 8.2-8.7. Complete culture collapse due to the disruption of many cellular processes can result from a failure to maintain an acceptable pH. The latter is accomplished by aerating the culture. In the case of high-density algal culture, the addition of carbon dioxide allows to correct for increased pH, which may reach limiting values of up to pH 9 during algal growth.

Salinity - Marine phytoplankton are extremely tolerant to changes in salinity. Most species grow best at a salinity that is slightly lower than that of their native habitat, which is obtained by diluting sea water with tap water. Salinities of 20-24 g/l have been found to be optimal.

Aeration - Aeration of cultures serves to keep algae in suspension, to supply the carbon needed for plant growth and pH control, and to strip O2 from the culture media, preventing supersaturation. The aeration supplied to algae should be gentle during the first day or two after inoculation and then increased in rate as the culture grows.

World Map Indicating the Direct Normal Solar Irradiation The following map provides a representation of the regions worldwide that are best suited for algae cultivation. The yellow and red regions are the most suitable locations for algal production. The area highlighted in red receives direct radiation of 2500 – 3000 KWH/m2 per year and the area highlighted in yellow receives direct radiation of 2000 – 2500 KWH/m2 per year; these two regions are best suited for algae cultivation.

Source: Parliamentary Monitoring Group, South Africa - www.pmg.org.za/, 2007

http://www.pmg.org.za/


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3.3 Algae Cultivation in Various Scales Algae cultivation can be performed using a wide variety of methods, ranging from closely-controlled laboratory methods to less predictable methods in outdoor tanks. This chapter deals in detail about the various concepts and technologies of these methods.

3.3.1 Algae Cultivation in Lab Scale The lab-scale algal culture facility is a vital part of all mass cultivation facilities. It ensures the production of healthy monocultures of selected algal species. It is crucial to maintain mass cultivation systems such as raceway ponds and photobioreactors free of contaminants and excessive bacteria. Hence it is essential to setup a smaller incubation unit to maintain the stock cultures. Initial testing also requires lab-scale cultivation of algae. Lab-scale cultivation thus mimics the environment of the industrial mass cultivation of algae for a primary understanding. Algal strains can be collected from native environments, rather than just from culture collection centers. A screening tool will need to be developed to identify algae with desired characteristics like high oil content, high productivity in mass cultivation, reducing susceptibility to competing algae, grazers, and diseases, ability to be harvested by low-cost methods (e.g. simple flocculation-settling, bioflocculation); etc. The research involves growing algae strains under conditions that mimic the open pond environment and identifying and selecting algae that grow well under those conditions. The optimum temperature for the algal growth should be between 20 and 30°C, whereas the environmental temperatures required for algal growth ranged from 12°C - 24°C. Algae generally require a concentration of about 0.1% of yeast extract and 0.5% of glucose apart from their natural environmental conditions. In addition, enrichment culture techniques could potentially be used to understand the media required for a favored algal type to dominate in a culture.

Isolation of algae

Cultivation of algae in lab scale

Biochemical Analysis of Algal Samples


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3.3.1.1 Isolation of Algae Depending on the culture system used there are several ways to select for productive strains that are well adapted to the prevailing conditions. The general characteristics selected for are growth rate, biochemical composition, temperature tolerance and resistance to mechanical and physiological stress. Selection of these characteristics may be done in the laboratory, with subsequent testing in outdoor ponds or in the actual production system. This involves isolating the desired organism from other organism. Isolation of algae from a mixed culture necessitates the use of specific medium for the desired algae. The algae are isolated from soil using Benecke’s medium. The plate cultures are incubated at 30-35oC and lighted from above by 25 watt lamps. In about 15 days of incubation, algae growth can be seen. The algae are subcultured by transferring a few of the cells to Benecke’s agar in petridishes. They may be streaked repeatedly on the agar medium so as to obtain single colonies. Fogg’s medium is generally used for cultivation of blue green algae. There are four major techniques for obtaining unialgal isolates:

Streaking Spraying Serial dilution Single-cell isolation

Streaking: In this technique, a loop of algae is streaked on a specific solid medium. Various styles of streaking may be followed to isolate the desired strain. Spraying - In this technique, a stream of compressed air is used to disperse algal cells from a mixture onto the surface of a petri plate containing growth medium solidified with agar. Streaking and spraying are useful for single-celled, colonial, or filamentous algae that will grow on an agar surface; cultures of some flagellates, such as Chlamydomonas and Cryptomonas may also be obtained by these procedures. Many flagellates, however, as well as other types of algae must be isolated by single-organism isolations or serial-dilution techniques. We will practice spraying and single-organism isolations. Serial dilution - A serial dilution is the stepwise dilution of a substance in solution. The procedure followed is as follows. 1ml of the original inoculum is pipetted out into 9ml of the broth. Again 1ml from this broth is pipetted out into another 9ml broth and the procedure is repeated till the desired dilution is met. The first test tube will result in 1: 10 dilution when plated and the successive plates will have a dilution of 1:100, 1: 1000 and so on.


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The following picture illustrates the steps involved in serial dilution of a sample

Serial dilution10

Single-cell/colony/filament isolation

The first step in this procedure is to prepare a number of "micropipettes" (very fine-tipped pipettes) from glass Pasteur pipettes.

The diameter of the pipette tip and the size of the algal cells to be isolated are to be matched before picking up the filaments.

Filaments can be grabbed with a slightly curved pipette tip and dragged through soft agar (less than 1%) to remove contaminants.

The alga is sucked with a sterilized pipette. The micropipette is used to transfer the isolated alga from the first drop into a

series of fresh drops. This is a washing procedure that helps remove contaminants.

After transfer through 5-10 drops, the alga is transferred into a well of the multiwell plate holding liquid growth medium suitable for that particular species.

Usually several attempts are made because not all isolated algae will continue to grow, or some may be contaminated with other algal cells.

10 http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/analytical-chromatography/microbiology/learning-

center/theory/introduction.html

1ml 1ml 1ml 1ml 1ml

Dilutions 1:10 1:100 1:1000 1:10000 1:100000

Plating

1:10 1:1000 1:10000 1:100000

1ml 1ml 1ml 1ml

1:100

http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/analytical-chromatography/microbiology/learning-center/theory/introduction.html

http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/analytical-chromatography/microbiology/learning-center/theory/introduction.html


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It is best to begin with young branches or filament tips which have not yet been extensively epiphytized. A particularly effective means of obtaining unialgal cultures is isolation of zoospores immediately after they have been released from parental cell walls, but before they stop swimming and get attached to a surface. Recently-released zoospores are devoid of contaminants, unlike the surfaces of most algal cells. But catching zoospores requires a steady hand and experience. Antibiotics can be added to the growth medium to discourage growth of contaminating cyanobacteria and other bacteria. E.g. Addition of germanium dioxide will inhibit growth of diatoms.11

3.3.1.2 Cultivation in Lab Scale The isolated algae are cultivated in lab for further studies. Algae can be cultivated either in shake flask or in a lab scale photobioreactor. The growth medium used normally depends on the type of algae cultured. Algae Cultivation in Shake Flask - Shake flask cultures are usually batch-cultivations since the media components are added into the cultivation flask already at the beginning. In aerobic cultures, due to non-limited growth anaerobic conditions emerge easily because shaking cannot provide enough oxygen for fast-growing microbes in dense cultures. In contrast growth can be controlled by substrate limitation in bioreactor cultivations. The availability of high concentration of glucose in shake flask enhances synthesis of overflow metabolites, since the capacities of the respiratory system and citric acid cycle cannot process all the glucose taken into the cell. Generally, cell and product yields may vary very much between shake flask cultivations. The reasons for poor reproducibility cannot be recognized without monitoring12. Lab-scale Photobioreactor Cultivation – Photobioreactors with 5 – 10 L capacities are generally used for lab level experiment purpose. Photobioreactors offer controlled environment. This facilitates analysis of algae cultivation in various environments.

Media for Algae In general medium can be of three types

Synthetic media Enriched media Soil water media

Algae are capable of growing in all these types of media. Few examples of the algal culture medium are Bold’s basal medium, BG-11 medium, Chu 10 medium, PES medium,

11 http://www.botany.wisc.edu/courses/botany_330/Isolation&Culture.html 12 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1409794/

http://www.botany.wisc.edu/courses/botany_330/Isolation&Culture.html

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1409794/


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NORO medium, etc. The composition of these media is given at the end of this chapter. Soil water media are prepared by placing 1-2 cm of dried and sifted garden soil in the bottom of the test tube. Algae grown in soil water media usually have normal morphology and the algae can be reliably maintained.

Culturing Methods Batch Culture - Batch culture is a large-scale closed system culture in which cells are grown in a fixed volume of nutrient culture medium under specific environmental conditions. The batch culture consists of a single inoculation of cells into a container of fertilized seawater followed by a growing period of several days and finally harvesting when the algal population reaches its maximum or near-maximum density. In practice, algae are transferred to larger culture volumes prior to reaching the stationary phase and the larger culture volumes are then brought to a maximum density and harvested.

Production scheme for batch culture of algae (Lee and Tamaru, 1993)

4 – 7 days

2 L flask

10 – 14 days

3 - 6 Secondary flask

5 – 7 days

5 – 7 days

7 days

3 – 5 days

4 – 6 days

Fiberglass Cylinder

5000 L 25000 L

500 L Tank

Carboys or Plastic bags


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According to the algal concentration, the volume of the inoculum which generally corresponds with the volume of the preceding stage in the up scaling process amounts to 2-10% of the final culture volume. Where small amounts of algae are required, one of the simplest types of indoor culture employs 10 to 20 L glass or plastic carboys, which may be kept on shelves backlit with fluorescent tubes. Batch culture systems are widely applied because of their simplicity and flexibility, allowing to change species and to remedy defects in the system rapidly. Although often considered as the most reliable method, batch culture is not necessarily the most efficient method. Batch cultures are harvested just prior to the initiation of the stationary phase and must thus always be maintained for a substantial period of time past the maximum specific growth rate. Also, the quality of the harvested cells may be less predictable than that in continuous systems and for example vary with the timing of the harvest (time of the day, exact growth phase). Another disadvantage is the need to prevent contamination during the initial inoculation and early growth period. Because the density of the desired phytoplankton is low and the concentration of nutrients is high, any contaminant with a faster growth rate is capable of outgrowing the culture. Batch cultures also require a lot of labour to harvest, clean, sterilize, refill, and inoculate the containers. Continuous Culture - The continuous culture method, (i.e. a culture in which a supply of fertilized seawater is continuously pumped into a growth chamber and the excess culture is simultaneously washed out) permits the maintenance of cultures very close to the maximum growth rate. Continuous cultures can be distinguished as:

Turbidostat culture: in which the algal concentration is kept at a preset level by diluting the culture with fresh medium by means of an automatic system.

Chemostat culture: in which a flow of fresh medium is introduced into the culture at a steady, predetermined rate. The latter adds a limiting vital nutrient (e.g. nitrate) at a fixed rate and in this way the growth rate and not the cell density is kept constant.

Laing (1991) described the construction and operation of a 40 L continuous system suitable for the culture of flagellates, e.g. Tetraselmis suecica and Isochrysis galbana . The culture vessels consist of internally-illuminated polyethylene tubing supported by a metal framework . This turbidostat system produces 30-40 L per day at varying cell densities giving optimal yield for each flagellate species. A chemostat system that is relatively easy and cheap to construct. The latter employ vertical 400 L capacity polyethylene bags supported by a frame to grow Pavlova lutheri, Isochrysis galbana, Tetraselmis suecica, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Dunaliella tertiolecta and Skeletonema costatum. One drawback of the system is the large diameter of the bags (60 cm) which results in self-shading (Cells near the surface absorb some of the light, thus shading those deeper in the water column) and hence relatively low algal densities.


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The disadvantages of the continuous system are its relatively high cost and complexity. The requirements for constant illumination and temperature mostly restrict continuous systems to indoors and this is only feasible for relatively small production scales. However, continuous cultures have the advantage of producing algae of more predictable quality. Furthermore, they are amenable to technological control and automation, which in turn increases the reliability of the system and reduces the need for labor.

Diagram of a continuous culture apparatus

(1) Enriched seawater medium reservoir (200 l) (2) Peristaltic pump; (3) Resistance sensing relay (50 - 5000 ohm); (4) light-dependent resistor (ORP 12); (5) Cartridge filter (0.45 mm); (6) Culture vessel (40 l); (7) Six 80 W fluorescent tubes (Laing, 1991).

Continuous culture methods for various types of algae in 40L internally-illuminated

vessels (suitable for flagellates only) (modified from Laing, 1991)

Algae Culture density for highest yield (cells per µl)

Usual life of culture (weeks)

Tetraselmis suecica 2 000 3-6

Chroomonas salina 3 000 2-3

Dunaliella tertiolecta 4 000 3-4

Pseudoisochrysis paradoxa 20 000 2-3

Semi-continuous Culture - The semi-continuous technique prolongs the use of large tank cultures by partial periodic harvesting followed immediately by topping up to the original volume and supplementing with nutrients to achieve the original level of


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enrichment. The culture is grown up again and partially harvested. Semi-continuous cultures may be indoors or outdoors, but usually their duration is unpredictable. Competitors, predators and/or contaminants and metabolites eventually build up, rendering the culture unsuitable for further use. Since the culture is not harvested completely, the semi-continuous method yields more algae than the batch method for a given tank size.13

Culture Methods Followed for Different Algal Species The following are the culture methods followed for the cultivation of different species of algae for fuel production:

Botryococcus braunii14 Medium: Chu 13 medium (for hydrocarbon production BG11 medium) Procedure:

Modified Chu 13 medium is cultured. Purification is done by serial dilution followed by plating. The individual colonies are isolated and inoculated into liquid medium (modified

Chu 13 medium) It can be incubated at 25 ± 1oC under 1.2 ± 0.2 Klux light intensity with 16:8 hrs

light photoperiod. The purity of the culture is ensured by repeated plating and by regular

observation under microscope.

Culture environment: B. braunii grows best at a temperature of 23°C, a light intensity of 60 W/M², with a light period of 12 hours per day, and a salinity of 0.15 Molar NaCl. Challenges and efforts: B. braunii is found to be able to co-exist with a wild green alga, Chlorella sp.; the presence of either alga did not negatively affect growth of the other. They form colonies/flocs which are difficult to break down. It grows very slowly: it’s doubling time is 72 hours (Sheehan et al., 1998), and two days under laboratory conditions (Qin, 2005).

Dunaliella sp. Isolation and screening: Purification by single cell isolation technique in ESM enrichment medium (NaNO3 -120 mgL-1, KH2PO4 - 5 mgL-1, EDTA-Fe 0.26 mgL-1, EDTA-

13

http://www.advancedaquarist.com/issues/aug2002/breeder.htm 14 ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/ak333e/ak333e00.pdf

http://www.advancedaquarist.com/issues/aug2002/breeder.htm

ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/ak333e/ak333e00.pdf


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Mn 0.33 mgL-1, vitamin B1-HCl 0.1 mgL-1, vitamin B12 - 10 μgL-1, biotin - 1 μgL-1, tris-buffer 1 g.L-1) . Screening is done with Herbicide phosphinothricin Medium15: General medium: 20 ml of the stock macro elements solution is mixed with 910 ml of artificial seawater and 30 ml of seawater soil extract. Some other common mediums used for culturing this species are: Provasoli-enriched Sea water medium (PES), Artificial J/1 medium, Johnson’s medium, NORO medium. Procedure: All strains are cultivated in the medium containing 1M NaCl. Cultures are bubbled with 3% CO2 in air (v/v), at continuous light (200 µmol photon m-2s-1) and grown in 500 mL borosilicate flasks containing 500 mL of media at 25 ± 2oC. Culture environment: Optimal growth temperature for D. salina was 22°C (3.06 × 106 cells mL−1) and 26 °C for D. viridis (4.04 × 106 cells mL−1).

Nannochloris sp16 Medium: The algae are cultured in modified NORO medium (nitrogen limited medium) Challenges and efforts: They grow 1.5 times as high as when grown in a modified NORO medium containing 9.9 mM KNO3. Amount of NaCl affects the growth of Nannochloris.

15 http://www.dunaliella.org/dunabase/media/ccala_dunaliella.php http://www.scielo.cl/pdf/bres/v36n2/art08.pdf 16 http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jbb/101/3/223/_pdf

Macro elements Amount per 100ml

KNO3 1.0 g

K2HPO4 0.1 g

MgSO4 x 7H2O 0.1 g

Artificial sea water

NaCl 60 g

MgSO4 x 7H2O 10 g

KCl 1.5 g

CaSO4 2.0 g

http://www.dunaliella.org/dunabase/media/ccala_dunaliella.php

http://www.scielo.cl/pdf/bres/v36n2/art08.pdf

http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jbb/101/3/223/_pdf


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Scenedesmus dimorphus S. dimorphus is axenically cultured in C medium at 20°C and 14 h light/10 h dark photoperiod (irradiance = 120 μmol m/s). The chemicals in cultured media (C media) for S. dimorphus (Türpin) Kützing 15 mg Ca (NO3)2∙4H2O, 10 mg KNO3, 5 mg β-Na2 glycerophosphate∙5H2O, 4 mg MgSO4∙7H2O, 0.01 μg Vitamin B12, 0.01 μg Biotin, 1 μg Thiamine HCl, 0.3 ml PIV metals, 40 mg Tris (hydroxymethyl) amino methane and 99.7 ml distilled water.

Isochrysis galbana17 Artificial sea water medium (ASW) is used. All growth experiments must be performed in batch cultures at 27°C, with constant illumination of 150/rE m at the surface of the flasks, which can be provided by fluorescent lamps (cool white) on a rotary shaker (180 rev min- 1). Growth rate was doubled by increasing light intensity by three times.

Tetraselmis chuii18 The cultures are grown in batch cultures containing f/2 medium (containing NaNO3, NaH2PO4 H2O, Na2SiO3 9H2O, trace metal solution, vitamin solution) in seawater at 30 % salinity, and maintained in a controlled environment room at 22 ± 1°C, under a continuous light regime by day-light fluorescent tubes (light intensity of 100 μmolm-2s-1).

Phaeodactylum tricornutum The algae can be grown in Provasoli culture medium (PES) and f/2 media. Three aeration systems are used, fast flow (2 dm3 min-l), slow flow (0.1 dm3 min-l) and no aeration but agitated twice a day. Cultures are grown in a photon flux density incident on the flasks of 100 μmolm-2s-1 (400 to 700 nm) in continuous light with cool fluorescent tubes and at 20 C (Geider et al. 1985).

Prymnesium parvum Prymnesium parvum can be cultured in artificial sea water with salinity adjusted to 14 - 15 (psu) and pH ranging from 7.8 - 8.5. The culture temperature is 25.7°C under florescent light with a 16:8 (L/D) cycle. Total fatty acids ranged from 7.13 to 16.26% of dry biomass.

17

http://www.bashanfoundation.org/drora/droraoptimalgrowth.pdf 18

http://www.scielo.br/pdf/babt/v47n3/20944.pdf

http://www.bashanfoundation.org/drora/droraoptimalgrowth.pdf

http://www.scielo.br/pdf/babt/v47n3/20944.pdf


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Tetraselmis suecica19 These cultures are grown in f/2 medium under a Light:Dark ratio of 12:12 at 140 μmol. m-2s-1 at 15°C in environmental chambers. Cultures in exponential phase of growth are used for all assays.

Nannochloropsis salina Medium: This species can grow in salt water. They can withstand disinfectants like chlorine

Dunaliella tertiolecta20 Dunaliella tertiolecta is usually grown in the artificial seawater medium.

Euglena gracilis21 Euglena gracilis is cultured in a mineral medium consisting of CH3COONa.3H2O, (NH4)2HPO4, KH2PO4, MgSO4

.7H2O, CaCl2.2H2O, EDTA-II, FeCl3, vitamins B1, B12 and trace

elements. Cells are grown in static cultures at 20oC. The pH of this solution should be around pH 7.0

Culture Maintenance The maintenance of algal cultures has been a bottleneck and many scientists limit their isolation efforts because they are unable to maintain the growing number of cultures. Algal cryopreservation protocols are currently being used for this purpose with great success. Cryopreservation has been successfully employed to maintain algae. Using an appropriate protocol, high levels of viability may be observed and viability levels are apparently by storage times up to 13 years. No single protocol has been found to be successful for a wide range of organism. Direct immersion in liquid nitrogen, either with or without the addition of cryoprotectants, has been successfully employed to preserve a small number of unicellular algae.

19 http://www.marbef.org/training/FlowCytometry/Posters/RIBALET.pdf 20 ftp://ftp.dep.state.fl.us/pub/labs/lds/sops/4581.pdf 21 http://www.ccac.uni-koeln.de/textfiles/euglena-medium.htm

http://www.marbef.org/training/FlowCytometry/Posters/RIBALET.pdf

ftp://ftp.dep.state.fl.us/pub/labs/lds/sops/4581.pdf

http://www.ccac.uni-koeln.de/textfiles/euglena-medium.htm


www.oilgae.com


3.3.1.3 Biochemical Analysis of Algal Samples

Algal Growth Test22 All the preserved algal cultures and blends are added to a culture tube containing 15 ml f/2 medium (Guillard and Ryther, 1962). Tubes are then incubated at 14°C, under continuous light and with a gentle agitation. The cultures are monitored for growth during a 4 week period after inoculation. Two weeks following inoculation, a sample of each culture is observed under an inverted Nikon microscope for cell aspect and mobility, and a second sample is used for cell viability investigations using the fluorescein diacetate test.

Screening for Lipid Production23 The isolate will be characterized with respect to lipid production capabilities. The lipid producing microalgae will be determined using Nile Red (NR) staining.

1. A stock solution of NR was prepared by adding 2.5 mg of NR to 100 ml of acetone.

2. The solution is kept in an amber coloured bottle and stored in the dark at room temperature.

3. Nile red is added to the sterilized medium to give final concentration of 0.5 μg dye (ml medium)-1.

4. The agar plates are exposed to ultraviolet light (312nm) after appropriate cultivation periods to detect PHAs and other lipid storage compounds.

Another method:

1. The microalgae cells are stained by placing 5ml of culture in a Petri dish, than adding 200 μl of NR stock solution to the dish. Staining of lipids will be complete within 30 min. No destaining or rinses are required.

2. After staining, a drop of stained cell culture is transferred to a depression slide and a cover slip is added.

3. Cell culture is examined at 100x magnification using a microscope and epiflourescence.

4. When viewed under epiflourescent illumination, neutral lipids in microalgae stained with NR fluoresces a bright yellow/orange (Carman, 1991 and Qin, 2005).

22

http://www.dtplankton.com/mgw2/viabilityreport.pdf 23

http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/sulastri_finalreport_nov08.pdf

http://www.dtplankton.com/mgw2/viabilityreport.pdf



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Measurement of Lipid Content24 Lipid measurements are made using a method adapted from Bligh and Dyer (1959). This method extracts the lipids from the algal cells by using a mixture of methanol, chloroform, and water. Typically, the culture sample is centrifuged at 3,500 rpm for 10 minutes in a large (200 ml) plastic centrifuge tube. The pelleted cells along with 35ml of supernatant are then transferred to a glass.

1. Centrifuge tubes (50 ml) are re-centrifuged at 3,500 rpm for 10 minutes. 2. The supernatant is removed and the pellet is then resuspended with 4 ml of

DH2O, then 10ml of methanol and 5ml of chloroform are added, resulting in a 10:5:4 ratio of methanol: chloroform: water. At this ratio, all solvents are miscible and form one layer.

3. After overnight extraction on a shaker table, 5ml of water and 5ml of chloroform are added, which results in a 10:10:9 ratio of methanol:chloroform:water.

4. Tubes are again centrifuged for 10 minutes at 3,500 rpm. At this solvent ratio, two layers are formed, a water methanol upper layer and chloroform lower layer.

5. The chloroform lower layer which contains the extracted lipids is then removed by Pasteur pipette and placed into a pre-weighed vial.

6. After the first extraction, 10ml of additional chloroform is added to conduct a second extraction.

7. The additional 10ml of chloroform again results in a 10:10:9 methanol: chloroform: water ratio and two layers are formed.

8. The tube is centrifuged at 3,500 rpm for 10 minutes, and the lower chloroform layer is removed by Pasteur pipette and placed into another pre-weighed vial.

9. The chloroform is evaporated by heating in a 55°C water bath under a constant stream of nitrogen gas.

10. After 1 hour in a 105°C oven, vials are weighed again. 11. The weight difference represents weight of lipids extracted from the culture

sample. Percentage of lipid content can be determined by measuring the dry weight of the culture sample at the same time as the lipid analysis.

12. The mass of cells used for the lipid analysis can be determined by multiplying the dry weight by the volume of culture used for the lipid sample.

13. The weight of lipids extracted can then be divided by the mass of cells extracted to determine the percent lipid content.

24 http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/sulastri_finalreport_nov08.pdf



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3.3.2 Algae Cultivation on Commercial Scale There are two main methods of cultivation Ponds Photobioreactors

Ponds Since algae need sunlight, carbon-di-oxide and water for their growth, they can be cultivated in open ponds & lakes. Due to the fact that these systems are "open", they are much more vulnerable to being contaminated by other algal species and bacteria. The real challenge with open air bioreactors (like a pond) is that the species of algae that have the highest oil content are not necessarily the quickest to reproduce. This creates a problem where other species take over the pond. Undesirable algal species taking over specific strains is one of the more significant problems in algaculture, with the possible exception of spirulina which in of itself is extremely aggressive and also grows at a pH that is extremely high, thereby eliminating the possibility of contamination to some extent. For this reason, the number of species that have been successfully cultivated for a given purpose in an open system is relatively small. In addition, in open systems there is relatively less control over water temperature, carbon-di-oxide concentration & lighting conditions. These imply that the growing season is largely dependent on location and, aside from tropical areas, is limited to the warmer months. While the above are the disadvantages with “open systems”, some of the benefits of this type of system are that it is one of the cheaper ones to produce - at the most basic you only need to dig a trench or pond. A variation on the basic "open-pond" system is to close it off, to cover a pond or pool with a greenhouse. While this usually results in a smaller system, it does take care of many of the problems associated with an open system. It allows more species to be able to be grown. It allows the species that are being grown to stay dominant, and it extends the growing season, only slightly, if unheated, and if heated it can produce year round. It is also possible to increase the amount of carbon-di-oxide in these quasi-closed systems, thus again increasing the rate of growth of algae. In some cases, the ponds in which the algae are cultivated are called the “raceway ponds”. In these ponds, the algae, water & nutrients circulate around a racetrack. With paddlewheels providing the flow, algae are kept suspended in the water, and are circulated back to the surface on a regular frequency. The ponds are usually kept shallow because the algae need to be exposed to sunlight, and sunlight can only penetrate the pond water to a limited depth. The ponds are operated in a continuous manner, with CO2 and nutrients being constantly fed to the ponds, while algae-containing water is removed at the other end.


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Photobioreactors The need to achieve higher productivity and to maintain monoculture of algae led to the development of photobioreactors. In the photobioreactors, the environment is better controlled than in open ponds. A photobioreactor is a controlled system that incorporates some type of light source. The term photobioreactor is more commonly used to define a closed system, as opposed to an open pond. A pond covered with a greenhouse could also be considered an unsophisticated form of photobioreactor. Because these systems are closed, everything that the algae need to grow, (carbon dioxide, water and light) need to be introduced into the system.

Comparison of Open Pond and Photobioreactor

Open Ponds Vs Closed Bioreactors

Source: NREL25 Notes:

Contamination risk – Algae cultivation is susceptible to contamination. Algae cultures are often contaminated with other algal strains or bacterial strains. Sometimes they are even contaminated with insect larvae and zooplanktons

Space required – Area required for constructing an algae farm

Productivity – Biomass yield per hectare

Water losses – Amount of water lost due to evaporation

CO2 losses – Amount of CO2 that escapes from the algae cultivation system without being trapped in algae

25 John R. Benemann. (2008). Overview: Algae Oil to Biofuels (annotated presentation). NREL – AFOSR Workshop. Retrieved from: http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/benemann.pdf

Parameter Relative Notes

Contamination risk Ponds > PBRs Much reduced for PBRs

Space required Ponds ~ PBRs A matter of productivity

Productivity Ponds < PBRs PBRs 3-5 times more productive

Water losses Ponds ~ PBRs Depends upon cooling design

CO2 losses Ponds ~ PBRs Depends on pH, alkalinity, etc...

O2 Inhibition Ponds < PBRs O2 greater problem in PBRs

Process Control Ponds < PBRs Very important in PBRs

Biomass concentration Ponds < PBRs 3-5 times in PBRs

Capital/Operating costs ponds Ponds << PBRs Ponds 3-10 × lower cost!

http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/benemann.pdf


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O2 – Oxygen produced by the algae will inhibit the further growth of algae, so it is essential to remove the oxygen from the growth systems

Process control – Flexibility to alter the process and control them based on our need. For e.g., increase or decrease the amount of CO2 for algae cultivation

Biomass concentration – Density of algae per unit area Source: NREL (http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/benemann.pdf)

Which is the Best Way to Grow Algae - Ponds or Photobioreactors?

This is one of the most frequently asked questions in the algae fuels industry. As of 2010, it cannot be conclusively determined that one is better than the other. While there is a certain section in the industry that strongly feels that the use of photobioreactors is the only way to produce algae on very large scale, there are a number of eminent professionals who feel that the cost of photobioreactors will remain uneconomically high for a very long time, thus making open ponds the only feasible option. We provide relevant data and insights in this section that will enable to understand this debate better. The NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA) favoured unlined “raceway” ponds which were stirred using a paddle wheel, and had carbon dioxide bubbled through it. The water used for these ponds is wastewater (treated sewerage) freshwater, brackish water, or salt water, depending on the strain of algae grown. The algae should be a native to the region. Other countries, notably Japan, are interested in closed systems. However these systems are very expensive.

Companies Using Ponds & PBRs

Company Type of Culture Infrastructure

A2BE Carbon Capture Photobioreactor

Algenol Biofuels Open Pond

Aquaflow Bionomic Open Pond

Aquatic Energy Open Pond

Aurora Biofuels Open Pond

Bionavitas Photobioreactor

Cellana Open Pond and Photobioreactor

Circle Biodiesel Photobioreactor

Dynamic Biogenics Photobioreactor

GreenFuel Technologies Photobioreactor

http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/benemann.pdf


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Comparison of Large Scale Systems for Growing Algae

Reactor Type

Mixing Light

Utilization Efficiency

Temp. Control

Gas Transfer

Hydro Dynamic Stress On

Algae

Species Control

Sterility Scale Up

Unstirred Shallow Ponds

V.Poor Poor None Poor V.Low Difficult None Very Difficult

Tanks Poor V.Poor None Poor V.Poor Difficult None Very Difficult

Circular Stirred Pond

Fair Fair - Good None Poor Low Difficult None Very Difficult

Paddle Wheel Raceway

Fair-Good Fair – Good None Poor Low Difficult None Very Difficult

Stirred Tank Reactor

Largely Uniform

Fair - Good Excellent Low-High High Easy Easily Achievable

Difficult

Airlift Reactor

Generally Uniform

Good Excellent High Low Easy Easily Achievable

Difficult

Bag Culture

Variable Fair-Good Good(Indoors)

Low-High Low Easy Easily Achievable

Difficult

Flat Plate Reactor

Uniform Excellent Excellent High Low-High Easy Achievable Difficult

Greenshift Photobioreactor

GreenStar Photobioreactor

Infinifuels Open Pond

Inventure Chemicals Open Pond

LiveFuels Open Pond

OriginOil Photobioreactor

PetroAlgae Photobioreactor

PetroSun Open Pond

Seambitoc Open Pond

Solena Group Photobioreactor

Solix Biofuels Photobioreactor

Texas Clean Fuels Photobioreactor

Valcent Photobioreactor


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Tubular Reactor(Serpentine)

Uniform Excellent Excellent Low – High

Low-High Easy Achievable Reasonable

Tubular Reactor (Biocoil)

Uniform Excellent Excellent Low-High Low-High Easy Achievable Easy

Source: Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, India (2007)

3.4 Different Methods of Cultivation

Algae cultivation can be done in a variety of environments. Some of the prominent ones are: Desert-based algae cultivation Cultivation in waste water Cultivation next to power plants Cultivation in photobioreactors Marine algae cultivation Cultivation in freshwater Cultivation in open ponds Cultivation in closed ponds

Detailed inputs for each of the above methods are provided in later chapters.

3.5 Algae Cultivation – Factoids Mixing – Mixing is necessary to prevent sedimentation of the algae, to ensure that

all cells of the population are equally exposed to the light and nutrients, to avoid thermal stratification (e.g. in outdoor cultures) and to improve gas exchange between the culture medium and the air. The latter is of primary importance as the air contains the carbon source for photosynthesis in the form of carbon dioxide. For very dense cultures, the CO2 originating from the air (containing 0.03% CO2

26) bubbled through the culture is limiting the algal growth and pure carbon dioxide may be supplemented to the air supply (e.g. at a rate of 1% of the volume of air). CO2 addition furthermore buffers the water against pH changes as a result of the CO2/HCO3- balance. Depending on the scale of the culture system, mixing is achieved by stirring daily by hand (test tubes, erlenmeyers), aerating (bags, tanks), or using paddle wheels and jetpumps (ponds). However, it should be noted that not all algal species can tolerate vigorous mixing.

26

Barsanti L., Paolo G. (2006) Algae: anatomy, biochemistry, and biotechnology.


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It could also be worth thinking about how marine algae could be grown – perhaps through iron fertilization - in otherwise unproductive (high-nitrogen-low-chlorophyll) regions of the open oceans.

Algae production can be increased by increasing the carbon dioxide concentration in the water.

The main conclusions of the extensive experimental cultivation program during the ASP Program of NREL were: 1. Productivities of 15 to 25 g/m2/d were routinely obtained during the 8-month

growing season at a specific location. However, higher numbers were rarely seen 2. Continuous operations are about 20% more productive than semi-continuous

cultures, but the latter densities are much higher, an important factor in harvesting.

3. Culture collection strains fare poorly in competition with wild types. 4. Temperature effects are important in species selection and culture collapses,

including grazer development. 5. Night-time productivity losses increased to 10% to 20 % in July, when grazers

were present; nighttime respiratory losses were high only at high temperatures. 6. There is a significant decrease in productivity in the afternoons, compared to the

mornings, in the algal ponds. 7. Oxygen levels can increase as much as 40 mg/L, over 450% of saturation, and

high oxygen levels limit productivity in some strains but not others. Oxygen inhibition was synergistic with other limiting factors (e.g., temperature).

8. Mixing power inputs were small at low mixing velocities (e.g., 15 cm/s) but increased exponentially. Productivity was independent of mixing speed.

9. The strains investigated in this study did not exhibit high lipid contents even upon nitrogen limitation.

10. The transfer of CO2 into the ponds was more than 60% efficient, even though the CO2 was transferred through only the 20-cm depth of the pond.

11. Harvesting by sedimentation has promise, but success was strain specific. 12. Initial experiments demonstrated that media recycling is feasible. 13. Project end input operating costs for large-scale production (@ $50/MT CO2,

70% use efficiency, etc.) was $130/MT of algae, of which half was for CO2 and one-third for other nutrients, with pumping and mixing power only about $10/MT.

14. According to the team that conducted the ASP Program @ NREL, large scale cultivation requires analysis of: 13 resources (such as power costs and evaporation), 15 facility design parameters (e.g., culture depth and mixing), 3 biological parameters (such as growing season) and 8 financial parameters (cost escalations, etc.).


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3.6 Worldwide Locations with Algae Farms & Algae Cultivation

USA Rio Hondo, Texas - PetroSun Algae Farm: PetroSun Biofuels has opened a

commercial algae-to-biofuels farm on the Texas Gulf Coast near Harlingen Texas. The farm is a 1,100 acre network of saltwater ponds, 20 acres of which will be dedicated to researching and developing an environmental jet fuel.

Casa Grande, Arizona - XL Renewables has a small test facility in Casa Grande at Withrow Dairy, and officials plan to open 40 acres of 18-inch-deep algae troughs this fall to demonstrate their farming technology. It also plans to develop 2,400 acres of algae troughs at the Vicksburg location after opening the test facility in Casa Grande. (Jun 2008)

Virginia, USA - Old Dominion University's pilot facility for algae farming and biodiesel production is near Hopewell. Algal Farms Inc., on a 240-acre tract in Prince George County near the border with Surry County, currently has a working, 1-acre pond composed of parallel "raceways," which researchers believe is capable of growing enough microscopic, green algae to produce up to 3,000 gallons of biodiesel fuel per year. A second pond under construction has been designed to grow algae in wastewater effluent - September, 2008

El Paso, Texas - Valcent Products Inc. is a publicly traded company that has most of its operations in the El Paso area. Oct 2007

Kona, Hawaii - Algae Ponds at HR BioPetroleum's Pilot Facility are located in Kona on the Big Island of Hawaii. The Ma'alaea algae facility would be HR BioPetroleum's first commercial facility. Shell & HR Biopetroleum announced in November 2007 that the venture would build a pilot facility on the Kona coast.

Hopewell, Virginia - In Virginia, Old Dominion University has teamed up with a contractor to grow algae in a one-acre farm - Nov 2008

Fellsmere, Florida - PetroAlgae has its culture farm at Fellsmere, Florida South San Francisco, California – Solazyme has its facility for fermentation of algae in

south San Francisco Durango, South Colorado - Solix Biofuels is building an algae plant in Durango, South

Colorado. Set to build on 10 acres of the Southern Ute Indian Reservation, the plant will include photo-bioreactors to grow algae as well as a lab facility. The first phase of the two-part project is expected to be completed in 12 to 18 months. (Nov 2008)

Wabuska, Nevada - Infinifuel Biodiesel converted Nevada’s oldest geothermal plant into a biodiesel production plant in Wabuska. Infinifuel will turn camelina oil and algae to make the fuel. (May 2007)

Louisiana - Aquatic Energy is planning to complete a 250-hectare algae farm and facility in Louisiana by the end of 2008. Furthermore, they have initiated development on an additional 1,000-hectares in Louisiana (Oct 2008)

South California - Earthrise Farms and Amway are the two largest producers of nutritional Spirulina algae in the continental United States. Their pond farms are


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located in the southern California desert where daytime temperatures reach 120° F (50° C).

Mexico Sonoran Desert, Northwest Mexico

Israel Kibbutz Ketura, Israel - Algatech, founded in 1999 to develop and commercialize

micro-algae-derived products for the nutraceutical and cosmeceutical industries, Algatech's production facility is based in Kibbutz Ketura. The company plans to work towards developing cost effective, energy efficient fuel made from micro-algae feeding off of carbon dioxide emissions.

Germany Bremen, Germany - A feasibility study using marine microalgae in a photobioreactor

is being done by The International Research Consortium on Continental Margins at the International University Bremen. (2006)

India Pudukottai, Tamilnadu - Parry Nutraceuticals: Twenty miles away from the historic

town of Pudukottai in South India is Oonaiyur. With a conducive temperature, microalgae are grown across one hundred and twenty acres of land in a remote hamlet where there is no ground water contamination.

Myanmar Twin Taung Lake - Spirulina from Lakes in Myanmar - Production began at Twin

Taung Lake in 1988, and by 1999 increased to 100 tons per year. About 60% is harvested from boats on the surface of the lake, and about 40% is grown in outdoor ponds alongside the lake. During the blooming season in the summer, when Spirulina forms thick mats on the lake, people in boats collect a dense concentration of Spirulina in buckets.


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Prominent Spirulina Farms around the World

Company Country Farm location

Cyanotech Hawaii, USA Kona coast

Dainippon Ink & Chemicals (DIC) China Hainan island

Earthrise USA California desert

Green Diamond One Bangkok Boonsom's Farm - Mae Wang

Kona Green Hawaii Kona, Hawaiian

New Ambadi farm India

Siam Algae Thailand Near Bangkok, Thailand

Solarium Chile Atacama desert

Spirulina Mexicana Mexico Lake Texcoco

Yaeyama farm Japan

3.7 Algae Cultivation Challenges & Efforts

Challenges in Cultivation

Single or Multi-purpose Should the algae cultivation be a single-purpose activity (grow algae for fuel), or should it combine multiple activities (eg: grow algae for fuel and sequester CO2 from a power plant)?

Single purpose – grow algae primarily for fuel Multi-purpose

- Combined with power plants - Combined with wastewater treatments and sewage

There are a number of emerging examples of algae cultivated for multiple purposes: Examples are:

Greenfuel & Inventure – CO2 sequestration at power plants & fuel Aquaflow – Sewage treatment & fuel Blue Marble Energy: Fuel and biochemicals. Inventure chemicals: Both ethanol and biodiesel from the same biomass. Cequesta Algae: Fuel as well as a substitute for fish meal.


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Challenge: Growth Rate of Algae The difficulties in efficient biofuel production from algae lie not only in finding algal strains with fast growth rates as well as high lipid content. The challenge also is in identifying conditions that stimulate the growth of algae, thus increasing the total algal biomass. Some efforts in this direction:

CO2 concentration – Efforts are on to determine the optimal CO2 concentration for algae growth

Nutrients – Different types of nutrients are being tried out to determine an ideal combination of nutrients that results in the highest growth rate.

Method of harvesting – Efforts are on to determine if there is a specific method or schedule of harvesting that could result in the highest growth rate

Examples of some research & efforts to increase rate of growth of algae:

A high density algae culture can be obtained in a sewage water treatment process by placing algae in pure water separated by a dialysis membrane from sewage water wherein osmotic interaction occurs across the membrane. In a preferred embodiment, algae is placed in pure water in dialysis tubing and the tubing is suspended in the presence of light in sewage water for osmotic interaction therewith - Inventors: Dor, Inka (119 Ein Kerem D, Jerusalem, IL, 1977)

C. vulgaris c-27 demonstrated an increase of cell numbers by approximately 11% in the 9 and 12 day cultures on the addition of Aerosil. Aerosil in its colloidal form stimulates proliferation of algae mainly via an acceleration of their life cycles and a significant increase of cell numbers was found in the stationary phase cultures. Authors: Gerashchenko B.I.; Gerashchenko I.I.; Kosaka T.; Hosoya H., Source: Canadian Journal of Microbiology, Volume 48, Number 2, February 2002 , pp. 170-175

OriginOil adopts cascading production process to attain dramatic increase in algae growth. OriginOil's Helix BioReactor(TM) growth vessel adds the efficiency needed to combine incubation and larger tanks in one. Once the algae mature, 90% of it is transferred for harvesting, and the 'green' water purified and returned to the growth tank. The remaining 10% is then allowed to expand into the Helix BioReactor, and the process is repeated- June 2008.

Researchers had demonstrated that the harmful algae, Alexandrium tamarense, growth rate increases in the presence of humic acid (M.Heidenreich et.al, 2005).

Green Star Products, Inc., claimed in 2008 that a major breakthrough called “Montana Micronutrient Booster (MMB)” formula has been achieved which substantially increases the algae growth rate of certain strains of microalgae. MMB is a micronutrient formula to increase the growth rate of algae biomass.


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This growth rate booster can increase the total biomass quantity in a harvest algae growth cycle by well over 100%. Biotech Research, Inc., a consortium partner of Green Star, has confirmed a daily growth rate increase of 34% using the “Montana Micronutrient Booster” formula.

Challenge: Formulation of Medium Algae require an optimum medium that can encourage growth. The primary nutrients needed for algal growth are carbon dioxide, nitrogen and phosphorus. Other than these, the recommended nutrients vary from species to species – in most cases some trace nutrients in the form of minerals and metals will be required. Some of the minerals and metals are: K, Ca, Fe, S, Mg, Na, and Mn. Some of the problems that could crop up in the medium, owing to the nutrient composition, are: Calcium and magnesium can cause precipitation problems - Calcium and magnesium present in the algal medium lead to the decomposition of bicarbonate ions and formation of carbonate ions which crystallise out of the saturated solution of calcium or magnesium carbonate. Thus, precipitation occurs, leading to residues that hinder algal growth

The solution being attempted is to provide regular conditioning of the water to avoid such precipitation.

Challenge: Provision of CO2 Algae require high concentrations of CO2 for their growth. While on the one hand sequestration of CO2 by algae is good news, the provision of CO2 to algae increases the cost of operation. CO2 could cover a significant part of operating costs. Typically, the carbon dioxide is pumped in from a smokestack at a nearby power plant. Injecting that CO2 and circulating it around the tank, however, requires quite a bit of energy, which in turn adds to cost. While the precise cost of CO2 depends on a number of factors, it can be significant. A related challenge in CO2 provision is that in shallow open ponds, there is a high loss of CO2 to the atmosphere. In some cases, it was found that it was difficult to achieve CO2 utilization of more than 10%27. This challenge can be addressed by designing optimal CO2 injection systems which give extended contact time between algae and CO2.

27

E. W. Becker (1994), Microalgae: Biotechnology and Microbiology


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Efforts Made to Overcome the Challenge of High Cost of CO2

Solix Says It Can Cut the Cost of CO2 Provision Significantly - The company says it has come up with a way to let CO2 essentially enters and swirl inside the tank in a relatively passive manner. As a result, Solix claims that it has cut the costs of growing algae by around 90 percent to 95 percent. (Nov 2008)

Covered area carbonators - bubble covers that make circulation and absorption of CO2 easier

In-pond carbonation sumps – It is argued that placing carbonation sumps inside the ponds can increase the efficiency of CO2 circulation and absorption

Recycling of non-lipid carbon from extraction residues – Efforts are underway that explore the use of carbon left in the de-oiled algae extract as a source of nutrient for cultivation.

Challenge: Water Circulation in Ponds Water circulation in ponds plays a major role in determining uniform mixing of nutrients in the algal culture. Lack of efficient water circulation leads to:

1. Micro-algal cells sinking to the bottom of the pond that causes deterioration and anaerobic decomposition

2. Lack of CO2, nutrients and light for algal cells, which hinders growth. 3. Accumulation of oxygen released by the algal cells.

Pond size affects water circulation, which in turn affects the design and operating cost of the circulation/mixing system. Thus, the major challenge lies in the selection of the type of pond and aeration system for algal cultivation that ensures effective water circulation characteristics.

Efforts

Some of the methods that have been used to effect better water circulation:

Paddle wheels Airlift pump Archimedes screw pump Gas lift mixing

High growth rates can be achieved by constant mixing by a paddle wheel. The paddle wheel rotates providing a constant current around the pond. The mixing is required to ensure that all of the algae receive the necessary amounts of solar radiation, CO2, and fertilizer required for optimal growth. The CO2 is injected into the algae pond in the form of flume gas from a nearby coal fired electric plant. The bubblers are spaced around the pond so that the CO2 is evenly dispersed throughout the pond. In an


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interesting effort, researchers at the University of Virginia added the fertilizers and flocculants as water is pumped into or out of the ponds, so that no additional mixing is required.

Challenge: Photosynthesis or Fermentation Should we cultivate algae using photosynthesis, or should the algae derive their nutrients for growth through a fermentation process? Which of the two - photosynthesis or fermentation - is better for algal growth? According to some, it might not be "either-or" but it could be that both photosynthesis and fermentation might be the best option - but for different end-products. Fermentation offers the most control. Temperature, pressure, and other environmental conditions can be minutely controlled. Additionally, fermentation offers flexibility: For instance, a row of vats used to ferment algae can be used to make auto fuel, and then scrubbed for cooking up algae for cooking fuel. The sugar needed as a substrate for fermentation doesn't necessarily need to be expensive. Still, fermentation overall does cost more. As a result, it might make the most sense for higher-value oils. Martek Biosciences, for instance, ferments algae and sells it as a baby food additive. It remains to be seen if the model will work for fuel that gets burned in cars. The big advantage of photosynthesis is that the sun is free. But temperatures vary daily. Temperature regulation adds cost, and the amount of sunlight is variable and seasonal. Controlling the rate of growth was a problem GreenFuel Technologies had in 2008 at its Arizona facility. In this context, a quote from Food & Agriculture Organization is interesting - “direct extraction of lipids appears to be a more efficient method for obtaining energy, than fermentation” Conclusion: It is not fully clear which of the two – photosynthesis or fermentation – is the most optimal. While most companies are going the photosynthesis route, some companies – Solazyme for instance – are experimenting with the fermentation route. Examples & Case Studies

Bayer(2008) proposed the alternative ways of taking advantage of some of the algae's abilities by growing them in Deep-Dark-Tanks (DDT) and feeding them with organic matter, in particular sugar, which ultimately should best come from cellulosic biomass. Neither light nor CO2 would be needed, but a DDT process


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would also not benefit from them. The advantage is that lower-valued carbohydrates, including those not directly suitable as food or feed, can be converted to higher-valued protein and oil by using established agriculture and industrial facilities of moderate investment costs. The disadvantage is that one cannot benefit from algae's high photosynthetic efficiency.

W. Kowallik* & H. Gaffron(1967), Florida State University stated that in the dark, algae live on their reserve substances and respire very slowly. In this state a little blue light can stimulate their dark metabolism considerably. This regulatory effect may be the basis for several responses of plants to blue light28

Challenge: Land Requirements Land use requirements are less for algae as a biofuel feedstock when compared to other commodity crop feedstocks such as corn, soy and canola. However, it is necessary to ensure that even lesser land areas are required to enable algae cultivation in open ponds next to power plants and other CO2 emitting industries, where land area availability could be scarce. Efforts

Use of photobioreactors – Use of photobioreactors for algae cultivation is one of the most obvious ways to increase productivity per unit area and consequently reduce the amount of land required. Details on photobioreactors are provided in a subsequent chapter.

Growing algae on solid carriers in ocean - Kansas State Univ. - Jun 2008 - Kansas State University’s Zhijian "Z.J." Pei, associate professor of

industrial and manufacturing systems engineering, and Wenqiao "Wayne" Yuan, Assistant Professor of Biological and Agricultural engineering, have received a $98,560 Small Grant for Exploratory Research from the National Science Foundation to study solid carriers for manufacturing algae biofuels in the ocean. Solid carriers float on the water surface for algae to attach to and grow on.

Valcent’s Vertigro uses area above a plot of land – Apr 2008 - With its proprietary technique, called Vertigro, Valcent uses the area

above a plot of land to increase its yield. The Vertigro process starts off with a volume of algae-infused water in an underground tank, where its temperature will stay quite constant. A pump pushes the fluid up to a holding chamber located 3 meters above the surface in a greenhouse. The pump then squirts the algae water into a series of clear plastic sheets, each containing several interconnected bladders arranged in a raster pattern. As gravity pulls the fluid through the bladders, the algae-laden liquid soaks up sunlight. The fluid is collected in a second

28 www.nature.com

http://www.nature.com/


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containment chamber at the bottom of the sheets and then returned to the underground tank. Inside the tank, the algae receive carbon dioxide, and the oxygen from the photosynthesis process is extracted. Then the whole cycle begins again.

Algae grown in sewage ponds - Aquaflow Bionomic (May 2006) - Aquaflow's derives algae from excess pond discharge from the

Marlborough District Council's sewage treatment works. Solix Biofuels

- Solix Biofuels plans to commercialize its algae fuel technology over the next two years by growing algae on unused land adjacent to power plants and ethanol plants.

EniTecnologie, Italy - EniTecnologie have completed a R&D project on microalgae biofixation of

CO2 to evaluate on pilot scale the feasibility of using fossil CO2 emitted from a NGCC power plant to produce algal biomass. The R&D focuses on how to increase the productivities of algal mass cultures under outdoor operating conditions. The target is to double biomass productivities from the currently projected 30 g (dry weight)/m2/day to 60 g (dry weight)/m2/day for peak monthly productivities, corresponding to a solar energy conversion efficiency of about 5%. This would reduce land area requirements (footprint of the process) and costs of algal biomass production.

Scaling Up Challenges Algal biofuel production is still in its infancy. While there have been numerous reports of successes and breakthroughs at the laboratory scale, it is not entirely clear what percentage of these lab successes have succeeded at a pilot level – in real-life, out-of-the-lab circumstances. For instance, NREL had reported, based on some of the experiments it had done during the ASP program that “when transferred to outdoor test facility, growth rate, % oil yield decreased dramatically from those from laboratory results”. That is, biodiesel produced per acre in Open Test Facility was much lower compared to that produced in lab. A number of efforts are ongoing in order to increase algae fuel operations to a much larger scale; it is hoped that one will see medium-scale algae biorefineries by end of 2011, and large-scale biorefineries in a couple of years from then.

Ongoing Research for Other Challenges in Algae Cultivation The process of nutrient and CO2 provision introduces disturbances that could hinder

algal growth. One of the challenges of algae cultivation is to find out how to keep


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these disturbances to a minimum, as well as to ensure that the environment is not over-aerated.

Algae cultivation systems need to cost-effectively and evenly distribute light within the algae culture. One of the key parameters which influence the microalgal growth is light. This is because, like many plants, algae are quite sensitive to the amount and type of light. However, open ponds are quite inefficient in terms of providing adequate and uniform amounts of light to the algal cells, particularly when sunlight is the sole source of light. The critical challenge involves providing a means of cost-effective cultivation system for uniformly exposing the cells in the algal culture to an optimum amount of visible light. The problems in light distribution during algal cultivation are:

Excessive light intensity can damage and kill the algal cells Similarly, poor design of cultivation systems can restrict light access to algae

and reduce productivity due to low levels of photosynthesis. Light sources, including natural sunlight, often emit substantial amounts of

heat. Algal cultures are sensitive to heat as many of them grow most efficiently at temperatures of 20°-35° C. Thus, means must often be provided for cooling the algal culture and dissipating heat generated by the light source which might be expensive.

Giving algae enough light to maximize its growth - Algae in any kind of pond are only in the top 1/4" or so of the water do the algae receive enough solar radiation. So the ability of a pond to grow algae is limited by its surface area, not by its volume. Algae thrive on the surface of water and other moist surfaces, but the growth rate slows considerably at more than a centimeter beneath the surface, because of poor light distribution.

In the Seattle area, startup Bionavitas is testing a process to bring light deeper below the surface, solving the problem of algae shading out growth below the initial top layer - Nov 2008

3.8 Research & Publications Light Penetration Depth as a Function of Algal Density29 Penetration depth of light in the photosynthetically active radiation range, determined as the depth at which downwelling irradiance is decreased to 10% of incident irradiance.

29 Anatoly G, Hu Q and Amos R. (1996). Photic Volume in Photobioreactors Supporting Ultrahigh Population Densities of the Photoautotroph Spirulina platensis. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, May, p. 1570–1573. Retrieved from: http://aem.asm.org/cgi/reprint/62/5/1570.pdf

http://aem.asm.org/cgi/reprint/62/5/1570.pdf


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Chlorophyll concentrations were 1,000 mg m-3 (curve 1), 10,000 mg m-3 (curve 2), 100,000 mg m-3 (curve 3), and 300,000 mg m-3 (curve 4).

Source: Applied and Environmental Microbiology, May 1996

Chondrus crispus (Gigartinaceae, Rhodophyta) tank cultivation: optimizing carbon input by a fixed pH and use of salt water well Journal: Hydrobiologia Issue: Volume 326-327, Number 1 / July, 1996 Jean-Paul Braud and Mireille A. Amat - Sanofi Bio-Industries, Polder du Dain, 85230 Bouin, France Abstract: The injection of exogenous carbon into intensively cultivated algal tanks is necessary to insure a maximum growth rate by stabilizing the dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) pool, but represents the major part of the cultivation cost (ca. 73%). This study was conducted in paddle-wheel tanks ranging in size from 260 m2 to 1000 m2. Additional carbon was provided by carbon dioxide mixed into the incoming sea water through a tubular reactor. Production vs pH was analyzed on 120 growth measurements covering two years of continuous cultivation. Whereas production peaked at pH 8.0–8.2. The economic optimum for pH regulation was in the range 8.4–8.5, where CO2 injection was greatly reduced (–29%) for only a slight decrease in production (–4%). Expressed as a function of pH level, the specific carbon injection (g c gdw–1 of Chondrus produced) showed an inverse exponential relationship, whereas gross photoconversion ratio (gdw mol photons–1) varied according to a second degree equation with low amplitude. The photoconversion ratio was not improved when the culture was maintained at a DIC concentration higher than the natural equilibrium (0.64 ± 0.11 gdw mol photons–1 at 2.35 mM and 0.65 ± 0.15 gdw mol photons–1 at 3.19 MM). A complementary source of carbon was found in underground salt water with a high and stable DIC concentration (10.15 ± 0.25 mmole Cl–1). The mixing of the well water


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with natural sea water allowed another economy of CO2 (–20% at pH 8.5) and nutrients (–12%), the total unitary cost of production being cut by about 17%.

Stimulatory effect of aerosil on algal growth Authors: Gerashchenko B.I.; Gerashchenko I.I.; Kosaka T.; Hosoya H. Source: Canadian Journal of Microbiology, Vol 48 (2), Feb 2002, pp. 170-175(6) Abstract: Unicellular green alga represents not only a convenient model for its biochemical and physiological studies but also a sensitive system to test the effects of various environmental factors. Algae cells of two strains, SA-3 strain (exsymbiotic from Paramecium bursaria) and Chlorella vulgaris C-27 were asynchronously cultured in the presence of 0.01% Aerosil A-300. Aerosil effects on algae were monitored at logarithmic and stationary phases of their growth by flow cytometry and microscopic counting of algal numbers. The growth patterns of algae were evaluated by their forward light scatter versus fluorescence of endogenous chlorophyll (FL3-height) signal distributions. Although aerosil itself did not cause any direct effects on algal morphology, it affected the growth patterns and the numbers of algae of both strains. Their growth patterns were remarkably altered in the late logarithmic phase cultures (6-day cultures). However, a significant increase of cell numbers was found in the stationary phase cultures (9 and 12 day cultures). While C. vulgaris c-27 demonstrated an increase of cell numbers by approximately 11% in the 9 and 12 day cultures, the amounts of SA-3 cells in the 9 and 12 days cultures were increased by 16% and 35%, respectively. Our study shows aerosil in its colloidal form stimulates proliferation of algae mainly via an acceleration of their life cycles. The stimulatory effect of silica on the growth of algae, the mechanism of which remains to be clarified, might have a practical (e.g., ecological) interest for regulation of algal expansion.

3.9 Reference

Fertilizers for Marine Algae Various combinations of fertilizers that can be used for mass culture of marine algae (modified from Palanisamy et al., 1991). The letters A, B, C denote the various combinations

Fertilizers Concentration (mg.l-1)

A B C D E F

Ammonium sulfate 150 100 300 100 - -

Urea 7.5 5 - 10-15 - 12-15

Calcium superphosphate 25 15 50 - - -

Clewat 32 - 5 - - - -


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N:P 16/20 fertilizer - - - 10-15 - -

N:P:K 16-20-20 - - - - 12-15 -

N:P:K 14-14-14 - - - - - 30

A Generalized Set of Conditions for Culturing Micro-Algae

Parameters Range Optima

Temperature (°C) 16-27 18-24

Salinity (g.l-1) 12-40 20-24

Light intensity (lux) 1,000-10,000

(depends on volume and density) 2,500-5,000

Photoperiod (light: dark, hours) 16:8 (minimum) 24:0 (maximum)

pH 7-9 8.2-8.7

Source: FAO30

Medium Composition

1. Chu 13

Composition Mg/l

KNO3 400

K2HPO4 80

CaCl2 dihydrate 107

MgSO4 heptahydrate 200

Ferric Citrate 20

Citric acid 100

CoCl2 dihydrate 107

H3BO3 5.72

MnCl2 tetrahydrate 3.67

ZnSO4 heptahydrate 0.44

CuSO4 pentahydrate 0.16

Na2MoO4 0.084

0.072 N H2SO4 1 drop

30 Patrick L and Patrick S. (1996). FAO Fisheries Technical Paper - T361. Manual on the Production and Use of Live Food for Aquaculture, Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3732e/w3732e06.htm

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3732e/w3732e06.htm


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2. Johnson’s medium

To 980 ml of distilled water add:

MgCl2·6H2O 1.5 g

MgSO4·7H2O 0.5 g

KClO 2 g

CaCl2·2 H2O 0.2 g

KNO3 1.0 g

NaHCO3 0.043 g

KH2PO4 0.035 g

Fe-solution 10 ml

Trace-element solution 10 ml

Fe solution (for 1 litre)

Na2EDTA 189 mg

FeCl3·6H2O 244 mg

Trace-element solution (for 1 litre)

H3BO3 61.0 mg

(NH4)6Mo7O24·4H2O 38.0 mg

CuSO4·5H2O 6.0 mg

CoCl2·6H2O 5.1 mg

ZnCl2 4.1 mg

MnCl2·4H2O 4.1 mg

Add NaCl as needed to obtain desired salinity Adjust pH to 7.5 with HCl

3. Bold basal medium

Stock Solutions Amount (in 1 L dH2O)

NaNO3 25.0 g

CaCl2.2H2O 2.5 g

MgSO4.7H2O 7.5 g

K2HPO4 7.5 g

KH2PO4 17.5 g


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NaCl 2.5 g

EDTA 50.0 g

KOH 31.0g

FeSO4.7H2O 4.98 g

H2SO4 1.0 mL

H3BO3 11.42 g

Micronutrients g.L-1

ZnSO4.7H2O 8.82 g

MnCl2.4H2O 1.44 g

MoO3 0.71 g

CuSO4.5H2O 1.57 g

Co(NO3)2.6H2O 0.49 g

Add each constituent separately to ~800 mL of dH2O and fully dissolve between each addition. Then make up to 1L.

4. F/2 medium

Components Composition

NaNO3 (75.0 g/L dH2O) 1.0 ml

NaH2PO4·H2O (5.0 g/L dH2O)1.0 ml

1.0 ml

Na2SiO3·9H2O (30.0 g/L dH2O)1.0 ml

1.0 ml

f/2 Trace Metal Solution1.0 ml

1.0 ml

f/2 Vitamin Solution 0.5 ml

Filtered seawater 1 l

The F/2 medium is used only for diatoms. For other species, f/2-Si is used which is prepared by eliminating Na2SiO3·9H2O.

5. Benecke’s medium

Salts Amount (g/l)

KNO3 0.2

MgSO4. 7H2O 0.2


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K2HPO4 0.2

CaCl2 0.1

FeCl3 (1%) 2 drops

6. Medium for Spirulina

Salts Amount (g/l)

NaHCO3 18

K2HO4 0.5

NaNO3 2.5

K2SO4 1.0

NaCl 1.0

MgSO4. 7H2O 0.2

CaCl2 0.04

FeSO4 0.01

EDTA 0.08

A5- solution 1.0ml

7. PES medium31

Stock solution Amount (per l)

Disodium DL-ß-glycerophosphate pentahydrate

16 mL

NaNO3 220 mL

Iron-EDTA (1:1 molar) Combine Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2•6H20 with Na2EDTA

200 mL

Tris buffer Trizma 7.7 pre-set pH crystals 160 mL

Vitamin B12 7 mL

Thiamine 1 16 mL

Biotin 16 mL

PII Trace Metals Mix 400 mL

31

http://www.botany.unimelb.edu.au/West/Modified%20Provasoli%20Medium.pdf

http://www.botany.unimelb.edu.au/West/Modified%20Provasoli%20Medium.pdf


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PII Trace Metals Mix (for 1L)

Na2EDTA 1.0 g/L

H3BO3 1.12 g/L

FeCl3•6H2O 48 mg/L

MnSO4•H2O 120 mg/L

ZnSO4•7H2O 22 mg/L

CoSO4•7H2O 5 mg/L

8. Fogg’s nitrogen free medium (Fogg, 1949)

Salts Amount (g/l)

KH2PO4 0.2

MgSO4.7H2O 0.2

CaCl2.2H20 0.1

Fe-EDTA 1.0 ml

A5 solution 1.0 ml*

* A5 solution:

Salts Amount (g/l)

MnCl2.4H2O 1.81

MoO3 0.0177

ZnSO4.4H2O 0.222

CuSO4.5H2O 0.079

H3BO3 2.86

9. Modified NORO medium32

Salts Amount (per l)

NaCl 29.2 g

KNO3 1 g (9.9 mM)

MgCl2.H2O 1.5 g

MgSO4.7H2O 0.5 g

KCl 0.2 g

32 http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jbb/101/3/223/_pdf

http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jbb/101/3/223/_pdf


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CaCl2 0.2 g

K2HPO4 0.045 g

Tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane

2.45 g

EDTA.2Na 1.89 mg

ZnSO4.7H2O 0.087 mg

H3BO3 0.61 mg

CoCl2.6H2O 0.015 mg

CuSO4.5H2O 0.06 mg

MnCl2 0.23 mg

(NH4)6Mo7O24.4H2O 0.38 mg

Fe(III).EDTA 3.64 mg

10. BG 11 medium33

Salts Amount (per l)

NaNO3 1.5 g

K2HPO4 0.04 g

MgSO4·7H2O 0.075 g

CaCl2·2H2O 0.036 g

Citric acid 0.006 g

Ferric ammonium citrate 0.006 g

EDTA (disodium salt) 0.001 g

NaCO3 0.02 g

Trace metal mix A5 1.0 ml

Agar (if needed) 10.0 g

Distilled water 1.0 L

The pH should be 7.1 after sterilization

Trace metal mix A5:

33

http://www-cyanosite.bio.purdue.edu/media/table/BG11.html

http://www-cyanosite.bio.purdue.edu/media/table/BG11.html


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Components Amount (per l)

H3BO3 2.86 g

MnCl2·4H2O 1.81 g

ZnSO4·7H2O 0.222 g

NaMoO4·2H2O 0.39 g

CuSO4·5H2O 0.079 g

Co(NO3)2·6H2O 49.4 mg

Distilled water 1.0 L

11. C medium

Components Composition

Ca (NO3)2∙4H2O 15 mg

KNO3 10 mg

β-Na2 glycerophosphate∙5H2O 5 mg

MgSO4∙7H2O 4 mg

Vitamin B12 0.01 μg

Biotin 0.01 μg

Thiamine 1 μg

PIV metals 0.3 ml

Tris (hydroxymethyl) amino methane

40 mg

distilled water 99.7 ml

12. Artificial sea water medium (ASW)

Components Composition in g/l

NaCI 32.0

MgCl2. 7H20 6.7

MgSO4 .6H20 5.5

CaCI 2 1.1

KNO3 1.0

KHzPO4 0.07

NaHCO3 0.04

trace elements and vitamins

µg litre- 1


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ZnC12 4

(NH4)6Mo7O24.4H20 36.8

CuC12 .2H20 3.4

MnCIz .4H2O 40

H3BO3 60

FeCI3 .6H20 240

EDTA (di-Na salt) 100

thiamine HCI 400

Biotin 50

Vitamin B12 10


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SUMMARY

1. Algae can be cultivated in open ponds or in closed systems called bioreactors.

2. Algae can be cultivated as a monoculture or mixotropic cultivation, as well as in

batch or continuous process.

3. Open systems are economical but do not provide the environmental control that

closed bioreactors offer. The closed systems are however much costlier than open

system.

4. Ensuring high yield, providing optimal light penetration and aerating cost effectively

are some of the key challenges in cultivation.


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4. Photobioreactors 4.1 Concepts 4.2 Types of Bioreactors Used for Algae Cultivation 4.3 Parts & Components 4.4 Design Principles 4.5 Costs 4.6 PBR Manufacturers & Suppliers 4.7 Photobioreactors – Q&A 4.8 Research Done on Bioreactors and Photobioreactors 4.9 Challenges & Efforts in Photobioreactor 4.10 Photobioreactor Updates and Factoids 4.11 Useful Resource

HIGHLIGHTS

While the costs of setting up and operating a photobioreactor would be much higher than for those for open ponds, the efficiency and higher oil yields from these photobioreactors could be significantly higher as well. Higher productivities and lower costs in future could potentially make these systems much more competitive in the medium and long run.

Commercial scale-up should be a primary design criterion for photobioreactors.

Currently (as of Apr 2010), photobioreactor costs range between $70-150/m2.

The design choice of the PBR is the most important consideration for light penetration and distribution, and a number of research efforts are being carried on in designing photobioreactor.

4.1 Concepts Cultivation of microalgae using natural and man-made open-ponds is technologically simple, but not necessarily economical per unit of biomass produced, owing to low productivities and problems with contamination. The need to achieve higher productivity and to maintain monoculture of algae led to the development of enclosed tubular and flat plate photobioreactors. Photobioreactor is an equipment that is used to cultivate algae. In these photobioreactors, the environment is better controlled than in open ponds because these systems are closed and everything that the algae need to grow, (carbon dioxide, water and light) need to be introduced into the system. Photobioreactors can be set up to be continually harvested (the majority of the larger cultivation systems), or by harvesting a batch at a time. A batch photobioreactor is set


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up with nutrients and algal seed, and allowed to grow until the batch is harvested. A continuous photobioreactor is harvested either continually - daily, or even more frequently. While the costs of setting up and operating a photobioreactor would be higher than those for open ponds, the efficiency and higher oil yields from these photobioreactors could be significantly higher as well. Higher productivities and relatively lower costs in future could potentially make these systems much more competitive in the medium and long run. Once they are successfully started, photobioreactors can continue operating for long periods. For successful outdoor mass algae cultivation, photobioreactors should possess the following characteristics / properties:

High surface-to-volume ratio High mass transfer rate High surface illumination

Advantages of Photobioreactors Cultivation of algae is in controlled circumstances, hence potential for much higher

productivity Large surface-to-volume ratio. PBRs offer maximum efficiency in using light and

therefore greatly improve productivity. Typically the culture density of algae produced is 10 to 20 times greater than bag culture in which algaeculture is done in bags - and can be even higher.

Better control of gas transfer. Reduction in evaporation of growth medium. More uniform temperature. Better protection from outside contamination. Space saving - Can be mounted vertically, horizontally or at an angle, indoors or

outdoors. Reduced fouling - Recently available tube self cleaning mechanisms can dramatically

reduce fouling. Covering open ponds does offer some of the benefits that are offered by photobioreactors, but enclosed systems will still provide better control of temperature, light intensity, better control of gas transfer, and larger surface area-to-volume ratio. An enclosed PBR design will enhance commercial algal biomass production by keeping algae genetics pure and reducing the possibility of parasite infestation.


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Disadvantages of Photobioreactors Capital cost is very high. This is one of the most important bottlenecks that is

hindering the progress of algae fuel industry. Despite higher biomass concentration and better control of culture parameters, data

accumulated in the last two decades have shown that the productivity and production cost in some enclosed photobioreactor systems are not much better than those achievable in open-pond cultures.

The technical difficulty in sterilizing these photobioreactors has hindered their application for algae culture for specific end-products such as high value pharmaceutical products.

General Specifications of a Photobioreactor

Type 1 Type 2

Dimension

Length: 245 m Diameter: 38 cm Culture Depth: 35 cm Surface Area: 186 m²

Length: 76 m Width: 5.5 m Depth: 12 cm Surface Area: 417m²

Unit capacity 25 m³ 50 m³

Function Continuous culture Batch Culture

Environmental conditions

Constant conditions Low light intensity

Most varied to create physiological stress Very high light intensity

Culture response Cell concentration: constant Cell concentration: rapid increase

Biochemistry Low oil concentration High oil concentration

Time Scale Continuous Cell concentration: 1-2 days Oil content: 1-2 days Astaxanthin content: 3-5 days

Data in the table are for the Aquasearch-coupled production system for photosynthetic microbes from HR Biopetroleum. Source: HR Biopetroleum

4.2 Types of Bioreactors Used for Algae Cultivation The most common types include: Tubular photobioreactors Flat-plate photobioreactors

Air-lift bioreactor


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Tubular Photobioreactors Tubular bioreactors are found to be the predominantly used type of PBR for outdoor cultivation. In a transparent tank or algal bag system for growing algae, the organisms pick up light while they are in the few centimetres near the tank wall or surface where they react with carbon dioxide and nutrients. Once they move away from that surface, light cannot penetrate and photosynthesis ceases. This dark area allows more complex protein building to occur within the algae. By the very nature of a tank, the ratio of light to dark area is small and so algal growth is limited. Tubular reactors get round this problem by using narrow diameter tubes that allow the light to penetrate to the centre of the tube. This maximises the surface area available for photosynthesis. Because there is still a requirement for algae to spend time away from the light the tubing is connected to a tank and the algae is constantly recirculated from the tank round the tube and back to the tank. There are a number of different implementations of tubular reactors but they basically all work the same way. The tube can be a flexible transparent tube which is either laid out in a serpentine manner or coiled, or rigid, in which case tubes are either joined at the end by U joints or by manifolds. The tube diameter ranges 10-30 cm. There is a substantial body of literature to show that they are an extremely efficient way of growing large quantities of algae. An increasing number of hatcheries and algal production facilities are using tubular reactors for the production benefits that they bring in terms of yield, control of environment and labour savings. Advantages

It has a large illumination surface area High productivity Suitable for outdoor mass cultivation

Disadvantages

Photoinhibition is a common occurrence Difficult to control temperature When scaled up, mass transfer becomes a problem and light distribution is not

very effective


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Picture of Tubular Photobioreactor

Source: Zsuzsa Csogör, Michael Herrenbauer, Clemens Posten., Stirred Draft Tube Photobioreactor for

Uniform Illumination. Retrieved from: http://www.photobiology.com/v1/csoegoer/

Flat-plate Photobioreactors Flat-plate or flat panel photobioreactors comprise of transparent flat plates in which algae are cultivated. The panels/plates are made of transparent materials for maximum utilization of solar light energy. It has been reported that high photosynthetic efficiencies can be achieved with flat-plate photobioreactors. Flat-plate photobioreactors are very suitable for mass cultures of algae. Advantages

Maximum utilization of solar light Has large illumination surface area Oxygen accumulation is low compared to that in tubular photobioreactors

Disadvantages

Difficult to scale up Difficult to control temperatures

http://www.photobiology.com/v1/csoegoer/


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Picture of Flat Panel Reactor

Air Lift Photobioreactors

Air-lift reactors (ALRs) have great potential for industrial bioprocesses, because of the low level and homogeneous distribution of hydrodynamic shear. One growing field of application is the flue-gas treatment using algae for the absorption of CO2.

Less Common Types of Photobioreactors Rotative Photobioreactor Aerated Photobioreactor - Aerated photobioreactors are normally better suited for

the cultivation of fragile macroalgal gametophyte cells due to the absence of hydrodynamic shear stress caused by fluid turbulence and the presence of a bubble-less gas supply.

Helical Photobioreactor - A helical photobioreactor comprises helical parts receiving strong light. Helical designs were first patented by Grasser (1987) and Robinson et al., (1988) and since then several designs have been proposed (e.g. Lee and Basin, 1990; Travieso et al., 2001). Helical systems can be used as modular units permitting scalability and modular operation.

Internally Illuminated Photobioreactor – This type incorporates both solar and artificial lighting systems and switches to the artifical lighting system in the absence of solar light.

pH-electrode

Gas Outlet

Stirring (2 spots)

Tempering

H2 Storage

H2- Separation

(membrane)

pO-electrode OD Sensor

Tempering

Discharge

Gassing (3 spots)

Width: 10cm


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4.3 Parts & Components PBRs are complex systems composed of several subsystems. The key systems are: 1. Light system 2. Optical transmission system 3. Air handling & gas exchange systems 4. Mixing system 5. Nutrient system 6. Instrumentation system 7. Electrical system Some of the key sub-components of the above system are: Oxygen & CO2 sensors Temperature sensor pH sensor Light sensor Conductivity sensor Recirculation pump Harvest pump CO2 injection valve Substrate pump Filtrate recirculation valve Water inlet valve purge valve Connectors and hoses Oxygen release system PLC control panel Feeding tank Several of the subsystems of a PBR interact. For instance, the optical transmission system and gas exchange system interact via the mixing that takes place in the reaction area.

4.4 Design Principles Before designing and constructing a new reactor, the purpose must be clear. What type of process is the reactor going to be used for? What are the major problems with such a process, and how are they going to be solved? Because the difference between an ordinary bioreactor and a photobioreactor is the presence or absence of light, it is reasonable to consider light as a part of the photobioreactor. The light requirements of cells and processes vary greatly;


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consequently, the optimal light supply coefficient (optimal unit size) depends on the cell type and the process. Thus, each cell and process requires a different photobioreactor.

Lighting Like other microorganisms, the growth and productivity of algal photosynthetic cells are affected by many factors, including media components, temperature, mass transfer characteristics, pH, and concentrations of O2 and CO2 in the reactor. However, the light supply is more important than mass transfer rate during autotrophic cultivation of photosynthetic cells. The light intensity required for optimal algae growth in a photobioreactor is 5,000-10,000 lux. Some sources that can be used to provide the light energy required to sustain photosynthesis include Fluorescent bulbs LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes), or Natural sunlight, including directed sunlight For economic reasons, it is desirable to use the same photobioreactor for several processes. A photobioreactor can be used for various processes by changing the intensity of the light-distributing objects, either by using a light source with controllable intensity or by changing the light source altogether. Therefore, it should be possible to change the light supply coefficient of the photobioreactor to suit the process. The light supply coefficient of a photobioreactor is a function of the size of each unit (the distance between two light-distributing objects) and the light intensity.

Light Guides/Transmitters Light guides aid in injecting light into a dense algal culture. The following are used for guiding / transmitting artificial light in a photobioreactor:

Diffusers Optical fibers Rods

If natural sunlight is used as a lighting source, the following transmission systems can be considered:

Parabolic trough lighting systems Solar glow plates


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Mixing Mixing is very important in photobioreactors. It helps to keep the cells in suspension, distribute the nutrients and the generated heat within the reactor, improve CO2 transfer into the reactor, degas the photosynthetically produced O2, improve mass transfer between the cells and the liquid broth, and facilitate the movement of cells in and out of the illuminated part of the photobioreactor. However, because the growth rates of most photosynthetic cells are very low, only a very low degree of mixing is required to achieve most of these objectives. A gentle stirring to ensure that algae are exposed to sunlight 1/10th of the duration and are in shade 9/10th of the duration promotes additional algae growth.

Airflow The rate of airflow through the PBR will be dictated by the contaminate concentration in the ventilation air, ventilation required for the animals, and the air velocity through the reaction chamber. Algae can be damaged by shear stress caused by aggressive mixing (high velocities).

Cultivation under Sterile Conditions The risk of contamination by heterotrophic microorganisms is low when there is no organic carbon source in the medium. However, at facilities where many other photoautotrophic cells are cultivated, contamination by other photoautotrophs can be a serious problem. Thus, a photobioreactor should be able to withstand sterilization procedures.

One Reactor for Different Processes Usually, one bioreactor is used to cultivate various types of cells and produce various metabolites. These processes can be done by using the appropriate substrate and controlling the temperature, aeration, pH, and other factors as desired. Some photobioreactors can be used for several processes – production of other algal products like astaxanthine from Hematococcus, Spirulina cultivation, Chlorella cultivation etc. While constructing or buying a photobioreactor, care should be taken to ensure that the reactor could be efficiently scaled up for large-scale processes and could have a controllable light supply coefficient so that the same photobioreactor could be used to cultivate various cells with different optimal light supply coefficients.


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Large-scale Processes Many photobioreactors that have been proposed to work well in the laboratory are extremely difficult to implement on a larger scale. Commercial, scale-up potentials should be a primary design criterion for photobioreactors. A successful scale-up will be achieved only if the data obtained with a small-scale reactor can be reproduced with large-scale reactors. To achieve this, the factors that affect cell growth and productivity must be maintained within the optimal range as the reactor is scaled up from the laboratory to the industrial scale.

4.5 Costs

High Cost of Photobioreactors Photobioreactors represent perhaps the highest cost item in algae cultivation. Photobioreactors are expensive owing to their sophistication. Currently (as of Mar 2010), Photobioreactor costs range between $70-150/ m2, though there some up and coming companies that claim to provide these at much lower capital costs. We provide some sample data based on publicly available prices and costs for photobioreactors, from commercial companies. Please note all these data are only indicative in nature. The photobioreactor industry is evolving fast and prices and costs change significantly with time.

Photobioreactor Cost for a 1 Ton/day Dry Algae System Sample data for a 1 Ton/day algae photobioreactor system is given below.

Price AlgaeTube system: € 148,000 Cubic meters: 1,333 m³

Required area m² System Only:

5,526 m² Required Hectare: 0.55 Hectare

Length in Meters: 13,500 m Required Acre: 1.5 Acres

Tube diameter Ø: 320 mm Required electricity: 4 Kw per hour

Source: Algae Fuels; Please note that the data below is based on growing the algae Nannochloropsis and is only representative in nature


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Algaelink Photobioreactor Specifications & Costs

Capacity (Tons of dry

weight biomass per day)

Length (Meters)

Carbon dioxide (Kgs per day)

Area (Acres)

Electricity (Kilowatts)

Cost (Euros)

Demonstration 36 10 0.01 12 69,000

1 1,068 2,881 0.4 55 580,000

10 10,692 28,805 4.3 545 2.5 million

50 53,466 144,027 22 2,727 6 million

100 106,932 288,053 44 5,455 10 million

Source: AlgaeLink N.V.

Data for Photobioreactor Systems from Various Companies

Company Product Description Cost

BioKing Bioking pro

The BioKing-Pro is a High Tec biodiesel production plants that produce fast and easy 12,000 liters (3,170 gallons) per day prime quality biodiesel.

€ 39900

Algae link Commercial cultivation

plants

Characteristics of the CDA algae standard cultivation plant: Length: 480 or 2,000 m Diameter tubes Ø: 250 mm. Land size needed: 300 m m² for 480 meter.1,200 m² for 2,000 meter. Volume: 97,120 litres – 97.12 m³. Tubes: PMMA High Impact, UV stabilized, light 93%.

Price per unit: Complete 480 meter tubes plant - price starting at: € 144,000 Complete 2,000 meter tubes plant - price starting at: € 194,000 Price includes harvesting and drying equipment.

Sigmae

Simgae™ Algal

Biomass Production

System

The DEC Simgae™ system is an agriculture-based solution to large-scale algae production that has the benefits of both open and closed systems

Preliminary estimates are that Simgae™ capital costs including installation, but not including land, harvesting, oil extraction, and product storage will be in the range of $25k - $35k per gross acre.


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Valcent High density

vertical bioreactor

Valcent's HDVB algae-to-biofuel technology mass produces algae, vegetable oil which is suitable for refining into a cost-effective, non-polluting biodiesel.

Not available

Sartorius BBI

Systems

BIOSTAT® Bplus PBR

BIOSTAT® PBR is a new generation of photobioreactor systems utilizing thin layer pipe illumination. Specifically designed for cultivation of phototropic organisms including micro algae

Not available

4.6 PBR Manufacturers & Suppliers

Company Country Link

Algae Sciences USA http://www.algaesciences.com/

Bodega Algae USA www.bodegaalgae.com

Circle Biodiesel & Ethanol Corporation

USA http://www.circlebio.com/

Cultivos de Algas, S.L. Spain http://www.cultivosdealgas.com/english/algae-photobioreactors.htm

Culturing Solutions, Inc USA www.culturingsolutions.com/

Diversified Energy USA http://www.diversified-energy.com

GlobalSpec Company USA http://www.globalspec.com/

Ingrepro B.V. Netherlands http://www.ingrepro.nl

International Energy, Inc USA http://www.internationalenergyinc.com

PhyCO2 USA www.phyCO2.us

Revolution Biofuels NA http://www.revolutionbiofuels.com

Sartorius Stedim Systems GmbH

Germany http://www.sartorius.com/index.php?id=156

Solix Biofuels USA www.solixbiofuels.com

Texas Clean Fuels USA www.newenglandcleanfuels.com

Valcent Products Inc. USA http://www.valcent.net/s/Home.asp

http://www.algaesciences.com/

http://www.bodegaalgae.com/

http://www.circlebio.com/

http://www.cultivosdealgas.com/english/algae-photobioreactors.htm

http://www.cultivosdealgas.com/english/algae-photobioreactors.htm

http://www.culturingsolutions.com/

http://www.diversified-energy.com/

http://www.globalspec.com/

http://www.ingrepro.nl/

http://www.internationalenergyinc.com/

http://www.phyco2.us/

http://www.revolutionbiofuels.com/

http://www.sartorius.com/index.php?id=156

http://www.solixbiofuels.com/

http://www.newenglandcleanfuels.com/

http://www.valcent.net/s/Home.asp


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Profiles of Prominent Photobioreactor Manufacturers Bodega Algae, LLC

Bodega Algae, LLC, is a developer of scalable algae photobioreactors. The Bodega photobioreactor is modular and stackable, allowing it to be co-located efficiently on the premises of industrial plants. The reactor uses nutrients readily drawn from a variety of waste streams. http://www.bodegaalgae.com

Circle Biodiesel & Ethanol Corporation Circle Biodiesel & Ethanol Corporation manufactures biodiesel plants and biodiesel processors for making biodiesel fuel, as well as manufacturing ethanol plants and ethanol stills for making ethanol fuel. The company has manufactured a new algae photobioreactor for the production of algae that is scalable and ready for commercialization. They also have a new algae harvesting system for the extraction of algae oil for algae biodiesel or algae biofuel. http://www.circlebio.com/

Culturing Solutions Inc.

Culturing Solutions, Inc. makes the Continuous Algae Production Technology utilizing its internationally patented photobioreactors.

The scope of their projects include; implementing carbon capture from flue gases, breweries, natural gas purification, and many other industrial processes, effectively taking that CO2 and mitigating it into algae for uses in biofuels, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and other biomass applications.

INGREPRO B.V INGREPRO B.V, with headquarters at Borculo (The Netherlands) and a subsidiary in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, is a bio-tech company specialised in industrial large scale algae production. INGREPRO operates three large production sites in the Netherlands and is the largest industrial algae producer in Europe and unique in the world due to its in-depth knowledge of cultivating algae under extreme conditions in order to obtain Enriched Algal Biomass (EAB). http://www.ingrepro.nl

http://www.bodegaalgae.com/

http://www.circlebio.com/

http://www.ingrepro.nl/


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PhyCO2

PhyCO2 was formed to exploit the technology and was assigned the rights and renamed the technology as "HILED APB".

PhyCO2's technology can increase the amount of algal biomass grown compared to an one-acre pond system by utilizing the increased illuminated surface area designed into its closed loop HILED APB system http://phyCO2.us

Sartorius Bbi Systems Inc. Offers high performance bioreactor systems to research & industrial bioprocessing facilities. A modular approach to system design and development enables them to offer a range of standard & customized platforms suitable for any scale of bio-application, which includes fermentors and bioreactors, laboratory & pilot scale fermentors and industrial fermentors. http://www.sartorius.de

Solix Biofuels Solix Biofuels is a direct intellectual descendant of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Aquatic Species Program started in 1978 to explore ways to produce biodiesel from algae. Solix is developing its fourth-generation technology, including a proprietary closed photo-bioreactor system, which produces biocrude from algae cost-effectively. http://www.solixbiofuels.com

Texas Clean Fuels Texas Clean Fuels has focused on the CO2-to-Algae-to-Fuels concept and is offering its first generation photobioreactor technology for sale to algae producers. http://www.newenglandcleanfuels.com

Valcent Products Inc. Vertigro Energy is a joint venture established with Global Green Solutions Inc. to market worldwide Valcent's patent-pending Vertigro bioreactor technology developed to provide a profitable and viable renewable energy resource and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Valcent Manufacturing Ltd. commercializes and markets products developed by the consumer products division. http://www.valcent.net

http://phyco2.us/

http://www.sartorius.de/

http://www.solixbiofuels.com/

http://www.newenglandcleanfuels.com/

http://www.valcent.net/


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4.7 Photobioreactors – Q&A What is the comparative production capacity of PBR & pond alternative, for similar area used? The algae biomass concentration, and hence the yield per unit area, in photobioreactors can be 3-5 times higher than what it is open ponds, for similar areas.

How costly are photobioreactors when compared to open ponds? For similar areas, the capital cost of photobioreactors could be 7-10 times that for open ponds.

What are the primary cost components in photobioreactor systems? The major cost components are pumps, degassers, lighting and sensor systems.

Is it possible to eliminate some photobioreactor components without affecting the algae growth process? It is possible to do away with some of the systems without significantly affecting performace. For instance, sensor systems in photobioreactors can be eliminated, provided the quality control operation is done manually. As another example, novel photobioreactor designs eliminate support structures such as steel rods used to erect these systems.

What are the major parts of a PBR, and what are the parts that make it costly? PBRs consist of tubes, connectors, hoses, valves, feeding tanks, recirculation pump, harvest pump, pH pump, substrate pump, PLC, PLC control panel, software + license, dissolved oxygen sensor, off gas oxygen sensor, optical density sensor, CO2 sensor, temperature sensor, pH sensor, light sensor, conductivity sensor, oxygen release system, algae collection filters, algae solar dryer, CO2 injection valve, filtrate recirculation valve, purge valve and water inlet valve. The high cost of PBR is mainly due to light devices, pumps and monitoring devices, including software. Provided below is a classification of the PBR systems on cost basis. We use the following convention for classification of costs/ price: High Cost - US$ 2500 & above Medium Cost – US$ 500-2500 Low Cost – US$ 100-500 Very Low Cost - < US$100


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Parts of a Photobioreactor

S.No Parts Description Cost Level

1 Light Upgrade To increase intensity of actinic light High

2 Turbidostat Peristaltic pump1 and controller to stabilize suspension optical density

High

3 O2/H2 Detector To measure concentration of dissolved gases High

4 pH Sensor To monitor pH of the solution in the bioreactor

Medium

5 Bubble Interruption Valve

To interrupt the bubble stirring during single measurements - for more precise results

Low

6 Bubble Humidifier To keep the vessel volume stable Very low

7 Air-Blow Unit for Opticals (Includes the air pump, connector and tubing)

To prevent moisture condensation on the vessel surface (in place where the optical measurements are taken)

Very low

8 Additional Light Source

To accommodate specific needs of different organisms, e.g. , 850 nm Infra Red Light Source for purple sulfur photosynthetic bacteria

High

9 Supplementary Vessel

Medium

10 Remote Control Software

Software for data collection and data visualization and also for remote control of the device via internet. Such software enables data collection in real time, and data upload for processing even when the experiment is running

High

1 Peristaltic Pump - To be used for chemostat steady-state cultures to introduce medium into the vessel at appropriate flow or to pump samples

What are closed loop photobioreactors? Closed-loop bioreactors consist of closed loops from which liquid can be drained from the harvested algae and recirculated back to the reactor. They are not subject to weather changes (heavy rain, snow, heat, freezing, etc.) or contamination (from pollution, rogue algae species or wind-borne contaminants). These growth systems permit essentially single-species culture of algae for prolonged durations.


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Companies like Valcent, Circle Biodiesel & Ternion Bio are manufacturing closed loop photobioreactors.

Valcent Technologies in Arizona is working with Tucson Electric Power (TEP) to use CO2 from their coal plant as the feed gas for the algae. It’s a small test ‘closed-loop’ type PBR – Nov 2008

In Pennsylvania, Biodiesel Advanced Research and Development (BARD) announced that it will utilize CO2 acquired from a local power company and will utilize a closed photobioreactor system. – Dec 2008

California’s BioCentric says its closed loop algae system nearly 4X less expensive per sq meter than competition. In California, BioCentric Energy Holdings said that it had developed an “end-to-end” closed-loop algae-to-energy solution with costs of $20 per square meter, compared to a $77-$200 per square meter cost the company described as the range for its competitors. – Dec 2008.

For what algae-based products are photobioreactors predominantly used? Currently, photobioreactors are used primarily in algae cultivation for pharma grade astaxanthine and food grade proteins

For what kinds of products is the use of photobioreactor economical? The high capital and operational expenses of current photobioreactor systems result in high cultivation costs for algae. In order for algae production to be economical under the current photobioreactor designs and expenses, the end products from algae need to be sold at very high prices. Fuel, on the other hand, is a commodity sold at low prices. Thus, only breakthrough designs in photobioreactors, leading to orders-of-magnitude cost reductions, will enable economical algae cultivation for fuel

When is the use of photobioreactors mandatory for algae cultivation? Use of photobioreactors could be unavoidable under certain very specific circumstances. For instance, in areas of algae cultivation areas where the temperatures are extreme, it becomes essential to use closed photobioreactor systems.

Why is it essential to pump air and CO2 together into the photobioreactor? There are two benefits to mixing air with CO2:

When a high concentration of CO2 is pumped, it will acidify the medium, leading to poor growth of algae. Hence the concentration of CO2 is diluted by pumping it together with air.

Air contains high N2 concentration which will remove excess oxygen produced during photosynthesis, thus maintaining the optimal O2 concentration in the cultivation system.


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4.8 Research Done on Bioreactors and Photobioreactors

Air-Lift Bioreactors for Algal Growth on Flue Gas: Mathematical Modeling and Pilot-Plant Studies The air-lift reactor (ALR) is a type of pneumatic contacting device in which fluid circulation takes place in a defined cyclic pattern through channels built specifically for this purpose. ALRs are considered to have vast potential in industrial bioprocesses, because of the low level and homogeneous distribution of hydrodynamic shear. However, not many examples are known of large-scale applications. There are two general types of biological processes, both related to ecoconservation, that are inherently large-scale and can take advantage of the ALR. For one class of processes wastewater treatments several configurations have been proposed. The second class of processes is a relatively novel application of the ALR to the flue-gas treatment using algae for the absorption of CO2 and abatement of NOx.34

Hydrodynamic Stress in Photobioreactors At high light distribution coefficients, the variation in light intensity within the reactor is minimal, so there is little advantage in moving the cells toward and away from the light

34

Gordana V., Yoojeong K., WuIsaac B and José C. M.,(2005) Air-Lift Bioreactors for Algal Growth on

Flue Gas: Mathematical Modeling and Pilot-Plant Studies. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 2005, 44 (16), pp 6154–

6163. Retrieved from: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie049099z

How often should the PBR be cleaned? Depending on the strains and medium used, photobioreactors might need cleaning very frequently (as frequently as twice a month), or much less frequently. Many PBR systems come with cleaning systems that are incorporated into the unit. That means the unit doesn’t have to be shut down to remove algae that builds up on the internal sides of the tubes. The cleaning system in combination with the extensive monitoring allows the algae cultures to be maintained for long periods without crashing. In order to reduce the problems of algae fouling and to avoid frequent tube cleaning, the flow rate through the tubing needs to be sufficient to induce turbulent flow. Some photobioreactor systems avoid the need for this by having cleaners which are used relatively frequently but this means stopping the system for cleaning. Sometimes, automated cleaning mechanisms such as addition of beads to medium are incorporated in large-scale photobioreactors

http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie049099z


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source. Many photosynthetic cells have no cell wall, and some are mobile or filamentous, making them fragile and sensitive to shear stress. Therefore, it is desirable to keep the hydrodynamic stress as low as possible.35

Increasing Photosynthetic Productivity by Redistribution of Strong Light As photosynthetic efficiencies are relatively high at irradiation levels of less than 500 pmol /m2/s, photosynthetic productivity could be increased by redistributing strong light over a larger photo-receiving area using conical, helical, tubular photobioreactors (HTP). When Chlorella were exposed to light irradiation of 980 pmol/m2/s, the ratio of productivities was 1.00:1.13:1.23:1.66 for conical HTPs with cone angles of 180° (flat type), 120°, 90°, and 60°, respectively. This suggests that photoredistribution technology is a highly effective and convenient approach for increasing the photosynthetic productivity of microalgae.36

A Closed Solar Photobioreactor for Cultivation of Microalgae A novel type of closed tubular photobioreactor was set up at the Academic and University Centre in Nove Hrady, Czech Republic. This "penthouse” photobioreactor was based on solar concentrators (linear Fresnel lenses) mounted in a climate-controlled greenhouse on top of the laboratory complex combining features of indoor and outdoor cultivation units. The dual-purpose system was designed for algal biomass production in temperate climate zone under well-controlled cultivation conditions and with surplus solar energy being used for heating service water. The system was used to study the strategy of microalgae acclimation to supra-high solar irradiance, with values as much as 3.5 times the ambient value, making the approach unique. The cultivation system proved to be fully functional with sufficient mixing and cooling, efficient oxygen stripping and light tracking. Experimental results showed that the cyanobacterium Spirulina cultivated under sufficient turbulence and biomass density was able to acclimate to irradiance values as high as 7 mmol photon/m2/s. The optimal biomass concentration of Spirulina cultures in September ranged between 1.2 to 2.2 g/L, which resulted in a net productivity of about 5 g/L/d corresponding to a biomass yield of 32.5 g/m2/d (based on the minimum illuminated surface area of the photobioreactor).

Z150 Photobioreactor The Z150 Photobioreactors are used for precise phototrophic cultivation of algae and cyanobacteria. They feature a unique combination of the cultivator and monitoring

35 http://pubs.acs.org/hotartcl/chemtech/97/jul/ind.html 36 Morita M.

Watanabe Y., Saiki H. (2000). Investigation of Photobioreactor Design for Enhancing the

Photosynthetic Productivity of Microalgae. Biotechnology and bioengineering vol. 69, pp. 693-698. Retrieved from: http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1513243

http://pubs.acs.org/hotartcl/chemtech/97/jul/ind.html



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device. Light power and spectral composition as well as the temperature and aeration gas composition can be set with a high accuracy. In addition, cultivation conditions can be dynamically varied according to a user defined protocol.

