Preface 1 Understanding Terrorism, Insurgency, and State ...

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Preface

1. Coll, Steve (2004) Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 11 2001, p. 16, Penguin, London.

2. Wolff, Stefan (2006) State Failure in a Regional Context, http://www.stefanwolff.com/working-papers/state-failure.pdf.

1 Understanding Terrorism, Insurgency, and State Failure

1. Schmid, Alex P., Jongman, Albert, J., Michael, Stohl, H., Jan, Brand, Flemming, Peter A., Van Der Poel, Angela, and Thijsse, Rob (1988) Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories and Literature, New Brunswick (USA) and London (UK): Transaction Books.

2. FBI, 28 C. F. R Section 0.85 (1998), Definitions of Terrorism, http://www.fbi.gov/publications/terror/terror2000_2001.htm.

3. United Nations, United Nations Draft Convention, http://www.un.org/ terrorism/instruments.shtml.

4. United States State Department, Title 22 US Code Section 2656 f(d), http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/22/2656f.html.

5. Ibid. 6. European Union Centre for Freedom, Security and Justice, Article 29 EU Treaty,

http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/criminal/terrorism/fsj_criminal_terrorism_en.htm.

7. Organisation of the Islamic Conference, Towards a Definition of Terrorism, http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/definition-terrorism.htm.

8. United Nations Security Council, Resolution 1566, http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1566(2004).

9. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Clarifying Definitions of Terrorism for the Purpose of Insurance, http://www.oecd.org/document/30/0,2340,en_2649_201185_34070430_1_1_1_1,00.html.

10. US Department of the Treasury Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, US Patriot Act 2001, http://epic.org/privacy/terrorism/hr3162.html.

11. Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Transnational Terrorism: The Changing Nature of Modern Terrorism, http://www.transnationalterrorism.eu/tekst/publications/WP3%20Del%205.pdf.

12. Hoffman, Bruce (2006) Inside Terrorism, Columbia University Press.13. Wilkinson, Paul, Nye, Joseph S. and Satoh, Yukio (2003) Addressing the New

International Terrorism; Prevention, Intervention and Multilateral Co-operation, US: Trilateral Commission Brookings Institute, Washington D.C.

14. Schmid, Political Terrorism.

Notes

190 Notes

15. Ghupta, Dipak (2005) Exploring roots of terrorism, in Bjergo, Tore (ed.) Root Causes of Terrorism: Myths, Realities and Ways Forward, Routledge University Press, New York.

16. Bjergo, Root Causes of Terrorism.17. Bandura, Albert (1990) Mechanisms of moral disengagement, in Reich,

Walter and Hamilton, Lee (eds) Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind, Cambridge University Press, Washington D.C.

18. Roberts, Adam (2002) Can we define terrorism?, Oxford Today – The University Magazine, Vol. 14, No. 2.

19. Held, Virginia (2008) How Terrorism Is Wrong: Morality and Political Violence, Oxford University Press, New York.

20. Sinai, Joshua (2008) How to define terrorism, Perspectives on Terrorism, Vol. 2, No. 4.

21. Ibid.22. Smelser, Neil J. and Mitchell, Faith (eds) (2002) Terrorism – Perspectives from

the Behavioural and Social Sciences, National Academic’s Press, Washington DC.

23. Ibid.24. Moghadam, Assaf (2006) The Roots of Terrorism, Chelsea House Publishing.25. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism.26. Bjergo, Root Causes of Terrorism.27. Moghadam, The Roots of Terrorism, p. 57.28. Ibid., p. 58.29. Terrorism Research Unit (2010), State sponsored terrorism, http://www.

terrorism-research.com/state/.30. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism.31. United States Department of State, State Sponsors of Terrorism Annual List,

http://www.state.gov/j/ct/list/c14151.htm.32. Richardson, Louise (2006) What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Enemy,

Containing the Threat, Random House, New York, p. 74.33. Fukuyama, Francis (2006) Nation-Building: Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq, Johns

Hopkins University Press, Maryland.34. Richardson, What Terrorists Want.35. Crenshaw, Martha (1981) The causes of terrorism, Comparative Politics, Vol. 13,

No. 4 July.36. Smith, Haviland (2008) Defining terrorism: it shouldn’t be confused with

insurgency, American Diplomacy, December 2008, http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/item/2008/1012/comm/smith_defining.html.

37. Terrorism Research Centre (2009) Differences between Terrorism and Insurgency, Retrieved February 12, 2009, http://www.terrorism-research.com/insurgency/.

38. Bernsten, Gary (2008) Human Intelligence, Counterterrorism, and National Leadership: A Practical Guide, Potomac Books, Washington D.C.

39. Ibid.40. CIA (2012), Guide to Analysis of Insurgency, http://www.fas.org/irp/cia/

product/insurgency.pdf.41. Ibid. 42. Marine Corps Warfighting Publication FM 3–24, Counterinsurgency 3–33.5

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), paragraph 1–2, 2.

Notes 191

43. National Defence University Press (2010), Insurgency: theory and practice, NDUP, http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/119629.pdf.

44. Hammes, T.X. (2006) The Sling and the Stone: On War in the 21st Century, St. Paul, MN Zenith Press, New York/London.

45. CIA, Guide to Analysis of Insurgency.46. Ibid.47. Ibid.48. Rotberg, R. (2002) Failed states in a world of terror, Foreign, p. 2.49. Crisis Research Centre (2012), Department for International Development at

London School of Economics and Political Science, http://www.crisisstates.com/.

50. United States, Fragile States Strategy 2005, http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pdaca999.pdf.

51. OECD (2013), OECD Fragile States, http://www.oecd.org/dac/incaf/FragileStates2013.pdf.

52. World Bank, Fragile States Index, http://www.worldbank.org/ida/theme-conflict.html

53. Rotberg, Robert I. (2002) The new nature of nation-state failure, The Washington Quarterly, Vol 25, No. 3.

54. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Economic Development (OECD) (2008) Concepts and dilemmas of state building in fragile situations: from fragility to resilience, OECD/DAC Discussion Paper Series, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/59/51/41100930.pdf.

55. World Bank, Fragile States Index.56. Foreign Policy and Fund for Peace, Conflict Assessment Tools, http://global.

fundforpeace.org/cewa.57. Rice, Susan E. and Patrick, Stewart (2008) Index of state weakness in the devel-

oping world, Brookings Institute for Peace Studies.58. Ibid.59. OECD, Concepts and dilemmas of state building in fragile situations.60. Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (2010)

Promoting resilient states and constructive state-society relations – legitimacy, transparency and accountability, Special Report No. 168, http://www.bmz.de/en/publications/type_of_publication/strategies/spezial168.pdf.

61. World Bank (2009) Making development climate resilient: a World bank strategy for Sub-Saharan Africa, World Bank Annual Report, http:// siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRICA/Resources/Overview_of_Strategy.pdf.

62. Patrick, Stewart and Brown, Kaysie (2007) Greater than the Sum of Its Parts? Asse s s-ing Whole of Government Approaches to Fragile States, International Peace Academy.

63. Bjergo, Root Causes of Terrorism.

2 Assessing the Connections Between State Failure, Insurgency, and Terrorism

1. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks (2004) 9/11 Commission Report, W.W Norton & Co Inc, New York, p. 361.

2. Takeyh, Ray and Gvosdev, Nikolas (2002) Do terrorist networks need a home?, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 3 Summer, pp. 97–108.

192 Notes

3. Ghulam M. Haniff (2009) Is Pakistan a Failed State? Hamara Pakistan, http://hamarapakistan1947.wordpress.com/2009/09/16/is-pakistan-a-failed-state/.

4. ITS (2008) Concepts of Terrorism: Analysis of the rise, decline, trends and risks European Commission FP6 Program, http://www.transnationalterrorism.eu/tekst/publications/WP3%20Del%205.pdf.

5. Newman, Edward (2007) Weak states, state failure and terrorism, Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 463–488, and Hehir, Aiden (2007) The myth of the failed state and the war on terror, Journal of Intervention and State-building, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 307–332.

6. Menkhaus, Ken (2003) Quasi-states, nation-building and terrorist safe havens, Journal of Conflict Studies, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 7–23, and Von Hippel, Karin (2002) The roots of terrorism: probing the myths, The Political Quarterly, Vol. 73, No. 25, pp. 1–39.

7. Dublin Embassy (2004) Country Reports on Terrorism 2004 – State Department Identifies 40 Foreign Terrorist Organisations, http://dublin.usembassy.gov/ ireland/terror_organisations.html.

8. National Counterterrorism Centre (2012), Worldwide Incidents Tracking System https://wits.nctc.gov/FederalDiscoverWITS/index.do?t=Reports&Rcv=Incident&Nf=p_IncidentDate%7CGTEQ+20080101%7C%7Cp_IncidentDate%7CLTEQ+20081231&N=0 and Fund for Peace Failed State Index http://www.fundforpeace.org/global/?q=fsi-grid2011.

9. National Counterterrorism Centre, Worldwide Incidents Tracking System.10. Hehir, Aiden (2007) The myth of the failed state and the war on terror, Journal

of Intervention and State-building, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 307–332.11. Von Keppel, Giles (2002) Jihad and the Trail of Political Islamism, Belknap

Press, Cambridge, p. 303.12. Fund for Peace (2008) Failed State Index 2011, http://ffp.statesindex.org/

rankings-2011-sortable.13. Innes, M. (2005) Terrorism sanctuaries and Bosnia-Herzegovina: challenging

conventional assumptions, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, Vol. 28, No. 4, p. 298.

3 Afghanistan: State Failure, Terrorism, and Insurgencyin Context – Part 1

1. BBC (2012), Focus on Afghanistan, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12011352.

2. Goodson, Larry P. (2001) Afghanistan’s Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics and the Rise of the Taliban, University of Washington Press, Washington D.C, p. 12.

3. Crews, Robert D. and Tarzai, Amin (2008) The Taliban and the Crisis of Afghanistan, Harvard University Press, USA, p. 11.

4. Nojumi, Neamatollah (2002) The Rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan: Mass Mobilisation, Civil War and the Future of the Region, Palgrave, New York, p. 22.

5. Goodson, Afghanistan’s Endless War, p. ix.6. Rotberg, Robert (2007) Building a New Afghanistan, Brookings Institute Press,

Washington D.C, p. 57.7. Nojumi, The Rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan, p. 74.