A Novel Double-layered Photobioreactor for Simultaneous Haematococcus pluvialis Cell Growth and Astaxanthin Accumulation This study proposes a novel double-region photobioreactor to simplify the commercial two-stage process of astaxanthin production by the cultivation of Haematococcus pluvialis. The feasibility of the double-region photobioreactor has been investigated and found to achieve high biomass yield in the inner core region and simultaneous astaxanthin accumulation in the outer jacket region. Among many environmental factors, light condition and nitrate level were manipulated for selective cell growth and astaxanthin production. In the outer jacket region, efficient astaxanthin production was accomplished by excessive irradiation (770 ± 20 μE m−2 s−1) and nitrate starvation, resulting in a dramatic increase of astaxanthin productivity (357 mg l−1). Meanwhile, attenuated light energy (40 ± 3 μE m−2 s−1) and sufficient nitrates were supplied to the vegetative cells in the inner core region, which continued to grow to a high cell concentration of 4.0 × 105 cells ml−1. The sequential batch run was performed by utilizing the high-density vegetative cells as inoculum for the next batch run. The cultivation results exhibited similar trends as the previous run, reaching high cell density (4.3 × 105 cells ml−1) in the inner core region and high astaxanthin content (5.79% on a dry weight basis) in the outer jacket region. The present study indicates that the double-region photobioreactor and its method of operation possess a good potential for commercial production of astaxanthin by H. pluvialis. In Soo Suha, Hyun-Na Jooa and Choul-Gyun Lee – Authors Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Department of Biological Engineering, Inha University, 253 Yonghyun-Dong, Nam-Gu, Incheon 402-751, Republic of Korea (May 2006)

A Simple and Low-cost Airlift Photobioreactor for Microalgal Mass Culture A simple, low-cost, and efficient airlift photobioreactor for microalgal mass culture was designed and developed. The reactor was made of Plexiglas, and composed of three major parts: outer tube, draft tube and air duct. The fluid-dynamic characteristics of the airlift reactor were studied. The system proved to be well suited to the mass cultivation of a marine microalga, Chlorella sp. In batch culture, the biomass volumetric output rate of 0.21 g l–1 d–1 was obtained at the superficial gas velocity of 4 mm s–1 in the draft tube. Zhang Xu (1), Zhou Baicheng(2), Zhang Yiping(3), Cai Zhaoling(1), Cong Wei(1) and Ouyang Fan(1)


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(1) State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 353, Beijing, 100080, China (2) Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China (3) The First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao, 266061, China (2004)

A Laboratory Scale Air-lift Helical Photobioreactor to Increase Biomass Output Rate of Photosynthetic Algal Cultures The helical air-lift reactor provides an improved way to cultivate photosynthetic organisms when compared to a stirred reactor having double the capacity. The improvement results from an approximately three-fold increase in the surface area: volume ratio of the reactor. Continuous operation of the helical reactor at a dilution rate of 0.025 h−1 permitted a light-limited photosynthetic culture of Porphyridium cruentum to be maintained at a steady state biomass concentration of 4.6 g/l compared to 1.7 g/l in the stirred reactor under similar illumination.37

Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer in a Tubular Airlift Photobioreactor In photobioreactors, which are usually operated under light limitation, sufficient dissolved inorganic carbon must be provided to avoid carbon limitation. Efficient mass transfer of CO2 into the culture medium is desirable since undissolved CO2 is lost by outgassing. Mass transfer of O2 out of the system is also an important consideration, due to the need to remove photosynthetically-derived O2 before it reaches inhibitory concentrations. Hydrodynamics (mixing characteristics) are a function of reactor geometry and operating conditions (e.g. gas and liquid flow rates), and are a principal determinant of the light regime experienced by the culture. This in turn affects photosynthetic efficiency, productivity, and cell composition. This paper describes the mass transfer and hydrodynamics within a near-horizontal tubular photobioreactor. The volume, shape and velocity of bubbles, gas hold-up, liquid velocity, slip velocity, axial dispersion, Reynolds number, mixing time, and mass transfer coefficients were determined in tap water, seawater, and algal culture medium. Gas hold-up values resembled those of vertical bubble columns, and the hydraulic regime could be characterized as plug-flow with medium dispersion. The maximum oxygen mass transfer coefficient is approximately 7/h. A regime analysis indicated that there are mass transfer limitations in this type of photobioreactor. A methodology is described to determine the mass transfer coefficients for O2 stripping and CO2 dissolution which

37 http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119369952/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0

http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119369952/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0


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would be required to achieve a desired biomass productivity. This procedure can assist in determining design modifications to achieve the desired mass transfer coefficient38

Design and Performance of an Α-Type Tubular Photobioreactor for Mass Cultivation of Microalgae An α-shape tubular photobioreactor was designed and constructed based on knowledge of algal growth physiology using sunlight. The algal culture is lifted 5 m by air to a receiver tank. From the receiver tank, the culture flows down parallel polyvinyl-chloride tubes of 25 m length and 2.5 cm internal diameter, placed at an angle of 25o with the horizontal to reach another set of air riser tubes. Again the culture is lifted 5 m to another receiver tank, and then flows down parallel tubes connected to the base of the first set of riser tubes. Thus, the bioreactor system looks like the symbol α. As there is no change in the direction of the liquid flow, high liquid flow rate and Reynolds Number can be achieved at relatively low air flow rate in the riser tubes. Due to the high area-volume ratio of the bioreactor, and equable photosynthetically available radiance and culture temperature, biomass density of exceeding 10 g dry weight L-1 and daily output rate of 72 g dry weight m-2 land d-1 were achieved39

4.9 Challenges in Photobioreactor The critical challenge for the use of photobioreactors currently is the high capital

and operating costs of using them. In a photobioreactor, the algae grow under controlled conditions with access to

sunlight. There are technological issues here, the most prominent of which is that algae produce oxygen, which is highly toxic to the blooms in a closed system. Methods need to be devised to get rid of it.

One challenge is to determine how to get the carbon dioxide into the water rapidly enough to spur maximum growth.

One of the problems Japanese researchers faced was that the algae would attach to the microfibers that were necessary to produce more light for growth inside the growth containers.

38 Babcock R.W., Malda J., Radway J.C., (2008) Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer In A Tubular Airlift Photobioreactor. Journal of Applied Phycology, Volume 14 (3), June, pp. 169-184(16) Retrieved from: http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/japh/2002/00000014/00000003/00403143?crawler=true 39 Yuan-Kun Lee., Sun-Yeun Ding., Chin-Seng Low.,Yoon-Ching Chang .,Forday W. L., Poo-Chin Chew. Design and performance of an α-type tubular photobioreactor for mass cultivation of microalgae. Asia-Pacific conference on algal biotechnology: trends and opportunities No2, Singapore, 1995, vol. 7, Retrieved from: http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3516634

http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/japh/2002/00000014/00000003/00403143?crawler=true



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With respect to system design, the technical challenges include: (1) reducing capital and operating costs, (2) maintaining temperature and pH control, (3) assessing water requirements (source, recycle, chemistries and evaporation issues), (4) determining CO2 availability and delivery methods, (5) assessing power plant flue gas compatibility and CO2/SOx/NOx remediation, (6) providing necessary microalgal nutrients and (7) examining the environmental impacts.

As the length of tube in a tubular photobioreactor increases, the friction of the liquid in the tubing gets greater and the head pressure required to pump it gets greater. Therefore bigger and more expensive pumps are required.

With regard to the tube diameter of a tubular PBR, there is a tradeoff between volumetric carrying capacity and optical path.

In a PBR, hydro-dynamic stresses can have adverse influence on algal strain, with excessive mechanical stresses having the potential to cause algae to lose cell wall integrity.

In order to ensure nutrient availability throughout process cycles, large scale PBR may need multiple controlled inputs, resulting in higher costs.

Some Efforts & Research to Overcome the Challenges Choice of PBR - The design choice of the PBR is the most important consideration for

light penetration and distribution. Tubular PBRs achieve a higher photosynthetic efficiency (PE; defined as how efficiently radiant energy is converted into chemical energy within the microalgae) than flat PBRs (Tredici and Zittelli, 1998). The curved surfaces more evenly distribute the light within the reactor by maximizing the illumination surface-to-volume ratio (Ogbonna and Tanaka, 1997; Watanabe and Hall, 1996). Other designs include spiral and helical PBRs (Watanabe and Hall, 1995; Watanabe and Hall, 1996).

Photobioreactor design is a subject of active research in several algal-biotechnology

companies since it is technically more feasible than open pond cultivation. However, the high capital and operating costs of photobioreactors have prohibited their use for biofuels.

The high capital costs are associated with the construction materials, circulation pumps, and nutrient-loading systems

The operating costs are high owing to maintenance of equipments, labour, nutrients, and power.

The challenge is to reduce the construction and operation costs of the photobioreactors further to make them more economically competitive.

The GreenShift CleanTech system, born out of the work of David Bayless of Ohio University, uses solar collectors to concentrate sunlight. The system then pipes the light into a closed chamber and distributes it over glow plates with a large surface area enriched with CO2 from a nearby power plant. Between the glow plates are growth media, over which water and a nutrient solution flow, and algae grow. When the algae are


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ready to harvest, an increase in water pressure separates them from the growth media for collection.

The company Diversified Energy claims that their DEC Simgae™ photobioreactor capital costs (including installation, but not including land, harvesting, oil extraction, and product storage) will be in the range of $25,000 - $35,000 per gross acre, where competing systems have publicly claimed ranges anywhere from $100,000 - $500,000 per acre. (2008)

To maintain the constant light condition inside the photobioreactor (the light supply coefficient), a new concept has been proposed in design and scale-up. The photobioreactor was conceptualized as being comprised of units. One unit is a reactor volume (space) with a single light-distributing object. If the intensity of the light-distributing object is constant, then the light supply coefficient of a unit decreases with an increase in the size of the unit. At a constant light intensity, therefore, there is an optimal unit size for a given cell and process. An optimal unit size for a process is determined first, and the photobioreactor is scaled up by increasing the number of this unit in three dimensions. In this way, the optimal light supply coefficient of the reactor is maintained during the scale-up.40

Self shading and passive optics - Bionavitas is developing bioreactors that can be deployed on a large scale, which would allow a low-cost manufacturing approach to algae farming. The main problem that Bionavitas is attacking is self shading. That is, once algae grow to a certain thickness in tubes or plastic bags, the amount of light decreases, slowing down growth. Self shading is a real issue in the expense, according to the company and it is developing a passive optical system that will allow light to penetrate the first few centimeters of algae growth. The company won't be using mirrors or solar collectors because they are too expensive. (May 2008)

Lab-scale photobioreactors - Designed to ensure rapid, reliable growth of phototrophic organisms, these types of photobioreactors are available in a range of sizes to suit most applications, from small volume benchtop (2 liters) to full scale production (100 liters). These models are suitable for use for lab scale fermentation using pure cultures, and have small footprints, designed to fit in common lab autoclaves.

The Japanese have developed optical fiber-based reactor systems that could dramatically reduce the amount of surface area required for algae production

Solix and Colorado State University Commercializing New Algae-to-Biodiesel Process - December 2006 - Solix Biofuels Inc - The Solix photo-bioreactors for algae production are based upon 20 years of research (the Aquatic Species Program) originating at the National Renewal Energy Laboratory (NREL), and are massively

40 1995, James C. Ogbonna, Hirokazu Yada, Hiroyuki Masui and Hideo Tanaka, Institute of Applied

Biochemistry, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305, Japan


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scaleable, according to the company. The algae grow within closed plastic bags, which reduce the possibility of infestation drastically. A novel low-energy temperature control system keeps the algae within a temperature range that optimizes growth. The bioreactor primarily consists of two large transparent flattened tubes made of specialty plastics. Water-weighted rollers squeeze the algae-bearing fluid through the tubes as they slowly move down tracks built into concrete supports on the side of the tubes. The peristaltic motion of the rollers creates a current inside the reactor, which forces the algae to be in constant motion and allows more than just the top layer of algae to receive sunlight. In turn, that allows the fluid depth of the reactor to be 12 inches, and thus does not restrict photosynthesis to the surface layer of the fluid—a traditional obstacle to making cost-efficient photosynthetic bioreactors. Within the “bag” is a thermal layer that can be raised or lowered by the rollers to regulate the internal temperature of the bioreactor. The shape of the straps holding the foam is designed to maximize the fluid rotation within the reactor, presenting all the algae sequentially to the sun absorption zone in the top layers of the reactor. CO2 is injected into the photo-bioreactor for the photosynthesis reaction.

It can be shown that the maximum productivity for a bioreactor occurs when the "exchange rate" (time to exchange one volume of liquid) is equal to the "doubling time" (in mass or volume) of the algae41.

Valcent - vertical bioreactor. It is claimed that using the vertical concept, Valcent’s photobioreactor can produce much higher yields of algae than other photobioreactors, for similar areas.

Origin Oil - Helix bioreactor - In a natural pond, the sun only illuminates one growth plane, down to about half an inch below the surface. In contrast, the Helix Bioreactor features a rotating vertical shaft with very low energy lights arranged in a helix or spiral pattern, which results in a theoretically unlimited number of layers. Additionally, each lighting element is engineered to produce specific light waves and frequencies for optimal algae growth. By giving algae only the light it needs, throughout the growth tank, all of the time, the company claims that its technology grows algae quickly and cost-effectively

Academic & Univ Centre in Nove Hrady - Czech Republic - Penthouse PBR using solar concentrators with linear fresnel lenses

4.10 Photobioreactor Updates and Factoids

In May 2009, the company BioProcessAlgae has been awarded a $2.1 million grant from the state of Iowa to build the first photobioreactor systems attached

41 Ralph McGill., (May 2008) Algae as a Feedstock for Transportation Fuels – The Future of Biofuels? A

White Paper Prepared for the IEA Advanced Motor Fuels Implementing Agreement. Retrieved from: http://www.iea-amf.vtt.fi/pdf/annex34b_algae_white_paper.pdf

http://www.iea-amf.vtt.fi/pdf/annex34b_algae_white_paper.pdf


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to an industrial plant in the United States. The pilot project, which is supposed to be installed by the fall of this year, would capture CO2 from a Green Plains corn ethanol plant in Shenadoah, Iowa, and use it to grow algae.

In Apr 2009, Midwest Research Institute (MRI) activated an open pond

"raceway" cultivation system at its laboratory in Palm Bay, Florida (USA), and a continuous flow, closed loop photobioreactor at its field station near Kansas City. MRI's closed loop photobioreactor in Kansas City provides a pilot scale algae production facility enclosed in a greenhouse to allow for year-round testing. This closed system has a capacity of approximately 1,000 gallons of algae dense medium and is capable of harvesting approximately 90 pounds of dry mass per month. Artificial lighting is available and allows for exploring effects from using a variety of real world and simulated environments. The institute belies that this robust system provides a unique test bed for rigorous characterization of diverse algae strains and stringent monitoring of their associated growth conditions.

4.11 Useful Resource

Photobioreactors: Design Considerations for Sustainable High-Yield Algal Oil Production - http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/hu.pdf

Microalgal Photobioreactors: Scale - up and Optimization - http://library.wur.nl/wda/dissertations/dis3423.pdf

Photobioreactor Technology for Microalgae Cultivation - http://www.ecn.nl/fileadmin/ecn/units/bio/Overig/pdf/Publ19.pdf

Closed Photobioreactors for Microalgal Cultivation - http://www.losda.org/cellreg.org/PDF/Tsoglin01.PDF

High-Density Algal Photobioreactors Using Light-Emitting Diodes - http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/37932/1/260441002_ftp.pdf

Materials, geometry, and net energy ratio of tubular photobioreactors for microalgal hydrogen production - http://solar-thermal.anu.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/WHEC-Burgess-biohydrogen.pdf

Algae Photobioreactor Design Considerations for Commercial Scale Production - https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/956/Algae%20Photobioreactor%20Design%20[abstract].pdf?sequence=3

Study of light requirements of a Photobioreactor - http://abe.sdstate.edu/faculty/garyanderson/website/asaetechpaper-sep-2004.pdf

A New Photobioreactor for Continuous Microalgal Production in Hatcheries Based on External-Loop Airlift and Swirling Flow - http://planktergy.com/photobioreactors/LOUBIERE2008-New%20PhotobioreactorForContinuousMicroalgalProduction.pdf

Microalgae Grown in Photobioreactors for Mass Production of Biofuel - http://www.water.rutgers.edu/Educational_Programs/Senior%20Design2008/Algae%20to%20Energy%20Report.pdf

http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/hu.pdf

http://library.wur.nl/wda/dissertations/dis3423.pdf

http://www.ecn.nl/fileadmin/ecn/units/bio/Overig/pdf/Publ19.pdf

http://www.losda.org/cellreg.org/PDF/Tsoglin01.PDF

http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/37932/1/260441002_ftp.pdf

http://solar-thermal.anu.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/WHEC-Burgess-biohydrogen.pdf

http://solar-thermal.anu.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/WHEC-Burgess-biohydrogen.pdf

https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/956/Algae%20Photobioreactor%20Design%20%5babstract%5d.pdf?sequence=3

https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/956/Algae%20Photobioreactor%20Design%20%5babstract%5d.pdf?sequence=3

http://abe.sdstate.edu/faculty/garyanderson/website/asaetechpaper-sep-2004.pdf

http://planktergy.com/photobioreactors/LOUBIERE2008-New%20PhotobioreactorForContinuousMicroalgalProduction.pdf

http://planktergy.com/photobioreactors/LOUBIERE2008-New%20PhotobioreactorForContinuousMicroalgalProduction.pdf

http://www.water.rutgers.edu/Educational_Programs/Senior%20Design2008/Algae%20to%20Energy%20Report.pdf

http://www.water.rutgers.edu/Educational_Programs/Senior%20Design2008/Algae%20to%20Energy%20Report.pdf


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SUMMARY

1. Photobioreeactors are considered to be the most feasible option for cultivating

algae in a large scale for fuels, as they offer the promise of high productivities of

desired strains.

2. The key challenges for photobioreactor use are the high capital and operating

costs, which currently make them unviable for producing feedstock for biofuel.


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5. Harvesting 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Methods of Harvesting 5.3 Case Studies & Examples 5.4 Trends & Latest in Harvesting Methods 5.5 Challenges & Efforts

HIGHLIGHTS

Harvesting microalgae is an expensive and energy intensive process and presents a key challenge, unique to the algae industry.

Methods suggested for efficient and cost effective harvesting are still in the research stage.

Some of the prominent methods currently used for harvesting microalgae are filtration, centrifugation, flocculation and flotation.

5.1 Introduction Unlike for many other energy crops, the cost of harvesting microalgae could present a significant challenge to economic energy production from algae. The reasons lie in the differences present between harvesting algae and other energy crops: The medium in which algae grow is different – the other oilseeds are land crops

while algae grow in water Microalgae’s physical characteristics are significantly different from those of the

primary oilseeds, the main difference being the size. Algae are harvested almost everyday, for most part or all through the year, whereas

harvesting for most oilseeds is quite seasonal in nature Owing to these reasons, harvesting algae, especially microalgae, could be a fairly expensive process. A number of methods could be potentially used for harvesting. These are discussed in detail in this chapter.

5.2 Methods of Harvesting The ease in harvesting algae depends primarily on the organism's size, which determines how easily the species can be settled and filtered. The most rapidly growing algal species are frequently very small, and often motile unicells, and these are the most difficult to harvest. Thus, it is necessary to maintain an effective interaction between the


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development of harvesting technologies and the selection of algal species for mass culture. The main types of harvesting methods are: Filtration - Mechanical harvesting using filtration, by means of strong membranes,

such as microscreens. Chemical Methods - Chemical and/or biological harvesting by means of flocculants Centrifugation – It uses the action of centrifugal force to promote accelerated

settling of particles in a solid-liquid mixture. Flotation - Another method is froth flotation, whereby the water and algae are

aerated into froth, with the algae then removed from the water. The main harvesting methods are described below.

Filtration Filtration using mesh screens is a common method for harvesting macroalgae. Harvesing of microalgae is more difficult. There are thousands of different microalgal species, ranging in size from one thousandth of a millimetre (one micron) to over 2 mm. Typical size range are 5-10 microns for small green algae as Chlorella sp. and up to several hundreds microns for thread like algae as some blue-green species. Filtration methods specially designed for separating specific microalgae can be used to filter algae from the solution. Common Types of Filters: Drum filter - The liquid is filtered through the periphery of the slowly rotating drum. Assisted by the filter elements’ special cell structure, the algae are carefully separated from the liquid. Separated algae are rinsed off the filter cloth into the collection tray and discharged. Disc filter - In this type of filter, the water flows by gravity into the filter segments from the centre drum. Algae are separated from the water by the microscreen cloth mounted on the two sides of the segments. When the screen is clogged, the back-wash cycle is started and algae are back-washed into the collecting trough. Some unique filtration methods are given below: Continuous filtration system – Such a system provides for a continuous filtering process. This process can be specifically used when filtration is required for large or very large volumes from high-rate ponds.


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Multi-stage filtration – A process in which filtering is done in multiple phases / stages. One example is the triple-filtering of algae from Klamath Lake in the US. Using Fiber Coatings on Movable Belt Screens – An example of such an effort is provided here42 . From a water medium, a harvester recovers algae useful as animal feed. The harvester has a preferably endless, movable belt screen. A coating device puts a first coating of long fibers (such as glass fiber or asbestos mixed with paper fiber) onto one side of the belt screen. A container of algae in water discharges onto the first coating permitting much of the water to pass through it and the belt screen but holding back the algae largely as a second coating on the fibers. A second screen having finer openings than the first screen is disposed against the second coating. This second screen has openings large enough to pass the algae but small enough to hold back the fibers. Suction is applied to the second screen causing the algae and entrained water to move therethrough. Using Surface Coatings Containing Other Algae - An example of such an effort is provided here43. To separate small algae, such as Dunaliella, from a containing liquid, a filter drum is provided with a surface coat including a layer of large algae such as Spirulina. The Dunaliella are deposited on the surface coat and are largely separated from the containing liquid, with some Spirulina as an accompaniment. The method involves using relatively large algae, such as Spirulina, in a layer as a filter for relatively small algae, such as Dunaliella.

Sedimentation Sedimentation is the process of allowing algae to settle to the bottom. Sedimentation of algae in water column mainly depends on density of algae and motility of algae. Sedimentation is of particular significance to diatoms due to their high density (silica cell wall) and lack of planktonic motility. Sedimentation of microalgae is usually done in combination with flocculation. Some Waste Stabilization Ponds that use algae for water treatment currently employ sedimentation as the main harvesting process. One of the hindrances to efficient sedimentation could be the mixing provided for better nutrient circulation, which prevents effective sedimentation.

42 Dodd., Joseph C. (1976) Algae harvester United States Patent 3951805. Retrieved from: http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3951805.html 43 Dodd; Joseph C. (1984) Means and method for recovering algae; Retrieved from: http://www.patents.com/Means-recovering-algae/US4465600/en-US/

http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3951805.html

http://www.patents.com/Means-recovering-algae/US4465600/en-US/


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Centrifugation A centrifuge is a useful device for both biolipid extraction from algae and chemical separation in biodiesel. Centrifugation is a method of separating algae from the medium by using a centrifuge to cause the algae to settle to the bottom of a flask or tank. Coupled with a homogenizer, one may be able to separate biolipids and other useful materials from algae. The operational cost of centrifugation for algae harvesting could however be significant –estimates of centrifugation costs (including amortization of capital costs) vary from $100 to $500 per tonne of algae biomass.

Centrifugation and drying are currently considered too expensive for personal use, though may prove useful on a commercial and industrial scale.

In addition to harvesting, there are other steps in the biodiesel production process where centrifugation is useful.

Separation of transesterification products - Biodiesel and glycerine must be separated, and any leftover reactants removed.

Water wash - Biodiesel can be washed of soap and glycerine using a centrifuge.

Flocculation Flocculation is a method of separating algae from the medium by using chemicals to force the algae to form lumps. The technique works by introducing a chemical agent in the algae culture, after which the micro-organisms gather in a high concentration. Flocculation causes the cells to become aggregated into larger clumps which are more easily filtered and/or settle more rapidly. Alum and ferric chloride are the usual chemical flocculants used to harvest algae. Alum is a common name for several trivalent sulfates of metal such as aluminum, chromium, or iron and a univalent metal such as potassium or sodium, for example Al2(SO4)2. A commercial product called "Chitosan", commonly used for water purification, can also be used as a flocculant. It has also been found that 0.03-0.05% alum44 or 6% lime water is found be an efficient flocculant. The main disadvantage of this separation method is the additional chemicals are difficult to remove from the separated algae. Harvesting by chemical flocculation is also expensive.

44

E. Wolfgang Becker (1994), Microalgae: Biotechnology and Microbiology


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A novel way of using flocculation is autoflocculation. Interrupting the carbon dioxide supply to an algal system can cause algae to flocculate on its own, which is called "autoflocculation".

Flotation Froth Flotation is a method of separating algae from the medium by adjusting pH and bubbling air through a column to create a froth of algae that accumulates above liquid level. Froth flotation separates algae from its medium by adjusting pH and bubbling air through a column of medium. The algae collect in froth above the liquid level, and may be removed by suction. The pH required depends on algal species. Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) separates algae from its culture using features of both froth flotation and flocculation. It uses alum to flocculate an algae/air mixture, with fine bubbles supplied by an air compressor. This enables the algae to rise to the surface after which it is removed. It has been determined that DAF can remove between 70% and 90% of algae in a culture.

Other Methods Polymer Harvesting With current techniques and instrumentation, microalgae can be harvested with polymers, although this is not yet economical. Polymer harvesting is technically feasible but different algae need different polymers. The amount of polymer increases as the clarification requirement becomes more stringent, making it more cost effective not to require greater removal. With the most suitable polymers and appropriate replication techniques, harvesting can be accomplished with removal efficiencies of 85%-95%. Polymers with higher rigid backbones are less affected by the salt concentration and are recommended as flocculants of microalgae in saline water. Ultrasound-based Methods Ultrasound based methods of algae harvesting are currently under development. Specific Method for Harvesting Dunaliella A method for harvesting algae of the genus Dunaliella from suspensions thereof in brines containing sodium chloride at a concentration of about 3M (molar) or above was experimented, wherein the algal suspension is contacted with an adsorbent having a


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hydrophobic surface so as to adsorb the algae thereon, and the adsorbent with the algae adsorbed thereon is separated from the brine.45

Vibrating Separation Vibrating separation uses innovative membrane filtration concepts and is considered a useful separation technique for many difficult separation problems, to increase the efficiency of processes.

5.3 Case Studies & Examples Case Study from Earthrise, a leading supplier of spirulina in North America The following are some details on how Earthrise harvests and dries the Spirulina that it cultivates. Spirulina Harvest - During the growing season, April through October, ponds are

harvested every day. In the peak summer sun, harvesting occurs 24 hours a day, around the clock, to keep up with the explosive growth rate. Once harvested, Spirulina takes a quick trip through the stainless steel harvest and drying system, never touched by human hands. The first screen filters out pond debris. The next screens harvest the microscopic algae. The nutrient rich water is recycled back to the ponds. The final filter thickens spirulina from green yogurt to green dough. It is still 80% water inside the cells and needs to be dehydrated immediately.

Spirulina Drying - quick drying preserves nutrients - Spirulina droplets are sprayed into the drying chamber to flash evaporate the water. Dry powder is exposed to heat for several seconds as it falls to the bottom. Then it is vacuumed into a collection hopper in the packaging room. This quick process preserves heat sensitive nutrients, pigments and enzymes.

Case Study of CEHMM In Jul 200846, The Center of Excellence for Hazardous Material Management in Carlsbad, N.M., successfully performed a “commercial-sized” harvesting experiment at its pilot-scale algae pond. The algae were extracted from 12,000 gallons of water, and its oil content was used to produce biodiesel. According to the center’s executive director, several different membrane and chemical methods have been used to extract the algae. Previous work at the center using filters

45 1985, Curtain, Cyril C. (Williamstown, AU), Snook, Harvey (Aspendale, AU), 46 Jerry W. Kram, Jul, 2008, Algae harvesting advances in New Mexico, Biodiesel magazine.Retrieved from: http://www.biodieselmagazine.com/article.jsp?article_id=2569

http://www.biodieselmagazine.com/article.jsp?article_id=2569


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to concentrate the organisms proved unsuccessful. Lynn said he was especially pleased with flocculation. Case Study of AlgoDyne - Harvesting Algae Blooms from the Open Ocean47 AlgoDyne Ethanol Energy has developed a new process to harvest significant amounts of biomass from marine algal blooms. AlgoDyne believes that its harvesting technology could yield huge amounts of biomass usable for ethanol production at virtually no cost, and this harvesting of harmful algal blooms will ultimately protect the ocean’s marine ecosystem. AlgoDyne's concept of harvesting algae from the wild is not exactly new. Many similar ideas have been proposed in the past, most notably those of harvesting sea-weeds such as kelp on a large scale to utilize the biomass for energy. Several small companies have also been harvesting wild algae from lakes, with specially designed harvesting machines, for years. The process is energy intensive and cumbersome. It remains to be seen whether AlgoDyne's idea to actually collect phytoplankton from the open oceans is practicable. Other challenges to this approach are that it is an activity that cannot be planned, scaled or rationalized, as algae blooms have the tendency to grow and disappear suddenly. Case Study of PetroAlgae48 The company PetroAlgae has mentioned that it used the following harvesting methods. Of these, two methods electro-flocculation and harvesting using rotifiers/brine shrimp are relatively uncommon.

Vibrating separation Electro-flocculation Centrifugation Rotifiers / Brine shrimp

5.4 Trends & Latest in Harvesting Methods

Centrifugation - Trends & Advances High Speed Disc Bowl Centrifuge - High speed disc bowl vertical centrifuges are

usually used for metalworking fluid purification, power plants, biodiesel, waste oil,

47 AlgoDyne Ethanol Develops Harvesting Technology to Remove Harmful Algal Blooms from the Ocean and Turn Them into Ethanol, Business Wire, Feb. 2007, Retrieved from: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-166326223.html 48 PetroAlge, May 2008

http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-166326223.html


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oily waste, fish oil, fruit juice, industrial and biological wastewater. Stacked disc high speed centrifuges are suitable for fine particle filtration in the process feed material.

Decanter Centrifuge for high solids content, abrasive and soft particle separation.

Decanter centrifuges are used to extract (dewater) solid materials from liquids when they are mixed together in slurry. Decanter centrifuge design consists of a solid container, called a bowl, which rotates at high speed. Inside the bowl tube, a screen conveyor rotates in the same direction, but at a slightly different speed. A differential gear is typically used to adjust speed.

Among the process innovations explored is the use of a three-phase centrifuge to

separate the algal lipids from the water and other biomass fractions. This provides a relatively straightforward method for lipid recovery (a major issue in prior studies) at only marginally higher costs than the centrifuge earlier specified for final concentration.

Flotation & Flocculation - Trends & Advances Developments in rapid flotation – One way to solve the problem is the use of

“rapid”, high throughput flotation units, based on a wide bubble size distribution and formation of “aerated” (entrapped or entrained bubbles) flocs (Rubio et al., 2002, Rubio, 2003, Parehk and Miller, 1999). This paper describes the advances in the design, development and applications of innovative in-line mixing for flocculation and flotation for solid-liquid separation processes. Successful examples are the recently developed FF (Flocculation-Flotation) and the FGR (Flocs Generator Reactor,) both being applied in a number of applications (Carissimi and Rubio, 2005; Rosa and Rubio, 2005). Another rapid flotation technique (device) is the BAF (Bubble Accelerated Flotation) reported by Owen et al. (1999).

The FF (Flocculation-Flotation) Method - generation of very light flocs (with

entrained and entrapped air). These flocs are generated in the presence of high molecular weight polymers, air bubbles (from the injected air), high shearing forces (caused by the zigzag kind of flow and flow rate) and a high head loss (or velocity gradient). FF has been reported in applications to remove oil, grease, BOD, etc., forming low density flocs which are readily floated in the flotation tank separator (within seconds), as large units (some millimeters in diameter). The excess air leaves the flotation device by the top through a special water seal (avoiding flow turbulence).


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Harvesting through Sedimentation in Waste Stabilization Ponds49 Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSP) is regarded as a method for the treatment of wastewater in many parts of the world. Waste stabilization ponds are preferred for their operational simplicity, easy maintenance and low energy requirements. An Advanced Integrated Wastewater Pond Systems (AIWPS) developed by Professor William J. Oswald and his co-workers at the University of California, Berkeley is known to have potential in algaculture and harvesting. The AIWPS facility incorporates a series of low-cost ponds or earthwork reactors. A typical AIWPS facility consists of a minimum of four ponds in series. The first pond In the second pond (the algal High Rate Pond), algae are cultivated. performs the primary treatment for wastewater. The third pond facilitates sedimentation of algae, and the water is stored in the fourth pond for a certain period before being released for reuse for agricultural or landscape irrigation. (1990) After the cultivation of algae in the second pond of AIWPS facility, i.e. in paddle-wheel mixed High Rate Ponds (HRP), harvesting is mainly by settling in algae settling ponds. Microalgae in the effluent from a paddle-wheel-mixed HRP settle readily in the settling pond. 50% to 80% of the algae will be removed by sedimentation in a settling pond whose hydraulic residence time is one or two days. Harvesting algae by natural sedimentation implies that at least two settling units in parallel must be provided to allow periodic decantation and removal of the settled algal concentrate. Ideally, however, the algae should be removed periodically and used to its highest fixed nutrient and protein value.

5.5 Challenges & Efforts

Challenges in Harvesting One of the major problems in the mass cultivation of algae is the lack of optimal methods for harvesting the relatively dilute suspensions.

Harvesting algae is much more difficult and energy intensive than most people

realize. Where centrifuges or flocculants are used, the costs could be significant

49 Bailey Green F., Bernstone L.S., Lundquist T.J. and Oswald W.J. (1996) Advanced Integrated Wastewater Pond Systems for Nitrogen Removal. Wat,Sci.Tech.Vol.33,No.7,pp. 207-217. Retrieved from: http://esd.lbl.gov/files/research/projects/heads/Green_1996_removal.pdf

http://esd.lbl.gov/files/research/projects/heads/Green_1996_removal.pdf


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Harvesting is Expensive Besides simple sedimentation, all other methods are expensive. The expensive methods are straining, filtering, flocculation & centrifugation Efforts: Some of the new methods being tried to facilitate lower cost harvesting are

Induced bio-flocculation followed by sedimentation or flotation AlgoDyne Ethanol Energy has claimed it has a new process to harvest biomass

from marine algal blooms Aquaflow – the company has developed a scalable method for harvesting algae

in the wild

Harvesting is Difficult and Energy Intensive Harvesting microalgae is difficult as well as energy intensive. This is mainly because the most rapidly growing algal species are frequently very small and often motile unicells which are the most difficult to harvest. Moreover, the conventional harvesting methods used for harvesting microalgae – such as centrifuges, filtration and flotation equipments - are energy-intensive. A study claimed that a centrifuge uses 48.8% of the total energy consumption during algal biofuel production (Reith et al, 2004). Thus, the major challenge lies in maintaining an effective interaction between the development of cost-efficient harvesting technologies and the selection of algal species for mass culture. Efforts

Researchers at California (Patrick E. W. et.al. 2009) attempted to identify a more efficient algal harvesting system for an oxidation pond. Analysis of oxidation pond wastewater revealed that algae, consisting primarily of Chlorella and Scenedesmus, composed approximately 80% of the solids inventory during the study period. Results demonstrated that suspended air flotation (SAF) could harvest algae with a lower air:solids (A/S) ratio, lower energy requirements, and higher loading rates compared to dissolved air flotation (DAF). Furthermore, use of SAF to harvest commercially grown Chlorella and Scenedesmus may reduce manufacturing costs of algal-based products such as fuel, fertilizer, and fish food.

AlgaeVenture Systems of Marysville, Ohio, had patented a new method to harvest, dewater and dry mature algae production at a fraction of one percent of other processes in common use. They claim that they can reduce the cost of removing, harvesting and dewatering algae by more than 99 percent – from $875 per ton to $1.92 per ton. The system contains a centrifuge which moves the entire mass of water and its contents in order to separate into fractions. When differential pressure (even excessive gravitational pressure in the form of a water column) is moved to force algal mass and water through a screen, this energy compacts the algal mass into a form that blocks water and impacts algal


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mass into screen. This continuous approach allows for a thin layer of algae to be continuously processed from in solution to dry flake in a distance of four feet at a scalable rate with scalable equipment. In their prototype equipment, the rate exceeds 500 liters per hour on less than 40 watts per hour of run time.

An algae fuel company Phycal, Hawaii, USA, is trying to harvest oil from algae without killing the algae. Instead, Phycal bathes the algae in solvents which can suck out the oil. Some strains of algae can go through the process four times or more.

Researchers at Columbia University had attempted a cost - effective membrane system for cross-flow filtration harvesting of microalgae in 1978. However, the availability of the membranes, the pressure drops required, and the fouling problems encountered made this approach impractical.

Challenge: Long Harvesting Period While algae have much shorter harvesting periods compared to other competing energy crops, among the algae species, it has been found that some strains that have high oil yield have longer time to harvest than others with lower yields. Ideally, researchers look to obtain algae strains that perform well in both – high oil yield as well as short time to harvest. Some research that is being conducted in this regard:

According to some research reports, harvesting at increased frequencies could have a beneficial effect on the growth of algae and shorten the average period to harvest on an average. This might result from increased sunlight and nutrient availability to the algae present in the culture medium.

Determining Precise Time of Harvesting Challenges

Difficult to determine the right time to extract oil from feedstock is critical Current methods to determine these are expensive, time consuming and

unreliable Efforts

Estimating cell density/ algal density for harvesting- A spectrophotometer or fluorometer measures various contents in an algal culture and this can be used to obtain a quick approximation of cell density. More accurate estimates of cell density can be made using a haemocytometer or a Coulter Counter.

Method used by the NREL researchers in the ASP Program - The ASP team developed a system that screened algae for their oil content and greatly reduced


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the sample size needed for their research. It developed a stain for algae, called Nile Red. When treated with the stain, the algae became fluorescent under certain conditions, making it easier to measure their oil content.

The BioGauge “bio-profiling” technology from International Energy Inc. is intended to help determine exactly how much of the lipids are present in the algae feedstock at all times during its growth, so that one can harvest at the peak moment in the algae’s natural oil production cycle - Sep 2008 news

Cost of Centrifuges or Flocculants Used for Harvesting

Centrifugation - The use of the centrifuge to harvest the algae is inhibited by the costs

owing to construction cost, high power consumption and maintenance requirements.

- In the technical and economical analysis on microalgae for biofuels it was shown that the investment costs for the centrifuges contributed up to 34% of the total investment on equipment (Reith et al, 2004). The study also showed that the centrifuge used 48.8% of the total energy consumption.

Flocculation - Flocculation uses chemicals to cause algae to form clumps. The

requirement for large doses of these chemicals makes flocculation expensive.

- In addition, the cost of removing the chemicals used for flocculation from the algae after separation is high to be commercially viable for biofuel production.

Efforts

In a feasibility study done by researchers at Wageningen university, it was found that the total costs for concentrating the microalgae from 0.3 g/l to 100 g/l (10% dry matter) can be reduced from 2.72 Euro/kg (for centrifugation) to about 0.7 Euro/kg when the algae are pre-concentrated to 5% dry matter by flocculation combined with flotation or sedimentation prior to further concentration by centrifugation or filtration. In addition the energy demand decreased from 4.76 kWh/kg to 0.4-0.6 kWh/kg. (Apr 2009)

Harvesting by chemical flocculation is a method that is often too expensive for large operations. Interrupting the carbon dioxide supply to an algal system can cause algae to flocculate on its own, which is called "autoflocculation".

Polymer flocculation of microalgae can form stable suspensions. The advantages of this method are: capability to treat large quantities of culture, applicability to a wide range of algae strains, and requirement of less energy than for mechanical separation.


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The Israeli company Seambiotic is utilizing flue gas from coal burning power stations for algae cultivation. According to the company (Ben-Amotz, 2008), trials on several species have been successful, with some species productivity of 20 g/m2/day. The algae are harvested via a low-cost self-flocculation technique. Samples have been converted to biodiesel and showed 12% w/w dry ash free (daf) yield of biodiesel from microalgal biomass. Seambiotic are of the opinion that production costs could be as low as $0.34/kg of algae biomass, based on a comparison with the NBT (since 1988, NBT cultivates Dunaliella, a salt-loving algae species, at 10 ha of open-pond facilities.) operating cost and scale of operation.

Bioflocculation as a harvesting technology has been demonstrated experimentally at the 0.1 ha scale with waste treatment ponds (Benemann et al., 1980).

Centrifugation is used as a final concentration step for the biomass. It may be possible to substitute a lower cost secondary gravity settling process, depending on the biomass to fuel conversion step.

Harvesting Algae – Efforts to Find More Efficient Solutions

1. Microstrainers

a. Filamentous microalgae species might be grown that would be easier and cheaper to harvest using microstrainers. Microstrainers, which are rotating screens (typically 25 to 50 μm openings) with a backwash, are already widely used for removing filamentous algae, mainly filamentous cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) from potable water supplies.

b. Both at short and long retention times the algal cultures invariably became unharvestable with microstrainers. However, long retention times also resulted in low productivities50

2. An interesting phenomenon is the “Phase isolation” process, in which the algal cells were allowed to spontaneously settle when sewage inflow was stopped (Koopman et al. 1978, 1980). Although generally long times were required for this settling process (2-3 weeks), it was decided to investigate this general phenomenon of “bioflocculation” in high rate ponds. The process involved removing the algae from the paddle wheel-mixed ponds and placing them in a quiescent container, where they would spontaneously flocculate and rapidly settle. There are several apparently distinct mechanisms by which algae flocculate and then settle, including “autoflocculation”, which is induced by high pH in the presence of phosphate and divalent cations (Mg2+ and Ca2+), and flocculation induced by N limitation.51

50 NREL ASP Program 51 NREL ASP Program


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3. Professor Harry Gregor at Columbia University was funded for two years to develop membrane systems for cross-flow filtration harvesting of microalgae. However, the membranes available at the time, the pressure drops required, and the fouling problems encountered made this approach impractical52(1978)

Harvesting – Other Efforts & Solutions McCarry, MG, Tongkasame, C, - The most economic algal recovery was obtained by

chemical coagulation using alum with pH control or alum aided by cationic polyelectrolytes. Algae were recovered by downflow solids contact flotation

Koopman, B, Lincoln, EP, - Autoflotation of algae by photosynthetically produced dissolved oxygen was shown to be a rapid and effective harvesting technique. When used in conjunction with chemical flocculation by alum or C-31 polymer, removal of 80-90% of algal cells was achieved at overflow rates in the flotation basin of up to 2 m per hour with algal float concentrations averaging more than 6% solids.

Algae size is an important factor since low-cost filtration procedures are presently applicable only for harvesting fairly large microalgae (e.g. Coelastrum, Spirulina). Small size microalgae should be flocculated into larger bodies which can be harvested by either sedimentation or floatation53

52 NREL ASP Program 53 G. Shelef., A. Sukenik., M. Green. (1984) Microalgae Harvesting and Processing: A Literature Review. Retrieved from: http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/2396.pdf

http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/2396.pdf





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SUMMARY

1. Harvesting microalgae is an expensive process that contributes significantly to

the high cost of fuel.

2. While many options are being tried out, the prominent among them are

filtration, centrifugation, flotation and flocculation.

3. While centrifugation and flocculation/flotation are expensive harvesting

methods, both these are expected to have the most potential in future for

harvesting microalgae.


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Section 2 – Processes & Challenges

CHAPTERS

6. Algae Grown in Open Ponds, Closed Ponds & Photobioreactor

7. Algae Grown in Sewage & Wastewater

8. Algae Grown in Desert 9. Algae Grown in Marine &

Saltwater Environment 10. Algae Grown in Freshwater 11. Algae Grown Next to Major CO2

Emitting Industries 12. Non-Fuel Applications of Algae


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6. Algae Grown in Open Ponds, Closed Ponds & Photobioreactor 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Open-Ponds / Raceway-Type Ponds and Lakes 6.3 Details on Raceway Ponds 6.4 Algal Cultivation in Open Ponds – Companies and Universities 6.5 Challenges in Open Pond Algae Cultivation 6.6 Algae Cultivation in Open Ponds – Q&A 66.7 Algae Cultivation in Closed Ponds 6.8 Algae Cultivation in Closed Ponds – Case Studies 6.9 Algae Cultivation in Closed Ponds – Q&A 6.10 Algae Grown in Photobioreactors

HIGHLIGHTS

A number of companies are trying out with open pond systems and in many cases, with the much more expensive photobioreactors. Only a few companies are experimenting solely with closed ponds.

To get away from the challenges faced in open pond cultivation, some companies are attempting hybrid algae product system - cross between open and closed pond system.

6.1 Introduction The most natural method of growing algae is through open-pond growing. Using open ponds, algae can be grown in sunny areas of the world.

A variation of the open pond is the open raceway pond in which water is circulated in such a way to maximize algal growth. The 'raceway pond' is a large open water raceway track where algae and nutrients are pumped around by a motorized paddle. Open ponds are the simplest of algae growing systems. There are several advantages with open ponds. They are simple to construct and easy to operate. They require only low capital and operating costs. These will result in low production costs for algae biomass. Open ponds also have some drawbacks because of the fact that the environment in and around the ponds is not completely under control. In open pond algae cultivation, algal growth can be hindered by bad weather. Rainfall will result in the dilution of algal culture and loss of biomass. Extreme summers will lead to evaporation of pond water, and too much sunlight will cause algal death. Open ponds are also vulnerable to contamination. Contamination of bacteria and other algal strains will reduce the yield of


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desired algae, and in turn reduce the yield of algal oil. Another major drawback with open ponds is the uneven light intensity and distribution within the pond. The NREL’s Aquatic Species Program (ASP) used open ponds for its experiments and has also favored the same for the future, primarily owing to their economic value. However, many companies today are trying out with closed pond systems and in many cases, with the much more expensive photobioreactors.

Open Ponds

Solid Hot Air

Algae Production & Processing

OPEN SYSTEM CLOSED SYSTEM

CO2 LIGHT ENERGY LIGHT ENERGY FERTILIZER WASTEWATER

FERTILIZER CO2 WATER

Photo bioreactor

Dry Biomass

Extract

Harvesting

Drum Dryer

Extractor

Spray Dryer

Algae Oil


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6.2 Open-Ponds / Raceway-Type Ponds and Lakes The number of species successfully cultivated in an "open-pond" system for a specific purpose (such as for food, for the production of oil, or for pigments) are relatively limited. This type of culture can be viable when the particular algae are able to survive in extreme conditions that other algae cannot survive. For instance, Spirulina spp. can grow in water with a high concentration of sodium bicarbonate and Dunaliela salina will grow in extremely salty water. Open culture can also work if there is a simple inexpensive system of selecting the desired algae for use and to inoculate new ponds with a high starting concentration of the desired algae. Some chain diatoms fall into this category as they can be filtered from a stream of water flowing through an outflow pipe. A "pillow case" of a fine mesh cloth is tied over the outflow pipe and most algae flow right through. Open raceway systems designed strictly for algal biomass production typically use depths of 10 - 20 cm (Boussiba et al., 1988; Weissman et al., 1988), High Rate Algal Ponds for wastewater treatment utilize depths of 25 - 60 cm (Azov & Shelef, 1982; Goldman & Ryther, 1975; Oron & Shelef, 1982; Oron et al., 1981). Since shallow cultures have a greater tendency to overheat (Oswald, 1988b), which is an important consideration for fish production, water depths of approximately 30 cm and 60 cm were investigated for the Partition Aquaculture System (PAS) algal cultures. A final consideration for high algal productivity is mixing of the algal culture. In open raceway systems, flow mixing and suspension of the algal culture are commonly achieved with a paddlewheel circulator (Al-Shayji et al., 1994; Weissman et al., 1988). Linear velocities as low as 1 - 5 cm second-1 (Abeliovich, 1986) have been used successfully in open raceway systems, but velocities of 10 - 25 cm second-1 are more commonly used for high-rate algal wastewater treatment ponds (Al-Shayji et al., 1994; Kroon et al., 1989). Because the power required for mixing increases as the cube of the velocity (Oswald, 1988a), the lowest velocity that provides sufficient mixing to achieve a high level of algal productivity should be selected. Water velocities of 3 - 12 cm have been used for the PAS algal cultures (Drapcho & Brune, 2000).

6.3 Details on Raceway Ponds A raceway pond is a shallow artificial pond used in the cultivation of algae. The 'raceway pond' is a large open water raceway track where algae and nutrients are pumped around by a motorized paddle. Carbon-di-oxide also has to be added to the pond. The algae culture will grow continuously and part of the algae will be removed during the growing process. In these ponds, the algae, water & nutrients circulate around a racetrack. With paddlewheels providing the flow, algae are kept suspended in the water, and are


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circulated back to the surface on a regular frequency. The ponds are usually kept shallow because the algae need to be exposed to sunlight, and sunlight can only penetrate the pond water to a limited depth. The ponds are operated in a continuous manner, with CO2 and nutrients being constantly fed to the ponds, while algae-containing water is removed at the other end.

Paddle Wheels A paddle wheel consists of three structural units: paddle blades, motor and gear box. A paddle blade is made of aluminium, stainless steel or fiber glass, based on the requirements. Fiber glass paddle wheels are preferred for algae cultivation in salt water ponds. The width and depth of the paddle wheel and the speed of the paddles going around are customized based on the pond specifications. A company called Waterwheel Factory, Inc.54 manufactures paddle wheels for algae ponds. Their clients include top algae fuel companies such as General Atomic and Sapphire Energy.

Picture of Raceway Pond

Source: NREL

Advantages:

Raceway ponds are much cheaper to construct when compared to photobioreactors

It can also have some of the largest production capacities relative to other systems of comparable size and cost.

54 Waterwheel Factory, Inc. Retrieved from: http://www.biopondpaddlewheel.com

http://www.biopondpaddlewheel.com/


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Disadvantages: It is vulnerable to contamination by other microorganisms. It does not have control over water temperature and lighting conditions. The growing season is largely dependent on location and, aside from tropical

areas, is limited to the warmer months.

Mixing

Some form of mixing is required to maintain cells in suspension, to prevent thermal stratification, and to disperse nutrients. Three options are possible for mixing the ponds: 1. Paddlewheels 2. Airlift, and 3. Combined carbonation and mixing in sumps. Paddlewheel Paddlewheels consist of simple, partial depth blades and high-speed rotors. The paddlewheel has emerged as a preferred method for mixing high-rate ponds for the following reasons:

They are well matched to the pumping requirements of high-rate ponds in that they are high-volume, low-head devices.

Their gentle mixing action minimizes damage to colonial or flocculated algae, which improves harvestability.

They are mechanically simple, requiring minimum maintenance. Their drive train can easily be designed to accommodate a wide range of speeds

without drastic changes in efficiency. They do not require an intake sump, but simply a shallow depression for

maximum efficiency. The following are the disadvantages associated with paddlewheels:

The paddlewheel itself must be custom designed. They are large relative to other types of mixers, especially at higher heads. They are fairly expensive, although not particularly so for a low-shear pump type. For practical purposes, the maximum head is limited to 0.5 meters. This would

be a constraint only in very large (>20 hectares) ponds or at high velocities (>30 cm/sec) in moderate-sized ponds.

The power demand of a traditional paddlewheel is about 600 W for a 100 m2 pond.


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Airlift Air lift mixing is an alternative that does not require large, custom-fabricated mechanical parts. The lift is determined by the ratio of gas and liquid flow rates through the sump and by the ratio of the velocities. Decreasing the ratio of gas velocity to liquid velocity increases both the efficiency and the lift. Power consumption for air lift mixing varies with compressor efficiencies and the amount of air used. For an 85 m2 pond based on a compressor efficiency of 70% and an air demand of 120 l/s, the power consumption was estimated to be about 200 W (Reference: Microalgae Biotechnology and Microbiology - E.W.Becker). Combined Carbonation and Mixing in Sumps The airlift discussion is limited because an interesting option exists in systems for which carbon dioxide is supplied via in-pond sump. Potential exists for combining the carbonation and mixing systems. When flue gas is used for carbonation, the lift may be supplied by the carbonation alone for part of the time, but most likely an air supply system would need to be available to substitute for the flue gas when carbon demand is low and during the night time. When pure CO2 is used, supplementary air would still be required.

Materials Needed for Open Pond Systems

Air pump, waterjet or paddlewheel Chemical-resistant and water proof pond lining material (for those ponds that

have the lining) Monitoring equipments for monitoring conductivity, pH, salinity, algal density.

6.4 Algal Cultivation in Open Ponds – Companies and Universities

Seambiotic - uses CO2 emissions from power plants as carbon source. Seambiotic expects to open a new open-pond facility-again sited at an electric plant-that will likely be the largest facility for algae production in the world. It will cover 5 hectares and will provide tons of algae to different production facilities; lipids will go to biodiesel manufacturers, sugars will go to bioethanol producers, and proteins to makers of nutraceuticals - Feb 2009.

HR Biopetroleum - Cellana's (HR Biopetroleum / Shell JV) Kona facility combines closed bioreactors (clear plastic horizontal tubes where algae grow) and open ponds.

Algae BioFuels, a wholly owned subsidiary of PetroSun, Incorporated has chosen Alabama to conduct major field trials in the Gulf Coast region for the cultivation of algae in open and closed systems designed by the Company (Feb 2007)


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Open ponds, such as Aquaflow Bionomic's in New Zealand, use carbon and nutrient rich effluent streams from waste water treatment plants to grow their algae. Aquaflow is hoping that enough carbon is present in the effluent stream that additional CO2 doesn't need to be added (2007)

Companies such as Earthrise specialize in producing Spirulina algae in large, open raceway tracks.

GSPI - July 2007 - Green Star Products, Inc. (GSPI) has successfully completed Phase II of its 40,000-liter Algae-To-Biodiesel Demonstration Facility in Montana. Phase II testing included pushing the survival environmental envelope of the developed algae strain (zx-13) utilized by GSPI. GSPI’s Hybrid Algae Production System (HAPS) incorporates the controlled environment of the closed photobioreactors with the inexpensive construction technology of an open pond system.

University of Nevada at Reno is experimenting with growing algae in open ponds. The ponds, which are uncovered and open to the environment, will demonstrate that algae can be grown in commercial quantities year-round, even in a temperate climate. Future plans include scaling up to around 200 acres of ponds, sufficient to produce more than 1,000,000 gallons of biodiesel per year - Sep 2008

The ASP Program strongly recommended open ponds because they made the entire process more economical and cost competitive.

Aquaflow Bionomics produces biofuel from wild algae harvested from open-air environments. The firm harvests algae from the settling ponds of effluent management systems and other nutrient-rich water, typical of industries that produce a waste stream including the dairy, meat and paper industries. Aquaflow has a relationship with Boeing and is also targetting jet-fuel production.

Aurora Biofuels, a venture capital funded firm, is using open ponds and selected strains of algae in a pilot project in Florida. (May 2009). Aurora is looking to use wastewater treatment models and is experimenting with drying algae with a “wet extraction” method. Wet extraction has the potential to eliminate or reduce the costly and energy-consuming de-watering step. Aurora expects to have commercial-scale facilities in 2012.

Carbon Capture Corp. operates open algae ponds with a total capacity of 8 million gallons located on a 40-acre Algae Research Center, part of a 326-acre R&D facility in Imperial Valley, California.

Cellana, a JV created by algae-to-biofuel startup HR Biopetroleum and Shell Oil, is building an open-pond demo facility in Hawaii. Cellena is developing a process for extracting algae oil without using chemicals, drying or an oil press.

General Atomics is developing improved processes for growing and extracting oil from algae in open ponds.

Infinifuel Biodiesel is developing algae ponds in Nevada. Ingrepo plans to build open pond algae production facilities in Malaysia.


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Kai BioEnergy has a continuous, open system that produces bio crude oil from microalgae. According to the company, its technology overcomes the risk of algae contamination in open systems and allows for high yield growth of a dominant species.

Kent BioEnergy develops open ponds algae farms with extensive experience in aquaculture and licenses from Clemson University. The company has operations in southern California, including a 160-acre process development/production facility south of Palm Springs.

LiveFuels of San Carlos, Calif. received $10 million in funding from The Quercus Trust in 2007 and looks to continue the Aquatic Species Program’s research in using open-pond algae systems to develop biofuel. The firm is trying to develop green crude to be integrated into the nation’s existing refinery infrastructure. The firm initially planned to grow algae in ponds at the Salton Sea, an inland saline lake in Southern California, but has shifted to Texas. According to the company, “The biggest challenge is scale and scope,” and “figuring out how to manage the water and recycling wastewater.”

PetroSun of Scottsdale, Ariz. is looking to develop an algae farm network of 1,100 acres of saltwater ponds. They claim the ponds will produce 4.4 million gallons of algal oil and 110 million pounds of biomass per year. PetroSun has a partnership with Science Applications International on algae-to-jet fuel and has been working to convert catfish ponds to algae ponds in the Southeastern U.S. They have numerous DOE grant applications in process. (May 2009)

Seambiotic, an Israeli firm, uses raceway/paddle-wheel open-pond algae cultivation growth fed by C02 flue-gas from a nearby power plant. The company uses genetic optimization and has teamed up with Inventure Chemical to turn the algae into fuel.

XL Renewables, formerly XL Dairy Group, of Phoenix, Arizona, is developing an algal production system using dairy waste streams and attempting to integrate and co-locate dairy production, algal production, and biorefineries producing ethanol and biodiesel. XL is focused on biomass production for animal feed instead of biofuels – using a semi-closed system based on a farming model and a farming mentality – making use of agricultural and irrigation components. Their trough system uses a greenhouse-type process to cultivate algae in 18-inch deep, 1,250-foot long plastic-lined troughs with aeration and lighting integrated along the six-foot wide troughs. Harvesting is accomplished via a simple flocculation system in a weir tank.

6.5 Challenges in Open Pond Algae Cultivation

Light penetration

Challenges


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If sunlight is the sole source of radiant energy, poor light penetration into the pond becomes a problem. As light is often considered to be one of the most important factors that determine algal growth. The critical problems that are faced are:

In the open pond systems, light penetrates only the top 3 to 4 inches (76–100 mm) of the water.

As the algae grow and multiply, the culture becomes so dense that it blocks light from reaching deeper into the water. Low intensities may not promote algal growth at the bottom of the pond.

Direct sunlight is too strong for most algae, which need only about 1⁄10 the amount of light they receive from direct sunlight. An excessive intensity may lead to photoinhibition and photooxidation

Long exposure to light may lead to minor damage of algal collection antenna that can be quickly repaired by the cell if placed in the dark.

Studies have shown that it can be difficult to obtain high productivity in open ponds because the temperature and light intensity vary throughout the day and year. In addition, even during bright summer days, outdoor algal cultures have been shown to be light-limited. To achieve maximum productivity, it has been suggested that it is desirable to have artificial sources of light for nights and cloudy days (Ogbonna and Tanaka, 1997). However, the intensity of the light cannot simply be increased indiscriminately, owing to the light saturation effect. The light saturation effect accounts for the fact that a twenty-fold increase in the incident energy results in only a four-fold increase in the amount utilized by the algae (Tredici and Zittelli, 1998). The major challenge thus lies in providing uniform light at the required intensities, duration and wavelength. Solutions & Efforts Light Immersion Technology Bionavitas, Inc., developed a technology called “Light Immersion Technology™ “(LIT™), which the company believes is a breakthrough that can dramatically increase algae yields in a cost-efficient and scalable model. The technology effectively produces an order of magnitude more algae biomass than existing growth methods, thereby increasing yields and reducing the cost to make algae-based biofuels price competitive with petroleum products. The Light Immersion Technology developed by Bionavitas fundamentally changes this equation by enabling the algae growth layer in open ponds to be up to a meter deep. This represents a 10 to 12 time increase in yield over previous methods that produced only 3-5 centimeters of growth.


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At the core of Light Immersion Technology is an innovative approach at bringing light to the algae culture in both open ponds and closed bioreactors through a system of light rods which extend deep into the algae culture. By distributing light below the surface “shade” layer and releasing the light in controlled locations, algae cultures can grow denser. In external canal systems, the rods distribute light from the sun into the culture. Chlorophyll Reduced Microalgae Researchers at the University of California (Sep, 2007), designed algae that have less chlorophyll so that they absorb less sunlight. While regular green algae absorb most of the light falling on them, algae engineered to have less chlorophyll let some light through. When grown in large, open bioreactors in dense cultures, the chlorophyll-deficient algae will let sunlight penetrate to the deeper algae layers and thereby utilize sunlight more efficiently. The new finding will be important in maximizing the production of hydrogen in large-scale, commercial bioreactors. Lighting Technology from Bodega Lighting technology capable of distributing light throughout the cultivation tank is at the core of the algae photobioreactor developed by Bodega. The system increases the quantity of light required for efficient algal photosynthesis. The proprietary lighting technology developed by Bodega Algae overcomes this problem by delivering solar energy internally within the photobioreactor. The result is a highly efficient photobioreactor capable of delivering large amounts of algal biomass with minimal use of real estate. Other Efforts Biomass Stirring & Circulating Algae Using Paddle Wheels - One solution is biomass

stirring, used to expose bottom algal cells to sunlight. The beneficial effects of stirring are without question (Tredici and Zittelli, 1998), but one must take care to minimize hydrodynamic/shear stress on the microalgae, which can significantly decrease productivity (Ogbonna and Tanaka, 1997; Palsson, 1995). A related method is to circulate the algae around the ponds using paddle wheels.

Spatial Dilution of Light - Other solutions might include the use of “spatial dilution of light” (Tredici and Zittelli, 1998), i.e., distribution of the impinging photon flux on a greater photosynthetic surface area, generally used to distribute sunlight deeper into the culture through the use of specifically placed lenses, glass or plastic cones, optical fibers, and quartz or acrylic rods.

Choosing the Optimal Pond Depth - Pond depth will be a critical factor in the design of both commercial and bench-scale operations. The ponds are generally built shallow, with depths not exceeding 90 cm (2.95 ft). At greater depths, mutual shading and microalgal settling become important and will result in decreased


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growth and fixation productivities. According to Kadam (1997), pond sizes should not exceed 20 ha each (a larger pond would be difficult to operate).

Placing the light in the system - submerged into the tank - Alternative light sources, such as the use of artificial light and lights of different color (frequency), and different light configurations can be utilized (Ogbonna and Tanaka, 1997; Palsson, 1995).

Passive optical system – Bionavitas

Odour Related Problems Challenges Growing algae in open ponds can lead to mal-odour in the ponds. This problem is mainly as a result of lack of oxygen. Algae that are suspended below the surface cannot photosynthesize and as a result, they decompose. The decomposition process consumes dissolved oxygen, and as a result, oxygen levels in the water column decrease, leading to the mal-odour.

Solutions

Planned cultivation and harvesting should take care of this. In this context, proper planning refers to harvesting the algae at the right time, before they die and decay.

Contamination Challenges Open ponds can get contaminated. Contamination of ponds can be a result of:

Infiltration from local algae and other organisms Dust particles, leaves and other airborne materials

For instance, although the algal species grown commercially in outdoor ponds generally grow under highly selective conditions (Chlorella Spp., Nannochlorpsis and P. tricornutum are grown at high nutrient concentrations, Spirulina is grown at high bicarbonate concentrations and a high pH, and D. salina is grown at very high salinities) contamination by other unwanted algal species is common. Thus, while the capital costs for setting up an open pond algae farm are low, the threat of contamination of the desirable algal oil producing species, by invasive species remains high. The contaminants not only belong to non-biological sources but also from the various biological and other algae species that might become invasive.


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Contaminants could also affect the pH and alkalinity of culture medium. The predominant contaminants that affect the algal cultivation in open ponds are listed as follows:

Protozoans - E.g. Amoeba Other algal species - E.g. Green alga Oocystis species, D.virdis Zooplankton - E.g., Brine shrimps Artemia and Paraartemia Insects - E.g. Ephydridae (brinefiles), Corixidae (waterboatmen), Chirononmidae

(midges) Rotifiers - E.g. Brancbionus Other biological sources like bacteria, virus & fungi Leaves Other airborne material (Hazardous particulates released from smokestacks)

Thus, the challenge is to ensure careful culture maintenance and conditions that favour the growth of desired algal species over the contaminating species. Solutions In raceway ponds, large contaminants can be removed regularly by placing a suitably sized screen in the water flow. Heavy contaminants that sink to the bottom can be trapped in pits arranged at right angle to the flow and can then be removed from these sediment traps. These are controlled by effectively operating the culture system as a batch culture and restarting the culture at regular intervals with fresh, unialgal inoculum. This is the primary process used for the culture of Chlorella in Japan and H. Pluvialis in Hawaii. Careful culture maintenance, providing conditions that favour the desired species over the contaminating species also allows long-term continuous culture. For example, contamination of Spirulina cultures with green algae can be minimized by maintaining the bicarbonate concentrations above 0.2 M and the pH above 10 and operating at high cell densities (Richmond et al, 1982). Raceway cultures of P. tricornutum have also been maintained successfully in labs for more than 1 year during trials, by maintaining high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus. Contamination of D. Salina ponds by other non-carotenogenic species of Dunaliella (eg. D. verdict, D. parva, D. bioculata) is managed mainly by maintaining high salinities. Successful culture maintenance requires continuous monitoring. The most basic kind of monitoring is the regular microscopic examination to detect any abnormal morphological changes and the presence of contaminating organisms such as other algae and protozoa. Routine tests of nutrient concentration of the pond must also be carried out to avoid unexpected nutrient deficiencies. Regular monitoring of changes in pH and O2 levels in the pond over the day can also be a useful early warning system. Monitoring of O2 and pH has the advantage of having the ability to be automated. Recently, a new technique, Pulse Amplitude Modulated Fluorometry (PAM) has become


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available and appears to be very sensitive to determining the physiological state of algae (Torzillo et al., 1998, Lipperneier et al, 2001). Other Efforts In open ponds, the contamination with other algae could be overcome by a gradual

population build-up of the desired organism.

Covering ponds with translucent membranes or the use of greenhouses overcomes

this problem, allowing the more productive strains to be grown free of atmospheric

contamination.

The California-based company, Solazyme LLC has developed a novel production

method that cultivates micro-algae by fermentation in large enclosed tanks,

potentially achieving the scale of open pond cultivation without the risk of

contamination.

Aurora Biofuels has cultivated high-oil producing algae since August 2007,

overcoming the contamination problem. Company scientists and engineers have

utilized new technological screening processes combined with microbial biology to

identify natural algae strains best suited for biofuel production.

Evaporation Evaportation Related Challenges A major problem with algae cultivation in dry, tropical areas is the high rate of evaporation from open pond surface (up to 10 liters/m2/ day). This poses a problem both from the point of increasing the salt concentration in the medium and in the acquisition of sufficient water to make up the water loss. Solutions Algal farm locations should be selected in such as way that they have an abundant source of fresh or low-salt content make-up water.

Rainfall Rainfall Related Challenges Rainfall leads to severe culture dilution, loss of nutrients and loss of algal biomass. Solutions


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In occasions where rainfall poses serious challenges, it is proposed to equip the ponds with overflow spillways and to provide covered deep-storage ponds into which the cultures can be pumped temporarily.

Other Solutions / Efforts

Hybrid algae product system - cross between open and closed pond systems – GSPI. This is an effort to lower the cost of the system

Combination of open pond and photobioreactor - Enhanced Biofuels & Technologies. This is again an effort to lower the cost of the system

Other Challenges in Open Pond Cultivation System

Ponds often have to be lined to meet groundwater regulatory requirement, which adds quite a bit to costs.

Too much direct sunlight can kill algae, Temperature must be held steady in the ponds for best growth, Overcrowding can inhibit algae growth,


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6.6 Algae Cultivation in Open Ponds – Q&A

Can we have a hybrid of open pond and closed systems? Hybrid of Open-air and Closed Bioreactor Yes, it is possible to have a hybrid of open air and closed systems, and some companies are in fact trying out this method. For instance, Green Star in May 2008 debuted a hybrid of open-air and closed bioreactor system that addressed cost, contamination issues. In Montana, the company announced that its 10,000 gallon demonstration algae production system was operational and was one of the largest demonstration facilities in the world. The company’s Hybrid Algae Production System combines the controlled environment of a closed photobioreactor with the inexpensive construction of an open pond system. According to the company, the HAPS ponds solve the problems of contamination, evaporation, temperature variation and light intensity that have plagued open pond systems. (May 2008). Cellena, the joint venture project between HR Biopetroleum and Shell, is also exploring a hybrid process.

Can open ponds for algae cultivation use CO2 from industrial emissions? Yes, this is possible and many companies are already running pilot projects with this method. However, considerations need to given about the location of the ponds (they should be in proximity to power plants) and also the solubility of the flue gas components in water. The target is carbon dioxide, but the solubility of other elements (sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, oxygen, etc.) must be simultaneously considered. The following section provides inputs on the methods by which flue gas can be supplied to the ponds. Flue Gas Delivery Systems in Ponds Two types of carbonation systems have been investigated. Using Bubble Covers - The first carbonation system being is a covered area carbonator, or bubble cover. By covering a small percentage of the pond area with a membrane-covered structure submerged at its edges, gas transfer can occur passively through the pond surface under the cover. The cover serves to trap a gas volume with a high concentration of CO2. The percent pond coverage depends on the transfer rate of CO2 under the cover. To increase transfer efficiency, the roughness coefficient under the cover can be increased by increasing the roughness of the underside of the cover and placing it in partial contact with the water. This “rippled” cover design can be developed by using corrugated material for the cover. Results of some tests done with the bubble


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cover showed that treating a gas containing low concentrations of CO2 (i.e., flue gas) would require a high coverage percent in all cases. Therefore, the bubble cover concept is feasible only when pure CO2 is used. It is generally assumed that a covered-area carbonator is practical only if the percent coverage is low (about 2%). This may be achievable with a smooth cover in shallow, fast-mixed ponds, in 20-cm (7.87 in.)-deep ponds if the area under the cover is made shallow, or in moderately deep, moderately mixed ponds if a rippled cover is used. Using Sumps - An alternative way of transferring CO2 into pond water is to inject the gas at or near the bottom of a sump that spans all or part of the channel. Capital and operating costs are sensitive to sump depth, which determines both transfer efficiencies and pressure drops. The carbonation sump may be feasible for both pure CO2 and flue gases because gas transfer is quantitatively different in sumps. For bubble covers, the flow hydraulics under the cover determine the mixing that is needed to disrupt the thin film which effects transfer and mixes the dissolved gas with the bulk liquid. In sumps, movement of the bubble swarm relative to the flowing liquid “renews” the transfer surface. Thus behavior of the bubble swarms determines transfer rates. System to be Used if CO2 Purification is Necessary - If carbon dioxide purification is deemed necessary, conventional processes are available. Kadam (1997) recommends monoethanolamine extraction, compression, and dehydration of CO2 prior to transport. However, an improved CO2 recovery process has been demonstrated by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries of Japan (Rawn-Schatzinger, 1999). The two-stage boiler flue gas recovery process improves on conventional CO2 recovery operations by utilizing new amine-based solvents to reduce the regeneration energy requirements by approximately 20% and through the development of a new absorber packing to reduce internal pressure losses, resulting in significant power savings with respect to the flue gas blower. Results of this process show greater than 90% CO2 recovery, with a CO2 purity of 99.9%. The process has been shown to be energy efficient, with a 25% cost reduction in energy production and a one-seventh reduction in operating pressure.

Notes The company Inventure Chemical will utilize high-yield oil-rich algae strains that

Seambiotic has developed and grown in its open pond system coupled with Inventure’s patent-pending conversion processes to produce ethanol, biodiesel and other value-added chemicals. Inventure Chemical has announced that it has entered into a joint venture with Seambiotic Ltd. (based in Tel Aviv, Israel) to construct a pilot commercial biofuel plant in Israel, using algae created from CO2 emissions as feedstock. For the last five years, the Seambiotic Ltd has carried out an extensive R&D pilot study at the Israel Electric Corporation's power station near the city Ashkelon, Israel. Throughout the study, new and advanced research methods have been developed for cultivation of various species of marine microalgae using the power station's CO2 emissions released directly from their smokestacks and


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which pass through pipelines directly to Seambiotic's open ponds. The pilot plant has yielded an impressive concentration of algae containing a high percentage of lipids and carbohydrates in a very short term, promoting the production of bio-fuel. Seambiotic's patent technology efforts in cultivating microalgae utilizing flue gas emissions from power plants is a great step towards the reduction of air pollution and global warming.55

The efficiency of CO2 injection into the ponds through the carbonation sumps (at approximately 0.6 to 0.9-m depth) was estimated at close to 90%. Source: ASP Program

Installing a countercurrent flow injection system in the sumps results in a carbonation system that is almost essentially 100% efficient in CO2 transfer. Source: ASP Program

6.7 Algae Grown in Closed Ponds Introduction

An alternative to open ponds are closed ponds where the control over the environment is much better than that for the open ponds. Closed pond systems cost more than the open ponds, and considerably less than photobioreactors for similar areas of operation. As a variation of the open pond system, the idea behind the closed pond is to close it off, with a greenhouse. While this usually results in a smaller system, it does take care of many of the problems associated with an open system. It allows more species to be grown as it allows the species that are being grown to stay dominant, and such a set-up also extends the growing season. It is also possible to increase the amount of carbon-di-oxide in these quasi-closed systems, thus again increasing the rate of growth of algae. Enclosing your pond with a greenhouse adds to the expense but also offers some advantages:

Controls evaporation Maintains temperature limits contamination by wild algae extends the growing season a bit

Materials needed for closed pond systems

Plexi-glass and metal construction materials Air pump, waterjet or paddlewheel Chemical-resistant and water proof pond lining material

55 Inventure Chemical., (Jun, 2008). Retrieved from: http://www.inventurechem.com/news5.html

http://www.inventurechem.com/news5.html


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Monitoring equipments for monitoring conductivity, pH, salinity, algal density. Differences between Open Pond and Closed Pond Cultivation

Open Pond Algae Cultivation Closed Pond Algae Cultivation

Open ponds are clearly quite cheap Costlier

It is impossible to keep other types of algae (a.k.a. weeds)

Other types of algae could be kept out

Much like it grows in nature Growth is relatively artificial

6.8 Algae Cultivation in Closed Ponds – Case Studies Small-Scale Closed System Algae Production - The Solaroof Case Study

Small-scale algae production in Solaroof greenhouses could allow small-scale farmers to produce their own fuels. Solaroof greenhouses significantly reduce the amount of heat required to operate a greenhouse through the winter. Most new commercial greenhouses use two layers of greenhouse plastic. The two layers are separated by an air space which is inflated by a small fan to provide more rigidity to help the roof deflect wind and shed rain and snow. The Solaroof greenhouse has two complete skins—one outside and one inside. During the daytime, this space may also be filled with air, but when the nights are cold or when the days are excessively hot, the space between the two skins is filled with soap bubbles. The thermodynamics of heat transfer are such that during a hot summer day, the soap bubbles act like a cloud over the sun, leaving the inner skin of the roof cool, and appearing to the plants as if it were open sky. This can actually increase growth rates. Greenhouses can be modified to produce algae all year round. The surface area limitation which applies to ponds could be overcome in a greenhouse by adding a third layer of plastic inside the other two layers over which the pond water could flow in a thin enough film that it would receive enough solar radiation to grow algae. This should allow the Solaroof greenhouse to produce more algae than the surface area of a normal pond would. This mechanism for exposing the pond water to sunlight is similar to that employed by GreenFuel Technologies. The greenhouse would also overcome two problems observed in the ASP trials in outdoor ponds—the greenhouse allows for better control of both the temperature and


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the air in the greenhouse. This should allow optimum growth as well as eliminate the possibility of contamination with local algae.56 Spiruline La Capitelle, Villecun, France In the Villecun area of France, Philippe and Estelle have built two greenhouses with a total spirulina pond area of about 135 square meters. In summer, this yields about 3 kg per day dry weight, making thirty 100 gram packages. Philippe has experimented with several greenhouse styles, and uses simple, low-cost materials for the greenhouse. He uses a small pump to circulate the ponds. A used shipping container is the office, lab, harvest and packaging building. Black plastic over the top and side is the solar dryer. 57 XL Renewables XL Renewables, (http://www.xlbiorefinery.com ) formerly XL Dairy Group, of Phoenix, Arizona (USA), is developing an algal production system using dairy waste streams and attempting to integrate and co-locate dairy production, algal production, and biorefineries producing ethanol and biodiesel. XL is focused on biomass production more than biofuels – using a semi-closed system based on a farming model and a farming mentality – making use of agricultural and irrigation components. Their trough system uses a greenhouse-type process to cultivate algae in 18-inch deep, 1,250-foot long plastic-lined troughs with aeration and lighting integrated along the six-foot wide troughs. A plastic cover can extend their season from six months to 240 days. They apply and retrieve the solar cover with low-hp tractors resulting in a low labor cost – one man and one implement can service 160 acres at a claimed capital cost of $35,000/acre.58

56 http://www.solaroof.org 57 http://www.roberthenrikson.com/SpirulinaSource/microcalamand.html

58 http://www.greentechmedia.mobi/green-light/post/open-pond-vs.-closed-bioreactors-4012/

http://www.xlbiorefinery.com/

http://www.solaroof.org/

http://www.roberthenrikson.com/SpirulinaSource/microcalamand.html

http://www.greentechmedia.mobi/green-light/post/open-pond-vs.-closed-bioreactors-4012/


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6.10 Algae Grown in Photobioreactors Please see the chapter on photobioreactors.

6.9 Algae Cultivation in Closed Ponds – Q&A

Is a closed pond similar to green house? Yes, closed pond systems work more like greenhouses.

What are the advantages offered by closed ponds when compared to open-ponds? Closed ponds offer the following advantages: Prevent contamination from variety of external sources and elements Maintain an appropriate temperature; this is important, as excess heat affects the growth of algae.

What are the materials used in closing the pond? Transparent sheet through which light is transmitted but not the heat. Other thin, flexible and transparent membranes.


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SUMMARY

1. Open ponds are attractive for algae cultivation owing to their low capital and operating costs.

2. The most popular type of open ponds used for algae cultivation is the raceway pond.

3. The key challenges for algae cultivation in open ponds involve contamination, light penetration and water evaporation.

4. A significant number of algae fuel companies are exploring the open pond route.

5. Closed ponds are expected to provide better control over the environment than open ponds while costing much less than photobioreactors, but few companies are exploring this route.


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7. Algae Grown in Sewage & Wastewater 7.1 Concepts 7.2 Process 7.3 Algae Strains that Grow Well in Sewage & Wastewater 7.4 Prominent Companies Growing Algae in Wastewater 7.5 Case Studies 7.6 Challenges Associated with Growing Algae in Sewage 7.7 Updates & Factoids 7.8 Algae Cultivation in Sewage – Q&A 7.9 Research & Experiments 7.10 Sewage & Wastewater Reference

HIGHLIGHTS

Algae can be used to clean nutrient-laden, CO2-rich and low-oxygen water and turn it into oxygen-rich, CO2-low water as it flows back into the ecosystem, while simultaneously producing biomass for oil. This is the powerful idea that has driven companies to undertake serious efforts at growing algae in industrial wastewater and sewage.

The overall economics for algae-based wastewater treatment are made more favorable when factoring the credits applicable for wastewater treatment.

Research is still ongoing with regard to harvesting microalgae growing in sewage and industrial wastewater. Dissolved air flotation and filtration have shown some promise in the research done so far.

7.1 Concepts Algae grow best off of waste streams - agricultural, animal, or human. All over the world, municipalities and utilities spend enormous sums to treat wastewater and sewage and remove them of pollutants and impurities. Some of the pollutants in the wastewater and sewage are nutrients on which algae thrive. One another fact is that the algae that grow in human-sewage tend to have a lot of oil. Combine the above three facts and you get a rather interesting solution; the value proposition is as follows: Using algae clean/biofilter nutrient-laden, CO2-laden and low-oxygen water and turn it in oxygen-rich, CO2-low water as it flows back into the ecosystem, while simultaneously producing oil! This is the powerful idea that has driven some companies to make serious efforts at growing algae in sewage for oil.


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Aside from the fact that expensive reactor systems are not required, this method also is unlike some other algal-cultivation (for fuel) methods that rely on using algae that might not have a particular medium as its natural habitat. Some studies have looked into designing raceway algae ponds to be fed by agricultural or animal waste. Others are pursuing efforts to redesign wastewater treatment plants to use raceway algae ponds as the primary treatment phase with the dual goal of treating the waste and growing algae for biodiesel extraction. Predominantly, the use of microalgae for the treatment of municipal wastewater has been a subject of research and development for several decades. Some macroalgae species such as Gracilaria crassa, Ulva lactuca, Ulva reticulate, Eucheuma, Chaetomorpha, Laminaria japonica and Sargassum kjellmanianum are also widely investigated for nutrient removal from wastewater.

Algae-Based Wastewater Treatment vs. Traditional Methods Using algae for wastewater treatment offers some interesting advantages over conventional wastewater treatment. It has been shown to be a more cost effective way to remove biochemical oxygen demand, pathogens, phosphorus and nitrogen than activated sludge (Green et al., 1996). Traditional wastewater treatment processes involve the high energy costs of mechanical aeration to provide oxygen to aerobic bacteria to consume the organic compounds in the wastewater. Aeration is an energy intensive process, accounting for 45 to 75% of a wastewater treatment plant’s total energy costs. Algae provide an efficient way to consume nutrients and provide the aerobic bacteria with the needed oxygen through photosynthesis. Roughly one kg of BOD removed in an activated sludge process requires one kWh of electricity for aeration, which produces one kg of fossil CO2 from power generation (Oswald, 2003). By contrast, one kg of BOD removed by photosynthetic oxygenation requires no energy inputs and produces enough algal biomass to generate methane that can produce one kWh of electric power (Oswald, 2003). Through the process of algae wastewater treatment very large amounts of algal biomass can be grown. However, it has proven to be difficult to harvest, and even when harvested it is typically not used in a beneficial way (Lundquist et al., 2007). Converting this algal biomass into a higher value energy product in the form of biodiesel is a promising prospect.

Cromar et al., (1996) found a relationship between algal biomass and the removal of nitrogen.This relationship demonstrated that there was an optimum level of algal biomass, between 2 and 5 mg L-1 above which the efficiency of nitrogen removal declined rapidly. The finding that maximum nutrient removal was achieved at relatively low concentrations of algal biomass indicates that there exists an optimum algae density


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in the pond. Higher algal densities will achieve a lower productivity and nutrient uptake rate due to increased light attenuation, which causes self-shading (Hartig et al., 1988).

Advantages Oxidization of sewage is required to remove some of the impurities in sewage, and the oxidation process requires large amounts of mechanical energy. Algae use the sun's energy to provide that oxygen. These algae use the nutrients in sewage and the carbon dioxide released from the micro-organisms in sewage and release oxygen, which is in turn used by the micro-organisms to grow and decompose the matter in sewage. Removes Heavy Metals Trace quantities of many metals such as nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr) and mercury (Hg) are important constituents of most wastewaters. Algae have the ability to accumulate the heavy metals and thereby remove toxic compounds from the wastewater. Many algae have immense capability to remove metals from wastewaters. Algae can effectively remove metals from multi-metal solutions. Produce Oxygen with Low Energy Input Conventional wastewater treatment typically involves a mechanical aeration device to provide oxygen for breakdown of organic matter contained in the wastewater, which require high energy consumption. Algae wastewater treatment consumes low energy compared to more conventional systems. In a successful wastewater treatment test, algae grow simultaneously with the oxidizing bacteria, producing oxygen as fast as it is required by bacteria. In the process of bacterial oxidation of incoming waste, algae photosynthesis represents an ample supp1y of oxygen in the water of a pond being decontaminated. Fixes CO2

Micro algae have the ability to fix CO2 with efficiency 10 times greater than that of terrestrial plants. Typically 1.8 tons of CO2 are required to produce 1 ton of algae. Produces Biomass The resulting algal biomass from wastewater treatment plant can be converted into feedstock for fish, poultry, pigs, or even cows helping to reduce the overall costs of food. It can also be used in various sustainable energy generation systems. Greater Feasibility


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The intensive chemical or bacterial biodegradation technologies are not easily transferable to the polluted sites; neither is the transport of wastewater to decontamination plants. A more versatile and feasible way has to be designed to suit this special demand. Microalgae may play a central role in this case. It offers a cost effective treatment option. It does not require complex systems for operation. Ease of Handling Microalgae can be harvested by precipitation, centrifugation or filtration, and preserved as a dry powder or immobilized as solid pills for easy transport to the remediation sites. Cost Benefits from Algae-based Sewage and Wastewater Treatment While there are a good number of algae-based wastewater treatment systems currently operational around the world, there are no authentic data available that allow cost-benefit analyses to be performed for these operations. Some available data suggest that high rate algal ponds used for wastewater or sewage could result in capital cost reductions to the tune of 50%, and operational cost reductions of 50-75%.

7.2 Process Wastewater Treatment Using Algae Wastewater is composed of domestic, municipal, or industrial liquid waste products. It is normally classified as coming from domestic sources or industrial sources:

• The most common source of wastewater is domestic wastewater. Sanitary (domestic) wastewater comes primarily from residences, non-industrial businesses, and institutional sources. Some examples of sanitary wastewater are restroom, laundry, and kitchen waste. Domestic wastewater tends to be fairly uniform in composition, and is composed of approximately 99.94% water and 0.06% waste constituents (Source: Guidance for Reclamation and Reuse of Municipal and Industrial Wastewater).

• Industrial wastewater is discharged from industrial facilities and some heavy

commercial operations. Industrial wastewater characteristics change based on the industries, and based on changing production rates and schedules, and it is much more variable than domestic wastewater, possibly containing toxic substances, such as metals. These are treated by a combination of biological, chemical and physical treatment. These systems typically require additional pretreatment and/or special site management practices to provide good performance.

Wastewater contains two primary types of waste: organic and inorganic.


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• Organic wastes originate from plant or animal sources and can generally be consumed by bacteria and other organisms. Domestic wastes are mainly organic.

• Inorganic wastes come from mineral materials, such as sand, salt, iron and

calcium, and these wastes are only slightly affected by biological activity. Industrial wastes are partly organic and partly inorganic Within industrial wastewater, the source of wastewater influences the amount of organic and inorganic waste in a particular waste stream. For example, wastewater from a meat processing plant will contain high levels of organic waste, while wastewater from a gravel washing operation will contain high levels of inorganic waste. The overall treatment stages are same for both industrial and municipal waste treatment but the various processes employed for treatment in each stage differ considerably with respect to the type of waste. This chapter will broadly discuss the followings:

1. Algae-based municipal treatment process 2. Algae-based effluent treatment for industrial wastewater

Algae-based Municipal Wastewater Treatment Process Municipal wastewater refers to wastewater that is discarded from households. Also referred to as sanitary sewage, such water contains a wide variety of dissolved and suspended impurities. It amounts to a very small fraction of the wastewater by weight. But it is large by volume and contains impurities such as organic materials and plant nutrients that tend to rot. The main organic materials are food and vegetable waste, human waste, plant nutrient, organic waste from soaps, washing powders, etc. Municipal wastewater is also very likely to contain disease-causing microbes. Thus, disposal of domestic wastewater is a significant technical problem. Municipal wastewater is usually treated to get rid of undesirable substances by subjecting the organic matter to biodegradation by microorganisms such as bacteria. The biodegradation involves the degradation of organic matter to smaller molecules (CO2, NH3, PO4 etc.), and requires constant supply of oxygen. The process of supplying oxygen is expensive, tedious, and requires a lot of expertise and manpower. These problems are overcome by growing microalgae in the ponds and tanks where sewage treatment is carried out. The algae release the O2 while carrying out the photosynthesis which ensures a continuous supply of oxygen for biodegradation. The added benefit is the resulting biomass that can be used as biofuel feedstock. Algae and bacteria exist in a classic symbiotic relationship in wastewater ponds. Bacteria metabolise organic waste for growth and energy, producing new bacterial biomass and releasing carbon-di-oxide and inorganic nutrients. Algae then utilize the CO2 through photosynthesis assimilating the nutrients into algal biomass and releasing O2 concentration, in turn supports the aerobic bacterial activity. Use of Chlorella seems to


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be one of the feasible methods to reduce the amount of nitrogen and phosphorus entering the nearby coastal water, thus preventing the eutrophication problem which results in depletion of oxygen in water followed by fish death.

The below schematic for an advanced municipal wastewater treatment process uses a multi-stage pond system for complete organic waste degradation and nutrient removal. The initial wastewater treatment ponds are shown, followed by a smaller intermediate "green algae" pond for N depletion, and a final pond for cultivating N-fixing blue-green algae and removing residual phosphates. CO2 supplementation would be required in the last two ponds, and could increase productivity in the initial pond. (Source: Benemann et al. 1978)

CO2

CO2

N

P

CO2

N

P

Biomass

Reclaimed Water

Algae

Bacteria

Organics

Waste

Water O2

Sun


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Process Schematic for Tertiary Wastewater Treatment with Microalgae

N2 Fixing blue green algae

Reclaimed water

Microstraining Algae biomass

Sunlight and CO2

Settling Algae biomass

P

3rd Stage

Raw Sewage Primary Treatment Sludge

Bacterial decomposition

Green algae Sunlight and CO2

Settling/Microstraining Algae biomass

Green algae

N, P

1st Stage

2nd Stage

C N, P

Green algae ponds

CO2

Batch ponds

N2 Fixing blue green algal ponds


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Process Schematic for Tertiary Wastewater Treatment with Micro Algae

Source: Benemann et al. 1978

Two types of wastewater treatment systems are currently available for algae based treatment which can be incorporated in secondary treatment stages. 1. Waste Stabilisation Pond Systems ( WSPs) 2. High Rate Algal Ponds( HRAP)

Waste Stabilization Ponds Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSPs) are large, shallow basins in which raw wastewater are treated entirely by natural processes involving both algae and bacteria. They are used for wastewater treatment in temperate and tropical climates, and represent one of the most cost-effective, reliable and easily-operated methods for treating municipal and industrial wastewater. Waste stabilization ponds are very effective in the removal of pathogens such as faecal coliform bacteria. Sunlight energy is the only requirement for its operation. Further, it requires minimum supervision for daily operation, with simple cleaning of the outlets and inlet works, being the onlt tasks. The temperature and duration of sunlight in tropical countries offer an excellent opportunity for high efficiency and satisfactory performance for this type of water-cleaning system. They are well-suited for low-income tropical countries where conventional wastewater treatment cannot be achieved due to the lack of a reliable energy source. Further, the advantage of these systems, in terms of removal of pathogens, is one of the most important reasons for its use.


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WSP systems comprise a single string of anaerobic, aerobic and maturation ponds in series, or several such series in parallel. In essence, anaerobic and aerobic ponds are designed for the removal of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), and maturation ponds for pathogen removal, although some BOD removal also occurs in maturation ponds and some pathogen removal in anaerobic and facultative ponds (Mara, 1987). In most cases, only anaerobic and aerobic ponds will be needed for BOD removal when the effluent is to be used for restricted crop irrigation and fish pond fertilization, as well as when weak wastewater is to be treated prior to its discharge to surface waters. Maturation ponds are only required when the effluent is to be used for unrestricted irrigation, thereby having to comply with the WHO guideline of ≤ 1000 faecal coliform bacteria/100 ml. The WSP does not require mechanical mixing, needing only sunlight to supply most of its oxygenation. Its performance may be measured in terms of its removal of BOD and faecal coliform bacteria.

High Rate Algal Ponds (HRAP) HRAP are shallow, paddlewheel-mixed open raceway ponds are far more efficient wastewater treatment than conventional oxidation ponds primarily as a result of intense algal photosynthesis providing saturated oxygen to drive aerobic treatment and assimilation of wastewater nutrients into algal biomass. The shallow pond depth and continuous mixing of HRAP assist with disinfection of the wastewater by sunlight. High rate algal ponds are efficient systems to treat wastewater. For instance, a 1000-m2 HRAP is capable of treating 50 m3 of wastewater daily.

The figure below explains about the HRAP developed by Solray Energy, a New Zealand company, wherein they have developed a Super Critical Water Reactor (SCWR) technology which has the capability to convert algae and other biomass sources into crude bio-oil. This technology also has great potential to degrade toxic organic compounds to harmless residues.


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A Schematic Diagram of a HRAP System

High Rate Algal Pond Design The typical HRAPs consist of a shallow 0.2 - 0.6 cm deep meandering open channel, in which the effluent is propelled by a paddlewheel (6 to 8 rpm) to prevent settling and compensate for head losses, and a solid removal device (Oswald, 1988). To be effective most HRAPs were designed with shallow depth (30 - 50 cm), short retention time (2 – 6 days), mechanical mixing (energy consuming), and aerobic environment (organic oxidation). Most ponds are operated at an average velocity from 10 - 30 cm/second to avoid deposition of algal cells (Dodd, 1986). The pH values maintained as high as 8.5 to 9 with the organic loading rate of 80kg COD T per hectare per day.

Design of a High Rate Algal Pond

Solid Removal

Algae Production

Algae Havest

Biofuel Conversion

Fertilizer Heat and Power

Anaerobic Digestion

Generator

Treated Water

Fertilizer

Exhaust Flue gas

Bio gas


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Algae-based Effluent Treatment Plant for Industrial Wastewater Heavy metals represent an important group of hazardous contaminants often found in industrial wastewater (Kratochvil and Volesky, 1998; Volesky, 2001). Microalgae can be efficiently use to remove these pollutants and a specific metal uptake of 15mg per gram biomass at 99% removal efficiency has been reported, showing that the process is competitive compared to other treatment methods (Villanueva, 2000). Unfortunately, microalgae are usually quite sensitive towards the hazardous compounds (Aksmann and Tukaj, 2004; Borde et al., 2003) and special care must be taken to improve microbial activity.

Examples of Industries Employing Algae-Based Wastewater Treatment Technology

Industry Role of Algae in Effluent Treatment

Aquaculture

Reduction of nitrate, nitrite and ammonia.

Alginate

Reduce acidity without chemicals; reduce sludge.

Breweries

Removing suspended solids

Dairy Farms

Nutrient removal and odour removal

Food Processing

Reduce acidity without chemicals. Reduce sludge; Reducing Nitrate and phosphates in discharge.

Oil Drilling

TDS reduction, acidity reduction and removal of metals and contaminants

Paper Mills

Removal of color, BOD and organics

Poultry

Reduce sludge. Remove N, P and to neutralize odors and to remove pathogens.

Textile & Leather Processing

Treating textile dyes without chemicals; reducing sludge and precipitate metal sulphides

Description of Algae Production from Poultry Waste

Industry Poultry

Product Poultry muscle (chicken, turkey, duck, ratite, etc.) into meat

Effluent Description

Fats, proteins and carbohydrates from meat, fat, blood, skin and feathers

and also grit and other inorganic matter, high levels of nitrogen,

phosphorus, and chlorine, pathogens like salmonella and campylobacter.

Effluent Treatment Reduce sludge. Remove N, P and to neutralize odors and to remove


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Objectives pathogens.

Current Treatment

Process

Separation and sedimentation of floatable solids, anaerobic and aerobic

treatment, biological nutrient removal, chlorination and usage of filters.

Algal treatment process Nutrient assimilation using High Rate Algal Ponds (HRAP)

Poultry Industry Description and Practices Poultry industry wastewater will be laden with fats, proteins and carbohydrates from meat, fat, blood, skin and feathers. The water is also polluted with a fair amount of grit and other inorganic matter. Poultry processing activities require large amounts of high quality water for process cleaning and cooling. Process wastewater generated during these activities typically has high biochemical and chemical oxygen demand (BOD and COD) due to the presence of organic material such as blood, fat, flesh, and excreta. In addition, process wastewater may contain high levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, residues of chemicals such as chlorine used for washing and disinfection, as well as various pathogens including salmonella and campylobacter.

Composition of Poultry Industry Wastewater

Components Chicken

Amount(L per animal) Approx. 25

COD 2.2- 4.0

BOD 1.0- 2.5

N 150- 350

P 5- 30

Fat 300- 1200

Source: Ecologix Environmental Systems 59

Current Treatment Process - Poultry Industry Techniques for treating industrial process wastewater in this sector include grease traps, skimmers or oil water separators for separation of floatable solids; flow and load equalization; sedimentation for suspended solids reduction using clarifiers; biological treatment, typically anaerobic (if high in organic content) followed by aerobic treatment, for reduction of soluble organic matter (BOD); biological nutrient removal for reduction in nitrogen and phosphorus; chlorination of effluent when disinfection is required; dewatering and disposal of residuals; in some instances composting or land

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Ecologix Environmental Systems., Poultry Wastewater Treatment solutions. Retrieved from: http://www.ecologixsystems.com/applications_poultry.php?s=application

http://www.ecologixsystems.com/applications_poultry.php?s=application


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application of wastewater treatment residuals of acceptable quality may be possible. Additional engineering controls may be required to (i) remove parasitic eggs or spores from influent that may pass through treatment system untreated, and (ii) contain and neutralize nuisance odors.

Algae-based Wastewater Treatment Technology – Poultry Industry An interesting method of algae cultivation from poultry and cattle manure dropping has been visualized by some researchers as follows: Poultry manure droppings of caged layers flush into a sediment tank, the supernatant is pumped directly to algae pond, and the sediment left is pumped into anaerobic digester for methane production. Methane is used as a source to heat the digester. The product effluent from the digester is also pumped into algae pond for algae cultivation. The cultivated algae can be also used a poultry feed, thus making it a closed cycle.

Process of Algae Wastewater Treatment for Poultry Industry ( Source: FAO)

Effluent

Flusher

Manure Trough

Supernantant

CH4

Heat Exchanger

Algae Separation

SEDIMENTATION TANK

Fresh Drinking Water

Poultry Feed Dry Algae

Digester

Algae Pond


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7.3 Algae Strains that Grow Well in Municipal and Industrial Wastewater Some of algae strains that can grow well in municipal wastewater are given below:

Chlorella Pithophora sp Scenedesmus abundans Sargassum muticum Spirulina sp Botryococcus braunii Dunaliella salina Ankistrodesmus sp Actinastrum sp Microactinium sp Pediastrum sp

Industrial wastewaters are extremely varied and the microorganisms employed to treat these industrial wastewaters also vary accordingly. Some of the algae strains which are used commonly are listed below.

Phormidium bohneri – Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus Spirulina (Arthrospira) - Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus Spirogyra condensate - Biosorption of chromium Scenedesmus acutus – Removal of cadmium Chlorella minutissima – Adsorption of lead Cladophora – Removal of copper, zinc, lead and manganese Spirogyra - Removal of copper, zinc, lead and manganese Rhizoclonium - Removal of copper, zinc, lead and manganese Oscillatoria - Removal of copper, zinc, lead and manganese

Chlorella - Chlorella is used for the removal of lead (II) ions from wastewater. It is

also used to remove nutrients (N and P) from domestic wastewater. It is used in the treatment of diluted piggery waste and in the detoxification of cyanide from wastewater.

Pithophora sp - It is used for the removal of the malachite green dye from wastewater.

Scenedesmus abundans - It is used to eliminate cadmium and copper present in contaminated water and also in the process of detoxification of cyanide from wastewater.

Sargassum muticum - It is used for the removal of Methylene Blue dye from wastewater.

Spirulina sp - It can also be used for the biosorption of heavy metals like antimony and chromium present in wastewater.


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Botryococcus braunii – It is used for the removal of nitrogen, phosphorus and other simple inorganic compounds from industrial wastewater, most commonly in piggery wastewater.

Dunaliella salina - It is used for the removal of heavy metals like Cu, Cd, Co and Zn and also in the treatment of hypersaline wastewater.

Ankistrodesmus sp – It has immense capability to sorb metals, and there is considerable potential for using them to treat wastewaters. It removes mercury, arsenic and selenium through methylation.

Actinastrum sp - Removes copper from wastewater. Microactinium sp - Removal of zinc and cadmium from wastewater.The process

occurs through biosorption by Microactinium pusillum. Pediastrum sp – Indicators of organic compounds in wastewater. The process

occurs through biosorption. Related Resources The composition of algal flora and the periodicity of algae in raw and stabilized

wastewater have been investigated. 36 genera and 70 species of algae are reported.( V. P. Singh and P. N. Saxena 1968)

Members of Cyanophyta and Euglenophyta predominate in raw wastewater, and there is little variation in the algal flora in different seasons (V. P. Singh and P. N. Saxena 1968).

There is a marked and rapid change in the algal flora of stabilized wastewater as compared to raw wastewater. Members of Chlorococcales ultimately become dominant in stabilized wastewater.60

A study of sewage pond microbial population in the USA and other American countries indicated a total of 125 genera. Among them the most abundant were: Chlorella, Ankistrodesmus, Scenedesmus, Euglena, Chlamydomonas, Oscillatoria, and Microactinum. However, two strands of green algae, namely Micractinium and Scenedesmus, are believed to make up most of the algae biomass and to be responsible for most of the nutrient up-take (Craggs 2005).

Chlorella effectively treats wastewater and is common to oxidation pond systems (Hammouda et al. 1994).

The number of algal species predominant in sewage are limited to a few only, such as Chlorella spp. and Oscillatoria spp. (E.W. Becker 1994)

The green alga Scenedesmus obliquus readily adapted to heterotrophic growth in the dark, utilizing glucose as the sole carbon source in high rate algal ponds(Abeliovich A, Weisman D.1978)

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V. P. Singh .,P. N. Saxena. (1969). Preliminary Studies on Algal Succession in Raw and Stabilized

Sewage. Hydrobiologia. Vol 34, 3-4 / Dec, 1969. Retrieved from: http://www.springerlink.com/content/r6h11764u78g3803/

http://www.springerlink.com/content/100271/?p=4969e1fd08074eb8aa6fedfc77cbf62d&pi=0

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Unicellular green algae such as Chlorella and Scenedesmus have been widely used in waste-water treatment because they often colonize the ponds naturally, and they have fast growth rates and high nutrient uptake capabilities per unit biomass due to their small size (Malone, 1980; Niklas, 1994; Tang, 1996).

Biomass productivities of 23-57 mg d.m. l-1 day-1, combined with rates of ammonium and phosphate removal up to 20 mg/l/day indicated that P. bohneri has a good potential for wastewater treatment. (Laliberte G 1991)

Nutrient removal has been shown to be more efficient by using algae strains with special attributes. Such special attributes include tolerance to extreme temperatures, chemical composition with predominance of high added value products, a quick sedimentation behavior, or a capacity for growing mixotrophically. A Phormidium strain capable of removing nutrients more efficiently than a community of green algae below 10°C was isolated from polar environments (Tang et al., 1997). The authors suggested that this strain was appropriate for wastewater treatment in cold climates during spring and autumn.

Talbot and de la Noue (1993) reported that Phormidium bohneri was a good candidate for treating wastewater at high temperatures (around 30°C); additionally, this strain had a quick sedimentation behavior.

Spirulina (Arthrospira) is one of the most favoured micro algae for wastewater treatment (Laliberté et al., 1997). The advantages of using Spirulina are as follows (Olguín et al., 2003): (1) capacity to flocculate makes harvesting easier and cheaper than for other microalgae( Mohn, 1988); (2) the biomass with the highest possible protein content (60-70% dry weight) when grown under conditions avoiding nitrogen limitation (Ciferri, 1983); (3) used successfully as a feed supplement for mammals( Becker, 1994) and fish larvae (Belay et al., 1993); (4) high content of high added va1ue compounds such as polyunsaturated fatty acids (Olguín et al., 2001), which have been reported to have therapeutic effects in humans (Belay et al., 1993); (5) biomass enriched in polysaccharides may be utilized as a very efficient bio-adsorbent for heavy metals (Hernández and Olguín, 2002); (6) ability to grow at high pH values reduces contamination by other species (Olguín et al.,1997; Olguin, 2000); (7) some strains grow at a very high ammonia-nitrogen concentration (130 mg 1- 1) and (8) ability of some strains to grow under heterotrophic and mixotrophic conditions (Márquez et al., 1993, 1995).

The use of algae for improving water quality (pH, dissolved oxygen, suspended solids etc) and removal of nutrients and metals from eutrophic or contaminated water has been increasing over the past few decades (Oswald, 1988). High rates of nutrient removal and algal production have been measured with monocultures of cyanobacteria such as Spirulina (Lincoln et al., 1996; Olguin et al 1997) and Phormidium (Blier et al 1996) grown on manure effluent from diary and swine operations.

Mulbry et al (2005), working on recycling of manure nutrients reported the use of algal biomass from dairy manure treatment as a slow release fertilizer. During storage and land application of manure effluents, large amount of N are lost to the atmosphere due to volatilization of ammonia. Instead, crops of algae are grown on


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the N and P present in the manure and convert manure N and P into algal biomass. Algal biomass generated is used for soil conditioning and as a slow release fertilizer.

Westhead et al (2003) worked on production and nutrient removal by periphyton grown under anaerobically digested flushed dairy manure. They suggested growing algae to scrub nutrients from manure as an alternative to the current practice of land application and provide utilizable algal biomass.

Kirkwood et al (2003) working on the physiological characteristics of Cyanobacteria (Phormidium, Pseudanabaena) in pulp and paper waste-treatment systems reported that the pulp and paper industry depend on secondary (biological) waste-treatment system to treat highly concentrated organic waste. The wastewater contains hundreds of wood extractives (e.g. resin acids) and chlorinated organic compounds (e.g. Chlorphenicols) of environmental concern and consequently, pulp and paper wastewater is toxic and requires microbial mineralization to reduce effluent toxicity. ASBs (aerated stabilization basins) and activated sludge systems (ASs) used by pulp industry are designed to support high densities of heterotrophic bacteria Both ASBs and ASs are open-air facilities. The ubiquitous presence of Cyanobacteria (Phormidium, Pseudanabaena) observed by Kirkwood et al made them to suggest the utilization of these algae for wastewater treatment systems.

Although all Cyanobacteria are photoautotrophic, many can utilize simple organic carbon (Dissolved Organic Carbon, DOC) compounds for heterotrophic growth or for mixotrophic growth in light. Cyanobacteria also have the potential for catabolism of the contaminants in wastewater.

Halogenated compounds represent one of the most predominant environmental pollutants due to their widespread usage as biocides, fungicides, disinfectants, solvents and other industrial chemicals. Biodegradation of chlorinated phenols has been studied with pure and mixed bacterial cultures. Only a few algae like Chlorella sp were found to decolourize certain azo dyes and use them as carbon and nitrogen sources (Jinqi and Houtian, 1992). Phenol degradation by Ochromonas danica was reported by Semple and Cain (1996). Luther (1990) has reported that the alga Scenedesmus obliquus was able to utilize naphthalenesulphonic acids as a source of sulphur for their biomass, releasing the carbon ring into the medium. Pentachlorophenol has been reported to be degraded by Chlorella sp. Lima et al (2004) reported that micro algae isolated from a waste discharge container fed with several aromatic pollutants were able to remove chlorophenol and nitrophenol under different photo-regimes. The study of the role of micro algae in biodegradation systems is scarcely reported (Lima et al, 2004). A common approach used to treat organic compounds is a combination of biodegradation and adsorption processes. Adsorbing material, like zeolite or activated carbon, may be added to a biological process in order to improve the overall performance of the system and to increase the removal of the most recalcitrant organic material from wastewater.

Sanchez et al (2001) grew a mixotrophic culture of Chlorella pyrenoidosa with olive-mill wastewater as a nutrient medium. Olive-mill wastewater normally contains 1) Vegetable water from the fruit 2) Water from the process and 3) Water from industrial installation (cleaning, sewage waters etc). This can support a luxuriant


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growth of algae due to the presence of carbohydrates and mineral salts. So, waste currently causing grave environmental problems can be used to grow algae.

7.4 Prominent Companies Growing Algae in Wastewater

Algaewheel, Inc – Algaewheel has developed the algaewheel® technology for use in a variety of applications including wastewater treatment, carbon sequestration, and aquaculture. The low energy cost and minimal maintenance requirements of the system enhance commercial scale algae production models.

Aquaflow - Aquaflow has set itself the objective to be the first company in the world to economically produce biofuel from wild algae harvested from open-air environments and to market it.

Blue Marble Energy - Blue Marble Energy is a Seattle based company generating bio-chemicals and natural gas from algae and other cellulosic biomass. By focusing on wild algae at waste treatment facilities, BME has developed an innovative energy solution that produces fertilizer and chemicals as a by-product.

Sunrise Ridge Algae - Texas, USA - This private Texas corporation is engaged in research, development and commercialization of algae biomass technology for reduction of water and greenhouse gas pollutants and production of renewable fuel feed stocks and animal feeds. Sunrise Ridge sponsors research in several areas with the University of Texas at Austin, and owns and operates a pilot production facility at the Austin Water Utility's Hornsby Bend plant in Austin, Texas.

XL Renewables - XL Renewables, Inc. is a renewable energy innovation company focused on the large-scale production of algae biomass and the development of integrated biorefinery projects.

Petrosun - In July 2008, Petrosun approved plans to install a pilot plant designed for algae production at an Arizona wastewater treatment facility. This project will be a scaled down version of a commercial algae farm system utilizing the wastewater and associated nutrients from the municipal treatment plant to produce algae as a biofuel feedstock.

Community Fuels - In July 2007, Community Fuels was awarded a 2007 Phase I Research Grant from the Department of Energy Small Business Innovation Research / Small Business Technology Transfer (SBIR/STTR) Program to evaluate two processes to use agricultural waste as a resource for commercial-scale algal oils development and production into biodiesel.

VIAT (Vivekananda Institute of Algal Technology), Chennai, India - VIAT has been involved in projects on effluent treatment employing microalgae, a process popularly called phycoremediation. The unit involved in treating the effluents from various industries including Orchid Pharmaceuticals, Chennai, SNAP Natural and Alginate Products, Ranipet, Ultramarine Pigments Ltd., Ranipet, STAHL India Ltd., Ranipet, using phycoremediation.


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Cambridge Bio-Green Consultants, LLC - Cambridge Bio-Green Consultants, LLC worked with Bodega Algae LLC to adapt development of their algal biofuel photobioreactor project to wastewater treatment plant applications.

7.5 Case Studies

Biodiesel Made from Algae in Sewerage Ponds – Aquaflow Bionomic Marlborough, New Zealand Aquaflow Bionomic of New Zealand has pioneered growing algae in sewage. Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation produced its first sample of homegrown biodiesel fuel using algae sourced from sewerage ponds in its region of New Zealand. The breakthrough came after Aquaflow undertook a pilot project to extract algae from its excess pond discharge. According to the company, biodiesel from algae has only been tested under controlled laboratory conditions with specially selected and grown algae crops. The company believes that this is the world's first commercial production of biodiesel from algae outside the laboratory, in 'wild' conditions. This happened in 2006. Since then the company has made rapid strides. In September 2008 Aquaflow announced the focus is on making a range of fuels rather than purely a lipid-based crude oil. Aquaflow plans to maximize the total biomass value from algae and equally maximize the fuel value of its green crude In Nov 2008, Aquaflow, UOP teamed up to convert algae into biofuels. UOP LLC, a Honeywell company, and Aquaflow Bionomic Corp., a New Zealand-based algae biodiesel development company, signed a memorandum of understanding to convert wild algae into fuel products using UOP’s processes and to develop a carbon dioxide sequestration storage model for Aquaflow’s algal oil production facilities. This could be a significant move for Aquaflow. UOP provides technology for refiners around the world, and they have commercially viable methods for producing green fuels from biological feedstocks, so Aquaflow to work with UOP makes synergistic sense. The news release said the companies would also study the feasibility of sequestering carbon dioxide from a refinery or power plant and adding it to wastewater streams in an effort to boost the productivity of the wild algae population. Aquaflow currently sources its wild algae from oxidation ponds in Marlborough, New Zealand. It doesn’t add carbon dioxide to the wastewater. In Nov 2008, the company stated it is looking to raise up to $30 million through a public share offer.


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Aquaflow Bionomic has also planned to use a two-step process for treating waste water of contaminants. In this process, the algae are provided with full opportunity to exploit the nutrients available in the settling ponds, thereby cleaning up the water. The algae are then harvested to remove the remaining contaminant. A last stage of bio-remediation will ensure that the water discharge from the process exceeds acceptable quality standards. The company has received inquiries from the U.S., Portland, Scotland, Italy, and South America. It also isn’t limited to sewage. Aquaflow hopes to tap into other waste streams, such as dairy, wine, and food

Blue Marble Energy – Generating Algal Blooms in Wastewater Blue Marble Energy, the Seattle-based company has come up with a system for generating algal blooms in wastewater facilities and then feeding the algae to other microbes. These other microorganisms in turn metabolically convert the algae into high-value industrial chemicals like propyl butyrate; a chemical sells that for over $800 a gallon! While the more common methods like making Biodiesel using transesterification might yield $500 worth of oils from a ton of algae, the indirect methods proposed by Blue Marble could yield $4,000 worth of chemicals from a ton of algae, according to the company. Wastewater treatment isn’t cheap or easy. Municipalities spend huge amounts of money on wastewater to clean it out. Wild algae can take out nitrogen and other compounds from the water as well as the chemical-based processes without the environmental degradation. Unlike chemically treated wastewater, the process yields a feedstock (algae) that can be converted into a valuable product as well. The company said harvesting a ton of algae from the wastewater costs about $190. (Oct 2008 news)

Old Dominion University

Scientists and engineers from Old Dominion University, with a little help from a crane, lifted three algae cultivation tanks to a rooftop of the Virginia Initiative Plant (VIP) wastewater treatment facility near campus in December to formally begin a collaboration that promises to be very environmentally friendly.

Faculty members and graduate students from the College of Sciences and the Frank Batten College of Engineering and Technology are working on a pilot project of the Virginia Coastal Energy Research Consortium (VCERC) to produce biodiesel fuel from algae. Algae will be grown in treated wastewater that will flow through the rooftop tanks. As they grow, the algae take in nutrients from the water that otherwise would be


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discharged into the Elizabeth River. This amounts to an extra scrubbing of the wastewater to make it better for the environment. The microscopic algae crop will be dried and converted to biodiesel by means of a proprietary reactor developed by ODU scientists. Preliminary tests of the process in the fall of 2007 (using algae that grew naturally) produced algal-based biodiesel fuel that has been used to power the engine of a remote-controlled vehicle. This accomplishment of the ODU project team has been the subject of several local media reports and one that will be broadcast in January on the national Science Channel.

Sunrise Ridge Algae Inc. www.sunrise-ridge.com Sunrise Ridge Algae is a start-up that designs systems to grow algae in wastewater from municipal and industrial treatment facilities. The technology promises to produce biofuels from nonfood sources while cleaning wastewater and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Their test facility is near a biosolids management plant (Hornsby Bend Biosolids Management Plant) in Austin, Texas (USA). The facility contains large bags which are essentially miniature greenhouses growing algae fed with wastewater and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the plant. A pilot plant facility was completed in November 2007, and has been used since then for further testing. Sunrise Ridge Algae plans to expand their small pilot facility to hundreds of acres, cultivating commercial scale quantities of algae to make biodiesel and animal feed. The company’s photobioreactors permit higher control of the growing environment when compared to open ponds. However, the systems face high infrastructure costs, and an indoor system may require artificial lighting, which increases energy costs.

IAPS May 2009 Prof Peter Rose and his team at the Environmental Biotechnology Research Unit (EBRU) at Rhodes University have for ten years tested and refined a quiet alternative to standard sewerage treatment technologies - the Integrated Algal Ponding System (IAPS), which is a simple sewerage treatment system that works with nature to keep all the unpleasant aspects of sewerage out of sight and mind How the IAPS system works

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In the IAPS system, sewerage enters a digester pit in a large open topped tank as shown in the image below. The rate of sewerage inflow into this pit is lower than the settling velocity of 'solid matter' and also conveniently lower than the settling velocity of all parasite eggs. Hence, solids remain in the pit and are digested by bacteria into smaller and smaller compounds until eventually all that remains is liquid effluent. Methane and carbon dioxide gas rises to the surface of the pond, into the so called facultative region, where algae grows on the surface. The algae produce oxygen, and various bacteria thrive on the oxygen produced by the algae and use this oxygen to further break down any smelly organic compounds. Hence this section of the process is largely odor free. The effluent then flows continuously from this tank into a 300 mm deep algal raceway, termed the High Rate Algal Pond (HRAP) where paddle wheels circulate the liquid, ensuring it is oxygenated. Algae thrive in this environment and produce large amounts of oxygen, and at maximum solar intensity raise the pH of the water temporarily to above that at which pathogenic intestinal bacteria such as those that cause typhoid and cholera can survive. The semi-treated effluent then flows from this raceway into a final polishing raceway, where additional algae scrub the remaining nutrients and dangerous bacteria from the water. A small trickle from this pond is then allowed to pass into a settling tank, where the algae is separated from the water, which flows into the nearby stream as clean, clear water. The algae are periodically removed from the settling pond and can be used to make compost.


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The IAPS system at the Environmental Biotechnology Research Unit stationed at the Grahamstown Municipal Sewerage works. Source: http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2007/august/sewerage.htm

Logan Utah Wastewater Lagoons to Be Transformed Into Algae Biofuel and Fertilizer Producing Facility Aug, 2009

For the past several years, detergents and agricultural runoff have turned five wastewater lagoons in Logan, Utah (USA) into a phosphate-filled soup, posing a menace to sensitive wildlife habitat downstream and racking up costly clean-up bills.

But nature could be coming to the rescue in the form of algae.

A collaborative project between the city and the Utah State University Research Foundation, USA will use the ponds to grow algae, which might not only fix the phosphate problem for little money but produce energy. The city has won a $500,000 state grant to begin converting the 460-acre lagoon complex into an algae farm as a small-scale pilot project.

Logan's wastewater lagoon system, one of the nation's largest and serving most of the Cache Valley, discharges 14 million gallons a year into Cutler reservoir and the Bear River drainage, ultimately flowing into the Great Salt Lake. The algae project is believed to be first of its kind at a wastewater treatment facility and could become a model for phosphorus-mitigation at the nation's 16,000 wastewater lagoons, officials say. The project seeks to prove USU-developed technologies and take them to marketplace when they become commercially viable. The algae project is its inaugural program.

Source: http://www.sltrib.com/news/ci_13211659

7.6 Challenges Associated with Growing Algae in Sewage

Amount of total sewage available – The quantity of algae that can be grown in sewage is dependent on the total amount of sewage facilities available. For instance, sewage-treatment plants with open ponds make up only about a third of New Zealand’s plants, and with Aquaflow’s technology, that would make a potential supply of 20- to 30-million liters a year. That’s not much compared to a 3.1-billion-liter worldwide biodiesel market, which itself is a tiny part of the diesel market.

Growing specific strains of algae in sewage exposes to these strains to contamination and take-over by other undesirable strains.

http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2007/august/sewerage.htm

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Most algal culture failures are due to contamination. Contaminated cultures are characterized by foaming of the surface, clumping within the culture, unusual coloration, or failure of the algae to reach appropriate densities in a reasonable period of time. A healthy culture will be very clean, all the algal cells similar in appearance, no extraneous organisms (e.g. ciliates) or foreign objects (e.g. hair, dust), and no clumping of algal cells.

Some of the other challenges are: Cost-effective harvesting procedures such as natural settling could result

in long harvesting durations. Sometimes, algal treatment of wastewater / sewage fails to meet

suspended solids limits (~45 mg/L). Using algae as a bioremediation medium could in some cases interfere

with disinfection of the wastewater. Pretreatment of wastewater could be required for algal remediation;

this could increase costs.

7.7 Updates & Factoids

During the NREL ASP research, it was found that for the algae remediation of wastewater, energy outputs were twice the energy inputs, based on digester gas production and requirements for pumping the wastewater, mixing the ponds, etc. The overall economics were very favorable because of the wastewater treatment credits.

XL Renewables has a small test facility in Casa Grande at Withrow Dairy, and officials plan to open 40 acres of 18-inch-deep algae troughs this fall to demonstrate their farming technology. Wastewater from the dairy cattle will be used to grow the algae, which can then be used as a food supplement for the cattle. Algae also can be used to feed pigs, poultry and fish (Jul 2008)

In Virginia (USA), researchers at Old Dominion University have successfully piloted a project to produce biodiesel feedstock by growing algae at municipal sewage treatment plants. The researchers hope that these algae production techniques could lead to reduced emissions of nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon dioxide into the air and surrounding bodies of water. The pilot project is producing up to 70,000 gallons of biodiesel per year.

Kingsburgh Sewage Project in Durban Aims at Fuel from Algae – May 2008 - Durban is helping to develop a new liquid fuel technology which involves harvesting tiny plants and nutrients from local sewage works. Unlike other plant-based biofuels which require vast tracts of fertile farmland or the diversion of food crops into fuel tanks, the Durban experiment involves growing algae in semi-purified sewage water and then converting these microscopic plant organisms into a liquid fuel that can power diesel cars and trucks. Engineers are about to start converting part of the Kingsburgh sewage treatment works into a


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biodiesel farming experiment as part of a two-year scientific pilot project run by the Durban University of Technology's school of water and wastewater technology.

New research shows that a common type of marine algae may prefer urea, an organic nitrogen compound found in urine and in agricultural and urban runoff, over inorganic fare such as ammonium and nitrate that occurs naturally in the ocean. When excess nutrients cross their paths, these single-celled organisms, called dinoflagellates, can grow into potentially toxic blankets of algae commonly known as red tides. The new findings, published in the current issue of Aquatic Microbial Ecology, suggest that urea in urban and agricultural runoff may play a greater role than previously thought in triggering or sustaining harmful algal blooms found growing off California's coastline. Previous studies have shown that urea can nourish the growth of dinoflagellates under laboratory conditions. The new study shows for the first time, however, that the naturally occurring red-tide dinoflagellate responsible for the 1995 bloom can use organic urea as a nutrient source and even prefers it over traditionally measured inorganic forms of nitrogen - (Feb 2000, ScienceDaily)

At Auburn University in Alabama, Dr. Ron Putt is working on a project using chicken litter as well as catfish pond litter as a nutrient source for the algae ponds. (2007)

University of Minnesota and the Metropolitan council - Research efforts have been done since 2006 for the cultivation of algae in waste water for removing nitrogen and phosphorus from the water, before it entered the Mississippi River, and to produce algal biomass for use as biofuels. The nitrogen and phosphorus that were extracted were used to produce biofertilizers. The project started in 2006 on a much smaller scale, using wastewater in labs, and in mid-2009 moved to Met Council’s treatment plant. A pilot project for growing algae in a wastewater treatment plant in St. Paul, Minn., will serve the following functions

1. Removing nitrogen and phosphorus from the water before it’s flushed into the Mississippi River 2. Producing algal biomass for future use in the manufacturing of biofuels and, 3. The extracted nitrogen and phosphorus will be used to produce fertilizers.

The project will eventually save Met Council the cost of removing phosphorus to meet Minnesota Pollution Control Agency mandates, which is usually done by adding salts to the water. The team hopes to use gaseous waste (emissions and effluents that may consist of particulate matter, dust, fumes, gas, mist, smoke, or vapor) from the Met Council’s fluidized bed gasifier in the future, though in the initial stages it is getting its carbon dioxide supply from a pure tank. The team is also in early

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discussions with Xcel Energy to obtain waste carbon dioxide and maybe nitrogen oxide.

University of Michigan – In Mar 2009, Team Algal Scientific Corp., comprised of business and engineering students from the University of Michigan and Michigan State University won the DTE Energy and University of Michigan clean energy business competition with their plans to use algae to simultaneously treat wastewater and produce biofuel feedstock. In Algal Scientific Corp.'s wastewater treatment system, algae would take up nutrients at wastewater treatment plants, using no chemicals.

University of Georgia - Researchers at the University of Georgia have planned to do a project to study the production of algae biodiesel using waste water. They are hoping to produce about 200,000 gallons of biodiesel by the end of 2009.

In June 2009, Javier Fernández-Han invented an innovative algae energy system, called VERSATILE and won Ashoka’s Invent Your World Challenge. The basis of Javier’s system is marine algae. The VERSATILE subsystems are:

An anaerobic digester, converting sewage and food scraps A bio-gas upgrader, turning the gases from the digester into nourishment

for the algae, as well as producing fuel Vented methane burning stoves, a non-polluting and CO2 capturing

device Algae bioreactors producing algae biomass and oxygen from sunlight,

saltwater, and CO2, and using nutrients from the digester In April 2009, NASA scientists have proposed a project called “Sustainable Energy

for Spaceship Earth.”. NASA plans to deploy large plastic bags in the ocean, and fill it with sewage. The algae use sewage and solar energy to grow, and in the process of growing they clean up the sewage. The bag will be made of semi-permeable membranes that allow fresh water to flow out into the ocean, while retaining the algae and nutrients. The membranes are called “forward-osmosis membranes.” NASA is testing these membranes for recycling dirty water on future long-duration space missions.

In July 2009, Massachusetts-based Waltham Technologies announced plans to clean the California wine industry’s waste water and produce biodiesel using blue - green algae. The company plans to test their technology in September at Portsmith, N.H.-based Smuttynose Brewing. The company's target market, to start, is going to be craft and regional breweries generating 15,000 to 2 million barrels per year. The company is seeking $500,000 to $600,000 to fund its initial two years of development, after which it expects to become profitable. The company is currently doing lab testing and analysis.

Reynolds Town Council approved a plan in May 2009 by Indianapolis-based Algaewheel Inc. to build a special system using algae to process the town's wastewater. The process will create gas and oil, which can be burned to help power the facility. The Reynolds facility, the largest one of its kind so far

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produced by the company, will be able to handle 90,000 gallons of wastewater per day.

Odessa Public Development Authority will build an infrastructure to serve an industrial park dedicated to innovative green business, and is constructing a green waste composting facility, a food waste anaerobic digester and algae ponds. The composting facility will produce high grade compost, the anaerobic digester will produce 3 MW of renewable energy, and algae ponds will provide oil feedstock for the Odessa biodiesel facility.

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7.8 Algae Cultivation in Sewage – Q&A

At which stage of wastewater treatment are algae introduced? Algae are normally used for secondary treatment of wastewater (BOD reduction) in unmixed wastewater treatment lagoons and in tertiary treatment (nutrient removal). More broadly, municipal wastewater treatment, particularly for tertiary treatment (nutrient removal) provides a significant opportunity for development of such microalgae processes, with the value of water cleaned-up a major consideration.

As sewage already contains nutrient, is there any need for additional nutrients for algae cultivation in sewage? Some amount of nutrient additions might be required. The necessary addition of nutrients depends on the type of waste water. Effluent of biological water purification may, for example, require phosphate and trace elements to be added to enable good growth. Effluent or other waste water generally (also) contains carbon in bound form (COD). In some tests, it was found that this organic substance in the algae system is mineralized by bacteria, thus making CO2 available for uptake by the algae. The optimal C:N:P ratio required for algal growth is 50:8:1. But the ratio in waste water for C:N:P is 20:8:1. Hence CO2 addition to a waste water system could enhance algal production.

Are there algae predators in sewage? Yes, there could be algae predators in sewage. For instance, a virus which is pathogenic to certain blue-green algae belonging to the genera Plectonema, Phormidium and Lyngbya may be present. Animals that feed on algae include insects, spider, beetles and birds. Nematodes and some higher animals such as Annelid worms belonging to Enchytraeids consume algal cells.

Will toxins affect algae growth in sewage? Yes, certain toxins can severely affect algae growth in sewage. Consider the following experiment: An experiment determined the toxic effect of four metals, cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb), on the tropical microalga Tetraselmis Chuii. It evaluated the lethal effect daily, through the cellular count. In the control treatment (not exposed to any metal) the team observed an increase in cellular density. In all treatments exposed to metals, the team observed a decrease in cellular density, which accelerated in 48 h, after which it became less pronounced. The metal that caused the most lethal effect was Pb, which killed 50% of the microalgal population at a


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concentration of 0.40 mg/l. This concentration was 3 times lower than that of mercury and 13 times lower than those of cadmium and copper.61

Content of Selected Heavy Metals in a Sample Waste Water Treatment Plant

Metal

Influent (mg.l-1) Effluent (mg.l-1) RE* Solid Fraction (mg.kg-1 dm)

Min-max Mean ± SD Min-max Mean ± SD (%) Min-max

Mean ± SD

Cd 0.01-0.80 0.29 ± 0.31 0.006-0.01 0.008±0.002 97.3 0.6-15.2 7.45±5.90

Pb 0.02-1.70 0.66 ± 0.71 0.02-0.23 0.125±0.082 80.3 3.8-45.2 35.38±15.68

Cu 0.50-2.10 1.22 ± 0.64 0.03-0.10 0.067±0.035 94.5 37.5-45.2

41.40±2.42

Zn 0.32-14.5 7.15 ± 5.86 0.12-0.44 0.27±0.12 96.2 201.2-310.2

252.40-34.96

*: Removal efficiency

Which is the best algae harvesting method for sewage cultivation? The potential and application of a specific algal harvesting technique depends on careful evaluation of the existing pond conditions and technical availability. Research is still ongoing with regard to harvesting microalgae growing in sewage and wastewater. Dissolved air flotation and filtration have shown some promise in the research done so far. For instance, algae from oxidation ponds are removed by coagulation and DAF at Sunnyvale, California, and by coagulation and sedimentation by Napa, California by two companies. The following were the observations based on a case study of a Singapore project on the treatment and utilization of piggery waste. In this experiment, three major harvesting techniques were tested - Centrifugation, Flocculation / Dissoved Air Flotation and Filtration. Centrifugation was found to be effective but cost intensive and not suitable for large-scale harvesting. Chemical flocculation followed by dissolved air flotation seems promising but further tests are required to improve the flocculation using low cost, effective and non-toxic flocculants such as chitosan. The effectiveness of filtration was related to the operational pore-size of the harvester filter and the size of the algal species, i.e. only algae larger than

the nominal pore-size of the filter weave can be retained and collected. Despite the limitations of the dissolved air flotation technique and the filter harvester, the team concluded that both filtration and dissolved air flotation were relatively cost-effective due to their lower energy requirements compared with centrifugation.

61 Cordero J, Guevara M, Morales E, Lodeiros C. (2005) Effect of heavy metals on the growth of tropical microalga Tetrasermis chuii (Prasinophyceae). Rev Biol Trop. 2005 Sep-Dec; 53(3-4):325-30. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17354443

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Cordero%20J%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Guevara%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Morales%20E%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Lodeiros%20C%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17354443


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What are the natural microfloras in sewage? Microflora of sewage & wastewater A Phormidium Spirulina (Arthrospira) Chlorella sp Ochromonas danica Scenedesmus obliquus Coelastrum, Chlamydomonas, Selenastrum, Micractinium pusillum Phaeodactylum tricornutum

Is it possible to grow macroalgae in wastewater for bioremediation? Yes, macro-algae are effective in nutrients (N, P) uptake from domestic and industrial wastewater, for example for the treatment of fishery effluents or agriculture drain off. The use of macro-algae for cleaning up effluents from fisheries is quite important as macro-algae can reduce the concentration of nitrogen derivatives like urea, amines, ammonia, nitrite or nitrate to a level that is not toxic for fishes, allowing the recycling of water. This will reduce the economic cost of growing fish as well as improve the quality of the effluent water, avoiding penalties if it is discharged into the sea and making it of such quality to be recycled into fish-ponds. Source:http://www.anl.gov/PCS/acsfuel/preprint%20archive/Files/48_1_New%20Orleans__03-03_0469.pdf) Macroalgae species such as Gracilaria crassa, Ulva lactuca, Ulva reticulate, Eucheuma, Chaetomorpha, Laminaria japonica and Sargassum kjellmanianum are widely investigated for nutrient removal from wastewater.

What are the monitoring techniques used in algae wastewater treatment? Nutrients, specifically nitrate, ammonia and phosphate, will be analysed and the removal efficiency of pathogens can be monitored using standard bacteriological methods. Apart from these, seasonal variations in the growth and quality of the micro- and macroalgae can also be monitored using standard techniques.


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What is the potential of algae wastewater treatment for anaerobic digestion effluents? Anaerobic digesters are not the complete answer for all manure management requirements because level of nitrogen and phosphorous is not reduced. Anaerobically digested effluent has very high BOD, COD and nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorous. Algal treatment of this anaerobic digestion effluent will result in nitrogen and phosphorous removal. The algae can then be harvested and dried. Thus there is significant potential for this avenue.

What are the constraints in using wastewater grown algae for animal feed? According to the NRDC (Natural Resources Defense Council) report Cultivating Clean Energy: The Promise of Algae Biofuels, the algal biomass cultivated from effluents high in heavy metals (where algae uptake these metals) may not be suitable for converting into animal feed. Management (recovery and disposal) of the metal and chemical byproducts will be important.

Is it possible to use algae to treat organic pollutants like phenolic wastes? Which algal strains are suitable to treat wastewater with high phenolic content?

While many phenols show acute toxicity to algae, both cyanobacteria and eukaryotic microalgae are capable of biotransforming aromatic compounds, including phenols. According to a study conducted by KIRK T. SEMPLE 1996, the eukaryotic alga Ochromonas danica, a nutritionally versatile, mixotrophic chrysophyte, grew on phenol as the sole carbon source in axenic culture and removed the phenol carbon from the growth medium. Apart from phenol several other organic pollutants like acetonitrile, black oil, acetonitrile are also degraded by combination of algal bacterial system.

Algal-Bacterial/Microalgal Consortia for Organic Pollutant Removal

Compound Conontuim Removal rate (mg/l/day)

Reference

Acetonitrile C. sorokiniana/ bacterial consortium

2300 Munoz et al., 2005

Acetonitrile C. sorokiniana/ bacterial consortium

432 Munoz et al., 2005

Black oil Chlorella scenedesmus/ alcanotrophic bacteria

--- Safonova et al., 1999

Black oil Chlorella scenedesmus/ Rhodococcu/ phormidium

5.5 Safonova et al., 2004


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7.9 Research & Experiments

Algal Treatment of Pulp and Paper Industry Wastewaters in SBR Systems Tarlan E, Yetis U, Dilek FB. Middle East Technical University, Environmental Engineering Department, 06531 Ankara, Turkey Highly colored and highly polluted pulp and paper industry wastewaters are proposed to be treated by using algae in sequential batch reactors (SBR). Results of batch studies revealed that up to 74% COD; 74% color removal could be attained in about 40 days of incubation. From the preliminary SBR experiments, filling period was found to be a critical step affecting the overall efficiency when mixing and aeration is applied during filling. Therefore, 5 different filling periods (4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 days) were studied with a total SBR cycle of 15 days. For all filling periods; COD, color and AOX (Adsorbable Organically bound halogens) removal efficiencies increased with increasing filling time. Maximum removal efficiencies achieved were 60 to 85% for COD, 42 to 75% for color and 82 to 93% for AOX for the filling periods of 4 to 12 days. For 8 days or longer filling periods, no additional reaction time was required. Results showed that, organics in the wastewater were both chlorinated and non-chlorinated; algae removed these mainly by metabolism; and chlorine cleavage from chlorinated organic molecules was more rapid than the degradation of non-chlorinated and colored organics. Adsorbed lignin on algal biomass was found to be varying between 10-20% depending on filling period applied - a 2002 research paper

Phenanthrene C. sorokiniana/ pseudomonas migulae

192 Munoz et al., 2005

Phenanthrene C. sorokiniana/ pseudomonas migulae, C.vulgaris/ Alcaly genessp

576 90

Munoz et al., 2003 Essam et al., 2006

Phenol Anabaena variabilis 4.4 Hirooka et al., 2003

Salicylate C.sorokiniana/ Ralstonia basilensis

2088 Munoz et al., 2004

p- nitrophenol C.vulgaris/ C. pyrenoidosa 50 Lima et al., 2003

Source: http://www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/001544.pdf

Apart from these algal strains such as Ankistrodesmus braunii and Scenedesmus quadricauda also have the ability to degrade phenol (Gabriele Pinto et al, 2004)

http://www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/001544.pdf


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Cleansing Waste Water with Algae – Sintef Fisheries / Irish Seaweed Centre Project Source: Sintef Fisheries and Aquaculture - March 2006 Sintef Fisheries / Irish Seaweed Centre Project This was a Joint, INTERREG IIIC-financed project between SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture, and the Irish Seaweed Centre at the Martin Ryan Institute and Oyster Creeks Seafoods in Ireland. Land-based aquaculture systems release water with high values of nutrients. Marine algae use most of these to produce biomass. This principle has been used to clean the water using algae in the effluent, by the research team. The resulting biomass can be a source of valuable chemicals for use in the food and drug industries. This cleansing technology for aquaculture effluents was tested in the joint project in Ireland. The technology was tested with the algae Porphyra and Ulva. These two were chosen because both algae have a high growth rate and a high N-content, and will therefore be able to function as effective cleaners. The results from the experiment showed a clear reduction in the level of nutrients in the waste water containing the algae. The following chart, which provides the results of the experiment, shows the reduction in concentration for N and P.

Notes:

in: concentration of NH1 in the effluent entering the tank containing algae out: concentration of NH1 in the effluent exiting the tank containing algae


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The technology is expected to have excellent potential in integrated aquaculture by adding value to fish farming.

Biosorption of Reactive Dye from Textile Wastewater by Non-Viable Biomass of Aspergillus Niger and Spirogyra Sp. Mahmoud A. Khalaf - Radiation Microbiology Department, National Center for Radiation Research and Technology, P.O. Box 29, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt (February 2008) Abstract - The potential of Aspergillus niger fungus and Spirogyra spp., a fresh water green algae, was investigated as a biosorbents for removal of reactive dye (Synazol) from its multi component textile wastewater. The results showed that pre-treatment of fungal and algal biomasses with autoclaving increased the removal of dye than pre-treatment with gamma-irradiation. The effects of operational parameters (pH, temperature, biomass concentration and time) on dye removal were examined. The results obtained revealed that dried autoclaved biomass of A.niger and Spirogyra spp. exhibited maximum dye removal (88% and 85%, respectively) at pH3, temperature 30 °C and 8 g/l (w/v) biomass conc. after 18 h contact time. The stability and efficiency of both organisms in the long-term repetitive operation were also investigated. The results showed that the non-viable biomasses possessed high stability and efficiency of dye removal over 3 repeated batches.

Algal Treatment of Textile Dyehouse Wastewater Authors: Acuner, E; Dilek, F. B. Source: Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation, WEFTEC 2002: Session 61 through Session 70, pp. 243-243(1) Publisher: Water Environment Federation Abstract - In this study, treatment of mono-azo dye, Tectilon Yellow 2G (TY2G), and di-azo dye, Erionyl Navy R (ENR), using an algal species, Chlorella vulgaris, was investigated. In an attempt to conduct a treatability study for TY2G by C. vulgaris, different concentrations of TY2G were added to the reactors containing initially about 500 mg/m3 algae in terms of Chl-a content. The COD removal efficiencies were determined as 69.1, 65.8 and 63% for the initial TY2G concentrations of 50, 200 and 400 mg/L, respectively. Acclimation of C.vulgaris to TY2G caused these removal efficiencies to increase to 88, 86 and 80% for ascending dye concentration. The main mechanism of the removal was determined to be degradation and an end product, aniline, formation was observed as confirmed by HPLC analysis. Initial algae concentration was found to be important both in terms of COD removal achievement and contact time requirement. In an attempt to test toxicity of the treated dye effluent, as compared to dye itself, toxicity


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experiments using activated sludge biomass were performed. By comparing the specific growth rates (μ) values of activated sludge biomass obtained in these two sets, it could be said that toxicity of end product formed after algal treatment of TY2G were less than that of the dye itself. Removal in COD and A220 nm occurs during the exponential growth phase of C. vulgaris indicating a growth-associated treatment and hence, mixotrophic growth of C. vulgaris – 2002

Nutrient Removal from African Catfish Culture through Microalgae Production

Mai Van Ha, Ghent University, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering 2005 The discharge of waste nutrients in recirculation aquaculture system should be reduced and thus efficient nutrient recovery should be applied. Microalgae are capable of converting these nutrients to living biomass. Consequently, this study aims to investigate the growth and nutrient removal capacity of Chlorella kessleri at different culture conditions. A preliminary batch culture experiment was conducted to assess the growth and removal efficiency of C. kessleri at different culture conditions (with and without addition of micronutrients + vitamins, CO2). The initial experiment pointed out that culture with CO2 aeration gave a significantly higher algal production of 0.240 mg/l per day (chlorophyll-a), TAN removal rate of 6.8 % per day, and NO3--N removal rate of 1.8 %. Subsequently, a semi-continuous culture (30 % daily renewal) was used in a condition with CO2 aeration to assess growth and nutrient removal of C. kessleri at different light intensities (7000 vs. 15000 lux). The result showed a higher algal production in 15000 lux treatments (0.171 vs. 0.110 mg chlorophyll-a /l/day). However, there was no significant difference in removal rate between treatments. The best culture conditions from the previous experiment (CO2 addition and light of 15000 lux) was then applied in a running high rate algal pond (“end pipe” treatment) as a continuous culture (128 liters, mixing rate of 10 cm second-1, retention time of 4 days) for 12 days at steady state. The result showed an algal production of 0.181 mg l-1 day-1 (chlorophyll-a) and nutrient removal rate of: 23.3 % (TAN), 22.2 % (NO2 --N), 2.2 % (NO3 --N), and 7.8 % (PO4 3--P). The algae showed a better growth and nutrient removal when cultured in condition with CO2 aeration and a light intensity of 15000 lux. Nutrient removal capacity of the algae was better with semi-continuous culture, followed by continuous and batch culture. However, the algal production was higher in batch culture followed by continuous and semi-continuous culture.


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Algal Growth Response in Two Illinois Rivers Receiving Sewage Effluent Linda M. Jacobson, Mark B. Davida, and Corey A. Mitchell Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences University of Illinois, USA June 2008 Phosphorus (P) primarily enters streams in Illinois as effluent released from sewage treatment plants and runoff from agricultural fields. As a result, water quality can be affected and large amounts of algal growth are possible. We determined the growth of periphytic algae (as chla) relative to differing amounts of P (factor of 10) released in sewage effluent in two rivers. The Salt Fork Vermilion River and the Copper Slough branch of the Kaskaskia River both have a sewage treatment plant near their sources. Periphytic algal growth was assayed in each river with unglazed ceramic tiles (five week period) at 10 sites, each 10 km apart downstream from where the treatment plant was located. Field measurements included canopy cover, turbidity, water depth (to the tile surface), and water temperature. The concentrations of sestonic algae (as chla), total P, dissolved reactive P, nitrate-N, dissolved organic carbon, and Si were determined in water samples. Total P concentrations were different between the two rivers, ranging from 1.9 mg L-1 just below the Salt Fork Vermilion River plant to 0.67 mg L-1 90 km downstream; corresponding values were 0.19 and 0.16 mg L-1 for the Kaskaskia River. Phosphorus concentrations were not related to sestonic or tile periphytic chla in either river. Canopy cover, turbidity, and unstable sediments apparently regulated algal growth by limiting the penetration of light. Therefore, P was not the primary regulator of algal growth, and removing sewage effluent P from these rivers is unlikely to alter algal growth.

A Continuous Process for the Biological Treatment of Heavy Metal Contaminated Acid Mine Water

R. P. Van Hille, G. A. Boshoff, P. D. Rose and J. R. Duncan , 199962

Alkaline precipitation of heavy metals from acidic water streams is a popular and long standing treatment process. While this process is efficient it requires the continuous addition of an alkaline material, such as lime. In the long term or when treating large volumes of effluent this process becomes expensive, with costs in the mining sector routinely exceeding millions of rands annually. The process described below utilizes alkalinity generated by the alga Spirulina sp., in a continuous system to precipitate heavy metals. The design of the system separates the algal component from the metal

62 R. P. Van Hille, G. A. Boshoff, P. D. Rose and J. R. Duncan (2006) A Continuous Process for The Biological

Treatment of Heavy Metal Contaminated Acid Mine Water. Retrieved from: http://eprints.ru.ac.za/481/01/Rose_A_continuous_process_for_the_biological_treatment_of_heavy.pdf

http://eprints.ru.ac.za/481/01/Rose_A_continuous_process_for_the_biological_treatment_of_heavy.pdf


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containing stream to overcome metal toxicity. The primary treatment process consistently removed over 99% of the iron (98.9 mg/l) and between 80 and 95% of the zinc (7.16 mg/l) and lead (2.35 mg/l) over a 14-day period (20 l effluent treated). In addition the pH of the raw effluent was increased from 1.8 to over 7 in the post-treatment stream. Secondary treatment and polishing steps depend on the nature of the effluent treated. In the case of the high sulphate effluent the treated stream was passed into an anaerobic digester at a rate of 4 l/day. The combination of the primary and secondary treatments effected a removal of over 95% of all metals tested for as well as a 90% reduction in the sulphate load. The running cost of such a process would be low as the salinity and nutrient requirements for the algal culture could be provided by using tannery effluent or a combination of saline water and sewage. This would have the additional benefit of treating either a tannery or sewage effluent as part of an integrated process.

Ability of Algae to Biotreat Pesticides, Herbicides and Related Compounds Based on experiments and studies, it has been found that several species of algae have potential to biotreat and absorb pesticides, herbicides and other xonobiotics from agricultural wastewater. For more details on this, please see the report “Biotreatment of Agricultural Wastewater” by Mark E. Huntley (pages 100-104), which is based on a symposium held in Lake Arrowhead, California in 1986.

Available Sewage & Wastewater Resources

Theoretical Sewage & Wastewater Resource Potentials by 2020

Continent Municipal Wastewater [Mton Algae]

Dairy Cow Wastes

[Mton Algae]

Pig Wastes [Mton Algae]

Total [Mton Algae]

Africa 28 31 3 62

America 20 46 23 89

Asia 84 53 56 193

Europe 2 3 3 7

Middle East 2 1 0 3

Oceania 7 2 2 11

Total 142 137 87 366

Source: www.algalbiomass.org/, Microalgae Biofixation Processes TNOReport, Aug06

http://www.algalbiomass.org/resources/documents/MicroalgaeBiofixationProcessesTNOReportvAug06.pdf


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7.10 Sewage & Wastewater Reference

Sewage & Wastewater Producing Industries

Meat and Poultry Pulp and Paper Textiles Dyeing Metal Finishing Dyes & Pigments Pharmaceutical Food & Dairy Biotechnology Starch & Cellulose Pesticides & Insecticides Chemical & Drug Formulation Units Photography

Sewage & Its Composition Composition of Sewage Sewage is a variable liquid mixture comprising material from some or all of the following sources:

Human waste (faeces, paper, wipes and urine + other bodily fluids) also known as black water

Washing water (personal, clothes, floors etc.) also known as grey water Rainfall collected on roofs, yards, hard-standing etc. (traces of oils and fuel but

generally clean) Ground water infiltrated into sewage pipes Surplus manufactured liquids from domestic sources (drinks, cooking oil,

pesticides, lubricating oil, paint, cleaning liquids etc.) General urban rainfall run-off from roads, car-parks, roofs, side-walks or

pavements (contains oils, animal faeces, litter, fuel residues, rubber residues, metals from vehicle exhausts etc)

Industrial cooling waters Industrial process waters Sea water ingress Direct ingress of river water Direct ingress of man-mad liquids (illegal disposal of pesticides, used oils etc.)

The composition of each sewage stream varies widely, but sewage derived from a large city can be expected to contain:


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Water (>95%) Non pathogenic bacteria (> 100,000 / ml) Pathogens - (Bacteria, viruses, prions, parasitic worms). Organic particles (Faeces, hair, food, paper fibres, plant material, humus etc.) Soluble organic material (Urea, fruit sugars, soluble proteins, drugs,

pharmaceuticals etc.) Inorganic particles ( sand, grit, metal particles, ceramics etc) Soluble inorganic material (ammonia, road-salt, sea-salt, cyanide, hydrogen

sulphide, thiocyanates, thiosulphates) Animals (Protozoa, insects, arthropods, small fish, abandoned pets etc.) Macro-solids (sanitary towels, nappies/ diapers, condoms, needles, children's

toys, body parts, etc.) Gases (hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide, methane) Emulsions ( oils in emulsion, paints, adhesives, mayonnaise, hair colourants) Toxins (pesticides, poisons, herbicides )

Sewage contains 99.9% water. Solids which barely comprise 0.1 % are partly organic and partly inorganic or partly in suspension and partly in solution. Offensive nature of the sewage is mainly due to the organic matter which it contains. In addition, sewage is charged with numerous living organisms derived from faeces, some of which may be agents to diseases. It is estimated that one gram of faeces may contains about 1000 million E.coli, 10-100 million of faecal Streptococci and 1-10 million spores of Clostridium perfringens, besides several other pathogens.

Sewage Treatment – Current Methods The combined flow from domestic and industrial wastewater systems travels through the sewer system and ultimately to a ‘sewage works’ where it receives treatment before discharge of the treated effluent to a stream, river, estuary or the sea. Why do we need to treat Sewage? Treatment of sewage is essential to ensure that the receiving water into which the effluent is ultimately discharged is not significantly polluted. However, the degree of treatment required will vary according to the type of receiving water. Thus, a very high degree of treatment will be required if the effluent discharges to a fishery or upstream of an abstraction point for water supply. A lower level of treatment may be acceptable for discharges to coastal waters where there is rapid dilution and dispersion. Effluent Standards Standards for the quality of effluents from sewage works discharging to rivers and coastal waters have been applied in various countries for many decades.


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What does Sewage Treatment involve? Sewage treatment involves:

Screening - Large solids (plastics, rag and woody material) are removed first by mechanical screens – both large and small solids.

Grit removal - At the next preliminary stage, fine mineral matter (grit and sand),

originating mainly from road runoff, is allowed to deposit in long channels or circular traps.

Primary sedimentation - The sewage passes into large sedimentation tanks to provide a quiescent settlement period of about 8 hours. Most of the solids settle to the bottom of the tanks and form a watery sludge, known as ‘primary sludge’, which is removed for separate treatment. The sewage remaining after settlement has taken place is known as ‘settled sewage’.

Secondary (biological) treatment - Settled sewage then flows to an aerobic

biological treatment stage where it comes into contact with micro-organisms which remove and oxidize most of the remaining organic pollutants. As well as removing most of the polluting organic matter, modern biological treatment can remove much of the nitrogen and phosphorus in the sewage, thus reducing the nutrient load on the receiving waters.

Final settlement - Following secondary (biological) treatment, the flow passes to final settlement tanks where most of the biological solids are deposited as sludge (secondary sludge) while the clarified effluent passes to the outfall pipe for discharge to a watercourse.

Tertiary treatment - In circumstances where the highest quality of effluent is required, a third (tertiary) stage of treatment can be used to remove most of the remaining suspended organic matter from the effluent before it is discharged to a watercourse. Tertiary treatment is effected by sand filters, mechanical filtration or by passing the effluent through a constructed wetland such as a reed bed or grass plot.

Conventional Industrial Wastewater and Treatment Methods – A Description

Industries tend to generate a large amount of wastewater and this is often highly polluted. Disposal options include discharge to public sewer or on-site treatment prior to discharge to sewer or a watercourse. This is decided based on the composition of wastewater. Quantity, strength and character of wastewater need to be considered before the industrial wastewater is discharged into a sewer.


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Public sewers are convenient for disposal of wastewater if they are nearby. Only if the industrial wastewater meets the criteria set, the approval is granted for sewer disposal. These wastewaters can be treated through the traditional wastewater treatment methods employed in municipal waste treatment. If the industrial wastewater has high COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) and suspended solids and fails to meet the criteria set, then partial or full on-site treatment would be required.

Based on the physical and chemical properties of the industrial wastewater the partial/full on-site treatment options differ. There are three means of treatment methods. Combinations of these three types of systems have been employed to treat the industrial wastes.

Physical Unit - Treatment methods in which the application of physical forces predominates are known as physical unit operations. Screening, mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, flotation, filtration, and gas transfer are typical unit operations. Chemical Unit - Treatment methods in which the removal or conversion of contaminants is brought about by the addition of chemicals or by other chemical reactions are known as chemical unit processes. Precipitation, adsorption, and disinfection are the most common examples used in wastewater treatment. In chemical precipitation, treatment is accomplished by producing a chemical precipitate that will settle. In most cases, the settled precipitate will contain both the constituents that may have reacted with the added chemicals and the constituents that were swept out of the wastewater as the precipitate settled. Adsorption involves the removal of specific compounds from the wastewater on solid surfaces using the forces of attraction between bodies. Biological Unit - Treatment methods in which the removal of contaminants is brought about by biological activity are known as biological unit processes. Biological treatment is used primarily to remove the biodegradable organic substances (colloidal or

High COD & Suspended

Solids

Partial/Full on-site treatment

Public Sewer Disposal

Yes No

Industrial Wastewater


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dissolved) from wastewater. Basically, these substances are converted into gases that can escape to the atmosphere and into biological cell tissue that can be removed by settling. Biological treatment is also used to remove nutrients (nitrogen & phosphorus) from wastewater. With proper environmental control, wastewater can be treated biologically in many cases.

An example of a typical industrial wastewater treatment process is described in detail as follows: Step 1: The industrial effluent is collected in a collection tank where it is given even mixing by aeration from where it is transferred into a flocculation tank. Step 2: In the flocculation tank, alum and polyelectrolyte are added so that all the inorganic substances in the effluent water are coagulated and made into thick flocs. The sediments thus formed are removed using a clarifier. Step 3: The remaining water is subjected to DAF (Dissolved air flotation) for separating oil scum. Step 4: After DAF treatment, wastewaters are sent to air equalization tank for maintaining pH at 7 by adding caustic soda. These wastewaters are transferred to buffering tank and caustic, bicarbonates, cobalt, nickel and ferric chloride are added for increasing the pH and maintaining around pH 7.75. Step 5: The buffering tank wastewater is pumped to anaerobic chambers to digest organic materials, after which the anaerobically-treated effluent is pumped into an aeration tank. Step 6: Constant aeration and mixing is employed in the aeration tank. This facilitates the biological activity taking place in the tank and converts the organic load into a sludge which is subsequently removed using a clarifier. Step 7: The treated water is sent for further filtration using a sand filter and is subsequently released.


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Typical Flow Sheet of Various Processes in Industrial Wastewater Treatment

Anaerobic Chamber

Collection Tank

Flocculation

Tank Clarifier

Dissolved Air

Flotation Unit

Buffering

Tank

I

II

Aeration

Tank

Clarifier Sand Filter

Water stored in

open tank


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SUMMARY

1. Growing algae in wastewater provides the twin benefits of wastewater

remediation and cost-effective biofuel production.

2. Algae can be cultivated in both industrial and municipal wastewater.

3. Key challenges include the availability of large amounts of waste water,

prevention of contamination of desired strains, and cost-effective harvesting.

4. In the last few years, a number of companies have started exploring this route

for algae biofuels.


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8. Algae Grown in Desert 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Algae Strains that Grow Well in Desert Conditions 8.3 Algae Cultivated in Deserts – Companies & Updates 8.4 Desert Based Algae Cultivation – Q&A 8.5 Desert Cultivation of Algae – Factoids 8.6 Research

HIGHLIGHTS

Algae can be grown especially well in desert regions that have plenty of sunshine and access to water unusable for drinking.

Some prominent companies worldwide are already cultivating algae in desert for either fuel or non-fuel purposes

Photobioreactors might be the most suitable environment to grow algae in deserts, owing to the control they offer on the external elements.

NREL's ASP program research focused on the development of algae farms in desert regions, using shallow saltwater pools for growing the algae.

8.1 Introduction One of the important advantages that algae have over other crops is that farmland need not be compromised for algae growth and forests need be cleared for the same. This is because algae can grow in waste water systems, sewages and also in deserts. Algae can be grown especially well in desert regions that have plenty of sunshine and access to water unusable for drinking, for instance saline water. The desert's abundant wastelands or marginally arable lands can be fields to grow algae. This means that unproductive lands can be put into production. Growing biofuel feedstock in the desert sounds like a perfect answer to the debate about food prices and agricultural land use. Growing algae in the deserts however poses its unique set of challenges. One will need to select the right strain of algae, and growth methods need to ensure that evaporation does not affect the algae growth, to name some of the challenges. This chapter will provide inputs on the various aspects of growing algae in the desert for fuel. It will also provide examples and case studies of companies pursuing the desert-based algal cultivation method.


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8.2 Algae Strains that Grow Well in Desert Conditions

Cyanidium caldarium - It is a thermophilic eukaryote which can grow at temperatures below 20oC and has been reported growing at temperatures up to 56oC. This acid-tolerant and heat-tolerant unicellular alga is a regular member of the microflora found in acidic hot springs throughout the world (M. G. Kleinschmidt, 1970).

Spirulina - Spirulina is a genus of filamentous alga comprising over 35 species. Spirulina is particularly attractive because of the high protein content (50-70%), lipid content (7-16%), adaption to brackish water (salt at 20-70 g/L is optimal but 1-270 g/L is tolerated), relative ease of harvest by flotation and filtration, and its ability to use animal waste as a nutrient base.

Haematococcus pluvialis - Better candidates for industrial oil production. Higher temperatures generally favor species with the highest growth rates (Eppley 1972). They require abundant light, ample nutrients, and a pH that is characteristic of the medium: approximately 7.0 for freshwater or 8.0 for seawater.

Microcoleus vaginatus : These cultures could resist the erosion of winds Strains that have been genetically modified to grow well in desert conditions:

Chlamydomonas perigranulata mutant with a small light-harvesting pigment complex and phycocyanin-deficient

Synechocystis mutant – have demonstrated photosynthetic rates that are three- and five-fold higher than wild-type strains, respectively, at the PFD of 2000 μmol quantam−2 s−1 characteristic of full sunlight (Nakajima and Itayama 2003).

8.3 Algae Cultivated in Deserts – Companies & Updates NREL's ASP program research focused on the development of algae farms in desert

regions, using shallow saltwater pools for growing the algae. Using saltwater eliminated the need for desalination, though it could lead to problems such as salt build-up in ponds.

Sapphire Energy uses genetic engineering, and it is also reportedly considering

creating algae farms in deserts as one of its options. The company is also reportedly growing algae that can thrive in brackish saltwater, making it possible, perhaps, to tap sources of otherwise unusable water - such as the Salton Sea - to support such algae fields in the deserts east of San Diego.

XL Renewables was formed in 2006 to develop an algae-growing facility and

biodiesel refinery in Vicksburg, about 100 miles west of Phoenix, in Arizona. Growing algae in exposed ponds that allow evaporation would seem a water-intensive crop for the desert, but the company said it hoped to use partially treated wastewater or


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other non-drinkable water, and even with evaporation, they expect algae to use less water per acre than cotton or alfalfa – based on a Jun 2008 news

Earthrise Farms and Amway are some of the largest producers of nutritional

Spriulina algae in the US. Their pond farms are located in the southern California desert where daytime temperatures reach 120oF. (50oC). The Earthrise Farm is located in the Sonoran Desert of southeastern California and operates the world's largest Spirulina farm on a 108-acre site to supply over 20 countries with Spirulina.

GreenFuel Technologies has one of its algae greenhouses located in Arizona. In Maryland, Algenol Biofuels announced an $850 million investment from Mexico’s

BioFields, using the company’s technology to produce ethanol from micro-algae. The company uses a process developed by CEO Paul Woods in the 1980s to produce ethanol from algae cells, and the company says that its process bypasses the costly step of drying and pressing algae to extract oil for biodiesel. The company said that it plans to initially produce 100 million gallons per year of ethanol at its first plant using saltwater, in the Sonora Desert of Mexico, and will increase production by 2012 to 1 billion gallons, with a projected yield of 6,000 gallons per acre - June 2008.

PetroSun - Texas oil company PetroSun claimed that it can grow its own oil in the

desert cheaper than it can pump crude out of oil wells. Starting April 1, 2008, PetroSun will officially start its Rio Hondo, Texas, Biofuels Project.

Israel grows red algae in the desert to fight disease - May 2005 - Producing red

algae, the Algatech facility at Kibbutz Ketura is now the world's leading supplier of natural astaxanthin for human consumption. The facility, established in 1998, is based on the scientific research of Prof. Sammy Boussiba of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, and has been producing astaxanthin in commercial quantities since 2003. This is an example of algae grown in desert for non-fuel purposes.

Algae ponds in Gila Bend may help solve oil problem - Oct 2008 - In dozens of simple

ponds in Gila Bend, Arizona. It's a desert shrimp farm that is changing with the times to produce biodiesel from algae, using some of the same algae that feed the shrimp. Some shrimp farmers in the region do not raise shrimp anymore, they raise algae. One of them is Desert Sweet Shrimp, which is transitioning to a new name, Desert Sweet Biofuels, with its new focus. (Oct 2008)

Desert Sweet Biofuels test facility, using algae as feedstock, is located on over 390

acres of land in the Arizona desert.

30 miles north of Carlsbad, in Artesia, NM, on the grounds of New Mexico State University's agricultural research station, reside CEHMM's test ponds. The


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organization uses saltwater algae in brine - the brine water protects the algae from intruders and keeps the strain fairly pure.

Based in small-town Nevada, an hour southeast of Reno, the Infinifuel is about to

begin producing biodiesel powered by geothermal energy - and is poised to leverage other geothermal benefits in unconventional ways. Infinifuel's biodiesel plant is in the final construction stage, with 17 stainless steel tanks in place, housed in and around a 5,000 sq. ft building and workshop/ lab facility. The facility currently has two biodiesel reactors with 22,000 gallon per day capacity and two methanol recovery distillation towers. The plant expects to be able to produce five million gallons per year of biofuel. The access to practically unlimited quantities of warm water also makes site ideal for experimentation with algae production as a biofuel stock in the desert of Nevada. Large algae ponds at Infinifuel's site are being visited by researchers at the University of Nevada at Reno and the Desert Research Institute to try to further some of the work the Department of Energy (DOE) did on algae as a biofuel source. (Nov 2006)

New Mexico State University researchers are trying to develop production of biofuel

from algae in desert regions such as eastern New Mexico.


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8.4 Desert Based Algae Cultivation – Q&A

1. What will be the source of water in desert region? Usually, the source of water is saline ground water. NREL during the ASP program found the saline ground water of southwest desert suitable for algae cultivation.

2. How can the problem of evaporation be overcome? By using closed systems which reduce the rate of evaporation

3. Is it possible to cultivate algae in closed loop?

The Closed Loop Bioreactor System

Reference: Vertigro algal technologies

Yes. A closed loop bioreactor system offers low evaporation rate and requires only less water compared to other systems; hence it is suitable for desert cultivation

4. In desert environments, which is best - open pond, closed pond or PBR? While research is ongoing in this regard, photobioreactors might be more suitable than others for desert environments, as they offer better control. For instance Algatech, a leading Israel company producing Astaxanthine from red algae cultivated in desert uses closed photobioreactor systems to have control over adverse climatic conditions in desert region.

Carbon Dioxide

Gas and Water

Condition

Algae Bioreactor Growing

Algae Biomass

Harvesting

Algae Oil

Extraction

Sunlight

Algae Oil Nutrient feed

Recovered water Secondary product


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5. Can PBR withstand high temperature? Depending on the design of the PBR and the materials used to make the system, photobioreactors can withstand the high temperatures prevalent in deserts. A wide variety of materials have been used for tubular photobioreactors, Low Density Polyethylene Film (LDPE), and clear acrylic (polymethyl methylacrylate, PMMA, also known by the trade names PlexiglasR and PerspexR).

Characteristics of Photbioreactor Materials and the Energy Content of Tubular Photo Bioreactors

Material Material Energy

Content (MJ. Kg-1)

Material Life Span

(y)

Material Density (kg.m-3)

Proposed Wall

Thickness (mm)

Energy Content (MJm-2)

Life Span Weighted

Energy Content

(MJjm-2y-1)

Glass 25 20 2470 1.6 310 15.5

LDPE 78 3 920 0.18 40.5 13.5

Acrylic 131 20 1180 3.0 1456 72.8

Source: Materials, geometry, and net energy ratio of tubular photobioreactors for microalgal hydrogen production 63

Glass photobioreactors are not commonly used in outdoor cultivation. LDPE withstands temperature upto 80ºC. For acrylic plastic the maximum range is 180º F to 200º F

8.5 Desert Cultivation of Algae - Factoids Biologists from the Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research have demonstrated

that desert dust promotes the growth of algae. Scientists had already assumed that the iron in desert dust stimulated algal growth, but this has now been demonstrated for the first time.

The biologists cultured two species of diatoms in seawater originating from

the iron-depleted Southern Ocean, the sea around the South Pole. The algae were supplied with dust from a desert in Mauritania and a desert in Namibia. The growth of algae which received a lot of dust was compared with that of

63

G. Burgessa, J.G. Fernandez-Velascob and K. Lovegrove. (2006) Materials, geometry, and net energy ratio of tubular photobioreactors for microalgal hydrogen production WHEC 16 / 13-16 June 2006 – Lyon France. Retrieved from: http://solar-thermal.anu.edu.au/pages/pubs/WHEC%20Burgess%20biohydrogen.pdf

http://solar-thermal.anu.edu.au/pages/pubs/WHEC%20Burgess%20biohydrogen.pdf

http://solar-thermal.anu.edu.au/pages/pubs/WHEC%20Burgess%20biohydrogen.pdf


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algae which received little or no dust. Algae that received desert dust grew considerably better than algae which did not. The researchers also discovered that algae grew less well on desert dust from Mauritania than desert dust from Namibia.

The researchers have published their findings in the December issue of the

Journal of Phycology. (Dec 2003 )

Friedmann et al (1967) observed small sized algae from desert soils. Their water supply is maintained mainly from dew.

8.6 Research

Man-Made Desert Algal Crusts as Affected by Environmental Factors in Inner Mongolia, China L. Chena, b, Z. Xieb, C. Hub, D. Lib, G. Wangb and Y. Liub, (a) School of Resource & Environmental Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China, (b) State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Donghu Nan Lu, Luojiashan, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, PR China - April 2006 Abstract - Man-made desert algal crusts were constructed on a large scale (3000 m2) in Inner Mongolia, China. Microcoleus vaginatus was mass cultivated and inoculated directly onto unconsolidated sand dune and irrigated by automatic sprinkling micro-irrigation facilities. The crusts were formed in a short time and could resist the erosion of winds and rainfalls 22 days after inoculation. The maximum biomass in the man-made algal crusts could also reach 35 μg Chl a/cm2 of soil. Effects of environmental factors such as temperature, irrigation, rainfall and soil nutrients on algal biomass of man-made algal crusts were also studied. It was found that rainfalls and lower light intensity had significantly positive effects on the biomass of man-made algal crusts. The preliminary results suggested that man-made algal crusts could be formed rapidly, and thus it might be a new feasible alternative method for fixing unconsolidated sand. Desert Dust Enables Algae Growth Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (Dec 2003)

ScienceDaily

Biologists from the Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research have demonstrated that desert dust promotes the growth of algae. Scientists had already assumed that the iron in desert dust stimulated algal growth, but this has now been demonstrated for the first time.


www.oilgae.com


The biologists cultured two species of diatoms in seawater originating from the iron-depleted Southern Ocean, the sea around the South Pole. The algae were supplied with dust from a desert in Mauritania and a desert in Namibia. The growth of algae which received a lot of dust was compared with that of algae which received little or no dust.

Algae that received desert dust grew considerably better than algae which did not. The researchers also discovered that algae grew less well on desert dust from Mauritania than desert dust from Namibia.

As well as establishing how much iron the dust contained, the researchers also discovered that the algae could only utilise a limited part of the dissolved iron. This was established by culturing the algae in seawater without dust, but with different concentrations of dissolved iron. The researchers could then compare the growth of the algae that received a known quantity of iron with that of the algae which grew on dust.

The researchers will use the laboratory results to predict how algae in the ocean respond to desert dust.


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SUMMARY

1. Desert lands provide the opportunity of cultivating algae on large tracts of land

without any negative effects on the ecosystem.

2. Cultivating algae in deserts might necessitate the use of photobioreactors as there

could be high rates of evaporation in open-ponds.


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9. Algae Grown in Marine & Saltwater Environment 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Algae Strains that Grow Well in Marine or Saltwater Environment 9.3 Prominent Companies Growing Algae in Saltwater 9.4 Cultivating Algae in Marine Environments – Companies & Updates 9.5 Marine Algae Cultivation – Q&A 9.6 Research 9.7 References

HIGHLIGHTS

Less than 3% of the world's oceans would be needed to fully substitute for fossil fuels, but cultivating and harvesting algae in open oceans might be more difficult than it appears at first thought.

Some scale versions of marine-based algae cultivation for fuel have started. For instance, in September 2008, South Korea's government signed a deal to lease 25,000 hectares (61,750 acres or about 90 square miles) of Indonesian coastal waters to grow seaweed for bioethanol fuel.

Algae are already being cultivated in ocean for non-fuel purposes such as cosmetics, medicines and phycocollids.

9.1 Introduction Marine algae, or seaweeds, are the oldest members of the plant kingdom, extending back many hundreds of millions of years. Marine algae are mostly found in shallow ocean water near rocky shores. They are also found in fresh water, such as ponds, lakes, and rivers. They have little tissue differentiation, no true vascular tissue, no roots, stems, or leaves, and no flowers. The four groups marine algae are classified into: Red Algae, Brown Algae, Green Algae & Diatoms The most common name for marine algae is "seaweed". Seaweeds are popularly described as plants, but biologists do not technically consider them plants (in biology, all true plants belong to the kingdom Plantae). Marine algae should not be confused with aquatic plants such as sea grasses (which are vascular plants). Marine algae are of two types based on its structure: marine diatoms and seaweed. Diatoms form about 45% of the total oceans primary production; they are unicellular in nature. In contrast, seaweeds are multicellular and are macroscopic in nature. Cultivating seaweed has been done for a long time in Japan and other parts of Asia for the purpose of food. There are many different ways to cultivate macroalgae. They can


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be cultivated by simply tying them to anchored floating lines. Seaweeds do not require soil for their cultivation which is one of the major advantages when compared to other crops which compete for land. According to Fei Xiu-Geng, Lu Shan and Bao Ying, the total production of cultivated seaweed at present is about 6250×103 tons fresh weight, and the total cultivation area is about 200×103 hectare (1998). Although some 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water, only 1% of this area is economically utilized by man. This makes the sea one of the most logical areas in the world for growing biomass capable of being converted into bio-fuels and food. Marine algae have been farmed for their oil and other products in the past 20 years but only rarely with great success. But some companies in the algal energy domain are experimenting with marine algae. The reason is simple: Some calculations show that less than 3% of the world's oceans would be needed to fully substitute for fossil fuels!

9.2 Algae Strains that Grow Well in Marine or Saltwater Environment A list of algae strains suitable for saltwater environments and their lipid contents.

Isochrysis galbana 25-30% Tetraselmis spp. (Laws and Berning, 1991; Matsumoto et al., 1995), 20-45% Synechococcus spp. (Takano et al., 1992), 11% Chlorococcum littorale (Pesheva et al., 1994), Chlamydomonas sp. (Miura et al., 1993), 21% Nannochloropsis salina (Matsumoto et al., 1995; Matsumoto et al., 1996) 25-

30% Phaeodactylum tricornutum (Matsumoto et al., 1995). 20-30% Dunaliella tertiolecta Approx 40% Chaetoceros muelleri21–25.9% Botryococcus braunii – 25-75% Emiliania huxleyi (Emilio Fernandezl et al 1994) - 40-50%

9.3 Prominent Companies Growing Algae in Saltwater

PetroSun - The company plans to establish algae farms and algal oil extraction plants in Alabama, Arizona, Louisiana, Mexico, Brazil and Australia during 2008. The algal oil product will be marketed as feedstock to existing biodiesel refiners and planned company owned refineries. PetroSun is also engaged in Australia: negotiations to establish a commercial scale algae farm system in New South Wales, Australia are ongoing - May 2008.


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Green Star - Announced that fabrication work is continuing for its planned two 500-acre algae to biodiesel commercial production facilities, at its 90,000 sq. ft. fabrication plant in Glenns Ferry, Idaho.64

Seambiotic - In June 2008, Inventure Chemical (Seattle, WA) entered into a joint venture with Seambiotic to construct a pilot commercial biofuel plant in Israel, using algae created from CO2 emissions as feedstock.

Algenol Biofuels - Algenol Biofuels - The company has mentioned that it plans to make 100 million gallons of ethanol in Mexico's Sonoran Desert by the end of the 2009. The licensing agreement with Mexico's Biofields reportedly involves a deal to sell the ethanol to the Mexican government. Algenol Biofuels have also received almost $59 million in funding to produce ethanol from seawater algae and carbon dioxide in Freeport, Texas.

9.4 Cultivating Algae in Marine Environments – Companies & Updates

Shell, in its joint venture with HR Biopetroleum is using marine algae for its experiments in its plant in Hawaii - Royal Dutch Shell plc and HR Biopetroleum announced the construction of a pilot facility in Hawaii to grow marine algae and produce vegetable oil for conversion into biofuel (Dec 2007)

Algae from the Ocean May Offer a Sustainable Energy Source of The Future - June, 2008 - Research by two Kansas State University scientists could help with the large-scale cultivation and manufacturing of oil-rich algae in oceans for biofuel. K-State's Zhijian "Z.J." Pei, Associate Professor of industrial and manufacturing systems engineering, and Wenqiao "Wayne" Yuan, Assistant Professor of biological and agricultural engineering, have received a Small Grant for Exploratory Research from the National Science Foundation to study solid carriers for manufacturing algae biofuels in the ocean. Pei and Yuan plan to identify attributes of algae and properties of materials that enable growth of certain algae species on solid carriers. Solid carriers float on the water surface for algae to attach to and grow on. The project could help with the design of major equipment for manufacturing algae biofuels from the ocean, including solid carriers, in-the-ocean algae harvesting equipment and oil extraction machines. Selected algae species will be grown on solid carriers in a simulated ocean environment and will be evaluated for their ability to attach to solid carriers and grow in seawater, their biomass productivity, and their oil content.

In March, 2007, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, the Mitsubishi Research Institute, and several companies announced a project to develop bioethanol from seaweed. The plan is to cultivate Sargasso seaweed in an area covering 3,860 square miles in the Sea of Japan. This will be harvested and dissolved into ethanol aboard ships, which will carry the biofuel to a tanker. The process is expected to yield 5 billion gallons of bioethanol in 3-5 years.

64

http://www.greenstarusa.com/news/08-10-23.html

http://www.greenstarusa.com/news/08-10-23.html


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(equal to about 326,000 barrels of oil per day or one percent of OPEC oil production)

Indonesia harvested 1,079,850 tons of seaweed in 2006 but is expected to reach 1.9 million tons in 2009. In September 2008, South Korea's government signed a deal to lease 25,000 hectares (61,750 acres or about 90 square miles) of Indonesian coastal waters to grow seaweed for bioethanol fuel.

Seattle’s Blue Marble Energy is planning to collect wild algae from the ocean and convert it into ethanol, biodiesel, and other renewable fuels. The company is currently converting an old fishing vessel into an algae skimmer. When the first algae blooms begin to pop up this summer, Blue Marble Energy will collect it to help reduce its threat on the oceans and also produce cheap biofuels - Apr 2008

Italians Seek Biodiesel from Seaweed – Oct 2008 - Eight Italian biodiesel producers are to change production from food crops to seaweed in an effort to lessen competition with crop cultivation. The $14 million plan sets out to grow the seaweed in plastic tubes of sea water that will be fed with carbon dioxide captured from thermal power stations in a project called Mambo headed by Italy's Union of Biodiesel Producers. A plant may be built on the coast in southern Italy in two years and the producers expect to have established the process in two years. The plant should be producing diesel within five years.

Seaweed seen as biofuel source - Jun 2008 - Ireland could play a significant role in international moves to develop ways of converting seaweed into biofuel, according to NUI Galway scientists. The 7,500km coastline of Ireland is rich in marine algae which do not have the negative image of terrestrial biomass resources, according to Dr Stefan Kraan, of NUI Galway's (NUIG) Irish seaweed centre. Seaweed's potential as a source of bioethanol is one of the themes of an international conference which the centre hosted in Jun 2008.

Scientists at the Fisheries College and Research Institute (FCRI) at Tuticorin (India) have successfully extracted bio-fuel from marine micro algae. FCRI plans to develop an industrial model for mass production of the bio-fuel from marine micro algae. For extracting oil, the marine micro algae, isolated from sea water, was first cultivated under autotrophic and heterotrophic culture systems. In autotrophic system, the algae were grown in a standardized culture medium. The mass culture was achieved by transferring algal broth culture to larger tanks. Under heterotrophic conditions, mass culture algae were performed in a bioreactor under controlled state to achieve high lipid accumulation. Micro algal cells harvested from culture solution were pulverized to extract bio-lipid oil using suitable solvents – May 2008

Marine Algae for use as Biofuel – Proposal by Blue Marble Energy to Fish and Wildlife Commission, Gov of Washington - The Habitat Program’s Major Projects staff participated in a multi-agency meeting to discuss this unusual proposal from a company called Blue Marble Energy. Blue Marble Energy is proposing a refinery process to create biofuel from green algae. Currently, it is working with Seattle Public University and conducting engineering and economic feasibility studies. To support that research, it is proposing to submit a short 3-4 page


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proposal that outlines the request for a research permit to harvest 200 tons of nuisances Ulva from Puget Sound. The plan is to collect the algae either floating within the near shore region using a modified seining method, or accumulating it in the high intertidal area using a modified hauling skiff. Collected algae will be transported to a larger vessel where additional processing and sorting will take place enroute to a shore-based "refinery" where the algae goes through an extraction process: oils for biodiesel, sugars for ethanol, and excess mass for biogas generation - March 2008

Biofuel from Seaweed for Korea and Indonesia - A joint project has been launched between the Korea Institute of Industrial Technology (KITECH) and the Indonesian Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources to make biodiesel from seaweed. KITECH already has the technology to process the seaweed and the Indonesian fisheries ministry said that its long coastline with warm climate ensured an abundant harvest of seaweed. Korea's need for energy is large but its supply of natural resources namely seaweed is small. And Indonesia does not have the technology to process the seaweed into a fuel source and therefore needs a partner for mid-term and long-term benefit - thus the joint project. The seaweed that would be exploited for the development of the biofuel was the Geladine variety currently being cultivated in Maluku, East Belitung and Lombok - Nov 2008

Desert dust as nutrients for algae in sea water – A study found that algae grew much faster when supplied with dust from a desert- Dec, 2003.

At the NASA Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, research scientist Mark McDowell is leading research of algae oil for use as military jet fuel. Using a salt-tolerant strain of algae, McDowell is hoping to prove that sections of Arizona desert with saltwater aquifers could be a viable home for algae farming. (2008)

PetroSun has announced it will begin operation of its commercial algae-to-biofuels facility on April 1st, 2008. The facility, located in Rio Hondo Texas, will produce an estimated 4.4 million gallons of algal oil and 110 million lbs. of biomass per year off a series of saltwater ponds spanning 1,100 acres. Twenty of those acres will be reserved for the experimental production of a renewable JP8 jet-fuel - Mar 2008 news report

GSPI - July 2007 - Green Star Products, Inc. (GSPI) has successfully completed Phase II of its 40,000-liter Algae-To-Biodiesel Demonstration Facility in Montana. Phase II testing included pushing the survival environmental envelope of the developed algae strain (zx-13) utilized by GSPI. GSPI tested salinity levels outside the normal operating range for saltwater algae and the zx-13 strain exhibited strong survivability.

Biofields announced that it will commence construction this month on its pilot-scale algae-to-ethanol facility in Sonora, at Puerto Libertas, approximately 2 miles from the municipality of Pitiquito. The company is developing the project in partnership with Algenol, and said that it expects to complete the project in the second half of 2010. The project will use salt-water from the Sea of Cortes, as


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well as industrial CO2 from the adjacent power plant operated by CFE - April 2008

Researchers at Murdoch University, Australia announced a series of saline algae test ponds and photobioreactors in a bid to reduce the cost of algae production from $11.46 per kilo to a target of $.95 per kilo. The university has received $1.8 million in federal government support for the project, which will be conducted in conjunction with research efforts in India and China - October 2008

Researchers at the University of Texas were promoting their 3,000 strain collection of algae species; however, UT professor Michael Webber said that the challenge with algae is “price, price, price” with algal fuel costs currently in the $10 per gallon range. Webber also commented that the abundance of CO2, saline water and sunshine made Texas an ideal location for algae development. The New York Times, in highlighting the UT team, also noted that the Department of Energy held a DC-based workshop this week on accelerating algae development - March 2008

The Center for Excellence for Hazardous Materials Management in Carlsbad, New Mexico said that it is less than two years from a major algae oil production demonstration using five strains of algae that have been undergoing research at the center since 2006. The researchers have focused on brine-based algae because of their ability to thrive in salty water and other conditions unsuitable for cultivation of other food crops. The team believes that they can achieve production of up to 8,000 gallons per acre - Early 2008

Researchers at North Carolina State University received a $2 million grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF). The research team is studying Dunaliella, which grows in brackish or salty water – to map the Dunaliella genome and identify the genes responsible for regulating the quantities and qualities of the produced fatty acids. Once that has been done, the researchers plan to replace those genes with genes from other organisms to produce the desired fatty acids and overcome the internal regulatory mechanisms that could potentially limit fatty acid production. Next, the necessary technology and protocols to grow the algae and extract the fatty acids will need to be fine-tuned. Simultaneously, the researchers will ascertain which chemical catalysts and operating parameters should be used to optimize the conversion of the fatty acids into the desired fuels. Finally, the various fuels will be tested - June 2008

Kansas State University researchers received a $98,560 Small Grant for Exploratory Research from the National Science Foundation to carry out a study on the potential for algae grown on solid carriers in the open ocean. Solid carriers float on the ocean surface and provide a nexus for algae to grow. The study will simulate an ocean environment and tests numerous strains of algae to determine which strains have the optimal characteristics for oil content and ability to grow in the ocean – Dec 2008.

Researchers at the national science organization, CSIRO, Australia, have concluded that the cost of saltwater algae production is based on current science, lower than the cost of diesel from fossil crude oil. In the study, the


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researchers focused on maximizing the value of biodiesel in economic and carbon terms by co-locating algae production with a power source – for power generation purposes more than CO2 capture – March 2009.


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9.5 Marine Algae Cultivation – Q&A

What are the challenges for marine algae cultivation? The primary challenges for cultivating algae in marine regions are: Supply of nutrients - While the seawater does have nutrients in them, the sea water

in some parts of the world might not have all the necessary nutrients and in these areas ocean fertilization will be required which could be a significant expense.

Ways to contain & control the algae and the environment - Unlike in a closed environment, control in marine environments is much harder. Controlling impacts of storms, waves, currents, ships, and other intrusions are much harder to solve.

Harvesting - Harvesting algae at sea appears to be difficult. Consequently, growing algae at sea has mainly focused on either carbon sequestration or fishery enhancement.

Are algae cultivated in marine for other purpose? Yes. Seaweeds produced through marine cultivation are used as

Fertilizer Food is in Japan, China and Korea

Utilization of seaweed in industry has been for the following products:

Fine biochemicals Cosmetics Medicinal and industrial uses Phycocolloids

Agars Carrageenans Alginates

Various aspects of marine algae culture are considered the future source of food and medicines. Carrageenan, a gel extracted from the algae, is used as an additive in food and also in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Carrageenan has good water gel strength, milk gel strength, low heavy metal accumulation and absence of microbial pathogens acceptable to the industry.


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How & why does iron fertilization help algae growth?

Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron, an essential nutrient, to the upper ocean to stimulate the marine food chain, and/or to sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Ferrous sulfate is a micronutrient considered essential to all algae. Although iron is scarce in the ocean, this essential micronutrient can play a big role in marine ecosystems. Phytoplanktons, the single-celled algae that form the base of the marine food chain, require iron for photosynthesis and growth. In regions of the ocean where iron levels are particularly low, lack of the metal can limit the size of phytoplankton populations. If iron is added to the ecosystem, the tiny plants bloom. Fertilization supports the growth of marine phytoplankton blooms by physically distributing microscopic iron particles in otherwise nutrient-rich, but iron-deficient blue ocean waters. An increasing number of ocean labs, scientists and businesses are exploring it as a means to revive declining plankton populations, restore healthy levels of marine productivity and/or sequester billions of tons of CO2 to slow down global warming and ocean acidification. Since 1993, ten international research teams have completed relatively small-scale ocean trials demonstrating the effect. Fertilization also occurs when natural or artificial upwelling bring nutrient-rich deep-water up to the surface, as occurs when ocean currents meet an ocean bank or a sea mount. This form of fertilization produces the world's largest marine habitats. In rare cases, fertilization can occur when weather carries soil long distances over the ocean.

How can we control algae growth boundaries in marine environments? It is not entirely clear what solutions are best in circumstances where it is not possible to control growth area boundaries for algae, owing to the fact that the marine environment cannot be fully controlled. Macro-algae are already cultivated at sea mainly by simply tying them to anchored floating lines. A similar method can be adopted for fuel especially if the algae grown are macroalgae. One of the solutions being researched in this regard is to grow algae on solid carriers in oceans. For instance, Kansas State University received a $98,560 Small Grant for Exploratory Research in June 2008 from the National Science Foundation to carry out a study on the potential for algae grown on solid carriers in the open ocean. Solid carriers float on the ocean surface and provide a nexus for algae to grow. The study will simulate


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an ocean environment and tests numerous strains of algae to determine which strains have the optimal characteristics for oil content and ability to grow in the ocean.

Do the nutrients in seawater serve as natural nutrients for algae growth? The main nutrients needed for algae growth are already present in seawater. Composition of seawater Seawater is a solution of salts of nearly constant composition, dissolved in variable amounts of water. There are over 70 elements dissolved in seawater but only 6 make up >99% of all the dissolved salts; all occur as ions - electrically charged atoms or groups of atoms:

Composition of Seawater Chloride(Cl) 55.04 wt%

Sulphate(SO4) 7.68 wt%

Calcium(Ca) 1.16 wt%

Sodium(Na) 30.61 wt%

Magnesium(Mg) 3.69 wt%

Potassium(K) 1.10 wt%

Source: http://imtuoradea.ro/auo.fmte/files-2007/MECANICA_files/badea_gabriela_1.pdf

Oceanographers use salinity - the amount (in grams) of total dissolved salts present in 1 kilogram of water - to express the salt content of seawater. Normal seawater has a salinity of 35 grams/kilogram (or litre) of water. As well as major elements, there are many trace elements in seawater - e.g., manganese (Mn), lead (Pb), gold (Au), iron (Fe), iodine (I). Most occur in parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb) concentrations. They are important to some biochemical reactions - both from positive and negative (toxicity) viewpoints. Dissolved gases in seawater Seawater also contains small amounts of dissolved gases (nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and trace gases).

http://imtuoradea.ro/auo.fmte/files-2007/MECANICA_files/badea_gabriela_1.pdf


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Detailed Composition of Seawater at 3.5% Salinity

Element

ppm

Hydrogen 110,000

Oxygen 883,000

Sodium 10,800

Chlorine 19,400

Magnesium 1,290

Sulfur 904

Potassium 392

Calcium Ca 411

Bromine Br 67.3

Boron 4.4

Strontium 8

Silicon 2.5

Source: Karl K Turekian: Oceans. 1968. Prentice-Hall Note: ppm = parts per million = mg/litre (water) = 0.001g/kg (water)

Trace Elements in Natural Sea Water (ppm)

Chromium Cobalt Copper Fluorine/Fluoride Iodine/Iodide Iron Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Phosphorus/Phosphate Selenium Tin Vanadium Zinc


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Nitrogen in Seawater Seawater contains approximately 0.5 ppm nitrogen (dissolved inorganic nitrogen compounds without N2). The amount is clearly lower at the surface, being approximately 0.1 ppb. River water N2 concentrations vary strongly, but are approximately 0.25 ppm in general. Depending on water properties, various inorganic nitrogen compounds may be found. In aerobic waters nitrogen is mainly present as N2 and NO3

-, and depending on environmental conditions it may also occur as N2O, NH3, NH4

+, HNO2, NO2- or HNO3.

For the algal species – both microalgae and macroalgae that are native to the oceans and which show huge blooms - it is clear that the nutrients available in the ocean are sufficient. Conclusion If the native algae are grown in the nutrient-rich places where they normally grow, nutrient addition might not be required at all. If it happens to be algae monoculture in marine deserts, then there needs to be reliance on DOW or additional nutrients.

9.6 Research

Microalgae for Oil: Strain Selection, Induction of Lipid Synthesis and Outdoor Mass Cultivation in a Low-Cost Photobioreactor Liliana Rodolfi(1), Graziella Chini Zittelli(2), Niccolò Bassi(1), Giulia Padovani(1), Natascia Biondi(1), Gimena Bonini(1), Mario R. Tredici(1) 1. Dipartimento di Biotecnologie Agrarie, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Piazzale delle Cascine 24, 50144 Firenze, Italy; telephone: +39-0553288306; fax: +39-0553288272 2. Istituto per lo Studio degli Ecosistemi, CNR, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy (June 2008) Abstract Thirty microalgal strains were screened in the laboratory for their biomass productivity and lipid content. Four strains (two marine and two freshwater), selected because robust, highly productive and with a relatively high lipid content, were cultivated under nitrogen deprivation in 0.6-L bubbled tubes. Only the two marine microalgae accumulated lipid under such conditions. One of them, the eustigmatophyte Nannochloropsis sp. F&M-M24, which attained 60% lipid content after nitrogen starvation, was grown in a 20-L Flat Alveolar Panel photobioreactor to study the


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influence of irradiance and nutrient (nitrogen or phosphorus) deprivation on fatty acid accumulation. Fatty acid contents increased with high irradiances (up to 32.5% of dry biomass) and following both nitrogen and phosphorus deprivation (up to about 50%). To evaluate its lipid production potential under natural sunlight, the strain was grown outdoors in 110-L Green Wall Panel photobioreactors under nutrient sufficient and deficient conditions. Lipid productivity increased from 117 mg/L/day in nutrient sufficient media (with an average biomass productivity of 0.36 g/L/day and 32% lipid content) to 204 mg/L/day (with an average biomass productivity of 0.30 g/L/day and more than 60% final lipid content) in nitrogen deprived media. In a two-phase cultivation process (a nutrient sufficient phase to produce the inoculums followed by a nitrogen deprived phase to boost lipid synthesis) the oil production potential could be projected to be more than 90 kg per hectare per day. This is the first report of an increase of both lipid content and aerial lipid productivity attained through nutrient deprivation in an outdoor algal culture. The experiments showed that this marine eustigmatophyte has the potential for an annual production of 20 tons of lipid per hectare in the Mediterranean climate and of more than 30 tons of lipid per hectare in sunny tropical areas.

Lipid Production by Dunaliella salina in Batch Culture: Effects of Nitrogen Limitation and Light Intensity This study focuses on the potential of the halophilic microalgae species Dunaliella salina as a source of lipids and subsequent biodiesel production. The lipid production rates under high light and low light as well as nitrogen sufficient and nitrogen deficient culture conditions were compared for D. salina cultured in replicate photobioreactors. The results show (a) cellular lipid content ranging from 16 to 44% (wt), (b) a maximum culture lipid concentration of 450mg lipid/L, and (c) a maximum integrated lipid production rate of 46mg lipid/L culture day. The high amount of lipids produced suggests that D. salina, which can be mass-cultured in non-sterile outdoor ponds, has strong potential to be an economically valuable source for renewable oil and biodiesel production.65

9.7 References

The Story of Porphyra (Nori) The most extensively cultivated seaweed in Japan, Nori has been grown since about 1600 (Tamura 1966). The early culture techniques consisted of setting bundles of twigs

65

Chad Share Weldy., Michael Huesemann. (2007) Lipid Production by Dunaliella Salina in Batch Culture: Effects of Nitrogen Limitation and Light Intensity, U.S. Department of Energy Journal of Undergraduate Research.Retrieved from: http://www.scied.science.doe.gov/SciEd/JUR_v7/pdfs/Lipid%20Production%20by%20Dunaliella.pdf

http://www.scied.science.doe.gov/SciEd/JUR_v7/pdfs/Lipid%20Production%20by%20Dunaliella.pdf


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in estuaries on which the spores settled and grew, and the mature plants were harvested. The nori harvest grew gradually until the end of World War II and is now six times that of the prewar level. Much of this increase was made possible by dramatic improvements in culture techniques. Two other factors were the establishment of cooperative unions which increased the profit to the grower and increasing coastal eutrophication which resulted in more fertile waters in many new areas, while the latter is the less important factor. At first bamboo twigs replaced the tree twigs, and then these were replaced in many areas by nets which were still placed in the water to collect the spores. This use of net collectors is thought to be responsible for a doubling of production, but the discovery by K. M. Drew of the Conchocelis stage in the life history of Porphyra enabled the Japanese to make the increases in production to the current level. The fisherman or cooperatives are now able to artificially "seed" their nets through the controlled culture of the Conchocelis stage, which in turn releases the spores to attach onto the nets in tanks or in the sea. When the nets are "innoculated" in tanks, the nets are rotated slowly in the tanks containing the Conchocelis and then transported to the growing area where they are attached to the bamboo poles. This procedure allowed the nori grower to control the seeding of his collectors and thus, be more confident of his crop in areas with a good natural population. It also provided a means of growing nori in regions which had experienced a shortage in natural spores, especially in western Japan. With the advent of the use of the Conchocelis - spore culture technique, the predominant species used changed from Porphyra tenera to P. yezoensis which could withstand higher salinities. In many areas P. tenera and P. yezoensis are grown in the inner parts of bays and estuaries with P. pseadolinearis being grown in the deeper waters. In the former situation, the nets (18.2 m x 1.3 m) are stretched between bamboo poles stuck to the bottom, with the nets being tied at the mean water level. The nets with P. pseudolinearis growing on them float on the water surface, anchored to maintain their position, and kept on the surface by glass or plastic floats. Work by Imada and co-workers have yielded results that could increase the production of nori. This research indicated that amino acids are effective growth promoting substances for Porphyra and that the exposure of the fronds to air by tidal fluctuations is a significant factor in disease control (Imada, Saito, and Teramoto, 1971). Crossing experiments by Suto between different species of cultivated Porphyra succeeded, the cross developing to the Conchocelis phase. Other attempts at crossing monoecious and dioecious species and between species with different chromosome numbers were not as successful.


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SUMMARY

1. Wild seaweeds grown in marine environments provide a good opportunity to

make low cost ethanol.

2. Both macroalgae (seaweeds) and microalgae can be cultivated in marine

environments for fuel, but macroalgae are expected to be more suitable for

this environment.

3. Few efforts have been successful in the cultivation of oil bearing microalgae

in marine environments; however, there have been relatively greater success

in cultivating them in non-oceanic salt water environments.


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10. Algae Grown in Freshwater 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Freshwater Algae Strains with High Oil Content 10.3 Prominent Companies Growing Algae in Freshwater 10.4 Cultivating Algae in Freshwater – Companies & Updates

HIGHLIGHTS

A number of algal strains & species grow well in freshwater systems. These include euglenoids, dinoflagellates, green algae, blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), diatoms and desmids.

NREL, in its renewed research on algal energy is reportedly considering both freshwater and saltwater algae

10.1 Introduction Freshwater systems refer to water bodies that are entirely non-marine. Most ponds we come across are freshwater ponds. These ponds provide a home for a wide variety of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants, insects, and animals. There are many strains & species of algae that grow well in freshwater systems. Some of the species are: Euglenoids, Dinoflagellates, Green algae, Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria), Diatoms, Desmids, Branching & Non-branching forms of algae & Red algae. Human activities (e.g., agricultural runoff, inadequate sewage treatment, runoff from roads) have led to excessive fertilization (eutrophication) of many water bodies. This has also led to the excessive proliferation of algae and Cyanobacteria in fresh water. However, most of these species that pollute water might not be desirable from a fuel/energy perspective. In fact, some of these algae are toxic Cyanobacteria which could produce adverse health effects in cattle and humans. Microalgae Vs. Macroalge for Freshwater – Freshwater based algae cultivation is more likely to use microalgae than macroalgae. Macroalgae can grow well in their natural marine environment itself. They can be easily cultivated and harvested from the sea. When such algae are grown in artificial ponds, it only increases the cost of cultivation. Since macroalgae grow enormously, they will also require large amount of space to be grown. So it can rather be harvested directly from the sea and processed for fuel.

Freshwater is not potable water - Algae, depending on the species, grow in fresh or salt water. It is very important to note that freshwater algae do not need to be grown in potable water. This is a very important point because growing algae for fuel will not put


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added strain on the world’s potable water supply. The list below provides a range of freshwater habitats suitable for algal growth.

Types of Freshwater Habitat Suitable for Algae Growth: The following are examples of non-marine (loosely termed 'freshwater') habitats for algae:

Bogs, marshes & swamps: Rich desmid habitats (e.g. in Sphagnum). Farm dams: These ‘artificial’ water-bodies may allow taxa to extend their

'natural' range. Hot springs: Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) dominate here, except where

sulfide concentrations are high. Lakes: Coloured (or humic) lakes are usually species-rich All lakes have a floating

(or swimming) microalgal flora and an ‘attached’ micro- and macro-algal flora. Reservoirs: Well-established reservoirs with protected catchments provide ideal

habitat for many microalgae, particularly desmids. Rivers Saline & Hypersaline Lagoons: These mostly coastal habitats have an intriguing

microalgal flora but are very sensitive to changes in the water table. Saline Lakes & Marshes: Species poor but with distinctive algal flora. Snow: 'Red snow' is usually coloured by Chlamydomonas, but other algae occur

in this habitat. Streams: Acidic streams support a diverse macroalgal flora but are highly

susceptible to impaction, eutrophication and river engineering. Alkaline streams seem to be species poor, but due to restricted occurrence they may support rare taxa. Eutrophic streams are species poor, but sometimes native taxa remain and, due to shortage of oligotrophic streams in some areas, they may represent the last fragments of a previously wide distribution

10.2 Freshwater Algae Strains with High Oil or Carbohydrate Content

Haematococcus pluvialis (25% oil, 70% carbohydrates) Neochloris oleoabundans (35-54% oil content) Chlorella vulgaris (28-32% oil content) M. minutum (10% oil content) Navicula saprophila (15 to 44% oil content)


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Haematococcus pluvialis Haematococcus pluvialis (HP) is a unicellular green alga which has high carbohydrate content and is studied for energy production. Apart from that it is also employed in the pharmaceutical industry for the production of Astaxanthin. Habitat They are microscopic green algae, which occurs in continental and coastal rock pools, water holes and other similar small bodies of water, where they naturally strive as tiny free swimming flagellated algae smaller than the cross-section of a human hair. Uses

1. Source of Micronutrients: Astaxanthin, fat & protein. This species is believed to accumulate the highest levels of Astaxanthin in nature. When commercially grown, it can accumulate more than 40 g of Astaxanthin per kilo of dry biomass. 2. Animal Feed: It is used as a constituent of feeds for a variety of animals like fish etc, with no negative effects.

Chlorella vulgaris Chlorella is a unicellular eukaryotic fresh-water green algae of the order Chlorococcales. It was one of the first organisms to evolved a true nucleus on Earth, over 2.5 billion years ago. Because the algae grows rapidly in light and dark places with a minimum of nutrients, large amounts of flammable-when-dried Chlorella vulgaris can be produced at low cost. Habitat Chlorella vulgaris are widely distributed in fresh water all over the world, and are often a major component of phytoplankton populations in nutrient-poor waters. Chlorella spp. have evolved a variety of efficient nutrient uptake mechanisms and are able to rapidly increase in number and out-compete larger species of phytoplankton in lakes of low to moderate nutrient status. Most commercial sources of Chlorella are cultivated in vats or ponds, indoor or under sunlight, with added nutrients to the water. Uses

1. Chlorella vulgaris consists mostly of lutein and may also have industrial uses for

producing energy and making processed foods more visually appealing.

2. It shows promises as a biomass fuel and as a natural food coloring agent.


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3. Its ability to mimic the action of fatty acids allows it to be used as a medium for

adding natural colorants such as pea oil to other foods.