Notes 193

8. InfoPlease (2011) Afghan History – Early History, Pearson Family Education Network, http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/world/afghanistan- history.html.

9. Tanner, Stephen (2009) Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban, Da Capo Press, Philadelphia, p. 218.

10. InfoPlease, Pearson Family Education Network.11. Nojumi, The Rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan, p. 15.12. US Department of State, Diplomacy in Action – Background Note: Afghanistan,

November 2008 http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5380.htm.13. Ritscher, Adam, A Brief History of Afghanistan, http://afghangovernment.

com/briefhistory.htm.14. US Department of State, ‘Diplomacy in Action – Background Note:

Afghanistan’.15. Nojumi, The Rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan, p. 14.16. US Department of State, Diplomacy in Action – Background Note: Afghanistan.17. Rubin, Barnett R. (2002) The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, Yale University

Press, London, p. 17.18. Margesson, Rhoda (2007) Afghan Refugees: Current Status and Future

Prospects, CRS Report for Congress, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33851.pdf.

19. US Department of State, Diplomacy in Action – Background Note: Afghanistan.20. Singh, K. R. (2004) Post-war Afghanistan: reconstructing a failed state,

Strategic Analysis, Vol. 28, No. 4.21. Nojumi, The Rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan, p. 85.22. Crews and Tarzai, The Taliban and the Crisis of Afghanistan, p. 248.23. Nojumi, The Rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan, p. 228.24. Ibid., p. 184.25. Goodson, Afghanistan’s Endless War, p. 73.26. Nojumi, The Rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan, p. 115.27. Rashid, Ahmed (1994) Advantage Rabbani, Far Eastern Economic Review, July

7, 1994, p. 22.28. Coll, Steve and Rupert James (1990) Afghan rebels veto drive for Kabul, The

Washington Post, November 28, 1990, pp. 27–28.29. Gall, Sandy (1994) An interview with Commander Ahmed Shah Massoud,

Asian Affairs Journal, The Royal Society Asian Affairs, Vol. 25, pp. 141–142.30. Rubin, The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, p. 164.31. Rashid, Ahmed (1990) Friendless foe, Far Eastern Economic Review, October

25, p. 18.32. Maley, William (2001) Fundamentalism Reborn? Afghanistan and the Taliban,

Hurst & Company, London, p. 43.33. Ibid., p. 69.34. Tanner, Afghanistan, p. 285.35. Kakar, Kuwan (2000) An Introduction to the Taliban, Institute for Afghan

Studies, Kabul, Afghanistan, p. 23.36. Coll, Steve (2004) Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan and

Bin Laden, From the Soviet Invasion to September 11 2001, Library of Congress New York, p. 509.

37. National Geographic (2011) Inside the Taliban, http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/episodes/inside-the-taliban/.

194 Notes

38. Kaplan, Robert D. (2010) Man versus Afghanistan, The Atlantic, April.39. Federation of American Scientists (2008), Report of Accountability Review

Boards – Bombings of US Embassies in Kenya and Dar es Salaam, http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/arb/board_daressalaam.html.

40. Perl, Raphael and O’Rourke, Ronald. (2001), Terrorist Attack on USS Cole: Background and Issues for Congress, CRS Report for Congress, January 30, 2001.

41. Junger, Sebastian, Afghanistan’s slain rebel leader, National Geographic http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/0111/junger.html.

42. Oamid Afghanistan News Corporation (2001) Afghanistan’s Massoud says trip to West a success, http://www.afghanistannewscenter.com/news/2001/april/apr10c2001.html.

43. Kakar, Palwasha, (2006) Tribal Law of Pashtunwali and Women’s Legislative Authority, Harvard Law Review 2006, Massachusetts.

44. Dorronsoro, Giles (2009) The Taliban’s Winning Strategy in Afghanistan, Carnegie Endowment for Peace.

45. PBS Frontline (2009), The Return of the Taliban, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/taliban/tribal/map.html.

46. Stratfor, The Taliban In Afghanistan: An Assessment, September 28, 2009.47. New York Times, Afghanistan: An Overview, March 24, 2010, http://topics.

nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/afghanistan/index.html.

48. CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html.

49. Fund for Peace (2010), Failed State Index 2010, http://www.fundforpeace.org/global/library/cr-10-99-fs-failedstatesindex2010-1103g.pdf.

50. Fund for Peace (2011), Country Assessment – Afghanistan, http://www.fundforpeace.org/global/states/ccppr11af-countryprofile-afghanistan-11t pdf.

51. Corruption Perception Index (2009), Transparency International, London, UK, http://www.transparency.org/research/cpi/cpi.

52. US National Council (2008), Global Trends 2025, http://www.aicpa.org/research/cpahorizons2025/globalforces/downloadabledocuments/globaltrends.pdf.

53. Brigadier Rashid Wali Janjua (2009) State failure in Afghanistan and security challenges for Pakistan, Canadian Army Journal, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 9–29, http://www.researchgate.net/publication/237510792_STATE_FAILURE_IN_AFGHANISTAN_AND_SECURITY_CHALLENGES_FOR_PAKISTAN.

54. Dorronsoro, The Taliban’s Winning Strategy in Afghanistan.55. Rotberg, Building a New Afghanistan.56. Mullen, Rani D. (2008) Democracy building at the precipice in Afghanistan,

Taiwan Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 55–83.57. Rotberg, Building a New Afghanistan, p. 218.58. Ibid., p. 224.59. Mullen, Democracy Building at the Precipice in Afghanistan.60. Huria, Sonali (2009) Failed states and foreign military intervention: the

Afghanistan imbroglio, IPCS Special Report, No. 67, March.61. Cole, Beth Ellen (2007) Afghanistan’s economy: on the right road, but

still a long way to go, United States Institute for Peace, http://www.usip.org/publications/afghanistans-economy-the-right-road-still-long-way-go.

Notes 195

62. Ibid.63. Rotberg, Building a New Afghanistan, p. 198.64. Shahrani, Nazif M. (2002) War, factionalism and the state in Afghanistan – in

focus September 11 2001, American Anthropologist, Vol. 104, No. 3.65. Dorronsoro, The Taliban’s Winning Strategy in Afghanistan.66. Bajoria, Jayshree (2009) The troubled Afghan–Pakistani border,

Council on Foreign Relations, March 20, http://www.cfr.org/pakistan/troubled- afghan-pakistani-border/p14905.

67. Roy and Zahab (2004) Islamist Networks: The Afghan–Pakistan Connection, p. 109.68. STRATFOR (2010) Afghanistan at the crossroads, STRATFOR Global Intelligence.69. Rashid, Ahmed (2009) The Afghan impasse, New York Review of Books,

September 16.70. Sinno, Abdulkader H (2008) Achieve counter-insurgency cooperation in

Afghanistan by resolving the Indo-Pakistani rivalry, NBR Analysis, Vol. 19, No. 5.71. Population Action International (2011) Topic – Afghanistan, http://population

action.org/topics/7-billion/.72. Beehner, Lionel (2007) The effects of youth bulge on civil conflicts,

Council on Foreign Relations, April 27, http://www.cfr.org/world/effects-youth-bulge-civil-conflicts/p13093.

73. Rotberg, Building a New Afghanistan, p. 192.74. Beehner, The effects of youth bulge on civil conflicts.75. Giustozzi, Antonio (2010) Nation-building is not for all – the politics of

education in Afghanistan, Afghanistan Analysts Network, February.76. Boone, Joe (2010) Afghanistan civilian deaths up 31% this year, says United

Nations, Guardian Online, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/aug/10/afghanistan-civilian-deaths-up-un.

77. Rogers, Simon (2010) Afghanistan civilian casualties: year by year, month by month, Guardian Online, August 13, http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2010/aug/10/afghanistan-civilian-casualties-statistics#.

78. UNAMA, Afghanistan mid-year report 2010 protection of civilians in armed conflict, August 2010.

79. Giustozzi, Nation-building is not for all – the politics of education in Afghanistan.

80. Louise, Christopher (1995) The social impacts of light weapons availability and proliferation, Journal of Humanitarian Assistance, March 1, https://www.essex.ac.uk/armedcon/story_id/Social%20Impact%20.pdf.

81. Ibid.82. Bhatia, Michael V. (2008) Afghanistan and Conflict: Armed Groups, Disarmament

and Security in a Post-War Society Routledge Press p. 119.83. OECD (2005) ‘Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW)’, Development

Assistance Committee (DAC) OECD – Mainstreaming Conflict Prevention Issues Brief.

84. Louise, ‘The Social Impacts of Light Weapons Availability and Proliferation’.85. Chopan, Saghar and Daud, Malaiz (2009) Political leadership in post-Taliban

Afghanistan: the critical factor, in Afghanistan 1979–2009: in the grip of conflict, The Middle East Institute – Viewpoints Special Edition.

86. Sinha, Shakti (2009) Legitimacy or credibility? The case of Afghanistan, in Afghanistan 1979–2009: in the grip of conflict, The Middle East Institute – Viewpoints Special Edition, Washington D.C.

196 Notes

87. Chopan and Daud, Political leadership in post-Taliban Afghanistan: the critical factor.

88. Leipold, J. D. (2009) Government reform key to Afghanistan, United States Army, October 27, http://www.army.mil/article/29411/government-reform-key-to-afghanistan-says-kilcullen.

4 Afghanistan: State Failure, Terrorism, and Insurgencyin Context – Part 2

1. National Counterterrorism Centre (2011) Report on Terrorism National Counterterrorism Centre Washington D.C http://fas.org/irp/threat/nctc2011.pdf; and Counterterrorism Calendar (2012) Terrorist groups, National Counter Terrorism Centre, http://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/index.html.

2. Williams, Brian G. (2007) Suicide Bombings in Afghanistan, Islamic Affairs Analyst, September, http://www.brianglynwilliams.com/IAA%20suicide.pdf.

3. Coll, Steve (2004) Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan and Bin Laden, From the Soviet Invasion to September 11 2001, Library of Congress, p. 129.

4. Williams, Suicide Bombings in Afghanistan. 5. Stern, Jessica (2003) Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill,

pp. 283–288. 6. Ibid. 7. Turner, Bryan S. (ed.) (1970) From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, Gerth and

Wright Mills, Oxon New York, p. 36. 8. Johnson, Thomas H. and Mason, Chris M. (2009) Democracy in Afghanistan

is wishful thinking, Christian Science Monitor, August 20, 2009, http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2009/0820/p09s01-coop.html

9. Ibid.10. Centre for American Progress (2009) Building democracy in Afghanistan.11. Burki, Shireen K. (2010) Bold move to save Afghanistan: bring back a king,

Christian Science Monitor.12. CNN (2010) Can democracy work in Afghanistan, CNN News, http://

afghanistan.blogs.cnn.com/2009/12/11/can-democracy-work-in-afghanistan/.13. Chief of Staff, Pentagon (2010) Report on Progress Toward Security and Stability

in Afghanistan and United States Plan for Sustaining the Afghanistan National Security Forces, Department of Defence, Washington D.C, April 2010.

14. Evans, Ann, Manning, Nick, Osmani, Yasin, Tulley, Anne, and Wilder, Andrew (2004) A Guide to Government in Afghanistan, World Bank and Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit.

15. Ghani, Ashraf (2009) A ten year framework for Afghanistan, Atlantic Council, April 2009, http://www.operationspaix.net/DATA/DOCUMENT/5176~v~A_Ten-Year_Framework_for_Afghanistan__Executing_the_Obama_Plan____And_Beyond.pdf

16. Goodson, Larry P. (2001) Afghanistan’s Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics and the Rise of the Taliban, University of Washington Press, Washington D.C, p. 204.

Notes 197

17. Carnegie Endowment for Peace (2009) Finding the right grand strategy in Afghanistan – success in Afghanistan: searching for the right formula, May 12, Transcript of Annual Conference, Washington D.C

18. Rubin, Barnett R. (2002) The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, Yale University Press New, Haven and London, p. 169.

19. Fange, Anders (2010) The state of the Afghan state, Afghanistan Analysts Network, Germany and Afghanistan.

20. Lane, Tom (2010) UN Leader Ban Ki-moon gives Afghanistan a warning, January 5, BBC News http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8440602.stm

21. Ghani, A ten year framework for Afghanistan.22. US Department of State (2009) International Religious Freedom Report 2009 –

Afghanistan, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2009/127362.htm.23. Filkins, Dexter (2010) Overture to Taliban jolts Afghan minorities, New York

Times, June 26, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/27/world/asia/27afghan.html.

24. Wadhams, Caroline and Cookman, Colin (2010) Assessing peace prospects in Afghanistan – the Peace Jirga and President Karzai’s new peace deal, Centre for American Progress, June 1, http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/peace_jirga.html.

25. Filkins, Overture to Taliban jolts Afghan minorities.26. Woodrow Wilson Centre (2004) Political transition in Afghanistan: the state,

Islam and civil society, Asia Program, Special Report No. 122, June, http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/asiarpt122.pdf.

27. Naysan Adlparvar (2009) Democracy for Afghanistan, Institute of Development Studies, http://www.ids.ac.uk/go/news/democracy-for-afghanistan.

28. Shiri, Arif (2009) Does democracy have a future in Afghanistan? – Flaws in election process casting doubts, Kabul Press, September 19, http://kabulpress.org/my/spip.php?article4067.

29. Asian Development Bank (2007) Fighting Corruption in Afghanistan: A Roadmap for Strategy and Action, February 16, 2007, http://www.unodc.org/pdf/afg/anti_corruption_roadmap.pdf.

30. Integrity Watch Afghanistan (2010) Afghan Perceptions and Experiences of Corruption, http://www.iwaweb.org/corruptionSurvey2010/NationalCorruption2010.html.

31. Chief of Staff, Report on Progress Toward Security and Stability in Afghanistan and United States Plan for Sustaining the Afghanistan National Security Forces, Washington D.C.

32. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2010, A/64/705 S/2010/127, http://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/World_Drug_Report_2010_lo-res.pdf.

33. United States Institute of Peace, Establishing the rule of law in Afghanistan, Special Report 117, March 2004, http://www.usip.org/files/resources/sr117.pdf.

34. Ibid.35. Harvard National Security Journal (2009) NSJ Analysis: Connecting the Rule of Law

with Afghanistan’s Security Strategy, November 5, http://harvardnsj.org/2009/11/nsj-analysis-connecting-the-rule-of-law-with-afghanistans-security-strategy/.

36. National Human Development Report (2004) Security With a Human Face: challenges and responsibilities, UNDP Afghanistan, http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/afghanistan_2004_en.pdf

198 Notes

37. Asian Development Bank, Fighting Corruption in Afghanistan.38. IFAD (2010) Rural poverty in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Rural

Poverty Portal, http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/web/guest/country/home/tags/afghanistan.

39. Ibid.40. CIA, World Factbook (2012) Afghanistan, CIA https://www.cia.gov/library/

publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html.41. World Health Organization, Country Health Profile, http://www.who.int/gho/

countries/afg.pdf.42. Cordesman, Anthony H. and Mausner, Adam (2010) Agriculture, food and

poverty in Afghanistan: is a population-centric strategy possible?, Centre for Strategic and International Studies, April 26, http://csis.org/publication/agriculture-food-and-poverty-afghanistan.

43. Rural Poverty Portal (2010) Rural Poverty in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, International Fund for Agricultural Development Rome, http://www. ruralpovertyportal.org/web/guest/country/home/tags/afghanistan.

44. Cordesman, Anthony (2010) Shape, clear, hold, build and transfer: the metrics of the Afghan War, Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), January 12, http://csis.org/files/publication/100112_AfghanLngMetrics.pdf.

45. Budget for 1386 (2007–2008) Afghan Ministry of Finance, and Aid Effectiveness and the Role of Civil Society Organisations, Afghan Ministry of Finance, January 2008, and Improving Aid Effectiveness for Reducing Poverty, Draft, Afghan Government January 2008, p. 1.

46. World Bank (2005) Afghanistan: Managing Public Finance for Development, December.

47. Waldman, Matt (2008) ‘Falling short: aid effectiveness in Afghanistan’, ACBAR Advocacy Series, March, http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/6B8F790E6E26231EC1257412004B5482-Full_Report.pdf.

48. RAND (2005) The UN’s Role in Nation-Building: From Congo to Iraq. 49. Waldman, Matt (2008) Falling short: aid effectiveness in Afghanistan, http://

reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/6B8F790E6E26231EC1257412004B5482-Full_Report.pdf.

50. World Bank, Afghanistan. 51. AFP (2009) Afghan insurgency inspiring new fighters: analysts, January

12, http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Afghan+insurgency+inspiring+new+fighters%3A+analysts-a01611765724.

52. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) Focus on Afghanistan: A Long Road to Recovery, July 2009, http://www.jica.go.jp/english/news/focus_on/afghanistan/afghanistan_1.html.

53. Rotberg, Robert (2007) Building a New Afghanistan, p. 12.54. Pentagon (2010) Report on progress toward security and stability in

Afghanistan and United States plans for sustaining the Afghanistan national security forces, Pentagon Congressional Report, April 24, http://www.defense.gov/pubs/pdfs/Report_Final_SecDef_04)26)10.pdf.

55. USAID (2009) Afghanistan: Economic Growth, Fall Report, http://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/economic-growth.

56. CIA, World Factbook – Afghanistan. 57. Rotberg, Building a New Afghanistan, p. 201.58. UNODC, World Drug Report 2010.

Notes 199

59. Rotberg, Building a New Afghanistan, p. 20560. STRATFOR, Afghanistan at the Crossroads.61. Ibid.62. UNODC, World Drug Report 2010.63. NATO, Afghanistan Report 2009, http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/

pdf_2009_03/20090331_090331_afghanistan_report_2009.pdf.64. Rotberg, Building a New Afghanistan, p. 102.65. World Health Organization (2010) Progress in the prevention of injuries in

the WHO European Region, Country Reports, http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/98718/Ireland.pdf.

66. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2011) Feature article: Population by age, sex, Australian states and territories, Australian Government Bureau of Statistics, http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/featurearticlesbyReleaseDate/AE3CAF747F4751CDCA2579CF000F9ABC?OpenDocument.

67. Central Intelligence Agency (2012) Country Study – Saudi Arabia, CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/print/country/countrypdf_sa.pdf

68. Tripathi, Deepak (2010) American afflictions – Afghanistan, Iraq and a growing culture of violence, May 13, http://antiisgood.wordpress.com/2010/05/13/american-afflictions-afghanistan-iraq-and-a-growing-culture-of-violence/.

69. Nordland, Rod (2010) Violence up sharply in Afghanistan, NY Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/20/world/asia/20afghan.html.

70. Mather, Dave, Afghanistan: foreign intervention and social transformation, Critique, Vol. 34, http://www.critiquejournal.net/dmather34.pdf.

71. Harper, Stephen (2009) Foreign troops can’t defeat Afghanistan’s insurgency: Harper, CBC News, March 1, http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/03/01/cnn-harper.html.

72. STRATFOR, Afghanistan at the Crossroads.73. Ibid.74. Ibid.75. Nagra, Bunn (2010) US-NATO occupation forces in Afghanistan: pullout or

chased out? Global Research, April 25, http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=18853.

76. Rubin, Barnett R. and Siddique, Abubakar, Resolving the Pakistan–Afghanistan Stalemate, United States Institute of Peace, Special Report, http://www.usip.org/files/resources/SRoct06.pdf.

77. Rashid, Ahmed (2000) Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia, p. 202.

78. International Crisis Group (2007) Pakistan’s tribal areas: appeasing the militants, Asia Report, No. 125, December 11, 2006.

79. Rasul, Bakhsh Rats (2008) Afghanistan and Pakistan: difficult neighbours, in ‘Post-September 11 Afghanistan–Pakistan relations: prospects for counter-insurgency cooperation’, National Bureau of Asian Research, Vol. 19, No. 5, December, http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=361.

80. Ibid.81. Dorronsoro, Giles (2011) Afghanistan: the impossible transition, The Carnegie

Papers, June Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington, D.C.82. SIGAR (2011) Despite Improvements in MOI’s personnel systems, additional

actions are needed to completely verify ANP payroll costs and workforce

200 Notes

strength. Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction, April 25, http://www.sigar.mil/pdf/audits/2011-04-25audit-11-10.pdf.