4. Chlorella vulgaris has antioxidant and probiotic properties, meaning it prevents

cell damage and increases the numbers of beneficial bacteria along the digestive

tract and in the intestines when ingested

5. Proponents of Chlorella vulgaris also claim that it fights cancer and lowers blood

pressure

Monoraphidium minutum Habitat Monoraphidium minutum is typically found in the intertidal zone at the water’s edge at a mean distance from sea level of 7 meters (24 feet) Uses

1. Used for ethanol production.

2. It is got a GC content of 71%, hence is used as a animal feed.

3. It is used to absorb carbon-dioxide from flue-gas from power stations.

Macroalgae in Freshwater All non marine seaweeds are termed as freshwater seaweeds. Macroalgae can also be cultivated in freshwater ponds for fuel production. Macroalgae generate relatively lesser energy than microalgae but still are researched for their use in energy production due to lower production cost, ease in extraction etc. Listed below are some of the macroalgae species that can grow in fresh water and are being researched for their use in biofuel production.

Percentage of Lipid Content in Various Macroalgae Species

Macroalgae species Lipid content

E. clathrata 4.6±0.17%

G. folifera 3.23±0.13%

C. tomentosum 2.53±0.27%

C. sinuosa 2.33±0.37%

S. wightii 2.33±0.37%

E. intestinalis 1.33±0.20%

P. gymnospora 1.4±0.30%


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S. tenerimum 1.46±0.20%

U. lactuca 1.6±0.17%

Chaetomorpha linum 15%

Pterocladiella capillacea 7.5%

http://www.idosi.org/aejb/1%282%2908/2.pdf

10.3 Prominent Companies Growing Algae in Freshwater

PetroAlgae - The company is utilizing natural strains of micro-algae developed by Arizona State University and bred selectively over many generations to produce rapid growth and extremely high oil yield. This species of algae, is believed to double at a rate of once per 24 hours, making harvesting a continuous process. Solix - The Solix team of engineers in Fort Collins Co. is working on a design for a closed algae growth system which can use both fresh water and brine water and are cost competitive with open systems. The company is a developer of massively scalable photobioreactors for the production of biodiesel and other valuable bio-commodities from algae oil. Parrys Nutraceuticals India (for non-fuel purposes) - Spirulina cultivation farms are located in a remote hamlet south of India, named Oonaiyur. It has a pollution free environment with pure ground water for cultivation of algae. Inventure Chemical (experimenting with both freshwater and saltwater algae) - The company currently operates a commercial prototype algae biofuel processing facility in Seattle, Washington, where it is currently producing biodiesel and ethanol from algae sourced from facilities in Israel, Arizona, and Australia.

10.4 Cultivating Algae in Freshwater – Companies & Updates NREL, in its renewed and reopened research on algal energy is reportedly

considering both freshwater and saltwater algae. Tacoma-based Inventure Chemical is experimenting with both freshwater and

saltwater algae - Aug 2007. Melbourne, Fla.-based PetroAlgae says that it hopes to test a commercial system as

early as 2009. The company licensed strains of freshwater algae bred by Arizona State University and is developing the bioreactors and harvesting methods to grow the algae at large scale. The algae harvested from open-pond farms can be converted to oil that can be refined into biodiesel. The remaining material can be sold as high-protein animal feed. May 2008 .

ALGBio is growing a local strain of freshwater algae and researching ways to develop it at the Waddell Mariculture Center, which is run by the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources. The company plans to test some saltwater strains as well. In South Carolina, Clemson and Claflin universities are researching the potential of algae as a source of sustainable energy. (2008)

http://www.idosi.org/aejb/1%282%2908/2.pdf


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OilFox, Argentina is a biofuels producer with algae as a feedstock. . According to reports, the company has signed an agreement with the government of Chubut province (located in Patagonia, Argentina) to grow four species of algae in pools around the province.

Seaweed Energy Solutions AS (SES) is a Norwegian registered company focused on the development of large-scale offshore cultivation of seaweed and conversion of this biomass to biogas and bioethanol. Their goal is to develop and implement a cost efficient and sustainable ocean farming system for large-scale cultivation of seaweed, to be used primarily for production of bioenergy and to develop and implement efficient bio-conversion technologies for the production of bioenergy from seaweed and maximum utilization of by-products to ensure low overall costs with optimum environmental effects.

Advantages of Using Freshwater

Construction of freshwater ponds is easy

Freshwater ponds are cost effective to construct and maintain.

Provides a natural environment to the growing algae

Challenges of Using Freshwater

Freshwater ponds are highly vulnerable to contamination

They do not offer control over temperature and lighting.

The growing season is largely dependent on location and, aside from tropical

areas, is limited to the warmer months.

Freshwater should be constantly supplied with nutrients to enhance growth of

algae

The water in which the algae grow also has to be kept at a certain temperature,

which can be difficult to maintain.

Large amounts of fresh water needed for large-scale production.

Efforts to Overcome the Challenges: One of the best methods followed to overcome the problem of freshwater cultivation is to cover the pond. Usually glass is preferred as a suitable material as it protects the pond from dust and other contaminants as well as allows sunlight for photosynthesis. Closed ponds can also maintain the temperature of the pond to a certain extent. Artificial source of light can be used to supply light energy for the algae to perform photosynthesis.


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Case Studies

Treatment of Swine Manure Effluent Using Freshwater Algae: Production, Nutrient Recovery, and Elemental Composition of Algal Biomass at Four Effluent Loading Rates Elizabeth Kebede-Westhead et al., 2006 studied the treatment of swine manure effluent using freshwater algae. The objective of this study was to determine algal productivity, nutrient removal efficiency, and elemental composition of turf algae change in response to different loading rates of raw swine manure effluent. Algal biomass for this study was harvested weekly from laboratory scale algal turf scrubber units.

Field Ecology of Freshwater Macroalgae in Pools and Ditches, with Special Attention to Eutrophication A review is presented on the occurrence of macroalgae in dune pools, ditches and moorland pools in The Netherlands. A general trend is that under mesotrophic or moderately eutrophic conditions, the filamentous macroalgae form a diversified component of the primary producers in shallow water bodies. Especially spore forming genera Spirogyra and Oedogonium can be represented with up to about 20 species per site. In hardwater ditches too, Vaucheria is an important component, especially the sediment dwelling Vaucheria dichotoma. Under distinctly eutrophic conditions, dense floating algal masses contain only one or a few species as Cladophora glomerata, Enteromorpha intestinalis and Hydrodictyon reticulatum. Simons J, 1994. Field ecology of freshwater macroalgae in pools and ditches, with special attention to eutrophication. Journal Aquatic Ecology 28 (25-33).

Investigation of Biomass and Lipids Production with Neochloris Oleoabundans in Photobioreactor

J. Pruvost, G. Van Vooren, G. Cogne and J. Legranda aGEPEA, Université de Nantes, CNRS, UMR6144, Bd de l’Université, CRTT – BP 406, 44602

Saint-Nazaire Cedex, France

The fresh water microalga Neochloris oleoabundans was investigated for its ability to accumulate lipids and especially triacylglycerols (TAG). A systematic study was conducted, from the determination of the growth medium to its characterization in an airlift photobioreactor. Without nutrient limitation, a maximal biomass areal productivity of 16.5 g/m2/day was found. Effects of nitrogen starvation to induce lipids accumulation were next investigated. Due to initial N. oleoabundans total lipids high content (23% of dry weight), highest productivity was obtained without mineral limitation with a maximal total lipids productivity of 3.8 g/m2/day. Regarding TAG, an almost similar productivity was found whatever the protocol was: continuous


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production without mineral limitation (0.5 g/m2/day) or batch production with either sudden or progressive nitrogen deprivation (0.7 g/m2/day). The decrease in growth rate reduces the benefit of the important lipids and TAG accumulation as obtained in nitrogen starvation (37% and 18% of dry weight, respectively).

Biodiesel Production from Freshwater Algae A novel approach in the production of biodiesel was performed using algal biomass as a raw material. The effect of drying algal biomass and its role on lipid content during extraction process was also investigated. Transesterification of algal oil was conducted, using ethanol in the presence of potassium hydroxide as a catalyst. A gas chromatography−mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) chromatogram was used to analyze the organic compounds present in the crude biodiesel sample after the transesterification process. The lipid content in the algal biomass was determined to be 45% ± 4%. Biodiesel derived from algae had a fuel value with the following characteristics: density, 0.801 kg/L; ash content, 0.21%; flash point, 98 °C; pour point, −14 °C; cetane number, 52; minimum gross calorific value, 40 MJ/kg; and water content, 0.02 vol %. Copper strip corrosion showed a value less than that of Class 1, which was close to light orange, when compared to the polished strip (i.e., slight tarnish). Energy Fuels, 2009, 23 (11), pp 5448–5453 DOI: 10.1021/ef9006033 Publication Date (Web): August 28, 2009 Copyright © 2009 American Chemical Society.


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SUMMARY

1. A large variety of algae strains (especially microalgae) can be cultivated in

freshwater.

2. In many areas worldwide, companies have readily available commercial

expertise for algae cultivation in freshwater. For instance, Spirulina is

already being commercially cultivated in freshwater in many countries

worldwide.

3. Using freshwater for algae cultivation could be more expensive than using

wastewater or saltwater, as large quantities of freshwater may not be so

readily accessible and nutrient credits might not be applicable for cultivation

in freshwater.

4. Some companies are trying to use a combination of both freshwater and salt

water for algae cultivation.


www.oilgae.com


11. Algae Grown Next to Major CO2 Emitting Industries 11.1 Introduction & Concepts 11.2 Algal Species Suited for CO2 Capture of Power Plant Emissions 11.3 Methods & Processes 11.4 Case Studies 11.5 Challenges while Using Algae for CO2 Capture 11.6 Research and Data for Algae-based CO2 Capture 11.7 Algae-based CO2 Capture - Factoids 11.8 Algae Cultivation Coupled with CO2 from Power Plants – Q&A 11.9 Prominent CO2 Emitting Industries 11.10 Status of Current CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS) Technologies 11.11 Latest Developments in CO2 Sequestration 11.12 Reference

HIGHLIGHTS

For power plants and other entities that are large scale emitters of CO2, sequestering CO2 using algae provides the opportunity of monetizing through carbon credits while at the same time producing biofuels.

It is expected that in future, commercial profit from algae biomass production could offset overall operational costs for CO2 sequestration.

In addition to CO2 sequestration, another potential strategy to offset operational costs is to develop multi-functional systems such as waste treatment in conjunction with algae cultivation at power plants.

Some research programs suggest that CO2 recovery for algae growth from existing processes at ethanol and ammonia plants could be relatively lower in cost than from cement, refineries, or power plants

Over a dozen companies worldwide have made significant investments into algae-based CO2 capture research.

While algae-based CO2 abatement inherently has excellent potential, it is not expected to become commercialized until 2015.

11.1 Introduction & Concepts CO2 sequestration refers to the process of isolating and storing CO2 which is a greenhouse gas. Coal is - and will remain – one of the predominant fuel sources for power generation purposes in the world for the foreseeable future. Typical coal-fired power plants emit flue gas from their stacks containing up to 13% CO2. If coal is replaced by natural gas at


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power plants, CO2 emissions are significantly reduced, but natural gas combustion still results in a net increase in CO2. It is estimated that power plants produce about 40% of all greenhouse gases worldwide. By employing interesting tactics similar to those designed by nature, companies believe they can lock up carbon dioxide emissions through a process called biofixation. And they have employed a slimy plant from the algae family to do the job. Many countries of the world that are signatories of the Kyoto Protocol have an existing carbon credits and trading program. This implies that for power plants and other entities that are large scale emitters of CO2, capturing or sequestering CO2 using algae also provides the added benefit of monetizing the carbon credits. On a worldwide basis, coal is, by far, the largest fossil energy resource available. This means it is incumbent on us not only to build new coal plants using technology which limits or eliminates greenhouse gas emissions but also to find the best way to retrofit the country's existing fleet of coal plants for post-combustion carbon capture. The conventional CO2 sequestration processes are highly power intensive and as a result, expensive. In a country like the U.S., where coal is the major fuel for power production, costs involved in sequestering CO2 emissions will run into several billions. Many scientists and environmentalists think that algal farming, when it aligned closely to nature, will give the most promising results in this context. Algae-based CO2 abatement however has some key bottlenecks. Research is being done to find solutions for these bottlenecks, and success in these research efforts could take 4-5 years (as of 2010). It is hence predicted that algae-based CO2 abatement will ger commercialized only beyond 2015.

Composition of Power Plant Flue Gas Typical coal power plant flue gases have carbon dioxide levels ranging from 10%–15% (Maeda et al., 1995) (4% for natural gas fired ones). The typical carbon dioxide percentages in the atmosphere are 0.036%. Various studies have shown that microalgae respond better to increased carbon dioxide concentrations, outgrowing (on a biomass basis) microalgae exposed only to ambient air. Example of a typical flue gas composition from coal fired power plant

Component N2 CO2 O2 SO2 NOx Soot dust

Concentration 82% 12% 5.5% 400 ppm 120 ppm 50 mg/m3

Source: Chorkendorff Ib et al. 2007. (Concepts of modern catalysis and kinetics): 393


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How Are Algae Grown Next to Power Plants Cost Effective? If algae farms are effective, they will be the most viable alternative to capture carbon and storing it underground, currently tipped to be the number one future method of reducing carbon emissions. Specialists say carbon capturing and storage is about the most effective of available methods, but it’s also one of the most expensive procedures. That is mostly due to the costs associated with underground storage of the carbon. But farms could turn the expense into a profit by growing algae in the coal plant fumes. Another added bonus is that the leftover material can be converted to animal feed or other products. It`s too early to say whether algae farms would be a practical step for many power plants, according to experts, and some say that the process would remove only a portion of the total carbon emissions. While operations could vary in size, estimates from engineering consultants suggest that about 100 acres is a good target for an algae farm. Because of the space requirement, algae facilities would be practical only at plants in rural areas with room to spread out. The key advantages of the process of CO2 sequestration using algae are:

Owing to the fact that high purity CO2 gas is not required for algae cultivation, flue gas containing CO2 and water can be fed directly to the photobioreactor.

Power plants that are powered by natural gas or syngas have virtually no SO2 in the flue gas. The other polluting products such as NOx can be effectively used as nutrients for micro algae.

Micro algae culturing yields high value commercial products that will offset the capital and the operation costs of the process. In addition to biofuels, algae are also as the starting point for high-protein animal feeds, agricultural fertilizers, biopolymers / bioplastics, glycerin and more.

Algae can grow in temperatures ranging from below freezing to 158oF. The entire process is a renewable cycle.

Business Opportunities from Algae-based CO2 Capture This presents an interesting opportunity for companies that produce large CO2 emissions. Many countries of the world that are signatories of the Kyoto Protocol have an existing carbon credits and trading program. The US, which even though is not a Kyoto Protocol signatory, has a carbon trading program of its own. This implies that for power plants and other entities that are large scale emitters of CO2; sequestering CO2

using algae provides the benefit of monetizing the carbon credits while at the same time producing biofuels.


www.oilgae.com


Business opportunities exist both for companies that are CO2 emitters as well as for external businesses such as consulting and engineering companies that are willing to work with power plants to make the algae-based CO2 sequestration and biofuels production a reality.

Summary of Availability and Cost of CO2 Sources

CO2 source Potential (106 kg/y)

Concentrated, high pressure sources

Liquid synthetic fuel plants 40

Gaseous synthetic fuel plants 220

Gasification/Combined cycle power plants) 0 – 790

Concentrated low-pressure sources:

Enhanced oil recovery 8 – 32

Ammonia plants 9

Ethanol plants <0.1

Dilute high pressure sources

Non commercial natural gas 52 – 100

Refineries 13

Dilute low-pressure sources

Anaerobic digestion(biomass/wastes) 230

Cement plants 26

Fossil steam plants 0 – 790

Totals 600 – 2250

Source: Mark E. Huntley (University of Hawaii) and Donald G. Redalje (University of Southern Mississippi)

Projected Global Energy Demand and CO2 Emissions, 2000 To 2020

Energy source and use Demand (EJ/year) Emissions(GtC/Year)

2000 2010 2020 2000 2010 2020

Oil – electricitya 14 15 18 0.27 0.31 0.35

Oil – transportb 69 97 119 1.60 2.16 2.65

Oil – otherc 64 71 75 1.25 1.38 1.47

Total oild 147 182 212 3.12 3.85 4.47

Coal – electricitya 65 85 106 1.68 2.19 2.73

Coal – othere 27 22 17 0.70 0.57 0.43

Total coald 92 107 123 2.38 2.76 3.16

Natural gas – electricitya 29 43 62 0.44 0.66 0.95


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Natural gas – otherf 55 71 91 0.84 1.09 1.39

Total natural gasg 84 114 153 1.29 1.74 2.34

Total fossil fuels 323 403 488 6.79 8.35 9.97

Fossil Electricity 108 143 186 2.39 3.16 4.03

Non fossil electricitya 38 43 45

SRES scenario AITh 6.90 8.33 10.00

Total energy demand 361 446 533

Source: Mark E. Huntley (University of Hawaii) and Donald G. Redalje (University of Southern Mississippi) Note : aDemand and emissions from IEA (1998) bDemand from EIA(1999); Emissions from WEC(1998) cDemand calculated by difference, emissions assume conversion for electricityi.e. 19.5 MtC/EJ dDemand from EIA(2003a) eDemand calculated by difference, emissions assume conversion for electricityi.e.25.8 MtC/EJ fDemand calculated by difference, emissions assume conversion for electricityi.e.15.3 MtC/EJ gDemand from EIA(2003b) hIPCC(2001c, Appendix II)

Ideal Attributes for Photosynthetic Sequestration An ideal methodology for photosynthetic sequestration of anthropogenic carbon dioxide has the following attributes: Highest possible rates of CO2 uptake Mineralization of CO2, resulting in permanently sequestered carbon Revenues from substances of high economic value Use of concentrated, anthropogenic CO2 before it is allowed to enter the

atmosphere.

Characteristics of Algae-based CO2 Capture High purity CO2 gas is not required for algae culture. It is possible that flue gas

containing 2~5% CO2 can be fed directly to the photobioreactor. This will simplify CO2 separation from flue gas significantly.

Some combustion products such as NOx or SOx can be effectively used as nutrients for microalgae. This could simplify flue gas scrubbing for the combustion system.

Microalgae culturing yields high value commercial products that could offset the capital and the operation costs of the process. Products of the proposed process are: (a) Mineralized carbon for stable sequestration, and (b) Compounds of high commercial value. By selecting algae species, either one or combination or two can be produced.


www.oilgae.com


The proposed process is a renewable cycle with minimal negative impacts on environment. Source: NREL66

11.2 Algal Species Suited for CO2 Capture of Power Plant Emissions Several species of microalgae have been tested under CO2 concentrations of over 15%. For example, Chlorococcum littorale could grow under 60% CO2 using the stepwise adaptation technique (Kodama et al., 1994). Another high CO2 tolerant species is Euglena gracilis. Growth of Euglena gracilis was enhanced under 5-45 % concentration of CO2. The best growth was observed with 5% CO2 concentration. However, the species did not grow under greater than 45% CO2 (Nakano et al., 1996). Hirata et al. (1996a; 1996b) reported that Chlorella sp. UK001 could grow successfully under 10% CO2 conditions. It is also reported that Chlorella sp. can be grown under 40% CO2 conditions (Hanagata et al., 1992). Furthermore, Maeda et al (1995) found a strain of Chlorella sp. T-1 which could grow under 100% CO2, although the maximum growth rate occurred under a 10% concentration. Scenedesmus sp. could grow under 80% CO2 conditions but the maximum cell mass was observed in 10-20% CO2 concentrations (Hanagata et al., 1992). Cyanidium caldarium (Seckbach et al., 1971) and some other species of Cyanidium can grow in pure CO2 (Graham and Wilcox, 2000). The table below summarizes the CO2 tolerance of various species. Note that some species may tolerate even higher carbon dioxide concentrations than listed in the table. Overall, a number of high CO2 tolerant species have been identified.

CO2 Tolerance of Various Species

Species Known maximum CO2 concentration

References

Cyanidium celdanum 100% Seckbach et al. 1971

Scenedesmus sp. 80% Hanagta et al. 1992

Chlorococcum littorale 60% Kodama et al. 1993

Synechococcus elongates 60% Miyairi 1997

Euglena gracilis 45% Nakano et al., 1996

Chlorella sp. 40% Hanagta et al. 1992

Eudorine spp. 20% Hanagta et al. 1992

Dunaliella tertiolecta 15% Nagase et al., 1998

Nannochloris sp. 15% Yoshihara et al., 1996

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Takashi Nakamura., Constance Senior. (2001) Capture and Sequestration of CO2 from Stationary Combustion Systems by Photosynthesis of Microalgae, NREL, Retrieved from: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/5a3.pdf

http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/5a3.pdf


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Chlamydomonas sp. 15% Miura et al., 1993

Tetroselmis sp. 14% Matsumoto et al., 1995

Source: Mark E. Huntley (University of Hawaii) and Donald G. Redalje (University of Southern Mississippi)

11.3 Methods & Processes Algae, by virtue of being able to grow near power plants, could be used as a method of CO2 sequestration – by growing these algae next to the power plants and feeding the exhaust from the power plants to the algae. This way, you solve two problems – you have been able to eliminate CO2, and you have produced oil!

Picture of CO2 Sequestration of Coal Plant Emissions

Algae/oil Recovery System

Fuel Production

CO2 Recovery System

CO2 Emissions from Coal

Plant


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Process for Algae Cultivation near Power Plants Flow Diagram for Microalgae Production with Introduction of CO2 from Fossil Fuel Fired

Power Plants.

Flow diagram for Microalgae Production

Note: Monoethanolamine (MEA) extraction is a commonly used method for the extraction of CO2 from flue gas

Flue gas (14% CO2) Direct Injection Process

Electricity

Flue Gas Power

Plant Blower

MEA Extraction Blower

Algae Pond Downstream

Processing Solar

Drying

Coal

Purified CO2 MEA Process

Algae for co-firing (50 % solids)

Algae Cultivation Pond System

Fossil Fuel Fired Power Plant, CO2 Source

Algae Oil Recovery System

Refinery, Transesterification

Fuel Production

Biodiesel


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Energy and GHG (CO2 ) Balance per Liter of Oil Produced Using Three Different Technologies.

Raceway Photobioreactor

CO2 Balance (Grams per liter)

CO2 Balance (g.L-1) 6,097 4,108

Energy Balance (MJ per liter)

Energy balance(MJ.L-1) -39.7 -11.5

Energy ratio 1.76 1.23

Source: Microalgae technologies and processes for Biofuels/ Bio energy production in British Columbia67

Use of photobioreactors consumes significant energy for its operations. Some preliminary data collected on behalf of the British Coumbia Innovation Council in Jan 2009 (presented in the table above) show that both energy balance (difference between the energy input and outpuit) and energy ratio (ratio of energy output to energy input) are higher for raceway ponds than for photobioreactors. Raceway ponds also score better on the amount of CO2 sequestered per liter of algae oil produced. Algae-based CO2 Capture - Companies & Updates (as of May 2010)

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http://www.fao.org/uploads/media/0901_Seed_Science_-_Microalgae_technologies_and_processes_for_biofuelsbioenergy_production_in_British_Columbia.pdf




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Company Location Power plant Type of work Status

Enie Technology

Italy NGCC power plant

Captures 15% of the annual CO2 emissions from a 500 MW NGCC plant.

Pilot Stage

MBD Energy Australia Loy Yang, NSW’s Eraring energy

Captures 2 tonnes of every two tones of CO2

to produce almost 1 tonne of algae, of which one-third can be made into oil products and two-thirds into meal.

Pilot Stage

RWE Energy Germany Niederaussem power station

Produces 6,000 kg algae biomass using photobioreactors which are currently erected on an area of 600 sq.m..

Pilot Stage

Linc Energy & BioCleanCoal

Australia Chinchilla Sequestering carbon dioxide emissions from power stations to be used as fuel or fertiliser, even re-burning it to produce additional energy.

Pilot Stage

Seambiotic Israel Israel Electric Company, Ashkelon

Eight shallow algae ponds are filled with the same seawater used to cool the power plants and a small % of power plant flue gas will be channeled to these farms. An unusual strain of algae, skeletonema - a variety believed to be very useful for producing biofuel - was noticed growing in the pools.

Pilot Stage

Kolaghat Thermal Power Plant

India Kolaghat thermal power plant

Fifty percent of the CO2 emitted is planned to be used for algal farming, 25% for farming of Spirulina, and the rest to be compressed in its uncontaminated form to produce dry ice. The oilcakes (left over after the oil is extracted) could be burnt to generate power to run this entire process.

Pilot stage

E-On Hanse Germany Hamburg Power Plant

It uses marine microalgae as a natural carbon dioxide sink for the flue gases of a 350-MW coal-fired power station in the Bremen precinct of Farge. The aim is to capture 1% of the total emissions of this power station in a closed reactor system within five years. Two different strains of algae, one whose biomass is suitable as animal feed and one for oil, were used.

Pilot Stage

CEP & PGE USA Boardman, Ore Power plant

First phase is to find if algae can feed on the CO2 from the 600 megawatt Boardman facility. Seattle-based BioAlgene LLC is providing the algae strains for this portion of the project. A full-scale operation is to include 7,500 acres of open air algae ponds.

1st phase of the 3 phases


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Arizona Public Service Co.

USA Cholla Generating Station in northeastern Arizona

The project calls for the plant feed its carbon emissions to an algae pond, and that algae will be converted to biofuel.

Pilot Stage

Carbon Capture Corporation

USA - The company operates open algae ponds with a total capacity of 8 million gallons located on an existing 40-acre Algae Research Center which is part of a 326-acre research and development facility in Imperial Valley, California. Seven 150-gallon sun-tube photobioreactors are located indoor. Current production capability is 660 pounds per day of dried algae biomass with seven percent or less moisture content, and can be expanded to 2,200 pounds per day.

Pilot Stage

Scottish Bioenergy

Scotland, UK

The Glenturret Scotch Whisky Distillery

SBV’s photobioreactors consume carbon dioxide gas from industrial processes and produce oil and proteins. It has built a reactor at the Glenturret distillery in Crieff which will capture and recycle CO2 from the distillery's boiler exhaust and percolating it through algae reactors, converting it into protein and vitamin rich animal feed. Tests were conducted on growth rates with and without flue gas and effluent from the distilling process. The algae was able to capture copper from the effluent and flourished in contaminated water. Growth rates were in excess of 100 grams / square meter / day.

Prepilot

Infinifuel Biodiesel

USA Sierra Pacific Coal Power Plant

They are staging a biomass gasifier to begin the study of CO2 capture and sequestration using algae. The site is located directly adjacent to the Sierra Pacific coal power plant. This plant will emit 4,000,000 tons of CO2 and 7,000 tons of NOx which can be captured by the algae.

Not known

Energy Quest Inc.

USA Nances Creek Industrial Park, in Piedmont, Alabama

The project site is located at Nances Creek Industrial Park, in Piedmont, Alabama. The stack gases containing CO2 are captured and ducted to algae growing pod clusters as feed for the growth of oil producing algae. This process will yield 200 litres of bio-diesel from

Pilot Stage


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11.4 Case Studies

CEP & PGE, USA Oct. 2008 One of the most recent algae-inspired projects is being undertaken by Washington-based Columbia Energy Partners LLC (CEP), which hopes to convert carbon dioxide from a coal-fired electricity plant into algal oil. CEP is a renewable energy company that primarily focuses on wind and solar energy. Two years back, the company approached one of Oregon’s electric utilities, Portland General Electric (PGE) to pitch the idea of converting carbon dioxide from the utility’s coal-fired plant in Boardman, Ore., into algal oil for the production of biodiesel. CEP is currently conducting the first phase of what will potentially be a three-phase project. A feasibility study is underway at the 600 megawatt Boardman facility to determine if algae can feed on the carbon dioxide emitted from the plant and what amounts of carbon dioxide, and potentially other greenhouse gases, can be consumed by the algae. Seattle-based BioAlgene LLC is providing the algae strains for this portion of the project. The possibility of a larger build-out is also being researched at this time. He anticipates a full-scale operation to include 7,500 acres of open air algae ponds. Results from the first phase should be available sometime in December 2008. At that point, if the results are positive, the company plans to move forward with engineering

every ton of CO2 produced from the biomass combustion process.

Stellarwind Bio Energy LLC

USA - Stellarwind Bio Energy has built a scaled pilot production facility deploying its PhycoGenic Reactor and PhycoProcessor. Stellarwind Bio Energy’s PhycoGenic Reactor is based on a proprietary approach which will allow the company to grow algae at a very affordable cost per liter. Their approach uses four basic components: PhycoGenic Reactor, PhycoProcessor, RecyCO2Tron, and Resource Recovery System. First, carbon-dioxide is acquired from the power plants using the RecyCO2Tron. This CO2 is fed into the PhycoGenic ReactorTM, which continuously grows and harvests the algae.The harvested algae are fed into the PhycoProcessor which extracts the oils.

Pilot Stage


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details and the construction of larger, in-ground algae tanks while continuing to research the process. PGE had requested the project be conducted in “baby steps” and one can expect a commercial-scale project to be three to five years away. Some of the challenges that are being faced by the team have to do with keeping open-air algae ponds free from contamination and the actual process of squeezing oil from the algae. CEP is financing the project. The company hopes to eventually sell the carbon credits it would gain from the process back to PGE or another buyer, as well as generate revenue from the algae oil and potential animal feed byproducts.68

Linc Energy & BioCleanCoal, Australia Nov 2007 Two Australian firms, Linc Energy and BioCleanCoal, have partnered together in a joint venture to sequester carbon dioxide emissions from Australian coal-fired power stations to use as fuel or fertiliser, even re-burning it to produce additional energy. The companies will spend $1 million to build a prototype reactor in Chinchilla, which will use the carbon dioxide emissions from the power plant to grow algae, which can then be dried and turned into biofuels. A company director of BioCleanCoal says that the process can easily remove 90 percent of carbon dioxide from the plant’s emissions, with 100 per cent removal possible but unlikely due to the increased costs.

Seambiotic, Israel The Israeli company Seambiotic has found a way to produce biofuel by channeling smokestack carbon dioxide emissions through pools of algae that clean it. The growing algae thrive on the added nutrients, and become a useful biofuel. For the last two years, the company has tested their idea with an electric utility company - a coal-burning power plant in the southern city of Ashkelon operated by the Israel Electric Company (IEC). The company's prototype algae farm in Ashkelon uses the tiny plants to suck up carbon dioxide emissions from power plants. Seambiotic's eight shallow algae pools, covering about a quarter-acre, are filled with the same seawater used to cool the power plant. A small percentage of gases are siphoned off from the power plant flue and are channeled directly into the algae ponds.Originally when the prototype started operating, a common algae called Nannochloropsis was culled from the sea and used in the ponds.

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Kris Bevill., Oct, 2008. Retrieved from: http://www.ecoshuttle.net/index.php/2008/10/07/cep-pge-want-to-

turn-pollution-into-algae/

http://www.ecoshuttle.net/index.php/2008/10/07/cep-pge-want-to-turn-pollution-into-algae/

http://www.ecoshuttle.net/index.php/2008/10/07/cep-pge-want-to-turn-pollution-into-algae/


www.oilgae.com


Within months, the research team noticed an unusual strain of algae growing in the pools - skeletonema - a variety believed to be very useful for producing biofuel. According to Noam Menczel, Seambiotic's director of investor relations, the company's developments have stirred interest around the world, specifically in Brazil, which has become one of the champions of R&D in the area of alternative and renewable fuels. If all goes according to plan, Seambiotic plans to build its first large-scale biofuel reactor by next year and hopes to do so with a large international partner. Several potentials are already knocking on the door. Menczel reports that Seambiotic is meeting with electric plant operators from Hawaii, Singapore, Italy and India, all keen on hearing about Seambiotic's technology. (Aug 2007)69

Trident Exploration, Canada Trident Exploration Corp. is a natural gas exploration company. The company was looking at ways to reduce its CO2 emissions. Trident approached a number of companies looking for solutions, and ended up teaming up with Menova last year. Menova's Power-Spar system uses solar concentrators to focus the sun on photovoltaic solar cells, which produce electricity, and fluid-filled channels that capture the sun's heat. But the system goes one step further, capturing the sunlight and redirecting it where necessary through fibre-optic cables. What this means is that an algae farm – Menova’s photobioreactor – can be designed in a way where heat and light are concentrated in a relatively more confined area, allowing for the high-density growth of algae without the need for acres and acres of land. On top of this, any algae system using Menova's collectors can produce electricity that can be sold into the grid or, in the case of Trident, used for their own power needs. Suddenly the economics, compared to other models on the market, begin looking attractive – even in Canada. Companies that purchase such a system can earn revenues generating electricity, producing raw material for making fuels and other bioproducts, and selling carbon credits into cap-and-trade markets. In fact, Trident and Menova expect the system will reduce by half the amount of carbon emissions resulting from petroleum processing. The pilot project is expected to begin shortly, and a working commercial system is being targeted for 2010. (July 2007)70

69 http://www.israel21c.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1676:an-israeli-company-drills-for-oil-in-algae&catid=58:environment&Itemid=101 70 http://www.thestar.com/article/238672

http://www.israel21c.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1676:an-israeli-company-drills-for-oil-in-algae&catid=58:environment&Itemid=101

http://www.israel21c.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1676:an-israeli-company-drills-for-oil-in-algae&catid=58:environment&Itemid=101

http://www.thestar.com/article/238672


www.oilgae.com


EniTecnologie, Italy The objective of the EniTecnologie R&D project on microalgae biofixation of CO2 was to evaluate on pilot scale the feasibility of using fossil CO2 emitted from a NGCC power plant to produce algal biomass. The biomass would be harvested and then fermented by anaerobic digestion to methane to replace a fraction of the natural gas, with the residual sludge, containing most of the N, P and other nutrients, recycled back to the cultivation ponds. In a preliminary mass balance calculation, assuming near-theoretical productivities, a 700 ha system was projected to be able to mitigate 15% of the annual CO2 emissions from a 500 MWe NGCC power plant. The R&D focuses on how to increase the productivities of algal mass cultures under outdoor operating conditions. The target is to double biomass productivities from the currently projected 30 g (dry weight)/m2/day to 60 g (dry weight)/m2/day for peak monthly productivities, corresponding to a solar energy conversion efficiency of about 5%. This would reduce land area requirements (footprint of the process) and costs of algal biomass production. As a first step towards this goal the team set out to demonstrate the currently achievable algal biomass productivity under outdoor conditions using a simulated NGCC-flue gas for CO2 supply and two different mass cultivation systems (Sep, 2004).71 Details of another experiment at EniTechnologie in Feb 2007 Researchers at EniTecnologie in Italy conducted a field experiment of CO2 uptake by algae in a raceway pond. The tetraselmis suecica algae were supplied with CO2 from natural gas turbine flue gas. The experiment was conducted between the months of April to November and it measured the rates of production correlated to ambient temperature and available light. EniTecnologie reported growth rates as mass of dry algae produced each day per square meter of raceway. During the April to November time period, productivity ranged between 10 and 30 g/m2/day. The CO2 uptake represents roughly half the weight of the dry algae, or ~5 to 15 g CO2/m2/day.72

Kolaghat Thermal Power Plant, West Bengal, India Aug 2009 A Kolkata, India-based organization is conducting a pilot project at the Kolaghat thermal power plant and is expected to start production next.

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Paola Maria Pedroni., Gioia Lamenti., Giulio Prosperi., Luciano Ritorto., Giuseppe Scolla., Federico Capuano., Mario Valdiserri., (2004) Enitecnologie R&D Project on Microalgae Biofixation of CO2: Outdoor Comparative Tests of Biomass Productivity Using Flue Gas CO2 from A Ngcc Power Plant. , Retrieved from: http://uregina.ca/ghgt7/PDF/papers/nonpeer/075.pdf 72

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). (2006). Assessment of Post-Combustion Capture Technology Developments. Retrieved from: http://mydocs.epri.com/docs/public/000000000001012796.pdf

http://uregina.ca/ghgt7/PDF/papers/nonpeer/075.pdf

http://mydocs.epri.com/docs/public/000000000001012796.pdf


www.oilgae.com


The 1,260-MW kolaghat thermal power plant emits 15,000 T of CO2 every day. It is proposed that this gas be trapped and channelised into a pond where algae will be farmed. The company is attempting to use the CO2 from the power plant as follows: Fifty percent of the CO2 emitted is planned to be used for algal farming, 25% for farming of Spirulina, and the rest to be compressed in its uncontaminated form to produce dry ice. The oilcakes (left over after the oil is extracted) could be burnt to generate power to run this entire process. Thus, the company plans to design this into a self-sustaining technology. The power plant will be assisted by Sun Plant Agro, and plans to start commercial production of algae bio-fuel by 2010. Both West Bengal Power Development Corporation (WBPDCL) (which owns the power plant) and Sun Plant Agro will earn carbon credit for the algae project. The power plant plans to use the wastelands near the plant for algal farming. 73

MBD Energy, Australia Aug 2009 Melbourne company MBD Energy is about to introduce technology that allows algae to capture half or more of the greenhouse gases emitted by a power station, at virtually no cost to the utility. Managing director Andrew Lawson says testing at James Cook University in Townsville suggests for every two tonnes of carbon captured, the MBD technology can produce almost 1 tonne of algae, of which one-third can be made into oil products and two-thirds into meal. With meal sales about $400/tonne (rival soymeal product sells at about $780/tonne) and oil selling at $800/tonne, that equates to about $570 of revenue from each tonne of algae, or more than $250 for each tonne of CO2 captured. The first 1ha display plant of its "fuel synthesiser" is to be installed at the Loy Yang A coal-fired power station in the next six months. If the concept is proved over 6 to 12 months, MBD will move ahead to build a commercial pilot plant over 80ha. That will require a $25 million investment, but Lawson estimates that it will produce earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortisation of $15 million. If that project succeeds, the facility can quickly be scaled up to a $300m demonstration facility.

73 http://20twentytwo.blogspot.com/2009/08/algae-as-fuel.html

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Australia's largest power station, NSW's Eraring Energy, and a large-scale emitter in Queensland have signed agreements with MBD to install display plants over the next 12 months. The company says a privately funded, $1.2 billion facility could capture half of Loy Yang's carbon emissions and generate $740m of meal income a year and $660m of oil income, as well as carbon credits of about $225m, while using just 10MW of energy. It also recycles water. The process can currently capture only half a utility's emissions because it relies on sunlight to cause photosynthesis, but Lawson says more can be captured if future testing with LED lighting proves successful. $1.2 billion for a massive algae farm may sound costly, but Lawson says this is likely to be funded as a separate infrastructure project, with the utilities having the option to co-invest. Each project of that scale would create 2000 regional jobs. MBD Energy is in the process of raising about $10 million from three cornerstone investors, including an international energy company and a local carbon fund.74

Arizona Public Service Co., USA Sep 2009 Arizona Public Service Co. has landed a $70.5 million US Department of Energy grant to try to feed algae with the carbon dioxide coming from its coal-fired electricity plants. The grant will support the utility's carbon sequestration project at its Cholla Generating Station in northeastern Arizona. The project calls for the plant feed its carbon emissions to an algae pond, and that algae will be converted to biofuel. The grant comes from the DOE's roughly $1.4 billion Clean Coal Power Initiative, which has also seen applications from Duke Energy, NRG, Southern Co. and American Electric Power Co., among other utilities. At least one other project of its kind is seeking DOE funding. Algae-to-biofuel company Origin Oil said last month that it was seeking grants for a project that would see captured carbon fed into algae ponds.75

74

http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/business/story/0,28124,25938026-30538,00.html 75

http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/aps-gets-70.5m-to-feed-captured-carbon-to-algae

http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/business/story/0,28124,25938026-30538,00.html

http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/aps-gets-70.5m-to-feed-captured-carbon-to-algae


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RWE, Germany RWE has studied in detail various options for climate-beneficial recycling and trapping CO2 in order to identify potentials and obtain recommendations for action. One result of these investigations is the project launched by RWE for binding CO2 using micro-algae. RWE – together with partners – has launched a project: flue gases from the Niederaussem power station are fed into an algae production plant in the vicinity of the station to convert the CO2 from the flue gas into algae biomass. On the basis of the algae biomass thus produced, a further aim is to investigate different conversion routes for the algae involving energetic and material use, e.g. for construction materials or fuels. Flue gas is withdrawn from a power plant unit and transported through pipes to the micro-algae production plant. The CO2 contained in the flue gas is dissolved in the algae suspension and absorbed by the algae for growth. The algae are removed (harvested) and further explored for conversion into fuel and chemicals. Flue-gas withdrawal - The flue gas to provide the algae with the CO2 is withdrawn from a conventional lignite-based power-plant unit. The amount of flue gas needed is diverted downstream of the flue-gas desulphurization (FGD) system, i.e. in a state in which it is normally released into the environment. The flue gas downstream of the FGD contains high shares of water vapour. To ensure that this water vapour does not condense in and corrode the flue gas pipes, the flue gas is dried before being transported. The flue gas is then propelled with the aid of a fan through a pipe to the algae farm. Flue-gas pipe - The pipe is made of polyethylene. This plastic was selected to prevent any corrosion from the condensation of residual amounts of water vapour. The greenhouse in which the algae production system is built stands on a site adjacent to the power plant. The flue-gas pipe is approx. 750 m long in all. Bubble reactor - The flue-gas pipe ends in front of the greenhouse in which the algae production plant is located. The flue gases are fed into a so-called bubble reactor outside the greenhouse using a process from Novagreen Projektmanagement GmbH. The container has an algae suspension consisting of saltwater and the micro-algae in it. The flue gases mix with the algae suspension.


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Schematic diagram of the flue-gas link-up

Algae project data

Cooperation partners in the algae project RWE Power AG Jacobs University Bremen Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH Phytolutions GmbH

Contractors Bong, gardening firm Novagreen Projektmanagement GmbH,

Vechta, algae reactors

Location of the algae project Bergheim-Niederaussem, in immediate vicinity of RWE’s Niederaussem power plant

Pilot plants at Jacobs University Bremen and the Julich Research Centre

Link-up to power plant 750 m flue-gas pipe with compressor

Max area of photobioreactors Approx. 1000 sq.m.

Expected algae production Approx. 6 T / year dry algae biomass (on 600 sq.m)

Expected CO2 binding Approx 12 T/year from power plant flue gas (600 sq.m.)

Term for overall project 3 years

In operation since 2008

Source: RWE Power76

76 RWE Power (Jan, 2009). RWE’s Algae Project in Bergheim-Niederaussem., Production of Micro-Algae Using Power Plant Flue Gases to Bind CO2. Retrieved from:

Bubble reactor for mixing flue

gas with algae suspension

FGD

Dry cooler

Fan

Approx. 750m

Flue gas


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E-On Hanse, Germany In Nov 2007, German energy group E-On Hanse said it would build a $3.2 million pilot algae farm at its Hamburg power plant with support from the city government. From October 2005 to October 2006 Thomsen, in collaboration with Eon Ruhrgas, Essen, and Bluebio-Tech, Kollmar, carried out a feasibility study of the capture of greenhouse gases by algae. It used marine microalgae as a natural carbon dioxide sink for the flue gases of a 350-MW coal-fired power station in the Bremen precinct of Farge. The aim was to capture 1% of the total emissions of this power station in a closed reactor system within five years. Two strains of algae used as animal feed and to produce oil were used. Outcomes of the pilot experiment:

Per ton of dry matter, the algae captured about two tons of CO2 Concurrently, the production fluctuated between 0.6 and 10 tons of dry algae

mass per hectare and month, the highest yields achieved in summer Parallel to this the Bremen state government has installed a glass photo-

bioreactor in a greenhouse of the university’s ocean laboratory It’s to be used for experiments in the use of marine microalgae for renewable

primary products The Eon project is ongoing with the aim to cut production costs from one euro

per Kg of dry algae mass to 60 cents.

GreenFuel Technology, USA Source: Assessment of Post-Combustion Capture Technology Developments77

Note: Greenfuel Technology officially reported that it was closing down operations in May 2009. The details provided below are based on the data during the company’s operations prior to its closure announcement GreenFuel Technologies (www.greenfuelonline.com) - Its technology converts CO2-containing emissions from power plants into valuable biofuels using proprietary algal photobioreactors (PBRs). The company develops systems for recycling CO2 streams from power and manufacturing plant flue gases to produce biofuels and feed. It grows and harvests algae to produce byproducts, such as dry whole algae and algae oil for recycling CO2 emissions. The company has installations in gas, coal, and oil burning facilities in Arizona, Kansas, Louisiana, Massachusetts, New Mexico, and New York. GreenFuel

http://www.rwe.com/web/cms/mediablob/en/247480/data/235578/34391/rwe-power-ag/media-center/lignite/blob.pdf 77 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). (2006). Assessment of Post-Combustion Capture Technology Developments. Retrieved from: http://mydocs.epri.com/docs/public/000000000001012796.pdf

http://www.rwe.com/web/cms/mediablob/en/247480/data/235578/34391/rwe-power-ag/media-center/lignite/blob.pdf

http://www.rwe.com/web/cms/mediablob/en/247480/data/235578/34391/rwe-power-ag/media-center/lignite/blob.pdf



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Technologies Corporation was founded in 2001 and is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In Nov 2008, GreenFuel Technologies and Aurantia announced the second phase of their joint project to develop and scale algae farming technologies in the Iberian Peninsula. Initiated in December 2007 at the Holcim cement plant near Jerez, Spain, the project's goal is to demonstrate that industrial CO2 emissions can be economically recycled to grow algae for use in high-value feeds, foods and fuels. The Aurantia-GreenFuel project at Holcim consists of a series of development stages that could eventually scale to 100 hectares of algae greenhouses producing 25,000 tons of algae biomass per year. Aurantia anticipates the project will be eligible for subsidies from both regional authorities and the central government which will partially offset its development costs. Technology Description Greenfuel is a Massachusetts based start-up company that designed a biological CO2 capture system using algae in photobioreactors. The company created a new photobioreactor designed specifically to capture CO2 from flue gases and industrial processes, namely ethanol fermenters. The algae used in the bioreactors are selected specifically for the needs of each installation. The engineering principals used to design the system were based on maximizing the value of algae production. The company calls their capture process “emissions-to-biofuels.” The process begins with flue gas entering the system downstream of all other environmental controls. It is cooled and then distributed through manifolds to a series of individual inclined clear tube bioreactors that are filled with water and suspended algae. The bioreactors are oriented to receive maximum exposure to the sun. A blower is used to pull the flue gas through the reactor columns creating gas bubbles that physically mix the reactor liquid. The nature of the mixing is important to the rate of the photosynthesis reaction. In photobioreactors, the density of algae in water is significantly higher than what is found in nature. This high density makes for very poor light transmittance through the reactor tubes. By mixing the rector fluid in an ideal manner, the algae are cycled from areas of low light to areas of strong light. The company also claims that physical motion of the bubbles moving along and up the inside surface of the columns help keep the inside surface clean. As the algae mix with flue gas, they scavenge CO2 to use in their photosynthesis reaction. As the algae reproduce, the surplus is collected and removed from the bioreactor in order to maintain a relatively constant concentration of algae to water in the bioreactor. The harvested algae are passed through a two-stage dewatering process with recovered water returned to the reactors, leaving dewatered algae cake. Greenfuel refers to the process to this point as the “front end” of their system. after passing through the photobioreactor, the flue gas is exhausted to the atmosphere. Results from a prototype unit operated on flue gas during 2004 and 2005 demonstrated that the carbon dioxide in the flue gas slip stream was reduced by 82.3% ±12.5% on sunny days and 50.1% ±6.5% on cloudy days. NOx emissions dropped 85.9% ±2.1% on both sunny and cloudy days.


www.oilgae.com


According to the company, the rate of algal production for their design is 100 g/m2 per day, about five times that of a raceway. The primary application for greenfuel’s design is biofuel production. By using algae which produce high amounts of oil, the capture system can produce significant amounts of oil that can be converted to biofuels. Alternatively, different algae can be used which maximize the amount of calorific energy production. These algae can be harvested, dried and then co-fired as a renewable crop. Status of Development Greenfuel began development of their CO2 capture concept in 2001 with seed money provided through the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) entrepreneurship competition. The first demonstration of the bioreactor design took place in 2002 with a 30 cell reactor operating on a slip stream from a 20-mw natural gas fired cogeneration plant at MIT. The company describes this unit as their first-generation design. The MIT pilot-plant featured a triangular reactor geometry. In their second generation design, Greenfuel changed the photobioreactor geometry to a simple inclined tube reactor. In 2006, Greenfuel and Arizona Public Service (APS), tested a pilot unit at APS’s 1040 MW Redhawk power plant in Arlington, Arizona, west of Phoenix. The pilot plant scrubbed CO2 using algae that were selected for their high production of oils and starch. These oils were separated and converted into biofuels. A transportable demonstration unit was used which allows Greenfuel to conduct a primary site assessment of potential commercial plant sites more easily. During the summer of 2006, Greenfuel demonstrated their process using the small-scale transportable bioreactor at NRG's Dunkirk coal plant. In these tests, partially sponsored by New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA), Greenfuel characterized performance of their system on unscrubbed PRB coal. Greenfuel is also planning a small-scale demonstration and field assessment at the Kelvin power station in Johannesburg, South Africa. These tests will provide performance information to global renewable energy efficiency network who recent acquired a license to build large-scale installations of the Greenfuel technology in South Africa. Technology Challenges The Greenfuel capture process proposes an unconventional approach to CO2 capture. The early demonstration validated the plant will work on flue gas in a region with relatively hot and cold seasons (Cambridge, MA). More work is needed to understand how regional weather effects will impact the productivity and marginal cost impacts. an economic assessment of process in different embodiments (capture only, capture with cofiring, capture to biofuels) is needed to understand the cost of CO2 capture.


www.oilgae.com


Application The Greenfuel capture system is unique compared to other capture systems described in this report. The primary driver for an application would be to use the produced algae as a co-fired crop, or to use high oil algae to produce biofuels. For these applications, the greenfuel system can be simply retrofitted to a new or existing power plant firing coal or natural gas. Additional restrictions may apply based on land availability and the local weather conditions.

NRG Energy, USA April, 2007 NRG Energy and GreenFuel Technologies have started testing GreenFuel’s algae-to-biofuels technology at a 1,489 megawatt coal power plant in Louisiana. GreenFuel’s Emissions-to-Biofuels™ process uses engineered algae to capture and reduce flue gas carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions into the atmosphere. The algae can be harvested daily and converted into a broad range of biofuels or high-value animal feed supplements, according to the company. In the initial field testing, which is to last approximately four months, algae species will be selected to optimize biofuel production based on the site’s flue gas composition, local climate and geography. The ultimate goal is construction of a commercial-scale facility. A full scale commercial deployment could recycle enough CO2 to yield as much as 8,000 gallons of biodiesel per acre annually under optimum conditions, GreenFuel claimed. NRG owns a diverse portfolio of power-generating facilities, primarily in Texas and the Northeast, South Central and West regions of the United States.

11.5 Challenges while Using Algae for CO2 Capture

Provision of CO2 in Water Challenge As compared with other food crops, algae require higher concentrations of CO2 due to which more concentrated CO2 must be supplied artificially. The supply of carbon dioxide in accordance with its actual consumption by the microalgae is of great importance. The problems in supplying CO2 into the photobioreactor include:

pH and salinity of the algal culture rise due to sodium carbonate accumulation during the supply of CO2 as carbon source


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Extremely low absorption of CO2 - The main reason for the extremely low utilization of CO2 during cultivation of micro-algae in open pond is the short gas-liquid contact time caused by the shallow culture solution. Therefore the CO2 gas overflows without being absorbed sufficiently.

Efforts

There are essentially three methods of introducing carbon dioxide to the culture

system:

(1) Natural diffusion of the gas into the liquid

(2) Forced introduction of the gas via sparging or bubbling

(3) Presaturation of the liquid with carbon dioxide using a low pressure

mixing device.

There are a number of operational concerns with each of the above methods; however, they all share one significant hurdle in the tremendous volumes of gas that must be processed and the vast quantity of water required to contain the carbon dioxide at the low solubilities expected. The advantages of one method over the other are connected to the algae culture system selected (sparging and natural diffusion are ideal for open ponds, while bubbling and presaturation are ideal for PBRs).

CO2 can be bubbled into the ponds via an automated control system whereby

the CO2 was added to the medium to maintain dissolved gas levels and pH at a

constant level.

Becker (1994) reported that absorption efficiency of the CO2 was in the range 13-

20%, if CO2 was supplied in bubbles into a layer of algal culture. In a project

completed by the Department of Autotrophic Microorganisms, Czech Republic,

additional mass transfer area for the CO2 in the channel was created under

overflow of algal culture into channel from upstream growth surface.

Unabsorbed CO2 had been continuously mixed back under the overflow into the

layer of culture in channel.

Researchers at Odense University devised a photobioreactor with a minimum

maintenance requirement for continuous production of photosynthetic

microorganisms. The reactor is without moving parts and equipped with two

different spargers operated in dual sparging mode: sufficient mixing to keep the

cells in suspension is obtained by sparging with air through two single orifice

spargers which deliver large bubbles, and pure CO2 is supplied, controlled by pH,

through a perforated membrane sparger which delivers small bubbles that give

an efficient mass transfer of CO2 from gas to liquid. Separation of CO2 supply

from air for mixing by dual sparging increased the transfer of CO2 from gas phase

to liquid phase fivefold relative to conventional sparging. The photoautotrophic


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microalga Rhodomonas sp. has been produced continuously for up to 415 d with

a dilution rate of 0.6/d and a steady state cell number of 107 cells/mL. The

productivity of Rhodomonas culture in the dual sparging photobioreactor was

identical to the productivity of cultures grown with mechanical mixing.

In a project done by researchers at Department of Agricultural and Biosystems

Engineering, South Dakota State University, USA, mixing is enhanced by small

bubbles with high velocity. This also enhanced the gas transfer.

Energy intensive algae harvesting and drying Harvesting algae on a large scale poses a lot of issues, important of which is the fact that this process is quite energy- intensive and cumbersome. It . It basically remains an activity that can not be planned, scaled or rationalised, as algae have the tendency to grow and disappear suddenly. Drying is one option for the achievement of a higher biomass concentration in water However, like harvesting this is also is very energy intensive (need for heat and high pressure) and it demands around 60% of the energy content of algae Some strains with higher energy content may however,help reduce energy needs for drying, especially if the non-oil biomass residues are re-cycles for the generation of heat. Efforts

Algae growing in open pond systems can be easily harvested by simple gravity settling. The Baleen Filter, developed at the University of South Australia and inspired by baleen whales, is a biomimetic self-cleaning filtration system. As a gravity-based filter, it recovers algae from the culture medium using less energy than traditional filters. Water is poured over the filter, which screens organic material, such as algal biomass. The biomass is then cleared from the screen into a separate container using power sprayers set at an oblique angle. Baleen filters can achieve filtration down to 25 microns without the use of chemicals for treatment, or to less than 5 microns (which would accommodate the small size of microalgae) with the assistance of a chemical additive. (Condon M., 2003)78

With ARPA-E’s financial support, Univenture and Algaeventure Systems are jointly developing a new and inexpensive method for harvesting algae utilizing low energy surface chemistry properties in a mechanical-electrical device. Algae have a wide range of potential applications, such as in the production of food, feed, chemicals, plastics, and pharmaceuticals. More importantly, algae could be

78 http://www.ascension-publishing.com/BIZ/cultivating.pdf

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a rich source of feedstock for bio-fuel production. The principal obstacle to the use of algae in commercial products, including bio-fuels, is the high cost of harvesting and dewatering algae. Harvesting and dewatering are necessary to extract the energy storage molecules (lipids) contained within the algae. To date, transforming algae into a dense sludge sufficient for lipid extraction has required a multistage, energy-inefficient process consuming 30 percent to 50 percent of the total cost of algae cultivation. Univenture and Algaeventure Systems have designed and fabricated an innovative algae harvesting dewatering and drying system that is far more energy-efficient than existing techniques. If successful, this technology could dramatically reduce the energy cost necessary to harvest, dewater, dry algae and potentially transform the economics of algae-based bio-fuel production, and generate new jobs.79

ProviAPT is an aerated vertical flat panel photobioreactor. This typology has

proven to be the most efficient and is likely the only option to reach the promising high yields up to 100T/ha. Each pane has an overflow that is connected to a drain. Water, containing the right nutrients, is evenly distributed to each pane. This will rise the level in the panes above the overflow. The fully-grown algae will leave the panes trough the drain. Thus harvesting the culture. The flow pattern and the thickness of the panes is very important. They results in a good mass transfer, resulting in low energy consumption.80

Other Challenges

High Costs - There are no comprehensive and authoritative estimates for the costs of sequestering CO2 from power plants using algae. Some initial estimates question the economics of having algae sequestration of CO2, with current cultivation technologies and bioreactors. The economics of CO2 sequestration for power plants could be affected owing to the following: Large Land Requirements - Growing enough quantities of algae to capture the

massive amounts of CO2 emitted by large power plants will require very large tracts of land. Many power stations might not have the requisite area nearby. The large land requirement would also increase the capital costs for the pipes and the power used to move the gas through them. To cope with this change, the piping costs of instead of are used to approximate a more realistic situation, along with additional piping for distribution to the individual algae farm ‘modules’ and increase pumping requirements for the gas.

When one considers the full lifecycle costs for the algae-based CO2 capture, with some preliminary experiments and estimates, it is likely that the costs of capture

79 http://arpa-e.energy.gov/FundedProjects.aspx 80 http://www.proviron.com/algae/GB/algae_solution.php

http://arpa-e.energy.gov/FundedProjects.aspx

http://www.proviron.com/algae/GB/algae_solution.php


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are likely to be an order of magnitude higher than those using conventional capture methods.81

Sub-optimal Location of Power Plants - The ASP Program by NREL report concluded that flue gas sources would be a poor source for CO2 for the microalgae ponds, as power plants were not generally located in a suitable area for microalgae cultivation.

Retrofitting Immature Technology on Stable Infrastructures – Most power plants are run on decades-old, mature technologies and processes. Retrofitting an immature and evolving process such as the algae-based CO2 capture is fraught with uncertainties and risks which many power plants might not be willing to absorb.

11.6 Research and Data for Algae-based CO2 Capture

Select List of Research on Microalgae Fixation as a Process for Post-combustion CO2 Capture

Reagent / Technology

State of Development

Research/Development Organization

Description

Algae, Tetraselmis suecia

Sub-scale demonstration

EniTecnologie NGCC flue gas bubbled through open raceway pond with low rate algae – 8 month field trial

Micro-algae Sub-scale GreenFuel Bubble flue gas through photobioreactors of high-rate micro-algae for CO2, NOx removal

Cyanobacterial: nechococcus sp. Strain PCC 8806

Laboratory Idaho National Lab In photosynthetic bacteria, uptake of inorganic carbon raises pH, promoting CaCO3 precipitation

Derived from: EPRI, 2006 82

81

Abayomi O.Alabi., Martin Tampier., Eric Bibeau. (Jan, 2009) Microalgae Technologies & Processes for Biofuels/bioenergy Production in British Columbia: Current Technology, Suitability and Barriers to Implementation. Retrieved from: http://www.bcic.ca/images/stories/publications/lifesciences/microalgae_report.pdf 82

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). (2006). Assessment of Post-Combustion Capture Technology Developments. Retrieved from: http://mydocs.epri.com/docs/public/000000000001012796.pdf

http://www.bcic.ca/images/stories/publications/lifesciences/microalgae_report.pdf



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CO2 Transportation Using Pipelines Algae-based CO2 capture will require large tracts of land even using the most advanced cultivation environments. It is unlikely that such large tracts of land will be available within or right next to power plant premises. This leads to the possibility of using pipelines to transport the CO2 to a different location where the algae are cultivated. Transportation of CO2 over long distances using pipelines is a proven technology. The costs of such transportation could depend on a number of factors, and could be in the range of $2-$10 /T of CO2. For example, for a 200 km pipeline, the cost of transport for a 100 MW power plant is $8.96 per tonne, whereas for a 500 MW power plant the cost is approximately $3.17 per tonne, and for a 1000 MW power plant the cost decreases to approximately $2.04 per tonne. (Source: Carnegie Mellon University, 2005 83)

Microalgal Removal of CO2 from Flue Gases: CO2 Capture from a Coal Combustor M Olaizola, T Bridges, S Flores, L Griswold (all four from Mera Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, USA), J Morency, T. Nakamura (the two from Physical Sciences Inc., Andover, Massachusetts, USA), 200484

Composition of gas mixtures used in the simulated flue gas experiments according to the combusted material. A sixth treatment was 100% CO2

Fuel type A. Bituminous

coal

B. Sub-bituminous

coal

C. Natural

gas

D. Natural gas E. Fuel oil

Gas (wt) Utility boiler Gas Turb Comb Diesel

CO2 (%) 18.1 24.0 13.1 5.7 6.2

O2 (%) 6.6 7.0 7.6 15.9 17.0

N2 (%) 71.9 68.1 79.3 78.4 76.7

SO2 (ppm) 3504.0 929.7 0.0 0.0 113.1

NO (ppm) 328.5 174.3 95.1 22.1 169.7

NO2 (ppm) 125.9 66.8 36.5 8.5 65.0

83

Sean T. McCoy., Edward S. Rubin,(2005) Models of CO2 Transport and Storage Costs and Their Importance in CCS Cost Estimates., Fourth Annual Conference On Carbon Capture And Sequestration Doe/Netl ., May 2-5, 2005. Retrieved from: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/05/carbon-seq/Tech%20Session%20Paper%2092.pdf 84

M Olaizola, T Bridges, S Flores, L Griswold, J Morency, T. Nakamura., (2004)., Microalgal removal of CO2

from flue gases: CO2 capture from a coal combustor. Retrieved from: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/04/carbon-seq/123.pdf

http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/05/carbon-seq/Tech%20Session%20Paper%2092.pdf

http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/05/carbon-seq/Tech%20Session%20Paper%2092.pdf

http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/04/carbon-seq/123.pdf


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Typical composition of coal combustion flue gases, before and after entering the pilot scale PBR (2,000 liter) microalgal photobioreactor, are shown in Figure 11. On average, the mass calculations indicate that the microalgal culture was able to capture nearly 70% of the available CO2 when the culture was maintained at pH 7.5. Gas analysis of coal combustion gases before (IN) and after (OUT) passage through the pilot scale photobioreactor

Typical CO2 composition of propane combustion flue gases, before and after entering the full scale PBR (25,000 liter) microalgal photobioreactor, are shown in Figure 12. On average, the mass calculations indicate that the microalgal culture was able to capture about 45% of the available CO2 when the culture was maintained at pH 7.5. Concentration of CO2 in the gas stream supplied from the propane combustor into the photobioreactor (IN) and in the gas stream leaving the photobioreactor (OUT) for a 4-day period


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In this report it is shown that:

Microalgae are able to capture anthropogenic CO2 from a wide variety of simulated flue gases and from actual coal and propane combustion gases.

Microalgae are able to capture anthropogenic CO2 under a wide variety of pH and gas concentrations

The efficiency of CO2 capture by microalgae is directly dependent on the pH of the culture but is not affected by differences in gas composition.

The process is scalable to industrially significant scales.

Selection of Optimal Microalgae Species for CO2 Sequestration Eiichi Ono, Joel L. Cuello, The University of Arizona, Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA, 2003 85 Some microalgae species, such as Chlorella, Spirulina and Dunaliella have commercial values. It is expected that commercial profit from biomass production will offset overall operational costs for CO2 sequestration. Chlorella sp. has been studied for use in CO2 sequestration. For example, Hanagata et al. (1992) reported that chlorella sp. can be grown under 20% CO2 conditions. The species has been used as a health food (Becker, 1994). CO2 tolerance of Dunaliella sp. also has been examined and the species has been used in the industrial production of β-carotene (Graham and Wilcox, 2000). Further potential applications of microalgal products are the utilization of secondary metabolite, fertilizer and biofuel production. In addition to CO2 sequestration, another potential strategy to offset operational costs, is to develop multi-functional systems such as waste treatment and aquaculture farms, functions (Pedroni et al., 2001). Since economic feasibility is one of the major issues to realize biological mitigation systems, seeking additional value for the system is an important criterion. Some researchers considered the effect of trace acid gases on CO2 sequestration by microalgae, such as NOx and SO2. As a source of trace elements, both model flue gas (Maeda et al., 1995; Nagase et al., 1998; Yoshihara et al., 1996) and actual flue gas (Matsumoto et al., 1995) have been used. It is reported that Nannochloris sp. could grow under 100 ppm of nitric oxide (NO) (Yoshihara et al., 1996). Under 1000 ppm of NO and 15% CO2 concentration, Dunaliella tertiolecta could remove 51 % to 96% of nitric oxide depending on the growth condition (nagase et al., 1998). Tetraselmis sp. could grow with actual flue gas with 185 ppm of SOx and 125 ppm of NOx in addition to 14.1% CO2 (Matsumoto et al., 1995). Maeda et al (1995) examined the tolerance of a strain of Chlorella and found that the strain could grow under various combinations of trace elements and concentrations.

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Eiichi Ono., Joel L. Cuello., (2003). Selection of optimal microalgae species for CO2 sequestration, Second Annual Conference on Carbon Sequestration May 5 - 8 2003, Alexandria, VA. Retrieved from: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/03/carbon-seq/PDFs/158.pdf

http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/03/carbon-seq/PDFs/158.pdf


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Since the temperature of waste gas from thermal power stations is around 120oC, the use of thermophilic, or high temperature tolerant species are also being considered (Bayless et al., 2001). Thermophiles can grow in temperature ranging from 42-100oC. An obvious advantage of the use of thermophiles for CO2 sequestration is reduced cooling costs. In addition, some thermophiles produce unique secondary metabolites (Edwards, 1990), which may reduce overall costs for CO2 sequestration. A disadvantage is the increased loss of water due to evaporation. Cyanidium caldarium, which can grow under pure CO2, is a thermophilic species (Seckbach et al., 1971). Miyairi (1995) examined the growth characteristics of Synechococcus elongatus under high CO2 concentrations. The upper limit of CO2, concentration and growth temperature for the species was 60% CO2 and 60oC (Miyairi, 1995). Currently, an unidentified thermophilic species isolated from Yellowstone National Park has been examined by the group of researchers supported by the U.S. Department of Energy. Although less tolerant than thermophiles, some mesophiles can still be productive under relatively high temperature (Edwards, 1990). Such species also can be candidate species for the direct use of flue injection. Marine Microalgae The use of marine microalgae for biological CO2 sequestration has been considered. One reason is that seawater could be used directly as a growing media so that maintenance costs of microalgae culture could be reduced. Many CO2 sources, such as power plants, are located along the coastal area. A number of marine algae species have been tested for CO2 sequestration applications. Those marine algae species are, Tetraselmis sp. (Laws and Berning, 1991; Matsumoto et al., 1995), Synechococcus sp. (Takano et al., 1992), Chlorococcum littorale (Pesheva et al., 1994), Chlamydomonas sp. (Miura et al., 1993), Nannochloropsis salina (Matsumoto et al., 1995; Matsumoto et al., 1996) and Phaeodactylum tricornutum (Matsumoto et al., 1995). CO2 Assimilation Ability CO2 assimilation ability is a pivotal criterion in selecting algae species. Since growth conditions vary from experiment to experiment, comparison is not straightforward. A comparison of bubbling CO2 gas versus adding carbonated water as a means of introducing CO2 into the microalgal flumes was conducted. The bubbling CO2 showed 96% +/- 11% utilization efficiencies while adding carbonated water showed 81% +/- 11% efficiencies. The difference in utilization efficiencies between two methods was statistically significant (Laws and Berning, 1991). Light Condition Light condition, especially light intensity, is an important factor because the light energy drives photosynthesis. Typical light intensity requirements of microalgae are relatively low in comparison to higher plants. For example, saturating light intensity of chlorella sp. and scenedesmus sp. is approximately 200 µmol/sec/m2 (Hanagata et al., 1992).


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Microalgae often exhibit photoinhibition under excess light conditions. Photoinhibition is often suspected as the major cause of reducing algal productivity. The use of a photobioreactor with a solar collector device for the CO2 mitigation has been explored. Maximum light intensity of 15.7 w/m2 could be attained using the system, and the culture of Chlorella sp. could be maintained. The efficiency of light collection and transmission to the algal cells was 8% (Hirata 1996a). Recently, improvements are being made to the solar collecting devices. For example, Oak Ridge National Laboratory has been developing hybrid lighting systems (Muhs, 2000). The system can utilize infrared heat as well as visible light. In addition, artificial lighting is combined so that lighting is possible when there is no natural sunlight. The use of such novel solar collecting and distributing devices would improve CO2 sequestration efficiency. Chlorella sp. could be maintained. The efficiency of light collection and transmission to the algal cells was 8% (Hirata 1996a). Recently, improvements are being made to the solar collecting devices. For example, Oak Ridge National Laboratory has been developing hybrid lighting systems (Muhs, 2000). The system can utilize infrared heat as well as visible light. In addition, artificial lighting is combined so that lighting is possible when there is no natural sunlight. The use of such novel solar collecting and distributing devices would improve CO2 sequestration efficiency.

Carbon Dioxide Sequestering Using Microalgal Systems Source: Carbon Dioxide Sequestering Using Microalgal Systems - Final Report - (For the period April 15, 1998, through November 30, 2001) - Prepared for: AAD Document Control, U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, PA86

One option is carbon dioxide capture and subsequent sequestration into the deep ocean, aquifers or depleted oil and gas wells. However, this is an expensive option (potentially more than doubling the cost of electrical generation via fossil fuels) with no opportunity for profit to displace the cost (Benemann, 1993). Another option would be to utilize the carbon dioxide. For example, Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC) is gaining acceptance as a replacement for titanium dioxide or kaolin in the manufacture of paper products. PCC is made by controlling the reaction of carbon dioxide with lime. Carbon dioxide can also be utilized in the following industries: plastics, paint, construction materials, solvents, cleaning compounds, and packaging. However, most of these industries would consume minute quantities of carbon dioxide when compared to the overall amount released annually into the atmosphere (Lipinsky, 1992). Other methods that limit the amount of carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere include chemical absorption of CO2 from power plant flue gas, the use of alternative fuels such as natural gas and hydrogen that result in reduced emissions of carbon dioxide, and the use of alternative or renewable energy sources such as wind, solar,

86 http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/882000-St23VC/882000.pdf

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nuclear, and geothermal. Limited remaining natural gas reserves do not allow for widespread fuel switching to that resource in the power production industry. Additionally, problems with alternative energy sources include cost, space requirement per unit of energy produced, safety issues, and waste disposal. Problems such as these must be overcome before alternative energy options will be accepted as substitutes for oil and coal. Biological fixation of carbon dioxide is an attractive option because plants naturally capture and use carbon dioxide as a part of the photosynthetic process. Terrestrial plants sequester vast amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. However, because of the relatively small percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (approximately 0.036%), the use of terrestrial plants is not an economically feasible option. on the other hand, discharge gases from heavy industries commonly contain carbon dioxide levels significantly higher than that found in the atmosphere (10%-20%). Therefore, it would be wise to develop strategies to limit this value. Biofixation of CO2 using microalgae has emerged as a potential option. Microalgae have the advantages of efficient photosynthesis superior to C4 plants (those plants that form four carbon stable intermediates in the photosynthetic process; generally associated with agricultural and large terrestrial plants), fast proliferation rates, wide tolerance to extreme environments, and potential for intensive cultures. These advantages promise high performance in the reduction of carbon dioxide (Kurano et al., 1996). Once harvested, microalgae can serve as a product to offset some of the costs that have been incurred. Potential uses for the algae include biodiesel, biofuel for use in electricity production, fodder for livestock, food and chemicals, colorants, perfumes, and vitamins (Michiki, 1995). Data for carbon dioxide uptake were more limited than the growth data. Watanabe and Hall (1995) reported a carbon fixation rate of 14.6 g C / m2 (basal area)/day at a growth rate of 30.2 g dry wt/m2/day. Kurano and coworkers reported a range of 0.65-4.0 g CO2/l/day at growth rates of 0.4–2.5 g dry wt/l/day. Results were corroborated using direct measurements of the inlet and outlet gas streams and indirectly estimated from the carbon content of the cell and the cell growth rate. Mass Transfer of CO2 into Water The amount of flue gas a cultivation pond accumulates depends upon the solubility of the flue gas components in water. The target flue gas is carbon dioxide, but the others (sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, oxygen, etc.) must be simultaneously considered. The below table lists the solubilities of some major flue gas constituents in water (Dean, 1992).


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Solubilities of Flue Gas Components

Component Gas Temperature, ºC Solubility, cc/mL H2O

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)1

0 1.713

20 0.878

60 0.359

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)2

0 79.789

20 39.374

40 18.766

Nitric Oxide (NO)1

0 0.07381

20 0.04706

60 0.02954

1: Measured at standard conditions (0ºC and 760 mm Hg) – pressure of the gas without the water vapour

is 760 mm Hg

2: Measured at standard conditions (0ºC and 760 mm Hg) - pressure of the gas plus water vapour is 760 mm Hg

The combination of gas lift mixing and carbonation requires matching of the mixing system performance to constraints set by the carbonation. Airlift efficiency increases with increases in liquid velocity. However, the injection efficiency of CO2 increases only with gas bubble rise time, which decreases as liquid velocity increases unless the height of rise is made greater. When carbon dioxide is recycled from the digester flue gases and mixed with pure CO2, a good match is achieved between transfer and mixing needs during times of maximum carbon demand. The most promising possibility for combining processes would be to supply carbon dioxide as flue gas over 24 hours during the high-productivity months but only over 12 hours when productivity is lower. During these times, air would substitute for the flue gas at night, when mixing speeds could be lower, reducing power input. Efforts were then made to obtain selected cultures of microalgae that had been reported to be resistant to higher levels of SOx and NOx, as reported in the literature. These include Monoraphidium and Nannochloropsis (National Renewable Energy Laboratory [NREL] strains - monor02 and nanno02). Assuming a CO2 uptake rate of 2 g/l/day, a total CO2 capture of 3418 TPD (932 TPD carbon), and a pond depth of 0.9 m (3 ft), the total surface area required for photosynthesis would be approximately 418 acres. Assuming a construction cost of $40,000/acre for ponds of compacted clay liners with four mixers/acre and associated plumbing, the estimated pond capital cost is approximately $17,000,000.


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Enhanced Algal CO2 Sequestration through Calcite Deposition by Chlorella sp. and Spirulina platensis in a Mini-raceway Pond Biological CO2 sequestration using algal reactors is one of the most promising and environmentally benign technologies to sequester CO2. This research study was taken up to alleviate certain limitations associated with the technology such as low CO2 sequestration efficiency and low biomass yields. The study demonstrates an increase in CO2 sequestration efficiency by maneuvering chemically aided biological sequestration of CO2. Chlorella sp. and Spirulina platensis showed 46% and 39% mean fixation efficiency, respectively, at input CO2 concentration of 10%. The effect of acetazolamide, a potent carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, on CO2 sequestration efficiency was studied to demonstrate the role of carbonic anhydrase in calcite deposition. The overall scheme of calcite deposition coupled CO2 fixation with commercially utilizable biomass as a product seems a viable option in the efforts to sequester increasing CO2 emissions. Rishiram Ramanan, Krishnamurthi Kannan, Ashok Deshka, Raju Yadav and Tapan Chakrabarti, 2010. Enhanced algal CO2 sequestration through calcite deposition by Chlorella sp. and Spirulina platensis in a mini-raceway pond. Biosource Technology, 101 (2616-22).

Optimization of Environmental Conditions to Maximize Carbon Dioxide Sequestration through Algal Growth

The micro-alga Chlorella vulgaris was cultivated under a variety of environmental conditions in various culture media solutions to optimize growth rate and biomass productivity. Efforts during this work investigated growth at the micro-scale in an air-lift bubble system with the goal of interpreting performance characteristics for application to a larger tubular Photo-bioreactor. Maximum growth rates and biomass yields were 0.65/d and 2.003 g biomass/L and achieved in seven days using urea in de-ionized water under a 24:0 Photoperiod (Light:Dark). Additionally, growth rates and biomass yields of 0.65 d-1 and 1.964 g biomass/L were achieved over the same time period using commercial fertilizers in Charcoal Filtered Tap Water, indicating that the alga is robust and tolerant of a wide range of environmental conditions, including nutrient composition and water type. CO2 tolerance was investigated to determine the utility of the alga in power plant flue gas remediation schemes. The alga grew in all CO2-in-Air concentrations between ambient air and 50% CO2 with maximum growth occurring at concentrations between ambient levels and 20% CO2-in-Air. Greatest growth was observed in the culture using 15% CO2-in-Air, indicating this particular alga may be appropriate for power plant flue gas remediation (13-16% CO2 in flue gas).

Karcher, Kenneth M, 2010. Optimization of Environmental Conditions to Maximize Carbon Dioxide Sequestration Through Algal Growth.


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11.7 Algae-based CO2 Capture - Factoids Some pertinent data related to algae-based CO2 capture are provided in the table

below:

Amount of CO2 required the cultivation of 1 T of algae ( in T) 1.8

Amount of CO2 emitted by a coal plant per MWh (in T) 0.9

Yield of algal biomass per hectare per day (1) (in T) 0.3-1

1: The varying yields correspond to different culture conditions, such as in open ponds, closed ponds and photobioreactors. The estimates are approximate and could vary depending on algal strains used.

During their ASP program research, the team estimated that CO2 recovery from

existing processes was relatively lower in cost from ethanol and ammonia plants, and much more expensive from cement, refineries, or power plants

Production of marine unicellular algae from power plant flue gas - In order to have

an optimal yield, these algae need to have CO2 in large quantities in the basins or bioreactors where they grow. Thus, the basins and bioreactors need to be coupled with traditional thermal power centers producing electricity which produce CO2 at an average tenor of 13% of total flue gas emissions. The CO2 is put in the basins and is assimilated by the algae. It is thus a technology which recycles CO2 while also treating used water. In this sense, it represents an advance in the environmental domain, even if it remains true that CO2 produced by the centers would be released in the atmosphere by the combustion of biodiesel in buses and cars. Diatoms, which millions of years ago helped create the conditions necessary for the formation of hydrocarbons consumed today, will be useful to us a second time.

Some researchers considered the effect of trace acid gases on CO2 sequestration by

microalgae, such as NOx and SO2. As a source of trace elements, both model flue gas (Maeda et al., 1995; Nagase et al., 1998; Yoshihara et al., 1996) and actual flue gas (Matsumoto et al., 1995) have been used. It is reported that Nannochloris sp. could grow under 100 ppm of nitric oxide (NO) (Yoshihara et al., 1996). Less than 1000 ppm of NO and15% CO2 concentration, Dunaliella tertiolecta could remove 51% to 96% of nitric oxide depending on the growth condition (Nagase et al., 1998). Tetraselmis sp. could grow with actual flue gas with 185 ppm of SOx and 125 ppm of NOx in addition to 14.1% CO2 (Matsumoto et al., 1995). Maeda et al (1995) examined the tolerance of a strain of Chlorella and found that the strain could grow under various combinations of trace elements and concentrations. According to Geva Technologies (South Africa), direct use of flue gas reduces the cost of pre-treatment, but the high concentration of CO2 and the presence of SOx and NOx inhibit the growth of cyanobacteria and other microalgae


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CO2 mitigation from photosynthetic microbes - Reported here are results of a privately funded US$20 million program that has engineered, built, and successfully operated a commercial-scale (2 ha), modular, production system for photosynthetic microbes. The production system couples photobioreactors with open ponds in a two-stage process - a combination that was suggested, but never attempted - and has operated continuously for several years to produce Haematococcus pluvialis. The annually averaged rate of achieved microbial oil production from H. pluvialis is equivalent to <420 GJ ha -1 yr-1, which exceeds the most optimistic estimates of biofuel production from plantations of terrestrial ``energy crops.'' The maximum production rate achieved to date is equivalent to 1014 GJ ha-1 yr-1. Evidence is presented to demonstrate that a rate of 3200 GJ ha-1 yr-1 is feasible using species with known performance characteristics under conditions that prevail in the existing production system. At this rate, it is possible to replace reliance on current fossil fuel usage equivalent to 300 EJ yr-1 - and eliminate fossil fuel emissions of CO2 of 6.5 GtC yr-1 - using only 7.3% of the surplus arable land projected to be available by 2050. By comparison, most projections of biofuels production from terrestrial energy crops would require in excess of 80% of surplus arable land. Oil production cost is estimated at $84/bbl, assuming no improvements in current technology. Enhancements that could reduce cost to $50/bbl or less are suggested (CO2 Mitigation and Renewable Oil from Photosynthetic Microbes87

One calculation showed that 1600 giga-watt power plants converted to algae production could manufacture enough ethanol and biodiesel to replace the US annual consumption of 146 billion gallons of gasoline. Replacing convention diesel too would increase this requirement to over 2000 giga-watt sized power plants—or twice the number of suitably located major plants. Smaller facilities or other industries might conceivably close the gap - (David zaks et al,2007)88

A different perspective for algae-based CO2 sequestration - Although recycling

carbon from power generation for transportation would be a huge advance, it could slow the transition to a truly sustainable economy by prolonging dependence on fossil fuels. A 50% emission reduction would no doubt be a great victory, and one we would likely accept from anything less uncharismatic than coal. Any net carbon emissions to the atmosphere, however, are unsustainable in the long run.

In October 2004, a report from the testing firm CK Environmental indicated that

during a measuring period of 7 days for emissions, the bioreactors reduced nitrogen oxides by 85.9% (+/-2.1%); reduced CO2 by 82.3% (+/-12.5%) on sunny days, and by 50.1% (+/-6.5%)on overcast or rainy days. Previous systems using algae managed to

87

Mark E. Huntley and Donald G. Redalje (2006) CO2 Mitigation and Renewable Oil from Photosynthetic Microbes: A New Appraisal, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Springer 2006. Retrieved from: http://www.hrbp.com/PDF/Huntley%20&%20Redalje%202006.pdf 88 http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/006025.html

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reduce CO2 emissions by 5% and NOx emissions by 70%. The system can be used in latitudes where solar exposure is weak, albeit with relatively reduced efficiency. It is theoretically possible to achieve 90% CO2 capture, but financial and technological constraints must be taken into account to reach such levels. Nevertheless, this bioreactor already constitutes a considerable technological advance.

In Lake Elsinore, Calif., BioCentric Energy will collaborate with Southern Pacific

Energy Inc. to deliver its carbon dioxide reduction and algae growth solution for biodiesel production, as well as residue gasification process to produce electricity (Oct 2008)

In Wuhan, China, through a joint venture BioCentric Energy will work with a coal-

fired steel facility to implement its carbon dioxide reduction/algae growth solution for biodiesel production, and residue gasification process to produce electricity (Oct 2008)

In Orange County, Texas, BioCentric Energy will collaborate with joint venture

partner Petroleum Equipment Institute, which purchased 54 acres owned by a prior Exxon refinery, to implement a project involving the development of two acres of both covered and non-covered algae canals to absorb carbon dioxide emissions and produce biodiesel and electricity (Oct 2008).

Much work has been done on the effect of different flue gas constituents on

microalgal growth rates and carbon dioxide fixation. Typical power plant flue gases have carbon dioxide levels ranging from 10%–15%. At the typical carbon dioxide percentages, microalgae show no signs of significant growth inhibition. Furthermore, studies have shown that microalgae respond better to increased carbon dioxide concentrations, outgrowing (on a biomass basis) microalgae exposed to only ambient air (Maeda et al., 1995; Brown, 1996).

In some experiments, it was estimated that the average yearly productivity of

unicellular marine algae on flue gas in open ponds ~20 g/m2/day The pH of the culture medium is an important factor in algal cultivation. It can

determine the solubility and availability of CO2 and minerals in the culture (Bunt 1971 Raven 1980)

It is known that growth of algae is positively influenced at all levels of CO2 increase.

(Lee and Lee 2003). Strains that grow well at CO2 concentrations of 5-10% show drastic decreases in their growth rate above 20% (Watanabe et al. 1992).

Mark Capron of PODenergy has a plan to establish giant "forests" of kelp seaweed at

the surface of the ocean. These would be harvested and placed in large plastic bags suspended in the sea. Natural bacteria in the bags would digest the kelp, breaking it


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down into CO2 and methane. The two gases would be separated, with the CO2 sent to the deep ocean for permanent storage and the methane piped to the surface for use as a renewable heating and cooking fuel

In July 2009, Algenol partnered with Dow Chemical. The companies announced plans

to build and operate a demonstration plant on 24 acres of property at Dow's sprawling Freeport, TX, manufacturing site. The plant will consist of 3,100 horizontal bioreactors, each about 5 feet wide and 50 feet long and capable of holding 4,000 liters. The bioreactors are essentially troughs covered by a dome of semitransparent film and filled with salt water that has been pumped in from the ocean. The photosynthetic algae growing inside are exposed to sunlight and fed a stream of carbon dioxide from Dow's chemical production units

In June 2009, a US Department of Energy program announced that chemical

companies and other industrial sources of greenhouse gas emissions are eligible for $1.3 billion in grants for large-scale carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) demonstration projects. The same announcement also offered $100 million in funding for demonstrations of beneficial uses of CO2, such as using it to grow algae or converting it to fuel or chemicals. The announcement also says that DOE's targets for the grants are projects that are integrated into the plant's operations and are designed to capture and sequester 1 million tons of CO2 per plant per year by 2015.

Renewed World Energies (RWE) wanted to clean up power plant and industrial plant emissions using algae and then have the algae turn the CO2 captured to generate both oil and a cake product. In June 2009, RWE will be building its first facility in Georgetown County, South Carolina. The company grows several different strains of algae and has a proprietary automated harvesting technology. RWE recently announced a process that captures the CO2 and nitrous oxide from smokestacks to grow algae

In May 2009, Cynthia J. Warner, president of Sapphire Energy, testified before the

full U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works Hearing on ‘Business Opportunities and Climate Policy’ to ensure that upcoming Cap and Trade legislation included a proper ‘carbon accounting’ for emerging and proven algae-based fuel.

In May 2009, the company BioProcessAlgae has been awarded a $2.1 million grant

from the state of Iowa to build the first photobioreactor systems attached to an industrial plant in the United States. The pilot project, which is supposed to be installed by the fall of this year, would capture CO2 from a Green Plains corn ethanol plant in Shenadoah, Iowa, and use it to grow algae.


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MRI’s Center for Integrated Algal Research89- MRI’s Center for Integrated Algal

Research focuses on research and technology development associated with identifying and optimizing algal species for carbon dioxide sequestration and biofuel production. MRI scientists and engineers have expertise in:

Isolating and purifying algal seed cultures Optimizing growth kinetics Integrating processing technologies (harvesting, de-watering, oil extraction,

refining) for scale-up Operating and maintaining open, closed and hybrid algal production systems Identifying and eliminating bioreactor contamination Recovering and processing algal products for other sustainable applications Integrating instrumentation to monitor system performance in algal culture

systems Characterizing algal species (expression profiling , lipid, protein, phylogenetic

analysis, gene sequencing) Providing carbon sequestration test and evaluation Conducting studies for bioprocess mass and energy balance and economic

feasibility Designing and constructing algae bioreactor systems Bioprospecting native algae species to determine suitability for specific

applications. (e.g. evaluation of algae in a wastewater treatment facility)

89 www.mriresearch.org

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11.8 Algae Cultivation Coupled with CO2 from Power Plants – Q&A

What is the approximate cost of cultivating algae next to power plants for CO2 capture and biofuel production? As of Apr 2010, there are no reliable cost estimates available, as currently these efforts are in research and pilot stages.

Is there a possibility of heavy metal contamination in algae due to their presence in the flue gases? Yes. The possibility exists because most of the absorption of toxic metals by algae is of the passive type.

How do the constituents other than CO2 in flue gas from power plants affect algal growth? Sulfur oxides, particularly SO2, can have a significant effect on the growth rates and health of the microalgae. Of greatest concern is the effect SO2 has on the pH of the microalgal growth medium. When the SO2 concentration reaches 400 ppm, the pH of the medium can become lower than 4 in less than a day, which significantly affects the productivity of the microalgae. However, if the pH is maintained at 8 using NaOH, the productivity does not decrease (Matsumoto et al., 1997). Other researchers have demonstrated tolerances to sulfur oxides at approximately half of what Matsumoto and coworkers (1997) demonstrated (Brown, 1996; Zeiler et al., 1995). Nannochloris sp. (NANNO02) was found to be resistant to 50 ppm SO2, but without pH control, 300 ppm SO2 inhibited growth within 20 hours (Negoro et al., 1991). Nitrogen oxides also comprise a significant portion of power plant flue gas. As with the sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides can affect the pH of the algal medium, but to a lesser degree. Microalgae have been shown to tolerate and grow in a medium containing 240 ppm NOx, with pH adjustment. Brown (1996) and Zeiler and coworkers (1995) also demonstrated that microalgae are not growth inhibited by the presence of 150 ppm NO. Negoro and coworkers (1991) found that NANNO02 grew in the presence of 300 ppm NO after a considerable lag time. A point of interest is that the nitrogen oxides can serve as a nitrogen source for the microalgae. NO is absorbed into the medium and oxidized into NO2 in the presence of oxygen (Negoro et al., 1991). The greater the oxygen contents of the medium, the greater the NO2 production and microalgal productivity rates (Matsumoto et al., 1997; Brown, 1996). However, the presence of elevated concentrations of oxygen results in algal photorespiration, which inhibits microalgal growth.


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The effect of soot dust and ash containing heavy metals has received limited attention. Matsumoto and coworkers (1997) confirmed that when soot dust concentration is greater than 200,000 mg/m3 (0.2 g/L), algal productivity is influenced. It is rare for the soot dust concentration to reach such an elevated value since it is most commonly on the order of 50 mg/m3. The same argument can be applied to the presence of trace heavy metals. Higher concentrations can affect algal productivity, but only in rare situations will the concentrations exceed those that will result in a significant impact.

Will NOx present in the flue gas serve as a nutrient, in addition to the CO2? Flue gas supplies the carbon dioxide and has the ability to supply some of the nitrogen (from nitrogen oxide; it absorbs SO2 as well). However, it has been demonstrated that the nitrogen contribution from the flue gas is insufficient to maintain stable growth rates (Weissman and Tillett, 1992). Therefore, nitrogen (along with phosphorus and trace nutrients) needs to be added and maintained as necessary with proper engineering.

Can algae withstand the high temperatures in the flue gases? In a commercial application, flue gas from the desulphurization scrubbers would be sent to the CO2 sequestration ponds for treatment. Temperatures exiting the scrubbers at many coal power stations are 140°F (60°C) and above – this could reach even upwards of 100oC. Although most organisms cannot survive at these higher temperatures, some cyanophycean algae have been shown to grow at 176°F (80°C). Since the temperature of waste gas from thermal power stations is high, the use of thermophilic, or high temperature tolerant species are also being considered (Bayless et al., 2001). Themophiles can grow in temperature ranging from 42-100oC. An obvious advantage of the use of thermophilies for CO2 sequestration is reduced cooling costs. In addition, some thermophiles produce unique secondary metabolites (Edwards, 1990), which may reduce overall costs for CO2 sequestration. A disadvantage is the increased loss of water due to evaporation. Cyanidium caldarium, which can grow under pure CO2 is a thermophilic species (Seckbach et al., 1971). Miyairi (1995) examined the growth characteristics of Synechococcus elongatus under high CO2 concentrations. The upper limit of CO2, concentration and growth temperature for the species was 60% CO2 and 60ºC (Miyairi, 1995). Currently, an unidentified thermophilic species isolated from Yellowstone National Park has been examined by the group of researchers supported by the U.S. Department of Energy. Although less tolerant than thermophiles, some mesophiles can still be productive under relatively high temperature (Edwards, 1990). Such species also can be candidate species for the direct use of flue injection.


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What is amount of CO2 required for algae growth?

It is estimated that approximately 2 T of CO2 will be required to produce one T of algal biomass.

Can we grow macroalgae for power plant CO2 sequestration? Macroalgae cultivation in marine environments have been studied as a possible means of large scale CO2 sequestration, and many experts think that this avenue has good potential. A study has even estimated that a combination of micro- and macroalgae grown in open oceans could sequester between 0.7 to 3 gigatons (billion tons) of carbon per year from the atmosphere, at an estimated cost of $5 to 300 per T of carbon. However, limited research has been done on growing macroalgae next to power plants for CO2 sequestration. These researches have suggested that there are some disadvantages in using macroalgae for CO2 sequestration, specifically in the context of the ability of macroalgae to survive in power plant flue gas. For instance, a patent by Friedlander et al, Israel Oceanographic & Limnological Research, National Institute of Oceanography (Feb 1996), suggests that Gracilaria cultures (a genus of macroalgae) did not survive more than 2-8 weeks in the power plant effluents during the one-year-long repeated experiments. The major reason was the high accumulation of copper, iron, lead and chromium from the power plant effluents as compared to concentrations in Gracilaria cultured in ambient seawater.

What are the major problems faced by companies implementing algae based CO2 sequestration techniques near power plants? Some of the major problems with algae based CO2 sequestration technology are:

The high cost of implementing the sequestration infrastructure The limited availability of land space near power plants for building algae

systems There are some specific operational problems as well, which could result in

significant inefficiencies. For instance, high CO2 concentrations could cause the algae suspension to become acidic, thereby stunting algae growth.

Can power plants use waste water from their facilities for growing algae? Power plants may not be able to use waste water from their facilities. In the power plant industry, large volumes of water are used by cooling systems. Water is also used in the FGD (Flue Gas Desulfurization) plant, boiler cleaning, ash transport, demineraliser plant regeneration, and water also accumulates from coal stockpile run-offs. As a


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consequence, the effluent from power plant industry has higher temperature and also has heavy metals such as chlorine, copper, aluminum, mercury and phosphorus. It is difficult to grow algae in these effluents. However, some strains that have tolerance to heavy metal contamination and high temperature could possibly be grown.

What are the methods by which flue gas can be cooled before passing it into algae systems? Studies have found that direct cooling with no heat exchangers using cooling towers and mechanical chillers, is the most efficient and low cost cooling method of cooling the flue gas.

Is it necessary that algae ponds need to be constructed right next to power plants? Construction of algae systems near power plants is mostly preferred for the reduced capital costs, which will otherwise be required for putting up the pipelines for CO2 transportation from the power plant to algae cultivation systems.

What is the average area required for the construction of algae ponds for each power plant? Efforts at putting up algae-based CO2 sequestration systems near power plants are in a nascent stage. Hence only preliminary data are available regarding areas required and their attendant costs. Some initial research done at universities and during pilot projects suggest that it could take an open pond of about 8 square miles (5120 acre pond) to produce enough algae to remove carbon dioxide from a midsized — 500 MW — power plant.

11.9 Prominent CO2 Emitting Industries Globally about 36% of all carbon dioxide emissions are from the manufacturing industry, 40% from buildings and appliances and 24% from transport. The list of industries is as follows:

Coal Burning and Natural Gas Power Plants Petrochemicals Iron & Steel Cements Sugar Tyres Carbon Black


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Mining Aluminium Paper Inorganic Chemicals Fertilizers Breweries

11.10 Status of Current CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS) Technologies CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS), also known as CO2 sequestration, is a concept that is being explored by many CO2 emitting power plants and industries worldwide. It is hoped that once an optimal CCS has been designed, a significant portion of the CO2 that is emitted into the atmosphere can be captured and locked in, thus reducing the overall amount of CO2 available in the atmosphere. As of 2009, CCS is the only technology known to be able to capture emissions from existing CO2 emitters. These comprise not only fossil fuel power plants, but also other industrial processes such as steel, cement, oil and gas among others. There are three stages in the CCS process:

1. Capturing the CO2 2. Transportation of CO2 to the storage location 3. Storing of the CO2

CO2 Capture The three primary methods by which CO2 capture is attempted, especially at power plants, are:

Pre-combustion Capture Oxy-combustion Technology Post Combustion Capture

Pre-combustion Capture In pre-combustion CO2 capture, the fuel is pre-treated and converted into a mix of CO2 and hydrogen, from which CO2 is separated. The hydrogen is then burned to produce electricity or fuel. In gas fuelled systems, the feedstock is reformed (with steam alone or a steam/O2 mixture) to give a mixture rich in H2 and CO2. In systems with solid or liquid feedstocks,


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these are gasified (with air, O2 and/or steam) to give a synthesis gas (syngas) which is shifted to again give a gas rich in CO2 and H2. For non-gaseous feedstocks, the gas stream must generally be cleaned to remove elements such as sulphur, nitrogen (cyanides and ammonia), chlorides and others which either pose a threat to hardware or which are regulated by environment regulations. Trace species are usually removed in physical solvent or mixed-solvent based systems. Independent of the feedstock, it is then necessary to separate the CO2 from the H2, typically using a physical or mixed solvent system, although the separation could also potentially be achieved using membranes. The CO2 is then dried, compressed and sent for storage, while the hydrogen-rich gas passes to a gas turbine (or, potentially, a fuel cell) to generate power.

Oxy-combustion Technology The oxy-combustion or oxy-fuel firing technology involves replacement of combustion air with a mixture of CO2 rich flue gas recycle and near pure oxygen for combustion. This produces a flue stream of CO2 and water vapour without nitrogen. From this stream the CO2 is relatively easily removed. The oxygen required for the combustion is extracted from air. An Air Separation Unit (ASU) is required to supply a stream of near pure oxygen into the flue gas recycle for the combustion process. A major part of the flue gas has to be recycled back to the boiler plant for providing a primary Flue Gas Recycle (FGR) stream to transport pulverised fuel and a secondary Oxyfuel flue gas recycle to the burners and furnace. The resulting flue gas from an Oxyfuel boiler is predominantly CO2 and water with trace elements such as NOx and SO2. The CO2 rich flue gas needs to be cleaned and dried prior to compression for storage or other uses. The most widely considered technology for oxygen production is cryogenic air separation. The auxiliary power consumption of a cryogenic air separation unit is high and has a major impact on the overall efficiency of the power plant. Integration of the heat cycle of plants fitted with Oxyfuel capture is essential to minimise the impact on the overall plant efficiency.

Post Combustion Capture The most widely considered technology for post-combustion capture involves the use of chemical solvents typically a form of amine - which reacts with the CO2 in the flue gas from a normal combustion process and is subsequently regenerated at a higher temperature, producing a purified CO2 stream suitable for compression and storage.


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Other capture technologies, based on flue-gas refrigeration or the use of other capture solvents such as chilled aqueous ammonia are also under consideration but are not currently as close to deployment. For amine-based systems, the flue gas needs to be pre-treated to reduce acid gas (NO2 and SO2) concentrations to extremely low levels to prevent these reacting irreversibly with the solvents, then cooled either in a heat exchanger or by direct contact with the amine in a scrubber column. The CO2-rich solvent is then passed to a stripping column where it is heated in a reboiler to drive off the CO2 and the amine is recirculated. The scrubbing plant required to treat flue gas is physically large, with typically two scrubbers and one stripper associated with a 500 MW power plant, and therefore a significant footprint.

CO2 Capture Processes for the Various Power Generation Processes The following are the CO2 capture processes for the various power generation processes: For pulverised fuel (PF) combustion steam cycles

Post combustion amine scrubbing Oxy-combustion

For coal gasification combined cycles (IGCC)

Pre-combustion solvent scrubbing (shift followed by physical solvent) Natural gas combined cycles

Post combustion amine scrubbing Pre-combustion reforming and solvent scrubbing

Status of CO2 Capture Technologies Many of the capture technologies mentioned above are based on those that have been applied in the chemical and refining industries for decades, but the integration of these technologies in the context of power production still needs to be fully demonstrated. As of the beginning of 2009, no carbon capture plant has been applied to a power station at fully commercial scales. As of mid-2009, there are a number of new-build IGCC plants under consideration, particularly in North America.