83. Dorronsoro, Afghanistan: the impossible transition.84. Ibid.

5 Pakistan: State Failure, Terrorism, and Insurgency in Context – Part 1

1. Levy, Bernard-Henry (2003) The Cauldron, New Republic, June 16, p. 31. 2. Hussain, Zahid (2007) Frontline Pakistan: The Struggle with Militant Islam

Columbia University Press, New York. 3. Cohen, Stephen Philip (2004) The Idea of Pakistan, Brookings Institution

Washington D.C p. 2 4. Rotberg, Robert (2003) State Failure and State Weakness in a Time of Terror.

Brookings Institute, Washington D.C. 5. Iqbal Academy Scandinavia, Dr. Iqbal’s Poetry, IAS Scandinavia, http://www.

allamaiqbal.com/ias/iqbalspoetryfaisalhanif.html. 6. Haqqani, Husain (2005) Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military, Carnegie

Endowment for International Peace, Washington D.C. 7. Jones, Rodney (2001) The prospects for state failure in Pakistan: ethnic,

regional and sectarian fissures summary, Session on the Future of Pakistan: Prospects of State Failure, May 1, http://www.policyarchitects.org/pdf/Pak_statefailure_ExSumm.pdf.

8. Gunaratna, Rohan, Terrorism in Southeast Asia: threat and response. Centre for Eurasian Policy Occasional Research Paper: Series 2 (Islamism in Southeast Asia), No. 1.

9. Kukreja, Veena (2003) Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts and Crises Sage Publications, New Delhi.

10. The History of Pakistan (2010) Muhammad Ali Jinnah [1876–1948], Peshawar Pakistan, http://storyofpakistan.com/muhammad-ali-jinnah/.

11. Kukreja, Contemporary Pakistan.12. Cohen, Stephen Philip, The nation and state of Pakistan, The Washington

Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 3, p. 112.13. New World Encyclopaedia – Liaquat Ali Khan, http://www.newworldencyclo-

pedia.org/entry/Liaquat_Ali_Khan, Accessed 12/2/09.14. Britannica (2008), History of Pakistan, Encyclopaedia Britannica, http://

www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/438805/Pakistan/214492/History#ref387253,

15. http://www.storyofpakistan.com/.16. Kapur, Ashok (1991) Pakistan in Crisis, Routledge, London. 17. Lyon, Peter (2008) Roots of Modern Conflict: Conflict between India and Pakistan –

An Encyclopaedia, ABC-CLIO Publications, Washington D.C.18. Pakistan People’s Party (2012) Brief History of Pakistan, http://asiasociety.

org/agha-muhammad/pakistan-political-history. 19. Story of Pakistan.com (2009) Story of Pakistan, http://storyofpakistan.com/

legal-framework-order/. 20. Haqqani, Hussain, Between Mosque and Military.21. Story of Pakistan.com, (2009) Story of Pakistan, http://storyofpakistan.com/

general-elections-1977/.

Notes 201

22. Kukreja, Contemporary Pakistan23. Abbas, Hassan (2009) Pakistan’s Troubled Frontier, The Jamestown Foundation,

Washington D.C 24. Coll, Steve (2004) Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and

Bin Laden, From the Soviet Invasion to September 11 2001, Penguin Books,New York.

25. Global Security, Benazir Bhutto, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/benazir-bhutto.htm.

26. Christi, Ali (2008), MQM – History and Origins, http://www.dawn.com/news/1027569/timeline-a-history-of-mqm.

27. Haqqani, Husain Between Mosque and Military 28. National Assembly of Pakistan (2003) Pakistan: Parliamentary chamber:

National Assembly 1988 Elections, http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc/2241_88.htm.

29. Kukreja, Contemporary Pakistan.30. US Library of Congress, Government of Pakistan, http://countrystudies.us/

pakistan/76.htm.31. National Assembly of Pakistan (2011) Pakistan: A Brief Parliamentary History,

Pakistan State Government, http://www.na.gov.pk/en/content.php?id=75.32. Cohen, The Idea of Pakistan.33. United States Department of State (2012), State Sponsors of Terrorism Annual

List,http://www.state.gov/j/ct/list/c14151.htm.34. Abbas, Hassan (2005) Pakistan’s Drift into Extremism: Allah, the Army and

America’s War on Terror, East Gate Publications, Washington D.C.35. Saeed, Naima (2008), Impact of Globalisation on Pakistan’s Economy, http://

www.pide.org.pk/pdf/psde%2018AGM/ImpactofGlobalizationOnPakistans.pdf,

36. Malik, Iftikhar (2008) The History of Pakistan, Greenwood Publishers, Calafornia.

37. BBC (2010), How the 1999 Pakistan coup unfolded, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6960670.stm.

38. Haqqani, Husain Between Mosque and Military.39. Markey, Daniel (2008) Securing Pakistan’s tribal belt, Council on Foreign

Relations Centre for Preventative Action, Council Special Report No. 36, August.40. Hussain, Zahid (2008) Frontline Pakistan: The Path to Catastrophe and the

Killing of Benazir Bhutto, I. B. Tauris & Company.41. Gardner, Simon (2007) Pakistan lawyers strike to protest Musharraf purge,

Media Island International, http://mobile.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSISL28295920071205?src=RSS-TOP.

42. Chomsky, Noam (2008) Pakistan: a failed state?, Business Standard, 3 February.

43. CIA World Factbook (2012) Central Intelligence Agency USA https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html.

44. Fund for Peace (2013) Failed State Index: An Overview, http://ffp.statesindex.org/fsi14-countryanalysis

45. Synnott, Hilary (2009) What is happening in Pakistan, Survival, Vol. 1, No. 51, pp. 61–80.

46. Fund for Peace (2014) Failed State Index, Fund for Peace Washington D.C http://ffp.statesindex.org/rankings-2014.

202 Notes

47. CBC (2013) Islam’s sectarain split, CNC News, http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/map-sectarian-tension/.

48. Schmidt, John R. (2009) The unravelling of Pakistan, Survival, Vol. 51, No. 3, pp. 29–54.

49. Root, Hilton (2005) Pakistan, The Milken Institute Review, Second Quarter, http://www.milkeninstitute.org/publications/review/2005_6/64_74mr26.pdf

50. Schmidt, The unravelling of Pakistan.51. Lynch, Abigail, Pakistan: the nuclear state at a precipice, http://www.vtu.

edu/PakistanTheNuclearStateatthePrecipice.html.52. Synnott, What is happening in Pakistan.53. Solomon, Hussein and Cornelia, Conem (2004) The state and conflict in the

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Scientia Militaria South African Journal of Military Studies, Vol. 32, No. 1.

54. Failed State Index, (2009) 2009 Annual Report Country Index, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/06/22/2009_failed_states_index_interactive_map_and_rankings.

55. Warsyed, A. N. Institutional Weakness, DAWN Pakistan, October 18, 2009, http://www.dawn.com/news/497090/institutional-weaknesses.

56. Ibid.57. US News (2009), Obama worries about weakness of Pakistan’s government,

April 30, 2009,http://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2009/04/28/why-the-obama-administration-is-so-worried-about-pakistan.

58. Muhammad, Sultan (2012) Educational statistics of Pakistan, Academy of Educational Planning and Management, http://www.aepam.edu.pk/Files/EducationStatistics/PakistanEducationStatistics2011-12.pdf.

59. See Ministry of Education Pakistan (2012) Education Statistics Pakistan Pakistan-UNICEF, http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/pakistan_pakistan_statistics.html and http://acr.hrschool.org/mainfile.php/0211/410/.

60. Akram, Muhammad and Khan, Faheem Jehangir (2007) Healthcare services and government spending in Pakistan, Working Papers, Pakistan Institute of Development Economic, http://www.pide.org.pk/pdf/Working%20Paper/WorkingPaper-32.pdf

61. UNICEF (2010) Pakistan: military spending at the expense of children’s health, http://acr.hrschool.org/mainfile.php/0211/410/.

62. Kfir, Isaac (2007) The crisis of Pakistan: a dangerously weak state, Global Politician, http://www.gloria-center.org/meria/2007/09/8.pdf

63. Roy, Oliver (2004) Islamist Networks: The Afghan-Pakistan Connection, Columbia University Press.Hurst London

64. Markey, Securing Pakistan’s tribal belt.65. Bindra, Satinder, (2001) India identifies terrorist training camps, CNN, http://

edition.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/central/09/19/inv.afghanistan.camp/.

66. Daniel, (2011) Speech of Senator Hillary Clinton, http://www.thaindian.com/ newsportal/world-news/cross-border-terrorism-hampering-afghanistan- pakistan-clinton_100277373.html.

67. International Institute for Strategic Studies (2010c) Military Balance 2009, http://www.iiss.org/publications/military-balance/.

68. Nawaz, Shuja (2009) Pakistan and the Taliban: leaders caught betwixt and between, Foreign Policy, http://afpak.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2009/08/10/pakistan_and_the_taliban_leaders_caught_betwixt_and_between.

Notes 203

69. Urdal, Henrik (2007) The demographics of political violence: youth bulges, insecurity and conflict, in Brainard Lael and Chollet, Derek (eds) Too Poor for Peace? Global Poverty, Conflict and Security in the 21st Century, Brookings Institute, Washington D.C.

70. World Bank (2012) Population growth Pakistan, World Bank Country Studies, http://search.worldbank.org/all?qterm=population%20Pakistan.

71. Heinsohn, Gunnar (2007) Battle of the youth bulge, Weekly Standard, http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/014/415unyit.asp.

72. United Nations (2007) World Population Prospects: the 2006 revision, http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/English.pdf.

73. Moeed, Yusuf (2008) Prospects of Youth Radicalisation in Pakistan, Brookings Institute for Peace, http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2008/10/pakistan%20yusuf/10_pakistan_yusuf.pdf.

74. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, In-depth: guns out of control: the continuing threat of small arms, IRIN, http://www.irinnews.org/InDepthMain.aspx?InDepthId=8&ReportId=34290.

75. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2006) ‘In-Depth: Guns Out of Control’, http://www.irinnews.org/in-depth/58952/8/guns-out-of-control-the-continuing-threat-of-small-arms.

76. Global Policy Forum (2003) 18 million illegal weapons in country, DAWN Daily News Pakistan, https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/204-small-arms/42549.html.

77. Ministry of Interior (2008) Illegal gun rates in Pakistan increase, http://www.irinnews.org/in-depth/59075/8/south-africa-gun-crime-continues-to-devastate-lives.

78. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2009) In-depth: guns out of control: the continuing threat of small arms.

79. BBC (2011) Key quotes from the document, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/newsnight/5388426.stm.

80. CBS News, Secretary Gates – Interview 60 Minutes, CBS News http://www.cbsnews.com/news/robert-gates-the-soldiers-secretary/.

81. Walsh, Declan (2006) Pakistan sheltering Taliban says British officer, The Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/may/19/pakistan.alqaida.

82. Council on Foreign Relations (2011) A conversation with Pervez Musharraf, http://www.cfr.org/publication/11540/.

83. Ziring, L. (2004) Pakistan at the Crosscurrent of History, Vanguard Books, Lahore.84. Jones, Seth G. (2007) Pakistan’s Dangerous Game, Survival, Vol. 49, No. 1

pp. 15–32.85. Byman, Daniel (2005) Deadly Connections: States that Sponsor Terrorism,

Cambridge University Press, New York.86. Kronstadt, K. Alan (2003) International terrorism in South Asia, CRS Report

for Congress, November 3, 2003.87. Chossudovsky, Michel (2008) India’s 9/11: who was behind the Mumbai

attacks, Global Research – Centre for Research on Globalisation, http://www.globalresearch.ca/india-s-9-11-who-was-behind-the-mumbai-attacks/11217.

88. Chalk, Peter (2009) Pakistan’s role in the Kashmir insurgency, RAND, http://www.rand.org/blog/2001/09/pakistans-role-in-the-kashmir-insurgency.html

89. Jones, Pakistan’s dangerous game.

204 Notes

6 Pakistan: State Failure, Terrorism, and Insurgencyin Context – Part 2

1. Pakistan Institute for Peace Studies (2010) Pakistan Security Report 2009, http://san-pips.com/.

2. Walsh, Declan (2010) Pakistan suffers record number of deaths due to mili-tant violence, The Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jan/11/pakistan-militant-violence-death-toll.

3. Khan, Aarish Ullah (2005) The terrorist threat and the policy response in Pakistan, Policy Paper No. 11, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI).

4. Lynch, Thomas F. (2008) Sunni and Shia terrorism: differences that matter, Combatting Terrorism Centre, Occasional Paper, December 29.

5. South Asia Terrorism Portal (2011) Terrorism in Pakistan, http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/pakistan/terroristoutfits/group_list.htm; and Counterterrorism Calendar (2012) Terrorist Groups, National Counter Terrorism Centre, http://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/index.html.

6. Khan, The terrorist threat and the policy response in Pakistan. 7. Bajoria, Jayshree (2011) The ISI and terrorism: behind the accusations,

Council on Foreign Relations, http://www.cfr.org/pakistan/isi-terrorism-behind-accusations/p11644.

8. Synnott, Hillary (2009) What is happening in Pakistan, Survival, Vol. 51, No. 1, p. 76.

9. New America Foundation (2011) FATA: Inside Pakistan’s tribal regions, New American Foundation Online, http://pakistansurvey.org/.

10. Ali, Tariq (2008) The Duel: Pakistan on the Flight Path of American Power, Pocket Books, London, p. 53.

11. Bajoria, Jayshree, Pakistan’s fragile foundations, Council on Foreign Relations, March 2009, http://www.cfr.org/pakistan/pakistans-fragile-foundations/p18749.

12. Hussain, Zahid (2007) Frontline Pakistan: The Struggle with Militant Islam I.B Tauris Books p. 61.

13. Alagappa, Muthiah (2001) Coercion and Governance: The Declining Political Role of the Military in Asia, Stanford University Press, California, p. 389.

14. Abbas, Hassan (2005) Pakistan’s Drift into Extremism, East Gate Books, New York p. 78.

15. Rashid, Ahmed (2008) Descent into chaos: the US and the disaster in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia, Penguin Books, New York.

16. Haqqani, Hussain, The role of Islam in Pakistan’s future, The Washington Quarterly, Winter 2004–2005, http://khakh.yolasite.com/resources/winter_haqqani.pdf.

17. Baker, Aryn (2009) ‘Pakistan’s Army Gets Serious’, TIME Magazine, November 9, p. 33.

18. ibid., p. 34.19. Ibid., p. 35.20. Alam, Muhammad Badar, Pakistan: Marginalisation and discrimination

against the minorities, The Dawn, September 15, 2009, http://www.sacw.net/article1113.html.

Notes 205

21. Kukreja, Veena (2003) Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts and Crises, Sage Publications, New Delhi.

22. Cohen, Stephen Philip (2004) The Idea of Pakistan, Brookings, Washington, D.C, p. 30.

23. Bajoria, Pakistan’s fragile foundations.24. Kukreja, Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts and Crises.25. Bakhshish Yousaf Chaudhry (2009) The Quaid and the ideology of Pakistan,

DAWN, August 16, 2009, http://notesonpakistan.blogspot.co.uk/2009/08/ideology-of-pakistan-in-light-of-quid-e.html

26. Mezzera, Marco and Aftab, Safiya (2009) Democratic and transitional justice cluster: country case study Pakistan – Pakistan state society analysis, Clingendael Netherlands Institute of International Relations, January 2009.

27. Wilke, Boris (2001) State formation and the military in Pakistan: reflections on the armed forces, their state and some of their competitors, Working Paper No. 2, University of Hamburg, Germany.

28. Mezzera and Aftab, Democratic and transitional justice cluster.29. Christie, Kenneth (2011) Abandoning the state, securing religion: Pakistan’s

identity politics, ECPR Annual Conference, August 25–27, University of Iceland.30. Chene, Marie Overview of corruption in Pakistan, Anti-Corruption

Resource Centre, August 2008, http://www.u4.no/helpdesk/helpdesk/query.cfm?id=174.

31. Corruption in Pakistan, Anti-Corruption Research Centre, http://www.u4.no/helpdesk/helpdesk/queries/query43.cfm.

32. Dawn Editorial (2009), Transparency International ranks Pakistan as the 42nd most corrupt state in the world. http://www.transparency.org.pk/news/newsdec09.php.

33. Haqqani, H. (2005) Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military, Carnegie Endowment for Peace, The Brookings Institution for Peace, Washington D.C.

34. Sinkler, Adrian (2005) Nations in Transition: Pakistan, Thomson Gale, New York.35. Khan, Adeel (2005) Politics of Identity: Ethnic Nationalism and the State in

Pakistan, Sage Publications, London, p. 90.36. World Vision (2010) Pakistan: Poverty Unveiled, http://meero.worldvision.

org/sf_pakistan.php.37. Senator Chuck Hagel and Senator John Kerry (2009) Needed: A com-

prehensive US policy towards Pakistan, A Report by the Atlantic Council, February 2009, http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/publications/reports/812-pakistan-report-comprehensive-us-policy-needed.

38. Ibid.39. Samuel Huntington (1968) Political Order in Changing Societies, Yale University,

New Haven, CT.40. Hagel and Kerry, A comprehensive US policy towards Pakistan41. CIA (2009) World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/

the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html.42. Index Mundi (2009) Pakistan Demographics Profile 2009, http://www.

indexmundi.com/pakistan/demographics_profile.html.43. Encyclopaedia of the Nations (2010) Pakistan – Religions, http://www.

nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Pakistan-RELIGIONS.html.44. Bajoria, Pakistan’s Fragile Foundations, Council on Foreign Relations.

206 Notes

45. Mezzera and Aftab Democratic and transitional justice cluster.46. Ahmad, Eqbal (1999) The roots of violence in Pakistani society, Akhbar, Vol.

5. http://www.indowindow.com/akhbar/article.php?article=80&category=5&issue=8.

47. Stern, Jessica (2003) Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill, ECCO Publications.

48. Kronstadt, K. Alan (2009) Pakistan–US Relations, Congressional Research Services Report, February 6.

49. Bruno, Greg (2008) US–Pakistan military cooperation, Council on Foreign Relations, June 26, http://www.cfr.org/publication/16644/uspakistan_ military_cooperation.html.

50. BBC (2002) Indo-Pakistan: Troubled Relations, http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/ english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/default.stm.

51. International Crisis Group (2010) Steps towards peace: putting Kashmir first, ICC Asia Brief, June.

52. Belasco, Amy (2011) The cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and other global war on terror operations since 9/11, Congressional Research Service, March 29, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL33110.pdf; and BBC (2011) Pakistan: US sus-pends $800m of military aid, BBC News South Asia, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14099402.

53. International Crisis Group (2012) Pakistan’s relations with India: beyond Kashmir, ICC Asia Report No. 224, May.

54. Ibid.

7 Iraq: State Failure, Terrorism,and Insurgencyin Context – Part 1

1. Dawisha, Adeed (2009) Iraq: A Political History from Independence to Occupation, Princeton University Press, New Jersey/London, p. 28

2. Miller, Deborah (2003) The War Against Iraq, The Lucent Terrorism Library, Farmington Hills USA.

3. Abdullah, Thabit A. J. (2006) Dictatorship, Imperialism & Chaos: Iraq Since 1989, Nova Scotia: Fernwood Publishing

4. Farouk-Sluglett, Marion and Sluglett, Peter (2001) Iraq Since 1958: From Revolution to Dictatorship, IB Tauris Press, London.

5. Ibid. 6. Abdullah, Dictatorship, Imperialism & Chaos 7. Tripp, Charles (2007) A History of Iraq, Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge USA. 8. Farouk-Sluglett and Sluglett, Iraq Since 1958. 9. Abdullah, Dictatorship, Imperialism & Chaos.10. Tripp, A History of Iraq.11. Ibid.12. Head, Tom (2010) The War Crimes of Saddam Hussein, http://civilliberty.

about.com/od/internationalhumanrights/p/saddam_hussein.htm.13. Tripp, A History of Iraq.14. Farouk-Sluglett and Sluglett, Iraq Since 1958.15. Tripp, A History of Iraq.