CO2 Transportation For large-scale CO2 transportation, currently pipelines are the primary option, although shipping is also a possibility.


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Transportation of CO2 over long distances through pipelines has proven successful for more than 30 years in parts of the US. The central US has for instance over 5000 km of such pipelines used to transport CO2 for the Enhanced Oil Recovery process in which CO2 is injected into oil fields to increase oil production.

CO2 Storage CO2 storage is possible, amongst other options, in various types of formations. In terms of experience, CO2 storage projects have been operational worldwide for at least ten years, e.g., in Sleipner (Norway), Weyburn (Canada), and Salah (Algeria). The industry can also build on the knowledge obtained through the geological storage of natural gas, a practice followed for decades. The CO2 storage options being considered are:

Depleted oil and gas fields leading to enhanced oil recovery Natural underground formations containing salty water, known as deep saline

aquifers. Storing CO2 in unmineable coal beds

Less prominent methods being explored:

Ocean sequestration Mineral sequestration Biological sequestration

Depleted Oil and Gas Fields Leading to Enhanced Oil Recovery The petroleum industry has long used CO2 injection to get more oil from depleted reservoirs. If the pressure is high enough in these formations, the CO2 and oil become completely miscible, leading to highly efficient oil recovery. Similarly, natural gas fields have shown that they can store gases for millions of years; thus they are promising targets for CO2 sequestration. Saline Aquifers There are efforts underway to sequester CO2 through geologic sequestration in deep-saline aquifers. In the sequestration process, CO2 captured from power plants or other emissions would be pumped into deep-saline aquifers to isolate it from the atmosphere. These aquifers are unsuitable as resources for drinking water. The depths of these aquifers provide pressures high enough to keep the CO2 supercritical - in a single fluid phase with physical properties similar to those of a liquid rather than a gas. Some CO2 will become dissolved in the aquifer and can react with other dissolved salts in the brines and wall rocks to form carbonate minerals that will permanently fix part of the CO2 as a rock.


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Sequestration in saline aquifers has the advantages of permanence (by fixation of CO2 into carbonate minerals) and high capacity - in many countries, there are many deep-saline aquifers spread throughout the country), with some of them located in regions with large coal-fired power plants. CCS in deep saline aquifers has been implemented full- scale at the Sleipner gas field in Norway. At the offshore gas field Sleipner, in the middle of the North Sea, about 1 million ton of CO2 has been injected per year into saline aquifer formations since 1996 without leakage. Unminable Coal Beds The gas storage mechanism in coal seams – called adsorption - is distinctively different from the mechanism in oil and gas reservoirs and aquifers, where injected CO2 occupies the pore space as a separate phase or is dissolved in water or oil. Over the last two decades Coalbed Methane (CBM) has become an important source of (unconventional) natural gas supply in some countries, including the United States. Carbon dioxide Enhanced Coalbed Methane Recovery (CO2-ECBM) is an emerging technology, which has the potential to store large volumes of anthropogenic CO2 in deep unminable coal formations (coalbeds), while improving the efficiency and potential profitability of coalbed methane recovery. The underlying characteristic that enables CO2 sequestration and ECBM is the difference in absorption behaviour of CO2 and methane. This difference can be exploited for CO2

storage with simultaneous production of coal bed methane from seams that are not considered worthy for mining. Ocean Sequestration There are two primary approaches for using oceans to sequester CO2: Direct injection and ocean fertilization. The direct injection method involves pumping liquefied carbon dioxide a thousand meters deep or deeper, either directly from shore stations or from tankers trailing long pipes at sea. The other major approach to sequestration is by fertilizing the ocean. Near the ocean's surface, carbon is fixed by plant-like phytoplanktons, which are eaten by sea animals; some carbon eventually rains down as waste and dead organisms. Bacteria feed on this particulate organic carbon and produce CO2, which dissolves, while the rest of the detritus ends on the sea floor. There are areas of the ocean that are rich in nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus but poor in phytoplankton. Adding a little iron to the mix allows the plankton to use the nutrients and bloom. The energy for the process is supplied by sunlight.


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Status of CCS Projects

Costs Compared to a "normal" power plant, CCS adds four additional costs. Firstly, capture equipment needs to be installed. Secondly, the capture process needs to be powered, leading to additional fuel costs. Thirdly, a transport system needs to be built. And finally, the CO2 must be stored. All of these require both additional capital investment and additional operational cost. According to an IEA study in 2006, the typical cost of CCS in power plants ranges from US $30 to 90/T of CO2 or even more, depending on technology, CO2 purity and site. This cost includes capture $20-80/T; transport $1-10/T per 100 km; storage and monitoring $2-5/T. The impact on electricity cost is 2-3 US cents/kWh. Studies conducted by Stanford University (2009) and McKinsey (2008) also suggest similar estimates. There are other estimates which suggest the costs could be higher. A July 2009 Harvard University study estimated that early adopters of carbon capture technology will incur a cost of $100-$150/T of CO2 avoided (equivalent to 8-12 cents/kWh). It is expected that the costs of CCS could fall significantly owing to the effects of the learning curve. Estimates suggest that once the technology matures, the cost could fall to $25-$40/T of CO2 by 2030.

Implementation Status In the last few years, activity has just started in implementing pilot CCS efforts. In Oct 2008, Vattenfall's 30 MW Schwarze Pumpe oxy-fuel pilot capture project in Germany was opened. Several other CCS projects have been announced since then, for example in Germany (RWE's Hurth project), the US (AEP Alstom Mountaineer), Australia (Callide Oxy-fuel) and China (GreenGen). Current CCS experiments are small in size as test plants are 16 times smaller than commercial coal fired plants. As an example, the Vattenfall pilot plant is only 30MW. Power plants around the world are much larger in capacity. For instance, as of 2009, in the US there are about 500 coal power plants, with an average size of about 675 MW.

Problems Faced in Current Methods Used for CO2 Sequestration High costs - All CCS methods being tried currently add significant costs to the

operations, and this is one of the key concern for most companies exploring CCS


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Demonstration of commercial operation – CCS efforts have been on only for the past few years and as of 2009, there has been no commercial-scale demonstration of the technical and economic feasibility of CCS

Safe permanent storage - We need monitoring technologies to assure us that once the CO2 is stored, it's stored safely and permanently. In the long run, this may be the most important goal of all, the one that determines whether the public accepts the concept of carbon sequestration.

Understanding of ecosystem impacts - With ocean and terrestrial sequestration, we need to understand ecosystem impacts and long term effectiveness. With geological sequestration, we need to know that the carbon we put in the ground isn't going to come back up. Otherwise we're just transferring our responsibility to future generations.

11.11 Latest Developments in CO2 Sequestration

Prominent emerging concepts and processes in CO2 sequestration

Biomass-based Co-firing at Power Plants About 200 power plants in the world have started using biomass for a portion of their fuel needs, replacing coal to the extent of about 20%. This is termed cofiring. Owing to the fact that biomass captures CO2 during its growth, the net CO2 emissions from biomass cofiring is less than that for 100% coal-based power generation. When the resulting CO2 is captured and stored, the net CO2 emissions are actually negative.

Algae-based CO2 Capture Explained earlier in this chapter

Storage of CO2 as Mineral Carbonates CO2 can be converted into carbonates of elements such as calcium, magnesium and silicon. These carbonates can sequester carbon for thousands of years. Significant amount of research is ongoing to evaluate the feasibility of such mineral carbonation as a method for CO2 sequestration.

CO2 to Products CO2 can be converted to or used in the production of a variety of products such as plastics and polymers, fertilizers, cement and even other hydrocarbon fuels (eg. Gasoline). While in some cases such conversion might not classify as sequestration – as in the case of conversion to gasoline where the CO2 is emitted back into the atmosphere when the gasoline is used in a vehicle – it results in a net reduction of CO2 in most cases.


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Other Research & Efforts in CO2 Sequestration CO2 Sequestration Aids Gas Recovery The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and its Southwest Regional Partnership (SWP) recently began injecting carbon dioxide (CO2) into a large coal bed, while simultaneously recovering valuable natural gas. The SWP plans to inject up to 35,000 tons of CO2 in a 6-month demonstration at the San Juan Basin near Navajo City, N.M. Unlike other enhanced coal bed methane recovery projects, this demonstration will develop ways to maximize permanent storage of the injected CO2, a process called geologic carbon sequestration. (Oct 2008) Cost Evaluation of CO2 Sequestration by Aqueous Mineral Carbonation A cost evaluation of CO2 sequestration by aqueous mineral carbonation has been made using either wollastonite (CaSiO3) or steel slag as feedstock. First, the process was simulated to determine the properties of the streams as well as the power and heat consumption of the process equipment. Second, a basic design was made for the major process equipment, and total investment costs were estimated with the help of the publicly available literature and a factorial cost estimation method. Finally, the sequestration costs were determined on the basis of the depreciation of investments and variable and fixed operating costs. (Sep 2007) CO2 Sequestration Breakthrough - Turning CO2 into Fuel Converting CO2 into basic hydrocarbons - C1 (methane), C2 (ethane) and C3 (propane) is a distinct possibility according to California based company Carbon Sciences. By employing a technology called biocatalysis (which is simply using natural catalysts to perform chemical reactions) Carbon Sciences hope to bypass the problem of inefficient energy ratios which can render many CO2 recycling projects pointless (Oct 2008) Air Capture of CO2 via Peridotite Carbonation Researchers have shown that rock formations called peridotite, which are found in Oman and several other places worldwide, including California and New Guinea, produce calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate rock when they come into contact with carbon dioxide. The scientists found that such formations in Oman naturally sequester hundreds of thousands of tons of carbon dioxide a year. (Nov 2008)


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Breakthroughs in Seismic Imaging of Basalts for Sequestration of Man-Made CO2 Sullivan, E. Charlotte(1), Hardage, Bob A.(2), ROCHE, Steve(3), and McGrail, Bernard Peter1, (1) Applied Geology and Geochemistry, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Blvd, P.O. Box 999, Richland, WA 99352, (2) University of Texas Austin, 10100 Burnet Road, Austin Texas, TX 78758, (3) CGG Veritas, 10300 Town park Drive, Houston, 77072, Basalt flows up to 5,000 m thick cover 168,000 sq km in the northwestern U.S. Brecciated tops and bases of individual flows form regional aquifers, and are potential sites for sequestration of gigatons of CO2 in areas where the basalts contain unpotable water and are at depths greater than 800 m. In laboratory experiments, these basalts react with formation water and supercritical CO2 to precipitate carbonates, thus adding a potential mineral trapping mechanism to the standard dissolution and hydrodynamic trapping mechanisms of most other types of CO2 sequestration reservoirs. The US Department of Energy’s Big Sky Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership has proposed a field test of capacity, integrity, and geochemical reactivity of basalt reservoirs near Wallula, Washington, and has begun surface and subsurface site characterization in preparation for drilling a characterization/injection test well. (Oct 2008)

11.12 Reference

Opportunities from Carbon Trading

Global carbon markets worth €40 billion in 2007, up by 80 percent from 2006. The total traded volume increased by 64 percent from 1.6 Gt (1.6 billion tonnes) in 2006 to 2.7 Gt in 2007.

The EU emissions trading scheme saw a traded volume in 2007 of 1.6 Gt and a value of €28 billion. This represents a volume growth of 62 percent and a value growth of 55 percent from 2006. The EU ETS (Emission Trading System) now holds 62 percent of the physical global carbon market and 70 percent of the financial market.

The CDM market increased to 947 MT and €12bn in 2007. This is an increase of 68 percent in volume terms, and a staggering 200 percent in value terms from 2006, constituting 35 percent of the physical market and 29 percent of the financial market.

The expected carbon price is €24/T in 2010 and €35/T in 2020. A federal US ETS likely. The expectation however is that it will be less strict than

the EU ETS Phase 2. There is a view among many experts that there will be a global reference carbon

price in 2020. Other upcoming markets


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Japan New Zealand and Australia90

Future of Coal Based Energy Generation For all the noise about greener ways to generate electricity, the fact is, for many more years – and possibly decades – coal will be the principal feedstock for power plants. Coal Trade Coal is traded all over the world, with coal shipped huge distances by sea to reach markets. Over the last twenty years:

Seaborne trade in steam coal has increased on average by about 7% each year Seaborne coking coal trade has increased by 1.6% a year.

Overall international trade in coal reached 815 Mt in 2006; while this is a significant amount of coal it still only accounts for about 19% of total coal consumed. Coal is a global industry, with coal mined commercially in over 50 countries and used in many countries.

Coal in Electricity Generation Coal provides 25% of global primary energy needs and generates 40% of the world's

electricity

Source: World Coal Institute

Coal is the major fuel used for generating electricity worldwide - countries heavily dependent on coal for electricity include (2006e):

90 Source: Carbon Market Insights 2008, www.pointcarbon.com

http://www.pointcarbon.com/


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Poland 93% Israel 71%* Czech Rep 59%

S Africa 93%* Kazakhstan 70%* Greece 58%

Australia 80% India 69%* USA 50%

PR China 78% Morocco 69%* Germany 47%

* Only 2005 figures available for these countries

Top Coal Importers (2006e)

Country Total of which Steam Coking*

Japan 178Mt 105Mt 73Mt

Korea 80Mt 60Mt 20Mt

Chinese Taipei 64Mt 58Mt 6Mt

UK 51Mt 44Mt 7Mt

Germany 41Mt 33Mt 9Mt

India 41Mt 22Mt 19Mt

China 38Mt 29Mt 9Mt

Sources: BP, IEA, IISI, SSY, WEC * Other major importers of coking coal include: India (19Mt), Brazil (13Mt) & PR China (9Mt) (e = estimated) (Mt = Million tonnes)

Coal in Asia Pacific King coal is booming. In the years between 2001 and 2006, coal use around the world grew by an unprecedented 30 percent; of this increase 88 percent came from developing Asia. China has the biggest share of growth, and is responsible for 72 percent of the world increase in coal since 2001. India accounts for 9 percent of the world’s growth, and the economies of South East Asia and Korea make up the balance. Rapid economic development in the Asia Pacific (AP) is sealing the region’s reliance upon coal. According to International Energy Agency’s (IEA) World Energy Outlook Reference Scenario, economic growth in India and China will account for a staggering 70 percent of the increase in global coal consumption by 2030, primarily in the electricity and industrial sectors. In 2006, according to some sources, China surpassed the US as the world’s number one CO2 emitter, and India lags only a handful of places behind China, as the globe’s fifth biggest CO2 emitter. However, on a per capita basis, China and India are relatively low emitters when compared to the US, EU and Japan WWF estimates that coal used with Carbon Capture and Storage technologies (CCS) can safely account for 20 percent of the total global energy production by 2050.91

91 Source: web.mit.edu/coal

http://www.bp.com/productlanding.do?categoryId=6848&contentId=7033471

http://www.iea.org/

http://www.worldsteel.org/

http://www.ssyonline.com/

http://www.worldenergy.org/


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SUMMARY

1. Cultivating algae next to CO2 emitting industries such as power plants and cement

plants could result in a sustainable process of CO2 mitigation and production of

biofuels.

2. Over a dozen companies worldwide are exploring this route at the research or pilot

stage.

3. Key challenges involve the large land requirements, inefficiencies in the actual

process of CO2 capture and high costs of cultivation if photobioreactors are used.


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12. Non-Fuel Applications of Algae 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Applications of Algae 12.3 Summary of Uses / Applications of Algae 12.4 Prominent Companies in Non-fuel Algal Products

HIGHLIGHTS

The range of products that is being currently produced from algae covers industries such as food, pharmaceuticals, animal feed and dyes.

Considering the wide range of applications algae are used for, one of the aspects to be considered while investing in algae energy business could be to assess how to profit from commercialising the cake and the left-overs after extracting the oil.

In addition to the use of deoiled cake, there is a possibility to co-produce high value products together with oil. This will make producing fuel from algae more sustainable.

12.1 Introduction Algae are possibly one of the most useful organisms. In addition to the fact that algae are responsible for consuming most of the CO2 and releasing the most amount of oxygen that keeps us alive, algae are also being used in diverse industries and applications. In fact, according to some, fuel has the lowest value of any product that is derived from algae! Considering the wide range of applications algae are used for, one of the aspects to be considered while investing in algae energy business could be to assess how to profit from commercialising the cake and the left-overs after extracting the oil, by using them for other applications / products. Also of interest here are products such as glycerine - which is a by-product of transesterification of algal oil into biodiesel – which have their own diverse applications. Indeed, some of the research and commercial programs around the world are exploring avenues to develop high-value coproducts from algae, from animal feeds to antibiotics to specialty chemicals. There are some efforts at some rather interesting applications as well - such as algae-based paper and concrete additives. This chapter provides an overview of the wide range of applications of algae – both current and future prospects. It will provide entrepreneurs with an idea of how to derive more benefits from their algal energy ventures.


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12.2 Applications of Algae Applications of algae in the following fields are discussed (apart from the major energy applications of algae that have been discussed in the previous chapters):

a. Human Food b. Pharmaceuticals & Health Related Products c. Animal Feed - Shrimp feed, Shellfish Diet, Marine Fish Larvae Cultivation d. Dyes and Colourants e. Biopolymers & Bioplastics f. Pollution Control g. Unique Applications

While efforts at using algae for making biofuels are fairly recent, algae have been used in a number of industries, and to make many different products, for a long time. The diverse list of applications for algae make them more attractive as biofuel feedstock because entrepreneurs can configure their businesses in such as way that they can benefit from the use of their feedstock for more than just the fuels/energy market alone. In fact, biofuels are the lowest value products that can be derived from algae. The following table will provide some idea of the products that can be derived from algae and their values

Product Product Value Approx Price Range ($/Kg)

Biofuels Low < 1

Proteins (for animal feed) Low-medium 1.5

Fine chemicals / food ingredients

Medium-high 15

Ingredients for pharmaceuticals and cosmetics

High-very high 150 and higher

Biofuels from algae represent a low-value product category. However, it is possible to derive both this low-value product and higher value products from the same algae biomass. For instance, biofuels can be derived from the algae left over after using the biomass for deriving chemicals or phama ingredients. This application has been used for years for a wide array of products in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. After the algal biomass is


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fractionated, the remaining cellulosic material and sugars make a great feedstock, whole or blended with other feedstocks, for the production of cellulosic ethanol. The tables below provide a snapshot of the range of products that can be derived from algae, their price-points, and some prominent suppliers.

Sample of Products from Microalgae92

Apart from the above, some very unique products that can be derived from microalgae, such as heavy isotope labeled metabolites and Phycoerythrin (from Red algae and cyanobacteria) used as fluorescent labels could have values far exceeding $10,000 per kg. Market Sizes of Non-fuel Algae Products

92

Source: Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University 2008

Product Microalgae Price (USD)

b-Carotene Dunaliella 300–3000/kg

Astaxanthin Haematococcus 10,000/kg

Whole-cell dietary supplements

Spirulina Chlorella

Chlamydomonas

50/kg

Fish feed and animal feed Tetraselmis Nanochloropsis

Isochrysis Nitzschia

1-10/Kg

Polyunsaturated fatty acids

Crypthecodinium Schizochytrium

60,000/kg

Pharmaceutical proteins Chlamydomonas N/A

Biofuels Botryococcus Chlamydomonas

Chlorella Dunaliella Neochloris

N/A


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The market size of products from micro-algae was estimated by Pulz and Gross (2004) to have a retail value of US$ 5 – 6.5 billion.

US$ 1.25 - 2.5 billion were generated by the health food sector US$ 1.5 billion from the production of docosahexanoic acid (DHA) and US$ 700 million from aquaculture.

Another study mentions a production of 10,000 T per year, almost all of it grown in open ponds, and mainly for use as nutritional supplements (van Harmelen and Oonk 2006). The world market of products from macro-algae has been estimated to have a size of some US$ 5.5 - 6 billion per year (McHugh 2003; Pulz and Gross 2004).

US$ 5 billion is generated by the food industry, of which US$ 1 billion is from “nori”, a high-value product worth US$ 16,000 / T

US$ 600 million was generated by hydrocolloids (55,000 T) extracted from cell walls of macroalgae

Based on suitable assumptions market growth rates, Oilgae estimates the following*: All data in $ billion

Total market size for all microalgae products in 2009 8.5

Total market size for all macroalgae products in 2009 7.3

*: assumes a CAGR of 8% for microalgae products and 5% for macroalgae products, for the period 2004-2009

Human Food

Algae have been collected for more than 4000 years in China and Japan for use as human food. Today Japan is the principal user of edible algae, and the Japanese have developed methods for culturing and harvesting "leafy" algae. Large-scale farming practices are used to grow the red alga Porphyra, which is commonly called nori. Profitable products can be extracted from algae. There are many algae that are cultivated for their nutritional value, either for supplemental use, or as a food source. Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) are blue - green algae (cyanobacteria) that are quite

nutritious. This species thrives in open systems and commercial growers have found it well-suited to cultivation.

One of the largest production sites for Spirulina is Lake Texcoco in central Mexico.

The plants themselves produce a variety of nutrients and high amounts of protein, and are often used commercially as a nutritional supplement.


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Extracts and oils from algae are also used as additives in various food products. The plants also produce Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids, which are commonly found in fish oils, and which have been shown to have positive medical benefits to humans.

In brown seaweeds such as kelp, alginates are the main structural component of the

cell wall and intercellular matrix, which is the space between cells. They are used as food thickeners and stabilizers.

The red algae Porphyra (nori) has been a food source in Japan for over 400 years. It

is cultured by collecting reproductive spores and allowing them to grow on horizontal nets. The algae are harvested, dried, and processed.

The algae Undaria (wakame) and Laminaria (kombu) are grown in Japan and China,

and are used in noodles, soups, salads, and meats.

Pharmaceuticals & Health Related Products

Omega 3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) Nutraceuticals: Docosahexaenoic acid [DHA, 22:6(n-3)] and eicosapentaeneoic acid are essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the human diet. These PUFA may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease and alleviate inflammatory diseases. Some microalgae and thraustochytrids are a rich source of these PUFA.

DHA: DHA, produced from algae, is a vegetarian source of docosahexaenoic acid, DHA. DHA is a long-chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acid and is important for brain, eye and heart health throughout the lifecycle. As an ingredient, life'sDHA™ has several applications including infant formulas, products for pregnant and nursing women, food and beverage products and dietary supplements.

Astaxanthin

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid. Astaxanthin has been shown in studies to have 100-500 times the antioxidant capacity of Vitamin E as well as 10 times beta-carotene’s antioxidant capacity. Astaxanthin is found in many places in nature, but it is usually in small quantities as in salmon or shrimp. By far the most concentrated and natural source of astaxanthin is the Haematococcus pluvialis algae. These green algae also provide other important carotenoids such as beta-carotene. It accumulate the highest levels of astaxanthin in nature; commercially more than 40g of astaxanthin per kilo of dry biomass.

http://www.lifesdha.com/


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Research shows that due to astaxanthin's potent antioxidant activity, it may be beneficial in cardiovascular, immune, inflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases. Some sources have demonstrated its potential as an anti-cancer agent. Research supports the assumption that it protects body tissues from oxidative damage. It also crosses the blood-brain barrier, which makes it available to the eye, brain and central nervous system to alleviate oxidative stress that contributes to ocular, and neurodegenerative diseases such as glaucoma and Alzheimer's. Astaxanthin, as other carotenoids, can act as a quencher of singlet oxygen and other free radicals by absorbing the excited energy of singlet oxygen onto the polyene electron-rich chain, resulting first in the excitation of the carotenoid to a triplet state, and then in the dissipation of the extra energy in the form of heat by relaxation back to the ground state. In this way, it prevents cellular components or tissues from being damaged. The carotenoid structure remains unchanged, and ready to act as a radical quencher. Astaxanthin – Summary of Benefits Acts as chain-breaking anti-oxidant, and therefore protect lipid-rich cell membranes

from degradative oxidation. Natural astaxanthin is a dietary supplement with extremely powerful antioxidant

benefits for human applications. Astaxanthin traps more free radicals than any other antioxidant. Astaxanthin has been proven to cross the human blood-brain barrier, and therefore

has the ability to directly act as a superb antioxidant in the brain and the eyes. Astaxanthin enhances the action of other antioxidants like Vitamin E and C. Astaxanthin protects nucleic acid components of DNA, avoiding mutations to genetic

material due to oxidative stress.

Animal & Fish Feed About five decades ago, the mass production of certain protein-rich micro-algae was considered as a possibility to close the predicted so called “protein gap”. Comprehensive analyses and nutritional studies have demonstrated that these algal proteins are of high quality and comparable to conventional vegetable proteins. However, due to high production costs as well as technical difficulties to incorporate the algal material into palatable food preparations, the propagation of algal protein is still in its infancy. Aquaculture Micro-algae are an essential food source in the rearing of all stages of marine bivalve molluscs (clams, oysters, and scallops), the larval stages of some marine gastropods


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(abalone, conch), larvae of several marine fish species and penaeid shrimp, and zooplankton. Microalgae are used as essential live feeds and supplements in the aquaculture of larval and juvenile animals including oyster spat, juvenile abalone, finfish larvae and rotifer. The effects of the presence of micro-algae in the larval rearing tank are still not fully understood and include: stabilizing the water quality in static rearing systems (remove metabolic by-

products, produce oxygen), a direct food source through active uptake by the larvae with the polysaccharides

present in the algal cell walls possibly stimulating the non-specific immune system in the larvae,

an indirect source of nutrients for fish larvae through the live feed (i.e. by maintaining the nutritional value of the live prey organisms in the tank),

increasing feeding incidence by enhancing visual contrast and light dispersion, and microbial control by algal exudates in tank water and/or larval gut. Shrimp Feed Pavlova is a small golden/brown flagellate that is very similar to Isochrysis. It has a

very high DHA profile and is excellent for enriching rotifers and other zooplankton. Tetraselmis is a large green flagellate with a very high lipid level. It also contains

natural amino acids that stimulate feeding in marine animals. It is an excellent feed for larval shrimp.

Nannochloropsis is a small green algae that are extensively used in the aquaculture industry for growing small zooplankton such as rotifers and for Greenwater. It is also used in reef tanks for feeding corals and other filter feeders.

Isochrysis is a small golden/brown flagellate that is very commonly used in the aquaculture industry. It is high in DHA and often used to enrich zooplankton such as rotifers or Artemia.

Thalassiosira weissflogii is a large diatom that is used in the shrimp and shellfish larviculture industry. This alga is considered by several hatcheries to be the single best algae for larval shrimp.

Shellfish Diet Shellfish Diet 1800® is a mix of five marine microalgae that all have demonstrated success with a variety of shellfish including oysters, clams, mussels, and scallops. A mixed diet provides a much better nutritional profile for all types of shellfish, increasing both growth rates and survival.


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Shellfish Diet can be used with pre-set larvae all the way up through broodstock and will typically perform as well as live algae so it can be used as a complete live algae replacement. Marine Fish Larvae Cultivation Apart from the requirement for micro-algae for culturing and/or enriching live prey organisms such as Artemia and rotifers, algae are often used directly in the tanks for rearing marine fish larvae. This “green water technique” is part of the commonly applied techniques for rearing larvae of gilthead seabream Sparus aurata (Isochrysis sp., Chlorella), milkfish Chanos chanos (Chlorella), Mahimahi Coryphaena hippurus (Chaetoceros gracilis, Tetraselmis chui, or Chlorella sp.), halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus (Tetraselmis sp.), and turbot Scophthalmus maximus (Tetraselmis sp. or I. galbana). Many bivalve hatcheries increase larval production by including an algal culture operation within the facility. Vats of dense algae provide mollusc larvae with a nutritious diet. The high quality diet accelerates growth and shortens the time to larval settlement or spat set. Production of algae in large amounts (mass cultures) is accomplished by providing a favorable environment for the species being cultured. Livestock Feed Algae Suspension for Livestock Production - Although the mechanism has not been understood yet, algal suspension appeared to improve the balance of nutrients in a straw-based diet and thus increased the efficiency of conversion of feed to products. Nitrogen deficient straw being the main source of nutrients for ruminants in Bangladesh (Tareque and Saadullah 1988), the introduction of algal suspension in the feeding system would certainly help economic livestock production. Many livestock farmers, particularly in the urban and suburban areas, raise their animals absolutely on straw and concentrate with either very little or no green grasses. This system of feeding is often associated with infertility, night blindness or even total blindness or other symptoms of vitamin A deficiency. Algae are a very rich source of carotene and algal suspension could be a potential source of vitamin A to combat such deficiencies. Chlorella as Livestock Feed - In 1924, the German scientists Garder and Uitsh noted the key necessity of Chlorella industrial cultivation for the production of feed additives. H. Nakamura (1961) showed that Chlorella was digested much more easily in the form of paste. He recommended up to 5 percent in the daily diet. Chlorella protein digestibility for pigs was 56 %. The average daily weight gain of pigs doubled due to the use of Chlorella paste. Similarly, trials have found that use of chlorella resulted in weight gain for sheep. It has also been found that the use of Chlorella as a feed additive could become the best choice for solving problems associated with the use of antibiotics,


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organic acids, or other ingredients in feed because microalgae contain natural organic acids, reducing the colonization of pathogenes. Algae may be an inexpensive way to harvest proteins in developing countries where farmland is scarce.

Prominent Companies Producing Microalgae Feed Additives

1. Cyanotech produces products from microalgae grown at its 90-acre facility in

Hawaii, United States, using patented and proprietary technology and distributes them to nutritional supplement, nutraceutical, cosmeceutical, and animal feed makers and marketers in more than 40 countries worldwide.

2. Ingrepro BV - Ingrepro turns algae into dozens of products, from horse feed to weed killer for golf courses. As a food additive for humans, it is a source of healthy omega-3 fatty acids.

3. Sun Chlorella - Established in 1969, Sun Chlorella has 32 corporate offices located throughout Japan, the U.S., Europe and Asia, reaching customers worldwide with microalgae nutrition products.

Phycocolloids Agar Agar is a Polysaccharide that solidifies almost anything that is liquid. This gelatinous substance is derived from seaweeds of the Rhodophyceae class. It is therefore used as a thickener and also for its water-holding capacity. It was chiefly used as an ingredient in deserts throughout Japan, but now the most important worldwide use of agar is as a gelatin-like medium for growing organisms in scientific and medical studies. Species of Algae Used for Making Agar:

Acanthopeltis japonica

Gelidium amansii

Gelidiella acerosa

Gelidium cartilagineum

Gelidium caulacanthum

Gelidium corneum

Gelidium liatulum

Gelidium ligulatum

Gelidium pacificum

Gelidium pristoides

Gelidium sesquipedale


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Gracilaria conferviodes

Pterocladia capillacea

Pterocladia lucida

Applications of Agar

Food Industry

Agar extracted from Gracilaria chilensis can be used in confectionery with a very high sugar content, such as fruit candies.

Agar is a popular component of jellies. A popular Japanese sweet dish ‘mitsumame’ which consists of Agar gel containing fruit and Agar gel.

Agar is also used in gelled meat and fish products, and is preferred to gelatin because of its higher melting temperature and gel strength.

Agar has been used to stabilize sherbets and ices. It improves the texture of dairy products like cream cheese and yoghurt Agar is used to clarify wines. Agar is used as a vegetarian, non-dairy thickening agent in a number of foods.

Dairy- based custards, sauces, puddings and candies can be produced without milk or eggs with the substitution of agar.

Other Uses

It is used as a smooth laxative in the pharmaceutical industry. Agar gels containing appropriate nutrients are used as the growth substrate to

obtain clones or copies of particular plants. Bacteriological agar is used in testing for the presence of bacteria. It is specially

purified to ensure that it does not contain anything that might modify bacterial growth.

Alginates Alginates are cell-wall constituents of brown algae (Phaeophyceae). Brown seaweed contains mixed alginic acid salts, which are the basic raw materials used in the production of alginates. Alginate is a polymer consisting of sequences of α-L-guluronic acid and β-D-mannuronic acid. Alginates are referred to as either high-M or high-G alginates, depending on the ratio of the two monomers that form the alginate molecule Species of Algae Used:

Macrocystis pyrifera Ascophyllum nodosum Laminaria hyperborean


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Laminaria japonica Lessonia nigrescens Lessonia flavicans Ecklonia maxima Durvillea antarctica Durvillea potatorum

Applications

In the food industry, alginates have an excellent functionality as a thickening agent, gelling agent, emulsifier stabilizer, texture-improver (for noodles), to improve the quality of food. The unique properties of alginate are utilized in foods like ice cream, jelly, lactic drinks, dressings, instant noodle, and beer.

Alginate is used in textile printing, ice cream, jelly, lactic drinks, dressings, instant noodle, and beer.

Alginate is used for the production of welding rod, as a binder of flux. It is also used as a binder and thickening agent for pet-food, fish feed.

In pharmaceutical industry, alginic acid is compounded into tablets to accelerate disintegration of tablet for faster release of medicinal component. Alginate forms gel in the high-acidic stomach and protect stomach mucosa.

In cosmetics, alginate is used in cosmetics area with several applications with its functionality of thickener and moisture retainer. Alginate helps retaining the color of lipstick on lip surface by forming gel-network

Carrageenan

Carrageenan is extracted from species of red seaweeds. This cell wall hydrocolloid is extracted with water under neutral or alkaline conditions at elevated temperature. Carrageenan is a multifunctional ingredient and it behaves differently in water and in milk systems. In water it shows typical hydrocolloid properties of thickening and gelling, while in milk systems it also has the property of reacting with proteins to furnish additional stabilizing abilities. Based on the gelling properties and protein reactivity, the carrageen family can be distinguished commercially into three main classes:

1. Kappa carrageenan - Kappa carrageenan is the most commonly used type of

carrageenan. Its most important properties are its high gel strength and strong interaction with milk proteins. About 70% of the world’s carrageenan production is based on kappa carrageenan. It forms firm gels in the presence of potassium ions.

2. Iota carrageenan - Iota carrageenan is a type of carrageenan with a sulphate content intermediate between kappa and lambda carrageenan. Iota carrageenan forms an elastic gel with good freeze thaw and re healing properties. It forms elastic gels and thixotropic fluids in the presence of calcium ions.


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3. Lambda carrageenan - Lambda carrageenan is a highly sulphated type of carrageenan mainly used for its ability to impart mouth feel and a creamy sensation to dairy products. Lambda carrageenan does not gel. Commercially it is supplied as it is extracted from the seaweed which is as a kappa / lambda mixture. It forms viscous, non-gelling solutions

Species of strains used for making carrageenan: Chondrus crispus

Gigartina skottsbergii

Gigartina stellata

Eucheuma cottonii

Eucheuma spinosum

Hypnea musciformis

Furcellaran species

Applications of Carrageenan

Carrageenan is used in the poultry and the meat industry mainly for the following advantages: It presents such as the water holding capacity, improves product texture, and acts as a fat replacement. Furthermore, the charged nature of carrageenan stabilizes water/fat emulsions during preparation, cooking and storage.

All these properties increase product quality and yield, which more than offsets the cost of the carrageenan.

Carrageenan has a strong functional synergism with starches, which can be exploited in starch-based foods to improve product quality through moisture retention.

Carrageenan stabilizes toothpaste preparations through a combination of viscosity,

continuous-phase gel formation and specific interactions with the abrasive.

Small nuggets of carrageenan gel can be used when it is necessary to control the humidity within a package.

Dyes and Colourants There are three major classes of photosynthetic pigments that occur in algae: chlorophylls, carotenoids (carotenes and xanthophylls) and phycobilins. These pigments are characteristic of certain algal groups. Chlorophylls are greenish pigments which contain a porphyrin ring. This is a stable ring-shaped molecule around which electrons are free to migrate.


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Carotenoids are usually red, orange, or yellow pigments, and include the familiar compound carotene, which gives carrots their color. These compounds are composed of two small six-carbon rings connected by a "chain" of carbon atoms. Phycobilins are water-soluble pigments, and are therefore found in the cytoplasm, or in the stroma of the chloroplast. They occur only in Cyanobacteria and Rhodophyta. Chlorophylls and carotenes are generally fat soluble molecules and can be extracted from thylakoid membranes with organic solvents such as acetone, methanol or DMSO. The phycobilins and peridinin, in contrast, are water soluble and can be extracted from algal tissues after the organic solvent extraction of chlorophyll in those tissues.

Pigment Composition of Several Algal Groups

Division Common Name Major Accessory Pigment

Chlorophyta Green algae Chlorophyll b

Charophyta Charophytes Chlorophyll b

Euglenophyta Euglenoids Chlorophyll b

Phaeophyta Brown algae Chlorophyll c1 + c2, fucoxanthin

Chrysophyta Yellow-brown or golden-brown algae

Chlorophyll c1 + c2, fucoxanthin

Pyrrhophyta Dinoflagellates Chlorophyll c2, peridinin

Cryptophyta Cryptomonads Chlorophyll c2, phycobilins

Rhodophyta Red algae Phycoerythrin, phycocyanin

Cyanophyta Blue-green algae Phycocyanin, phycoerythrin

Some companies around the world (e.g.: Martek Biosciences Corp., of Columbia)

develop algae-based fluorescent dyes. Some microalgae are used as pigment sources such as ß-carotene.

Bioplastics

The market for bioplastics, currently a tiny niche in the $250 billion global plastics market (2008 data), is expected to double by 2012 as rising oil prices and environmental regulations crimp petroleum-based products. The most widely used bioplastic is made by NatureWorks LLC, a unit of Cargill & Teijin Ltd. of Japan. It is a corn-based and biodegradable plastic, and is already is used in dozens of products. More companies aspiring to produce bioplastics are regularly emerging. And more feedstock for bioplastics is also being experimented. Algae are a potential feedstock for bioplastics.


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A project titled BIOPAL has been set up to design and process a new generation of algae derived bioplastics and biocomposites, targeting applications in agriculture, automotive and packaging industries as well as biofilter systems for heavy metal accumulation including the biodegradation and bio-recycling aspects. A part of the project is dedicated for over all specification, collection, pre-treatment of algae, and the monitoring of algae proliferation as natural resource tasks. European socio-economic and environmental objectives will be mainly taken into consideration in order to create jobs and enhance rural economy of Coastal regions.93

Arizona (US) based PetroSun is making efforts at obtaining bioplastics using algae.

Unique Uses of Algae Diatomaceous Earth - This product comes from large fossil deposits of planktonic algae called diatoms. One of the largest sites of diatomaceous earth is in Lompoc, California. This material is actually the silica cell walls of these protists, walls that have minute pores; it is used as an abrasive or filtering agent. Products containing diatomaceous earth are:

Tooth Paste Silver polish Swimming pool filter powder

Trends in High Value By-products from Algae:

1. Blue Green algae such as Spirulina, Chlorella, Scenedesmus which are rich in protein, beta carotene, chlorophyll, anti-oxidants, minerals and other essential nutrients that our body needs are formulated into tablets for complete diet supplement. Advancements are being made to identify processes to separate the proteins and oils from algae which could reduce the overall processing cost.

2. Green algae's pigment, Beta-Carotene, is used as a natural food colorant.

Another natural colorant is Phycocyanin, derived from Spirulina. New technological innovations that allow production of such pigments together with biodiesel production can provide added advantage.

3. A recent research says that an extract from green algae, Chlorella pyrenoidosa

helps in improving immune response to flu vaccine. These kinds of high value products when extracted together with oil will make producing energy from algae more sustainable.

93 BIOPAL-Algae as raw material for production of bioplastics and biocomposites contributing to

sustainable development of European Coastal Regions, (2003). Retrieved from: http://www.biomatnet.org/secure/FP5/S1383.htm

http://www.biomatnet.org/secure/FP5/S1383.htm


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12.3 Summary of Uses / Applications of Algae A summary list of non-fuel applications of algae: Biopolymers & Bioplastics Animal & Fish Feed - Shrimp feed, Shellfish Diet, Marine Fish Larvae Cultivation Paints, Dyes and Colorants Lubricants Food, Health Products, Nutraceuticals Cosmetics Chemicals Pharmaceuticals

Antimicrobials, Antivirals & Antifungals Neuroprotective Products Slimming Related Products Anti-cellulite Skin Anti-ageing & Sensitive Skin Treatment

Pollution Control CO2 Sequestration Uranium/Plutonium Sequestration Fertilizer Runoff Reclamation Sewage & Wastewater Treatment

Market Information for Each of the Industries Most data provided in this section are for the respective market in general, and not specifically for algae-based end-products unless specified.

Biopolymers & Bioplastics Typically, long chain polymers, present in the algae lipids are used for making bioplastics. Market Size

It has a fast growing market, with a projected market size of $ 1.0 billion by 2010.

World market expected to grow 30% per year for next decade Bioplastics could eventually capture 10%-20% of overall plastic market

Animal & Fish Feed


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Animal feed and fish feed are produced from the biosolid residues left when lipids and carbohydrates have been extracted from algae. Market Size

The global animal feed market is worth about $200 billion, with a CAGR of 3-4%

Paints, Dyes & Colorants The natural pigments produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical dyes and coloring agents. Market Size

Paints & Coatings Global paint & coating market worth $ 86 billion Market forecast 2005 -2010 – 5.4 % by volume & 3.6 % by sales

Dyes The world market for dyes, pigments and dye intermediates is estimated at

about US$ 23 billion consisting of dyes and pigment market valued at US$ 16 billion and dye intermediates market of US$ 7 billion. (2008)

Lubricants Lubricants can be made from the lipids (oil) in algae. Market Size & Growth Total global lubricant market by 2012 will be $120 billion growing from $110 billion in 2009, with a CAGR of about 3%.

Food, Health Products & Nutraceuticals Seaweeds are extensively used as food, and blue green algae have been used for weight loss and as nutritional supplements. Market Size

Carrageenan Market - Carrageenan comes from algae or seaweed, and can be used as a thickening agent in place of animal-based products like gelatin, which is extracted from animal bones. It is usually derived from either red alga, sometimes called Irish moss. During the past few years, the total carrageenan market has shown a growth rate of about 3% per year, reaching estimated


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worldwide sales of about US$ 600 million in 2007-08, with production exceeding 50,000 T.

Agar Market - Agar is produced principally from Gelidium spp and Gracilaria spp, although a number of other algae can serve as a raw material. It is chiefly used as an ingredient in desserts throughout Japan and in recent times has found extensive use as a solid substrate. The global production of agar in 2006 was estimated to be 10,000 T with a market value of about $ 140 million.

Omega-3 and the Functional Food Market Size - Omega 3 algae oil is nutritionally identical to fish oil. It contains DHA and EPA.

In 2004, the global Omega-3 fatty acid market was worth US$ 690 million, and growing at about 10%. The Asian Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) ingredients market alone is expected to reach $596.6 million in 2012 (Sources: Seambiotic, Frost & Sullivan)

Global demand for Omega-3 in baby and infant food is estimated at $350 million per year. The total global market for Omega-3 for all end-products estimated to be over $750 million (2006). According to market research carried out by the European market analysts Frost & Sullivan, of all the fine foods ingredients, it is Omega-3 which is expected to have the greatest future.

Nutraceuticals - Global nutraceuticals market is estimated at US $123.9 billion in 2008 and is expected to reach $176.7 billion in 2013, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.4%. (BCC Research, 2009)

Carotenoids - Carotenoids are a class of natural fat-soluble pigments found principally in plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria, where they play a critical role in the photosynthetic process. In human beings, carotenoids can serve several important functions. The most widely studied and well-understood nutritional role for carotenoids is their provitamin A activity. The global market for carotenoids was $766 million in 2007. This is expected to increase to $919 million by 2015, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 2.3%. Beta-carotene has the largest share of the market. Valued at $247 million in 2007, this segment is expected to be worth $285 million by 2015, a CAGR of 1.8%.

Global Carotenoid Market Value by Product 2007 & 2015 ($ Million)

Product 2007 2015

Beta-carotene 247 285

Astaxanthin 220 252

Canthaxanthin 110 117

Annatto 69 95

Others 120 170

Total 766 919

Source: BCC Research, 2008


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Cosmetics In cosmetics, algae act as thickening agents, water-binding agents, and antioxidants. Carrageenans are extracted from red algae and alginates from the brown algae. Other forms of algae, such as Irish moss, contain proteins, vitamin A, sugar, starch, vitamin B1, iron, sodium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper and calcium. These are all beneficial for skin, either as emollients or antioxidants. Market Size

Cosmetics Market Size Forecast – Overview Country

Country Market Size, (all units in billions in local currencies, except where specified)

CAGR

2006 2011 2016 2021 2026 2006-2016

2016-2026

EU12 5.2 8.5 12.2 15.9 21.1 8.8% 5.6%

EU15 50.9 61.3 73.4 88.1 111.5 3.7% 4.3%

EU27 65.5 81.8 100.5 122.4 156.2 4.4% 4.5%

U.S. 47.9 62.9 78.4 94.9 114.5 5.0% 3.9%

Japan** 3.5 3.9 4.7 5.7 6.7 3.1% 3.6%

China* 10.3 20.8 38.7 67 108.8 14.1% 10.9%

Source: Global Insight based on Global Consumer Markets – Nov 2007et Size, Billions of LC CAGR *Chinese market size is given in USD **Japanese market size is in trillions of yen

Chemicals & Fertilizers Algae biomass from which oil has been extracted (called the algae cake or de-oiled algae meal) can be used as organic fertilizers in place of synthetic fertilizers. Algae can also be used as a starting material for a variety of specialty chemicals and polymers. Market Size

Fine Chemicals - $50 billion Fertilizers - $147.1 billion (2008) Polymers - $250 billion Bulk Chemicals - $300 billion Specialty Chemicals - $400 billion Agrochemicals - The market size is US$ 28 billion, with a CAGR of about 0.9%

(2006 data, source: Fred Mathisen (Wood Mackenzie UK)


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(Data for fine chemicals, bulk chemicals and specialty chemicals denote approximate global market sizes)

Health & Pharmaceuticals Algae have been used for centuries, especially in Asian countries, as a remedy to cure or prevent various physical ailments. Scientific research has established a connection between these nutrient-rich sea plants and the body’s immune system response. It all started when intensive studies of marine life began in the 1970s to locate potential sources of pharmacologically active agents. Researchers found that algae contain a remarkable amount of components valuable for human health. According to these researchers, algae are beneficial in the following ways:

It is a complete protein with essential amino acids (unlike most plant foods) that are involved in major metabolic processes such as energy and enzyme production.

It contains high amounts of simple and complex carbohydrates which provide the body with a source of additional fuel. In particular, the sulfated complex carbohydrates are thought to enhance the immune system’s regulatory response.

It contains an extensive fatty acid profile, including Omega 3 and Omega 6. These essential fatty acids also play a key role in the production of energy.

It has an abundance of vitamins, minerals, and trace elements in naturally-occurring synergistic design.

Market Size

Pharmaceuticals Growing at a CAGR of around 8%, the global pharmaceutical market is

forecasted to reach US$ 1043.4 billion in 2012. North America remains the largest pharmaceutical market constituting

42.8% of the global sales in 2007. Emerging markets in Central and Eastern Europe expected to drive

growth in future, with Asia-Pacific also expected to become a lucrative pharmaceutical market in future.

Antimicrobial While the overall market for antimicrobials is relatively small, it is poised

for explosive growth, according to Frost & Sullivan. The consultancy estimates a CAGR of 25.9% between 2003 and 2010, with revenues increasing from €28.8 million to €143.6 million. (Oct 2005)

Antiviral and Antifungal The $38 billion market for anti-infectives (2006 data) can be readily

subdivided into the antibiotic, antifungal, antiviral and HIV sectors. Although antibiotic sales dwarf those of the antifungal market (about $19.8 billion in 2006), the sectors can be divided into two high volume


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markets (antibiotics and antifungal) and two lower volume markets (HIV and antiviral).

CAGR forecast – 4.8% for the period 2005-2011

Pollution Control Algae are currently used in many wastewater treatment facilities, reducing the need for more dangerous chemicals. Algae can be used to capture the runoff fertilizers that enter lakes and streams from nearby farms. Algae are used by some power plants to reduce CO2 emissions. Many of the above markets where algae can find applications are large and growing markets. Data on their market sizes and potential are provided below.

12.4 Prominent Companies in Non-fuel Algal Products

Agar manufacturers 1. Acroyali Holdings Qingdao Co. Ltd., China

2. Agar del Pacifico S.A., Chile

3. Agarmex S.A., Mexico

4. Ina Food Industry Co. Ltd., Japan

5. Coast Biologicals Ltd., New Zealand

Carrageenan manufacturers 1. CP Kelco ApS, Denmark

2. Danisco Cultor, Denmark

3. Marcel Carrageenan Corporation, Philippines

4. Henan Boom Gelatin Co. Ltd., China 5. Hispanagar S.A., Spain

Alginate manufacturers 1. Qingdao Jiaonan Bright Moon Seaweed Industrial Co., China

2. Qingdao Nanshan Seaweed Co. Ltd., China

3. Taurus Products Ltd., South Africa

4. Lyg Seaweed Ind., China

Algae-based cosmetics producers 1. Codif Recherche & Nature, France

2. Exsymol S.A.M., Monacco

3. LVMH group, France

4. Pentapharm, Switzerland


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Astaxanthin manufacturers 1. Payam Bazar, Iran

2. MicroGaia, USA

3. Mera Pharmaceuticals, USA

4. AlgaTech, Israel

b-Carotene

1. AquaCarotene (USA) 2. Cognis Nutrition & Health (Australia) 3. Cyanotech (Hawaii, USA) 4. Nikken Sohonsha Corporation (Japan) 5. Tianjin Lantai Biotechnology (China) 6. Parry Pharmaceuticals (India)

Spirulina producers

1. Wuhan Sunrise Biotech Co. Ltd., China

2. Hainan Simai Pharmacy Co. Ltd., China

3. Fuqing King Dnarmsa Spirulina Co.Ltd., China

4. Earthrise Nutritionals, USA

Whole-cell dietary supplements 1. BlueBiotech International GmbH (Germany) 2. Cyanotech (USA) 3. Earthrise Nutritionals (California, USA) 4. Phycotransgenics (USA)

Whole-cell aquaculture feed

1. Aquatic Eco-Systems (USA) 2. BlueBiotech International GmbH (Germany) 3. Coastal BioMarine (USA) 4. Reed Mariculture (USA)

Other Prominent Algae-based Product Manufacturers

Agar Supply Company, Inc - Taunton, MA – USA - www.agarsupply.com Betacarotene - Zhejiang NHU company Ltd – China - www.cnhu.com Marcelcarrageenan - Quezon City – Philippines - www.marcelcarrageenan.com Seatech Carrageenan – Surabaya, Indonesia - www.seatechcarrageenan.com Seaweeds & Agar Company Pacific EIRL – Valparaiso –

www.seaweedsagarpacific.com B&V- The Agar Company - Gattatico RE - Italy - www.agar.com Agar del Pacífico S.A. AGARPAC® - Concepción, Chile - www.agarpac.com Iberagar - Coina – PORTUGAL - www.iberagar.com

http://www.agarsupply.com/

http://www.cnhu.com/

http://www.marcelcarrageenan.com/

http://www.seatechcarrageenan.com/

http://www.seaweedsagarpacific.com/

http://www.agar.com/

http://www.agarpac.com/

http://www.iberagar.com/


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FMC Biopolymer - Philadelphia, USA - www.fmcbiopolymer.com AgarGel – Brazil - www.agargel.com.br Cognis Australia Pty. Ltd – Tullamarine, Australia - www.au.cognis.com Parry Nutraceuticals Ltd – Chennai, India - www.parrynutraceuticals.com DSM - Netherlands - www.dsm.com

http://www.fmcbiopolymer.com/

http://www.agargel.com.br/

http://www.au.cognis.com/

http://www.parrynutraceuticals.com/

http://www.dsm.com/


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SUMMARY

1. Algae – both microalgae and macroalgae - are used in a variety of industries such as food, pharmaceuticals, animal feed and dyes.

2. The contribution from algae to many of these industries has been increasing in the past few years.

3. Companies pursuing algae fuels could consider coproducing non-fuel products with good market potential.


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Section 3 - Energy Products from Algae

CHAPTERS

13. Biodiesel from Algae 14. Hydrogen from Algae 15. Methane from Algae 16. Ethanol from Algae 17. Other Energy Products – Syngas,

Other Hydrocarbon Fuels, Energy from Combustion of Algae Biomass

18. Algae Meal / Cake


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13. Biodiesel from Algae 13.1 Introduction to Biodiesel 13.2 Growth of Biodiesel 13.3 Biodiesel from Algae 13.4 Why Isn’t Algal Biodiesel Currently Produced on a Large-scale? 13.5 Oil Yields from Algae 13.6 Oil Extraction from Algae (change in index) 13.7 Converting Algae Oil into Biodiesel

HIGHLIGHTS

Algae represent the third generation feedstock for biodiesel, with much higher yields than second generation crops. Algae yields could reach a high of 50 T of biodiesel per hectare year against 2 T for competing feedstock such as jatropha.

On lipid content alone (in terms of % of lipid content by dry weight), algae are only as good as biomass from most other oil crops. Where algae score over all other oil crops is in the biomass yield for similar areas.

Oil yields per unit area from algae can be even further increased, and it is one of the most researched topics currently.

Making biodiesel from algae oil is similar to the process of making biodiesel oil from any other oilseed, and thus can quite possibly use the same conversion processes to produce biodiesel.

13.1 Introduction to Biodiesel Biodiesel refers to any diesel-equivalent biofuel made from renewable biological materials such as vegetable oils or animal fats. While there are numerous interpretations being applied to the term biodiesel, strictly speaking, the term biodiesel usually refers to an ester, or oxygenate, made from the oil and alcohol. As mentioned earlier, biodiesel is vegetable oil methyl ester. In general, one could say that biodiesel consists of what are called mono alkyl-esters. Biodiesel is usually produced by a transesterification reaction of vegetable or waste oil respectively with a low molecular weight alcohol, such as ethanol or methanol. During this process, the triglyceride molecule from vegetable oil is removed in the form of glycerin. Once the glycerin is removed from the oil, the remaining molecules are quite similar to those of fossil diesel fuel. There are some notable differences though. While the petroleum and other fossil fuels contain sulfur, ring molecules & aromatics, the biodiesel molecules are very simple hydrocarbon chains, containing no sulfur, ring molecules or aromatics. Biodiesel is thus essentially free of sulfur and aromatics. Biodiesel is made up of almost 10% oxygen, making it a naturally "oxygenated" fuel.


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The concept of using vegetable oil as a fuel dates back to 1895 when Dr. Rudolf Diesel developed the first diesel engine to run on vegetable oil. Diesel demonstrated his engine at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900 using peanut oil as fuel. Bio-diesel can be used in diesel engines either as a standalone fuel or blended with petro diesel. Much of the world uses a system known as the "B" factor to state the amount of biodiesel in any fuel mix. For example, fuel containing 20 % biodiesel is labeled B20. Pure biodiesel is referred to as B100. Biodiesel can be derived from the triglycerides (fats) of either plants or animals, though a very large percentage of biodiesel is today derived from plant oils.

Biodiesel Advantages

Biodiesel is nontoxic and biodegradable. It has significantly fewer noxious emissions than petroleum-based diesel, when burned. It reduces the emission of harmful pollutants (mainly particulates) from diesel engines (80% less CO2 emissions, 100% less sulfur dioxide)

They are renewable Biodiesel has a high cetane number (above 100, compared to only 40 for diesel

fuel). Cetane number is a measure of a fuel's ignition quality. The high cetane number of biodiesel contributes to easy cold starting and low idle noise.

The use of biodiesel can extend the life of diesel engines because it is more lubricating and, furthermore, power output are relatively unaffected by biodiesel.

With a much higher flash point than for petro-diesel (biodiesels have a flash point of about 160°C), biodiesel is classified as a non-flammable liquid by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. This property makes a vehicle fueled by pure biodiesel far safer in an accident than one powered by petroleum diesel or the explosively combustible gasoline.

The use of biodiesel can extend the life of diesel engines because it has better lubricating properties than petroleum diesel.

13.2 Growth of Biodiesel Overall, worldwide production of biodiesel was about 13 million T in 2008, up 45% from 9 million tonnes in 2007. Global production of biodiesel, starting from a much smaller base than ethanol, expanded nearly fourfold between 2000 and 2005 and rose sharply in 2006, and has since continued its growth. Growing at the rate of more than 20% from the year 2006, world biodiesel production is likely to be about 18 billion T by the end of 2010. Europe leads the world in biodiesel production, with a share of over 55% in 2008. North America and Asia each have about 20% share.


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While global production of biodiesel was 13 million T in 2008, it was less than 0.3% of the total worldwide consumption of fossil fuels by the transportation sector!

First, Second and Third Generation Biodiesel Feedstock The first generation biofuel crops started off the biofuel movement, but because they comprised feedstock that were used for food, had serious drawbacks, the chief among them being that they brought into question the food-vs-fuel dilemma. Problems Faced by the First Generation Biodiesel Feedstock As noted earlier, while the first generation feedstocks helped the biodiesel industry start off the blocks, they posed serious challenges. The challenges could broadly be classified into two parts:

Threat to human food chain – Most first generation feedstock had hitherto been used for food. For instance, palm and soy were oil crops whose oils were a vital part of human food. By diverting these food crops to produce oil, the world suddenly faced a food vs. fuel crisis.

Threat to environment – Given their yields of oil, very large portions of land were needed to cultivate the first generation biodiesel crops in order for them to make a significant contribution to the world’s fuel demand. Such a necessity resulted in countries around the world cutting down forests in order to plant these crops. This has started creating serious ecological imbalances.

The second generation energy crops overcame certain bottlenecks and problems that were present in the first generation crops. The key problem that the second generation energy crops overcame was the competition with the human food chain, as well as with arable agricultural land. The second generation biofuel feedstock typically consists of crops such as jatropha (biodiesel) and switchgrass (cellulosic ethanol), as well as other waste biomass such as woodchips, crop and plant waste, etc. In addition to the benefits of second generation feedstock, the third generation biofuel feedstocks provide further improvements. These improvements usually result in enhanced efficiencies or reduced costs. Examples are the new methodologies to produce cellulosic ethanol that bring significant cost efficiencies over current methods, or use of energy crops such as algae which have much higher biodiesel yields than second generation biodiesel feedstock such as jatropha.


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13.3 Biodiesel from Algae Algae represent the third generation feedstock for biodiesel. Algae present the following advantages over second generation feedstock:

1. Algae yields are much higher – 50 T of biodiesel per year against 2 T of biodiesel per hectare per year for jatropha

2. Algae can grow in more diverse places and conditions than most second generation biodiesel feedstock

3. Algae could be better suited to genetic modification as there are many thousands of algae varieties to experiment with as against a handful of varieties for most second generation biodiesel crops.

These are still early days for the algal biodiesel industry. Currently, most attempts at making biodiesel from algae treat algal oil similar to oil from any other oilseed and thus use the same transesterification process to produce biodiesel. One of the key reasons why algae are considered as feedstock for oil is their yields. DOE (Department of Energy, Gov of USA) is reported as saying that algae yield 30 times more energy per acre than land crops such as soybeans, and some estimate even higher yields.

A Detailed Process of Biodiesel from Algae

Selection of Micro

Algae species

Growth of Micro

Algae

Harvesting of Micro

Algae

Extraction of Oil from

Micro Algae

Oil for Processing

into Biofuel

Residual Micro Algae

Dewatering and

Extrusion

Extraction of Protein

Further Treatment to Recover Other Valuable

Material

Waste Liquor

Incorporated into human

food

Aqua feed Animal feed

Pet feed

Biodiesel


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Comparison of Biodiesel from Microalgal Oil and Diesel Fuel

Properties Biodiesel from Microalgal Oil

Diesel Fuel

Density Kg l-1 0.864 0.838

Viscosity Pa s 5.2×10-4 (40 ºC) 1.9 - 4.1 ×10-4 (40 ºC)

Flash point ºC 65-115* 75

Solidifying point ºC -12 -50 - 10

Cold filter plugging point ºC -11 -3.0 (- 6.7 max)

Acid value mg KOH g-1 0.374 0.5 max

Heating value MJ kg-1 41 40 - 45

HC ratio 1.18 1.18

*: Based on data from multiple sources Source: Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Tsinghua University, Beijing , China (2004)

Transesterification The traditional method to produce biodiesel from algae oil is through a chemical reaction called transesterification. More details on transesterification are provided later. Under this method, oil is extracted from the algal biomass and it is processed using the transesterification reaction to give biodiesel as the end-product. This is a fairly simple and well-understood route to produce biodiesel from vegetable oils, and it can be used equally well for biodiesel from algae as well.

13.4 Why Isn’t Algal Biodiesel Currently Produced on a Large-scale? Producing biodiesel from algae appears like a rather simple process, and conceptually speaking, the oil extraction-transesterification method is indeed a straightforward and simple method. However, when one starts analyzing each component of the biodiesel from algae value chain, one encounters a number of challenges to be overcome. Extensive details on the challenges faced in each stage of algae-to-biodiesel process are provided in the corresponding chapters. In short, the toughest challenges to producing large-scale algae fuels are present in the “upstream” processes such as cultivation and harvesting, and relatively much less from the “downstream” processes such as oil extraction and conversion to biodiesel.


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13.5 Oil Yields from Algae Algae are the only biofeedstock that can theoretically replace all of our petro-fuel consumption of today and future. Owing to the fact that oil yields are much lower for other feedstocks when compared to those from algae, it will be very difficult for the first generation biodiesel feedstock such as soy or palm to produce enough oil to replace even a small fraction of petro-oil needs without displacing large percentages of arable land towards crops for fuel production. There are a number of reasons why yields from algae are much higher than those from other oil crops. There is potential to increase this high yield even further. This chapter will discuss these important aspects.

Comparison of Yields from Algae with Other Oil Crops Cereals contain only about 2% by weight oil, compared to oilseeds that contain much higher levels. The oil content of oilseeds varies widely from one type to the other. It is about 20% in soybeans and as high as 50% in some new Australian varieties of canola. Sunflower has one of the highest oil contents among oilseeds – about 55%. The below table shows the percentage dry weight of oil content in various crops:

Oil Content (% of dry weight) Average Values (%)

Soy 20

Canola/rapeseed 40

Sunflower 55

Castor 45

Safflower 40

Hemp 30

Copra (Dry Coconut) 60

Peanuts/Groundnuts 50

Palm Kernel 50

Corn 7

Mustard 40

Flaxseed 45

Jatropha seed 40

Jatropha kernel 55

Microalgae 2-40


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Source: http://www.plantoils.in/chem/chem.html

Microalgae have lipid content varying from 2%-40%, based on the strain. On this dimension (% oil content), there is nothing extra-ordinary about algae – in fact, algae’s oil content by weight on an average is not much higher than that for many other oil crops. (Note that macroalgae have little oil content when compared to microalgae, and hence are not suitable feedstock for biodiesel production)

Chemical Composition of Prominent Microalgae Expressed on a Dry Matter Basis (%))

Strain Protein Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acid

Scenedesmus obliquus 50-56 10-17 12-14 3-6

Scenedesmus quadricauda 47 - 1.9 -

Scenedesmus dimorphus 8-18 21-52 16-40 -

Chlamydomonas reinhardii 48 17 21 -

Chlorella vulgaris 51-58 12-17 14-22 4-5

Chlorella pyrenoidosa 57 26 2 -

Spirogyra sp. 6-20 33-64 11-21 -

Dunaliella bioculata 49 4 8 -

Dunaliella salina 57 32 6 -

Euglena gracilis 39-61 14-18 14-20 -

Prymnesium parvum 28-45 25-33 22-38 1-2

Tetraselmis maculata 52 15 3 -

Porphyridium cruentum 28-39 40-57 9-14 -

Spirulina platensis 46-63 8-14 4--9 2-5

Spirulina maxima 60-71 13-16 6-7 3-4.5

Synechoccus sp. 63 15 11 5

Anabaena cylindrica 43-56 25-30 4-7 -

Source: Becker, (1994)

From the data in the above tables, it will be clear that on the dimension of lipid content alone, algae are only as good as (in the best case scenario), most other oil crops. Where algae score over all other oil crops is in the oil yield per acre.

The following table gives some typical yields in US gallons of biodiesel per acre

Plant Yield of Biodiesel (gallons per acre)

http://www.plantoils.in/chem/chem.html


www.oilgae.com


Algae 4000 and higher

Chinese tallow 500-1000

Palm oil 500

Coconut 230

Rapeseed 100

Soy 60-100

Peanut 90

Sunflower 80-100

A Summary of Comparison of Oil and Biodiesel Yield from Main Energy Crops

Oil Source Biomass (MT/ha/yr)

Soy 1-2.5

Rapeseed 3

Palm Oil 19

Jatropha 7.5-10

Microalgae 14-255

Note: MT – metric tons, ha – hectare

Real-life Quotes for Oil Yield There have been a number of announcements in the media about the high yields possible from algae. While indeed most of the numbers reported are theoretically possible, it is important to know to what extent yields have been achieved in real-life. This section provides some estimates that have been made by companies that are “walking the walk”:

Researchers at the Center for Biorefining of the University of Minnesota estimate that algae produce 5,000 gallons of oil per acre (about 56,825 litres per hectare) – Oct 2008

With a reported 11 years of research and 10 years of patents under its belt, Algenol formally introduced an $850 million project with Sonora Fields S.A.P.I. de C.V., a wholly owned subsidiary of Mexican-owned BioFields. The privately-funded company said it is expecting yields of 6,000 gallons per acre per year (Jun 2008)

PetroSun reports that results from the pilot farm in Opelika, Alabama demonstrated a yield of between 5,000 and 8,000 gallons per acre - March 2008


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Solix Biofuels has already achieved production of 1,500 gallons an acre per year at a test plot in Fort Collins, and the company is expecting yields of 2,500 to 3,000 gallons an acre per year – Nov 2008

Reasons behind High Algae Yields Why do algae give such a high yield per acre when compared to other oil crops? The following are the key reasons why oil yields from algae are much higher than from traditional oilseeds:

Algae have a much higher photosynthetic efficiency –While most plants have photosynthetic efficiency only about 1%, algae can have photosynthetic efficiencies of over 5%. For instance, GreenFuel says on their web site that they have achieved a photosynthetic efficiency of approximately 5.4% under natural sunlight. Some claim that algae have the potential to have a maximum photosynthetic efficiency of as high as 10% (Refer the book Settling the Desert, by Louis Berkofsky, D. Faiman, Joseph Gale, page 63). The high photosynthetic efficiency is a key reason for the high oil yield, as more energy from the sun is converted by algae for the same area.

This is a related quote from the FAO: “Any analysis of biomass energy production must consider the potential efficiency of the processes involved. Although photosynthesis is fundamental to the conversion of solar radiation into stored biomass energy, its theoretically achievable efficiency is limited both by the limited wavelength range applicable to photosynthesis, and the quantum requirements of the photosynthetic process. Only light within the wavelength range of 400 to 700 nm photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) can be utilized by plants, effectively allowing only 45 % of total solar energy to be utilized for photosynthesis. Furthermore, fixation of one CO2 molecule during photosynthesis, necessitates a quantum requirement of ten (or more), which results in a maximum utilization of only 25% of the PAR absorbed by the photosynthetic system. On the basis of these limitations, the theoretical maximum efficiency of solar energy conversion is approximately 11%. In practice, however, the magnitude of photosynthetic efficiency observed in the field, is further decreased by factors such as poor absorption of sunlight due to its reflection, respiration requirements of photosynthesis and the need for optimal solar radiation levels. The net result being an overall photosynthetic efficiency of between 3 and 6% of total solar radiation.”

Algae grow fast, so they are harvested many times in a year, while most other oil crops provide seeds just once or at best a few times a year.

Algae use the same basic mechanism for photosynthesis as every other photosynthetic plant on earth. What is different is that far more of algae's biomass can engage in energy production and harvestable energy storage than any land plant. Land plants have to make roots and structural components that


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algae do not. Land plants have to spend more energy on more complex protection and reproduction strategies then algae do.

Increasing the Oil Yields from Algae Oil yields per unit area from algae can be even further increased, and it is one of the most researched topics currently. To improve lipid yields in microalgae, one must understand the physiological and biochemical basis for partitioning photosynthetically fixed CO2 into lipids. The rate of lipid synthesis and final lipid yield will depend on the availability of carbon for lipid synthesis and the actual levels and activities of the enzymes used for lipid synthesis. Conditions such as nitrogen deficiency that induce the accumulation of lipid by algae often drastically reduce the capacity of photosynthetic CO2 fixation. Low lipid yields could result either from an absence of carbon skeletons or from low levels of enzymes. Improvements in lipid yield can be achieved only when the limiting factors have been determined. Research efforts are continuing in order to determine the pathways of lipid biosynthesis in algal cells, especially in the cytoplasm, chloroplast and mitochondrion. Each pathway possesses potential lipid triggers. Once the trigger is determined, biochemical and genetic engineering techniques can be used to increase the lipid yield of promising algal strains.

Examples of Research & Case Studies of Increasing Oil Yields in Algae

Enhancing Lipid Production Rates by Increasing the Activity of Enzymes Via Genetic Engineering94 Lipid accumulation in algae typically occurs during periods of environmental stress, including growth under nutrient-deficient conditions. The lipid and fatty acid contents of microalgae vary in accordance with culture conditions. In some cases, lipid content can be enhanced by the imposition of nitrogen starvation or other stress factors. Biochemical studies have also suggested that Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase (ACCase), a biotin-containing enzyme that catalyzes an early step in fatty acid biosynthesis, may be involved in the control of this lipid accumulation process. Therefore, it may be possible to enhance lipid production rates by increasing the activity of this enzyme via genetic engineering.

94

Donna A. Johnson., Sarah S., (Aug, 1987) Liquid Fuels from Microalgae, Prepared for the U.S.

Department of Energy. Retrieved from: www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/3202.pdf



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Through Nitrogen & Phosphorus Deprivation Induction of Lipid Synthesis by Nutrient Deprivation in Microalgae - In an experiment, microalgal strains were screened in the laboratory for their biomass productivity and lipid content. Four strains (two marine and two freshwater), selected because of their robustness, high productivity and relatively high lipid content, were cultivated under nitrogen deprivation in 0.6-L bubbled tubes. Only the two marine microalgae accumulated lipid under such conditions; they are Eustigmatophyte & Nannochloropsis sp. F&M-M24, which attained 60% lipid content after nitrogen starvation. These were subsequently grown in a photobioreactor to study the influence of irradiance and nutrient (nitrogen or phosphorus) deprivation on fatty acid accumulation. Fatty acid contents increased with high irradiance (up to 32.5% of dry biomass) and following both nitrogen and phosphorus deprivation (up to about 50%). Further tests proved that under nutrient sufficient and deficient conditions, for specific strains, lipid productivity increased from 117 mg/L/day in nutrient sufficient media (with an average biomass productivity of 0.36 g/L/day and 32% lipid content) to 204 mg/L/day (with an average biomass productivity of 0.30 g/L/day and more than 60% final lipid content) in nitrogen deprived media. In a two-phase cultivation process (a nutrient sufficient phase to produce the inoculum followed by a nitrogen deprived phase to boost lipid synthesis) the oil production potential could be projected to be more than 90 kg per hectare per day. This is the first report of an increase of both lipid content and a real lipid productivity attained through nutrient deprivation in an outdoor algal culture. The experiments showed that this marine eustigmatophyte has the potential for an annual production of 20 tons of lipid per hectare in the Mediterranean climate and of more than 30 tons of lipid per hectare in sunny tropical areas. (Reference: Microalgae for oil: Strain selection, induction of lipid synthesis and outdoor mass cultivation in a low-cost photobioreactor; University: Dipartimento di Biotecnologie Agrarie, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Piazzale delle Cascine 24, 50144 Firenze, Italy, Source: Biotechnol Bioeng, Jun 18, 2008)

Si Depletion - Research into Diatom Lipid Accumulation by Silicon Depletion

Cyclotella cryptica accumulated more lipids more rapidly after Si depletion. Further studies (by NREL, during the ASP Program) identified two factors that seemed to be at play in this species:

Si-depleted cells direct newly assimilated carbon more toward lipid production and less toward carbohydrate production.

Si-depleted cells slowly convert non-lipid cell components to lipids. During the ASP research at NREL, the highest lipid content occurred with

Navicula, which increased from 22% in exponential phase cells to 49% in Si-deficient cells and to 58% in N-deficient cells.

Coomls, et al. reported that the lipid content of the diatom Navioua pelliculosa increased by about 60% during a 14-hour silicon starvation period. Similarly, Werner also reported an increase in cellular lipids during a 24 hours silicon


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starvation period. The switch from carbohydrate accumulation to lipid accumulation in these diatoms occurs very rapidly, though mechanisms involved are not yet fully understood.

The following chart shows the lipid accumulation progress in Si-deficient and Si-replete cultures.

Cylindrotheca Fusiformis

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1 2 3 4Hours after Si Depletion

Lip

id c

on

ten

t (%

FA

DM

)

a cryptica

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1 2 3 4

Hours after Si Depletion

Lip

id c

on

ten

t (%

FA

DM

)

Thalassiosira Pseudonana

0

5

10

15

20

25

1 2 3 4Hours after Si Depletion

Lip

id C

on

ten

t (%

FA

DM

)

Source: NREL - http://www.nrel.gov/

“Spigot” Analogy This is an interesting approach to increase oil accumulation and yield in algae. This approach is like shutting off the flow of carbon to carbohydrates, in the hopes that it would force carbon to flow down the lipid synthesis pathway. The upp1 gene codes for a fusion protein containing the activities for UDPglucose pyrophosphorylase and phosphoglucomutase, two key enzymes in the production of chrysolaminarin. It was postulated that decreasing expression of the upp1 gene could result in a decrease in the proportion of newly assimilated carbon into the carbohydrate synthesis pathways, and consequently increase the flow of carbon to lipids.

By a Shift in pH

- Si replete cultures

- Si deficient cultures



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Data obtained during the ASP Program at NREL suggested that a shift in pH, which has been correlated with decreased rates of cell division, could also trigger lipid accumulation.

13.6 Oil Extraction from Algae

Current Methods of Oil Extraction Algae oils are extracted through a wide variety of methods. Two well-known methods to extract the oil from algae are:

Expeller/Press Using Chemical Solvents

Hexane Solvent Oil Extraction Supercritical Fluid Extraction

Most oil extraction can be effected by a simple cold press or using chemical methods, or by a combination of the two methods. Seventy percent of the oil extracted from algae is done by pressing them. The use of an organic solvent increases the extraction level to reach higher percentages (sometimes as high as 99%), but at a higher cost.

Expeller/Press The simplest method is mechanical crushing. Since different strains of algae vary widely in their physical attributes, various press configurations (screw, expeller, piston, etc) work better for specific algae types. Often, mechanical crushing is used in conjunction with chemicals. When algae are dried it retains its oil content, which then can be "pressed" out with an oil press, also called an expeller press. While more efficient processes are emerging, this is a simple process that uses a press to extract a large percentage (70-75%) of the oils out of algae.

Chemical Solvents Hexane Solvent Method Algal oil can be extracted using chemicals. Benzene and ether have been used, but a popular chemical for solvent extraction is hexane, which is relatively inexpensive.


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Hexane solvent extraction can be used in isolation or it can be used along with the oil press/expeller method. After the oil has been extracted using an expeller, the remaining pulp can be mixed with cyclo-hexane to extract the remaining oil content. The oil dissolves in the cyclohexane, and the pulp is filtered out from the solution. The oil and cyclohexane are separated by means of distillation. The two stages (oil press & hexane solvent) together will be able to derive more than 95% of the total oil present in the algae. The extracted material (cake) is also heated to vapourise the hexane. All the vapours of hexane from distillation and desolventisation are condensed and reutilised for extraction. Like pressing, solvent extraction can be done with equipment that processes the biomass in batches, or with equipment that processes it continuously. A continuous extractor is not considered economically practical unless it processes at least 200 tons per day. Batch solvent extraction is likely to be the appropriate method for processing less than 200 tons of biomass per day. Most large-scale oilseed refineries of today use the continuous solvent extraction process. A typical U.S. solvent extraction soybean plant has a daily capacity of 2500-3000 tons/day Supercritical Fluid Extraction This can extract almost 100% of the oils all by itself. This method however needs special equipment for containment and pressure In the supercritical fluid/ CO2 extraction, CO2 is liquefied under pressure and heated to the point that it has the properties of both a liquid and gas. This liquefied fluid then acts as the solvent in extracting the oil from the biomass.


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A Schematic Representation of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

A super critical fluid extraction system consists of gas cylinder, high pressure compressor, high pressure co-solvent pump, extraction vessel, separation vessel, and a rotometer. Algae are loaded into the extraction vessel and the oil is extracted with supercritical carbondioxide by maintaining the exact temperature and pressure conditions.

Summary of the Key Extraction Methods Pressing Oil from Algae * Dry the algae and press the oil * Can retrieve up to 70% of the oil * Cheapest and simplest method Chemical Oil Extraction * Uses hexane solvents to remove the oil * Removes oil out of almost all things * Hexane is a neurotoxin, so care must be exercised during use

∑

GAS CYLINDER

HIGH PRESSURE

COMPRESSOR

HIGH PRESSURE CO-SOLVENT

PUMP

HEAT EXCHANGER EXTRACTION

VESSEL

SEPERATION VESSEL

3rd 2nd 1st

ROTOMETER FLOW TOTALIZER


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Super Critical Oil Extraction

Very efficient method Uses carbon dioxide at critical pressure and temperature (when CO2 is almost a

liquid) Rapid diffusion of the oil Very expensive

Other Less Well-known Extraction Methods Enzymatic Extraction Enzymatic extraction uses enzymes to degrade the cell walls with water acting as the solvent, making fractionation of the oil much easier. The costs of this extraction process are estimated to be much greater than hexane extraction. The enzymatic extraction can be supported by ultrasonication. The combination "sonoenzymatic treatment" causes faster extraction and higher oil yields. Osmotic Shock Osmotic shock is a sudden reduction in osmotic pressure, which can cause cells in a solution to rupture. Ultrasonic-assisted Extraction Ultrasonic extraction can greatly accelerate extraction processes. Using an ultrasonic reactor, ultrasonic waves are used to create cavitation bubbles in a solvent material. When these bubbles collapse near the cell walls, it creates shock waves and liquid jets that cause those cells walls to break and release their contents into the solvent.

Algae Oil Extraction – Trends & Developments Algae Oil Extraction Using Ultrasonication The use of ultrasonics during extraction helps greatly, as it helps to break down the algae cell structure and expose more of the oil for extraction. The high-pressure cycles of the ultrasonic waves support the diffusion of solvents, such as cyclohexane, into the cell structure and the transfer of lipids from the cell into the solvent. The disrupted cell tissue can then be filtered off and the cyclohexane mixture distilled to separate off the oil. Ultrasonics can also be used in conjunction with certain enzymes to break down the algae cells and facilitate oil production in the absence of a solvent.


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According to some industry professionals, the ultrasonics method uses fewer methanols than conventional methods, is quicker and allows the glycerol by-product to be centrifuged off at the final stage. The following quote from Hielscher, a supplier of ultrasonic equipment for extraction95 advocates the use of algae oil extraction assisted by ultrasonication. “Strong synergetic effects can be observed when combining enzymatic treatment with sonication.” Ultrasonic Extraction Intense sonication of liquids generates sound waves that propagate into the liquid media resulting in alternating high-pressure and low-pressure cycles. During the low-pressure cycle, high-intensity small vacuum bubbles are created in the liquid. When the bubbles attain a certain size, they collapse violently during a high-pressure cycle. This is called cavitation. During the implosion very high pressures and high speed liquid jets are produced locally. The resulting shear forces break the cell structure mechanically and improve material transfer. This effect supports the extraction of lipids from algae. In particular for the purpose of pressing, good control of the cell disruption is required, to avoid an unhindered release of all intracellular products including cell debris, or product denaturation. By breaking the cell structure, more lipids stored inside the cells can be released by the application of outside pressure. Ultrasonic Solvent Extraction The high pressure cycles of the ultrasonic waves support the diffusion of solvents, such as hexane into the cell structure. As ultrasound breaks the cell wall mechanically by the cavitation shear forces, it facilitates the transfer of lipids from the cell into the solvent. After the oil dissolves in the cyclohexane the pulp/tissue is filtered out. The solution is distilled to separate the oil from the hexane. Ultrasonic Enzymatic Extraction Strong synergetic effects can be observed when combining enzymatic treatment with sonication. The cavitation assists the enzymes in the penetration of the tissue, resulting

95 Hielscher - Ultrasound Technology. Retrieved from: http://www.hielscher.com/

http://www.hielscher.com/


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in faster extraction and higher yields. In this case water acts as a solvent and the enzymes degrade the cell walls.96

Advances in Oil Expellers Triple Chamber Expeller

Fitted with double reduction gear box with helical gears. Lower power consumption. Pump provides lubrication to all the roller & thrust bearings. Removable plates. Fuel efficient. Low energy cost.

Oil Extraction – Efforts & Solutions International Energy Inc. announced development of a continuous cyclic growth and

hydrocarbon extraction process that can be applied to mass cultures of microalgae for the separation of bio-oils from the algal biomass. This proprietary IENI technology yields high purity microalgal bio-oils. The company's technology allows the microalgae to be processed for bio-oil separation and harvesting, while preserving the viability and vitality of the cells that produce them. Microalgae, stripped of their bio-oils, are then returned to the growth medium for further growth and hydrocarbon accumulation. This novel approach minimizes biomass generation time while enhancing yields of hydrocarbon production.97

According to a 2005 research paper (Michele Aresta, Angela Dibenedetto, Maria Carone, Teresa Colonna and Carlo Fragale – most of them from Department of Chemistry, Campus Universitario, 70126 Bari, Italy), super critical fluid extraction is perhaps the best method for oil extraction in macroalgae. In their research, the team compared two different techniques for the extraction of biodiesel from macroalgae: thermochemical liquefaction and extraction using supercritical carbon dioxide (sc- CO2). In both cases the extracted oil was characterized quantitatively and qualitatively. (Thermochemical liquefaction is a method that uses high temperature, high pressure in the presence of catalysts for oil extraction from biomass).

96 Hielscher - Ultrasound Technology. Retrieved from: http://www.hielscher.com/ultrasonics/algae_extraction_01.htm 97 Newark, NJ. (2008) International Energy Inc. Retrieved from: www.internationalenergyinc.com

http://www.hielscher.com/ultrasonics/algae_extraction_01.htm

http://www.internationalenergyinc.com/


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A New Extraction Process by OriginOil without Chemical Solvents - OriginOil's latest invention builds on the company's first patent, Quantum FracturingTM in which ultrasound from intense fluid fracturing breaks down algae cells much in the same way a high-frequency sound wave breaks glass. In the new patent filing, the flowing algae biomass is first sent through a shielded wave guide system where it receives low-wattage; frequency-tuned microwave bursts, breaking the cell walls. Quantum Fracturing is then applied to these pre-cracked cells to complete the oil extraction. The result is a system that makes low-energy and environmentally-safe algae oil production a reality. (source: OriginOil, Jun 2008)

Green Star Products, Inc., announced that it has acquired a license to utilize a breakthrough processing technology to convert algae biomass to feedstock oil and cellulose sugars for the production of biodiesel and cellulosic ethanol respectively. The new process uses an efficient low-cost method to extract the oil and cellulose sugars from oil-bearing microalgae that eliminates the need to mechanically dry and press-extract the algae oil using traditional methods. The sugars from carbohydrate-rich cellulose and hemicelluloses can be used to make a variety of products including ethanol and other high demand chemical products. The oil can be made into biodiesel and other products – Feb 2008

PetroAlgae employs the following extract lysing methods98

Chemical extraction Homogenizer Ball mill Ultrasonic cavitations

Challenges Determining the Most Efficient and Cost Effective Extraction Method - The

challenge here is that higher the efficiency of the extraction method, the higher is its cost. Please refer to the details provided under the “Algae Oil Extraction – Trends & Developments” for inputs on various ongoing efforts to overcome these challenges.

Reducing the Energy Requirements for Extraction - Algae oil extraction is quite energy intensive and this is an important challenge to be recognized and addressed.

Efforts OriginOil’s invention of a method to extract the oil from algae with high

energy efficiency that builds on the company’s first patent, Quantum Fracturing™, in which ultrasound from intense fluid fracturing breaks down algae cells and reduces the overall energy required for extraction.

High Cell Wall Elasticity - Cell wall and membrane have high elasticity modulus, hence extraction methods need to overcome these.

98 PetroAlge, May 2008


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Efforts A method of intense sonication of liquids can break the cell structure

mechanically and improve material transfer. This effect supports the extraction of lipids from algae.

Insterstitial Water Decreased Extraction Effectiveness - Even when free water has been removed, wet biomass retains sufficient interstitial water to act as lubricant, thus decreasing the effectiveness of extraction, especially with cost-effective methods such as the expeller press.

Efforts Some efforts are working towards direct fermentation of still-wet algae,

thereby overcoming the problem of oil extraction. (See the chapter on Ethanol from Algae for more details)

High intensity methods to dry the algae could damage the algae cell integrity. Hence, methods are required that can perform the drying operation more subtly. The Refractance Window™ is one such method in which the drying technology uses a heat transfer process and specific properties of water to gently remove moisture while maintaining the maximum integrity of the natural material.99

13.7 Converting Algae Oil into Biodiesel Concepts

The major problem associated with the use of pure vegetable oils as well as oil from biodiesel as fuels for diesel engines is caused by high fuel viscosity in compression ignition. Algal oil, like other vegetable oils, is highly viscous, with viscosities ranging 10–20 times those of no. 2 diesel fuel. Chemical conversion of the oil to its corresponding fatty ester appears to be a promising solution to the high viscosity problem. This process – chemical conversion of the oil to its corresponding fatty ester, and thus biodiesel – is called transesterification.

Transesterification Transesterification is not a new process. Scientists E. Duy and J. Patrick conducted it as early as 1853. One of the first uses of transesterified vegetable oil was powering heavy-duty vehicles in South Africa before World War II.

99 Crystal Sweet Algae


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The transesterification process involves reaction of an alcohol (like methanol) with the triglycerides, in vegetable oils and animal fats, forming fatty acid alkyl esters (biodiesel) and glycerin. The reaction requires heat and a strong base catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. The simplified transesterification reaction is shown below.

Triglycerides + Free Fatty Acids + Alcohol ——> Alkyl Esters + Glycerin Some feedstock must be pretreated before they go through the transesterification process. Feedstock with less than 4% free fatty acids, which include vegetable oils and some food-grade animal fats, do not require pretreatment. Feedstock with more than 4% free fatty acids, which include inedible animal fats and recycled greases, must be pretreated in an acid esterification process (Oil derived from strains of algae could require such pretreatment.). In this step, the feedstock is reacted with an alcohol (like methanol) in the presence of a strong acid catalyst (sulfuric acid), converting the free fatty acids into biodiesel. The remaining triglycerides after pretreatment are again converted to biodiesel in the transesterification reaction.

Triglycerides + Free Fatty Acids + Alcohol ——> Alkyl Esters + Triglycerides This end-mixture is separated as follows: Ether and salt water are added to the mixture and mixed well. After sometime, the entire mixture would have separated into two layers, with the bottom layer containing a mixture of ether and biodiesel. This layer is separated. Biodiesel is in turn separated from ether by a vaporizer under a high vacuum. As the ether vaporizes first, the biodiesel will remain. This liquid is then mixed into vegetable oil. The entire mixture then settles. Glycerin is left on the bottom and methyl esters, or biodiesel, is left on top. The glycerin can be used to make soap (or any one of many other products) and the methyl ester is washed and filtered.


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Two types of transesterification are: Base catalyzed transesterification of the oil Direct acid catalyzed transesterification of the oil Most biodiesel produced today uses the base catalyzed reaction. In this, fat or oil is reacted with methanol (a short chain alcohol) in the presence of of a catalyst (usually sodium or potassium hydroxide). The base catalyzed reaction is more popular because: It is done at low temperature and pressure It yields high conversion (98%) with minimal side reactions and reaction time It is a direct conversion to biodiesel with no intermediate compounds No exotic materials of construction are needed Percentage of energy consumed in each part of the transesterification process100 Preheating - 6% Methanol separation - 66% Reactor - 17%

100 Source: Results of an experiment to convert palm oil to biodiesel through transesterification, in Thailand (2005). Kulchanat Kapilakarn, Ampol Peugtong - Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineer, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand

Catalyst

Methanol

Vegetable Oils, Used Cooking Oil, Animal Fats

Neutralizing Acid

Catalyst Mixing

Transesterification

Neutralization

Purification Methanol Recovery

Quality Control

Methyl Easter

Phase Separation

Re - neutralization

Methanol Recovery

Pharmaceutical Glycerin

Crude Glycerin

Glycerin Purification

Crude Biodiesel

Recycled Methanol


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Water separator in ester - evaporator to evaporate the water from methyl ester - 11%

Problems with Transesterification The feasibility of the transesterification process mainly depends on the FFA (Free Fatty Acids) content present in the algal oil. The transesterification process does not work well if the FFA content in the oil is very high. Free fatty acids are a chemical component of algal oil. When the algal oil is processed and heated, the triglycerides fatty acids break off and form FFA’s. The problem that the higher the FFA content is, the harder the oil is to process, because the FFA’s form soap in the biodiesel. To minimise the generation of soaps during the reaction, a targeted reduction for FFA in the feedstock is 0.5% by weight or less. This reduction of FFA will necessitate pretreatment of the oil, before the harvested algae is subjected to transesterification process. The challenge is to determine a viable method or catalyst that converts high free fatty acid (FFA) containing algae to biodiesel in a single step, eliminating pretreatment.

Tranesterification By-products An interesting by-product of the transesterification process is glycerin. Glycerin can be filtered to remove any food particles or impurities, and used as an industrial degreaser in its raw form, composted and used as a fertilizer, or made into bar soap.

New Developments in Transesterification Ultrasonication Ultrasonication increases the chemical reaction speed and yield of the transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fats into biodiesel. This allows changing the production from batch processing to continuous flow processing and it reduces investment and operational costs. Biodiesel is commonly produced in batch reactors using heat and mechanical mixing as energy input. Ultrasonic cavitational mixing is an effective alternative means to achieve a better mixing in commercial processing. Ultrasonic cavitation provides the necessary activation energy for the industrial transesterification process. Ultrasonification reduces the processing time from the conventional 1 to 4 hour batch processing to less than 30 seconds. More important, ultrasonication reduces the separation time from 5 to 10 hours (using conventional agitation) to less than 60 minutes.


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The ultrasonication also helps to decrease the amount of catalyst required by up to 50% due to the increased chemical activity in the presence of cavitation. When using ultrasonication the amount of excess alcohol required is reduced, too. Another benefit is the resulting increase in the purity of the glycerin. Ultrasonic processing of biodiesel involves the following steps:

Vegetable oil or animal fat is being mixed with the methanol (which makes methyl esters) or ethanol (for ethyl esters) and sodium or potassium methoxide or hydroxide

The mix is heated, e.g. to temperatures between 45 and 65oC the heated mix is being sonicated inline.

Most commonly, the sonication is performed at an elevated pressure using a feed pump and an adjustable back-pressure valve next to the flow cell. Hielscher supplies industrial ultrasonic processing equipment, worldwide. With ultrasonic processors of up to 16kW power per single device, there is no limit in plant size or processing capacity.

New heterogeneous process for biodiesel production A way to improve the quality and the value of the crude glycerin produced by biodiesel plants - - November 2005 - Several commercial processes to produce fatty acid methyl esters from vegetable oils have been developed and are available today. These processes use homogeneous basic catalysts such as caustic soda or sodium methylate which lead to waste products after neutralization with mineral acids. This paper provides a general description of a completely new continuous biodiesel production process, where the transesterification reaction is promoted by a heterogeneous catalyst. This process requires neither catalyst recovery nor aqueous treatment steps: the purification steps of products are then much more simplified and very high yields of methyl esters, close to the theoretical value, are obtained. Glycerin is directly produced with high purity levels (at least 98%) and is exempt from any salt contaminants. With all these features, this process can be considered as a green process101 Solid Catalyst to Convert Algae into Biodiesel United Environment & Energy, an engineering company in Horseheads, NY (USA), uses a "mixed metal oxide" catalyst (a form of certain metals resistant to corrosion but

101 L. Bournay, D. Casanave, B. Delfort, G. Hillion and J.A. Chodorge (Institut Français du Pétrole (IFP), BP3, F-69390 Vernaison, France ; Institut Français du Pétrole (IFP), 1&4 av de Bois Préau, F-92852 Rueil-Malmaison Cedex, France ; Axens, IFP Group Technologies, 89 bd F. Roosevelt, F-92508 Rueil-Malmaison Cedex, France


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reactive). The team has come up with a conversion process that is 40 percent cheaper than an industrial scale version of the traditional methanol and lye process. That process must also be finished by purifying the biodiesel with water to wash out left over chemicals that then linger in the water. This new process would make biodiesel that also doesn't require the purification step, because there is no liquid catalyst mixed into the resulting fuel. The company has made around 10 gallons of algae biodiesel this way to date, though its main interest is not in manufacturing the fuel but in selling the technology to make it to other companies.(Mar 2009).

Transesterification Factoids

Solazyme is currently producing thousands of gallons of algal oil for use in producing algal biodiesel via conventional transesterification or algal renewable diesel via refinery-based hydrotreatment. (2008).

Solazyme has tested its algae biodiesel and the company has said that the Biodiesel had superior performance under cold weather conditions. The company also mentioned that the algae were engineered to produce oil with optimized fatty acid profile. (2008)

"In contrast to the front-end unit operations, the downstream processes are conventional technologies currently practiced on a large scale, e.g. biodiesel is currently produced from vegetable oils via transesterification (several algae species have lipids, starch, and protein compositions similar to soy and canola beans). Consequently the same facilities can be adapted to produce biodiesel from algae and conventional agricultural feeds." – GreenFuel Technologies

As a possible solution to overcome any quality problems that biodiesel from specific feedstock (such as algae) could pose, one interesting method suggested is to blend biodiesel from different feedstocks. Research is ongoing regarding the feasibility of this idea.

Experiments with algae oils, extracted from wastewater grown algae in Christchurch (Bathurst 2003) showed that only 23% and 53% of the extracted oil could be converted into biodiesel during 2 separate test runs.

Feinberg (1984) reports that, due to the high proportion of isoprenoids, glycolipids, phospholipids and aromatics in the algae lipid fraction only a small percentage of the extracted lipid fraction might be mono-, di-, and triglycerides suitable for transesterification.

Algal oils, compared to the oils of commonly used biodiesel crops like canola, can be very rich in long chained polyunsaturated fatty acids (Borowitzka 1988, Becker 1988, Feinberg 1984). Feinberg (1984) identified this as a problem for long term storage of algae derived biodiesel, as these components can polymerize into waxy solids, causing filter clogging and injector fouling.


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Challenges in Conversion of Algae Oil to Biodiesel Challenge: High amounts of Free Fatty Acids (FFA) in algae oil could create transesterification problems. It has been reported that transesterification would not occur if FFA content in the oil was above 3 % by weight. Free fatty acids are a chemical component of algae oil which are formed when the oil is heated in the biodiesel processor. During this process, the triglyceride fatty acids break off and form FFA’s (Free Fatty Acids). The problem is that the more FFA’s there are, the harder the oil is to process because the FFA’s result in the formation of soap in the biodiesel. Efforts & Solutions High FFA containing oil can be pretreated before transesterification. Pretreatment

involves water removal and converting FFA into useable oil. There are two methods for removing FFA from feedstock:

Caustic Stripping - Caustic is used to “strip” FFA from oils. Caustic reacts

with FFA to create soaps, which result in significant yield loss and creates a disposal issues with soaps that are produced

Acid Esterification - Methanol and sulfuric acid are mixed with oils, and FFA is converted into methyl esters. This process results in no yield loss and no soap production.

There are pre-processing solutions available today that can make the oil more suitable for transesterification

Basu & Norris (2005) have developed a process to produce esters from feedstock that have high FFA content using calcium and barium acetate as a catalyst.

SRS Biodiesel - FSP-Series Acid Esterification pretreatment system for high-FFA feedstock - SRS offers a scalable, continuous-flow, skid-mounted system that can front-end any existing biodiesel system, efficiently converting FFA into useable oil with no yield loss. The FSP-Series Acid Esterification pretreatment system enables new and existing plants the ability to incorporate multiple high-FFA feedstocks102

102 SRS Engineering Corporation. Retrieved from: www.srsbiodiesel.com

http://www.srsbiodiesel.com/


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SUMMARY

1. Pilot projects suggest that algae could provide over 10,000 gallons of biodiesel

per hectare per year.

2. The traditional method of producing biodiesel from algae is transesterification.

3. Recent advances in oil extraction and transesterification could reduce the cost of

making biodiesel from plant oils.

4. There could be some challenges in converting algae oil into biodiesel using the

transesterification process owing to the high FFA of algae oil.


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14. Hydrogen from Algae 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Methodologies for Producing Hydrogen from Algae 14.2.1 Biochemical Processes 14.2.2 Hydrogen Production through Gasification of Algae Biomass

14.2.3 Through Steam Reformation of Methane derived from Algae 14.3 Factoids 14.4 Current Methods of Hydrogen Production 14.5 Current & Future Uses of Hydrogen 14.6 Why Hasn’t The Hydrogen Economy Bloomed? – Problems with Hydrogen

HIGHLIGHTS

Hydrogen production from algae is much less researched than production of biodiesel and ethanol.

Among currently known processes, biomass gasification technology is considered to be the most appropriate for large-scale, centralized hydrogen production, due to the nature of handling large amounts of biomass and the required economy of scale for this type of process.

Biochemical processes are expected to have some potential as well in the production of hydrogen from algae.

14.1 Introduction There is a great divide when it comes to opinions on the importance of hydrogen to our future energy economy. On one side of the divide, hydrogen gas is seen as a future energy carrier with phenomenal potential by virtue of the fact that it is renewable, does not emit the "greenhouse gas" CO2 in combustion, liberates large amounts of energy per unit weight in combustion, and is easily converted to electricity by fuel cells. On the other side are those who point out that there are some fundamental problems with hydrogen that will ensure that it will forever remain just a great green hope and nothing more than that. These divided opinions however have not stopped considerable research being conducted to produce and store hydrogen. Hydrogen is currently being produced primarily from fossil fuels such as natural gas. Biological hydrogen production has several advantages over hydrogen production by traditional processes. Biological hydrogen production by photosynthetic microorganisms


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for example, requires the use of a simple solar reactor such as a transparent closed box, with low energy requirements. If such processes could be made to work on a large-scale, we would have a renewable source of hydrogen. Attempts to produce hydrogen from renewable sources have been going on for over three decades, though it has picked up momentum of late. The oil crisis in 1973, for instance, prompted research into biological hydrogen production, including photosynthetic production, as part of the search for alternative energy technologies. This chapter focuses on efforts to use algae to produce hydrogen.

14.2 Methodologies for Producing Hydrogen from Algae

Biochemical Processes - Under specific conditions, algae produce hydrogen, via biological and photobiological processes. Under these conditions, enzymes in the cell act as catalysts to split the water molecules.