Notes 207

16. Global Security, Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/iran-iraq.htm.

17. Farouk-Sluglett and Sluglett, Iraq Since 1958.18. Tripp, A History of Iraq.19. Arnove, Anthony (2000) Iraq Under Siege: The Deadly Impact of Sanctions and

War, South End Press, Cambridge, MA.20. Dawisha, Iraq, p. 226.21. Farouk-Sluglett and Sluglett, Iraq Since 1958.22. Arnove, Iraq Under Siege.23. Ibid.24. Alnasrawi, Abbas (2001) Iraq: economic sanctions and consequences, 1990–

2000, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 22, No. 2.25. Mazaheri, Nimah (2010) Iraq and the domestic political effects of economic

sanctions, Middle East Journal, Vol. 64, No. 2, Spring 2010.26. Dodge, Toby (2005b) ‘Chapter Two: Rebuilding the Iraqi State’, Adelphi

Papers, Vol. 45 No. 372, pp. 25–42.27. Bensahel, Nora, Oliker, Olga, Crane, Keith, Brennan Jr., Richard R., Gregg,

Heather S, Sullivan, Thomas, and Rathmell, Andrew (2008) ‘After Saddam: Pre-war Planning and the Occupation of Iraq’ RAND Corporation Library of Congress Press, Virginia.

28. Dodge, Toby (2005a) Chapter One: Order and violence in post-Saddam Iraq, Adelphi Papers, Vol. 45, No. 372, pp. 9–23

29. Fattah, Hala (2009) A Brief History of Iraq, Library of Congress.30. Ibid. 31. Tripp, A History of Iraq.32. Cordesman, Anthony (2008) Iraq’s Insurgency and the Road to Civil Conflict,

Praeger Security International, Centre for Strategic and International Studies.

33. Baker, James A. and Hamilton, Lee H. (2009) The Iraq Study Group Report

34. Talanani, Jalal (2005) Shi’ite Alliance wins plurality in Iraq, CNN, February 14, http://edition.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/02/13/iraq.main/index.html?_s=PM:WORLD

35. Tripp, A History of Iraq.36. Hiltermann, Joost R. (2006) Elections and constitution writing in Iraq, 2005,

Middle East at the Crossroads, http://www.iemed.org/anuari/2006/aarticles/aHiltermann.pdf

37. Ibid.38. Whitehead, Douglas and Harnmeijer, Jelte (2006) Voting against occupation –

Iraq’s election results, http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/~jelte/Articles/Ruckus/February2005/IraqElections.pdf

39. Baker, Pauline H. (2005) Iraq as a failed state: lessons from the January elections – October 2004 to April 2005, Fund for Peace, Report No. 4

40. Cordesman, Iraq’s Insurgency.41. Ibid.42. Al-Jabouri, Najim Abed and Sterling, Jensen (2010) The Iraqi and AQI roles

in the Sunni Awakening, PRISM, Vol. 2, No. 1.43. McCary, John A. (2009) The Anbar Awakening: an alliance of incentives, The

Washington Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 43–59.

208 Notes

44. Lobe, Jim (2007) Iraq: US surge strategy successful in shifting the violence, Inter Press Service, http://antiwar.com/lobe/archives.php?offset=60.

45. McCary, The Anbar Awakening: an alliance of incentives.46. Schwartz, Lowell H. (2009) Is Iraq safe yet?, RAND Corporation, March 5,

http://www.rand.org/commentary/2009/03/05/PS.html.47. Strategic Survey (2010) Middle East/Gulf, Strategic Survey, Vol. 110, No. 1,

pp. 201–258.48. New York Times (2010) Iraq Elections, http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/

international/countriesandterritories/iraq/elections/index.html.49. Ottaway, Marina and Kaysi, Daniel A. (2010) Winners and losers in the Iraqi elec -

tion battle, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, http://carnegieendowment.org/2011/01/10/winners-and-losers-in-iraqi-election-battle/cla.

50. Biddle, Stephen, O’Hanlon, Michael E. and Pollack, Kenneth M. (2008) How to leave a stable Iraq, Foreign Affairs, September/October.

51. CIA World Factbook (2010) Iraq, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iz.html.

52. See: Agnew, John, Gillespie, Thomas W., and Gonzalez, Jorge (2008) Commentary, Environment and Planning A, Vol. 40, pp. 2285–2295; Gregory, Derek (2008) The biopolitics of Baghdad: counter insurgency and the countercity, Human Geography, Vol. 1 No. 1; Fox, Maggie, Satellite images show ethnic cleanout in Iraq, Reuters, September 19, 2008, http://www. reuters.com/article/idUSN1953066020080919.

53. Dewachi, Omar (2011) Insecurity, Displacement and Public Health Impacts of the American Invasion of Iraq, CostofWar.Org, http://costsofwar.org/sites/default/files/articles/19/attachments/DewachiIraqiRefugees.pdf

54. Taneja, Preti (2007) Assimilation, exodus, eradication: Iraq’s minority communities since 2003, Minority Rights Group International, London.

55. Roggio, Bill (2006) Safe havens and Iraq, Counter-Terrorism Blog, http:// counterterrorismblog.org/2006/05/safe_havens_iraq.php.

56. Kachejian, Kerry C. (2011) Chaos in Iraq: understanding the enemies within, Opposing Views, http://www.opposingviews.com/i/politics/2012-election/chaos-iraq-understanding-enemies-within.

57. United States Department of State (2011) Country Reports on Terrorism 2010, http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/170479.pdf.

58. US-GAO (2011) Combatting Terrorism – US Government Should Improve Its Reporting On Terrorist Safe Havens, United States Government Accountability Office, June 11, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d11561.pdf.

59. SCIFORUM (2004) Iraq’s Porous Border, http://www.sciforums.com/ showthread.php?t=39664.

60. Oluic, Steven Gen (2009) Iraq’s border security – key to an Iraqi endstate, Combatting Terrorism Centre – Sentinel, January 15, http://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/iraq%E2%80%99s-border-security-key-to-an-iraqi-endstate.

61. Daily Times (2005) Iraq’s porous borders challenge frontier forces, Daily Times Online, August 23, http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/foreign/23-Aug-2005/iraq-s-porous-borders-challenge-frontier-forces.

62. Oluic, ‘Iraq’s border security – key to an Iraqi endstate.63. The Guardian (2002) Pentagon sees 5 million child terrorists in Iraq,http://

www.theguardian.com/world/2002/oct/07/usa.iraq.64. Stohl, Rachel (2003) Small Arms are Continuing Threat in Iraq, Christian

Science Monitor, http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/1105/p09s02-coop.html.

Notes 209

65. Dodge, Toby (2012) The resistible rise of Nuri al-Maliki, OpenDemocracy.net, March 22, http://www.opendemocracy.net/toby-dodge/resistible-rise-of-nuri-al-maliki.

66. Masters, Daniel (2008) Does Regime Type Influence Terrorism? – Evaluating the Home-Grown Vs. Foreign Terrorist Dimension, University of North Carolina, North Carolina , USA.

67. Tawfeeq, Mohammad and Pleitgen, Frederik (2012) Iraqi Vice President predicts return to sectarian violence, CNN, January 13, http://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/30/world/meast/iraq-al-hashimi/index.html?hpt=imi_c1.

8 Iraq: State Failure, Terrorism, and Insurgencyin Context – Part 2

1. International Crisis Group (2010) Loose ends: Iraq’s security forces between US drawdown and withdrawal, Middle East Report, No. 99, October 26.

2. USAID (2012) Iraq, USAID Iraq, http://iraq.usaid.gov/node/2. 3. Haggard, Stephen and Long, James (2009) On benchmarks: institutions and

violence in Iraq, School of International Relations and Pacific Studies, University of San Diego, http://irps.ucsd.edu/assets/001/6557.pdf.

4. House of Representatives (2007) Committee on Oversight and Government Reform 2007, House of Representatives, Washington D.C, https://house.resource.org/110/org.c-span.201345-1.raw.txt.

5. Al-Ali, Zaid (2009) Iraq: face of corruption, mask of politics, OpenDemocracy.Org http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/iraq-acts-on-corruption.

6. CBS News (2008) Iraq: A State of Corruption, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/iraq-state-of-corruption-11-04-2008/.

7. Al-Ali, Zaid (2009) Iraq: face of corruption, mask of politics. 8. Ibid. 9. Gwertzman, Bernard (2011) As the US plans to withdraw its troops, problems

loom in Iraq, Business Insiders, http://www.businessinsider.com/problems-loom-over-iraq-as-the-us-plans-its-troop-withdrawl-this-year-2011-7.

10. Baker, James A. and Hamilton, Lee H. (2009) The Iraq Study Group Report, United States Institute for Peace, Washington D.C.

11. Ibid.12. Baker, Pauline H. (2010) Iraq on the edge, Fund for Peace, Report No. 10,

2009–2010.13. Islamopedia Online (2010) Kurds in Iraq, http://www.islamopediaonline.

org/country-profile/iraq/major-religious-communities/kurds-iraq.14. Katzman, Kenneth (2008) The Kurds in post-Saddam Iraq, CRS Report for

Congress, February 5, http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/101816.pdf.

15. New York Times (2004) Kurdish Autonomy in Iraq, January 9, http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/09/opinion/kurdish-autonomy-in-iraq.html.

16. Katzman, The Kurds in post-Saddam Iraq17. UNDP (2009) Outcome Evaluation of UNDP Governance, Crisis Prevention

and Recovery and Poverty Reduction Initiatives in Iraq, http://erc.undp.org/ evaluationadmin/manageevaluation/viewevaluationdetail.html?evalid=3796.

18 Ministry of Planning and Development Cooperation (2009) National Strategy for Poverty Reduction in Iraq for 2010–2014, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/

210 Notes

IRFFI/Resources/IraqPovertyReductionStrategyPressReleaseEnglishandArabi.pdf.

19. Anderson, Edward (2008) Practices and Implications of Aid Allocation, UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), May.

20. USAID (2012) Government of Iraq, January 13, http://iraq.usaid.gov/21. Constitution of Iraq, Article 117.3.22. Williams, Paul R. and Simpson, Matthew T. (2008) Rethinking the political

future: an alternative to the ethno-sectarian division of Iraq, PILPG, https://www.wcl.american.edu/journal/ilr/24/documents/Williams-Simpson.pdf?rd=1.

23. Ibid.24. Cordesman, Anthony and Al-Rodhan, Khalid (2007) Gulf Military Forces in an

Era of Asymmetric Wars, Library of Congress, Washington D.C.25. Ibid.26. Jervis, Robert (1978) Cooperation under the security dilemma, World Politics,

Vol. 167, pp. 169–170.27. Kaufmann, Chaim D. (1998) when all else fails: ethnic population transfers

and partitions in the twentieth century, International Security, Vol. 125, No. 12, p. 120.