Gasification – Gasifying biomass gives syngas, a mixture of CO and H2. A number of methods are being researched to separate the H2 from syngas.

Through Steam Reformation of Methane – Anaerobic digestion or fermentation of algal biomass produces methane. The traditional steam reformation (SMR) techniques can be used to derive hydrogen from methane.

14.2.1 Biochemical Processes Hydrogenase-dependent Hydrogen Production Photosynthesis consists of two processes: light energy conversion to biochemical energy by a photochemical reaction, and CO2 reduction to organic compounds such as sugar phosphates, through the use of this biochemical energy by Calvin-cycle enzymes. Under certain conditions, however, instead of reducing CO2, a few groups of microalgae and cyanobacteria consume biochemical energy to produce molecular hydrogen. Hydrogenase and nitrogenase enzymes are both capable of hydrogen production. In 1939 a German researcher named Hans Gaffron, while working at the University of Chicago, observed that the algae he was studying, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (a green alga), would sometimes switch from the production of oxygen to the production of hydrogen. Gaffron never discovered the cause for this change and for many years other scientists failed in their attempts at its discovery. In the late 1990s Professor Anastasios Melis, a researcher at the University of California at Berkeley discovered that by depriving the algae of sulfur it will switch from the production of oxygen (normal photosynthesis), to the production of hydrogen. He found that the enzyme responsible for this reaction is hydrogenase, but that the hydrogenase


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will not cause this switch in the presence of oxygen. Melis found that depleting the amount of sulfur available to the algae interrupted its internal oxygen flow, allowing the hydrogenase an environment in which it can react, causing the algae to produce hydrogen. Hydrogenase is an enzyme that produces hydrogen by combining electrons derived from the photosynthetic electron transport chain with protons. It is only produced under anaerobic conditions because the photosynthetically produced oxygen is highly toxic to the hydrogenases.

Hydrogenase-mediated hydrogen production

Source: FAO

Hydrogenase catalyses the following reaction: (2H+ + 2Xreduced -> 6 H2 + 2Xoxidized) The electron carrier, X, is thought to be ferredoxin. Since ferredoxin is reduced with water as an electron donor by the photochemical reaction, green algae are theoretically water-splitting microorganisms. Following Gaffron and Rubin's work, basic studies on the mechanisms involved in hydrogen production have determined that the reducing power (electron donation) of hydrogenase does not always come from water, but may sometimes originate intracellularly from organic compounds such as starch. The contribution of the decomposition of organic compounds to hydrogen production is dependent on the algal species concerned, and on culture conditions. Even when organic compounds are involved in hydrogen production, an electron source can be derived from water, since organic compounds are synthesized by oxygenic photosynthesis. The reason for hydrogenase inactivity in green algae under normal photosynthetic growth conditions is


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unclear. Hydrogenase is thought to become active in order to excrete excess reducing power under specific conditions, such as anaerobic conditions. Producing Hydrogen from Green Algae by Restricting Sulfur from their Diet103 Researchers at the University of California at Berkeley have engineered a strain of pond scum that could, with further refinements, produce vast amounts of hydrogen through photosynthesis. Tasios Melis got involved in this research when he and Michael Seibert, a scientist at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Golden, Colorado, figured out how to get hydrogen out of green algae by restricting sulfur from their diet. The plant cells flicked a long-dormant genetic switch to produce hydrogen instead of carbon dioxide. But the quantities of hydrogen they produced were nowhere near enough to scale up the process commercially and profitably. When they discovered the sulfur switch, they were able to increase hydrogen production by a factor of 100,000. But to make it a commercial technology, they still had to increase the efficiency of the process by another factor of 100. Melis’ truncated antennae mutants are a big step towards achieving this goal. Melis’ work on a new strain of algae, known as C. reinhardtii, has truncated chlorophyll antennae within the chloroplasts of the cells, which serves to increase the organism's energy efficiency. In addition, it makes the algae a lighter shade of green, which in turn allows more sunlight deeper into an algal culture and therefore allows more cells to photosynthesize. Now Seibert and others (including James Lee at Oak Ridge National Laboratories and J. Craig Venter at the Venter Institute in Rockville, Maryland) are trying to adjust the hydrogen-producing pathway so that it can produce hydrogen 100 percent of the time. Using Copper to Block Oxygen Generation in the Cells of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii104 A team of biologists including Raymond Surzycki and Jean-David Rochaix from the University of Geneva, and Laurent Cournac and Gilles Peltier, both from the Atomic Energy Commission, the National Center for Scientific Research, and the Mediterranean University, have demonstrated a new method for hydrogen production by algae. In an issue of PNAS (Nov 2007), the team presented a method using copper to block oxygen generation in the cells of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii that could lead to a consistent cycle of hydrogen production. In order to induce hydrogen production in the algae, cells must be placed in an environment without oxygen but with access to light. To completely deplete the algae’s oxygen supply, the researchers turned off part of a chloroplast gene required for oxygen

103 NREL - ASP 104 Lisa Zyga. (2007) Algae could generate hydrogen for fuel cells. PhysOrg.com. Retrieved from:

http://www.physorg.com/news114172068.html



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evolution by adding copper to the cells in an enclosed chamber. Specifically, the addition of copper turned off the Cyc6 promoter, which drives the Nac2 gene, which is required for photosystem II (PSII) synthesis. PSII generates oxygen. Within about three hours, nearly all the oxygen was consumed by respiration, and the algae reached an anaerobic state. Without oxygen, the algae began to synthesize hydrogenase and then produced hydrogen. Hydrogen from Algae by Reducing Chlorophyll Molecule In this experiment, the researchers manipulated the genes that control the amount of chlorophyll in the algae's chloroplasts, the cellular organs that are the centers for photosynthesis. Each chloroplast naturally has 600 chlorophyll molecules. So far, the researchers have reduced this number by half. They plan to reduce the size further, to 130 chlorophyll molecules. At that point, dense cultures of algae in big bioreactors would make three times as much hydrogen as they make now-2007. Nitrogenase-dependent Hydrogen Production105 Benemann and Weare demonstrated that a nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium, Anabaena cylindrica, produced hydrogen and oxygen gas simultaneously in an argon atmosphere for several hours. Nitrogenase is responsible for nitrogen-fixation and is distributed mainly among prokaryotes, including cyanobacteria, but does not occur in eukaryotes, under which microalgae are classified. Molecular nitrogen is reduced to ammonium with consumption of reducing power (e' mediated by ferredoxin) and ATP. The reaction is substantially irreversible and produces ammonia. Hydrogen production catalyzed by nitrogenase occurs as a side reaction at a rate of one-third to one-fourth that of nitrogen-fixation, even in a 100% nitrogen gas atmosphere.

Hydrogen Production Catalyzed By Nitrogenase in Cyanobacteria

Source: www.fao.org

105 http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e0g.htm%20(2)

http://www.fao.org/

http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e0g.htm%20(2)


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Nitrogenase itself is extremely oxygen-labile. Unlike in the case of hydrogenase, however, cyanobacteria have developed mechanisms for protecting nitrogenase from oxygen gas and supplying it with energy (ATP) and reducing power. The most successful mechanism is the localization of nitrogenase in the heterocysts of filamentous cyanobacteria. Vegetative cells (ordinary cells) in filamentous cyanobacteria carry out oxygenic photosynthesis. Organic compounds produced by CO2 reduction are transferred into heterocysts and are decomposed to provide nitrogenase with reducing power. ATP can be provided by PSI-dependent and anoxygenic photosynthesis within heterocysts. Investigations into prolongation and optimization of hydrogen production revealed that the hydrogen-producing activity of cyanobacteria was stimulated by nitrogen starvation. The presence and physiological roles of hydrogenases in nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria remains controversial, but 'uptake' hydrogenase appears to consume and re-use hydrogen gas, resulting in a decrease in net hydrogen production. Asada and Kawamura reported aerobic hydrogen production by a nitrogen-fixing Anabaena sp., believed to be an uptake hydrogenase-deficient strain. After being cultured for 12 days, the strain accumulated approximately 10% hydrogen and 70% oxygen gas within the gas phase of the vessel, by the nitrogenase side reaction, even in the presence of air. Hydrogenases in Green Algae Green algae are the only known eukaryotes with both oxygenic photosynthesis and a hydrogen metabolism. Recent physiological and genetic discoveries indicate a close connection between these metabolic pathways. The anaerobically inducible hydA genes of algae encode a special type of highly active [Fe]-hydrogenase. Electrons from reducing equivalents generated during fermentation enter the photosynthetic electron transport chain via the plastoquinone pool. They are transferred to the hydrogenase by photosystem I and ferredoxin. Thus, the [Fe]-hydrogenase is an electron ‘valve’ that enables the algae to survive under anaerobic conditions. During sulfur deprivation, illuminated algal cultures evolve large quantities of hydrogen gas, and this promises to be an alternative future energy source. Source: Thomas Happe, Anja Hemschemeier, Martin Winkler and Annette Kaminski; Botanisches Institut, Abt. Molekulare Biochemie, Universität Bonn, Karlrobert-Kreiten-Strasse 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany - May 2002. DIY Algae/Hydrogen Kit106

106 Maria Ghirardi. (2004). DIY Algae/Hydrogen Bioreactor. Future farmers project site. Retrieved from: http://www.futurefarmers.com/survey/algae.php

http://www.futurefarmers.com/survey/algae.php


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DIY Algae/Hydrogen Kit was a first time collaboration between Amy Franceschini and Jonathan Meuser. Currently scientists are testing and generating strains of algae to determine which one most efficiently produces hydrogen in a process called "biophotolysis". This is an exciting sector of research, but most of the activity takes place under highly controlled environments in laboratories within universities. Amy was interested in creating a "backyard/DIY" model which would allow people (not only scientists) to produce hydrogen. The notion of people producing their own power is exciting. Researcher, Jonathan Meuser used this opportunity to exhibit a model of "biophotolysis" to test a system in his backyard. His test was a success, in that it produced hydrogen and could demonstrate the process using off the shelf and found supplies.

14.2.2 Hydrogen Production through Gasification of Algae Biomass Gasifying biomass gives syngas, a mixture of CO and H2. A number of methods are being researched to separate the H2 from syngas. During gasification, biomass is converted into a gaseous mixture comprising primarily of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, by applying heat under pressure in the presence of steam and a controlled amount of oxygen. The biomass is chemically broken apart by the gasifier's heat, steam, and oxygen, setting into motion chemical reactions that produce a synthesis gas, or "syngas" - a mixture of primarily hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. The carbon monoxide is then reacted with water to form carbon dioxide and more hydrogen (water-gas shift reaction). Adsorbers or special membranes can separate the hydrogen from this gas stream. Biomass gasification technology is most appropriate for large-scale, centralized hydrogen production, due to the nature of handling large amounts of biomass and the required economy of scale for this type of process. Key Challenges Key challenges to hydrogen production via biomass gasification involve reducing the costs associated with capital equipment and biomass feedstocks. Research to lower capital costs:

If oxygen is used in the gasifier, capital costs can be reduced by replacing the cryogenic process currently used to separate oxygen from air with new membrane technology.

New membrane technologies are needed to separate and purify hydrogen from the gas stream produced (similar to coal gasification).

Making operations more efficient by integrating some steps.


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Research to lower biomass feedstock costs:

Improved cultivation practices for greater use of biomass-based energy should result in low and stable feedstock costs.

14.2.3 Through Steam Reformation of Methane Derived from Algae

Anaerobic digestion or fermentation of algal biomass produces methane. More details on producing methane from algae are available in a later chapter. The traditional steam reformation (SMR) techniques can be used to derive hydrogen from methane. Steam reforming is the most common method of producing commercial bulk hydrogen as well as the hydrogen used in the industrial synthesis of ammonia. It is also the least expensive method. At high temperatures (700 – 1100 °C) and in the presence of a metal-based catalyst (nickel), steam reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and hydrogen CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2 Additional hydrogen can be recovered by a lower-temperature gas-shift reaction with the carbon monoxide produced. The reaction is summarised by: CO + H2O → CO2 + H2

14.3 Factoids A bigger challenge, and one that’s further down the road to solving, is improving the

efficiency of the hydrogenase itself. One option might be to establish a cycling system in which

photosynthesis generates reducing power with starch, which can subsequently be used to feed the hydrogenase once anaerobiosis has been achieved. Another strategy is to modify the hydrogenase by genetic engineering to make it more tolerant towards oxygen. One might screen microorganisms in nature for the presence of oxygen-tolerant hydrogenases. The genes of these enzymes could then be introduced into algal cells and tested for hydrogen production under less stringent anaerobic conditions. Several laboratories are making efforts along these lines.

Mitsui and co-workers extensively screened cyanobacteria for their hydrogen-producing ability, and tested Miami BG-7, one of the most potent hydrogen-producing cyanobacteria, in an outdoor culture. These


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workers also isolated a unicellular aerobic nitrogen fixer, Synechococcus sp. Miami BG043511, and with the use of synchronous culture techniques, discovered a new mechanism for protecting and driving oxygen-labile nitrogenase in non-heterocystous and oxygen-evolving cells. This strain is also a potent hydrogen-producer, having an estimated conversion efficiency of 3.5% based on PAR using an artificial light source. (1984)

Authors (such as Greenbaum and co-workers) reported very high (10 to 20%) efficiencies of light conversion to hydrogen, based on PAR (Photosynthetically Active Radiation which includes light energy of 400-700nm in wavelength). These authors have reported what may represent a "short circuit" of photosynthesis, whereby hydrogen production and CO2 fixation occurred by a single photosystem (photosystem II only) of a Chlamydomonas mutant.

The work of Gaffron and Rubin demonstrated that Scenedesmus produced hydrogen gas not only under light conditions, but also produced it fermentatively under dark anaerobic conditions, with intracellular starch as a reducing source. Although the rate of fermentative hydrogen production per unit of dry cell weight, was less than that obtained through light-dependent hydrogen production, hydrogen production was sustainable due to the absence of oxygen. On the basis of experiments conducted on fermentative hydrogen production under dark conditions, Miura and Miyamoto's group proposed hydrogen production in a light/dark cycle. According to their proposal, CO2 is reduced to starch by photosynthesis in the daytime (under light conditions) and the starch thus formed, is decomposed to hydrogen gas and organic acids and/or alcohols under anaerobic conditions during nighttime (under dark conditions). The technological merits of this proposal include the fact that oxygen-inactivation of hydrogenase can be prevented through maintenance of green algae under anaerobic conditions, night-time hours are used effectively, temporal separation of hydrogen and oxygen production does not require gas separation for simultaneous water-splitting, and organic acids and alcohols can be converted to hydrogen gas by photosynthetic bacteria under light conditions

Asada and Kawamura determined that cyanobacteria also produce hydrogen gas auto-fermentatively under dark and anaerobic conditions. Spirulina species were demonstrated to have the highest activity among Cyanobacteria tested. The nature of the electron carrier for hydrogenase in Cyanobacteria is still unclear. (1996)


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14.4 Current Methods of Hydrogen Production

The following are the methods currently followed for hydrogen production: (Note this these methods are generic and not specific to hydrogen production from algae)

Primary Methods

Steam Reforming - Steam reforming uses thermal energy to separate hydrogen from the carbon components in methane and methanol, and involves the reaction of these fuels with steam on catalytic surfaces. These reactions occur at temperatures of 200oC or greater. Steam reformation of natural gas is currently the most common method of bulk hydrogen production. It is also one of the best understood and least expensive methods. Steam reformation currently accounts for approximately 80% of global hydrogen production.

Electrolysis - Electrolysis separates the elements of water - hydrogen and oxygen - by charging water with an electrical current. The charge breaks the chemical bond between the hydrogen and oxygen and splits apart the atomic components, creating charged particles called ions. The ions form at two poles: the anode, which is positively charged, and the cathode, which is negatively charged. Hydrogen gathers at the cathode and the anode attracts oxygen.

Water

Electrolysis

Natural Gas Biomass

Gasification Biogas

Fermentation Dark

Fermentation

Purification Purification

Upgrade and supply to gas grid

CO2- separation

Central Steam Reformation Steam Reformation

Photo Fermentation

Purification

H2


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Steam Electrolysis - Steam electrolysis is a variation of the conventional electrolysis process. Some of the energy needed to split the water is added as heat instead of electricity, making the process more efficient than conventional electrolysis. At 2,500oC water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen.

Less Frequent Methods

From Syngas From Fermentation of Biomass

Hydrogen – Cost of Production The cost of making hydrogen from using wind electrolysis was estimated in 2005 by a Stanford University study to be between $1.12 to $3.20 per gallon of gasoline or diesel equivalent ($3 to $7.40 per kilogram of molecular hydrogen) - on par with the current price of gas. But gasoline has a hidden cost of 29 cents to $ 1.80 per gallon in societal costs such as reduced health, lost productivity, hospitalization and death, as well as cleanup of polluted sites. So gasoline's true cost in March 2005, for example, was $2.35 to $3.99 per gallon, which exceeds the estimated mean cost of hydrogen from wind ($2.16 equivalent per gallon of gasoline, 2005)107 The cost of hydrogen production is an important issue. Hydrogen produced by steam reformation costs approximately three times the cost of natural gas per unit of energy produced. This means that if natural gas costs $6/million BTU, then hydrogen will be $18/million BTU. Also, producing hydrogen from electrolysis with electricity at 5 cents/kWh will cost $28/million BTU — slightly less than two times the cost of hydrogen from natural gas. Note that the cost of hydrogen production from electricity is a linear function of electricity costs, so electricity at 10 cents/kWh means that hydrogen will cost $56/million BTU. A listing of the cost and performance characteristics of various hydrogen production processes is as follows:

Energy Required (kWh/Nm3)

Process Ideal Practical Status of Tech.

Efficiency [%]

Costs Relative to SMR

107 Dawn Levy. (2005). Researchers envision a hydrogen economy, fueled by wind and new technology. Retrieved from: http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2005/july13/hydrogen-071305.html

http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2005/july13/hydrogen-071305.html


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Steam methane reforming (SMR)

0.78 2-2.5 mature 70-80 1

Methane/ NG pyrolysis R&D to mature

72-54 0.9

H2S methane reforming 1.5 - R&D 50 <1

Landfill gas dry reformation R&D 47-58 ~1

Partial oxidation of heavy oil 0.94 4.9 mature 70 1.8

Naphtha reforming mature

Steam reforming of waste oil R&D 75 <1

Coal gasification 1.01 8.6 mature 60 1.4-2.6

Partial oxidation of coal mature 55

Steam-iron process R&D 46 1.9

Chloralkali electrolysis mature by-product

Grid electrolysis of water 3.54 4.9 R&D 27 3-10

Solar & PV-electrolysis of water

R&D to mature

10 >3

High-temp. electrolysis of water

R&D 48 2.2

Thermochemical water splitting

early R&D 35-45 6

Biomass gasification R&D 45-50 2.0-2.4

Photobiological early R&D <1

Photolysis of water early R&D <10


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Photoelectrochemical decomp. of water

early R&D

Photocatalytic decomp. of water

early R&D

Note: This table was originally published in IEEE Power & Energy, Vol. 2, No. 6, Nov-Dec, 2004, page 43, "Hydrogen: Automotive Fuel of the Future," by FSEC's Ali T-Raissi and David Block.

14.5 Current & Future Uses of Hydrogen

Hydrogen – current uses Fertilizer - Hydrogen is important in creating ammonia (NH3) for use in

making fertilizer Petroleum - Hydrogen gas is used in the processing of petroleum

products to break down crude oil into fuel oil, gasoline and related products

Food and fat - Hydrogen gas is used as a hydrogenating agent for polyunsaturated fats, such as used in margarine.

Hydrogen - future uses In the form of fuel cells, used to generate electricity which can be used in

a variety of forms and applications Stationary Power and Emergency Back-Up Systems - Hydrogen fuel cells

are increasingly being used for backup power to improve reliability in facilities

Portable Power - Today, some small, portable, emissions-free power generators are using hydrogen fuel cells to power laptops, cell phones, tools, radios, fans, TVs and other appliances. In future, this could become more widespread

Forklifts and Other Specialty Transportation - Special function vehicles, like airport luggage tugs and forklifts, are also providing emerging markets for hydrogen fuel cells.

Hydrogen Buses - Numerous transit systems around the world have conducted demonstration programs placing hydrogen fuel cell buses in operation that provide pollution-free, quiet urban public transportation.

Hydrogen Injection for Diesel Trucks - A small-scale application of hydrogen technology provides truckers with sizeable benefits. After-market hydrogen injection systems, which can be installed on virtually any of today's heavy diesel trucks, draw a small amount of electricity from the truck engine's alternator to split water held in a small container, producing hydrogen and oxygen gases.

Utilities can use the hydrogen on demand to produce electricity when needed most, just like the back-up power systems mentioned above. In this way, hydrogen technologies are a key enabler for the wider deployment of renewables.


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An excellent report on the future of hydrogen economy - http://www.efcf.com/reports/E08.pdf

14.6 Why Hasn’t The Hydrogen Economy Bloomed? – Problems with Hydrogen

Hydrogen storage, the high reactivity of hydrogen, the cost and methods of hydrogen fuel production, consumer demand and the cost of changing the infrastructure to accommodate hydrogen vehicles are the key bottlenecks to transition to a hydrogen economy.

Hydrogen Storage - Hydrogen must be stored at extremely low temperatures and high pressure. A container capable of withstanding these specifications is larger than a standard gas tank.

Hydrogen is extremely reactive, is combustible and flammable. Current production of hydrogen takes a lot of energy, and uses fossil fuels

as the base. All free hydrogen generated today is derived from natural gas. So right off the bat we have not managed to escape our dependency on nonrenewable hydrocarbons. If we have to burn fossil fuels to make hydrogen, what have we really gained?

Another problem for hydrogen fuel is consumer demand and the cost to change all gasoline filling stations and vehicle production lines into hydrogen. Oil companies will not build filling stations until the hydrogen cars are on the market, and hydrogen cars might not become mainstream unless oil companies build the infrastructure!

Currently, the only way that hydrogen production even approaches practicality is through the use of nuclear plants. Even hydrogen fuel derived from nuclear power would be expensive.

Compressed and liquefied hydrogen present problems of their own. Both techniques require energy and so further reduce the net energy ratio of the hydrogen. Liquid hydrogen is cold enough to freeze air, leading to problems with pressure build-ups due to clogged valves.

Both compressed and liquefied hydrogen storage are prone to leaks. In fact, all forms of pure hydrogen are difficult to store.

http://www.efcf.com/reports/E08.pdf


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SUMMARY

1. Hydrogen production from algae is possible through three distinct routes.

2. Currently, hydrogen production from algae in the research stage and few

commercial efforts are pursuing this route.


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15. Methane from Algae 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Methods of Producing Methane from Algae 15.3 Methane from Algae – Other Research & Factoids 15.4 Traditional Methods of Methane Production 15.5 Methane – Current & Future Uses 15.6 What’s New in Methane?

HIGHLIGHTS

Methane can be produced from any of the three constituents of algae – carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

Anaerobic digestion method appears to be the most straight-forward method of producing methane from algae.

15.1 Introduction Methane is important for electrical generation by burning it as a fuel in a gas turbine or steam boiler. Compared to other hydrocarbon fuels, burning methane produces less carbon dioxide for each unit of heat released. At about 891 kJ/mol, methane's combustion heat is lower than any other hydrocarbon; but a ratio with the molecular mass (16.0 g/mol) divided by the heat of combustion (891 kJ/mol) shows that methane, being the simplest hydrocarbon, produces more heat per mass unit than other complex hydrocarbons. In many cities, methane is piped into homes for domestic heating and cooking purposes. In this context it is usually known as natural gas, and is considered to have an energy content of 39 megajoules per cubic meter, or 1,000 BTU per standard cubic foot. Methane in the form of compressed natural gas is used as a vehicle fuel, and is claimed to be more environmentally friendly than fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel. Bio-methane production from dedicated energy crops has become a part of the overall global bio-energy production industry. Bio-methane (biogas) has the potential to yield more energy than any other current type of biofuel (biodiesel, bioethanol) as a larger proportion of the biomass can be converted to product. Bio-methane can be produced from a wide range of conventional biomass crops. Using maize, for example, typically yields between 1500 to 2000 m3 methane per hectare per year. With certain grass species yields as high as 5,000 m3 of methane per year per ha have been reported.


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Increasingly, conventional biofuel crops are competing with food production for arable land. Closed algal bioreactors offer a promising alternative route for biomass feedstock production for bio-methane. Using these systems, micro-algae can be grown in large amounts (150-300 tons per ha per year) using closed bioreactor systems (lower yields are obtained with open pond systems). This quantity of biomass can theoretically yield much more than those from maize and grass.

15.2 Methods of Producing Methane from Algae In some ways, it can be said that the simplest approach to produce energy from algae is by producing methane gas, because both the biological and thermal processes involved are not very sensitive to what form the biomass is in. Theoretically, methane can be produced from any of the three constituents of algae – carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

Methods of Producing Methane from Algae

Carbohydrates

Sugars

Protein

Aminoacids

Fats

Fattyacids

H2

Butyrate Propionate

Acetate

Hydrolysis

Acetogenesis

Acidogenesis

Methanogenesis

CH4


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Comparitive Analysis of Methane Production from Algae and Other Materials

Source: Journey to Forever

Methane Production by Anaerobic Digestion A number of authors have discussed the possibility of producing methane from algae by the anerobic digestion of the algae cake. This appears to be the most straight-forward method of producing methane from algae.

Yields of Methane from Algae

Microalgae can be grown in large amounts using closed bioreactor systems (lower yields are obtained with open pond systems). According to some estimates, this quantity of biomass can theoretically yield 200,000-400,000 m3 of methane per ha per year108.

108

Carbon Management Inc., Retrieved from: http://co2-mngmt.selfip.com/pdf/methane.pdf

Algal Biomass

Anaerobic digestion

Complex Organic Substances

Hydrogen & CO2

Acetate

Methane

1 lb Fresh Dry Chicken Manure 4400 BTU

64% conversion

2800 BTU

1 lb Dry Raw Sludge (70%VS) 7800 BTU

67 % conversion

5200 BTU

1 lb primary Sludge 8000 BTU

79% conversion

6320 BTU

1 lb Dry Algae 10000 BTU

42- 69% conversion

4200 – 6950 BTU

http://co2-mngmt.selfip.com/pdf/methane.pdf


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15.3 Methane from Algae – Other Research & Factoids

In 1960 Oswald and Golweke proposed the use of largescale ponds for cultivatingalgae on wastewater nutrients and anaerobically fermenting the biomass into methane fuel.

Thermochemical treatment for algal fermentation - Chen P. H., Oswald W. J. (1999) from National Chung-Hsing, University and University of California at Berkeley proposed a study to determine the influence of the thermochemical pretreatment process of algal fermentation on the efficiency with which algal energy is converted microbiologically to the energy in methane. The variables studied were pretreatment temperature, duration, concentration, and dosage of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). In order to optimize the thermochemical pretreatment of algae, an independent variables study was selected. The results indicate that pretreatment best efficiency was attained with a temperature of 100°C for 8 h at a concentration of 3.7% solids and without NaOH. Compared with untreated algae, pretreatment improved the efficiency of methane fermentation to a maximum 33%.

Bio-methane from Algae Efforts by Solar Biofuels Consortium - The Solar-Biofuels consortium is co-ordinating a range of research streams to analyse and optimize the use of micro algae for bio-methane production

IMB Queensland (A/Prof. Hankamer): Industrial feasibility studies are

being conducted to evaluate the use of micro algae produced in closed bioreactors for bio-gasification

University of Karlsruhe (Prof. Posten): The optimisation of bioreactor systems designed for high throughput algae production for bio-methane production.

Solar Biofuels Consortium web site: www.solarbiofuels.org

Circle Biodiesel & Ethanol Corporation manufactures methane digesters for biogas from biomass.

University of Bielefeld/Germany – Team under Prof Dr. Olaf Kruse, Algae Biotech Group, www.uni-bielefeld.de - In cooperation with the industrial partner Biogas-Nord in Bielefeld, Germany, are conducting research on the analysis and optimisation of algae biomass as an alternative substrate for bio-methane & hydrogen production. Their research is based on recently-constructed high- H2 production C. reinhardtii mutants Stm6 and Stm6glc4. These mutants have conversion efficiences of more than 1% and gas purities which have been shown to be sufficient to power a small-scale fuel cell without further purification.

In 1978 the EEC funded the 'Mariculture on Land (MCL)', project which involved researchers in Germany, France, Italy and Brazil, and mass culture facilities were constructed in the latter two countries. The project centred on the use of arid coastal lands and seawater for the culture of microalgae and macroalgae for anaerobic digestion to biogas. The wastewater treatment plant at Sunnyvale

http://www.solarbiofuels.org/

http://www.uni-bielefeld.de/


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(California, USA) digests microalgae harvested from the WSP effluent in an anaerobic digester along with primary settled wastewater solids. This plant has been operating successfully for several years.

Plankton Ocean Digester (POD) produces methane by anaerobic digestion of macroalgae using marine bacteria. The technology includes the following steps:

Sunlight powers algae (kelp, sargassum, or microalgae/plankton) to grow anywhere in the top few meters of the world’s oceans, as long as there are sufficient nutrients.

The algae are collected into large porous “tea-bags” which are pulled into thin impervious plastic “balloons” positioned at depths below 100 meters.

Naturally present ocean bacteria convert the collected algae through anaerobic digestion into biomethane gas, carbon dioxide and nutrients

Because of the high pressure at 100 meters deep, the carbon dioxide remains dissolved with the nutrients in the water inside the balloon.

But relatively little methane dissolves, so it can be pumped to shore and used to replace fossil natural gas and eventually any coal and oil not already displaced by other renewable energy.

15.4 Traditional Methods of Methane Production Methane is naturally occurring, but human-related activities such as fossil fuel production, animal husbandry (digestive processes of ruminant livestock and manure), rice cultivation, biomass burning and waste management release significant quantities of methane into the atmosphere. Methane's natural sources include wetlands, natural gas and permafrost.

Natural Gas Fields – Methane is the primary component of natural gas, which is primarily produced from natural gas fields

Organic Wastes - Landfills, coal mining, livestock, manure and the production and transmission of natural gas are the five major sources of human-produced methane. A significant amount of these emissions can be reduced by applying available and economically worthwhile options such as capturing the methane and recovering the cost of the emission-reduction technology by selling the gas or using it to substitute for other energy inputs, according to the scientists.

Methane is produced during anaerobic decomposition of sewage and

other organic wastes by bacteria. The methogenic bacteria are able to utilize acetate, methanol, formate, and H2 + CO2 of the organic wastes for the production of methane gas. The starting materials in the wastes are, however, complex organic molecules such as cellulose, starch, fats and


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proteins. These are first broken down to simpler substrates such as acetate and H2 + CO2 by other microorganisms.

Cattle manure can be collected and placed in a digester. As anaerobic decay occurs, and methane is produced.

Coal-bed Methane - Coalbed methane (CBM) is a form of natural gas extracted from coal beds. Methane production from coalbeds, while originally a safety measure, has emerged as a major source of gas for a number of locations worldwide. In recent decades it has become an important source of energy in United States, Canada, and other countries. Also called coalbed gas, the term refers to methane adsorbed into the solid matrix of the coal. It is called 'sweet gas' because of its lack of hydrogen sulfide. The presence of this gas is well known from its occurrence in underground coal mining, where it presents a serious safety risk. The methane is stored within the coal by a process called adsorption, and is in a near-liquid state, lining the inside of pores within the coal (called the matrix) and in the open fractures in the coal. Unlike much natural gas from conventional reservoirs, coalbed methane contains very little heavier hydrocarbons such as propane or butane, and no natural gas condensate. It often contains up to a few percent carbon dioxide.

Gas desorption is the main production mechanism. This is accomplished

by the hydraulic fracturing of wells; draining of water, which is always present in the limited pore structure; and reducing pressure to begin the desorption process.

15.5 Methane – Current & Future Uses

Methane could power the world. Two methane hydrate deposits off the coast of South Carolina reportedly hold enough natural gas to power the United States for a hundred years. Other estimates say that worldwide methane deposits contain more energy than coal, oil and all other fossil fuels combined.

Methane is important for electrical generation by burning it as a fuel in a gas turbine or steam boiler. Compared to other hydrocarbon fuels, burning methane produces less carbon dioxide for each unit of heat released.

Methane in the form of compressed natural gas is used as a vehicle fuel, and is claimed to be more environmentally friendly than fossil fuels such as gasoline/petrol and diesel.

Research is being conducted by NASA on methane's potential as a rocket fuel. One advantage of methane is that it is abundant in many parts of the solar system and it could potentially be harvested in situ, providing fuel for a return journey.

CNG & LNG - Delivery of captured methane into a pipeline system or simple conversion to Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) or Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).


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Gas pipelines distribute large amounts of natural gas, of which methane is the principal component.

In the chemical industry, methane is the feedstock of choice for the production of hydrogen, methanol, acetic acid, and acetic anhydride. When used to produce any of these chemicals, methane is first converted to synthesis gas.

Because of its excellent burning, methane is used as a cooking gas Methane is used to produce carbon dioxide gas Methane is used to produce carbon black used in rubber industries Methane is used as a starting material for other organic compounds like methyl

chloride, methylene dichloride, chloroform, etc. Generation of electricity - Electricity generation using a reciprocating engine,

steam turbine, or gas turbine using methane. Compared to other fossil fuels, burning methane produces less carbon dioxide for each unit of heat released. In many cities, methane is piped into homes for domestic heating and cooking purposes.

Generation of hot water or steam from boilers (onsite and offsite) Other direct uses - Other direct uses consist of heating (e.g., furnaces, kilns,

engines, space heaters) for various commercial and industrial uses, greenhouses, onsite leachate evaporation systems, and cooling (e.g., chillers, air conditioning).

15.6 What’s New in Methane?

The forgotten methane source - Jan 2006 - Researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics have now carefully analysed which organic gases are emitted from plants. They made the surprising discovery that plants release methane - and this goes against all previous assumptions. Equally surprising was that methane formation is not hindered by the presence of oxygen. This discovery is important not just for plant researchers but also for understanding the connection between global warming and increased greenhouse gas production109

Millions of cubic metres of methane in the form of swamp gas or biogas are

produced every year by the decomposition of organic matter, both animal and vegetable. In the past, however, biogas has been treated as a dangerous by-product that must be removed as quickly as possible, instead of being harnessed for any useful purposes. It is only really in very recent times that a few people have started to view biogas in an entirely different light, as a new source of power for the future. The facts about biogas from cow dung:

109 http://www.physorg.com/news9792.html



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Cow dung gas is 55-65% methane, 30-35% carbon dioxide, with some hydrogen, nitrogen and other traces

Its heating value is around 600 B.T.U. per cubic foot.

New Pathway For Methane Production In The Oceans Discovered - ScienceDaily (July, 2008) - A new pathway for methane production has been uncovered in the oceans, and this has a significant potential impact for the study of greenhouse gas production on our planet. An article published in the journal Nature Geoscience reveals that aerobic decomposition of an organic, phosphorus-containing compound, methylphosphonate, may be responsible for the supersaturation of methane in ocean surface waters.

May 2006 - Methane-creating Microbes Inspire a New Theory of the Origin of

Life on Earth - Two laboratories at Penn State set out to show how an obscure undersea microbe metabolizes carbon monoxide into methane and vinegar. What they found was not merely a previously unknown biochemical process--their discovery also became the inspiration for a fundamental new theory of the origin of life on Earth, reconciling a long-contentious pair of prevailing theories. Their results also provide insights into the evolution of the microbial production of methane, the primary component of natural gas. A detailed understanding of methane biosynthesis could lay the foundation for a new alternative energy source, by raising the possibility of cost-efficient conversion of renewable biomass into clean fuel.

A Breakthrough in Fuel Supplying from Methane Hydrates - April 2008 - Canadian and Japanese researchers have managed to efficiently produce a constant stream of natural gas from ice-like methane gas hydrates from a remote drilling rig high in the Mackenzie River Delta on Richards Island in the Northwest Territories of Canada. Getting methane hydrate gas to flow consistently and predictably has been a problem for a long time.


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SUMMARY

1. The most straight forward process for producing methane from algae is

anaerobic digestion.

2. Few commercial companies are pursuing methane production from algae.


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16. Ethanol from Algae 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Ethanol from Algae - Concepts & Methodologies 16.3 Efforts & Examples for Ethanol from Algae 16.4 Examples of Companies in Algae to Ethanol 16.5 Algae & Cellulosic Ethanol 16.6 Current Methods of Ethanol Production 16.7 Ethanol –Latest Technology & Methods

HIGHLIGHTS

Algae could be the optimal source for second generation bioethanol due to the fact that they are high in carbohydrates/polysaccharides and have thin cellulose walls.

Ethanol can be produced from either the algae biomass or from algae cake. The later option gives rise to the interesting possibility of producing both biodiesel and ethanol from the same biomass.

There are no large commercial projects currently underway that explore algae as a feedstock for cellulosic ethanol production as of Apr 2010, though there are species of algae that have reasonable cellulose content (between 7-30%).

Companies such as Solazyme plan to combine cellulosic ethanol and algae biodiesel production technology, which they think provides a more positive energy balance than either one alone.

16.1 Introduction Ethanol is a clean-burning, high-octane fuel that is produced from renewable sources. Because it is domestically produced, ethanol helps reduce dependence upon foreign sources of energy for most countries in the world. Pure, 100% ethanol is not generally used as a motor fuel; instead, a percentage of ethanol is combined with unleaded gasoline. This is beneficial because the ethanol decreases the fuel's cost, increases the fuel's octane rating, and decreases gasoline's harmful emissions. Ethanol is a very high octane fuel, replacing lead as an octane enhancer in gasoline. Fuels that burn too quickly make the engine "knock". The higher the octane rating, the slower the fuel burns, and the less likely the engine will knock. When ethanol is blended with gasoline, the octane rating of the petrol goes up by three full points, without using harmful additives.


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Adding ethanol to gasoline "oxygenates" the fuel. It adds oxygen to the fuel mixture so that it burns more completely and reduces polluting emissions such as carbon monoxide. Any amount of ethanol can be combined with gasoline, but the most common blends are: E10 - 10% ethanol and 90% unleaded gasoline

E10 is approved for use in any make or model of vehicle sold in the U.S. Many automakers recommend its use because of its high performance, clean-burning characteristics. Today about 46% of America's gasoline contained some ethanol, most as this E10 blend

E85 - 85% ethanol and 15% unleaded gasoline

E85 is an alternative fuel for use in Flexible Fuel Vehicles (FFVs). There are currently more than 6 million FFVs on America's roads today, and automakers are rolling out more each year. In conjunction with more flexible fuel vehicles, more E85 pumps are being installed across the country. When E85 is not available, these FFVs can operate on straight gasoline or any ethanol blend up to 85%.

It is important to note that it does not take a special vehicle to run on "ethanol". All

vehicles can use E10 with no modifications to the engine. E85 is for use in a flexible fuel vehicle.

Growth of Ethanol as Fuel

Annual World Ethanol Production by Country (Millions of Gallons)110

Country 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

United States 3,535 4,264 4,855 6,499 9,000

Brazil 3,989 4,227 4,491 5,019 6,472

China 964 1,004 1,017 486 502

India 462 449 502 52.8 66

Canada 61 61 153 211 238

Thailand 74 79 93 79.2 90

110

Source: F.O. Licht


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Australia 33 33 39 26 26

Total 9,118 10,117 11,150 12,373 16,394

For 2008, global ethanol production was 16.4 billion gallons while for 2009, the world annual fuel ethanol production was 19.2 billion gallons. The global ethanol production is expected to reach 26 billion gallons by 2014, growing at a CAGR of over 8% for the period 2008-2014, and 34 billion gallons by 2018, a CAGR of about 7%

First Generation and Second Generation Feedstock First generation bioethanol is produced by fermenting plant-derived sugars to ethanol, using a similar process to that used in beer and wine-making. This requires the use of food crops such as sugar cane, corn, wheat, and sugar beet. These crops are required for food, so if too much biofuel is made from them, food prices could rise and shortages might be experienced in some countries. Corn, wheat and sugar beet also require high agricultural inputs in the form of fertilizers, which limit the greenhouse gas reductions that can be achieved. The goal of second generation biofuel processes is to extend the amount of biofuel that can be produced sustainably by using biomass comprised of the residual non-food parts of current crops, such as stems, leaves and husks that are left behind once the food crop has been extracted, as well as other crops that are not used for food purposes (non food crops), such as switch grass, jatropha and cereals that bear little grain, and also industry waste such as wood chips, skins and pulp from fruit pressing

Current and Future Expected Contribution of Ethanol to Energy Demand Global production of fuel ethanol was about 22 billion litres of gasoline equivalent in 2005 (fuel ethanol is roughly 80% of the total ethanol production). By 2014, it is expected to be about 100 billion liters of gasoline equivalent.

16.2 Ethanol from Algae - Concepts & Methodologies Algae have a tendency to have a much different makeup than do most feedstocks used in ethanol, such as corn and sugar cane. There are a few topics specifically that would need to be addressed, such as (1) Yeast matching to feedstock sugars, (2) Sugar extraction, and (3) High ash feedstock. But overall, there is a distinct possibility that algae could be a good feedstock for ethanol. As mentioned elsewhere in the report, many macroalgae species are rich in carbohydrates and cellulose and hence could make a more suitable feedstock for ethanol than microalgae.


www.oilgae.com


Ethanol from algae is possible by converting the starch (the storage component) and cellulose (the cell wall component). Put simply, lipids in algae oil can be made into biodiesel, while the carbohydrates can be converted to ethanol. Algae may be the most suitable source for second generation bioethanol due to the fact that they are high in carbohydrates/polysaccharides and thin cellulose walls.111

Strains of Macroalgae Having High Carbohydrate Content

Species Protein Carbohydrate Ash Phosphorus Fiber

Ulva retticulata 18.9 ± 4.0 23.1 ± 5.4 22.2 ± 0.1 ± 0.0 37.7± 3.6

Gracilaria crassa

11.4 ± 2.3 28.2 ± 3.1 37.7 ± 0.1 ± 0.0 22.7± 2.2

Chaetomorpha crassa

10.1 ± 1.0 13.4 ± 4.3 39.7 ± 0.1 ± 0.0 35.7± 4.2

Eucheuma denticulatum

2.0 15.2 56.9 0.1 25.9

Source: Composition of Macroalgae Collected from Wild Stocks at Chwaka Bay and Matemwe, Zanzibar, Tanzania112 Some microalgae strains do possess a high carbohydrate content, and these are presented below.

Strains of Microalgae Having High Carbohydrate Content

Species Protein Carbohydrate Lipids Nucleic acid

Scenedesmus dimorphus 8-18 21-52 16-40 -

Spirogyra sp. 6-20 33-64 11-21 -

Euglena gracilis 39-61 14-18 14-20 -

Prymnesium parvum 28-45 25-33 22-38 1-2

Porphyridium cruentum 28-39 40-57 9-14 -

Anabaena cylindrica 43-56 25-30 4-7 -

Source: Becker, (1994)

Several experimental studies have been done on determining the starch and cellulose contents of micro and macroalgae. One study for instance noted that the cellulose

111 Kazuhisa Miyamoto. (1997). Renewable biological systems for alternative sustainable energy production. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin - 128. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e0h.htm 112 http://iodeweb1.vliz.be/odin/bitstream/1834/33/1/WIOJ12117.pdf

http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e0h.htm

http://iodeweb1.vliz.be/odin/bitstream/1834/33/1/WIOJ12117.pdf


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contents of the researched algal species representing dominant cellulose producers ranged from 2 to 39% of the total dry weight of cell mass. Another study researching algae with high growth rates noted that some strains with high growth rates of 20-30 g dry biomass/m2/day also had high starch content of more than 20%. During this study it was found that a strain Chlorella vulgaris (IAM C-534) had a high starch content of 37%. All these are pointers that algae should be researched as a feedstock for ethanol production as well. The primary methods of ethanol production from algae are discussed below.

Fermentation of algae biomass Fermentation of algae extract left over after extraction of oil Fermentation of syngas

Fermentation of Algae Biomass A typical process for the production of ethanol from algae is to harvest starch-accumulating algae to form a biomass, initiate cellular decay of the biomass in a dark and anaerobic environment and ferment the biomass in the presence of yeast to produce ethanol.

Details of the Algal Fermentation Process to Produce Ethanol

Stages include: (a) Growing starch-accumulating, filament-forming, or colony-forming algae in an aqua culture environment; (b) Harvesting the grown algae to form a biomass; (c) Initiating decay of the biomass; (d) Contacting the decaying biomass with a yeast capable of fermenting it to form a fermentation solution; and, (e) Separating the resulting ethanol from the fermentation solution. Optimal Species/Strains for Producing Ethanol Starch-accumulating filament-forming or colony-forming algae include an algae in a phylum selected from Zygnemataceae, Cladophoraceae, Oedogoniales, Ulvophyceae, Charophyceae. Examples of algae belonging to these species are: Spirogyra, Cladophora, Oedogonium, etc. Cultivation This is done in ways similar to those for producing any other end-product, including biodiesel.


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Harvesting This is done in ways similar to those for producing any other end-product, including biodiesel. Initiating Decay of the Biomass Initiating decay means that the biomass is treated in such a way that the cellular structure of the biomass begins to decay (e.g., cell wall rupture) and release the carbohydrates. Initiating decay can be accomplished mechanically, non-mechanically. Mechanical initiation means that the biomass is subjected to some sort of mechanical distortion that begins the decay process. Examples of mechanical initiation include stirring, chopping, crushing, blending, grinding, extruding, and shredding. For example, the biomass can be placed into a vessel and blended. Non-mechanical initiation includes subjecting the biomass to thermal initiation (e.g., heating (e.g., boiling), microwaving, irradiating, and/or freezing), enzyme treatment (e.g., cellulase), acid treatment (e.g., pectic acid), and/or placing in an environment where the presence of light and oxygen is limited or entirely absent so as to initiate and promote the decay of the biomass. Fermentation The yeasts used are typically brewers' yeasts. Examples of yeast capable of fermenting the decaying biomass include, but are not limited to, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces uvarum. Besides yeast, genetically altered bacteria can also be used. The fermenting of the biomass is conducted under standard fermenting conditions. Ethanol Extraction Separating of the ethanol from the fermentation solution means that once ethanol begins to form, it is then isolated from the fermentation solution. It is expected that the fermentation solution would contain at least water, ethanol, and the remaining biomass. Separation can be achieved by any known method such as distillation. The separated ethanol, which will generally not be fuel-grade, can be concentrated to fuel grade (e.g., at least 95% ethanol by volume) via a second distillation.

Fermentation of Left-over Algae Cake The earlier section discussed obtaining ethanol from algae biomass. It is also possible to derive ethanol from the algae left-over after extraction of oil (that is, the de-oiled algae cake). This de-oiled algae cake can be converted into ethanol through fermentation of


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the extract. This gives rise to the interesting possibility of producing both biodiesel and ethanol from algae! Add to this the fact that fermentation of algae extract to ethanol releases CO2, which can again be fed to grow more algae. Such a closed loop presents an attractive potential on which some initial trials are on-going. A related development in this context is the Viridium BioStarch Recirculation System, which routes exhaust carbon dioxide from the fermentation stage of the ethanol production process through the bioreactor, where it is consumed by high-starch algae. The starch byproduct can be reclaimed for ethanol fermentation and the oil for biodiesel production. Veridium Corp is a subsidiary of GreenShift. (Mar 2006)

Fermentation of Left-over Algae Cake

Ethanol from Syngas Fermentation Another method to derive ethanol from algal biomass is to produce syngas by gasification of the algal biomass, and fermenting the syngas to produce ethanol. Fermentation of syngas to ethanol has been carried out successfully in research trials for biomass from other feedstock. This process is in the initial stages of research as far as algae are concerned. The steps for getting ethanol from fermenting syngas are: Step 1: Conversion - Convert the syngas mixture into ethanol using organisms such as Clostridium ljungdahlii Step 2: Distillation — Separate ethanol from water

Algae

Bioreactor

Ethanol Plant

CO2

Algae oil Biodiesel Algae

Algae Starch

Ethanol


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16.3 Efforts & Examples for Ethanol from Algae

Ethanol from Macroalgae An exploration for producing ethanol from macroalgae (seaweed) in Vietnam In this project, using macroalgae (Seaweed) for ethanol production was widely investigated. During this research, it was found that economically important and high quantity seaweeds in Vietnam are:

Sargassum : Carbohydrate content ~ 48% of dry wt. Glacilaria : Carbohydrate content ~ 45% of dry wt. Kappaphycus : Carbohydrate ~ 35% of dry wt. Eucheuma : Carbohydrate ~ 45% of dry wt.

The project concluded that there was a good potential for producing ethanol from seaweeds in Vietnam.

Technology for Ethanol Production from Cellulose of Seaweeds

Ethanol production technology from cellulose of Euchema denticulatur has been established by Korea.113

Ethanol production technology from cellulose of Caulerpar racemosa and Ulva sp. is introduced to Vietnam.

Ethanol from Seaweed in Japan

Japanese scientists and corporations are working to create ethanol from seaweed, using the Sargassum seaweed (Apr – 2007)

The Seaweed Bioethanol Production in Japan, titled the "Ocean Sunrise Project", aims to produce seaweed bioethanol by farming and harvesting Sargassum horneri, utilizing 4.47 million km2 of unused areas of the exclusive economic zone and maritime belts of Japan. Through seaweed bioethanol production, the project aims to combat global warming by contributing an alternative energy to fossil fuel. (2007)

Bioenergy from Brown Seaweeds

113 Truong Nam Hai., Seaweed: Potential biomass for ethanol production, fourth Biomass Asia Workshop Biomass- Nov, 2007. Retrieved from: http://www.biomass-asia-workshop.jp/biomassws/04workshop/presentation_files/16_Hai.pdf

http://www.biomass-asia-workshop.jp/biomassws/04workshop/presentation_files/16_Hai.pdf

http://www.biomass-asia-workshop.jp/biomassws/04workshop/presentation_files/16_Hai.pdf


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During anaerobic degradation of organic material, energy carriers such as methane and ethanol may be produced. This is a study of two particular species of brown seaweeds; Laminaria hyperborea and Ascophyllum nodosum. It has been shown during this study that both methane and ethanol can be produced from brown seaweeds. However, an optimisation of the processes will be necessary. Energy production from seaweeds will only be economic if the harvesting costs are low.114

16.4 Examples of Companies in Algae to Ethanol

Green Gold Algae and Seaweed Sciences Inc.

GGASS mission is to focus on the usage and applications of macro algae for biofuel. GGASS is based on the growing technologies developed in Israel by NoriTech Seaweed Biotechnologies Ltd. NoriTechTM has been growing macro algae in land based ponds for many years, and it has investigated the use of macro algae growing techniques, including boosting the growth with CO2, in order to increase the algae biomass for biofuel applications. Cultivation technology of macro algae in seawater ponds enriched with commercial CO2 has been successfully developed and controlled nutrients and growing conditions affected the algal composition such as the ratio of carbohydrates to proteins and volatile solids content. Preliminary results with gas effluent consumption by seaweeds have recently demonstrated a high probability for success.

Algenol Algenol Biofuels is an innovative algae-to-ethanol company. Algenol has an advanced 3rd generation biofuels technology producing ethanol from algae. Algenol’s technology produces industrial-scale, low-cost ethanol using algae, sunlight, CO2, and seawater. Algenol is slated for commercial sales of ethanol in 2009. Its Direct to Ethanol process, links photosynthesis with the natural enzymes to produce ethanol inside each tiny algae cell. The algae are metabolically enhanced to produce ethanol while being resistant to high temperature, high salinity and high ethanol levels, which were previous barriers to ramping to commercial scale volumes. Algenol produces ethanol by growing metabolically enhanced algae in proprietary Capture TechnologyTM bioreactors. These bioreactors are contained and sealed units

114 http://www.diva-portal.org/ntnu/abstract.xsql?dbid=547%20-

http://www.diva-portal.org/ntnu/abstract.xsql?dbid=547%20-


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that hold algae in the bioreactor, prevent contamination, maximize ethanol recovery and allow for fresh water recovery. The prototype Capture TechnologyTM bioreactors designs are operational, with scaled designs currently being field tested. To date, the ethanol volume recovery and initial ethanol separation efficiency are consistent with commercial production targets.

Algenol’s Algae to Ethanol Deal - Algenol Biofuels says it has found a way to inexpensively bring third-generation biofuels to industrial scale. And, unlike most algal biofuel companies, it's apparently got a licensing deal for an $850 million project to show for it. The company believes its seawater-based process can generate up to a billion gallons of algal ethanol per year from a facility in Mexico. (Jun 2008)

Algae Farm in Mexico to Produce Ethanol in '09 - According to the company, ethanol produced at its farm in Mexico will cost about $3 per gallon. Specifically, company engineers enhanced certain algaes' ability to make sugar and, through their enzymes, to ferment sugar into ethanol. Most algae have a really tiny ability to make ethanol, and some companies claim to have enhanced this ability greatly.

In Algenol's process, algae produce ethanol in gas form that is siphoned off from the bioreactor tubes and condensed to a liquid. The company claimed that the system can produce 6,000 gallons of ethanol per acre per year.

The process to make ethanol is carbon negative and consumes 1.5 million tons of CO2 per 100 million gallons of ethanol produced. The company has collaboration with another company, BioFields. The Mexico facility of BioFields includes a small power plant, which provides around 2-3 million metric tonne (MT) of CO2, enough for 300 mgpy of ethanol production. Additional CO2 will be obtained from industrial and/or atmospheric sources. The BioFields Mexico facility will have an eventual capacity between 1 and 2 billion gallons per year.

XL Biorefinery A new generation biorefinery combines a dairy operation with a biofuels plant and fractionation mill. The company currently uses corn as a feedstock but is developing algae to biofuels component. The company will propagate algae in a patent-pending system of horizontally mounted clear tubes. The algae grown using manure water is processed in a biorefinery to make fuels, feeds and fertilizers. The company has developed an economical algae system for the large-scale production of algae biomass. Based on 40-acre fields that grow and harvest the algae, large-scale farms can be developed. Each field is leveled to a zero grade and pulled up to form troughs. The company’s product XL Super Trough Liner is placed in the troughs to contain the water and provide a constant flow of CO2 enriched air to stimulate growth.


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Each 40 acre field includes a harvest system that concentrates the algae solids for processing on a continuous basis. The algae solids from many fields can be processed at a single location. In early 2007, XL Renewables established its Algae Development Center (ADC) in Casa Grande, Arizona. The ADC is located on 2.5 acres of land and provides a facility to test production system design and operation, algae variety development, and system optimization. XL Renewables and the XL Algae Development Center are part of a team led by Diversified Energy Corporation to pursue a major grant to produce JP-8 jet fuel for DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) which is part of the U.S. Department of Defense.

Other Examples & Companies for Algae to Ethanol

Ethanol from GM cyanobacteria (Univ of Hawaii) - A strain of Synechocystis has been genetically modified by Professor Fu at the University of Hawaii to produce ethanol from carbon dioxide via a photosynthetic pathway. The aqueous cyanobacteria in solution use sunlight in a photobioreactor to convert the carbon dioxide to ethanol. Currently, the process can produce concentrations of 15 mM of ethanol in 5 days in a batch reactor. The concentration of ethanol is limited to 15 mM because a higher concentration of ethanol kills the bacteria. The liquid solution containing water, nutrients, and carbon dioxide is then separated using several techniques to yield a high purity ethanol product.(Aug 2007)

GS Agrifuels - GS AgriFuels - Produces biodiesel as well as does biomass gasification to produce ethanol and synfuels.

Greenstar USA - A holding company with investments in ethanol producers, and a producer of biodiesel reactors. It acquired a license to utilize a breakthrough processing technology to convert algae biomass to feedstock oil and cellulose sugars for the production of biodiesel and cellulosic ethanol respectively.

Algodyne - Has developed an algae photo-bioreactor system that can produce ethanol, methanol, biodiesel, electricity, coal and animal feed, using their proprietary micro-algae-based (phytoplankton) technology. They are also developing a Direct Alcohol Fuel Cell (DAFC) that produces electricity directly from ethanol.

South Korea Researchers Breaks Algae into Simple Sugars using Enzymes - Researchers in South Korea have devised a method of obtaining ethanol that is both safe and productive.The main secret behind their technique is a certain enzyme, which has the capacity of breaking down the algae into simple sugars. The group's patent suggests treating all sizes of algae - from large kelp to single-celled Spirulina - with an enzyme to break them into simple sugars, which can then be fermented into ethanol. The resulting seaweed biofuel is cheaper and


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simpler to produce than crop or wood-based fuels, and will have no effect on the price of food. (Jan 2009)

Ineos, which was awarded $50million from Department of Energy, USA, for its commercial-scale bioenergy facility project in Indian River County, Florida, plans to begin it’s facility's construction in the second quarter next year and to start operations by late 2011. The facility will produce 8m gallons/year of ethanol and 2 megawatts of electricity/year using wood and vegetative residues and construction and demolition materials. The project is a joint venture of Ineos and New Planet Energy. (Jan, 2010)

Algae-based Biofuels from Power Plant Emissions, Redux - Inventure Chemical and Seambiotic have announced that they have formed a joint venture to construct a pilot commercial biofuel plant with algae created from CO2 emissions as a feedstock. The plant will use algae strains that Seambiotic has developed coupled with conversion processes developed by Inventure to create ethanol, biodiesel and other chemicals. (TreeHugger; June 20, 2008)

GreenShift's CO2 Bioreactor – A patented process uses algae to consume greenhouse gas emissions from fossil-fueled power plants, giving off pure oxygen and water vapor. Light from concentrated solar panels is conducted into the algae chambers via fiber optics. Once the algae grow to maturity, it is harvested for conversion into ethanol and biodiesel fuels.

WMU Researchers Create Biofuels from Waste Oil & Algae - Researchers at Western Michigan University, USA (WMU) are working to find a viable algae strain that could be used for both waste treatment and as a feedstock for biodiesel or ethanol production. The plan is to cultivate the algae by using it at water treatment facilities where it would feed on the nutrient rich waste water, removing content that would need to be removed by other means anyway. From there, some of the algae would be removed and either drained of oils for ethanol production or used as organic feedstock for biodiesel production. (Renewable Energy World; April 15, 2008)

PetroSun BioFuels to Build 30M Gallon Algal Biodiesel Plant - PetroSun BioFuels Refining has entered into a joint venture to construct and operate a biodiesel plant in Arizona using algal oil feedstock produced by PetroSun BioFuels. The residual algae biomass will be processed into ethanol. (Green Car Congress; Jan. 10, 2008)

16.5 Algae & Cellulosic Ethanol Cellulosic ethanol is a biofuel produced from wood, grasses, or the non-edible parts of plants. Production of ethanol from lignocellulose has the advantage of abundant and diverse raw material compared to sources like corn and cane sugars, but requires a greater amount of processing to make the sugar monomers available to the microorganisms that are typically used to produce ethanol by fermentation.


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Cellulose is the primary structural component of green plants. It is an organic compound with the formula (C6H10O5)n. It is a structural polysaccharide derived from beta-glucose. The primary cell wall of green plants is made of cellulose. Cellulosic biomass is a complex mixture of carbohydrate polymers known as cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin, and a small of amount of compounds known as extractives. Cellulose is composed of glucose molecules bonded together in long chains that form a crystalline structure. Cellulose is a fibrous, tough, water-insoluble substance. Hemi-cellulose is not soluble in water. It is a mixture of polymers made up from xylose, mannose, galactose, or arabinose. Hemi-cellulose is much less stable than cellulose. Lignin is a complex aromatic polymer of phenylpropane building blocks. Lignin is resistant to biological degradation. Examples of cellulosic biomass include agricultural and forestry residues, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), herbaceous and woody plants, and underused standing forests. Ethanol has been traditionally obtained from the starch components of grains such as corn. Starch is a mixture of amylose and amylopectin. These are both complex carbohydrate polymers of glucose (chemical formula of glucose C6H12O6), making starch a glucose polymer as well. Starch-based feedstocks include plants such as corn, wheat, and milo. Both starch and cellulose consist of long chain of glucose molecules. The main difference is the linkages - Alpha linkage in starch, Beta linkage in cellulose. This in turn gives rise to difference in their physical and chemical properties There are two ways of producing alcohol from cellulose:

Biochemical - Cellulolysis processes which consist of hydrolysis of pretreated lignocellulosic materials, using enzymes to break complex cellulose into simple sugars such as glucose followed by fermentation and distillation.

Thermochemical - Gasification that transforms the lignocellulosic raw material into gaseous carbon monoxide and hydrogen. These gases can be converted to ethanol by fermentation or chemical catalysis.

Cellulosic Ethanol Using Cellulolysis The cellulose component is hydrolyzed by acids or enzymes to produce glucose, which is subsequently fermented to ethanol. The soluble xylose sugars (also known as wood sugars) derived from hemi-cellulose are also fermented to ethanol. A Virginia-based company called SuGanit Systemsi Inc has plans to scale up its biomass pretreatment and fermentation processes that can ferment both glucose and xylose sugars using normal yeast.


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Lignin, which cannot be fermented into ethanol, can be used as fuel to produce heat or electricity. Pathways to produce ethanol after pre-treatment using cellulosic feedstock are described below:

Saccharification/Hydrolysis: It is a process of converting the complex sugar molecules into simple sugar. This can be done by using enzyme hydrolysis or using acid hydrolysis. Individual sugar molecules are obtained as the end product of saccharification.

Fermentation: It is a process of converting the sugar molecules into ethanol and

carbon-di–oxide. This is carried out by adding yeast to the sugars. Genetically engineered bacteria are also used instead of yeast.

Distillation: This involves concentrating the produced ethanol. At the end of

fermentation, the broth has diluted ethanol which is then passed through distillation chamber to remove water and purify the ethanol.

Cellulosic ethanol is expected to show accelerated growth in the next few years. Starting with negligible production in 2010, it could reach an annual production of 3 billion gallons by 2015, 8 billion gallons by 2020 and 26 billion gallons by 2030 (Department of Energy, Govt of USA). Other projections of worldwide cellulosic ethanol production by suggest that it could reach 15-20 billion gallons per year by 2020 (McKinsey & Syngenta). Cellulosic Ethanol Using Gasification In the gasification process, the cellulosic biomass is transformed into gaseous carbon monoxide and hydrogen. These gases can be converted to ethanol by fermentation or chemical catalysis.

Cellulosic Ethanol from Algae As mentioned above, the feedstocks that are currently used for cellulosic ethanol are grasses (such as switchgrass), wood and non-edible parts of plants. There are no major commercial projects currently underway that explore algae as a feedstock for cellulosic ethanol production as of Apr 2010, though there are species of algae that do have a reasonable cellulose content (between 7-30%). In algae, the storage component is starch and the cell wall component is cellulose. Storage reserves

Green algae – Starch Red algae – Floridean starch


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Brown algae – Soluble carbohydrates Cell wall component of algae

Green algae – mostly constructed of cellulose, with some incorporation of hemicellulose, and calcium carbonate in some species

Red algae – The cell walls of red algae are constructed of cellulose and polysaccharides, such as agar and carrageenin

Brown algae – Brown algae have cell walls constructed of cellulose and polysaccharides known as alginic acids

Comparison of Cellulose Content of Algae with Other Biomass

Sources: Goldstein, 1981; Demirbas, 1991; Demirbas, 1998

It can thus be seen that some species of algae do have the potential to be considered as a cellulosic feedstock for ethanol production. An interesting development here is the process by which Solazyme plans to combine cellulosic ethanol and algae biodiesel production technology, which they think provides a more positive energy balance than either one alone. Solazyme will be buying sugar, including cellulosically-derived sugar produced by cellulosic ethanol companies, to feed to their algae. They are essentially short-circuiting the cellulosic ethanol process and diverting the sugar to what they say is a more efficient process: growing micro-algae. (Jan 2008)

Material Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Ash Extractives

Algae(Green) 20-40 20-50 - - -

Cotton, Flax, etc.

80-95 5-20 - - -

Grasses 25-40 25-50 10-30 - -

Hardwoods 45±2 30±5 20±4 0.6±0.2 5±3

Hardwood Barks

22-40 20-38 30-55 0.8±0.2 6±2

Softwoods 42±2 27±2 28±3 0.5±1 3±2

Softwood Barks

18-38 15-33 30-60 0.8±0.2 4±2

Corn Stalks 39-47 26-31 3-5 12-16 1-3

Wheatstraw 37-41 27-32 13-15 11-14 7±2

Newspapers 40-55 25-40 18-30 - -

Chemical Pulps 60-80 20-30 2-10 - -


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16.6 Current Methods of Ethanol Production

There are essentially three methods used to produce ethanol

Production from sugars and starches by fermentation, using yeasts Manufacture from ethene using steam (the "synthetic" route) Production from biomass waste, using bacteria

Fermentation - Most of the world's ethanol is produced by fermentation of crop

biomass (over 90%). The production of ethanol or ethyl alcohol from starch or sugar-based feedstocks is among man's earliest ventures into value-added processing. While the basic steps remain the same, the process has been considerably refined in recent years, leading to a very efficient process. There are two production processes: wet milling and dry milling. The main difference between the two is in the initial treatment of the grain.

Dry Milling - In dry milling, the entire corn kernel or other starchy grain is first ground into flour and processed without separating out the various component parts of the grain. The meal is slurried with water to form a "mash." Enzymes are added to the mash to convert the starch to dextrose, a simple sugar. The mash is processed in a high-temperature cooker to reduce bacteria levels ahead of fermentation. The mash is cooled and transferred to fermenters where yeast is added and the conversion of sugar to ethanol and carbon dioxide (CO2) begins. After fermentation, the resulting "beer" is transferred to distillation columns where the ethanol is separated from the remaining "stillage." The ethanol is concentrated using conventional distillation and then is dehydrated in a molecular sieve system.

Wet Milling – In wet milling, the grain is soaked or "steeped" in water and dilute sulfurous acid for 24 to 48 hours. This steeping facilitates the separation of the grain into its many component parts. After steeping, the slurry is processed through a series of grinders to separate the corn germ. The oil from the germ is either extracted on-site or sold to crushers who extract the corn oil. The remaining fiber, gluten and starch components are further segregated using centrifugal, screen and hydroclonic separators. The starch and any remaining water from the mash is then be processed fermented into ethanol

Synthetic ethanol - Synthetic ethanol production from crude oil and natural gas

contributes about 7% of total ethanol production worldwide. The UK is the world's largest producer of synthetic ethanol. Ethene, produced by the cracking of oil, is converted to ethanol using steam and a catalyst. The reaction also produces toxic by-products, so synthetic ethanol is never used for human consumption. A further purification stage is necessary to remove water and by-


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products, and newer methods are making use of safer reagents. This is the principal method used in the UK for industrial ethanol

Production of ethanol from biomass waste, using bacteria - Genetically engineered bacteria such as E. coli can produce fuel ethanol from biomass waste such as corn stover. Such a process is being used as the basis for some commercial ethanol plants currently under development.

16.7 Ethanol – Latest Technology & Methods

Companies today are involved in technological innovations such as cold starch fermentation and fractionation. Additional work is being done to reduce energy consumption and production costs, increase efficiency and reduce emissions using the best available control technologies.

Production of Ethanol from Cellulosic Biomass – as explained in the earlier section.

New Milling Methods Improve Corn Ethanol Production - Alternative Dry-Grind Techniques - The dry-grind process is the most common method used to produce fuel ethanol. In it, the whole corn kernel is ground and converted into ethanol. This method is relatively cost effective and requires less equipment than wet milling, which separates the fiber, germ (oil), and protein from the starch before it's fermented into ethanol. But the cost of making fuel ethanol must be lowered even further before ethanol can compete favorably with gasoline. To further lower costs for the dry-grind process, Frank Taylor, a chemical engineer at ERRC, and Vijay Singh, a professor from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, developed and patented a process that permits low-cost recovery of nonfermentable corn components, such as germ and fiber. These can be sold as valuable co-products for food or feeds. The process treats corn kernels with anhydrous ammonia gas to loosen up the kernel components so they can be easily separated and recovered. (July 2004)

INEOS is aiming to produce commercially viable amounts of bioethanol from municipal waste within two years, the UK-based chemicals company said in Jul 2008. The new technology would produce bioethanol in large quantities from municipal solid waste, organic commercial waste and agricultural residues, with one tonne of dry waste converted to 400 litres of ethanol.

Genetically Engineered Bacteria Could Make Cheaper Ethanol - Researchers from Dartmouth's Thayer School of Engineering and Mascoma Corporation in Lebanon, N.H., have, for the first time, genetically engineered bacteria to produce ethanol more efficiently from inedible cellulosic biomass, including wood, grass, and various waste materials. The newly engineered bacterium, known as ALK2, can ferment all the sugars present in biomass and can do it at 122 degrees F (50oC), compared with conventional microbes that cannot function above 98.6 degrees F (37oC).

Novozymes, a Danish enzyme producer, has received funding from the EU for a cooperative project with Brazilian private sugarcane technology firm CTC to


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develop technology for converting sugarcane by-products into ethanol. In Feb, 2010, Novozymes launched NOVOZYMES CELLIC® CTec2 and HTec2, the first commercially viable enzyme for cellulosic ethanol, with significant performance improvements over previous products. More than just increasing performance at higher solids, the new enzymes are effective on a broad range of feedstocks.

ZeaChem, a Colorado-based company uses the microbes in termite guts to make ethanol. ZeaChem's process is different from many other companies in that it uses a bacterium called acetogen, which is found in termite stomachs, to break down biomass without the use of enzymes. The company plans to scale up the plant to a commercial-size facility in 2011.


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SUMMARY

1. Most attempts at producing ethanol from algae have been using macroalgae

rather than microalgae as the starting feedstock.

2. There is a good potential for producing ethanol from the cellulosic portion of

algae species that are rich in cellulose.

3. As of Apr 2010, there are about 10 companies that are attempting

production of ethanol from algae.


www.oilgae.com


17. Other Energy Products – Syngas, Other Hydrocarbon Fuels, Energy from Combustion of Algae Biomass 17.1 Syngas and its Importance to Hydrocarbon Fuels 17.2 Production of Syngas 17.3 Products from Syngas 17.4 Syngas from Algae 17.5 Producing Other Hydrocarbon Fuels from Algae 17.6 Direct Combustion of the Algal Biomass to Produce Heat or Electricity 17.7 Trends in Thermochemical Technologies 17.8 Reference – Will the Future of Refineries be Biorefineries? 17.9 Examples of Bio-based Refinery Products 17.10 Reference – Catalytic Conversion

HIGHLIGHTS

Production of syngas from algae is still at research stage. Similarly, research is in its nascent stages regarding the different types of hydrocarbons fractions (other than diesel) that can be derived from algal biomass in an economically sustainable way.

There have been few experimentations and research so far on using algae biomass – either with its oil or the de-oiled cake – as a feedstock for combustion to produce electricity or heat.

17.1 Syngas and its Importance to Hydrocarbon Fuels

Syngas - Introduction Syngas is the abbreviation for synthesis gas. This is a gas mixture that comprises of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Syngas is produced from the gasification of carbon containing feedstocks. The name syngas is derived from its use as an intermediate in generating synthetic natural gas and to create ammonia or methanol. Syngas is also an intermediate in creating synthetic petroleum and petrochemicals. Syngas has approximately 50% of the energy density of natural gas. Heating values of syngas are generally around 4-10 MJ/m3 It can be burnt and used as a fuel source. The other use is as an intermediate to produce other chemicals. The production of syngas is accomplished by the gasification of coal, biomass or municipal waste. In these reactions, carbon combines with water or oxygen to give rise


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to carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide combines with carbon to produce carbon monoxide. In addition to using syngas to directly derive petroleum and petrochemical products, through various chemical processes and absorption methods, each individual component of syngas can be isolated and/or purified for other uses. Thus, syngas is a very diverse product with many far reaching and potential uses.

17.2 Production of Syngas Production of Syngas through Gasification of Algae Biomass Industrial-scale gasification is currently mostly used to produce syngas. Within the last few years, gasification technologies have been also developed that use organic waste and biomass as feeds. Syngas can be produced by gasification of biomass (including algal biomass). It can also be produced from natural gas. Gasification of Biomass

The main method of producing syngas from biomass feedstocks is called gasification. Although gasification reactions can take many forms, these processes are defined by cranking up the temperature to between 650 and 1,400oC. There are two approaches to achieving these elevated temperatures: direct heating and indirect heating.

- In direct heating, a relatively small amount of oxygen is added to the reactor. If this gas is made up of more than 90 percent oxygen, the resulting syngas will be rich in carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The

Natural Gas

SYNTHESIS GAS

Chemicals

Coal Waste Biomass Peat

Diesel Gasoline Methanol Ethanol Hydrogen


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contrasting approach uses various means of indirect heat transfer to achieve high operating temperatures, including hot sand circulation and exotic alloy heat exchangers

The least expensive approach to biomass gasification is the direct approach, which adds air—not pure oxygen—to the system with simple blower technology.

A gasification system consists of four main stages - Feeding of the feedstock - Gasifier reactor where the actual gasification occurs - Cleaning of the resultant gas - Utilisation of combustible gas

Biomass gasification offers an attractive alternative energy system. Advantages of biomass gasification include:

Easy to operate and maintain Provides energy security Generates local employment Gasifiers can be designed for rural areas

Biomass Gasification Disadvantages Economics – Biomass gasification carries high capital costs. Gasifiers require

modification for different biomass materials. This can add to the already high capital costs.

Biomass materials are often dispersed & difficult to collect. In addition, these can be bulky to transport to processing facility, thus adding to operational costs.

Gasifiers operate at high temperatures. This can result in fire hazards and explosion hazards.

Fire hazards - Fire hazards can result from many causes, such as high surface temperature of equipment, risks of sparks during refueling, and flames through gasifier air inlet on refuelling lid. Reduction of the fire hazards could involve significant costs

Explosion hazards - Explosions can occur if the gas is mixed with sufficient air to form an explosive mixture.

Toxic hazards - An important constituent of producer gas is carbon monoxide, an extremely toxic and dangerous gas.

Environmental hazards - During the gasification of wood and/or agricultural residues, ashes and condensate are produced. The latter can be polluted by phenolics and tar.

Gasification Reactions


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The complexity of the gasification process is illustrated by the number of reactions taking place, and the considerable number of components in the biomass. The main reactions in the gasification process are listed below:

Gasification Reactions and their Reaction Enthalpy

Reaction ∆H298, kJ mol-1

Volatile matter→ CH4 + C Mildly exothermic

C + 0.5 O2 → CO -111

CO + 0.5 O2 → CO2 -254

H2 + 0.5 O2 → H2O -242

C + H2O → CO + H2 +131

C + CO2 → 2CO +172

C + 2H2 → CH4 -75

CO + 3H2 → CH4 + H2O -206

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 -41

CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O -165

Source: Oyvind Vessia (2006)115

17.3 Products from Syngas The chart below provides the complete range of products that can be derived from syngas.

115

Oyvind Vessia (2006). Gasification. Retrieved from: http://www.zero.no/transport/bio/gasification

http://www.zero.no/transport/bio/gasification


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Source: Biomass Magazine 116

17.4 Syngas from Algae

Research & Case Studies Production of syngas from algae is still at research stage. We present some useful updates.

Colorado researchers gain grant for conversion of algae, switchgrass to syngas, fuel - A research team at the University of Colorado was awarded $1 million by the Department of Energy and USDA to develop a solar-thermal chemical reactor to convert switchgrass and algae to synthetic gas. The team will concentrate

116

Jessica Ebert. (2008). Biomass Magazine. Jan, 2008 Issue. Retrieved from: http://www.biomassmagazine.com/

Biomass

Gasifier

Syngas

Ethanol

Fisher-Tropsch

Methanol

Hydrogen

Power Generation

Boiler Wax

Diesel Kerosene

Gasoline

Naphtha

DME

Ethylene Propene

Gasoline

Polyolefins

Oxy chemicals Acetic acid

VAM

PVA

Ketene

Diketene &Derivatives

Acetic Esters Methyl Acetate

Acetic anhydride

Formaldehyde

Steam and power

Gas turbine combined cycle

IC Engine

Fuel cells

Refinery Hydrotreating

Transportation Fuels

Fuel Cells

Chemicals

Fertilizers

file://sre/Naras%20D/NS/Reports/Oilgae/Client%20Version/Local%20Settings/Temp/Jan,%202008%20Issue

http://www.biomassmagazine.com/article.jsp?article_id=1399&q=&page=all


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sunlight to heat biomass to 2000 degrees, gasify the cellulose into syngas, and convert the gas into hydrogen and liquid fuels. (Jul 2008)

A biomass feedstock such as algae can be grown in a controlled atmosphere greenhouse environment with algae receiving direct sunlight and being fed water and carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen to the environment via photosynthesis. The algae can be cultivated and fed as a biomass reactant to the reactor described herein. The algae can be pyrolyzed by high temperature solar thermal heating in entrainment flow solar-thermal reactor. The resulting "syngas" of carbon monoxide and hydrogen can be fed to a conventional "water-gas shift reactor" where water is fed and hydrogen and carbon dioxide are produced via a controlled catalytic process (CO + H2O H2 + CO2). The exiting gas is primarily H2 and CO2 which can be separated by conventional membrane or pressure swing adsorption processing. The H2 can be used as a reactant or a fuel while the CO2 is fed to the algae in the greenhouse.117

A2BE Carbon Capture LLC (A2BE) and Power Ecalene Fuels, Inc. (PEF), announced plans to commission an advanced energy-conversion system that will combine algae farming-based CO2 capture and recycle technologies with biomass gasification into an integrated renewable fuel production facility- Jun, 2008.

Solena, in its strategy to implement a wide “Biomass-to-Energy” concept, is not stopping with the use of “conventional” biomass. Solena, in cooperation with its partner Bio Fuel Systems, is developing the use of micro-algae as feedstock for the gasification process. Solena’s SPGV system converts any organic materials (hydro-carbon compounds) such as biomass into a clean high-energy synthesis gas which can be used to produce electric power (BioPower), and second-generation liquid bio-fuels (Fischer Tropsch diesel/jet fuel). (2008)

In Wuhan, China, through a joint venture BioCentric Energy will work with a coal-fired steel facility to implement its carbon dioxide reduction/algae growth solution for biodiesel production, and residue gasification process to produce electricity.

In Lake Elsinore, Calif., BioCentric Energy will collaborate with Southern Pacific Energy Inc. to deliver its carbon dioxide reduction and algae growth solution for biodiesel production, as well as residue gasification process to produce electricity.118

Algaewheel, Inc. announced that they will be submitting a proposal to build a facility in Cedar Lake, Indiana that uses algae to treat municipal wastewater and

117 Frosch et al. (2006) Rapid Solar-Thermal Conversion of Biomass to Syngas; U.S.Patent 4,290,779 Retrieved from: http://www.wipo.int/pctdb/en/wo.jsp?IA=WO2008027980&WO=2008027980&DISPLAY=DESC 118 Anna Austin. (Oct, 2008) BioCentric Energy to implement algal technology; Retrieved from: http://www.biomassmagazine.com/article.jsp?article_id=2147

http://www.wipo.int/pctdb/en/wo.jsp?IA=WO2008027980&WO=2008027980&DISPLAY=DESC

http://www.biomassmagazine.com/article.jsp?article_id=2147


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uses the sludge byproduct to produce electricity, heat, and biofuel. The system is basically an algae farm using the wastewater as fertilizer. The resulting sludge is a mixture of wastewater solids and algae. This mixture is then thermally treated using a process similar to gasification. During the thermal process, oils are removed from the sludge mixture in stage one, and the remaining solids are gasified to produce electricity and high grade fertilizer in stage two.119

Co-Gasification—Researchers Combine Coal and Biomass - NETL researchers are looking at ways that we can combine the natural resources of coal and biomass – biomass including such growing things as wheat straw, corn stover, switchgrass, mixed hardwood and distillers’ dried grains with corn fiber, and even algae – but avoid the emission of carbon dioxide. The researchers are studying a process called co-gasification in which various types of coal and biomass are put together and converted into a gaseous product stream that can be used to produce electricity, hydrogen, chemicals and liquid transportation fuels. (Jul 2008)

Research work on Utilization of macro-algae for enhanced CO2 fixation and biofuels production by Michele Aresta, Angela Dibenedetto, and Grazia Barberio concluded that macro-algae can generate a net energy of the order of 11,000 MJ/T dry algae compared to 9500 MJ/T relevant to micro-algae gasification.120

Alan Weimer, a professor at CU-Boulder and executive director of the Colorado Center for Biorefining and Biofuels and His team is planning to develop algae for gasification. “We see algae as an ideal feedstock,” Weimer says. But rather than extracting oil from the microbes for the production of biodiesel, the algae themselves will serve as a biomass feedstock for the production of syngas.121

Net energy from algae gasification - In the best case considered so far, macro-

algae can generate a net energy of the order of 11,000 MJ/T dry algae compared to 9500 MJ/T relevant to micro-algae gasification. (IAMC, Department of Chemistry and CIRCC, University of Bari, Campus Universitario, 70126 Bari, Italy, Mar 2005)

17.5 Producing Other Hydrocarbon Fuels from Algae Algae biomass comprises hydrocarbons which can theoretically be transformed into a number of hydrocarbon fuels of varying compositions and properties. For instance, a

119 E-wire press release., Indiana Company to Submit Proposal to Utilize Algae to Treat Wastewater and Create Renewable Energy. Retrieved from: http://www.ewire.com/display.cfm/Wire_ID/4808 120 Michele Aresta T., Angela Dibenedetto., Grazia Barberio. (2005). Utilization of Macro-Algae for Enhanced CO2 Fixation and Biofuels Production: Development of a Computing Software For An LCA Study. Fuel Processing Technology 86 (2005) 1679– 1693. Retrieved from: http://moritz.botany.ut.ee/~olli/b/Aresta05.pdf 121 Jessica Ebert. Solar-Powered Biomass Gasification. Biomass Magazine. From the June 2008 Issue Retrieved from: http://www.biomassmagazine.com/article.jsp?article_id=1674&q=&page=all

http://www.ewire.com/display.cfm/Wire_ID/4808

http://moritz.botany.ut.ee/~olli/b/Aresta05.pdf

http://www.biomassmagazine.com/article.jsp?article_id=1674&q=&page=all


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study of oil which was obtained from hydrocracking of the Botryococcus braunii found that the distillate comprised of 67% gasoline fraction, 15% aviation turbine fuel, 15% diesel fuel fraction and 3% residual oil. Research is in its nascent stages regarding the different types of hydrocarbons fractions (other than diesel) that can be derived from algal biomass in an economically sustainable way. Other chapters in this report have provided information on how starting with algae various energy products such as biodiesel, ethanol, hydrogen and methane could be derived. A few other hydrocarbon variants that find widespread use today can also be derived from algae. Inputs on these are provided in this section.

JP-8 Fuel (Aviation Fuel) / Kerosene JP-8 or JP8 (for Jet Propellant) is a jet fuel, specified in 1990 by the U.S. government. It is kerosene-based. It is a replacement for the JP-4 fuel; the U.S. Air Force replaced JP-4 with JP-8 completely by the fall of 1996, in order to use less flammable, less hazardous fuel for better safety and combat survivability. U.S. Navy uses a similar formula to JP-8 and JP-5. JP-8 is projected to remain in use at least until 2025. In the U.S. military, JP-8 and JP-5 are used in the diesel engines of nearly all tactical ground vehicles and electrical generators.

Researchers evaluate algae jet fuel - The goal of this project, which is backed by a

$6.7 million award from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), is to develop and commercialize a process to produce JP-8, which is used by U.S. and NATO militaries. The ASU team in the School of Applied Arts and Sciences will lead an effort to demonstrate the technical and economic feasibility of using algae as an alternative feedstock resource. ASU's researchers will screen for oil-rich algal strains, evaluate their potential as oil producers and develop an algal feedstock production system that will yield competitively priced oil that can be converted into jet fuel. ASU, UOP, Honeywell Aerospace, Southwest Research Institute and Sandia National Laboratories researchers will be working to help develop and commercialize a process to produce jet fuel that is vegetable- or algal oil-based rather than petroleum-based. The project is expected to be completed by the end of 2008. (a 2006 news item)

Solazyme Inc. announced that it had produced an algal-derived aviation kerosene that passes eleven of the most challenging specifications required to meet the ASTM D1655 (Jet A) standard for Aviation Turbine Fuel. (Sep 2008)

Gasoline

Gasoline can be produced through the F-T process using syngas.


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Factoid

Sapphire Energy, based in San Diego, CA, is working on a process to turn algae into what it calls “green crude” or a product similar to gasoline

Butanol Research into biobutanol from algae is in its very initial stages. However, biobutanol has been already produced on a commercial scale in the US in the middle of the 20th century before it went out of favour. Until about 1950, biobutanol was manufactured from corn and molasses in a fermentation process that also produced acetone and ethanol and was known as ABE (acetone, butanol, and ethanol) fermentation. Producing biobutanol from algal biomass (should the process prove economical) will again most likely involve a fermentation mechanism.

LPG Can be obtained from syngas, using the F-T process

Waxes Can be obtained from syngas, using the F-T process. Waxes are already being produced from hydrogenation of plant oils such as palm oil and soybean oil. Lubricants Lubricants can be produced from hydrogenated derivatives of plant oils. In general, some vegetable oils when processed through hydrotreatment and hydroisomerization process under the usual hydroconversion conditions, in the presence of a hydrogen stream and hydroconversion catalysts, result in biolubricants and bioparaffins that present characteristics of being biodegradable and less of an environmental pollutant. For instance 12-Hydroxystearic Acid (12-HSA) is produced from hydrogenated castor oil, also known as castor wax. Its high melting point and hydroxyl bearing chain produce glycerine-free gel structures of great strength and workability, the dominant feature of heavy duty greases. 12-HSA is a major component in lithium and calcium based multi-purpose lubricating greases.


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Of specific interest here could be a recent investigation into whether a material derived from red microalga could be a suitable biolubricant: “The rheological properties of the sulfated polysaccharide of the red microalga Porphyridium sp., a heteropolymer with a molecular weight of 3−5 × 106 Da, indicated that this material might be an excellent candidate for lubrication applications: the viscosity of the polysaccharide is stable over a range of temperatures, pH values, and salinities122.” Research is also ongoing in the context of producing lubricants from syngas fermentation, as well as using Fischer-Tropsch process. Research for using algae as the feedstock is in the very initial stages.

Polymers and Plastics Efforts to derive polymers and plastics from algae are in the preliminary stages. We present some of the updates and researches on the same: Cultivation of algae to produce long chain polymers having flocculating properties - Algae are cultivated in an aqueous nutrient medium until relatively high culture densities are achieved and thereafter under conditions in which the cells become deficient in nitrogen thereby causing the cells to shift from a growth phase in which protein production predominates to a growth phase in which extracellular polymer production predominates. An adequate supply of other nutrients as well as CO2 and light are maintained in the culture medium during the latter phase to insure that a change in cell metabolism is produced by a deficiency in nitrogen. The algae then produce high molecular weight polymers exhibiting strong flocculating activity.123 Researchers believe it can be done from algae oil - Researchers have made plastics from soybean and corn oils and they believe that it could be done with algae oils.124

17.6 Direct Combustion of the Algal Biomass to Produce Heat or Electricity

Biomass Combustion as a Source of Energy Biomass has played a relatively small role in terms of the overall electricity generation worldwide. Renewable energy sources (solar, wind, biomass, and hydroelectric power) account for 9.4% of the total electricity generated in the United States. Biomass power

122 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16893231 123 Schenck, Paula., Foster Patricia L., Walker Jr., William W., Fogel Samuel (1975), U.S. Patent 3958364.,

Production of algal bio-polymers. Retrieved from: http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3958364.html 124 Emission Science LLC., Retrieved from: http://emissionscience.net/algabprod.html

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16893231

http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3958364.html

http://emissionscience.net/algabprod.html


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is the second largest source of renewable electricity (after hydroelectric power), making up 19% of the total renewable electricity, or 76% of the non-hydro renewable electricity (EIA, 2004). The sources of biomass include: forest residue, mill residue, agriculture residue, energy crops, and urban wood waste. Among many reasons for increased biomass utilization in recent days, environmental benefits are the most important. One of the significant environmental benefits is the reduction in CO2 emission. Compared with coal, biomass feedstocks have lower levels of sulfur or sulfur compounds. Therefore, substitution of biomass for coal in power plants has the effect of reducing sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions and also low nitrogen oxide emissions. Two important technologies for converting lignocellulosic biomass to electricity are direct combustion and Integrated Gasification/Combined Cycle (IGCC). Some power plants combust biomass exclusively to generate electricity and some facilities mix biomass with coal (biomass co-firing plants). Direct combustion power plants burn the biomass fuel directly in boilers that supply steam for the same kind of steam-electric generators used to burn fossil fuels. With biomass gasification, biomass is converted into a gas - methane - that can then fuel steam generators, combustion turbines, combined cycle technologies or fuel cells. The primary benefit of biomass gasification, compared to direct combustion, is that extracted gasses can be used in a variety of power plant configurations. Although biomass has several advantages over coal, there are some drawbacks in this technology. Biomass combustion will also result in emission of GHG based on the biomass source. For example, wood contains sulfur and nitrogen, which yield SO2 and NOx in the combustion process. However, the rate of emissions is significantly lower than that of coal-based generation. Biomass combustion also has the risk of fire and carbon monoxide poisoning. The fuel quality also varies significantly based on the type of biomass used.

Algae Biomass Combustion as Energy Source There have been few experimentations and research so far on using algae biomass – either with its oil or the de-oiled cake – as a feedstock for combustion and energy. The ASP program of the NREL did not consider the direct combustion route of the algal biomass for production of steam or electricity, because the Office of Fuels Development had a mandate to work on transportation fuels. The concept of algal biomass as a fuel extender in coal-fired power plants was evaluated under a separate program funded by DOE’s Office of Fossil Fuels. The Japanese have been the most aggressive in pursuing this application. They have sponsored demonstrations of algae production and used these at a Japanese power plant.


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Factoids on Combusting Algal Biomass for Heat / Electricity

Algae biomass has approximate energy content of 13-14 m BTU/ton at ~ 8% moisture, about 16 m BTU at 100% solids (completely dried).

There is some amount of ongoing research in using algae biomass directly as a fuel rather than spend energy turning it into biofuels or into hydrogen or methane. A comparison is the direct burning of wood.

Compared to biomass such as wood, algae have a much higher range of nutrients - N, P, K and so on. In this regard, it is more similar to oilseeds than to wood. By burning this material directly you effectively lose much of those inorganics to the system. In addition, there is an additional point with direct burning of algae biomass - owing to its composition; it could be difficult to get a complete combustion of biomass. This means that particulates that remain could be considered as pollutants.

When you burn algae biomass, you have N turned into NOx and still have CO2 emitted. However, it is possible to consider a closed loop solution in which the CO2 is fed back for growing yet more algae.

17.7 Trends in Thermochemical Technologies

Syngas Scales Best The table below provides inputs on how various fuel routes compare with regard to cost and scalability. It can be observed that the syngas route is the only route that can provide very high scalability in the context of replacing a large percentage of transport fuel in the short and medium term.

Various Fuel Routes Compare With Regard To Cost And Scalability

Technology Size (tonnes/year)

Approximate Cost Level

(Euro)

Relative Product Scalability#

First Generation (FAME) 250,000 50-100 million Medium

Vegetable Oil Hydrogenation 170,000 100 million High

Hydrogen 200,000 275 million Low

Methanol 200,000 325,000 Low-medium

Ethanol (Lignocellulosic & 1G) 200,000 350-450 million Medium

Syndiesel (BTL) 200,000 400-650 million Very High

Source: National Non-food Crops Centre, York, UK, Feb 2008


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Note: #the term scalability is used here to describe how easily the fuel could be used in the general transport fuel pool in the short to medium term

Biomass Thermochemical Technologies Showing Acceleration in Commercial Marketplace In the last few years, a number of commercial and research initiatives have begun in the thermochemical (synthesis gas – FT/Methanol Synthesis) domain, especially with biomass as the feedstock. Some of the more prominent examples are given below:

Babcock & Wilcox Volund A Denmark-based company, a subsidiary of Babcock & Wilcox Power Generation Group, Inc., is significantly growing the global reach of its renewable power generation technology. The company has signed an agreement potentially worth up to EU100million (U.S. $156 million) to supply biomass plants that use its Combined Cycle Gasification (CCG) technology to Advanced Renewable Energy Ltd. (ARE) in Italy. Under the terms of the 10-year agreement, B&WV will be the exclusive supplier to ARE using CCG technology in as many as 25 small-scale, biomass-fueled power plants. B&W Volund anticipates orders for six plants in 2008, with the first scheduled for commercial operation in the first quarter of 2010. B&WV has previously licensed its gasification technology in Japan and continues to pursue licensing opportunities around the world. Each of the power plants, to be built in Italy, will be designed to produce 4-megawatts (MW) of electricity using wood chip biomass to produce gas fuel for engines that will drive electric generators (August, 2008)

UOP LLC A Honeywell company, it recently announced that it was awarded a $1.5 million grant from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) to develop economically viable technology to stabilize pyrolysis oil from second generation biomass feedstocks for use as a renewable fuel source. UOP will work with Ensyn Corp., the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), Pall Corp. and the Crop Conversion Science and Technology Research Unit of the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Agriculture Research Service on the project. It is expected to be completed by the end of 2010 UOP LLC announced that Honeywell Green Jet Fuel(TM) produced using Honeywell UOP's renewable jet fuel process technology powered a U.S. Navy F/A-18 Super Hornet flight as part of the Navy's efforts to certify the use of alternative fuels in military aircraft. The fuel was produced by Honeywell's UOP business unit using its Green Jet


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Fuel process technology under a project for U.S. Defense Energy Support Center (DESC). Honeywell's UOP is producing up to 190,000 gallons of fuel for the Navy and 400,000 gallons for the U.S. Air Force from sustainable, non-food feedstocks, including animal fats, algae and camelina. (October, 2008)

Mascoma Corporation It was recently announced that Mascoma has received a total of $26.0 million in funding from the DOE and an overall contribution of $23.5 million from the State of Michigan. The funds will be applied toward the development of a cellulosic fuel production facility that uses non-food biomass to convert woodchips into fuel. The facility will be located in Chippewa County in the upper peninsula of Michigan, in the town of Kinross. (October, 2008)

Southern Research Institute The Institute announced they have signed a five-year agreement with ThermoChem Recovery International (TRI) to assemble and operate a biomass gasification pilot plant for TRI within its Carbon-to-Liquids (C2L) Development Center in North Carolina. Southern Research engineers and technicians, in collaboration with TRI Engineers, will test various types of biomass, syngas cleaning systems, catalysts, and other operational features that support for production of clean power or biofuels. The specific terms of the contract were not released (April 2008) HCL CleanTech, a US-Israeli biofuels technology development company focused on full process technology for conversion of woody biomass to fermentable sugars and advanced biofuels, has selected North Carolina as the site for its administrative headquarters and pilot plant. HCL CleanTech’s pilot-scale facility is built and commissioned at Southern Research Institute’s Advanced Energy and Transportation Technologies Center in Durham. Southern Research engineers, scientists. (April 2010)

Coskata A biofuel startup in Illinois can make ethanol from just about anything organic for less than $1 per gallon. Coskata uses existing gasification technology to convert almost any organic material into synthesis gas, which is a mix of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Rather than fermenting that gas or using thermo-chemical catalysts to produce ethanol, Coskata pumps it into a reactor containing bacteria that consume the gas and excrete ethanol. The company says the process yields 99.7 percent pure ethanol. The company plans to have its first commercial-scale plant producing up to 100 million gallons of ethanol a year by 2011 (Jan 2008).


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French oil major Total SA (TOT) has acquired an interest in Coskata (Apr 2010)

Choren The key element in the Choren technology is the Carbo-V Process Technology The Carbo-V Process is a three-stage gasification process involving the following sub-processes: Low temperature gasification, High temperature gasification and Endothermic entrained bed gasification. During the first stage of the process, the biomass (with a water content of 15 – 20 %) is continually carbonized through partial oxidation (low temperature pyrolysis) with air or oxygen at temperatures between 400 and 500 °C, i.e. it is broken down into a gas containing tar (volatile parts) and solid carbon (char). During the second stage of the process, the gas containing tar is post-oxidized hypostoichiometrically using air and/or oxygen in a combustion chamber operating above the melting point of the fuel’s ash to turn it into a hot gasification medium. During the third stage of the process, the char is ground down into pulverized fuel and is blown into the hot gasification medium. The pulverized fuel and the gasification medium react endothermically in the gasification reactor and are converted into a raw synthesis gas. Once this has been treated in the appropriate manner, it can be used as a combustible gas for generating electricity, steam and heat or as a synthesis gas for producing SunDiesel.125

Partnered with Shell, VW and Daimler Semi-commercial unit of circa 15KT about to startup 200,000 tpa (5000bpd) commercial scale plant planned from 2011 Located in Freiburg, Germany

Recently, the CHOREN group provided an exclusive project development opportunity to Business Resources Ltd., Kuala Lumpur that has invested in a cooperation in the field of biomass gasification technology as well as in cultivation of energy crops in Malaysia (January 2010)

Primenergy

125 Choren


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A large gasification system supplier is Primenergy, L.L.C. an Oklahoma corporation with principal offices located in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Primenergy has a plant in Stuttgart, Arkansas that gasifies over 500 tons per day of rice hulls with electrical power generation, via steam turbine, of over 12 MW, with the ability to extract up to 100,000 pounds per hour of medium pressure process steam.14 Primenergy has other plants within and outside the U.S.126

Enerkem Enerkem’s gasification, sequential gas conditioning and catalysis technology converts sorted municipal solid waste and forest residues into cellulosic ethanol and other biofuels. The company has operated a pilot plant since 2003 and is currently building an industrial-scale cellulosic ethanol production plant in Canada. It is also participating, in partnership with world-class organizations, in other projects which are in various stages of development.127

Solena Group Solena Group is a US company that uses a highly cost-effective and technically efficient thermal depolymerization/gasification process. Solena develops, builds, owns and operates renewable bio-energy plants. Using its patented plasma technology and algae systems, Solena’s plants produce clean, reliable electricity, with no CO2 emissions. Solena’s biomass feedstock is fed into a plasma reactor, which holds one or more plasma arc torches. These plasma torches heat the biomass to roughly 5,000 degrees Celsius. Solena uses this high temperature plasma field to transform all organic components into a clean and useful synthetic gas. The syngas from the reactor is cooled and cleaned, which involves the removal of any sulfur compounds, chlorides, mercury, other volatile metals, acid gas and any particulate matter in order to reduce pollution. Once this phase is complete, the syngas is fed into a gas turbine to produce electricity in a combined cycle. Solena uses algae biomass as the feedstock. Produced in industrial bioreactors, artificial light photosynthesizes the algae, which are then gasified for green energy.128

126 http://www.primenergy.com/ 127 Enerkem., Retrieved from: http://www.enerkem.com/ 128 Solena Group., Retrieved from: www.solenagroup.com

http://www.primenergy.com/

http://www.enerkem.com/

http://www.solenagroup.com/


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Range Fuels Range Fuels has a Two-Step Thermo-Chemical Process129 Step 1: Solids to Gas Biomass (all plant and plant-derived material) that cannot be used for food, such as agricultural waste, is fed into a converter. Using heat, pressure, and steam the feedstock is converted into synthesis gas (syngas), which is cleaned before entering the second step. Step 2: Gas to Liquids The cleaned syngas is passed over our proprietary catalyst and transformed into mixed alcohols. These alcohols are then separated and processed to maximize the yield of ethanol of a quality suitable for use in blending with gasoline to fuel vehicles. (Source: Range Fuels)

Announced start of construction of 113,000 tpa syngas to ethanol plant in November 2007

Located in Georgia, USA In Mar 2010, Range Fuels closed a $80 million loan guaranteed by U.S. Department of Agriculture. The loan was given in order to assist in the construction of Range Fuels’ commercial cellulosic ethanol plant near Soperton, Georgia.

Flambeau River Paper Mill130 The pulp and paper industry is on the verge of a fundamental shift. Pulp and paper producers have an infrastructure in place for processing biomass, a readily available wood resource, and they could be in the most suitable position to think about expanding their product base to include liquid fuels or bioenergy. This becomes possible primarily owing to the Gasification / F-T combination. Flambeau River Paper Mill is one company that has taken a lead in this direction. Flambeau River Biofuels, LLC announced plans to build a modern, integrated, biofuels project using “forest residue” feedstock. The biomass will be fed into a steam reformer and gasified. The resulting syngas will then be fed through a gas-to-liquids FT catalytic process. An existing oil company has expressed interest in an off-take agreement to purchase the oil products for their refinery.

129 http://thefraserdomain.typepad.com/energy/2007/11/range-fuels-bre.html 130 http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/wimrc/news/seminars/08-02-05_warwick_g_evans_nnfcc.ppt

http://thefraserdomain.typepad.com/energy/2007/11/range-fuels-bre.html

http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/wimrc/news/seminars/08-02-05_warwick_g_evans_nnfcc.ppt


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Announced in November 2007 their plans to build a 16,500 tpa demo plant to produce Fischer-Tropsch waxes

Plant expected to be complete by 2010 Future plans include construction of a larger scale unit. Located in Wisconsin, USA

Stora Enso/Neste NSE Biofuels Oy Ltd. is a 50-50 joint venture between Stora Enso Oyj and Neste Oil Corporation focused on the production of synthetic diesel from wood residues. It plans to use a Circulating Fluidized-bed (CFB) biomass gasifier. The plant utilizes a fuel-flexible circulating fluidized-bed gasification technology to convert a wide spectrum of biomass into a clean syngas to be used in a gas to liquids (Fischer-Tropsch) process to produce feedstock for renewable diesel from biomass/wood residue-based gas. The gasification and syngas cleaning system will be part of NSE’s new-generation renewable diesel demonstration plant at Stora Enso’s Varkaus Mill in Finland. The plant is expected to start up in early 2009 and will be integrated into the energy infrastructure of the Stora Enso Varkaus Mill.

Currently building a demonstration plant at the Stora Enso Varkhaus paper mill, expected startup is 2008

Plan to subsequently build a 100,000 TPA commercial unit. Varkaus, Finland

Growth of Gasification Technologies

Worldwide Growth in Gasification Technologies


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Survey Results: Gasification Operating Plant Statistics 2004 vs. 2007

2004

2007

117 operating plants 138 operating plants

385 gasifiers 417 gasifiers

Capacity~ 45,000 MWth Capacity~ 56,000 MWth

Feeds : Coal 49%, Pet. Resid. 36%

Feeds: Coal 55%, Pet. Resid. 32%

Products: Chemicals 37%, F-T 36% Power 19%

Products: Chemicals 44%, F-T 30% Power 18%

Source: www.worldfuels.com , 2007

17.8 Reference – Will the Future of Refineries be Biorefineries? The previous sections provided an overview of the various products that could be derived from biomass, especially using the gasification / syngas route. These details, along with the chapters on deriving energy products such as biodiesel, ethanol, methane and hydrogen from algae raise a simple and powerful question:

Fact: Feedstock such as algae have the ability to provide enormous amounts of biomass and processes such as gasification and Fischer-Tropsch could convert these biomass to almost most (if not all) products that are produced by today’s oil refineries ( as well as the downsteam petrochemical companies)

Assumption: Thermochemical processes such as gasification & Fischer-Tropsch prove technically and economically feasible on a large-scale.

Question: Will the refineries of tomorrow be bio-refineries, and the petrochemical & plastics companies of tomorrow be biochemicals and bioplastics companies? It is of course not easy to answer the above question, and a firm answer will be known only possibly many years from now, given that companies have just started their pilot projects on this domain. However, we have attempted a brief analysis of the key end-products of the petro-refinery and petro-chemical companies and tried to provide an overview of efforts to produce these products from biomass.

Details of Various Products from Petroleum Refineries

http://www.worldfuels.com/


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Petroleum Products Produced from One Barrel of Oil Input to U.S. Refineries, 2007

Product Gallons

Finished Motor Gasoline 19.11

Distillate Fuel Oil 10.96

Kero-Type Jet Fuel 3.82

Petroleum Coke 2.18

Still Gas 1.85

Residual Fuel Oil 1.76

Liquefied Refinery/Petroleum Gas 1.72

Asphalt and Road Oil 1.22

Other Oils for Feedstocks 0.55

Naptha for Feedstocks 0.55

Lubricants 0.46

Miscellaneous Products 0.17

Special Napthas 0.13

Kerosene 0.08

Finished Aviation Gasoline 0.04

Waxes 0.04

Processing Gain @ 6.3% 2.81

Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA) – Government of USA

U.S. Refiner and Blender Net Production of Refined Petroleum Products in 2007

(Total = 6.57 Billion Barrels)

Product Percentage

Finished Motor Gasoline 46%

Distillate Fuel Oil 23%

Kerosene-Type Fuel 8%

Petroleum Coke 5%

Still Gas 4%

Residual Fuel Oil 4%

Asphalt and Road Oil 3%

Petrochemical Feedstocks 2%

Liquefied Refinery Gases 2%

Propane 2%

Others 2%


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Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA) – Government of USA, http://www.eia.doe.gov/ * Distillate Fuel Oil includes heating oil and diesel fuel. Liquid Refinery Gases include ethane/ethylene, propylene, butane/butylene, and isobutane/isobutylene.

Aviation Gasoline Aviation gasoline is motor spirit prepared especially for aviation piston engines.

Gas Diesel Oil/ (Distillate Fuel Oil) Gas/diesel oil includes heavy gas oils. Gas oils are obtained from the lowest fraction from atmospheric distillation of crude oil, while heavy gas oils are obtained by vacuum redistillation of the residual from atmospheric distillation. Several grades are available depending on uses: diesel oil for diesel compression ignition (cars, trucks, marine, etc.), light heating oil for industrial and commercial uses, and other gas oil including heavy gas oils which are used as petrochemical feedstocks.

Heavy Fuel Oil Residual This heading defines oils that make up the distillation residue. It comprises all residual fuel oils (including those obtained by blending).

Kerosene Kerosene comprises refined petroleum distillate intermediate in volatility between gasoline and gas/diesel oil.

Jet Fuel This category comprises both gasoline and kerosene type jet fuels meeting specifications for use in aviation turbine power units. Gasoline type jet fuel - This includes all light hydrocarbon oils for use in aviation turbine power units. Kerosene type jet fuel - This is the medium distillate used for aviation turbine power units. It has the same distillation characteristics and flash point as kerosene. In addition, it has particular specifications (such as freezing point) which are established by the International Air Transport Association (IATA).

LPG These are the light hydrocarbons fraction of the paraffin series, derived from refinery processes, crude oil stabilisation plants and natural gas processing plants comprising propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) or a combination of the two. They are normally

http://www.eia.doe.gov/


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liquefied under pressure for transportation and storage. Ethane is a naturally gaseous straight-chain hydrocarbon (C2H6). It is a colourless paraffinic gas which is extracted from natural gas and refinery gas streams.

Motor Gasoline This is light hydrocarbon oil for use in internal combustion engines such as motor vehicles, excluding aircraft.

Naphtha Naphtha is a feedstock destined for the petrochemical industry (e.g. ethylene manufacture or aromatics production).

Other Petroleum Products White Spirit and SBP: White spirit and SBP are refined distillate intermediates with a distillation in the naphtha/kerosene range. Lubricants: Lubricants are hydrocarbons produced from distillate or residue; they are mainly used to reduce friction between bearing surfaces. This category includes all finished grades of lubricating oil, from spindle oil to cylinder oil, and those used in greases, including motor oils and all grades of lubricating oil base stocks. Bitumen: Solid, semi-solid or viscous hydrocarbon with a colloidal structure, is primarily used for surfacing of roads and for roofing material. Paraffin Waxes: Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons (with the general formula CnH2n+2). These waxes are residues extracted when dewaxing lubricant oils. Others: For example: tar, sulphur, and grease. This category also includes aromatics (e.g. BTX or benzene, toluene and xylene) and olefins (e.g. propylene) produced within refineries.

Petroleum Coke Petroleum coke is defined as a black solid residue, obtained mainly by cracking and carbonising of residue feedstocks, tar and pitches in processes such as delayed coking or fluid coking. It consists mainly of carbon (90 to 95 per cent) and has low ash content. It is used as a feedstock in coke ovens for the steel industry, for heating purposes, for electrode manufacture and for production of chemicals.


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Refinery Gas Refinery gas is defined as non-condensible gas obtained during distillation of crude oil or treatment of oil products (e.g. cracking) in refineries. It consists mainly of hydrogen, methane, ethane and olefins. It also includes gases which are returned from the petrochemical industry.

17.9 Examples of Bio-based Refinery Products

Jet Fuel

Scientists in the US have turned oil from plants like soybeans and coconuts into jet fuel and other petroleum-like products, using thermal processes in the presence of catalysts - Oct 2008.

Jatropha-derived Green Jet Fuel for Air New Zealand - The jatropha-derived “green jet” fuel to power one of four engines on a test flight in an Air New Zealand Boeing 747-400 arrived at the Rolls-Royce facility in Derby, UK. The jatropha oil is deoxygenated, then applied selective cracking and isomerization to produce Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (SPK) that can then be blended with conventional aviation fuel at up to 50% - Nov 2008.

UDRI, AFRL to Open Nation’s First Research-Scale Facility Tasked to Create Viable Jet Fuel From Coal and Biomass - With a seed grant from the Air Force Research Laboratory, the University of Dayton Research Institute will collaborate with AFRL to construct and operate USA’s first federal research facility designed to create jet fuel from coal and biomass in a program aimed at creating a viable, home-grown alternative to increasingly expensive foreign petroleum-based fuel. The award will also fund research into coal- and biomass-derived fuel technologies for greater fuel efficiency and reduced environmental impact – May 2008.

Solena Group Plans to Produce Renewable Jet Fuel - The Solena Group, a global bio-energy company, based in Washington D.C. recently announced that it is developing the first large-scale, renewable jet fuel production facility based on 100 percent Bio-SynGas generated from biomass and municipal waste. The company will create the facility in partnership with Rentech, Inc., a pioneering coal-to-liquid production company, that will use Solena's Bio-SynGas as a replacement for synthesis gas generated from coal or natural gas. The facility will convert biomass and organic products derived from municipal waste into clean renewable synthesis gas (Bio-SynGas) that will then be converted into renewable jet fuel through the Rentech Fischer-Tropsch (FT) technology, resulting in net-zero carbon dioxide emissions for air travel - March, 2008.

A study has explored the business case for biofuel synthesis via biomass gasification at existing forest product mills. The generic business case involves


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wood biomass gasification (to syngas) and synthesis of FT liquid, with distillation to diesel and naphtha biofuels, and wax co-products.131

ASTM to Consider Adding 50% F-T Blend to Jet Fuel Specification; Work on Hydrotreated Fats and Oils Also Underway - July 2008 - ASTM International’s Subcommittee D02.J0.01 on Jet Fuel Specifications will consider a ballot to include Fischer-Tropsch-derived Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (SPK) for use in blending in jet fuels at levels up to 50% in the jet fuel specification ASTM D1655 when the supporting research report is available, estimated to be later this month. In addition, the J01 meeting noted that the OEM/FAA approval process is under way to expand the definition of acceptable SPK to include Hydrogenated Fats and Oils (HFO). Additionally, work has begun to approve the co-processing (by hydrotreating) of fats and oils (that are used primarily to make diesel fuel) with petroleum crude streams that results in small amounts of components in jet fuel, but which have the same composition as typical jet fuel components – July 2008

The Environmental and Energy Research Center (EERC) in Grand Fork, ND, USA has created fuel from renewable sources that meets JP-8 aviation jet fuel criteria. The EERC has produced fuel using renewable feedstock that meets the criteria for JP-8 aviation jet fuel. The test program was enabled with funding provided by a $4.7 million contract with the U.S. Department of Defense’s Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The EERC is exploring partnerships with private companies to develop this technology. Discussions with feedstock suppliers are on-going – Oct 2008.

The BioForming® technology - Aug 2008 - The BioForming® technology from the company Virent converts water soluble sugars into fuels and can economically utilize many types of carbohydrates from cellulosic and biomass-derived feedstocks. The starting products include glycerol, glucose and sucrose, starches, polymers of glucose contained in cellulose (plant cell walls), C5 and C6 sugars such as xylose, arabinose, and glucose contained in hemicellulose. This process can be used to convert all plant derived materials such as lignocellulose, soluble sugars and starch into gasoline, kerosene and diesel.

Sapphire Energy, which cultivates algae in ponds to be converted into alternative

fuels including jet fuel, was awarded a $50 million grant - Dec, 2009.

Elevance Renewable Sciences was awarded a $2.5 million grant to fund the

preliminary engineering design for a demonstration scale integrated biorefinery

to produce chemicals and advanced biofuels, including jet fuels, from renewable

oils– Jan, 2010

131 See details of the study here http://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/Woody_Biomass/news_events/documents/aaas2008/business_case_forest-based_biofuel_ince.pdf

http://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/Woody_Biomass/news_events/documents/aaas2008/business_case_forest-based_biofuel_ince.pdf

http://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/Woody_Biomass/news_events/documents/aaas2008/business_case_forest-based_biofuel_ince.pdf


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ClearFuels Technology has a collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy to

build a biorefinery in Colorado. ClearFuels will receive an initial $7.7 million

toward the construction of the Colorado refinery as part of an overall $22.6

million DOE grant. The biorefinery will contain a biomass gasifier capable of

producing diesel and jet fuel from clean biomass, and be installed at Rentech's

Energy Technology Center in Commerce City, Colo. Rentech has a 25 percent

investment in ClearFuels and is partnering with it to develop commercial

biorefineries. The ClearFuels-Rentech biorefinery in Colorado is scheduled to be

completed by the end of 2011 - Apr, 2010.

Honeywell’s UOP, Kapolei, HI, facility was funded with $25m by DOE for its pilot

project that will integrate existing technology from Ensyn and UOP to produce

green gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel from agricultural residue, woody biomass,

dedicated energy crops, and algae– Jan, 2010

Gasoline

Frontline BioEnergy is focused on technology that improves utilization of renewable biomass material using various thermochemical processes. Frontline’s primary focus is gasification solutions for energy. Frontline’s syngas or pyrolysis systems to make fuels and chemicals including ethanol, hydrogen, boiler fuel oil, and ammonia for fertilizer manufacture, mixed alcohols, synthetic gasoline, diesel and jet fuel distillates.

Byogy Renewables Inc., a Texas company, has licensed the production of what it says is the Holy Grail of biofuel and will open a plant in the near future to create 95-octane gasoline from biomass. The first such gasoline will be available by 2010, Byogy says. The company worked with academics from Texas A&M University System and the Texas Engineering Experiment Station (TEES) to create the technology. Its plant will have raw garbage going in one end and 95-octane gasoline coming out the other – Aug 2008.

Gas Technology Institute, Des Plaines, IL, was funded with $2.5 million by DOE

for its pilot project. This project was selected to complete reliminary engineering

design for a novel process to produce green gasoline and diesel from

woody biomass, agricultural residues, and algae– Jan, 2010

Haldor Topsoe, Des Plaines, IL, was funded with $25 million by DOE for its pilot

project. This project will convert wood to green gasoline by fully integrating and

optimizing a multi-step gasification process. The pilot plant will have the capacity

to process 21 metric tons of feedstock per day– Jan, 2010

LPG


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Jatropha gasified to syngas from which LPG is derived - Direct synthesis of LPG fuel from syngas derived from jatropha has been attempted, with the hybrid catalyst based on modified Pd/SiO2 and zeolite. The new hybrid catalyst, consisting of (Pd–Ca/SiO2) and β-zeolite, showed a high activity and selectivity for LPG fraction. It also showed a higher stability than Cu–Zn/USY at high reaction temperature. The sintering of palladium metal was the main contribution to the deactivation of the hybrid catalyst (Pd–Ca/SiO2)/β-zeolite.

Lubricants & Waxes

Evaluation of oil seed crops as potential feed stock for biofuels or lubricants132 Production of wax esters in Crambe – EPOBIO133. This report shows that the

GMO production of wax esters for the manufacture of lubricants, from the non-food oilcrop Crambe abyssinica can become viable in Europe. Wax esters have lubrication properties that are superior to ordinary vegetable oil, i.e. triacylglycerols, due to their high oxidation stabilities and resistance to hydrolysis. High performance lubricating oils are often based on synthetic esters (such as wax esters) sometimes with the fatty acid part from plant sources. These are adapted to special applications such as high pressure, high temperature lubricants for use in gearboxes, differentials, crankcase lubricant, cutting oils, etc.

Waxes from Castor & Soy - Castor wax, also called hydrogenated castor oil, is a hard, brittle, vegetable wax. It is produced by the hydrogenation (chemical combination with hydrogen) of pure castor oil, in the presence of a nickel catalyst. Soy wax is hydrogenated soybean oil that has been frozen at -30 degrees Fahrenheit and then extruded (pressed) into flakes. Hydrogenation is the process of heating oil and passing hydrogen bubbles through it. The fatty acids in the oil then acquire some of the hydrogen, which makes it denser.

Metalworking Lube From Soy Oil - EcoLine™ Bearing, Chain & Roller Lubricant is a bio-based, rust preventative lubricant, formulated with American grown soybeans. It offers superior lubricity over most conventional lubes. As a sustainable product, it contains 86% less petroleum than traditional lubricants. It provides protection for up to 24 months, even in the most aggressive environments. By resisting sling-off on high speed systems, this innovative lubricant reduces the need for reapplication and keeps the work place area cleaner and safer than using traditional lubricants.

Park Falls paper mill shifts to wood pellet fuel; completes pilot engineering to make green products – Dec 2008 - Flambeau River Papers is pressing ahead with a $300 million plan to produce green industrial products, ranging from

132 Read more on this here http://www.harvestcleanenergy.org/conference/HCE5/HCE5_PPTs/Johnson.pdf 133 http://www.epobio.net

http://www.harvestcleanenergy.org/conference/HCE5/HCE5_PPTs/Johnson.pdf

http://www.epobio.net/


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transportation fuels to industrial waxes. In mid-2007, the company reapplied in a new round of renewable energy grants to build a smaller scale demonstration plant. In August 2008, the federal Energy Department qualified Flambeau River Biofuels for up to $30 million in a revised plan to produce green electricity, sulfur-free biodiesel fuel, waxes for a host of industrial products and naptha, an integral input for pulp and papermaking all from woody biomass.

Tyson and Syntroleum to Develop Renewable Synthetic Fuels Plants - June 2007 - Tyson Foods, Inc. and Syntroleum Corporation, a Fischer-Tropsch fuels technology company, have formed a joint venture company—Dynamic Fuels LLC—which will produce renewable synthetic fuels targeting the diesel, jet, and military fuel markets. Syntroleum’s full Fischer-Tropsch-based synthetic fuels process, the three basic elements of which are (1) gasification, (2) the Fischer-Tropsch reaction, and (3) the upgrading of the F-T wax. Biofining in essence treats fats, greases and vegetables oils as a Fischer-Tropsch wax, and upgrades them to renewable diesel (R-2) and renewable jet fuel (R-8)

Amyris Biotechnologies, Emeryville, CA was funded with $25 million by DOE for

its pilot project. This project will produce a diesel substitute through

the fermentation of sweet sorghum. The pilot plant will also have the capacity to

co-produce lubricants, polymers, and other petro-chemical substitutes– Jan,

2010

Dimethyl Ether

Volvo Invests in Black Liquor Gasification Company (Jan 2007) - Volvo Technology Transfer AB is investing in Chemrec AB, a company that has developed a technology for gasification of black liquor, a residual product from the pulp industry. Using gasification rather than incineration to dispose of the black liquor creates a number of by-products including synthesis gas. With this synthesis gas it is possible to utilize known techniques to produce a range of vehicle fuels such as methanol, DME (dimethyl ether), Fischer-Tropsch synthetic diesel and hydrogen gas. The Chemrec high-temperature gasification plant (DP-1) in Piteå, Sweden, has recorded more than 1,100 hours of accumulated operating time producing syngas from black liquor. The next stage will be to produce fuel by modifying the gas cleaning unit and introducing a CO-shift stage into the Black Liquor Gasification (BLG) process.

In a joint project with the EU, the Swedish Energy Agency, fuel companies and the transport industry, Volvo Trucks is investigating the potential for large-scale investment in dimethyl ether (DME) fuel produced from biomass (Bio-DME). Volvo Trucks is participating in the project by contributing 14 Volvo FH trucks that will be tested by selected customers at four locations in different parts of Sweden between 2010 and 2012. The first field-test truck was shown today in Piteå, where the production of Bio-DME will take place in Chemrec’s demonstration plant, which just broke ground - Sep, 2009


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CHEMREC to build world’s first BioDME advanced biofuels plant - The European project BioDME started in September 2008. As part of the project Chemrec with partners will build a second generation biofuels plant in Piteå in northern Sweden. This unique project will demonstrate the entire chain from biomass to trucks running on DME. Chemrec will build and operate the plant where DME will be produced by gasification of black liquor, an internal stream in pulp mills.

The Swedish Energy R&D Board will provide an investment grant for the demonstration at industrial scale of the Chemrec technology for production of the renewable motor fuels BioDME (dimethyl ether) and Biomethanol. The new plant will be built at the Domsjö Fabriker biorefinery in Örnsköldsvik. (The biorefinery Domsjö Fabriker produces specialty cellulose, lignosulfonate and ethanol at Örnsköldsvik,550 km north of Stockholm.) - Sep, 2009

Chemrec and NewPage partner to explore black liquor gasification to fuels project (August 2007) - Sweden-based Chemrec AB and Ohio-based NewPage Corporation have formed a partnership to explore possible development of a plant that would produce renewable biomass-based fuels at the NewPage paper mill in Escanaba, Michigan. The plant would employ Chemrec’s Black Liquor Gasification (BLG) technology, which converts the black liquor waste stream from the paper pulping process into synthesis gas. The synthesis gas can then be processed into a variety of fuels - likely dimethyl ether (DME) and methanol (MeOH), although fuels such as Fischer-Tropsch diesel (FTD), Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG), or hydrogen (H2) are also possible.

Methanol

Dutch Consortium to Convert Methanol Plant to BioMethanol – Nov 2006 - A Dutch consortium is converting a conventional methanol plant in Delfzijl, Netherlands, to produce biomethanol. The output—ultimately an estimated 1 billion liters per year—will be directed to addressing the European Union’s requirement for a 5.75% biofuel component by 2010. Biomethanol can be blended directly into gasoline and serve as a substitute for MTB. The plant will use a new process to make bio-methanol from glycerine, a byproduct of biodiesel production.

Biomethanol from Biomass - Synthetic fuel made from biomass, so-called SunFuel, can be produced with two different basic methods. In the MtSynfuel® process developed by Frankfurt-based Company Lurgi, methanol synthesis follows the production of synthesis gas first. The methanol is used for olefin production and then for oligomerisation.

Others

Production of Liquid Alkanes by Aqueous-Phase Processing of Biomass-Derived Carbohydrates - Liquid alkanes with the number of carbon atoms ranging from C7 to C15 were selectively produced from biomass-derived carbohydrates by acid-


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catalyzed dehydration, which was followed by aldol condensation over solid base catalysts to form large organic compounds. These molecules were then converted into alkanes by dehydration/hydrogenation over bifunctional catalysts that contained acid and metal sites in a four-phase reactor, in which the aqueous organic reactant becomes more hydrophobic and a hexadecane alkane stream removes hydrophobic species from the catalyst before they go on further to form coke. These liquid alkanes are of the appropriate molecular weight to be used as transportation fuel components, and they contain 90% of the energy of the carbohydrate and H2 feeds. Source: Science 3 June 2005: Vol. 308. no. 5727, pp. 1446 – 1450; DOI: 10.1126/science.1111166

Pulp Mill Proposes Biomass Gasification Project to Replace Natural Gas; Hydrogen Generation a Possibility (March 2007) - Diversified Energy Corporation and Evergreen Pulp have formed a partnership and submitted a proposal to pursue a project to replace natural gas usage at the pulp mill with syngas produced on-site by the gasification of low-value excess wood fines using HydroMax gasification technology. In addition to providing fuel for heat and power, the syngas can be used in Fischer-Tropsch processing for fuels and chemicals, or to deliver a hydrogen stream for subsequent purification and use.

Toyota will Manufacture Car Using Bioplastics from Seaweed - Toyota is in talks regarding an ultra lightweight, incredibly efficient plug-in hybrid with a body made of seaweed. The concept builds on the 1/X plug-in hybrid concept that weighs in at 926 pounds. With bioplastics gaining popularity, instead of the vehicle having a carbon fiber body, it would instead be composed of plastic made from seaweed. Toyota believes this is a practice that will begin to catch on with other manufacturers (Feb 2009)

BioEnergy International Lake Providence, LA, was funded with $50 million by DOE for their demonstration project. This project will biologically produce succinic acid from sorghum. The process being developed displaces petroleum based feedstocks and uses less energy per ton of succinic acid produced than its petroleum counterpart – Jan, 2010

Renewable Energy Institute International, Toledo, OH, got a $20 million funding from DOE for its pilot project. This project will produce high quality green diesel from agriculture and forest residues using advanced pyrolysis and steam reforming. The pilot plant will have the capacity to process 25 dry tons of feedstock per day – Jan, 2010

17.10 Reference

Catalytic Conversion

What is Catalytic Conversion?


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Catalytic conversion is a primary tool for production of valuable fuels, chemicals, and materials from biomass platform chemicals. Catalytic conversion of biomass is best developed for synthesis gas or syngas. Proven catalytic processes for syngas conversion to fuels and chemicals exist and these can be applied to the production of fuels and chemicals from biomass via gasification. Synthesis gas (a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen) produced by gasification of fossil fuels or biomass can be converted into a large number of organic compounds that are useful as chemical feedstocks, fuels and solvents. In general, the process of converting CO and H2 mixtures to liquid hydrocarbons over a transition metal catalyst has become known as the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis. At the center of this transformation is a selective catalyst that works under heat and pressure to convert the carbon monoxide and hydrogen into larger, more useful compounds. Many of the conversion technologies were developed for coal gasification but process economics have resulted in a shift to natural-gas-derived syngas. These conversion technologies, however, apply similarly to biomass-derived syngas. A second, important, conversion processes for synthesis gas is to methanol and has become an important industry worldwide. Methanol is a commodity chemical, and can also be used directly or blended with other petroleum products as a clean burning transportation fuel. Another potential catalytic conversion of biomass-based synthesis gas is to mixed higher alcohols such as 1-butanol, 1-hexanol, n-propanol, etc. Higher alcohols, or methanol mixed with higher alcohols, would be better than straight methanol as a gasoline additive to boost octane. Higher alcohols form as byproducts of both Fischer-Tropsch and methanol synthesis. Process Description Raw synthesis gas from the gasifier needs to first have contaminants removed that would inactivate the catalyst. This includes sulfur compounds (e.g. H2S, mercaptans), nitrogen compounds (e.g. NH3, HCN), halides (e.g. HCl), and heavy organic compounds. Next, depending on the catalyst being used and the product being made, the ratio of hydrogen to carbon monoxide may need to be adjusted and the CO2 byproduct may also need to be removed. For methanol synthesis a ratio of 2:1 hydrogen to carbon monoxide is common. The clean gas is then compressed to the required operating pressure. This clean compressed gas is then passed through the reactor containing the catalyst at the appropriate temperature. The reactor temperature is typically around 200°C for


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methanol synthesis and 150 - 250°C for FTS reactors134. At the exit of the reactor, the products are separated from the partially converted gas, usually by condensation and the unconverted gas is recycled to the entrance of the reactor. The products are then further processed to separate the different fractions

134

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/printable_versions/catalytic_conversion.html

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/printable_versions/catalytic_conversion.html


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SUMMARY

1. Syngas can be produced from algae just as it can be from most biomass.

2. A range of hydrocarbon fuels can be derived from syngas. Possibilities exist for

producing a range of hydrocarbon fuel and non-fuel products also through

processes such as pyrolysis that result in bio-oil and hydrocarbon gases.

3. Some US companies have started exploring the production of JP-8 aviation fuel

as well as “green gasoline”, using the syngas route.


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18. Algae Meal / Cake 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Properties 18.3 Uses 18.4 Industries that Use Left-over Algae Cake

HIGHLIGHTS

Algae meal could refer either to the algal biomass without extracting the oil, or to the deoiled oil cake, though in most cases it refers to the latter.

Deoiled algae cake is a source of nutrients for humans and animals, because the cake of many algal species has high protein content, sometimes as high as 50 to 60% of dry matter.

Industries that use left-over algae cake are poultry, aquaculture, agriculture, ethanol manufacturers, power plants and pulp & paper.

18.1 Introduction Algae meal could refer either to the algal biomass without extracting the oil, or to the deoiled oil cake. In this report, by algae meal or algae cake we refer to the deoiled extract of algae biomass, unless otherwise specified. The algal biomass comprises three main components – Carbohydrates, Proteins and Lipids. Once the lipids have been extracted the left-over cake is primarily composed of carbohydrates and proteins. Deoiled algae cake is a source of nutrients for humans and animals, because the cake of many algal species has high protein content, sometimes as high as 50 to 60% of dry matter. Except for sulphur-containing amino acids (methionine and cystine), the essential amino acid content in many algal species is favourable for the nutrition of farm animals. Algae are also a rich source of carotene, vitamin C and K, and B-vitamins. This means that the algae left over after extracting the oil can be very useful as well. One way to use the algae meal is to add it back to the power plant (if algae are grown next to power plants) as fuel. However, this might not be the most profitable method to utilize the algae cake. As the left-over extract has proteins, these can be used for poultry and animal feed either directly or as an additional boost to the existing feed.


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Carbohydrates in the left-over algae can be converted into sugars. Depending on the strain, the sugar can either be simple or complex. Thus, the left-over can once become a feedstock, this time for ethanol.

18.2 Properties The exact composition of the algae meal depends on the algae species as well as the growth conditions. In addition, it also depends on the amount of oil that has been extracted. The approximate NPK value (by weight) for algae meal is:

8% N 4% P 3% K

18.3 Uses

Algae cake to ethanol – refer to the chapter on ethanol from algae Algae cake to methane through anaerobic digestion – refer to the chapter on

methane from algae Algae cake to electricity - There are many ways to generate electricity from biomass

using thermochemical pathways. These include directly-fired or conventional steam approach, co-firing, pyrolysis and gasification.

The press cake can be used as fertilizer, without conversion. However, it might not be the best use. The algae cake will probably be more valuable as animal feed than as fertilizer.

Meal and protein options when retained in watery phase: Fermentation to alcohol (including ethanol), making CO2 available for recycle Anaerobic digestion to methane for power production and effluent recycle Food source for aquaculture (fish, shrimp, etc.)

In July 2008, A2BE Carbon Capture and Power Ecalene Fuels, Inc. announced plans to commission an advanced energy-conversion system that will combine algae farming-based CO2 capture and recycle technologies with biomass gasification into an integrated renewable fuel production facility. The prototype system will produce biodiesel from algal oil and alcohol fuel from biomass using gasification. Biomass feedstock for gasification into "syngas" will come primarily from wood waste and municipal solid waste, and will include the de-oiled algae meal. In this example, algae biomass is used to produce biodiesel while algae cake is used to make syngas and other fuels further down.

More details about the applications of algae meal are provided in the chapter on Algae Uses & Applications


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18.4 Industries that Use Left-over Algae Cake Poultry - Biomass extract of algae is a good source of nutrients and biologically

active substances, which in the last few years have attracted the interest of the specialists in their search for natural, ecologically and healthy sound foods for the animals.

Aquaculture - Algae meal can be used as a major food of fish (and thus indirectly of many other animals)

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is amending the color additive regulations to provide for the safe use of Haematococcus algae meal as a color additive in the feed of salmonid fish to enhance the color of their flesh. This action is in response to a petition filed by Cyanotech Corp. (2000 news item)

Agriculture - Algal meal is a natural fertilizer for plants. Kelp or seaweed (algae) meal

is a natural fertilizer. Its high potassium content combined with other organic fertilizers makes a complete soil treatment. It promotes vigorous indoor and outdoors plants, and can also help them battle frost and death.

In Composting Organic Waste - Algae meal is an additive to improve decomposition conditions in composting of organic waste (GTZ, 1998). Additions of algae in composting process increases the structural portion in the windrow, improves the oxygen supply, reduces bulk weight, regulates the water content, reduces loss of nutrients, increases the air pore volume and promote the formation of clay-humus complexes.

Ethanol manufacturers - Processing into Ethanol - The sugars in algae meal can be

processed into ethanol. Power plants and other industries that need combustion fuel - algae meal can be

used as a feedstock for combustion in power plants and other industries as combustion fuel. A plant, which burns coal to produce electricity, should be able to make use of energy from burning dried algae without much additional cost.

Algae meal can be processed with many existing thermal technologies to create electricity. Algae meal can also be processed using anaerobic digestion to produce biogas. These processes result in different end products (i.e. gases, steam, and heat) which then can be converted to electricity.

As a feedstock for Syngas – Using gasification processes, algae meal/extract can be

turned into syngas which is an intermediate step for further conversion, either into renewable power or into other fuels through selected chemical synthesis processes.

Pulp & Paper - Cellulose of algae are similar to those found in paper, and some algae

have been used to produce handsheets (Kiran et.al., 1980).


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SUMMARY

1. Deoiled algae cake can be used to produce ethanol, methane, electricity and

fertilizer.

2. The range of product possibilities from algae meal offers additional revenue

streams for algae biodiesel products.


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Section 4 – Costs


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19. Cost of Making Oil from Algae 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Cost for:

Cultivation Harvesting Extraction Conversion to Fuel

19.3 Representative Cost of Biodiesel Production from Algae 19.4 Cost Reference

HIGHLIGHTS

Oilgae estimates that cost of biodiesel from algae to be in the range of $6-$18 per gallon. (2010)

Biodiesel production using the open pond route is much less expensive than that using photobioreactors. But the feasibility of using open ponds for large scale algae cultivation might not be as good as that of using photobioreacrors.

Photobioreactors represent more expensive systems for algaculture than open or closed ponds, but many industry experts feel that they represent the best option for producing algae fuels.

19.1 Introduction This chapter provides data on costs for the various processes required to derive the various energy products from algae. An evaluation of the algae energy industry cost components shows that there are two distinct types of processes that contribute to costs:

1. Processes that have been used for a long time and have been directly used in algae industry (for non-fuel products) or in other industries for non-algae products and feedstock. Examples of these processes include growing algae in open and closed ponds, in photobioreactors etc.

2. Processes that are relatively new and have been developed primarily for the algae energy. Examples of these processes include using methods such as flotation and flocculation for harvesting of microalgae, processes such as pretreatment used to derive ethanol from the cellulosic constituents of algae etc.

For processes that have been used for a long time, verifiable data for costs are available.


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For processes that are relatively new, various innovations and research are constantly changing the cost structures. For these processes, the costs that we have provided could change significantly. An example of one such process is cultivating microalgae in photobioreactors. Currently, the capital cost of a photobioreactor is about $100 per square meter (about $1 million per hectare). This is a prohibitively high cost if one wishes to grow algae for fuel. However, engineering innovations and breakthroughs are expected to significantly bring down both the capital and operational costs of photobioreactors in the near future. We worked with a number of data sources in order to arrive at the cost estimates provided here. Note however that owing to the nascency of the industry and the wide range of options and possibilities, it is difficult to provide precise cost estimates and hence all data provided should be considered to be approximations. Please also note that the prices and costs could be significantly different depending on the suppliers, the scales at which one wishes to operate, and for different countries and regions. The costs that are provided in this chapter are hence indicative data that can be used to perform preliminary calculations for feasibility. Cost data are provided for the following:

Cultivation Harvesting Oil Extraction Conversion to Fuel

Where relevant, we have provided both the capital costs and operating costs for a particular procedure / process.

Definitions and notes for terms and methodologies used in this chapter:

Operating Cost – total cost for operations of all the processes under consideration. Unless mentioned, operating costs do not take into account depreciation of capital costs and feedstock costs.

Operating Cost 1: same as Operating Cost Operating Cost 2: Operating Cost 1 + depreciated expenses for capital

costs.

Levelized Cost – Levelized costs take into account all costs for producing the end-product; this includes feedstock cost, core operating costs and depreciated capital costs.

Capital Cost – Inlcudes costs for all the fixed expenses. Unless mentioned, capital costs do not take into account cost of land. Cost of land is included only when the land had been purchased for the business (and not taken on lease etc).


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Depreciation Period – A straight-line depreciation, with a fixed amortized amount per year, has been used for all capital costs, with 10 years being taken as the depreciation period.

19.2 Details of Costs

Cultivation Costs

Costs for: Open Ponds Closed Ponds Photobioreactors Nutrients CO2

Open & Closed Ponds Cost components for open & closed pond algae production Capital Costs

Pond construction Pumps Paddle wheels Piping and Valves Frames, channels, repair jigs, etc Central facilities Cost of greenhouse or coverage infrastructure if it is a closed pond

Operating Costs

Pond maintenance Labour Water & nutrients Power CO2

Others

Depreciation of capital equipments Indicative Costs for Open Ponds

Capital Cost Operating Cost 1 Operating Cost 2

$125,000-$150,000 per hectare

$15,000-20,000 per hectare per annum



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Closed Ponds


$200,000 per hectare per annum



Photobioreactors PBR Cost Components

PBR capital expenses PBR operating and maintenance expenses (including software upgrades, cleaning

of PBR etc) CO2 cost Nutrient cost Electricity costs Manpower required for all the above activities


$1.5 million per hectare $45,000-50,000 per hectare per annum

$200,000 per hectare per annum

From the data provided for photobioreactors, it can be seen that it is a much more expensive system for algaculture than open or closed ponds.

Cost of CO2 The cost of CO2 could range from anywhere between $2-25 per T of algae biomass, depending on a number of factors. If the cultivation is located next to a power plant, CO2 might be supplied at little or no cost, hence the only cost could be the installation and maintenance cost required for the CO2 injection mechanism from the power plant to the pond / photobioreactor. Approximately 2 T of CO2 is required for cultivating 1 T of algae biomass.

Cost of Nutrients The cost of nutrients will be approximately $40-50 per T of algae biomass.

Harvesting Costs


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A number of methods are being used for harvesting microalgae and more are being experimented. We have provided the indicative capital and operating costs for the most common methods for microalgae harvesting.

Costs for:

Drum Filtration Centrifugation Flocculation Flotation

The major cost components for harvesting are: Cost of drying algae Cost of harvesting infrastructure and equipments (capital expense) Cost of maintenance of harvesting equipments Cost of chemicals (if flocculation methods are used for harvesting) Manpower cost for all the above operations Electricity

(All operating costs are given for processing the medium in which algae are cultivated)

Cost of Drum Filtration


Approximately $0.2 per 1000 annual gallons

Approximately $100 per million gallons.

Approx $ 120 per million gallons

Note: A 1,000,000 l / hr drum filtration system costs about 400,000 $ (drum filter, pumps and measuring equipments)

Centrifugation



Approximately $1000 per million gallons

Approx $1050 per million gallons

Flocculation


$0.4-0.5 per 1000 annual gallons

Approximately $800 per million gallons

Approx $ 850 per million gallons

Note: A 25000 gal per hour $100000 capital expenses.

Flotation



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Approximately $200 per million gallon for dissolved air flotation; about $50-100 per million gallon for simple flotation

Approximately $220 per million gallon for dissolved air flotation; about $70-120 per million gallon for simple flotation

Oil Extraction Costs

Costs for:

Expeller press Solvent extraction

Extraction Cost Components

Cost of chemicals Cost of extraction infrastructure and equipments (capital expenses) Cost of maintenance of extraction equipments Cost of purification of extracted oil Cost of manpower for all the above operations Electricity

(All capital and operating costs for extraction are given for one unit of oil extracted)

Cost of Extraction Using Oil Press


0.5 $ per annual gallon $ 35 / T (approx 12 c per gal) $50/T (approx 17 c per gallon)

Cost of Solvent Extraction


1 $ per annual gallon $ 55 / T (approx 20 c per gal) $80 per T (approx 30 c per gallon)

Costs for Conversion to Fuel

Cost for:

Transesterification for Biodiesel Starch Ethanol Cellulosic Ethanol Anaerobic Digestion


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Thermochemical Processes

Cost Components for Conversion to Biofuel

Cost of conversion equipments (capital expenses) Cost of maintenance of conversion equipments Chemicals and additives required for conversion Cost of manpower for all the above operations Electricity

Transesterification Cost


$0.5 per annual gallon $0.25 per gallon $0.31 per gallon

Starch to Ethanol (via fermentation)


$1-1.25 per annual gallon $0.7 per gallon $0.85 per gallon

Note: Fermentation will cost approximately $0.4 per gallon, hydrolysis about $0.2 per gallon.

Cellulose to Ethanol (via fermentation)


$4-5 per annual gallon $1.3 per gallon $1.8 per gallon

Note: Fermentation will cost approximately $0.4 per gallon, hydrolysis about $0.2 per gallon, pre-treatment about 0.4 per gallon.

Anaerobic Digestion


$ 5 million for a 1 MW facility 2-3 c per kWh of electricity generated

8 – 9 c per kWh electricity generated

Thermochemical Processes

Gasification / Pyrolysis Combustion

Biomass gasification and combustion technologies are evolving fast and as a result the capital and operating costs for gasification vary widely. For costs specific to your requirements, it is best to consult with suppliers of individual systems. Some indicative data are reported here


www.oilgae.com


Gasification / Pyrolysis & Catalytic Synthesis


Large gasification + Large FT: varies between 2400 $/T to 1400 $/T annual diesel output, for diesel output capacities of ranging from 0.5-2.5 million T per annum

Small gasification + Small FT: varies

between 9000 $/T to 8500 $/T annual diesel output, for diesel output capacities of ranging from 0.5-2.5 million T per annum

Approx $0.8 per gallon of fuel produced

For large gasification + large FT: $1.5 per gallon of fuel produced For small gasification + small FT: $3.3 per gallon of fuel produced.

Cost of Direct Combustion


1500-2000 $ / KW 6c per kWh 8c per kWh

19.3 Representative Cost of Biodiesel Production from Algae The total cost of algae fuel = costs for (cultivation + harvesting + oil extraction + transesterification). We have worked out some indicative costs of algae biodiesel for the various options / combinations. Please note that not all combinations provided here might be effective in real world, as data are still awaited from pilot–stage results. This estimate provided below are only for biodiesel from algae. While costs for producing ethanol or other hydrocarbons from algae will be different as different processes are involved, the first two stages – Cultivation & Harvesting – are common for all fuels, so these cost estimates can be used for calculating approximate costs of production for those fuels as well. Cost data are presented in the following modules:

Yield assumptions – we have made some assumptions of algae biomass yield per hectare, based on the data available and estimates by Oilgae. The yield estimates are different for open ponds and photobiorectors.

Options – A list of options available for the various stages of the algae to energy process


www.oilgae.com


Approximate Unit Cost Estimates – Indicative unit cost estimates for the various options for each stage are provided here.

Cost Esimates for Various Combinations - Based on the above data, cost estimates (in $ per gallon) are made for deriving biodiesel from algae for the various process combinations.

Yield Assumptions

Yield PBR Open Ponds

Yield of dry algae biomass g/m2/day 40 20

Yield in T per hectare per year 146 73

Yield of oil from 1 hectare (in gallons @ 30% by weight of biomass)

13440 6720

Notes: algae oil density of 0.86 Kg/l, 3.79 liters = 1 gallon

Stages & Options The various stages and the various options available for each stage are provided below

Algae cultivation can be done in open ponds or in closed photobioreactors Harvesting can be done by centrifugation, flocculation, flotation or drum

filtration Either expeller presses alone or expeller with hexane solvent extraction can be

used to extract oil. Transesterification is the only method that has been used to convert the oil into

biodiesel.

Cost Components

Options

Cultivation Open ponds Photobioreactor

Harvesting Centrifuge Flocculation Flotation Drum Filtration

Extraction Expeller Press Hexane Solvent

Biodiesel Conversion

Transesterification

Note: The categories provided in italics are the various options available under each stage


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Cost Estimates for the Various Options under Each Stage

Process Option Levelized cost – Open Ponds ($ per gal)

Levelized cost - PBR ($ per gal)

Cultivation 4.46 14.9

Harvesting Centrifuge 3 1.5

Flocculation 2.44 1.22

Flotation 0.43 0.22

Drum Filtration 0.34 0.17

Drying 1.1 1.1

Extraction

Expeller press 0.17 0.17

Hexane solvent 0.30 0.30

Transesterification - 0.31 0.31

Notes: The following assumptions were made for the above estimates:

Open pond yields of algae will be about 1g/l/day; for PBR, the corresponding yields will be 2g/l/d

Drying costs = 10 cents per Kg of dry algal biomass

Levelized costs = represent the sum of all direct and indirect costs; the actual cost of production

Gal = gallon

The total cost of biodiesel production (sum of the costs for cultivation, harvesting oil extraction, and transesterification).

Levelized cost for each of the 16 combinations

Open Pond $ per gal

Centrifuge + Expeller Press + Transesterification 9.04

Centrifuge + Hexane Solvent + Transesterification 9.17

Flocculation + Expeller Press + Transesterification 8.48

Flocculation + Hexane Solvent + Transesterification 8.61

Flotation + Expeller Press + Transesterification 6.47

Flotation + Hexane Solvent + Transesterification 6.60

Drum Filtration + Expeller Press + Transesterification 6.38

Drum Filtration + Hexane Solvent + Transesterification 6.51

PBR $ per gal

Centrifuge + Expeller Press + Transesterification 17.98


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Centrifuge + Hexane Solvent + Transesterification 18.11

Flocculation + Expeller Press + Transesterification 17.70

Flocculation + Hexane Solvent + Transesterification 17.83

Flotation + Expeller Press + Transesterification 16.70

Flotation + Hexane Solvent+Transesterification 16.83

Drum Filtration + Expeller Press + Transesterification 16.65

Drum Filtration + Hexane Solvent + Transesterification 16.78

Observations & Analysis It can be observed that the costs of algae fuel vary between $6.5 and $18 per gallon. Two questions arise: Why is it claimed that algae fuel costs over $10 per gallon when there are

possibilities to produce it at about $6 per gallon? Why should companies consider using photobioreactors for cultivation, and

flocculation or centrifuge for harvesting if they are not cost effective? In answer to these questions, the following should be noted:

Open ponds can theoretically produce algae fuel at prices lower than $10 per gallon, but there are a number of challenges that companies are facing while growing microalgae in open ponds on a large scale. Consequently, there are no large-scale results to confirm the success of open pond cultivation of oil-bearing microalgal strains. Hence, while the photobioreactor-route is far more costly, it appears to be a more reliable way to produce specific strains of microalgae on a large scale. Similarly, while simple drum filtration is indeed a cost-effective harvesting method, their efficiencies to harvest microalgae on large scales are very low with currently used techniques.

All the above costs have been derived based on costs of the constituent stages.

In real-life scenarios, there could be other hidden costs which are not entirely published or are well-known at this stage.

19.4 Costs - Reference We have presented some cost and prices data that could be useful for the readers. Please note that while we used some of these data for our estimates provided in the main section of this chapter, our cost estimates could be significantly different from some of the commercial prices given. This is owing to the fact that we considered a


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number of other data points, subjective factors and the evolving nature of the industry while arriving at our final estimates.

Cost of Photobioreactors – from AlgaeWay

1 T of Algae Biomass per

Day

2 T 5 T 10 T

Required hectare 0.54 1.08 2.68 5.4

Complete price (in ‘000 euros)

350 497 750 1428

Source: Algae Way

Capital Costs of Open Raceway Ponds

For a Productivity of 30 g -1 m-2day-1 (Based on table 8.3 in Benemann and Oswald 1996)

Item Remarks Cost US$/ha

Land preparation, grading, compaction

Percolation control by natural sealing 2,500

Building of pond walls & lewees

3,500

Paddle wheels for mixing 5,000

CO2 transfer sumps & carbonation

5,000

CO2 supply(Pipelines and scrubbers)

Assuming flue gas 5,000

Harvesting and processing equipment

Settling Flocculation Centrifugation and extraction

7,000 2,000

12,500

Anaerobic digestion and nutrient recycling

Lagoon 3,250

Other capital costs Water and nutrient supply Waste treatment Building roads, drainage Electricity supply & distribution Instrumentation & Machinery

5,200 1,000 2,000 2,000 500

Subtotals of above 59,450

Engineering, contingencies 15% above 8,900

Total direct capital 68,350

Land costs 2,000


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Working capital 25% operating cost 3,800

Total capital investment 74,150

Inflation corrected 2.5% inflation, 11 years 97,300

Enzyme/Fermentation vs. Gasification/Synthesis

Iogen Syntec

Process Enzyme/Fermentation Gasification/Synthesis

Theoretical yield per ton biomass (gal/ton)

114 230

Actual yield (gal/ton) 70 114(est.)

Approx. Capital Cost/gal/year US $4.45 US $2.23

Approx. Cost/gallon US $1.44 US $0.78

Source : Syntec, 2006

Capital Cost Estimates of Gasification & Pyrolysis Plants

(All costs in Euros, 2005 estimates)

Biomass Input (Million T per

year)

Diesel Output – Million T

per year

Large Gasification + Large FT (Capital Cost billion Euros)

Small Pyrolysis + Large FT (1) - (Capital Cost billion Euros)

Small Gasification + Small FT (2) - (Capital Cost billion Euros)

2 0.5 0.8 1.2 3

4 1 1.6 2.2 6

6 1.5 2 3 8.6

8 2 2.2 3.5 11.75

10 2.5 2.4 4 14.5

1. - Small pyrolysis (multiple units of 100 kt/y) + large FT 2. - Small gasification (multiple units of 100 kt/y) + small FT multiple units Source: ACS; All estimates are indicative, will vary depending on system and vendor.

Energy Costs - Combustion of Landfill Gas & Co-firing According to the CEC and NREL, the levelized cost of energy from a 2-megawatt landfill gas facility is estimated to be 4.4 cents/kWh in 2005, dipping to 3.7 cents/kWh by 2017. Electricity from landfill gas is an economically competitive and mature technology with a high capacity factor. By 2005, the levelized cost of energy for anaerobic digester gas from animal waste is estimated to be 4.3 cents/kWh, dropping to 3.6 cents/kWh by 2017. A 20-megawatt solid biomass direct combustion facility is estimated to have a levelized cost of 6.4 cents/kWh in 2005, dropping to 5.6 cents/kWh by 2017.


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Costs for Biomass Energy Using Combustion

Technology Size (MW)

Typical 2004 Installed Cost

Levelized Cost of Energy (cents/kWh)

2005 2008 2010 2017

Solid Biomass Combustion 20 $1500-2000/kW 6.6 6.2 6.2 5.7

Landfill Gas 2 $1200-1500/kW 4.4 4.1 4.1 3.7

Co-firing - $225-300/kW Depends on cost of co-fuel

Source: California Energy Commission and NREL

Typical Biodiesel Cost Break-up

Cost Type Cost / gallon ($) Cost / liter ($) % of total

Cost of feedstock 1.672 0.44 77.1

Cost of feedstock transport 0.076 0.020 3.5

Total feedstock 1.748 80.6

Cost of acid 0.011 0.003 0.5

Cost of base catalyst 0.103 0.027 4.8

Cost of sodium hydroxide 0.001 Negligible 0.1

Cost of methanol 0.122 0.032 5.6

Total chemicals 0.237 11.0

Cost of heat energy 0.022 0.006 1

Cost of electricity 0.004 0.001 0.2

Total energy 0.026 1.2

Cost of labour 0.026 0.007 1.2

Total labour 0.026 1.2

Depreciation 0.066 0.017 3

Total depreciation 0.066 3

Cost of maintenance 0.028 0.007 1.3

Cost of admin and overhead 0.006 0.002 0.3

Cost of marketing 0.03 0.008 1.4

Total overhead & maintenance 0.064 3.0

Total Cost 2.167 0.57

Note: Above data for making Biodiesel from soybean oil for 30 million gallons per year plant located in the US, 2006 data. Source: Iowa State University, CIRAS


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SUMMARY

1. Depending on the equipment and infrastructure used, algae fuels could

cost upto $18 per gallon. (Oilgae estimate)

2. As of Apr 2010, there are no established or verifiable cost data for algae

based fuel production.

3. While open ponds could in theory provide algae biodiesel at less than $10

per gallon, there are challenges in scaling up open pond cultivation for

large-scale fuel production.


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Section 5 – References

CHAPTERS

20. Apex Bodies, Organizations, Universities & Experts

21. Culture Collection Centers 22. Future Trends


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20. Companies, Apex Bodies, Organizations, Universities & Experts 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Companies 20.3 Organizations 20.4 Universities & Research Institutes 20.5 Algae Energy Developments around the World

20.1 Introduction There is a tremendous amount of activity happening in the algal energy domain. A plethora of activities are taking place in research, awareness creation and commercial aspects of the industry. Given the newness and complexity of the domain, those wishing to explore this industry further have a need to network with others in the industry. This chapter provides references and lists of universities & associations associated with the algal energy industry. It also provides snapshots of the various happenings in this domain for many countries worldwide. It is hoped that the contents of this chapter will enable interested entities to take practical steps quickly.

20.2 Companies Complete List of Companies in Algae Energy Domain.

1. A2Be Carbon Capture 2. Algae Biosciences Corp. 3. Algaewheel 4. Algatechnologies, Ltd. 5. Algenol 6. AlgoDyne Ethanol Energy Corp 7. Aquaflow Bionomic 8. Aquatic Energy 9. Aurora BioFuels, Inc. 10. AXI 11. Biofuelbox 12. Bionavitas 13. Bioverda (Has a Joint Venture with the Virgin Group) 14. Blue Marble Energy 15. Blue Sun Biodiesel 16. Bodega Algae


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17. BTR Labs 18. Carbon Capture Corporation 19. Cedar Grove Investments 20. CEHMM 21. Cellana - Shell & HR Biopetroleum 22. Center of Excellence for Hazardous Materials Management 23. Cequesta Algae 24. Chevron 25. Circle Biodiesel & Ethanol Corporation 26. Cobalt Technologies 27. Community Fuels 28. Culturing Solutions, Inc 29. DFI Group 30. Earth2tech 31. Enhanced Biofuels & Technologies 32. Euglena 33. Fluid Imaging Technologies 34. General Atomics 35. General Atomics 36. Green Gold Algae and Seaweed Sciences Inc. 37. Green Star Products, Inc. 38. Greenbelt Resources Corporation 39. GreenFuel Technologies Corporation 40. Greenshift 41. Hawaiian Electric Company 42. Imperium Renewables 43. Infinifuel Biodiesel 44. International Energy 45. Inventure Chemical Technology 46. Kai Bioenergy 47. Kent Seatech 48. Kuehnle Agrosystems 49. LiveFuels 50. MBD Biodiesel 51. Neste Oil 52. Ocean Technology & Environmental Consulting 53. Oilfox Argentina 54. Organic Fuels 55. OriginOil 56. Patriot Biofuels 57. Petroalgae 58. PetroSun Biofuels 59. Phyco2 60. Primafuel


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61. Renewable Energy Group 62. Revolution Biofuels 63. Sapphire Energy 64. Seambiotic 65. Solazyme 66. Solena Group 67. Solix Biofuels 68. Synthetic Genomics 69. Texas Clean Fuels 70. Valcent 71. W2 Energy 72. XL Renewables – Sigmae

20.3 Organizations

Country Association Website/Email

USA National Algae Association The Woodlands, Texas 77381

[email protected]

American Assn. of Algae Biofuel Producers California

http://www.scipiobiofuels.com

Algal Biomass Organization Seattle, WA 98104

[email protected]

Midwest Research Institute Kansas City, Missouri

Scripps Institution of Oceanography San Diego, CA

http://scripps.ucsd.edu/

India Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute Gijubhai Badheka Marg, Bhavnagar-364002, Gujarat (INDIA)

[email protected]

Phycological Society of India, New Delhi Dr. Dinabandhu Sahoo, Department of Botany, University of Delhi,Delhi 110007. India Campus Phone: 27666792

[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.scipiobiofuels.com/


http://scripps.ucsd.edu/




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UK Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) Swindon

http://www.nerc.ac.uk

Canada The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Ottawa, ON, Canada Regional Offices located world over

NA

Japan International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM ) J. Aoyama, Ocean Research Institute University of Tokyo Japan

NA

Australia National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (EnTox) Queensland, Australia

NA

France Centre d'Etude et de Valorisation des Algues (Study centre for the valorization of algae) 22610 PLEUBIAN

NA

Italy NATO Research Centre NURC La Spezia, Italy

NA

EABA, European Algae Biomass Association Via del Ponte alle Mosse, 61, 50144 Firenze, ITALY

http://www.eaba-association.eu/

20.4 Universities & Research Institutes

Auburn University, USA Aim of the Project: Algae as a biodiesel feedstock: a feasibility assessment Year: June 2007 Collaboration 1. Collaboration between Auburn University energy crop researchers and the USDA ARS Soil Dynamics Laboratory is working to identify optimal systems for algae flocculation,

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harvest, and processing to extract constituents desirable for production of liquid fuels, electrical power, nutraceuticals, etc 2. Research collaboration between Auburn University and the Alabama Department Agriculture and Industries is examining the production of microalgae as a potential source of oil for subsequent biodiesel production. Funding US - Auburn University has been selected to receive up to $4.9 million of federal grant money for algae to biodiesel project. (Aug 2009)

Gov. Bob Riley has awarded a $10,000 grant to Auburn University to conduct a study to determine the economic and technical feasibility of cultivating pond algae commercially as a source for biofuel (2007)

Details of the project135 Researchers at Auburn University have developed techniques to harvest wild algae that form a nuisance at catfish farms, and convert it to biofuels. The University believes that catfish farms should form the base of the Southeastern-based algae fuel industry, because the feedstock was already in place, calling it a win-win for catfish farmers and algae fuel producers. Auburn researchers work with the leading producers of forest biomass for energy from algae in Alabama. Researchers are proposing the development of algae farms in which carbon dioxide is received from carbon capture and biologically converted, via photosynthesis and anaerobic digestion, to CNG or LNG transportation fuels. This approach, using open ponds in the Southeastern US, could be the most competitive with petroleum-based fuels. While the technologies for lipids extraction from micro-algae for biodiesel are currently infeasible from cost and energy standpoints, anaerobic digestion of biomass to methane is a commercial reality. There were several important innovations during the course of the program: (1) Integration of animal litter digesters to provide nutrients and energy for the algae farms, (2) Integration of carbonation pits and their pumps with a novel linear pond design (3) A low-cost harvesting system

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(4) A scheme for integration of algaculture with catfish aquaculture to improve the competitiveness of this industry within the state. The experimental phase of the feasibility assessment focused on the areas which is believed to be the most important for the success of widespread algaculture in Alabama, namely algae growth rates and the harvesting process Future plans To capture and sequester carbon dioxide emissions from stationary point sources, particularly power plants, and vehicles using algae.

Arizona State University, USA Aim of the Projects 1. Algal-Based Biofuels & Biomaterials, 2.Cyanobacterial Biodiesel: Tubes in the Desert 3. Biohydrogen from Cyanobacteria

Year: 2009 Collaboration

1. Petro Algae licensed a library of 12 strains of high oil-yield algae from Arizona State University for commercial algal feedstock production capabilities

2. Collaboration has been initiated for microalgal research with industrial partners

for technical assistance in conversion of algae oil to biofuels (UOP and Honeywell Aerospace Division), and assistance in marketing of algal feedstock (Cargill)

Funding Heliae Development, LLC, a private technology development company, will provide research funding of $1.5 million to ASU to support further development of the specific algal strains towards commercial production of jet fuel. The Heliae funding will be matched dollar for dollar by a Strategic Research Group award from SFAz, so that ASU will receive a total of $3 million for the project. (2008) ASU’s grants, totaling $10.3 million, are among 37 new DOE grants totaling $151 million to support the program (2009)


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Details of the project136

Arizona State University scientists are developing cyanobacteria and algae as sources of environmentally friendly fuel that is efficiently produced by solar energy conversion. Unlike other biofuels, ASU’s production processes can be carried out in closed systems on barren lands, saving farmland for food production.

Algal-Based Biofuels & Biomaterials An Arizona State University algae-to-fuel project is led by professors Qiang Hu and Milton Sommerfeld. Over the past two decades, the algal-based biofuel research has progressed to the screening and evaluation of naturally occurring algal strains. The integration of wastewater bioremediation and carbon sequestration with biofuel production in a novel field-scale bioreactor has been demonstrated. Although algal biomass residues derived from the oil extraction process can be used for animal feed or fertilizer, the university researchers are currently exploring, in collaboration with their industrial partners, the opportunity for using biomass residues to produce ethanol, and methane, and high-value biomaterials, such as biopolymers, carotenoids, and very long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Cyanobacterial Biodiesel: Tubes in the Desert A major ongoing ASU effort, funded in its initial pilot stages by BP and Science Foundation Arizona, generates biodiesel from lipid produced by the photosynthetic cyanobacterium Synechocystis. The genome of Synechocystis has been fully sequenced, and the microorganism provides a facile substrate for genetic modification of metabolic pathways to optimize yields of C-16 and C-18 lipids for biodiesel production. In fact, much progress has already been made at ASU in increasing the yields of these lipids through genetic engineering. Biohydrogen from Cyanobacteria Researchers have started to explore the capacity of cyanobacteria for direct biohydrogen production using solar energy. This will involve both altering the metabolism of the organism to funnel more energy into the hydrogen production pathway and the introduction of genes from other organisms that have much more robust enzymes involved in hydrogen production. The Arizona State University’s scientists have also discovered how to turn algae into jet fuel.

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Future plans 1. Refinement of the cultivation process, downstream processing of biomass, and development of an economic feasibility model for commercialization of algae-based biofuels and biomaterials. 2. Providing a green source of hydrogen for use in potential biohydrogen fuel cells. 3. A larger field test bed will be built to refine the approach and enable industrial pilot scale efforts in the 2010 timeframe.

Brunswick Community College (BCC), USA Aim of the Project: Algae to biodiesel Duration: June 2009 Collaboration Bionetwork is in collaboration with Brunswick Community College (BCC) for the algae to biodiesel project Funding

The researchers have received $300,000 from the N.C. Community College System Bionetwork.

Two intrepid biofuels researchers at Brunswick Community College have bagged two more grants totaling more than $222,000 to support their quest to derive oil from algae.

The Bionetwork awarded grants of $185,816 for the algae to biodiesel project (August 2008) Details of the project

Students in the Aquaculture and Biotechnology programs at Brunswick Community College are working on a project that will allow them to extract oil from algae and convert it into biodiesel. The university estimates that 50 percent of the collected algae will be converted into usable oil which will amount to approximately 75 pounds of oil each month. The oil will fuel tractors and utility vehicles on campus.

The College has 30-80 gallon tanks to grow algae, three machines to extract oil from the plants and the equipments to convert it into biofuel. One of the machines uses high-frequency sound to break algae cells apart. Another takes biological molecules out of


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cells. A third one separates solids from liquids. But the process is still not practical for commercial purposes as the team is only able to turn a thousandth of every liter produced into oil.

The Team has a patent pending with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office for a method to extract algal oil mechanically, which defies the norm of using chemicals in the process. BCC is growing 6,000 liters of algae, the objective being to produce enough clean fuel to operate the machines that support their aquaculture research. The new photobioreactor which is capable of growing a large amount of microalgae on campus was demonstrated and the algae grown in the tanks were processed for oil extraction and the oil was converted into biodiesel for use as fuel. Future plans: The BCC plans to develop a sound-based technical process to bring down the cost of separating the oil from other algae components.

California Polytechnic State University, USA Aim of the Project: Microalgae to biofuels production Year: December 2007 Collaboration The team is in collaboration with the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture), ARI (Agricultural research institute), BKS Energy and Energy Alternative Solutions, Inc. for the research of microalgae-to-biofuel production Funding The team received a $400,000 grant from the USDA, ARI, BKS Energy and Energy Alternative Solutions, Inc. for the continued research of microalgae-to-biofuel production in controlled environments. (2008) Details of the project137 California Polytechnic State University, USA performs research on algae as a feedstock for biofuel. A Cal Poly research effort won a Grand Challenge award for the

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development of systems or technology that will help farms and ranches produce 25 percent of the nation’s energy by the year 2025 without impacting food production. Cal Poly’s winning entry, “Sustaining Civilization Under Cover,” used photobioreactors, a system of enclosed solar tubes to mass-produce algae.

In addition to generating a renewable energy source, the photobioreactors use carbon dioxide in the production of algae. A powerful example of this conversion is the capture of flue gases from industrial venting by the algae, utilizing it for their growth. A byproduct of the algae biofuel production can even be used as a protein-rich source of animal feed. The process is a completely sustainable and enriching cycle. Cal Poly is fast becoming a leading institution for the applied research and development of controlled-environment algae-production systems. Another project was undertaken on the lipid productivity of algae grown on dairy wastewater as a possible feedstock for biodiesel in which bench-scale tests were conducted to determine potential algal lipid productivity with mixed-cultures of algae grown on anaerobically-pretreated dairy wastewater in batch mode. Future plans To develop a biological wastewater treatment system that utilizes algal growth to simultaneously create renewable energy in the form of biodiesel and digester biogas, remove polluting nutrients, and abate greenhouse gases.

Clemson University, USA138 Aim of the Projects 1. Using algae for food, fertilizer and fuel Year: June 2006 2. Ethanol production from algae: Year: May 2009 Collaboration with companies 1. A $2 million grant from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) was recently awarded to Clemson University and scientists at the Savannah River National Laboratory.

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2. Clemson University and ArborGen LLC have partnered to develop algae as feedstock for the biofuels industry. 3. Kent SeaTech and Clemson University have collaborated and evaluated novel and promising concepts for harvesting algal biomass 4. Kent BioEnergy Corporation acquired worldwide exclusive rights to Clemson University's patented technologies for harvesting and converting microalgae biomass to biolipids. Funding $1.2 million was granted from the U.S. Department of Energy for the Clemson biofuels research. (October 2008) Details of the projects139

1. Using algae for food, fertilizer and fuel Clemson University figures out ways to use algae to convert solar energy into fuel, food and fertilizer by combining engineering with biological and environmental sciences. Algae grow in the raceways and feed on the sludge. Shallow water and continuous movement maximize algae production by allowing growth at all levels of water. Tilapia, in the raceways, eats the algae to complete the waste removal process. Algae feed on the waste while tilapia feed on the algae, producing clean water, no waste discharge and a valuable secondary crop. About 3,000 miles from Clemson is another Brune project. Instead of working in ponds, the university is working in California’s Salton Sea. The researchers capture phosphorous that comes in at very low concentrations and grow micro-algae on it, concentrate it to useful levels and send it back to the farmers. Thus they can use less chemical fertilizer, which reduces the pollution load to the sea. Algae grown on sea are collected, processed and returned as fertilizer to the farmers. In the process, algae make methane gas, which is a bio-fuel.

1. Biodiesel production from algae

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Biosystems Engineering Department of Clemson University is performing research in producing biodiesel process from algal oil. The Equipment and Process: • The reactor tank is filled with algal oil • Premixed alcohol (ethanol) and catalyst (potassium hydroxide, KOH) are pumped into reactor tank and mixed thoroughly. • The heating coils use hot water from the water heater to warm the reactants and increase reaction speed • After the reaction is complete, cold water is sprinkled into the reactor tank in a fine mist – The water settles at the bottom with glycerol while removing excess alcohol, and unwanted soaps, waxes and acids, effectively “washing” the biodiesel • The glycerol/wash water is drained out of the bottom into a separate collection tank • The processed biodiesel is then filtered and pumped into a storage tank Future plans Increase biodiesel production to support: –On-campus generators –Clemson agricultural equipment Clemson scientists are searching for clean, renewable and environmentally sustainable fuels from algae. The university in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy’s Savannah River National Laboratory plans to build a biofuels pilot plant. The $14 million plant will be used to investigate commercial bioethanol production using feedstocks like algae available in South Carolina.

Cleveland State University, Fenn College of Engineering, USA Aim of the Project: Computer-Aided Design of Gravitational Settlers for Bio-fuels Production from Microalgae Year: 2009 Details of the project140 The process of removing the water and concentrating the cells, called the “dewatering” process, is both energy and equipment intensive. The purpose of this research is to optimize the design of gravity settlers for algae dewatering for large-scale biofuel production. This

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project is aimed at formulating a FEM CFD model of cell-fluid interactions in the process equipment to simulate dynamic and steady-state particle settling scenarios. The model will be validated and refined using data collected from a laboratory-scale settler prototype. The CFD model is then anticipated to be used in design optimization of pilot-scale configurations and identification of [optimum] operating conditions to maximize equipment performance. Future plans To develop methods for separation of the algae from the perfusion fluid and extraction of the oil from the algae those are low in energy use and manufacturing cost.

Colorado State University, USA Aim of the Project: Algae to biodiesel Year: June 2006 Collaboration 1. Colorado State University is heavily involved in the algae-based biodiesel research in collaboration with the EECL (Engines and Energy Conversion Laboratory) focusing on the emissions aspects of using such fuels. 2. Solix Biofuels is working with Colorado State University's Energy Conversion Laboratory on a 20m long fifth-scale PBR that will utilize CO2 emissions from New Belgium Brewing Co facility to make algae-to-oil technology work on a large scale and at an affordable price. Details of the project141 Colorado State is working with Solix Biofuels to develop technology that can cheaply produce biodiesel fuel from algae – an environmentally friendly solution to greenhouse gas emissions, high gas prices, and finite fossil fuel supplies. The photo–bioreactors, developed by Solix Biofuels, consist of transparent plastic tubes that house the algae. The design includes weighted rollers that travel slowly across the tubes, constantly circulating the algae to allow maximum photosynthesis.

141 http://www.colostate.edu/features/biofuels-from-algae.aspx

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Once the maximum levels of algae are reached, the algae cells are continuously harvested from fluid with a centrifuge and the oil is extracted and refined into biodiesel. Colorado State researchers are working on ways to extract its oil to help reduce the world’s dependence on finite fossil fuels and volatile energy markets. The beauty of the algae-to-oil project is partly due to the best places to site the reactors, which includes power plants and other industries that produce copious amounts of CO2. Algae-to-oil facilities would be an ideal solution for producing liquid transportation fuels while absorbing greenhouse gas emissions in the bargain. Future plans To set up larger reactors on land leased by New Belgium, a brewery located close to the Engines lab.

Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Australia Aim of the Project: Microalgae to biofuels Year: Jan 2008 Collaboration The university is collaborating with Aurora Biofuels Inc. of Alameda, CA. at Florida Tech’s Vero Beach Marine Laboratory for the production of biofuels and animal feed from microalgae. Funding The Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services have awarded a $415,000 grant to a Florida Tech project for the production of biofuels and animal feed from microalgae.

Aurora will also provide $507,419 toward the project. The new state grant was awarded to the university through a $25 million package of renewable energy grants funded by the Florida Legislature. (Jan 2008)

Details of the project

The Florida Tech research focuses on developing biofuel with co-products to enhance animal feed as a means to improve the economics of the fuel-production process. A key goal is to produce algae biomass with a high content of triglycerides suitable for

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conversion to biodiesel and with a high content of valuable omega-3 fatty acids and carotenoids, which can augment animal feeds.

The researchers will enrich, isolate, screen and select algal strains with high oil content; test the performance of selected strains in outdoor ponds; demonstrate mass cultivation of the most promising strains; harvest the cells to yield a concentrated biomass content; and process the biomass to recover valuable co-products.

Future plans -Working with Aurora Biofuels to develop and test algal strains for their long-term outdoor production viability. -Harvesting alga by a low-cost sedimentation process for biofuel.

James Cook University (JCU), Queensland, Australia Aim of the Project: Algae to biofuels Year: May 2008 Collaboration Melbourne-based MBD will partner with the university in its effort to prove the algae technology by developing a local algae strain and expertise in algae production and also optimizing an algae variety for oil output. Funding The Queensland, Australia, Government is providing A$166,000 (US$160,000) in funding to support the development of an algae biodiesel process by James Cook University (JCU) and Australian biodiesel company MDB Biodiesel Ltd. (May 2008) Details of the project142 Queensland's James Cook University developed a technology that allows algae to capture half or more of the greenhouse gases emitted by a power station. The micro-algae thrive on carbon dioxide, producing food for livestock as well as biofuels and material for plastics. JCU was isolating algae for the project from the Great Barrier Reef.

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The idea is to pump emissions from power stations into photo-bioreactors, which are large tubes filled with algae. When carbon dioxide from the power stations is mixed with water, the algae soak up much of it, using it as a nutrient. Once the algae are removed from the tubes, they can be buried in the seabed, where they could store indefinitely the carbon they have ingested. The algae can also be processed and used to create biodiesel fuel and fertilizer, as well as food for farm animals. Future plans MBD will provide the algae photo-bioreactor which will be situated at JCU. The partners plan to build a 35,000 tonne algae pilot farm next year followed by a 400-hectare algae farm by 2010 which can ultimately consume in excess of 2,000,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide and provide algae oil for a 250,000 tonne biodiesel plant.

Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, USA Aim of the Project: Algae to Biodiesel Year: Feb 2009 Collaboration with companies EKU is partnering with San Diego-based General Atomics for algae biodiesel and jet fuel projects. Funding According to the university, the project is being funded through a $4 million federal appropriation in the Consolidated Security, Disaster Assistance and Continuing Appropriations Act of 2009. (2009) Details of the project143 Researchers at the Center for Renewable and Alternative Fuel Technologies at Eastern Kentucky University in Richmond, Ky., are studying the potential for converting cellulosic biomass into biodiesel and ultimately jet fuel

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General Atomics is best known for its affiliated company General Atomics Aeronautical Systems Inc., the manufacturer of the U.S. military’s Predator unmanned aircraft system. The partnership links Kentucky and EKU with an international business leader that is turning its focus and considerable resources to biomass-to-fuel initiatives. EKU will look at using commercially available cellulase enzymes to convert cellulosic biomass to sugars, which will then be fed to heterotrophic algae that can convert sugars to oils without photosynthesis. These are not the phototrophic types (of algae) that use sunlight. These are membranous-type algae, and they are heterotrophic. These strains of algae have very high oil content. The oils are then extracted from the algae and to biodiesel. The researchers are choosing to produce biodiesel instead of ethanol because biodiesel is a key fuel for heavy industry. As a partner, General Atomics will provide input on the cost of converting various feedstocks to biodiesel and will design the processing system that will produce biodiesel from cellulosic biomass. Future plans

1. EKU will also examine the logistics of transporting feedstocks to regional biodiesel processing facilities

2. Uses for byproducts in fuel production will be explored.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), USA Aim of the Project: Using algae to transform greenhouse emissions into green fuel Year: May 2005 Details of the project144

Exhaust from MIT’s main power plant has been bubbling up through tubes of algae soup. Utility companies have been watching field trials of the algae-soup system with keen interest, hoping to combine low-cost exhaust cleanup with renewable-fuel production.

MIT became intrigued with using algae to clean up exhaust from power plants burning fossil fuels, especially coal. Coal is an abundant resource but an undesirable fuel because of its high CO2 emissions.

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The installation on MIT’s 20-megawatt cogeneration plant demonstrates their abilities. At the top of the plant, there are 33-meter-high triangles of clear pipe containing a mixture of algae and water. Bubbling the plant’s flue gases through the mixture has reduced CO2 emissions by 82 percent on sunny days and 50 percent on cloudy days (during daytime) and has cut nitrogen oxides by 85 percent (on a 24-hour basis).

MIT “tailor” algae to perform well at a specific power plant. They use a terrestrial cousin of a miniature bioreactor designed for the International Space Station. As algae grow inside the bioreactor, their environment is gradually shifted to conditions they will encounter at the plant. Within three months, the tailored algae are thriving on flue gases instead of air. No genetic engineering is involved.

In fall 2005, the algae system was installed at a 1000-MW power plant in the Southwest. Initial field trials at the plant were successful, and testing is now moving into a pilot phase. MIT estimates that more than 1000 power plants in the United States have enough flue gas, water, and land to host a commercial-scale installation.

The project resulted in dramatic cut in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from MIT power plant and abundant algae that can be turned into biofuel for the power plant or a diesel vehicle. Future plans MIT is planning to expand its collaboration with algae biofuel companies to process the algae on campus into biodiesel for possible use on campus in an innovative renewable fuel cycle.

Massey School of Engineering, Wellington, New Zealand

Aim of the Project: Oil from microalgae

Year: August 2008 Collaboration The Finnish oil company Neste Oil collaborates with the University for producing algal oil from marine microalgae in photobioreactors. Funding

a. The Finnish oil company Neste Oil will invest $850,000 in microalgae research b. Massey researcher has been awarded $101,595 for the project Enhancing Algae

Biofuel production from Wastewater Treatment Ponds. (Aug 2008)


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Details of the project145 Massey School of Engineering, north of Wellington will conduct microalgae research. The researchers are led by Professor Yusef Christi to produce algal oil from marine microalgae. Botryococcus braunii, one of the algae that bloom in fertiliser-polluted lakes and estuaries was studied to convert it into a substitute for diesel, gasoline and jet fuel. It was shown that to be competitive with oil at US $100 a barrel, it is necessary to produce microalgae around nine times more cheaply than is currently being achieved. Every 100 tonnes of algal biomass fixes around 183 tonnes of carbon dioxide and production of fuels from microalgae can be carbon neutral. The Massey School of Engineering has produced algal oil from marine microalgae in tubular photo bioreactors. The university has developed harvest and oil extraction processes Future plans: The university plans to find better ways to develop and recover the algal biomass from the broth and to extract the oil from moist rather than dry biomass.

Montana State University, USA Aim of the Project: Algae to fuel Year: Jan 2008 Collaboration Montana State University algae strains are produced with A2BE Carbon Capture Advanced Photobioreactor Technology. The university is in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy to study the oil produced by algae. Funding The U.S. Department of Energy awarded Montana State University and Utah State University a three-year, $900,000 grant to study algae-biodiesel production. (May 2008)

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Details of the project146 The university developed a stain for algae, called Nile Red. When treated with the stain, the algae became fluorescent under certain conditions, making it easier to measure their oil content. The Montana State University and Utah State project will screen different kinds of algae to learn which species produce the most oil and which can produce those oils most efficiently. The test algae will come from existing stocks at labs across the country and from field sampling. Once the researchers find a candidate species, they will grow large numbers of the algae in a "raceway" bioreactor at Utah State Montana State University microbiologist and project collaborator Matthew Fields will use modern molecular biology and genomics to learn how to make algae produce more oil. Future plans

1. Researching for using microorganisms to clean up environmental contamination. 2. Finding the best species of algae to use and the best practices by which to make

them produce oil for biodiesel

New Mexico State University (NMSU), USA

Aim of the Project: Algae biofuels

Year: February 2009 Collaboration

NMSU researchers are working with the Center of Excellence for Hazardous Material Management (CEHMM), based in Carlsbad. NMSU’s Agricultural Science Center at Artesia has provided CEHMM a site to run open-pond and bioreactor experiments.

Funding To support the research for the potential of algal-based fuel, an internal award of $50,000 was presented to the New Mexico State University. (Feb 2009) Details of the project147

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NMSU is coordinating the efforts in the algal biomass approach to the alternative energy equation by developing different strains to optimize the lipid and reproductive growth of algae.

One of the things NMSU does in the lab is investigating the inverse relationship between growth rate and oil content. The faster a population of algal cells is growing, generally the lower the oil content they have. When the algae become nutrient limited, the oil content begins to increase.

The algae with which the researchers are working, can divide as fast as once per day in the peak season or summer time. The researchers are looking at the triggers for accumulating higher concentrations of oil in algal cells and trying to integrate algal cultivation practices with our knowledge of this dichotomy between growth rate and oil content. They are trying to develop cultivation practices that are built on understanding of algal physiology; trying to put together a staged process where we can always harvest the algae at the highest oil content. The idea is to make the most efficient use of the land requirements, the availability of sunlight and manipulate nutrient concentrations so we are getting maximum biomass content and the maximum oil content out of the algal harvest.

The university is also trying to produce a device that will reduce the three steps needed to produce a biofuel product into a one-step process. At this time, a chemical extraction process is used to separate algal oil from the biomass. Then the solvents have to be separated from the algal oil and the oil undergoes a conversion process to make a biofuel product like biodiesel. The biofuel can be refined further to make gasoline or jet fuel.

NMSU has created racetrack reactor to grow algae. There are several factors involved in this process, for example: the intensity of the sunlight; the time it spends in the reactor; the amount of algae that is growing and the rate at which they are growing; and the amount of nutrients fed.

The university is building several economic models that take into account the many materials, manpower, time and production costs to produce biofuels that would compete with today’s fuel prices.

Among the factors that greatly affect cost are labor and algal biomass yield. According to the University, because a commercial model has never been built, it is hard to

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determine the best formula. The current models are adding up to a cost scenario of $4 to $15 a gallon for biofuel, she said.

NMSU has created a bench-size model, or what is called a “racetrack reactor,” to grow algae in an enclosed structure, stimulated by artificial lighting.

Future plans The university plans to perform research to develop estimates for a commercial scale algal-based fuel industry in New Mexico.

Oregon State University (OSU), USA Aim of the Projects:

1. Biodiesel and bioethanol from algae 2. Hydrogen from algae

Year: March 2009

Funding

The Agricultural Research Foundation awarded grants totaling more than $500,000 to Oregon State University scientists for projects including algae biofuel research.(May 2009)

The U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research also recently awarded a grant of $938,000 to OSU, the University of Oregon and Indiana University to continue research on hydrogen production using algae.

(March 2009)

Details of the projects148

1. Biodiesel and bioethanol from algae

Researchers at Oregon State University are working to find an efficient method of processing bio-diesel fuel and ethanol from algae, which could lead to breakthroughs in reducing the world's dependency on petroleum.

148 http://www.americanfuels.info/2009/03/oregon-state-researchers-using-algae-to.html

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At the OSU Sustainable Technologies Laboratory has built two small photobioreactors to grow microscopic algae in a closed system. It takes about three weeks for the algae—combined with light, water, carbon dioxide and mineral nutrients—to multiply and turn the water green.

The primary focus of the OSU lab is to discover efficient ways to extract the oils (also called lipids) and process them into bio-diesel fuel and ethanol, with fertilizer and animal feed as co-products. The biggest challenge is separating water from the micro algae Chlorella and Dunaliella, which must continually be mixed with carbon dioxide and light as they grow. A combination of straining and centrifuging is the current method of extraction employed by the university.

Of the more than 3,000 known strains of algae, OSU grows both fresh water and salt water varieties. The photobioreactors hold about six gallons of water and produce about 17 pounds of algae with each batch. Depending on the algae growth conditions usually 20 to 30 percent oil can be extracted from it, and up to 60 percent is possible. (March 2008)

2. Hydrogen from algae

Details of the project

OSU researchers successfully discovered one type of cyanobacteria, more commonly known as blue-green algae to live, grow and produce hydrogen while the cells were “encapsulated” in a solid state system- an important preliminary step to control this interaction of water, light and bacteria for practical use.

Significant progress still needs to be made in making the process more efficient and using light energy more effectively, but the advance demonstrates the feasibility of using these biological processes to produce hydrogen which could be used directly as a fuel, or in hydrogen fuel cells to power the electric automobiles of the future.

The OSU engineers accomplished part of that with the encapsulation approach that keeps the bacteria isolated from the environment, resistant to contamination, and able to live longer and to produce larger amounts of hydrogen. The glass sponge material creates a solid framework that provides structural, thermal and chemical stability to encapsulated cells.

Such solid state devices could potentially be encased in treated glass or another suitable material and engineered as biocassettes in a variety of configurations, such as sheets, thin films, or designed layers that could be versatile, portable, contained, stable, efficient and inexpensive.

Future plans


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1. To find ways to make the algae use more of the sunlight that is available to them

to “harvest” the light energy more efficiently. 2. To continue their work with variable levels and lower intensities of light for

hydrogen production.

Southern Illinois University Carbondale (SIUC), USA Aim of the Project: Algae as alternative energy source

Year: Jan 2009 Collaboration Ag-Oil International LLC, a biofuel company with its corporate office in Boca Raton, Florida has forged strategic partnership with Southern Illinois University Carbondale to become a leader in the production of green fuel from algae.

Funding Southern Illinois University has received $676,722 as a grant for expansion of bioethanol production in the Upper Mississippi River Basin. (Oct 2006)


A Southern Illinois University Carbondale researcher is exploring the potential use of algae as an alternative energy source. The university is working on ways to improve and extract naturally occurring substances in certain algae strains that can be used to create biodiesel fuel.

The university is focusing her research on two varieties that appear to have particular potential. One, Chlorella vulgaris, is a fresh-water alga that uses carbon dioxide to grow and create lipids. As an autotrophic organism, it is relatively slow growing but produces cells with high lipid content.

The second strain Schizochytrium limacinum SR21 is a seawater alga that is heterotrophic, meaning it must be "fed" a carbon source in place of carbon dioxide. This particular strain can use glycerin, which is a byproduct - often a waste product - of biodiesel production. Depending on its species and its environment, algae grow at

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different rates and can produce 30 to 70 percent lipids per cell. Another advantage is that Schizochytrium limacinum SR21 grows fast and produces up to 50 percent lipids per cell. Even though the lipid content is less than other types, the fast growth rate means this type of alga can produce more lipids than slower-growing varieties. The strain might be integrated into the production stream at some point, creating greater efficiency and less waste.

Future plans To find the cheapest carbon source to feed algae and grow lipids for use in biodiesel

Texas A&M University, USA Aim of the Project: Biofuel from microalgae Year: 2008 Collaboration San Ramon-based Chevron Corp. has formed research alliance with the University of Texas A&M to study ethanol and other biofuels.

The partnership between Texas AgriLife Research, part of the Texas A&M University System and General Atomics involves a phased research and development program, which includes evaluating new, promising algae strains, developing and testing algae production systems and designing and testing algae/oil separation systems.

Funding

Externally funded research brings in almost $620 million every year and helps drive the state's economy. (July 2007)

Texas AgriLife Research and General Atomics, a San Diego-based technology company, have received a $4 million grant from the state's Emerging Technology Fund for biofuel microalgae research. The ETF grant authorized by Gov. Rick Perry is for developing microalgae-derived biodiesel fuels to support U.S. domestic and military needs. (Feb 2008) Details of the project

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foreign energy. Developing alternative energy sources through Texas-based research is of tremendous value to a fast-growing state like Texas and to the nation as a whole.

A biofuel microalgae research facility is scheduled for construction at the Texas AgriLife Research center, part of the Texas A&M University System, in Pecos. It is expected that the facility will become a national center for algae research and development for biofuels.

Texas AgriLife Research has already identified strains of algae that have high-producing oil potential. These strains require large amounts of sunlight, salty water and carbon dioxide to thrive and produce oil - all of which is readily available in the Permian Basin of Texas. Researchers anticipate the algae systems may be tied to coal-fired power plants in the future, using carbon dioxide emissions and waste heat for algae growth.

The first phase will demonstrate algae production systems up to approximately a quarter of an acre. The second phase will include a pre-commercial scale system and the final phase would be a commercial-size operation of 50 to 100 acres.

Future plans

The university has planned to accelerate the entire research and development process and commercialize a number of technologies in biofuel microalgae production. Production systems up to 2,000 acres could be implemented in the Permian Basin of Texas and the Southwest. Economists within the A&M System predict for each 2,000-acre unit, the local economic impact would equal approximately $190 million annually.

Western Michigan University (WMU), USA Aim of the Project: Algae to ethanol, biodiesel

Year: April 2008 Collaboration 1. Partnering with Muskegon County, to harvest algae from wastewater treatment lagoons and to extract recoverable energy. 2. Partnering with the National Museum of Natural History and HydroMentia to incorporate energy recovery from algal biomass in nutrient remediation using Algal Turf Scrubbers.™ Funding The professors are awaiting a $984,000 U.S. Department of Energy grant to support the algae-biofuel research.


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A group of Western Michigan University researchers working to transform grease into biodiesel for city buses is planning to research how to effectively convert algae into ethanol.

The WMU will be looking at the use of algae as ethanol in part because of concerns that there isn't enough land for growing crops to meet the country's demands for transportation fuel.

Researchers at Western Michigan University (WMU) are working to develop two biofuel production processes that could help the city of Kalamazoo, Michigan move toward environmental sustainability. The goal of the first project, Bronco Biodiesel, is to perfect a process to convert trap grease, used vegetable oil from restaurants and other facilities, into biodiesel. The second project, which is still in its early stages, will attempt to find a viable algae strain that could be used for both waste treatment and as a feedstock for biodiesel or ethanol production.

The main goal of the project is to help enhance urban sustainability. Bronco Biodiesel is working out a way to standardize the processing so that all of their feedstocks can be processed at once. This is the biggest challenge to scaling up to the 500,000 – 1 million gallon production level the team is hoping to reach in the near future.

The university is hoping that this project will aid the city of Kalamazoo by relieving the strain that trap and other waste greases put on the waste management system and by using the finished product to fuel its bus fleet.

Algae are also on the radar at WMU. The group is currently looking for grant funding to explore using algae as both a feedstock for fuel and, in keeping with the idea of sustainability, in water treatment applications.

The project is in its early stages and the researchers are open to all possibilities regarding the strain of algae they're looking for and what type of biofuel would come out of the process, though Bertman admits that ethanol would be a better option since the commercial infrastructure for it already exists. The plan is to cultivate the algae by using it at water treatment facilities where it would feed on the nutrient rich waste water, removing content that would need to be removed by other means anyway. From there, some of the algae would be removed and either drained of oils for ethanol production or used as organic feedstock for biodiesel production.

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This project is also a waste management project. WMU is getting algae from wastewater treatment systems (phosphorous and nitrogen) — including systems designed to remove excess nutrients from natural rivers.

Bioalcohols from wastewater algae Algae blooms generated by nutrient run-off and overloading have dramatically altered coastal ecosystems and inland waterways across North America. Through partnerships with government and private industry clean-up initiatives, WMU is developing processes for converting the hundreds of millions of tons of weedy algae biomass that grows in the United States each year into distilled fuels that can replace petroleum products in gasoline powered engines. This undertaking seeks to link the vital importance of aquatic clean-up to alternative energy development. Future plans

Reclaim energy from biomass liquid waste streams Offer a business model for “town-gown” cooperation (to show how cities and

universities can collaborate with private business to combine environmental clean-up with energy conversion)

Educate the public about biofuels, waste recovery, and urban energy infrastructure.

University of Adelaide, Australia Aim of the Project: Fuel from algae

Year: March 2009 Collaboration The University of Adelaide's School of Chemical Engineering, India's Parry Nutraceuticals and Murdoch University in Perth are collaborating to work on biofuel production from salt water algae. Funding The Adelaide research led by Dr David Lewis and Dr Peter Ashman is part of an innovative $1.89 million project funded by the Federal Government Details of the project151

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The University works to develop a clean, "green" fuel that could help solve the global energy crisis. Researchers from the School of Chemical Engineering are focusing their attention on using green algae as a potential source of biofuel.

Headed by Murdoch University in Western Australia, the project involves research partners in India and China. The project hopes to identify a clean, affordable method of producing biodiesel from algae on an industrial scale, which is currently cost prohibitive.

In Adelaide, researchers have begun cultivating algae on a small scale in two-metre square tanks specially built by Chemical Engineering technical staff. Based on the roof of one of the University's many North Terrace Campus buildings, the tanks are exposed to the sun and the elements, simulating the real conditions of a much larger scale operation.

In order to produce biofuel on an industrial scale, millions of cubic metres of algae would need to be cultivated in marine ponds covering about 50-100 square kilometres. These small-scale tanks in Adelaide are just the very beginning. The project was started with only 5ml of algae, and now each pond contains about 400 litres of algae. The university is extracting between 50-100 litres of microalgae culture per day for the experiments.

Another key aspect of this project is that it looks at so-called `second generation' biofuels, which do not compete for resources with food crops. Algae will grow on non-arable, arid - land without any need for fresh water in cultivation. Canola needs lot of fresh water and good-quality farming land.

The algae cultivated and harvested in Adelaide enables the researchers to test various methods of extracting oil. This involves breaking the algae cells open to release the natural oil they contain. The algal oil can then be converted into biodiesel.

In addition to that work, the team is also conducting an economic and lifecycle assessment to find the use of algae byproduct.

Future plans

The company proposes to apply the techniques they have learnt from these small-scale ponds to a larger, pilot-scale saline pond, which will be about 250 square metres.

To determine the best methods possible for harvesting the algae and extracting the oil from algae that could potentially be applied to an industrial setting.


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University of Arizona (UA), USA Aim of the Project: Biodiesel and jet fuel from algae Year: November 2008 Collaboration University of Arizona team works on USDA-DOE project with Petrosun, Purdue University School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Renascent Energy, Carbon2Algae, Innovative Trade Development Center, USDA Laboratory (Peoria, IL) and Pukyong University (South Korea) for production of advanced biofuels from algae Funding As a project participant in a number of USDA-DOE and DOE projects, the university has filed applications for federal funding. (March 2009) Details of the project152

UA researcher Joel Cuello's main research interest is using algae to produce oil – biodiesel as well as jet fuel.

The UA agricultural and biosystems engineering department believes that the desert is very well suited for growing algae. The desert's abundant wastelands or marginally arable lands can be fertile fields to grow algae. This means that unproductive lands can be put into production. Algae provide a bigger payoff than higher crops. Also of special interest to Arizona is that some algae can thrive on non-potable saline and brackish waters.

A pilot scale Arid Raceway Integrated Design was designed in collaboration with Petrosun.

Future plans To set up production plants and operate in Arizona to convert algae into biofuels

University of Arkansas, USA

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Aim of the Project: Algae to biodiesel and butanol Year: August 2008 Collaboration Smithsonian Institution and the University of Maryland ship the algae to partners at the University of Arkansas, who distill the plant sugars into butanol, a form of fuel that can be burned by cars and power plants. Funding The project is sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution’s Museum of Natural History and National Science Foundation Research Experience (2008) Details of the project153 Students at the University of Arkansas are designing a sustainable future using algae from local streams. A potential feedstock is algae oil, which could provide extremely high oil yields per acre of land. Division scientists have initiated an algae production system research and demonstration project in Crittenden County. The researchers draw water from the Mississippi River, grows algae from the nitrogen and phosphorus in the water and returns cleaned water to the river. Algae samples are being converted to biodiesel and butanol, which is similar to ethanol.

The University designed and built a 300-foot-long, 1-foot-wide artificial stream designed to grow algae for use as a biofuel. This project is an experiment to determine if such algal production systems can produce high yields year-round in Arkansas.

They worked with the city of Springdale to build the system near the wastewater treatment plant. They are taking water from a source that has adequate nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen and using that water to grow a community of wild algae for cellulosic and biodiesel conversion. Promoting the right algal community growth requires a “surger” – a wave machine that pulses water down the artificial stream and provides ideal habitat for the high biomass algae to grow.

Growing the algae is just part of the equation; the three other projects round out the research experience for other undergraduate student teams whose objective is to explore the factors that control how stream ecosystems function – nutrients, flow, algae

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and macro invertebrates and to understand how algal growth is affected by these variables is the key to making algae a viable biofuel.

Once the Smithsonian Institute system is completed in growing algae, the university will be working on ways to create fuel from the plant material.

Future plans To develop more effective methods to use algal feedstocks to make biofuels, especially butanol

University of California at Berkeley, USA Aim of the Project: Hydrogen from algae

Year: February 2006

Collaboration Primafuel, a privately held international team works with leading technologists and infrastructure experts from U.C. Berkeley. The collaboration is focused on developing algae bio-refinery technologies for renewable fuels. Funding The project has been funded recently through Lawrence Berkeley National Lab’s Helios Project. (2006) Details of the project154

Researchers at the University of California at Berkeley have engineered a strain of pond scum that could, with further refinements, produce vast amounts of hydrogen through photosynthesis.

The strain of algae, known as C. reinhardtii, has truncated chlorophyll antennae within the chloroplasts of the cells, which serves to increase the organism's energy efficiency. The University has already reached 10 percent threshold. But further refinements are still required before C. reinhardtii farms would be efficient enough to produce the world’s hydrogen, which is the university’s eventual goal.

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Currently, the algae cells cycle between photosynthesis and hydrogen production because the hydrogenase enzyme which makes the hydrogen can’t function in the presence of oxygen. Researchers hope to further boost hydrogen production by using genetic engineering to close up pores that oxygen seeps through.

The algal cells flicked a long-dormant genetic switch to produce hydrogen instead of carbon dioxide. But the quantities of hydrogen they produced were nowhere near enough to scale up the process commercially and profitably.

When the sulfur switch was discovered, hydrogen production was increased by a factor of 100,000. But to make it a commercial technology, the efficiency of the process had to be increased by another factor of 100

A bigger challenge is improving the efficiency of the hydrogenase itself. Seibert also points out that there is plenty of naturally occurring hydrogenase in microbes, most of which haven’t been studied and some of which might be much more efficient than the one used by C. reinhardtii.

For all further applications, the antenna-truncated algae should be a major breakthrough, allowing higher rates of production and thus making the end product more cheaply.

University of California works on harvesting hydrogen from green algae. UC Berkeley and Lawrence Berkeley National Lab’s Environmental Energy Technologies Division, is conducting fundamental research on processes that may someday facilitate the production of hydrogen or hydrocarbons from microscopic algae, or microalgae.

An important aspect of this research is that it occurs in a controlled environment. If released in the wild, these compromised cells couldn’t survive the competition with wild type cells. But in photo-bioreactors, the culture performs better.

The university’s research benefits both hydrogen and hydrocarbon generation, but it also have applications beyond transportation fuels, and demonstrate an overall advancement for commercial exploitation of microalgae in non-fuel industries.

The University owns the intellectual property generated from the research, named the Oleomics TM Project. The name references the scientific discipline that seeks to identify and exploit genes and biosynthetic pathways for generating hydrocarbon biofuels from unicellular green algae.

Despite the commercial interest in his research, the university was quick to note the challenges of scaling up from the lab to large bodies of water to cultivate microalgae for fuels. The university acknowledges both engineering and practical barriers to an approach that would require thousands of acres of ocean surface. According to the


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University, the current cost of generating hydrogen from microalgae is equivalent to generating gasoline at a cost of $15 per gallon.