28. Philips, David L. (2005) Losing Iraq: Inside the Post-War Reconstruction Fiasco, Westview Press, New York, p. 237.

29. Williams and Simpson (2008) Rethinking the political future.30. Rupesinghe, Kumar and Correa, Marical R. (1994) The Culture of Violence,

United Nations University, Japan.31. Ross, Marc Howard (1993) The Culture of Conflict, London: Yale University

Press, p. 21.32. Lederach, J. P. (1997) Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided

Societies. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, p. 13.33. Baker, Pauline H. (2004) Iraq as a failed state: a six month progress report –

October 2003 through March 2004, Fund for Peace, Report 2.34. Baker, Pauline H. (2010) Iraq on the edge, Fund for Peace, Report No. 10,

2009–2010.35. Hafez, Mohammed M. (2007) Suicide Bombers in Iraq: The Strategy and Ideology

of Martyrdom, United States Institute for Peace.36. Dawisha, Adeed (2009) Iraq: A Political History from Independence to Occupation,

Princeton University Press, New Jersey.37. Muir, Jim (2011) Last US troops withdraw from Iraq, BBC News, December

18, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16234723.38. Iraq Body Count (2012) Deaths in Iraq – Iraq Body Count Statistics, Iraq

Body Count, https://www.iraqbodycount.org/database/. 39. Fulton, Will, Farrar-Wellman, Ariel and Frasco, Robert (2011) Iraq–Iran foreign

relations, Iran Tracker, August 5, http://www.irantracker.org/foreign-relations/iraq-iran-foreign-relations.

40. Iraq Body Count (2012) Deaths in Iraq – Iraq Body Count Statistics, Iraq Body Count, https://www.iraqbodycount.org/database/.

41. Katzman, Kenneth (2010) Iran-Iraq Relations, Congressional Research Service, April 15, Report Number 7-5700.

42. Ibid.43. Ibid.44. McMillan, Joseph (2006) Saudi Arabia and Iraq: oil, religion, and an

enduring rivalry, United States Institute for Peace Special Report No. 157.

Notes 211

45. Bloom, Mia (2007) Grim Saudi export – suicide bombers, LA Times, July 17, http://articles.latimes.com/2005/jul/17/opinion/op-suicidebomb17.

46. McMillan, Saudi Arabia and Iraq: oil, religion, and an enduring rivalry.47. Lynch, Mark (2009) The Syrian–Iraqi spat, Foreign Policy, September 2, http://

lynch.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2009/09/01/the_syrian_iraqi_spat.48. USIP (2007) Syria’s Relations with Iraq, United States Institute for Peace,

Washington D.C .49. Ibid.50. BBC (2011) Syria: the view from next door, BBC News, November 29, http://

www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15936813.51. Dagher, Sam (2011) Syria chaos worries Iraq, The Wall Street Journal,

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52. Al-Jazeera (2014) UN warns of Syria spillover into Iraq, Al-Jazeera, March 28, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/03/un-warns-syria- spillover-into-iraq-201432821452664854.html.

53. Ibid. 54. OSAC (2012) Iraq 2012 OSAC Crime and Safety Report, US Department

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9 Conclusion

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2. Hewitt, Joseph J., Wilkenfield, Jonathan, and Gurr, Ted R. (2008) Peace and Conflict 2008, Centre for International Development and Conflict Management.

3. Piazza, James A. (2008) Incubators of terror: do failed and failing states promote transnational terrorism?, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 52, pp. 469–488.

4. Takeyh, Ray and Gvosdev, Nikolas (2002) Do terrorist networks need a home?, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 97–108.

5. Piazza ‘Incubators of Terror: Do Failed and Failing States Promote Terror?’ 6. Fund for Peace (2008) Failed State Index 2011, http://www.fundforpeace.org/

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229

Abbottabad, 101, 108, 129 abrogated, 86accord, 16, 177activism, 110Afghan, 38–48, 50–60, 62–78, 80–82,

88, 94–95, 102, 104–108, 110–111, 115, 125, 129, 184–185

Afghani, 47, 63–64, 78Afghanistan, 10, 13, 17, 21, 30,

32–35, 37–82, 87–89, 91, 101–102, 104–107, 109–113, 117, 119–120, 122, 124–126, 147, 152, 162, 174, 178–185

Afghans, 39, 41, 44, 46–48, 57, 60, 64–65, 69, 71–74, 77

Africa, 8, 19, 55, 187Agreement, 128, 134, 169agreement, 125, 127agreements, 66aid, 8, 23, 38, 41, 51, 59, 74–75, 87,

100, 122–123, 137, 143, 154–155, 157, 160–161

Algiers, 134Allawi, 139–142Alliance, 45–46, 88, 140, 182alliance, 41–43, 52, 86, 89, 91–92,

94, 143alliances, 78, 86, 89, 158allies, 13, 39, 45, 67, 83, 156Alnasrawi, 136Amanullah, 39American, 8, 59, 68, 77–78, 125, 129,

144, 185Americans, 147Amin, 39–40anarchy, 50, 57Anbar, 139, 142, 146–148, 159,

161–162, 166, 171Anfal, 133, 158ANO, 31Ansar, 31, 111appeasement, 59, 184

AQ, 3, 29, 34, 44, 48, 66, 81, 102, 116–117

AQAP, 31, 63Aqaydat, 145AQI, 31, 141, 147–148AQIM, 31Aqsa, 31Arab, 45, 62, 130–132, 135, 140–141,

148, 158, 163, 167, 172Arabia, 44–45, 77, 134, 147–148,

167, 170Arabian, 31, 63Arabs, 108, 131, 134, 139–141,

159, 166Arbil, 158Arif, 131–132Arifs, 132Armenians, 146arsenals, 150Asbat, 31ASG, 31, 63Asia, 9, 38–39, 55, 78, 105Asian, 10, 117, 186Asians, 108Asif, 99, 107Askariya, 141assassinate, 87assassinated, 39, 85Assassination, 33assassination, 3, 62, 133assassinations, 90, 145assault, 43Assyrians, 146attack, 3, 5, 7, 12, 45, 62, 135attacked, 43, 107, 135, 141attackers, 107attacks, 5, 7, 17–18, 32, 45, 53–55,

62, 64, 77–80, 82, 91, 98, 102, 105–107, 109, 111, 113, 122–127, 129, 134, 138, 141–142, 144, 147, 166–167, 170, 174, 177, 182–183, 187

Index

230 Index

augmented, 17, 25, 179, 181–182Australia, 3, 76Australian, 24authoritarian, 153autocracies, 112–113autocracy, 97, 112autocratic, 39autonomous, 16, 106, 158–159, 185autonomously, 81autonomy, 22, 81, 90, 93, 119,

157–159, 180, 185Awakening, 141–142, 147Awami, 86Ayad, 139, 142Ayub, 86Azadi, 63, 111Azam, 85Aziz, 92Azrah, 53

Babil, 185Babrak, 39–40background, 47, 83, 94, 97, 130, 145Badakhshan, 50, 75Badakhstan, 73Badghis, 43Badghris, 53Badr, 63, 111Baghdad, 130–132, 139, 142,

144–145, 149, 154–155, 158, 161, 164, 169–170, 185–186

Baghlan, 50Bajaur, 108, 114Balkh, 43, 73, 76Baluch, 119, 184Baluchis, 115Baluchistan, 54, 68, 87, 89–90, 93,

96, 101, 104, 108–109, 115, 119, 121–123, 125, 184

Bangladesh, 31, 63, 87, 117, 127Bannu, 102Barack, 99barracks, 5Barzani, 133Basque, 6, 31Basra, 130, 134, 139, 148, 161, 167,

169Basrah, 185Belfer, 24

Benazir, 84, 88, 92, 128Bhutto, 84, 86–90, 92, 118, 128bilateral, 126, 169–170Bissau, 33Boko, 187bomb, 7, 45bombardment, 134–135bombardments, 135bomber, 64, 92bombers, 62, 148, 170Bombing, 33bombing, 7, 62, 64bombings, 5–6, 8, 45, 64, 98, 104,

107, 138, 145, 170bombs, 1, 150borders, 7, 18–20, 22, 54, 58, 96–98,

101–102, 104, 125, 128–129, 131, 146–148, 154–155, 166, 170, 179–181, 183

Bosnia, 74Botswana, 26Bremer, 138, 148Brigade, 31, 63Brigades, 6Britain, 38, 130British, 39, 78, 106, 126, 131Brookings, 24buffer, 66Bukamil, 170bureaucracy, 115, 133Burhanuddin, 42Burma, 33Burundi, 33Bush, 45, 138–139, 150

cadres, 160caliphate, 115, 172campaign, 8, 11–12, 46, 55, 62, 71,

77, 88, 109, 133, 135–139, 141, 152, 166, 184–185

campaigns, 61–62, 140, 152, 158, 165captured, 16, 43–44, 135, 147CAR, 33cartels, 104Carter, 8CAST, 23catalyst, 16, 101, 104, 122ceasefire, 127, 134–135cells, 16

Index 231

cellular, 15–16CFR, 2Chad, 33, 93Chaudhry, 92checkpoints, 155chieftainships, 38Christian, 10, 131Christians, 123, 131, 166CIA, 15, 24, 47, 105–106civil, 18–19, 22, 34, 41, 43–45, 47, 55,

57, 66–67, 69, 71–72, 74, 85–86, 89, 101, 103–104, 107, 116, 127, 137, 141, 145, 147, 154–155, 161, 165–166, 173, 178

civilian, 2–3, 5, 57–58, 61, 78, 89–90, 92–93, 98–99, 101, 111–114, 118, 120–121, 123–124, 126, 135, 147, 150, 153, 168–169, 185

civilians, 4–5, 7, 58, 126–127, 138, 149–150, 167

clan, 16, 133clandestine, 2clans, 131, 145cleansing, 133, 158cleavages, 37, 69–70, 123, 153, 163,

166, 179–180clientelistic, 52Coalition, 138, 140–141, 144coalition, 46, 53, 79–82, 89, 92, 108,

131, 140, 143, 148, 154, 162, 166, 169, 185

coerce, 2–3coercion, 3, 65, 77coercive, 12Cole, 5, 45collapse, 17, 20–21, 24, 32, 40, 42, 49,