Future plans To genetically tinker with green microalgae to improve their ability to produce hydrogen, a potential fuel source

University of California at Davis, USA

Aim of the Project: Fuel from Botryococcus braunii

Year: Sep 2008 Collaboration

Slayer has a $25 million research agreement with UC Davis to develop non-food biofuels

San Ramon-based Chevron Corp. has formed research alliances with the University of California, Davis, Texas A&M and other institutions to study ethanol and other biofuels.

Funding

Chevron Corp. will fund up to $25 million in research at UC Davis in the next five years to develop affordable, renewable transportation fuels from farm and forest residues, urban wastes and crops grown specifically for energy. (Jan 2009)

$800,000 was granted by the California Energy Commission to the California Biomass Collaborative at UC Davis. (September 2009)

$135 million from the Department of Energy to the Joint Beanery Institute, a collaboration of LBNL, Sandier National Laboratories, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, UC Berkeley, UC Davis and the Carnegie Institution for Science, based in the Bay Area. (Oct 2009)


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Scientists at the University of California, Davis are researching profitable ways to convert algae into biofuel.

UC Davis uses the microalgae, Botryococcus braunii, a green colonial microalgae found worldwide in freshwater and brackish lakes, reservoirs and ponds. This algae gained a great interest in scientific and commercial world because if its ability to synthesize and accumulate huge amount of various lipids, which can be converted in to the Biodiesel, Jet-fuel, Gasoline and other important chemicals. These algae produce various types of hydrocarbons out of which botryococcenes are the most important as it produced highest quantity and have many properties similar to the various contents of crude oil. So, intensive research are being undergone to maximize the hydrocarbon contents in these algae by altering the genetic and environmental conditions, also to isolate the strain which can produce maximum amount of hydrocarbons.

Future plans

The university plans to allow the resulting sugars from Botryococcus braunii to be fermented into fuel in its own right, increasing efficiency.

University of California at San Diego, USA Aim of the Project: Biofuels from algae Year: April 2009 Collaboration

Scientists from UC San Diego joined San Diego Mayor Jerry Sanders, The Scripps Institute of Oceanography, The Scripps Research Institute, the Salk Institute, San Diego State University and the local biotechnology industry in a broad-scale research effort to develop advanced transportation fuels from algae.

Funding

According to the SANDAG analysis, every $100 million of venture capital funding is applied towards the university research spending on algal biofuels. (May 2009)

The project to develop fuel from algae is expected to get $750,000 in federal funds. It is part of a funding bill for energy and water projects. (Oct 2009)


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The scientists of UC San Diego established the San Diego Center for Algae Biotechnology, or “SD-CAB.” The primary goal of the center is to create a national facility capable of developing and implementing innovative research solutions for the commercialization of fuel production from algae.

In the Imperial Valley, where SD-CAB scientists will grow large quantities of algae and which has one of the highest rates of unemployment in the nation, the algal biofuels effort is expected to generate additional jobs and economic activity.

SD-CAB scientists are not only examining fresh-water species of algae, but those from the sea, an effort being carried out by researchers at UC San Diego’s Scripps Institution of Oceanography.

Scripps Institution of Oceanography and UC San Diego have demonstrated leadership in identifying solutions for the planet's environmental challenges. Scripps Oceanography's research knowledge and expertise in the marine environment is providing a platform for developing algae as a renewable biofuel and economic driver for the future.

By involving students in research activities at local research institutions, such as UC San Diego, SD-CAB researchers say they also intend to train a new generation of scientists for careers in entirely new occupations such as biofuels development that are likely to flourish in future years.

Future plans To make sustainable algae-based fuel production and carbon dioxide abatement a reality within the next five to ten years

University of Georgia, USA Aim of the Project: Algae in wastewater converted to biodiesel Year: November 2007 Collaboration The university is in collaboration with Dalton Utilities to build a pilot project to use its land application system along the Conasauga River for growing algae to make biodiesel.

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Funding The College of Pharmacy’s capital campaign has raised $7 million of the $10 million it committed to build new facilities that will “bridge UGA and Medical College of Georgia,” for algae biofuel research while the state has promised to fund $36.5 million of the project. (2009) Details of the project157

Wastewater generated by carpet production could potentially be used to grow algae for biofuel. Instead of applying this treated wastewater to designated areas, it could be used to cultivate algae in open ponds. With the amount of wastewater, a million gallons of biodiesel made from algae could be produced annually, enough to run the Dalton’s entire fleet of government vehicles for a year.

The University is growing algae in large plastic tubes and oversized plastic bags. It has got samples of different algae in closed beakers in a growth chamber. Later, they’ll place promising species in plastic ponds to see how well they grow in uncontrolled environments.

The UGA researches are working to find cost-effective ways to harvest algae and express oil from it. The oil is then turned into biodiesel, the protein is added to livestock feed and the remaining carbohydrates are used in ethanol and methane production.

Despite its upsides, algae are difficult to produce. The ideal growing location, in open ponds, is hard to regulate. It is also hard to harvest the algae. It is now harvested mainly for its protein, which can bring manufacturers $6 an ounce.

One big downside now is that it costs about $5 to make a gallon of fuel from algae. The university researchers hope their work will lower the cost to $1.50 a gallon, which would lower the cost of biodiesel and diesel blends and still give producers a profit.

Future plans To place promising algae species in plastic ponds to obtain biodiesel and to see how well they grow in uncontrolled environments.

University of Florence, Italy

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Aim of the Project: Biodiesel from algae Year: May 2009 Collaboration

Wageningen University & Research Centre and University of Florence, in collaboration, shared the latest R&D in Algal production and yields enhancement, providing a sneak preview into the future of the industry.

US algae-based biofuel company Aurora Biofuels, Inc. is working in collaboration with the University of Florence.

Details of the project158 The University of Florence and the European Biodiesel Board, together with number of major stakeholders in the EU algae sector, have announced the launching of the association. The EABA (European Algae Biomass Association) was founded to foster synergies among science and industry, while cooperating with decision makers for the promotion of development in research and technology in the field of algae. The objective of the newly founded EABA, which aims to support the efforts of the various actors in the algae sector, is to address technical, legal and scientific issues to bring down the final price of algae biomass to an economic level and to produce a fully reliable quality product. The development of research toward an algae industry deserves today to be supported as a priority in light of the major challenges Europe is facing to reduce greenhouse gases, improve energy supply security and promote technological excellence. Future plans The university plans to promote mutual interchange and cooperation in the field of algae biomass, production and use, including biofuels use and all other utilisations.

University of Nevada, USA Aim of the Project: Algae-to-biofuels Year: January 2009 Collaboration

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The university is collaboratively working with their industry partners Enegis, LLC and Bebout Associates on algae-to-biofuels project. Funding

The project received grant funding from the U.S. Department of Transportation SunGrant Initiative. (Jan 2009)

The University Office of Research announced funding of $73 million for research in fiscal year 2008-09 which includes growing algae for fuel.

Details of the project 159 University researchers have harvested their first outdoor cold-weather crop of algae as part of their algae-to-biofuels project. The project is on track to show that the process is an economical, commercially viable renewable energy source in Nevada.

The project, using one of two 5,000-gallon ponds at the University's greenhouse complex on Valley Road in Reno, produced several hundred gallons of concentrated algal slurry. The research has demonstrated that, with the proper technology and species of algae, it is possible to grow algae outdoors year-round in Nevada. The pond was inoculated with a "starter" culture and then the algal cells grow out until they reach a plateau or stationary phase, which takes two to three weeks. The algae thrived in the outdoor pond despite nighttime temperatures that fell into the low 20s.

A conservative estimate for this harvest is 30% lipids and 5% starches on a dry weight basis, less on a fresh weight basis.

The goal is to develop a hardy variety of salt-loving algae as alternative biofuel feedstock, which produces more than half its weight in oil - as well as developing a practical process to grow, concentrate and harvest the algae. The alga variety harvested was selected and cultured by the University, and future varieties will be developed by the University.

Nevada researchers and energy producers are uniquely enabled to leverage the geothermal, high solar radiation, ample land area, and salt basins to produce algae in a scalable and economically viable manner. Use of the uncovered ponds demonstrates that algae can be grown in commercial quantities year-round, even in a temperate climate. This will preclude the need for capital-intensive bioreactors or covered ponds.

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The ponds were constructed with the help of industry partners Enegis, LLC and Bebout and Associates.

They believe that the methodologies and technologies being developed will result in high-quality biofuel that can compete in price per gallon with both current domestic biofuel production and imported fuels. There is a possibility for long-term financial benefits for the University from the development of the growing process and special algae strains.

This harvest represents the culmination of more than four years of research into developing hard varieties of algae which produce large amounts of oil or starch as well as developing a practical process to grow, concentrate and harvest the algae.

The first real-world, demonstration-scale project in Nevada for turning algae into biofuel has successfully completed the initial stage of research at the University of Nevada, Reno. Future plans The university researchers plan to begin growing another crop of algae to be ready for harvest during 2010.

University of New Hampshire, USA Aim of the Project: Algae biodiesel Year: March 2008 Collaboration Local biofuel distribution company, Simply Green is collaborating with UNH on finding more sustainable feedstock solutions, particularly algae grown with waste resources. Funding The university received a $135,276 grant from the Connecticut Center for Advanced Technology (CCAT). The grant is awarded through the Connecticut Fuel Diversification Grant Program funded by the state's Department of Economic & Community Development. (January 2009)


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Details of the project160 Realizing the importance of Biodiesel feedstock, University of New Hampshire (UNU) is conducting pioneering research on the production of biodiesel from algae. Algae could also be used to scrub power plant emissions. The university emphasizes that a coal plant could bubble its carbon dioxide rich emissions through water, growing algae for biodiesel while cleaning its emissions.

The first step in growing algae in the lab is placing them in beakers, where they are given light, air and nutrients. When they are mature enough, they are moved to a larger photo bioreactor, which bubbles air through a nutrient rich solution. As the algae grow, they produce the oil needed for biodiesel. The oil is extracted by breaking the algae cells using a machine called a cell disruptor.

The University researchers are trying to find the conditions that will yield maximum oil production. So far, they have tried two different types of algae and are testing different kinds of water, such as freshwater, saltwater and pond water. They are now bubbling air through the photo bioreactor, but they hope to get a carbon dioxide drip to bubble through. Producing biodiesel in the United States would cut down on imports and create jobs within the country, and using it would help clean up the air.

The University of New Haven (UNH) is to expand its biodiesel research, examining the viability of algae from Long Island Sound as a fuel resource, following a $135,276 grant from the Connecticut Center for Advanced Technology (CCAT). Following the algae collections they will identify and analyze the species collected followed by enlisting the aid of a supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) system for an environmentally friendly extraction of lipids, and test the collected algae's fat content. Future plans To identify species of algae from Long Island Sound that could be harvested or cultivated to produce biodiesel.

University of Texas at Austin, USA Aim of the Project: Algae jet fuel

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Year: May 2009 Collaboration

Sunrise Ridge Algae Inc. has worked with The University of Texas at Austin which owns and operates a pilot production facility at the Austin Water Utility's Hornsby Bend plant in Austin to produce biofuels from wastewater.

Funding DARPA awarded $25 million to University of Texas project to transform algal oil to jet fuel (2009) Details of the project161

Biologists and engineers at The University of Texas at Austin have been selected to be a part of a $25 million project that would transform algal oil to jet fuel.

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is sponsoring the project to develop jet fuel, known as JP-8, for military use from biological sources. Science Applications International Corp. (SAIC) in Marietta, Ga., is overseeing the project. Al Mondelli of SAIC is the program manager of the project. The project team involves many other entities, each chosen for a specific area of expertise that will contribute to the success of the project.

Researchers are developing solutions to economically scale up the algal culturing techniques and to harvest algae economically and efficiently and to make the transition from lab to land once the suitable strains, techniques and permits are available.

At The University of Texas at Austin, the scope of the project includes identifying the best strains of algae for producing oil from sites in Texas and from the university's algal culture collection, harvesting the algal strains, breaking the algal cells to extract oil, purifying the algal oil for jet fuel production and exploring uses and markets for waste by-products from the process.

The members of the Texas team have conducted groundbreaking algae research in applied areas of science and engineering for years. The university is home to one of the

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world's largest collections of algae, UTEX, the Culture Collection of Algae. It has more than 3,000 strains and supplies them to scientists around the world.

Researchers at the university have already developed an electromechanical process for extracting oil from an alga cell that is rapid, energy-efficient, free of solvents and less expensive than competing methods. The technique employs electric fields to break open the cell.

Another group of researchers at the university is focused on the science of separations research and is identifying techniques to separate the oil from the algae biomass once it has been released.

The DARPA project is expected to spark commercial development of jet fuel for military and commercial applications and possibly diesel fuel for land transportation. One of the project's goals is to produce algal oil-based jet fuel on a large scale at a cost to the user of $3 a gallon. The current cost of a gallon of diesel fuel made from algae ranges from $10-$20 a gallon.

This DARPA award provides a major opportunity for Texas and the nation to develop the technologies needed to build a commercially viable algal biofuel industry

The university's strong scientific foundation in the biological and engineering aspects of this project will ensure success in the quest to create methods for the large-scale production of algal oil to make jet fuel in collaboration with industry.

Future plans Plans to develop large-scale production of algal oil to make jet fuel

University of Virginia, USA Aim of the Project: Algae biofuel Year: August 2008 Collaboration The university works with McIntire School of Commerce on algae biofuel project. Funding The university recieved Sustainable Energy Seed Grant worth about $30,000 (2008)


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Details of the project162 Researchers at the University of Virginia have commenced three projects to improve yields from algae-to-fuel production. The first project will test for optimal levels of solid waste and carbon dioxide fed to the algae, with a target of improving yields by 40 percent. A second project will compare the economic and environmental benefits of algae biodiesel to soy. A third project will optimize oil extraction by testing different algae processing techniques, including grinding up of solid waste before feeding it to algae. The team will try to determine exactly how promising algae biofuel production can be by tweaking the inputs of carbon dioxide and organic matter to increase algae oil yields. The University of Virginia team hypothesizes that feeding the algae with more carbon dioxide and organic material could boost the oil yield to as much as 40 percent by weight. Proving that the algae can thrive with increased inputs of either carbon dioxide or untreated sewage solids will confirm its industrial ecology possibilities — to help with wastewater treatment, where dealing with solids is one of the most expensive challenges, or to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide, such as coal power-plant flue gas, which contains about 10 to 30 times as much carbon dioxide as normal air. The university will examine the economic benefits of algae fuel if the nation instituted a carbon cap-and-trade system, which would increase the monetary value of algae's ability to dispose of carbon dioxide. It will also consider how algae fuel economics would be impacted if there were increased nitrogen regulations (since algae can also remove nitrogen from air or water), or if oil prices rise to a prohibitive level. The team will experiment on a very small scale — a few liters of algae at a time. They will seek to optimize the oil output by using a pragmatic engineering approach, testing basic issues like whether it makes a difference to grind up the organic material before feeding it to the algae. Wastewater solids and algae, either dead or alive, are on the menu. Some of these pragmatic issues may have been tackled already by the various private companies, including oil industry giants Chevron and Shell, which are already researching algae fuel, but a published scientific report on these fundamentals will be a major benefit to other researchers looking into algae Biofuel.

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Research successes would also open the door to larger grants from agencies like the U.S. Department of Energy, and could be immediately applicable to the handful of pilot-scale algae biofuel facilities recently funded by Shell and start-up firms. Several thousand miles to the east, University of Virginia researchers have announced development of commercial production models for growing algae more efficiently. They believe the proper balance of CO2 and organic material can boost oil production by as much as 40 percent. Future plans University of Virginia has announced plans to develop a commercial model to grow algae more efficiently.

University of Washington (UW), USA Aim of the Project: Algae to transportation fuels Year: August 2008 Collaboration Allied Minds, a seed investment corporation specializing in early stage university business ventures, has partnered with the University of Washington to establish AXI, LLC to commercialize novel technology to develop and create commercially advantageous strains of algae for the production of biofuels. Funding The university received a Technology Gap Innovation Fund award from UW TechTransfer to support further research (2008) Details of the project163 University of Washington is growing dozens of different kinds of algae at the lab to find the right ones for turning into different kinds of fuels that can power cars, trucks, airplanes and boats. University of Washington is developing algal strains that will bridge the gap between the promise of clean energy generation and the reality of economical biofuel production

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systems. Of the many feedstocks that can be used for biodiesel, algae are emerging as the clear winner because significant biomass can be produced on non-arable lands (thus avoiding the food vs. fuel debate) and CO2 (a greenhouse gas) supports their growth. The proprietary methodology for developing specific growth and productivity traits will help any algal production system improve its output of inexpensive, oil-rich algae as the raw material for the generation of biofuel. This technology will permit the economic use of clean algae as a viable replacement to petroleum-based fuels. The technology is superior that will now be in a better position to hit the ground running as the alternative energy market continues to mature. UW startup was formed to commercialize her proprietary method for optimizing algae for the high-level production of specific types of oils (lipids). Future plans To provide the optimal strains and work with production companies to make bio-friendly fuel from algae for automobiles, jets, home heating, and many other uses.

Utah State University, USA Aim of the Project: Algae to biofuel Year: July 2008 Collaboration Oak Ridge is in Cooperative research with Utah State University on discrete challenges in the production process (e.g., photosynthetic saturation, minimizing surface shading, “hydrophobic” materials to prevent biofouling in photobioreactors, and scalable photobioreactor design) The university will team with Montana State University to grow species of algae that thrive in geothermal vents and the Great Salt Lake in a test of their oil content. A collaborative project between the Utah city and the Utah State University Research Foundation will use the ponds to grow algae, which might not only fix the phosphate problem for little money but produce energy Funding

Utah State University will share a $900,000 government research grant for biofuel production.


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(September 2008) USU was among several institutions to receive grant money of $19.9 million from

the U.S. Department of Defense to research ways to convert algae into biofuels for military jets. (2008)

Utah State University has received a $500,000 state grant to experiment with turning algae into methane that could ultimately fuel city vehicles. The state grant is given to begin converting the 460-acre lagoon complex into an algae farm as a small-scale pilot project (September 2009)

The university received USTAR funds from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. (2009)


Professors at Utah State University are researching to use "pond scum" for a very useful purpose. They are developing commercial scale systems to grow algae to produce biofuel. Biofuel can be used to replace transportation fuels that are refined from petroleum products, decreasing our reliance on foreign oil and minimizing CO2 emissions that cause global warming.

USU researchers are carefully screening different algae strains to find the perfect algae for making biofuels. The USU team is also working to design "bioreactors" to better distribute sunlight to grow algae faster and in more concentrated environments. In short, the team hopes to find a way to use the right algae in the right bioreactor for the optimal production of biofuels.

Since algae needs CO2 to grow, the USU team is applying innovative strategies to build bioreactors that allow CO2 from power plants or other sources to be captured or "sequestered" in the algae. In this way, algae can further slow global warming - first by replacing fossil fuels and second by trapping CO2 produced when fossil fuels are burned.

The university invented a novel method of collecting and distributing sunlight through optical fibers to light the inside of buildings.

The university is trying to fast track algae as fuel and has shown that algae will produce 15 times more oil per acre than other plants already in the new fuels mix such as corn and switchgrass.

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The University is currently studying 3,000 different algae species. It has 40,000 species to choose from. The military spent nearly $12 billion last year on research and development with hundreds of companies studying algae fuels. Scientists are in a race to be the first to produce the most oil and do it for less than $3 per gallon. This research is part of the Utah Science, Technology and Research Initiative (USTAR) ongoing effort to develop an environmentally friendly, non-food source of secure, clean and sustainable alternative fuel. Future plans

To develop a pilot project for growing and harvesting algae from wastewater lagoons west of Logan.

To maximize the biomass production of oil-rich algae for use in alternative fuels.

Universities – Others

Japan as an oil-exporting nation? Not in this universe -- unless the oil is derived from algae. Then it might just happen one day. - The idea of using algae as an energy resource dates back years. The Japanese government included studies on algae in its Sunshine Project after the first oil crisis in 1973. And the government-affiliated Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth (RITE) tried its hand at research in the 1990s, but halted the project because it never reached economic viability. But now researchers are at it again, and the slogan this time is for Japan to become an oil exporter by 2025 - May 2008 165

Washington State University biological engineering is working on algal fuels – Oct 2008

Research Institutes 1. Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA), USA

Aim of the Project: Marine algae for conversion into biofuel

Year: 2008 Collaboration with companies

1. CELLANA, LLC collaborates with NELHA to provide the underlying scientific research that will enable commercial production of biofuels from algae.

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2. Cyanotech Corporation with NELHA produces high-value microalgae-based products including nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, astaxanthin based NatuRose for the world aquaculture animal feed industry

3. NREL is also running a separate project in partnership with Royal Dutch Shell to grow and test six acres of algae for use as transportation fuel.


Construction of the facility is on a parcel of land leased from the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA), which is located on the west shore of the island of Hawaii. The NELHA site is ideal for the project because it pipes in a constant supply of clean, fresh ocean water. The site is near existing commercial algae enterprises, primarily serving the pharmaceutical and nutrition industries. NELHA was originally built to support a DOE project for ocean thermal energy conversion, and it continues to employ the project's seawater supply pipes to support a variety of research projects and commercial enterprises, including facilities that currently grow and harvest algae for pharmaceuticals and nutritional supplements. Shell and HR Biopetroleum have formed a joint venture company, called Cellana, to develop the biofuels project. The NELHA has developed Acres of algae farms ready to be converted to biofuel

HR Biopetroleum leveraged a state contract for algae research to also get federal dollars to find microalgae strains that could be used for making fuel to run military aircraft. The total state and federal contract was for $645,000.

The 4-year-old company uses its facilities at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority on the Big Island to grow algae strains for the research projects.

Future plans NREL plans to develop an algae to biofuel project to produce millions of gallons which is expected to be completed by Jan 2012

2. CSIRO, Australia Aim of the Project: Algae to biodiesel Year: 2009 Collaboration

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The Commonwealth Scientific Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) has collaboration with AFC (Algal Fuels Consortium) that comprises Sancon Recycling Pty Ltd (a wholly owned subsidiary of Sancon Resources Recovery Inc.); Government of South Australia; South Australian Research & Development Institute (SARDI); Flinders University; and Flinders Partners form the Algal fuels Consortium which has a pilot plant on Torrens Island. Funding The Algal Fuel Consortium (AFC) with CSIRO as one of the members won an A$2.724-million (US$2.259 million) research grant under the Department of Resources Energy and Tourism’s Second Generation Biofuels program in Australia. The grant will support the development of microalgal mass cultivation systems to generate biomass from captured CO2 emissions. This will then be used as a feedstock to a pilot-scale second generation biorefinery for sustainable production of biodiesel and value-added products. (August 2009) Details of the project167 The production of biodiesel from algae could reduce greenhouse gas emissions and also help to address future fuel shortages and create jobs in rural Australia. This project examines the greenhouse gas, costs and energy balance on a life-cycle basis for algae grown in salt-water ponds to produce biodiesel and electricity. Under few conditions and the data assumed, it is shown that it is possible to produce algal biodiesel at less cost and with a substantial greenhouse gas and energy balance advantage over fossil diesel. However, when scaled up to large commercial production levels, the costs may exceed those for fossil diesel. The economic viability is highly dependent upon algae with high oil yields capable of high production year-round, which has yet to be demonstrated on a commercial scale. Research has shown that greenhouse gas emission and energy balance figures are very favourable for algal biodiesel. Under ideal conditions it is possible to produce algal biodiesel at a lower cost and with less greenhouse gas emissions than fossil diesel. Future plans Further research is planned to create a viable algal biodiesel industry with widespread uptake and impact

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3. The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), part of Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, Israel Aim of the Project: Production of microalgae in open ponds Year: May 2006 Collaboration with companies The NIO partners with Weitzman Institute of Science (WIS), Israel for the establishment of the commercial Dunaliella production plant Details of the project168 The project deals with a few basic practical design requirements for open ponds to produce freshwater and marine microalgae at maximum. It also includes significant progress in algal biomass production since the first large scale engineering design and trial of open raceways in the Dunaliella project 1983. The original layout system design passed significant technological changes over the last 25 years which make it attractive today for feasible algal bio-energy production. The arrangement includes diversion of cooling water from the power station to flow through the ponds before returning to the sea. Flue gas from the station’s chimney supplies CO2 to feed the algae. And energy for pumping and harvesting is available at minimal cost. The commercial Dunaliella production plant in Eilat, known today as Nature Beta Technologies Ltd., (NBT) Israel, a subsidiary of Nikken Sohonsha Co., Japan was established. Ben-Amotz is convinced that the maximum practical yield is 25 grams

algae/m2

/day, of which 40% might be oil. That equates to 4,300 gallons per acre per year, meaning that, to replace current jet fuel consumption, it would take 70 thousand square kilometres, or two times Belgium Future plans To focus on the major technological requirements to reach the target of 3 to 5 percent photosynthetic efficiency in open ponds as equivalent to yearly average productivity of

25-42 grams algae/m2

/day (222 - 374 pounds algae/acre/day).

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4. Iowa Power Fund, the Iowa Office of Energy Independence, USA Aim of the project: Algae to ethanol Year: May 2008 Funding The 18-member Iowa Power Fund Board approved the $2,085,000 grant to Green Plains Renewable Energy Inc., to assist in the commercialization of algae production technology. (April 2009) Collaboration with companies In addition to BioProcess Algae LLC and Green Plains Renewable Energy Inc., the other companies in the joint venture are filtration products manufacturer CLARCOR Inc., of Franklin, Tenn.; Bioprocess H2O LLC, a water filtration product and Service Company from Portsmouth, R.I.; and NTR PLC, an Irish energy-holding company for renewable energy production. Details of the project169

Iowa energy officials have approved more than $2 million for an effort to grow algae at a southwest Iowa ethanol plant and use the material to make fuel.

The project by BioProcessAlgae LLC is a joint effort by Omaha, Neb.-based Green Plains Renewable Energy and three other companies. The research and development grant will fund an algae production project at the company's Shenandoah, Iowa, ethanol plant.

BioProcessAlgae will test its photobioreactor design in hopes of commercializing the algae production process. The reactor about 16-feet tall and 3-feet wide is placed above the ethanol plant's fermenter. The enclosed system then captures the carbon dioxide, which when combined with incoming light forms the algae.

The photobioreactor will produce up to 50 tons of algae a year from about 100 tons of carbon dioxide. About 25 tons of the algae will be in the form of oils that can be converted into fuel such as biodiesel. The other 25 tons will be biomass-type products

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project.htmlhttp://www.energy.iowa.gov/Power_Fund/docs/Green%20Plains%20Report.pdf

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that can be used to make distillers grains, then fed to animals or transformed into more ethanol.

The technology used is Vertical Mounted photobioreactor phase 1 with a diameter of 1.5 ft and a height of 10 ft. Inputs to this system are CO2 from a rich source, nutrients, wastewater from the ethanol plant, sunlight and waste heat if available. The outputs from this system are algae oil, delipidated algae meal, and dry whole algae. The overview of the farm process in converting the inputs to outputs consists of four major processes:

Gas handling – which consists of taking enriched CO2 gas from a source under site conditions and deliver it to the algae farm at the requisite temperature, pressure and composition;

Algae farming and cultivation – this is the algae farm itself, where ~200 tons of algae per acre of surface area in the photo bioreactor are expected to be grown.

Dewatering – increasing the algae contraction from 1-2% solids concentration to a 11-15% solids concentration

Drying and extraction – extracting algae oil from all or a portion of the algae; drying the whole dry algae or delipidated algae to a level of <10% solids and other methods of extracting energy from the algae.

The Shenandoah, IA pilot plant design has been completed, all equipment items purchased and construction of the skid unit is currently in progress at the company’s plant in Portsmouth, RI with an ETA at the Shenandoah ethanol plant. (As of September 15, 2009) Future plans 1. To produce renewable fuel on a mass scale through algae production 2. Dewatering and oil extraction activities are currently being undertaken and various technologies are being investigated for testing as an add-in for the pilot units in future.

5. NASA, USA

Aim of the Projects 1. Algae grown in wastewater for fuel Year: May 2009 2. Algae to aviation fuel Year: July 2009 Collaboration


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a. NASA is partnering with Seambiotic USA to model growth processes for microalgae for use as aviation biofuel feedstock. b. NASA is partnering with Boeing to study algae biodiesel. Funding Money to fund the project may be made possible by $800,000 alternative energy grant, which the algae fuel project has a potential of receiving courtesy of the state of California. The project is named OMEGA, an acronym for Offshore Membrane Enclosures for Growing Algae. (May 2009) Details of the projects170 1. Algae grown in wastewater for oil

NASA researchers are attempting what many in the alternative fuel realm are: algae biofuel. NASA has developed plastic membranes in which to grow algae to be harvested for biofuel. NASA plans on attempting their plastic membranes as a full-scale project in the near future in the Pacific Ocean.

The researchers plan to use nutrient-rich waste water as their growing media for the algae. The waste water will be placed in the membranes along with the algae. The algae will act as a waste water purifier, which is an added perk to the method. Once in the ocean, the salinity of the ocean will cause the water in the membrane to be drawn out. The nutrients and algae, however, will be left behind in the membranes.

After a certain period of time, the membranes would then be collected and recycled. The program of algae production has already been proven in laboratories and is expected to be attempted at a larger scale in California. The city of Santa Cruz has announced that it will be allowing the project access to their municipal waste water.

A researcher working on the project, Jonathan Trent, believes the project shows a great deal of large-scale potential. In addition to relieving the dependence the U.S. has on foreign oil, the algae farming would also help to remove carbon from the atmosphere. In addition, algae are simple to grow and would not take up valuable land area to grow. Obviously an added benefit of this particular system is the extra purification of municipal waste water.

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2. Algae to aviation fuel

NASA Glenn and Seambiotic USA entered into an agreement and will work together to improve production processes and to study and qualify algae oil from alternative species and production processes as candidate aviation fuel at NASA's test facilities.

They are planning to model growth processes for microalgae for use as aviation biofuel feedstock. The goal of the Agreement is to make use of NASA's expertise in large scale computational modeling and combine it with Seambiotic's biological process modeling to make advances in biomass process cost reduction.

The NASA Glenn Research Center is one of NASA's 10 field centers addressing NASA's mission to pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research.

Future plans NASA Glenn and Seambiotic USA will work together to improve production processes and to study and qualify algae oil from alternative species and production processes as candidate aviation fuel at NASA's test facilities. 6. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA Aim of the Project: Algae to fuel research

Year: October 2007 Collaboration

NREL and Chevron Corp. are collaborating to develop techniques to improve the production of liquid transportation fuels using microalgae.

NREL partners with Colorado School of Mines. A seed grant from the Colorado Center for Biorefining and Biofuels is being used to discover new novel microalgae strains that can be used for biofuels and bioproducts applications.

NREL is working with the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR) to perform a proteomics analysis of an oil accumulating green algae to develop algae-jet fuel.

NREL partners with Carnegie Institute (Stanford) to focus on biofuel production in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

It works with Sandia National Laboratories, Israeli and U.S. industrial partners to: a. Develop cost-effective methods for extracting oil from algal biomass

technologies, such as gasification and pyrolysis, to transform algal residues into fuels and fuel-related intermediates

b. Quantify the economic feasibility for algal biofuels scale-up


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c. Develop cost-effective processes for producing and harvesting algal biomass using open raceway ponds.

NREL collaborates with National Research Council of Canada for isolation, characterization, and preliminary assessment of scale-up potential of photosynthetic microalgae for the production of biofuels in the united states and canada

It works with DOE, Solix, New Mexico State University for technoeconomic Assessment of Algal Biofuels

Funding The research agency has about $1.5 million in internal funding for the algae biofuel program (December 2008) Details of the project171 Researchers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in the USA are accelerating efforts to identify and characterize the most promising strains of algae for fuel production.

NREL and Chevron Corporation are working under a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) in which NREL is boosting microalgae's productivity. Chevron anticipates using the resulting oil as a feedstock for renewable transportation fuels.

Algae to biofuel Based Laboratory Directed Research and Development Projects NREL awards Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) funding to in-house projects designed to advance NREL’s technical competencies. Among the recent LDRD projects are several focused on algal biofuels development.

Use of Digital Gene Expression: Tag Profiling for High-Throughput Transcriptomics in Microbial Strains Involved in Advanced Biofuel Production NREL is evaluating the utility of high throughput transcriptomics analysis of microbial strains relevant to advanced biofuel production using the Illumina Genome Analyzer, a novel gene sequencing technology (Transcriptomics is the study of gene expression patterns that vary with external environmental conditions). This technology will provide

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NREL with information that can be used for the identification of genes and pathways involved in biofuel production. Development of a Genetic Model for Producing Biodiesel from Cyanobacteria NREL is working to establish a genetic model in a cyanobacterium for solar biodiesel production. Cyanobacteria are not currently considered to be good candidates for high density biofuel production because they typically produce carbohydrates as storage products rather than lipids. The goal of this project is to redirect carbon fixed in photosynthesis toward lipid accumulation. This approach involves blocking glycogen synthesis and other non essential carbon utilization pathways to focus metabolism primarily for triacylglycerol synthesis. Evaluation of Regulated Enzymatic Disruption of Algal Cell Walls as an Oil Extraction Technology This project evaluates cell-wall degrading enzymes that can disrupt algal cell walls sufficiently to allow internal oil bodies to escape and be easily harvested. This technology could be a simple and economic option for recovery of lipids from algal biomass. Development of Novel Cyanobacterial Biofuels NREL researchers are studying metabolic pathways in a model unicellular photosynthetic microbe to establish strategies to enhance the synthesis of next generation renewable biofuels. This project is designed to develop a comprehensive understanding of carbon pathways and their regulation in photosynthetic organisms. Currently NREL's algae experiments are limited to 1-liter flasks under fluorescent light. When renovations to the greenhouse at the Field Test Laboratory Building are completed, algae strains can be tested in 75-gallon batches under natural light conditions, which can be 10 times more intensive than artificial lighting. Future plans NREL hopes to complete construction of new outdoor ponds behind the Field Test Laboratory Building that will test algae strains, production systems and harvesting methods at scales up to 100 acres.

7. Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), USA Aim of the Project: Promise of Algae Biofuels

Year: Jan 2008


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Collaboration NRDC and World Wildlife Fund have joined Boeing, some of the world’s leading airlines, and Honeywell’s UOP, a refining technology developer, to establish the “Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group” which will accelerate the development and commercialization of sustainable new aviation fuels. The group has announced two initial sustainability research projects to assess the sustainability of producing biomass fuels from jatropha and algae. Funding NRDC will fund the algae research done by the Sustainable Aviation Fuels User Group to find economically and environmentally progressive alternatives to fossil-based fuel sources. (2009) Details of the project172 NRDC works to analyze the full life cycle impact of algae biofuel production in the context of issues such as water resource management, land use impact, energy balance and air emissions. The project provides provide a framework for comprehensive environmental analysis of algae biofuels; identify key ecological issues to be considered across all stages of production; summarize the known and unknown environmental impacts of each production process; and recommend areas for future policy and research.

The primary objective is to encourage and participate in a growing, industry-wide effort to determine the complete environmental impacts of transforming algae into fuel as it is vital, working with stakeholders across business and non-business sectors, to develop a clear picture of the environmental advantages and disadvantages of algae biofuel systems, environmentally preferable algae fuel pathways, and the areas of research needed to mitigate the impacts of algae fuels.

The project starts by mapping five theoretical production pathways and explores the associated environmental implications of the individual process steps contained therein. Production generally consists of four linked processes, algae cultivation, biomass harvesting, algal oil extraction, and oil and residue conversion, with different options within each broad category.

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The project also attempts to determine the anticipated impact of algae biofuel production on several primary ecological resources - water, land, soil, biodiversity and air - as well as its potential energy and carbon balance. Finally, it recommends a number of steps that regulators/policymakers and industry can take to proactively encourage sustainable algae biofuel production.

Future plans To develop a sustainable biofuels industry and increase the odds of success for algae-based biofuels

8. Sandia National Laboratory, USA Aim of the Project: Algae to Energy

Year: August 2008 Collaboration

Algae project members include Sandia, University of New Mexico, and New Mexico State University. Members are collaborating with A2E and Pecos Valley Dairy Producers (PVDP) to convert dairy wastes to energy and other products using algae.

The Algal Biofuels Consortium (ABC) specifically proposes a broad-based collaboration with Sandia to pursue research and development of algal biofuels as an affordable, scalable, and sustainable solution.

Funding

Sandia’s greenhouse algae project was conceived by Ron Pate and Kyle Hoodenpyle (Ag2Energy) and has been funded by the New Mexico Small Business Association (SBA) and the New Mexico Technology Research Collaborative (TRC).

The SBA funds Sandia to work with the private-sector partners Ag2Energy and the Pecos Valley Dairy Producers (PVDP), one of the largest collections of dairy producers in New Mexico. TRC funding lasted one year, and the SBA funding is in its final year of a three-year funding cycle. Funds to research dewatering algae and monitoring the health of algae ponds will come from Sandia’s internal Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program and possibly new direct-funded projects from DOE. (October 2009)


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As part of a project to create fuel out of algae, the researchers are growing green algae in a nutrient-rich liquid chemical equivalent of dairy effluent. The algae are typically cultured for several days, followed by harvesting and dewatering, after which the algal oil is extracted and converted into a biofuel.

Sandia researchers grew green algae in a 12-by-30-foot greenhouse. They started by developing a simulated dairy effluent. The solids from the digestion of dairy manure can potentially be used to develop fertilizer and feed, and the liquid can be a nutrient source for algae

The algae produce lipids that can be converted to biofuels. The liquid-based algae are “dewatered,” followed by post-processing to extract the TAG.

Sandia has been looking at two microalgal organisms, Phaeodactylum tricornutum and Thalassiosira pseudonana, the genomes of which were recently sequenced by DOE’s Joint Genome Institute in northern California. The project take advantage of the new genetic information to better understand the processes involved in the formation of oils, then eventually to manipulate those processes to produce larger quantities of those oils.

Sandia is bringing into play its scientific and engineering expertise to grow and process specific types of algae for biofuels and other useful co-products. Sandia is mostly focused on the chemical approach, whereby solvents with a biological affinity toward oils are used.

Another focus of the microalgal Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) project is the “dewatering,” or drying, of the algae, an important consideration since this step — necessary for the conversion into fuel — is highly energy intensive and thus estimated to represent nearly 50 percent of the current processing cost. Sandia is also examining ways by which algae can be grown and harvested in the first place.

Sandia’s work in this area ties into broader biofuels efforts supported by DOE’s Office of Biomass Program (OBP) that focus on addressing challenges to commercially viable algal biofuels production. This includes Sandia participation in the development of the National Algal Biofuels Technology Roadmap Report, which is still in preparation, and partnering with others on proposals to establish consortia for algal biofuels and for advanced fungible biofuels with potential funding from OBP. It compared the different metabolic routes of oil production in multiple strains of algae by tracking their accumulation as a function of time and environment.

Future plans


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To build the genomic and biotechnology toolboxes that will be required for the optimization of algal oil production at the massive commercial scales required to meet the transportation fuel demands of the US.

9. The Carbon Trust, UK

Aim of the Project: Microalgae biofuel for transportation

Year: 2008 Funding

The Carbon Trust, set up to develop low-carbon technologies for the UK, has launched a multi- million pound fund to develop a commercial market for algae biofuels.

Carbon Trust commits £3-6 million (US$4.8-9.7 million) of funding in the first phase of the algal biofuels challenge.

(October 2008)

Details of the project174 As part of the Advanced Bioenergy Accelerator, the Carbon Trust intends to make a multi-million pound investment to support the development and commercialisation of microalgae biofuel technologies that have the potential to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The production of microalgae biofuels at scale would represent a disruptive technological breakthrough. However, many challenges remain to make low cost algae biofuels a commercial reality.

Following an extensive programme, analysing the algae biofuel opportunity and developing an appropriate R&D investment strategy to overcome these challenges, the Carbon Trust intends to fund R&D into microalgae derived transport fuels through the Algae Biofuels Challenge, ABC. The ABC is a two phase programme with the first phase addressing fundamental R&D challenges and the second phase moving to large scale production of algal oil. The Algae Biofuels Challenge aims to develop algae biofuels commercially in two key phases.

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Phase One will have total budget of between £3 and £6 million and will provide grant funding for research addressing five specific areas: • Isolation and screening of algae strains suitable for open pond mass culture • Maximising solar conversion efficiency in mass culture • Achieving both high oil content and high productivity in mass culture • Sustained algae cultivation in open ponds (resistance to competing organisms, predators and diseases) • Design and engineering of cost effective mass culture systems Phase Two will focus on scaling up and integrating the processes developed in Phase One. It will run over five years and will involve the construction and operation of a multi-hectare test pond, probably abroad to avoid any unnecessary delays in eventual commercialization of algae biofuels. Tropical and sub-tropical climates are more suited to the development of algae. Moreover, if successful, the Carbon Trust says algae could deliver 6 to 10 times more energy per hectare than conventional cropland biofuels, whilst reducing carbon emissions by up to 80% relative to fossil fuels. Future plans The Carbon Trust is looking for cutting edge expertise from algae specialists in the UK to come up with large-scale, cost effective solutions for algae-based biofuels.

20.5 Algae Energy Developments around the World

European Union

The European Biodiesel Board - promotes the use of biodiesel in the European Union, at the same time, grouping the major EU biodiesel producers175

UK Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), which reviews the potential of

marine biomass, to be anaerobically digested to produce methane which in turn

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can be used to generate electricity, for heat or for transport. They also sequenced the genome of Phaeodactylum tricornutum, a well studied species of diatom.

The Carbon Trust launches the Algae Biofuels Challenge with an ambitious mission on 23 October 2008: to commercialize the use of algae biofuel as an alternative to fossil based oil by 2020. The Algae Biofuels Challenge is a multi-million pound UK R&D initiative that could see the Carbon Trust commit £3m to £6m of funding in the initial stages. Carbon Trust intends to fund R&D into microalgae derived transport fuels through the Algae Biofuels Challenge The ABC is a two phase program with the first phase addressing fundamental R&D challenges and the second phase moving to large scale production of algal oil

Great Britain hopes that algae-based biofuels can reduce automotive and aviation emissions by 2030, and cut overall emissions by 80% by 2050 – Oct 2008

Germany

Greenfuel Technologies Corporation has signed a strategic alliance agreement with IGV (Institut für Getreideverarbeitung), a private industrial research institute headquartered in Potsdam, Germany. IGV is a pioneer in micro-algae research and production with more than 80 commercial technology deployments worldwide.

Hielscher Ultrasonics located in Teltow near Berlin (Germany). Hielscher - Ultrasound Technology is used for the production of biodiesel from algae Ultrasonication increases the chemical reaction speed and yield of the transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fats into biodiesel. This allows changing the production from batch processing to continuous flow processing and it reduces investment and operational costs.

Professor Laurenz Thomsen from Jacobs University in Bremen envisions the construction of algae-based bioreactors

RWE has launched a pilot algae growing plant for CO2 conversion at Niederaussem, Germany. RWE has entered into agreements with partners such as the Jacobs University, Bremen, the Juelich Research Center and Phytolutions for the planning, research and implementation of this project. The aim is to optimize the entire process chain from algae production to the final product. In a trial plant measuring some 600sqm, the alga is fed with flue gas from the power plant.

France

Air France-KLM signs with Algae Link to procure algae oil for jet fuel blending - May, 2008 - In the Netherlands, Air France-KLM announced an agreement with Algae-Link to procure algae oil to be blended with conventional jet fuel. Deliveries of algae oil will commence by the end of 2008, according to Algae-Link executives, but quantities were not disclosed.


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Micro-algae to the consideration to produce Biodiesel – Feb 2007 - Olivier Bernard, researcher to the National Research Institute in computer science and automatic (INRIA) of Sophia Antipolis says "Certain species of micro-algae produce stocks of lipids ranging up to 80 per cent of their weight when they are subject to the stress such as the deprivation of nitrogen or a sharp rise in light" In France, a program of research, coordinated by Olivier Bernard, considering the development of a viable model of production. This program, which started in December 2006, is funded over three years to height of 2.8 million euro. It brings together research centers such as the INRIA, the CNRS, the Office to atomic energy, universities, the Center for international cooperation in agronomic research for the development, Ifremer and SMEs, Valcobio.

Italy

Italy Produces Biodiesel from Seaweed - Italy’s biodiesel suppliers join forces to generate fuel from seaweed and take on climate change. Previously, the nation’s biodiesel companies have used crops like corn to convert the sucrose of the plant into energy for fuel. As the biodiesel industry has continued to experiment with other plants for efficient generation of biofuels, sea plants like algae and seaweed are being explored and are looking like reliable resources. The Union of Biodiesel Producers in Italy is leading this effort which sprung from work at the University of Florence, which is currently conducting experiments on seaweed specifically grown as a feedstock, and not extracted from oceans. (Oct 2008)

Spain

GreenFuel said that it is in the process of building 100-hectares of algae greenhouses — at the cost of $92 million — that can produce 25,000 tons of algae biomass per year. The algae farms are being built in conjunction with Spanish engineering company Aurantia at Holcim’s cement plant near Jerez, Spain - October, 2008

AlgaeLink is opening two plants in 2008, one in The Netherlands and another in Spain - Algae link start building under own management several large commercial algae cultivation and algae oil production facilities in the state of Cadiz, Spain. The first of the 10 plants of each two ton dry algae per day facilities equipped with Algaelink's patented technology must be fully operational by the end of 2008 - May 2008

Portugal

BioKing commercializes small algae bioreactors - April, 2007 - Netherlands-based BioKing today introduced new, small scale photo-bioreactors designed to produce algae for biodiesel production. BioKing says the patented technology in its scalable photo-bioreactors can contribute to the production of biodiesel and "other valuable bio-commodities" from algae oil. BioKing Green Energy NV is a


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recently formed subsidiary that plans to engage in research and development of algae cultivation as an energy source for the production of biodiesel. Facilities are to be based in the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal.

Vertigro and SGCEnergia Form European Biodiesel Feedstock – Jul 2007 - Vertigro and SGCEnergia, the biofuels division of the SGC Group of Portugal, have agreed to form a joint venture company to produce Vertigro algae biodiesel feedstock. Vertigro is jointly owned by Global Green Solutions Inc. (GGRN) and Valcent Products Inc. (VCTPF). The agreement calls for SGCEnergia to build and operate a Vertigro pilot plant near Lisbon, Portugal which will also serve as a research and development facility for Vertigro technology applications and projects in Europe.

Norway

In Texas, biocrude producer Sustainable Power announced a strategic alliance with Norway’s Pemco Energy, which manufactures and distributes oil and chemical-based products throughout Europe. Sustainable Power’s bioreactors utilize the Rivera process to produce bio-crude from algae, palm fruit, coconuts, and other industrial or food waste. Sustainable Power is the exclusive licensee of the Rivera process, originally developed by US Sustainable Energy – Mar 2008

Croatia

Ingra, a Croatian company, has launched the most ambitious Croatian biodiesel production project ever. Ingra intends to build a large biodiesel production facility in the port area near Slavonski Brod. At Ingra, they have yet to adopt a final decision on which technology to use, because there are several, they are constantly being improved and they provide for greater profitability. There is research going on today on the possibility of using sea algae in the biodiesel production process, so that the technology needs to support as many methods of production as possible – Mar 2008

Ireland

First batch of biodiesel produced at Ross plant – The first batch of biodiesel has recently been produced at the Green Biofuels Ireland Ltd. (GBIL) plant at Marshmeadows. Green Biofuels Ireland Ltd. operates as Ireland’s first commercial scale biodiesel processing plant and so far has produced around 1,000 tonnes of biodiesel. GBIL is designed to produce 34 million litres of biodiesel per annum. Wexford Farmers Co-Op and Green Gem Power are the main shareholders in this €21 million investment – Sep 2008


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Netherlands

Dutch airline KLM has announced plans to fuel its planes with kerosene made from algae. The company has signed an exclusive contract with the Dutch company AlgaeLink to provide fuel for a pilot project which will begin this autumn, when the first test flight will take place. AlgaeLink is opening two plants in 2008, one in the Netherlands and another in Spain. Initially the algae-based kerosene will be mixed with conventional fuel, but KLM's ultimate goal is to fuel its entire fleet with kerosene from algae and other plant-based oils - May 2008

Latvia

M2 Baltic is completing the financing of refineries in Latvia and in Micronesia that are able to produce between 30 and 60 million gallons of algal biodiesel per year at each location. September, 2007

Asia

Japan

The Japanese Government has given Professor Makoto Watanabe from Tsukuba University hefty grants to work on ways of industrializing the algae cultures. The Nikkei Business Daily published an article saying "Japan as an oil-exporting nation? Not in this universe -- unless the oil is derived from algae." The Japanese government included studies on algae in its Sunshine Project after the first oil crisis in 1973 (May 2008) - 176

Japan, Argentina, Australia and Ireland are involved in the research and development of varying types of algae for use as bio-fuel – Sep 2007

India

Indian scientists extract fuel from algae - May, 2008 - A team of scientists at the Fisheries College and Research Institute (FCRI) at Tuticorin has successfully extracted bio-fuel from marine micro algae. The extraction of bio-fuel by standardizing the research procedure from marine micro algae was a major breakthrough and FCRI planned to develop an industrial model for mass production of the bio-fuel from marine micro algae, the institute Dean V K Venkataramani said here. The marine micro algae, isolated from sea water, was first cultivated under autotrophic and heterotrophic culture systems using transestrification method, a process of conversion of an organic "acidester" into another "ester" of the same acid. The method involved catalyzed chemical

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reaction on micro algal oil, he said. In autotrophic system, the algae were grown in a standards culture medium. The mass culture was achieved by transferring algal broth culture to larger tanks. Under heterotrophic conditions, mass culture algae was performed in a bioreactor of 3.1 litre capacity under controlled state to achieve high lipid accumulation. Micro algal cells harvested from culture solution were pulverized and bio-lipid oil was extracted with suitable solvents. A standard reaction mixture consisting oil and methanol concentrate was then heated for a specific period and transferred to a tailor-made funnel where the bio-fuel was separated

Growdiesel Climate Care Council Organized International Summit on Algae Biofuels in September 2008 at New Delhi, India. The conference focused next generation of Biofuels using Algae as main feedstock. The summit offered an excellent opportunity to Renewable fuels Sector, their associates and academia to share their valuable experiences and knowledge. The main objective of the Summit is to provide an improved up-to-date understanding of the next generation feedstock’s and technologies in Algae Biofuel Industry.

Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd (BPCL) inked a memorandum of understanding with Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU) to develop alternative renewable energy technology. The broad objective of the MoU was to develop a pilot plant technology for biodiesel production from algae, which possessed excellent biological frame work in its cellular capabilities, including more than 30 per cent of oil in its composition, according to Dr M A Siddiqui, Executive Director (R and D), BPCL, Greater Noida – Oct 2008

The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi and Tata Power are embarking on major initiatives to extract and use CO2 for propagation of micro-algae.

MGR Algae Biofuel Research Center, located in Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu, has launched a biodiesel project from micro algae. Sivakasi is the highest CO2 emission town in Tamil Nadu.

Vivekananda Institute of Algal Technology (VIAT), Chennai, India is specializing in algae based research & consultancy activities relating to industrial effluents treatment, municipal sewage treatment, waste water treatment, algal biomass utilization and CO2 & NOx mitigation by its phycoremediation techniques.

The Defence Research Laboratory (DRL), Tezpur is working on fresh water algae to use them as source for bio-diesel.

Indian Oil Corporation, the premier Indian oil and gas company, plans to invest in research on biodiesel from algae. (Jan 2009)

Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore - A team from Plant Cell Biotechnology Department have done extensive work on isolation and


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characterization of hydrocarbon producing micro alga Botryococcus braunii from Indian waters.177

University of Madras - In 2009, Rengasamy178 and his team from University of Madras have successfully cultivated Botryococcus braunii in open raceway pond without any contamination.179

Gauhati University - In 2009, Researchers from Bio-energy Division, Defense Research Laboratory, Tezpur, India and Department of Biotechnology, Gauhati University, India have done preliminary work on algal diversity as a renewable feedstock for biodiesel.180

Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSMCRI) – Researchers at

CSMCRI has long been working on the cultivation of various seaweeds and recently forayed into value addition for seaweed products. For the first time in India, CSMCRI, Bhavnagar, demonstrated the production of ethanol using a seaweed polysaccharide.

University of Madras – Rengasamy et al., CAS in Botany, has successfully demonstrated outdoor cultivation of two species of Sargassum for the first time181. Rengasamy and his team have successfully developed a technology to produce biogas from seaweeds.182

China

Oct. 7, 2008 BioCentric Energy to produce algae oil in China - BioCentric Energy Algae LLC, a subsidiary of California-based BioCentric Energy Inc., is developing an algae oil project in the Guangdong Providence of China. According to Dennis Fisher, president and chief executive officer of BioCentric Energy, the Chinese government has granted the company 50 hectares (110 acres) of land adjacent to an industrial site in Wahan, China.

PetroSun Helps Turn Algae to Fuel in China - September 2008. Energy company PetroSun on Monday said it agreed to a joint-venture with Shanghai Jun Ya Yan Technology Development to build in China a $40 million algae farm whose oil will be refined into biofuels. Under the deal, PetroSun, of Scottsdale, Arizona, will

177 Chandrappa Dayananda, Ravi Sarada, Vinod Kumar and Gokare Aswathanarayana Ravishankar 2007. Isolation and characterization of hydrocarbon producing green alga Botryococcus braunii from Indian freshwater bodies. Electronic Journal of Biotechnology, Vol.10 No.1 178 Mass culture of Botryococcus braunii under open cultivation system for bio diesel production. Aban Informatics, Pvt., Ltd. 2008- 2009. 179 R Rengasamy - Development of germplasm of Botryococcus braunii strains isolated from South Indian water bodies for hydrocarbon production, 2007-2008, Aban Informatics, Pvt., Ltd. 180 Simrat Kaur, H. K. Gogoi, R. B. Srivastava and M. C. Kalita 2009. Algal Diversity as a Renewable Feedstock for Biodiesel. Current Science, Vol. 96, No. 2 181 R. Rengasamy - Demonstration and Extension of Culture and Cultivation of Alginophytes, Sargassum polycystem C. Agardh and S. wightii, Grev. 2008 – 2011, DST 182 R. Rengasamy - Potential of Seaweed and Seagrass for biogas Production. Aguagri, New Delhi. August 2008 – February 2009


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license its algae-to-biofuel technology to Shanghai Jun, which will provide the funding for the venture.

Taiwan

Taiwan Funds Algal Ethanol Research - January 2008 - The government of Taiwan is funding studies of two species of algae for their suitability as raw materials for ethanol. The two chosen subjects for the experiments are gracilaria and sargassum, the Council of Agriculture (COA) said, adding that both are rich in polysaccharide that can be transformed to ethanol (alcohol) to produce gasohol.

Sri Lanka

BioCentric Energy to implement algal technology: Energy solutions research and development company BioCentric Energy Inc. has released details of five proposed projects that are slated to occur in the next three years, most of which are centered on the development and use of algae as an emissions absorption agent, biodiesel feedstock and electricity generator. Over the past thirty months, BioCentric Energy has conducted research and development on algae in Sri Lanka and India. Oct., 2008

Sri Lanka starts small with bio-fuels: Sri Lankan renewable energy experts have started experimenting with bio-fuel production as an alternative to expensive fossil fuels but are constrained by lack of funds and land for commercial production. C S Kalpage, senior lecturer, department of chemical and process engineering from the Peradeniya University in the central hills says Apart from the project on second generation fuels, Kalpage has initiated research on how to manufacture bio-fuel using algae. He says "We are in a very good region with plenty of sunlight so we can grow any plant. We have very good potential because of our climate." Aug, 2008

Thailand

Thailand Scientists Discover New Algae Species - Can Be Used to Produce Biodiesel - Researchers at Khon Kaen University (KKU) in Thailand have discovered a new species of algae, which could be used for the commercial production of biodiesel as early as April 2009. The species, labelled KKU-S2, was found on the surface of a freshwater pond at the university, and was quickly identified as a promising source of alternative fuel – Oct 2008

Israel

Israeli technology derives bio-fuel from algae - August, 2006 - Frontrunners in the alternative arena, Israel's scientists are at the vanguard of finding innovative


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yet affordable fuel and energy options. Israeli scientists - well acquainted with the energy-producing capacity of algae - are applying that knowledge to fuel the future. Algatech in the southern Negev is turning a collective focus towards algae-derived bio-fuel.

An Israeli company drills for oil in algae - Aug 2007 - Israeli company Seambiotic has developed a revolutionary system that enables the production of biofuel from algae.

Pilot commercial algae to biofuel plant announced in Israel - Inventure Chemical and Seambiotic have announced a joint venture to create a pilot commercial plant which will use algae to produce an array of chemicals and biofuels. The plant uses CO2 as feedstock for the algae. Inventure Chemicals comes into the partnership with knowledge about second-generation biofuel manufacturing, as it has facilities in operation in Seattle, and Seambiotic brings its newly developed strains of microalgae. The microalgal strains were fed with exhaust fumes from their power generator's fumes, giving high yields of algae rich in carbohydrates and fatty acids, this they call as "algae CO2 sequestering"– Jun 2008

Ukraine

Ukraine to produce biofuel of algae - Ukraine plans to construct by 2010 not less than 20 plants for production of diesel biofuel of total capacity not less than 623 thousand tons a year. The Cabinet plans to produce biofuel of a special type of alga. In December 2006, the Cabinet endorsed a program for development of diesel biofuel's production for 2007-2010

Singapore

Pure Power HQs in Singapore, algae holding company eyes Asian strategy - June, 2008 - In Singapore, Pure Power said that it would establish corporate headquarters in Singapore for its renewable energy business. Pure Power recently acquired a stake in Aquaflow Bionomic, a New Zealand company which is harvesting wild microalgae and is supporting the Air New Zealand biodiesel trail scheduled for later this year.

Philippines

Algae eyed as next biofuel source in RP by '08 - The PNOC Alternative Fuels Corp. may introduce the use of biodiesel from algae next year, saying it is about to enter talks with a US-based firm engaged in algae technology on how to derive and market biodiesel from algae – Apr 2007


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Oceania Australia

Commercial culture of algae has been around for more than 40 years and Western Australia already has the biggest algae production plant in the world – at Port Gregory in the Mid-West. These algae are grown for fairly expensive products such as dietary supplements that sell for $500 a kilogram

PetroSun to establish algae-to-biodiesel plant in Australia. PetroSun is moving forward with its planned transaction with Icon Energy to form PetroSun BioFuels as a publicly traded alternative fuels company based in Australia. The Australian entity will produce and market algae-derived biofuels in Australasia and will expand into other regions based on its production capabilities and market demand. PetroSun will maintain a majority interest in PetroSun BioFuels – Mar 2007

The Age reports that biodiesel company Biomax Fuels is expanding from producing biodiesel from waste cooking oil and is now looking at using carbon emissions from Hazelwood (Australia's filthiest power station) to feed an alga to biodiesel operation – Oct 2008

In Australia, Linc Energy and Bio Clean Coal said they would joint venture on an algae-based biodiesel plant using CO2 emissions from coal-fired electricity generation. This is the first reported expansion of algae-based biodiesel production to Australia – Nov 2008

New Zealand

A New Zealand company has successfully turned sewage into modern-day gold. Marlborough-based Aquaflow Bionomic yesterday announced it had produced its first sample of bio-diesel fuel from algae in sewage ponds – May 2006

A B5 (5%) blend of biodiesel produced by Aquaflow from wild algae successfully fueled a test drive in New Zealand in December 2006. The Aquaflow B5 also was used successfully several days earlier in a static engine test at Massey University’s Wellington campus - January 2007

Air New Zealand Moves Closer To Biofuel Flight and Another Algae Find for Biofuel - In New Zealand, Aquaflow Bionomic, a maker of algae-based biodiesel, is rumored to be the fuel supplier for the upcoming Air New Zealand biodiesel test flight.nbr.co.nz reported that the company has appointed aviation engineering consultant Des Ashton to lead operation development related to aviation projects. Last month, Virgin CEO Sir Richard Branson said that the Air New Zealand flight would use algae-based biodiesel, after the initial Virgin Atlantic flight using a mix babassu palm and coconut oils - March, 2008

Neste Oil Corporation Provides Major Grant to Make Bio-fuel From Algae - August, 2008 - A Massey research project to commercially develop sustainable,


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carbon-neutral biofuel from algae has received a funding boost from a Finnish oil refining company. Professor Yusuf Chisti, a biochemical engineer based in Palmerston North, and currently based at Massey’s School of Engineering has for the past 12 years been developing technology to produce commercial quantities of micro-algal biomass to make various products, including algal bio-diesel – a revolutionary alternative to existing fossil fuel alternatives. Neste Oil Corporation, a major oil refiner in Finland, has just agreed to pour $850,000 into Professor Chisti’s research because of environmental concerns relating to using petroleum.

North America Canada

Valcent Products, Inc. (El Paso, Texas) and Global Green Solutions, Inc. (Vancouver, B.C., Canada) are in the final stages of commercializing their patented Vertigro process - February, 2008

The Alberta Research Council in Canada has focused on algae's potential to reduce CO2 through a Carbon Algae Recycling System. The ARC consortium favours a large greenhouse-covered pond system, as it maintains temperature, delays evaporation and reduces contamination. - April, 2008

If the problems with cultivating and processing algae can be smoothed out, Canada could be a participant in a blooming algae industry, opine professionals at te Alberta Research Council - October, 2008

AlgoDyne Ethanol Energy Inc., the biofuel company that earlier said it found a technology to harvest algae blooms from the open ocean has meanwhile acquired approximately 800 acres (324ha) of agricultural land in Saskatchewan to grow terrestrial biomass. The company now announces it has decided to increase the total amount of land to up to 3000 acres (1215ha) to grow bioenergy crops such as miscanthus – Mar 2007

USA

New Mexico researchers accelerate algae biofuel timeline; commercial demonstration seen in 18 months - In New Mexico, researchers at the Center of Excellence for Hazardous Materials Management in Artesia said that they will be ready for a commercial demonstration of algae-based biofuels within 18 months. The research team disclosed that they plan to produce algae grown on a five-acre open pond site, and have been researching production, harvest and oil extraction as part of their project - September, 2008

Solix Biofuels has a pilot plant in the New Belgium Brewing Company in Fort Collins, Colo., that uses the excess carbon dioxide from beer making to feed


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algae growing in indoor tanks. Global Green Solutions has a test facility in El Paso, Tex., that grows algae in tall, thin, sunlit bioreactors - October, 2008

Aquatic Energy is harvesting algae in Louisiana and turning it into biodiesel. The company is taking CO2 from local industry and pumping it into specially built algae ponds which are harvested every three to five days – Sep 2008

Virginia's first algae farm an experiment in biofuel: There was much ado ni Virginia over the opening of an experimental farm - the first of its kind in Virginia - that grows a single, if slimy, commodity: algae – Sep 2008

A startup in Seattle called Blue Marble Energy isn’t growing algae in farms but instead plans to cleanup algae from existing sewage plants and waterways and process it into fuel – Oct 2008

Mexico

PetroSun Announces Formation of PetroSun BioFuels Mexico - PetroSun, Inc. announced today that the company has formed PetroSun BioFuels Mexico to establish its algae-to-biofuel operations in the State of Sonora, Mexico. PetroSun BioFuels Mexico will enter into joint venture agreements to develop algae cultivation farms and extraction plants in Sonora and southern Arizona that will produce algal oil, algae biomass products and excess electricity for the Mexican and U.S. markets. Aug, 2007.

The USA-based firm Algenol has struck a deal with Mexico-based BioFields to grow and process algae in a manner that cost effectively produces ethanol - directly from the culture. This is quite different from the usual algal biofuel processes that use algae to produce biological oil which, after extraction from the algal cells, is used as feedstock for liquid fuel production: often biodiesel - Jun 2008

Algae farm in Mexico to produce ethanol in 2009 - June 2008 - A Maryland (US) based company said that business partner BioFields has licensed its technology and committed US$850 million to build a salt water algae farm in the Sonoran Desert in northwest Mexico, with production scheduled to begin next year. BioFields paid over US$100 million to license Algenol's technology, Algenol CEO Paul Woods said. He said the ethanol produced at the farm will cost US$1 less per gallon (28 Australian cents per litre) than current U.S. petrol pump price of about US$4 per gallon

South America Brazil

AlgoDyne Launches Biofuel Projects in Brazil - AlgoDyne Ethanol Energy Corp. is in a series of biofuels initiatives in Brazil, led by Chief Technology Officer Prof. Hans-Jürgen Franke. AlgoDyne’s Brazilian office, to be located in Aracaju-SE


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Brazil, will lead planned algae-based bio-kerosene projects with airlines, as well as integrating the company’s processes through joint ventures with several of Brazil’s states. Prof. Franke will also be responsible for establishing a planned nursery of jatropha plants and the development of a pilot plant for ethanol production with algae in 2007 - June 2007

Brazil Fuels Algae Research with US$ 2.8 Million - The Brazilian government is eager to fund the development of seaweed-based biodiesel production, Brazil intends to allocate 4.5 million Brazilian reais (about US$ 2.8 million) in non-refundable credits to research projects exploring the use of aquaculture or micro-algae products in biodiesel production - August, 2008

PetroSun previously announced that it will start building algae farms in several U.S. states, Mexico, Brazil and Australia in 2008. The company has also entered a feedstock supply agreement with Bio-Alternatives Inc. for up to 150 million gallons of algae oil per year – Mar 2008

Peru

Peru: the Next Big Biodiesel Producer? - The U.S. company, Pure Biofuels opened up a new biodiesel plant in Lima, Peru. It plans to produce 52 million gallons of biodiesel next year, about 35% of which will meet Peru’s internal demands for the alternative fuel. The rest will be exported. Pure Biofuels is currently growing Jatropha plants to make its fuel, and might also use algae - August, 2008

Argentina

Argentina’s Oil Fox and Biocombustibles de Chubut is pursuing the production of biodiesel from seaweed based on a $60 million investment from Switzerland – Jan 2008

Biodiesel from Algae and the Biofuels Discussion in Argentina - Argentine company called Oil Fox announced recently that they would produce biodiesel from algae oil for commercial use. According to reports, the company has signed an agreement with the government of Chubut province located in Patagonia, Argentina to grow four species of algae in pools around the province. The whole project is supposed to result in 240 thousand tons of Biodiesel – Mar 2007.

Africa Egypt

In June 2007, researchers from the National Research Center (NRC) in Cairo, Egypt, met with UNH chemical engineering professor Ihab Farag in his biodiesel lab reuniting in their effort to introduce biodiesel technology into Egypt. NRC is


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one of the largest and credible research centers in the Middle East. In 2004 Dr. Farag, director and founder of the UNH Biodiesel Group, was awarded a three-year grant from the US-Egypt Science and technology Program (part of US Agency for International Development). The grant/project involved working with NRC on introducing biodiesel, a renewable and environmentally friendly fuel alternative to petroleum diesel into Egypt - July, 2007

Dr.Mohammad I.Abdel-Hamid, Associate Professor-Applied Phycology (Algae),University of Mansoura, Egypt, is an expert at the university research fuel from algae – 2008

In late 2006 a research and development (R&D) Centre was established in Mansoura, Egypt by PetrOtech-ffn Egypt which is a subsidiary of PetrOtech-ffn USA headquartered ni Hyannis, MA. The research and development (R&D) team of PetrOtech investigated the reliability of algae as as potential feedstock for biodiesel and bioethanol production.

South Africa

GreenFuel announced recently that it would license its Emissions-to-Biofuels technology to the new South African company Global Renewable Energy Efficiency Network. South Africa has set a goal of producing five percent biodiesel by 2014. The first implementation of the GreenFuel technology will be at the Kelvin Power Station in Johannesburg - Nov 2006

CSIR counted among the best in algal biodiesel research - The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in South Africa is one of the leading scientific and technology research, development and implementation organizations in Africa. It undertakes directed research and development for socio-economic growth. In South Africa, the CSIR has taken the lead with several local and international partnerships in this field. "We have identified 50 oil producing strains out of 160 isolates of algae covering only 30% of South Africa's natural resource map. Of these, six strains seem competitive, indicating South Africa as a likely hot-spot for algal oil producing strain diversity," says an official. "We have also started process development in laboratory scale systems. We are on par with the rest of the world but need to mobilize funding that will allow more rapid research progress and human capacity development in this area." – Oct 2008

GreenFuel's algae to biofuels technology growing soon in South Africa - GreenFuel announced that it would license its Emissions-to-Biofuels™ technology to the new South African company Global Renewable Energy Efficiency Network. Under the terms of the agreement with GreenFuel, Global Renewable will have the rights to install and operate GreenFuel’s Emissions- to-Biofuels algae bioreactor systems at multiple locations with commercial deployment potential of 1,000 acres or more. The first implementation of the GreenFuel technology will be at the Kelvin Power Station in Johannesburg – Nov 2006


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21. Culture Collection Centers 21.1 Introduction 21.2 List of Algae Culture Collection Centre 21.3 Algae Culture Collection Centers Countrywise – from WDCM 21.4 Companies Selling Algae Cultures

21.1 Introduction There are organizations and universities around the world that have maintained excellent algal culture collections. Many of these entities provide a useful service by enabling access to their cultures for those desiring to start off their experimentations in a small way in algal energy. We have provided a list of such collection centre in this chapter. The reader is requested to get in touch with the collection centre for more details on how to obtain algal strains from them.

21.2 List of Algae Culture Collection Centres

Country Centre Mode of ordering

Australia CSIRO Microalgae Research Centre http://www.cmar.csiro.au/microalgae/supply.html

Fax or Mail

Canada

University Of Toronto Culture Collection http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/utcc/

Online, Fax and Phone

Canadian Centre For Culture Collection http://www.botany.ubc.ca/cccm/

Mail, Phone or Fax

Czech Republic

Culture Collection of Algae of Charles University of Prague http://botany.natur.cuni.cz/algo/caup.html

Mail, Phone or Fax

Culture Collection of Algal Laboratory ( CCALA ) Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic www.butbn.cas.cz

Online

France

Roscoff Culture Collection http://www.sb-roscoff.fr/Phyto/RCC

Online

The Biological Resource Center of Institute Pasteur http://www.pasteur.fr/ip/portal/action/WebdriveActionEvent/

Online

http://www.cmar.csiro.au/microalgae/supply.html

http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/utcc/

http://www.botany.ubc.ca/cccm/

http://botany.natur.cuni.cz/algo/caup.html

http://www.butbn.cas.cz/ccala/ccala.htm

http://www.sb-roscoff.fr/Phyto/RCC

http://www.pasteur.fr/ip/portal/action/WebdriveActionEvent/


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Germany

CCAC culture collection of University of cologne http://www.ccac.uni-koeln.de

Online and offline

Culture Collection of Algae (SAG) at the University of Göttingen http://www.epsag.uni-goettingen.de/html/paymentetc.html

Online and offline

Alfred Wegener Institute - http://www.awi.de/en/research/research_divisions/ biosciences/biological_oceanography/diatom_centre/collection/

Online and offline

Phiipps University Marburg http://www.staff.uni-marburg.de/~cellbio/welcomeframe.html

Online and offline

Japan

National institute of environmental studies http://mcc.nies.go.jp/aboutOnlineOrder.do

Online

Marine Biotechnology Institute Culture Collection http://wdcm.nig.ac.jp/CCINFO/CCINFO.xml?831

Not specified

IAMCC www.iam.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Not specified

World Federation of culture collection http://www.wfcc.info/datacenter.html

Not specified

UK

Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa – http://www.ccap.ac.uk/

Online & Offline

The Plymouth Culture Collection of Marine Algae http://www.mba.ac.uk/culturecollection.php

Fax

Scandinavian Culture Centre for Algae and Protozoa http://www.sccap.bot.ku.dk/

Not specified

USA

University of Texas http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/utex/Search.aspx

Through online shopping cart

Carolina, http://www.carolina.com/product/living+organisms/protists/algae/anabaena,+living.do

Online

The CCMP National Center http://ccmp.bigelow.org/

Online

ATCC http://www.atcc.org/CulturesandProducts

Online, Fax & Phone

http://www.ccac.uni-koeln.de/

http://www.epsag.uni-goettingen.de/html/paymentetc.html

http://www.awi.de/en/research/research_divisions/

http://www.awi.de/en/research/research_divisions/

http://www.staff.uni-marburg.de/~cellbio/welcomeframe.html

http://mcc.nies.go.jp/aboutOnlineOrder.do

http://wdcm.nig.ac.jp/CCINFO/CCINFO.xml?831

http://www.iam.u-tokyo.ac.jp/misyst/ColleBOX/IAMcollection.html

http://www.wfcc.info/datacenter.html

http://www.ccap.ac.uk/

http://www.mba.ac.uk/culturecollection.php

http://www.sccap.bot.ku.dk/

http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/utex/Search.aspx

http://www.carolina.com/product/living+organisms/protists/algae/anabaena,+living.do

http://www.carolina.com/product/living+organisms/protists/algae/anabaena,+living.do

http://ccmp.bigelow.org/

http://www.atcc.org/CulturesandProducts


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Chlamydomonas center www.chlamy.org

Online

Center for Algal Microscopy,Bowling green state university http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/biology/facilities/algae/html/marine.html

Not specified

CCMEE – http://cultures.uoregon.edu/request_culture.htm

Online

Duke university, Biology Department http://www.biology.duke.edu/support/index.html

Not specified

Dunaliella Culture Collection at Brooklyn College. http://www.dunaliella.org/dccbc/orderinfo.php

Not specified

21.3 Algae Culture Collection Centres Countrywise – from World Data Centre for Microorganisms (WDCM) Australia WDCM13 University of Queensland Microbial Culture Collection WDCM42 Australian National Reference Laboratory in Medical Mycology WDCM532 CSIRO Collection of Living Micro-algae WDCM598 Murdoch University Algal Culture Collection WDCM248 Microbiology Culture Collection Austria WDCM505 Algensammlung am Institut fur Botanik Brazil WDCM844 Brazilian Cyanobacteria Collection - University of Sao Paulo WDCM728 Marine Microalgae Culture Collection WDCM835 Freshater Microalgae Collection Cultures Canada WDCM861 Collection du Centre de Recherche en Infectiologie WDCM535 North East Pacific Culture Collection WDCM73 University of Alberta Microfungus Collection and Herbarium WDCM605 University of Toronto Culture Collection of Algae and

Cyanobacteria China WDCM611 China Center for Type Culture Collection

http://www.chlamy.org/strains.html

http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/biology/facilities/algae/html/marine.html

http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/biology/facilities/algae/html/marine.html

http://cultures.uoregon.edu/request_culture.htm

http://www.biology.duke.edu/support/index.html

http://www.dunaliella.org/dccbc/orderinfo.php
















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WDCM794 Collection of Marine Biological Germplasm WDCM123 National Center for Medical Culture Collections WDCM872 Freshwater Algae Culture Collection WDCM873 Freshwater Algae Culture Collection Czech WDCM486 Culture Collection of Algae of Charles University in Prague Denmark WDCM935 Scandinavian Culture Collection of Algae & Protozoa France WDCM792 Algotheque du Laboratoire de Cryptogamie WDCM796 ALGOBANK WDCM856 Nantes Culture Collection WDCM481 Pasteur Culture Collection of Cyanobacteria WDCM829 Roscoff Culture Collection WDCM807 Culture Collection of Algae at the University of Cologne WDCM940 Cryo Culture Collection of Cryophilic Algae WDCM192 Sammlung von Algenkulturen at University of Goettingen WDCM480 Sammlung von Conjugaten Kulturen India WDCM448 Biological Nitrogen Fixation Project College of Agriculture WDCM3 National Collection of Industrial Microorganisms WDCM562 Food and Fermentation Technology Division, University of

Mumbai WDCM931 Visva-Bharati Culture Collection Of Algae Indonesia WDCM632 Biotechnology Culture Collection Institution Pusat Penelitian dan

Pengembangan Bioteknologi-LIPI WDCM842 ICBB Culture Collection for Microorganisms and Cell Cultur WDCM630 Indonesian Sugar Research Institute, Pusat Penelitian Perkebunan

Gula Indonesia WDCM44 Institute of Technology Bandung Culture Collection Iran WDCM843 ABRIICC Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran

Culture collection Italy WDCM147 Centro di Studio dei Microorganismi Autotrofi – CNR Japan



























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WDCM190 IAM Culture Collection WDCM567 Japan Collection of Microorganisms WDCM831 Marine Biotechnology Institute Culture Collection WDCM591 Microbial Culture Collection at National Institute for Environmental Studies Kazakhstan WDCM907 The Republic collection of microorganisms Korea (Rep. of) WDCM894 Korea Marine Microalgae Culture Center Malaysia WDCM765 Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of

Malaya Mexico WDCM500 Coleccion Nacional de Cepas Microbianasy Cultivos Celulares WDCM48 Industrial Culture Collection WDCM121 Pathogen Fungi and Actinomycetes Collection WDCM99 Coleccion de Cepas Microbianas Pakistan WDCM753 Pakistan Type Culture Collections Philippines WDCM444 Algal Culture Collection WDCM503 Industrial Technology Development Institute WDCM39 Microbial Culture Collection WDCM620 Philippine National Collection of Microorganisms Poland WDCM914 Culture Collection of Baltic Algae at the University of Gdansk Portugal WDCM906 Algoteca de Coimbra Russian Federation WDCM936 Algae Culture Collection of SiberiaBOROK WDCM602 The Collection of algaeCALU WDCM461 Collection of Algae in Leningrad, St. Petersburg, State University WDCM596 Culture Collection of Microalgae IPPAS WDCM641 Peterhof Genetic Collection of Microalgae

























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Senegal WDCM53 Mircen Afrique Ouest Slovak WDCM657 Department of Genetics, University of Bratislava Spain WDCM837 National Bank of Algae Sri Lanka WDCM619 University of Jaffna Botany Thailand WDCM698 Department of Applied Biology, Faculty of science WDCM783 BIOTEC Culture CollectionBSMB WDCM491 Bacteriology and Soil Microbiology BranchCHULA WDCM511 Microbiology Department Faculty of Science WDCM688 Department of Biology, Faculty of Science WDCM676 Institute of Food Research and Product Development, Kasetsart

University WDCM692 Microbiology Section, Chiang Mai University (MSCMU) WDCM703 Soil Microbiology Research Group, Division of Soil Science,

Department of Agriculture WDCM383 TISTR Culture Collection Bangkok MIRCEN Turkey WDCM845 Ege - Microalgae Culture Collection U.K. WDCM522 Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa WDCM508 Philip Harris Biological Ltd.PLYMOUTH WDCM128 Plymouth Culture Collection U.S.A. WDCM1 American Type Culture Collection WDCM2 Provasoli-Guillard National Center for Culture of Marine

Phytoplankton WDCM530 Carolina Biological Supply Company WDCM97 Agricultural Research Service Culture Collection WDCM606 The Culture Collection of Algae at the University of Texas Austin Ukraine WDCM886 Herbarium of Kharkov University (CWU) - MicroAlgae Cultures

Collection

























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21.4 Companies Selling Algae Cultures

Algae Depot Algae Depot's mission is to provide algae cultures, harvesting and culturing equipment. They have various strains such as Botryococcus braunii, Dunaliella salina, and Scenedesmus dimorphus which can be used for algae biodiesel research. http://www.algaedepot.com

Ecogenics, USA The Ecogenics Research Center for the study of alternative solutions is a non-profit organization dedicated to addressing problems. Ecogenics is currently working on: closed-loop systems that incorporate technologies including hydroponic (organically certified) crops, Spirulina algae, and Tilapia fish. http://www.ecogenicsresearchcenter.org

CSIRO, Australia CSIRO's microalgae research comprises the Collection of Living Microalgae, a culture collection of over 800 strains, including representatives from all classes of marine microalgae, some freshwater microalgae, and unusual marine microheterotrophs. http://www.marine.csiro.au/microalgae/index.html

Susquehannabiotech, USA USA based susquehannabiotech is selling live Botryococcus braunii cultures. This company partners with Algae Global183. http://www.susquehannabiotech.com/Products.html

Aquaticeco, USA This is a Florida based company. They sell algae plate cultures (Spirulina platensis, Nannochloropsis salina and Dunaliella tertiolecta). Along with it the company also sells several other products used for aquaculturing. http://www.aquaticeco.com/subcategories/1365/Algae-Plates

183 http://www.algaeglobal.com

http://www.algaedepot.com/

http://www.ecogenicsresearchcenter.org/

http://www.marine.csiro.au/microalgae/index.html

http://www.susquehannabiotech.com/Products.html

http://www.aquaticeco.com/subcategories/1365/Algae-Plates

http://www.algaeglobal.com/


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22. Future Trends 22.1 Perspectives 22.2 Predictions 22.3 Future Research Needs - Thoughts from the ASP Team

HIGHLIGHTS

It is predicted that o by end of 2012, one or more companies are expected to prove in lab

conditions that they can indeed produce fuel from algae in a cost-effective manner.

o by 2015, one or more companies are likely to start supplying fuel from algae commercially, though possibly not on a nationwide basis.

o by 2020, fuel from algae could start meeting a significant part of energy needs worldwide.

Key challenges that could be solved during the next 2-3 years (by 2012) include devising cost effective harvesting technologies for microalgae and identification of optimal algal strains.

Effective solutions for other key challenges such as cost-effective photobioreactors and breakthroughs in genetic engineering of algal strains could take 5-10 years (2015-2020).

22.1 Perspectives

While in theory algae have an excellent potential to be a significant feedstock for our transportation fuels, at the same time it has to be admitted that we are only in the beginning stages of exploiting algae for fuel. During the period 2004-2009, when the first group of the algae fuel companies started cropping up, most companies were solely looking at producing biodiesel from algae. Since 2009, industry observers could see a shift in business strategy where many of these companies have started looking at other fuel opportunities (ethanol, jet fuel etc.). Further, having realized that it could take longer to sustainably produce fuel from algae, many companies have started looking at other short-term options such as producing non-fuel products from algae, and wastewater remediation using algae. Such experimentations are expected to continute for the next 2-3 years. The following assessments can be made:

1. Producing energy products such as biodiesel and ethanol from algae is not rocket science. In fact, even a backyard inventor can make oil and biodiesel right from his home, right now. The bottleneck is really the high cost of the processes.


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2. There are two types of challenges to be overcome with respect to processes: (1)

Engineering challenges, and (2) Biological challenges. Examples of engineering challenges include making photobioreactors, raceway ponds and centrifuges more efficient. Biological challenges include increasing oil yields from algae, genetic engineering of algal strains and facilitating specific strains of algae to survive in habitats that are not natural to them.

3. It is expected that many engineering challenges could be solved within the next 2-3 years. It is more difficult to predict when the biological challenges will be overcome, though good progress is being made on aspects such as genetic engineering of algae strains. Experts predict that experiments on overcoming the biological challenges could take more than 5 years (beyond 2015).

Some Interesting Perspectives Long waiting period - It has also been admitted by many prominent companies that

producing algae fuel at a cost that is competitive with that of fossil fuel will take years. The general consensus is that it will take at least until 2015 for the world to see a company produce algae fuels at large scales and at competitive costs.

Algae fuels are not the silver bullet - A prevalent thought is voiced by Doug Henton, CEO of Solix Biofuels, who commented that “at the end of the day, no one single solution will address our domestic energy demands", but that focus on feedstock such as algae could be a vital component of creating a renewable fuel economy.

Bioremediation potential - Another recurrent theme among top executives in the industry is the prospect of CO2 abatement and wastewater remediation by algae. These prospects are likely to enable algae fuel production to become more sustainable.

Distributed production - Riggs Eckelberry, the CEO of OriginOil in Mar 2010 opined that algae fuels could see a more distributed production infrastructure quite different from the current centralised fossil fuel production set up.

Benefitting local economies worldwide - A top executive from the company Live Fuels felt that the algae fuel industry could benefit local economies by creating more local jobs, as against the current fossil fuel economy in which significant number of jobs are present in only those countries that have large oil deposits.

Here's a balanced and a more holistic perspective from Prof. Charles Trick, the Beryl Ivey chair for ecosystem health at the University of Western Ontario and a specialist in aquatic sciences and microbial ecology, has to say: "Innovative algal biofuel industries must deal with the historical views of algae — from being important to the food chain, to damaging coastal resources when in excess, to a marketable alternative to extracted fuels. Diversity is the beauty of the algae…”. He sees an important role for algae that looks beyond the fuel tank. "Even if biofuel production by algae is not considered commercially viable, these cells could be selected to produce unique biomolecules,


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converting sunlight energy into specialty products that might normally be created through traditional petrochemical techniques." Analysis of predictions from many other experts shows a similarly cautious forecast.

22.2 Predictions Predicting specific developments in the algae energy field – such as the cost of algal oil, the best strains, or the most cost efficient harvesting process – is difficult. It could be far more useful if one were to attempt predicting the broad trends that could shape the industry in the next 5-10 years. This is what we attempt to do in this section. While the above predictions are somewhat general in nature, we attempt a more specific set of predictions. It must be pointed out that predicting specific developments in the algae energy field is very difficult. Hence, these inputs should be considered as more of intelligent guesses. Based on all the facts and happenings, the following are what we predict: (Apr 2010)

In the next 2-3 years (by the end of 2012), one or more companies will be able to prove that they can indeed produce fuel from algae in a cost-effective manner in laboratory conditions.

In the next 4-5 years (by the end of 2015), one or more companies will be able to start supplying fuel from algae commercially, though possibly not on a nationwide basis.

In 8-10 years from now (by 2020), fuel from algae could start meeting a significant part of our energy needs.

The following table provides our predictions on how the algae energy industry will pan out during the next 10 years, until about 2020. For each of the periods discussed, analyses and predictions are made on the following aspects:

Challenges – The key challenges faced during this period Highlights – Ideas/concepts most likely to flourish Dark Horses – Possible surprise winners


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Years Challenges Highlights Dark Horses

1-3 years

Optimal strain identification Devising cost-effective methods

for cultivation and harvesting

Growing algae in sewage & wastewater

Growing algae next to

power plants Governments realizing the

algae biofuel potential and devoting higher resources for research

Growing algae in the dark

Really creative sparks

coming from garage & backyard inventors

3-5 years

Persisting with efforts even when there are no immediate payoffs

Innovative scientific techniques

and out-of-the-box thinking required to overcome what looks insurmountable

Innovative business and

revenue models that factor in ground realities

Ethanol from algae Very low cost

photobioreactors Lower costs for biodiesel

production processes A large number of

companies venturing into the algal fuel field, trying to “strike gold”

Hydrocarbons from algae gasification & catalytic synthesis

5-10 years

Taking algal fuel from being a small player to being a significant contributor to global energy consumption

Need for mature management

to ensure that companies evolve into competitive businesses.

New progress from fields

such as genetic engineering & biotech

Hydrogen from algae Breakthroughs in marine

algae cultivation for fuel Some successful firms

starting to dominate the algal fuel landscape

Ability to produce algal fuel from micro-refineries, making each household a potential producer of algal fuel!

Methane from algae


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22.3 Future Research Needs – Thoughts from the ASP Team The ASP (Aquatic Species Program) program conducted by the NREL was an 18-year, $ 25 million program that evaluated algae for CO2 sequestration as well as a biofuel feedstock. The program was wound up in 1996 primarily because it was felt that the cost of producing oil from algae was too high considering the then prevailing crude oil prices. The ASP team had the following observations to make regarding the future directions for algae energy research. While we have provided the summary of the recommendations owing to the fact that it was one of most comprehensive research programs to date, please bear in mind that the program was concluded in 1996 – some of the suggestions hence might be no longer relevant.

Observations

The results of this program’s demonstration activities have proven the concept of outdoor open pond production of algae.

Future Directions

Place less emphasis on outdoor field demonstrations and more on basic biology. Much work remains to be done at a fundamental level to maximize the overall

productivity of algae mass culture systems. The bulk of this work is probably best done in the laboratory.

While it is important to continue a certain amount of field work, small scale studies and research on the basic biological issues are clearly more cost effective than large scale demonstration studies.

Take Advantage of Plant Biotechnology

We have only scratched the surface in the area of genetic engineering for algae. With the advances occurring in this field today, any future effort on modifying algae to increase natural oil production and overall productivity are likely to proceed rapidly. The genetic engineering tools established in the program serve as a strong foundation for further genetic enhancements of algae.


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Start with What Works in the Field

Select strains that work well at the specific site where the technology is to be used. These native strains are the most likely to be successful. Then, focus on optimizing the production of these native strains and use them as starting points for genetic engineering work.

Maximize Photosynthetic Efficiency

Not enough is understood about the theoretical limits of solar energy conversion. Recent advances in our understanding of photosynthetic mechanisms at a molecular level, in conjunction with the advances being made in genetic engineering tools for plant systems, offer exciting opportunities for constructing algae which do not suffer the limitations of light saturation photoinhibition.

Set Realistic Expectations for the Technology

Projections for future costs of petroleum are a moving target. Expecting algal biodiesel to compete with such cheap petroleum prices is unrealistic. Without some mechanism for monetizing its environmental benefits (such as carbon taxes), algal biodiesel is not going to get off the ground.

Look for near term, intermediate technology deployment opportunities such as wastewater treatment. Excessive focus on long term energy displacement goals will slow down development of the technology.

A more balanced approach is needed in which more near term opportunities can be used to launch the technology in the commercial arena. Several such opportunities exist. Wastewater treatment is a prime example. The economics of algae technology are much more favorable when it is used as a waste treatment process and as a source of fuel.


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List of Tables

1. Energy From Algae – Introduction 1. Algae Energy & Alternative Energy 2. Revenues of Top 5 Oil Companies (2009, US$ Billions) 3. Summary of Processes for the Main Energy Products from Algae

2. Algal Strain Selection 1. Strains with High Carbohydrate Content 2. Macroalgae Strains with High Carbohydrate Content (By Dry Weight)

3. Algae Cultivation 1. Suggested Non-Carbon Enrichment (Ml/L) – 2. Continuous Culture Methods for Various Types of Algae in 40L Internally-

Illuminated Vessels (Suitable for Flagellates Only) (Modified from Laing, 1991) 3. Dunaliella Sp. Culture Medium 4. Open Ponds Vs Closed Bioreactors 5. Companies Using Ponds & PBRs 6. Comparison of Large Scale Systems for Growing Algae 7. Prominent Spirulina Farms Around the World 8. Fertilizers for Marine Algae 9. A Generalized Set of Conditions for Culturing Micro-Algae 10. Chu 13 11. Johnson’s Medium 12. Bold Basal Medium 13. F/2 Medium 14. Benecke’s Medium 15. Medium for Spirulina 16. PES Medium 17. Fogg’s Nitrogen Free Medium (Fogg, 1949) 18. Modified NORO Medium 19. BG 11 Medium 20. C Medium 21. Artificial Sea Water Medium (ASW)

4. Photobioreactor 1. General Specifications of a Photobioreactor 2. Photobioreactor Cost for a 1 Ton/Day Dry Algae System 3. Algaelink Photobioreactor Specifications & Costs 4. Data for Photobioreactor Systems from Various Companies 5. PBR Manufacturers & Suppliers

6. Parts of a Photobioreactor


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6. Algae Grown in Open Ponds, Closed Ponds & Photobioreactor 1. Differences between Open Pond and Closed Pond Cultivation

7. Algae Grown in Sewage & Wastewater 1. Examples of Industries Employing Algae-Based Wastewater Treatment

Technology 2. Description of Algae Production from Poultry Waste 3. Composition of Poultry Industry Wastewater 4. Content of Selected Heavy Metals in a Sample Waste Water Treatment Plant 5. Algal-Bacterial/Microalgal Consortia for Organic Pollutant Removal 6. Theoretical Sewage & Wastewater Resource Potentials by 2020

8. Algae Grown in Desert 1. Characteristics of Photobioreactor Materials and the Energy Content of Tubular

Photo Bioreactors

9. Algae Grown in Marine & Saltwater Environment 1. Composition of Seawater 2. Detailed Composition of Seawater at 3.5% Salinity

10. Algae Grown in Freshwater 1. Percentage of Lipid Content in Various Macroalgae Species

11. Algae Grown Next To Major CO2 Emitting Industries

1. Example of a Typical Flue Gas Composition from Coal Fired Power Plant 2. Summary of Availability and Cost of CO2 Sources 3. Projected Global Energy Demand and CO2 Emissions, 2000 To 2020 4. CO2 Tolerance of Various Species 5. Energy and GHG (CO2) Balance Per Liter of Oil Produced Using Three Different

Technologies. 6. Algae Based CO2 Capture Companies & Updates. 7. Algae Project Data 8. Select List of Research on Microalgae Fixation as a Process for Post-Combustion

CO2 Capture 9. Composition of Gas Mixtures 10. Solubilities of Flue Gas Components 11. Data Related to Algae-Based CO2 Capture 12. Countries Heavily Dependent on Coal for Electricity (2006e) 13. Top Coal Importers (2006e)

12. Non-Fuel Applications of Algae 1. Products Derived from Algae 2. Sample of Products from Microalgae


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3. Marketsize of Algae Products. 4. Pigment Composition of Several Algal Groups (During 1982) 5. Global Carotenoid Market Value by Product 2007 & 2015 ($ Million) 6. Cosmetics Market Size Forecast – Overview

13. Biodiesel from Algae

1. Comparison of Biodiesel from Microalgal Oil and Diesel Fuel 2. Percentage Dry Weight of Oil Content in Various Crops 3. Chemical Composition of Algae Expressed on a Dry Matter Basis (%)) 4. Biodiesel Yield in US Gallons Per Acre 5. A Summary of Comparison of Oil and Biodiesel Yield from Main Energy Crops

14. Hydrogen from Algae 1. Cost and Performance Characteristics of Various Hydrogen Production Processes

16. Ethanol from Algae 1. Annual World Ethanol Production by Country (Millions Of Gallons) 2. Strains of Macroalgae Having High Carbohydrate Content 3. Strains of Microalgae Having High Carbohydrate Content 4. Comparison of Cellulose Content of Algae with Other Biomass

17. Other Energy Products – Syngas, Other Hydrocarbon Fuels, Energy from Combustion of Algae Biomass

1. Gasification Reactions and Their Reaction Enthalpy 2. Various Fuel Routes Compare with Regard to Cost and Scalability. 3. Survey Results: Gasification Operating Plant Statistics 2004 Vs. 2007 4. Petroleum Products Produced from One Barrel of Oil Input to U.S. Refineries,

2007 5. U.S. Refiner and Blender Net Production of Refined Petroleum Products in 2007

(Total = 6.57 Billion Barrels)

19. Cost of Making Oil from Algae 1. Indicative Costs for Open Ponds 2. Indicative Costs for Closed Ponds 3. Cost of Photobioreactors 4. Cost of Drum Filtration 5. Cost of Centrifugation 6. Cost of Flocculation 7. Cost of Flotation 8. Cost of Extraction Using Oil Press 9. Cost of Solvent Extraction 10. Transesterification Cost 11. Cost of Starch to Ethanol (via Fermentation)


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12. Cellulose to Ethanol Cost 13. Cost of Anaerobic Digestion 14. Cost of Gasification / Pyrolysis & Catalytic Synthesis 15. Cost of Direct Combustion 16. Yield Assumptions 17. Cost Estimates for the Various Options under Each Stage of Production 18. The Total Cost of Biodiesel Production 19. Cost of Photobioreactors – from Algaeway 20. Capital Costs of Open Raceway Ponds 21. Enzyme/Fermentation Vs. Gasification/Synthesis 22. Capital Cost Estimates of Gasification & Pyrolysis Plants 23. Costs for Biomass Energy Using Combustion 24. Typical Biodiesel Cost Break-Up

20. Companies, Apex Bodies, Organizations, Universities & Experts 1. Organizations

21. Culture Collection Centers 1. List of Algae Culture Collection Centre

22. Future Trends

1. Predictions on How Energy from Algae Industry Will Pan Out During the Next 10 Years, until about 2020.


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List of Figures

1. Energy from Algae - Introduction 1. Lipid Content of Algae 2. Paths to The Various Energy Products from Algae

3. Algae Cultivation 1. World Map Indicating the Direct Normal Solar Irradiation 2. Serial Dilution 3. Production Scheme for Batch Culture of Algae (Lee And Tamaru, 1993) 4. Diagram of a Continuous Culture Apparatus 5. Light Penetration Depth as a Function of Algal Density

4. Photobioreactors 1. Picture of Tubular Photobioreactor 2. Picture of Flat Panel Reactor

6. Algae Grown in Open Ponds, Closed Ponds & PBR. 1. Algae Production and Processing 2. Picture of Raceway Pond

7. Algae Grown in Sewage 1. Process Schematic for Tertiary Wastewater Treatment with Microalgae 2. Flowchart for Tertiary Wastewater Treatment with Microalgae 3. Process Schematic for Tertiary Wastewater Treatment with Micro Algae 4. A Schematic Diagram of a HRAP System 5. Design of a High Rate Algal Pond 6. Process of Algae Wastewater Treatment for Poultry Industry 7. IAPS System at the Environmental Biotechnology Research Unit Stationed at the

Grahamstown Municipal Sewerage Works 8. Cleansing Wastewater with Algae – Sintef Fisheries Irish Seaweed Centre Project 9. Typical Flow Sheet of Various Processes in Industrial Wastewater Treatment

Process Schematic for Algae Production from Poultry Waste

8. Algae Grown in Desert 1. The Closed Loop Bioreactor System

11. Algae Grown Next to Major CO2 Emitting Industries 1. Picture of CO2 Sequestration of Coal Plant Emissions 2. Flow Diagram For Microalgae Production with Introduction of CO2 from Fossil

Fuel Fired Power Plants. 3. Flow Diagram for Microalgae Production 4. Water Distribution System Similar to CO2 Supply.


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5. Schematic Diagram of the Flue-Gas Link-Up 6. Gas Analysis of Coal Combustion Gases Before and After Passage through

Photobioreactor 7. Concentration of CO2 in the Gas Stream Supplied from the Propane Combustor

into the Photobioreactor and in the Gas Stream Leaving the Photobioreactor 8. Coal in Electricity Generation

13. Biodiesel from Algae

1. A Detailed Process of Biodiesel from Algae 2. Lipid Accumulation Progress in Si-Deficient and Si-Replete Cultures. 3. A Schematic Representation of Supercritical Fluid Extraction 4. Transesterification Process

14. Hydrogen from Algae 1. Hydrogenase-Mediated Hydrogen Production 2. Hydrogen Production Catalyzed by Nitrogenase in Cyanobacteria 3. Current Methods of Hydrogen Production

15. Methane from Algae 1. Methods of Producing Methane from Algae 2. Comparitive Analysis of Methane Production from Algae and other Materials 3. Methane Production by Anaerobic Digestion

16. Ethanol from Algae 1. Fermentation of Left-Over Algae Cake

17. Other Energy Products – Syngas, Other Hydrocarbon Fuels, Energy from Combustion of Algae Biomass

1. Sources of Syngas and Derived Energy Products 2. The Chart of Complete Range of Products that can Be Derived from Syngas. 3. Worldwide Growth in Gasification Technologies

Preface to the Oilgae Report Academic Edition

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Transcript of Preface to the Oilgae Report Academic Edition