75, 78, 91, 97, 115, 130, 137–138, 143, 146, 150, 159, 166, 177, 183, 185

COLLAPSED, 25collapsed, 21, 24, 100, 114, 137–138,

179colonial, 130colonisation, 22Columbia, 31combat, 4, 13, 48, 80combatant, 2, 5, 13, 61combatants, 4–5, 7Commando, 111

Commission, 140, 156Communist, 31communist, 39, 41, 88–89communists, 42, 46Conflict, 23–24, 180conflict, 12, 14–16, 19, 24, 26, 37,

39, 57–59, 66, 72–73, 77, 79, 84, 88, 92, 104, 123, 127–129, 138, 148, 151, 156, 161, 163–164, 167, 171–172, 179–180

Conflicts, 68conflicts, 12, 19, 22, 40, 55, 90,

123, 167Congo, 21, 32, 93, 178Congress, 41connections, 27, 29–30, 34, 84, 98,

110, 146, 172, 174–178, 186constitution, 84–87, 90, 113, 128,

131, 140, 152, 158, 161constitutional, 89–90, 92, 115,

139–141, 161, 171contractors, 156, 162controversial, 59, 67, 137Convention, 2conventional, 11, 13, 62convergence, 49, 98Cooperation, 19, 26, 160cooperation, 69, 80, 110, 171Copenhagen, 34Corps, 13–14correlation, 29–30, 35, 55, 57, 75,

177, 186–187corrupt, 9, 28, 47–48, 52, 59, 71, 89,

114–115, 118, 156–157, 176Corruption, 23, 48, 118, 155–156, 180corruption, 19, 47–48, 50, 52, 55, 58,

66, 70–72, 75–76, 87–89, 109, 114, 118, 129–130, 132, 145, 153, 156–157, 160, 165, 173, 179–180

counterforce, 44Counterinsurgency, 13–14counterinsurgency, 80, 108, 126,

129, 184counterterrorism, 108–109, 129, 184counterterrorist, 53coup, 11, 39, 77, 131–132coups, 114, 118, 131CPA, 138–139CPI, 48

232 Index

CPP, 31Crisis, 27, 63, 111, 182crisis, 19, 24, 27, 37, 40, 48–49, 67,

75, 79, 97–98, 120, 136, 144, 146, 151, 170–171, 179, 182

Cuba, 8culture, 15, 46, 53, 58, 65, 70, 77–78,

83, 87, 103, 107, 119, 124–125, 150, 153, 164–165, 179–180

cyber, 6

Dahuk, 144, 158Daikundi, 73Damascus, 170–171danger, 29, 93, 99, 120Daoud, 39, 65, 77Dawisha, 179DDR, 58debt, 72, 75, 90, 95, 135, 143decentralisation, 93, 163decentralised, 16decline, 38, 51, 89, 100, 113, 145,

179–181, 185declining, 113, 153, 169, 179–180delegitimisation, 95democracies, 30, 34, 65, 177–178democracy, 24, 51, 65, 69–70, 84, 93,

97, 112–114, 153, 161democratisation, 73, 124Demographic, 180demographic, 28, 94, 103, 123,

153, 180demonstrations, 138Denmark, 26dents, 83denying, 30, 105Deobandi, 110destabilis, 149destabilisation, 137destabilise, 2, 107, 137, 144, 147destabilising, 30, 82, 112, 164, 171devolution, 93DHKP, 31, 63dictator, 132, 152, 173dictatorial, 87dictatorship, 22, 83, 152–153Directorate, 105Disarmament, 58disease, 34, 136, 178

disenchantment, 70, 150disenfranchisement, 20, 116disintegration, 57–58, 82, 137, 164displacement, 30, 126, 149, 171Diyala, 139, 142, 144, 149, 158,

161, 185Dohuk, 158, 185Dost, 39Dostam, 42–43DRA, 39DRC, 33drone, 125–126, 129drones, 125–126drug, 46–48, 50–51, 53, 71, 75, 87,

104, 108drugs, 116Dujail, 133Dulaym, 145Durand, 54, 107, 120Duri, 133Durrani, 38–39

economic, 6–9, 11, 16, 18–21, 24, 27–29, 32, 39–40, 47, 50–52, 55, 58–59, 64, 66, 69–70, 72–73, 75–76, 89, 91, 93–97, 100, 103–104, 120–124, 127, 130–131, 135, 137, 143–145, 149–150, 155–156, 159–163, 165–167, 169, 177, 180–184, 186

economically, 89, 95, 121, 149, 165economy, 22, 37–38, 50–52, 66, 71,

74–75, 77, 84–85, 90–91, 93–94, 96–97, 103, 113, 117, 121–122, 124, 134, 136, 159, 162, 171

education, 20, 51, 56–58, 71, 94, 96–97, 100–101, 103, 112, 118, 120–121, 123, 134, 143–144, 161

Eelam, 31Egyptian, 9, 34, 63election, 8, 67, 86–88, 92–93, 140–143,

154elections, 42, 46, 87–90, 92–93,

139–140, 142–143, 146electricity, 52, 73, 76, 144, 161, 167,

169ELN, 31embargo, 135–136emir, 39

Index 233

empirical, 29, 174, 176–177employment, 11, 49, 149, 159–160Endemically, 182endemically, 26, 97–98Enduring, 46, 62, 122enduring, 25, 179, 181environment, 2, 43, 49, 55, 57–58,

66, 77, 98–99, 148, 182environmental, 21, 78, 125, 165, 180Erbil, 161, 185ETA, 6–7, 31, 186état, 11, 131Ethiopia, 33ethnic, 2–3, 6, 16, 19–21, 24, 34,

37–38, 42–43, 47, 50, 53, 62, 68–70, 72, 81, 84, 88, 90, 94, 96, 114–116, 119, 123, 130, 141, 144–146, 152, 154, 158, 163–164, 170, 178, 185

ethno, 1, 6, 55, 65, 69, 104, 145, 163–164, 166

ETIM, 63Euphrates, 138Europe, 45, 63, 76European, 2, 7execution, 86, 133exile, 86, 88, 151extermination, 133External, 78, 125, 165, 180external, 9, 18–19, 21, 34, 38, 45,

72, 79, 95, 110, 143, 146, 162, 178–180, 185

extremism, 10, 48, 91, 93, 105, 117, 124, 129, 172, 175

Extremist, 99extremist, 27, 38, 41, 50, 53, 56–58,

60–61, 65, 77, 79–80, 82, 87, 94, 99, 101–106, 109, 113, 115, 117, 120, 123, 125, 127–129, 148–149, 151, 161–162, 182–184

extremists, 50, 52, 54, 99, 101, 106, 123–124, 165, 172

faction, 41, 169factional, 98, 145factionalised, 95, 145factionalism, 40, 53factions, 41, 43–44, 59, 61–62, 67,

113–114, 143, 145, 169, 185

Failed, 20, 23, 25, 28, 30, 32–35, 37, 93, 95, 143, 175–179, 182, 186–187

failed, 17–25, 27–30, 32, 34–36, 47, 49, 83, 89–90, 93, 95–99, 104, 113, 131, 135, 143, 146, 152, 165, 174–179, 182–183, 187–188

Failing, 20failing, 19–20, 22, 24, 35, 38, 49, 93,

103, 120, 148, 152, 177–179, 182–183

Failure, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23–25, 27–29, 31, 35, 37, 61, 83, 93, 109, 130, 143, 153

failure, 1, 17–27, 29–30, 32, 34–36, 38, 43, 47, 49–50, 53, 59, 64, 67, 81–83, 92–99, 103–105, 109, 112, 114, 121, 123, 134–135, 143, 145–146, 152–153, 156, 160, 163, 166, 169–170, 172, 174–183, 185–188

Faisalabad, 110Fallujah, 138, 164faltering, 26, 179Farah, 43, 50, 76, 183Faraj, 110FARC, 31Farooq, 89Faryab, 43, 50FATA, 91, 93, 96, 98, 100–102,

108–110, 113, 115–116, 120–122, 125, 183

fatalities, 149, 167–169fear, 2–5, 8, 61, 128, 133, 158–159,

170, 182federalisation, 164federalist, 154feudal, 119feudalism, 96flashpoint, 138Foreign, 23, 30–31, 74, 106, 125, 165,

180, 186foreign, 8, 13, 22, 30, 32, 38–39, 47,

51–53, 57, 64, 66, 69, 74–75, 78–79, 81–82, 84, 90, 95, 108, 110, 125, 128, 134–135, 138, 147–148, 156, 162, 166, 170, 172, 179–180, 185, 188

fractured, 19, 83, 137, 145, 167FRAGILE, 26

234 Index

Fragile, 19, 23–24, 26, 182fragile, 21, 40, 47, 51–52, 67, 72–73,

75, 82, 93, 99, 112, 134, 137, 143–144, 146, 149, 153–154, 156, 159, 162, 165, 171–173, 179, 182–183, 185

Fragility, 24fragility, 71, 121, 172fragment, 84fragmentation, 40–41, 66–67, 72, 82fragmented, 38, 44, 70, 114, 139, 153framework, 24, 37, 66, 72, 100, 110,

161France, 93, 135fraud, 140, 142–143freedom, 18, 45, 54, 61, 67, 90, 112,

120, 164frontier, 104, 145frontiers, 102FSI, 33, 105FTO, 30FTOs, 30, 34–35, 177–178functioning, 21, 35, 51–52, 82, 93,

96–97, 114, 116, 118, 146, 152, 158, 176, 182–185

Fund, 23–24, 30, 47, 136, 175fundamental, 9, 19, 56, 90, 116, 183Fundamentalism, 29fundamentalism, 10, 79, 83, 109, 120,

152fundamentalist, 1, 6, 9, 53, 62, 82, 99,

107, 114, 184fundamentalists, 9, 69funded, 24, 121, 142funding, 8–9, 51, 66, 71, 74–75, 147,

162, 172Fuqra, 111

GDP, 18, 23, 72, 74–75, 95, 100, 121–122, 143, 159

Genocide, 133genocides, 24geographical, 19–21, 187geopolitics, 37geostrategic, 117Germany, 93Ghadir, 42–43Ghazi, 139Ghazni, 50, 53, 81

Ghor, 43, 50Ghulam, 85, 88Gilani, 92Global, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18,

20, 22, 24, 26, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48–50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62–64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82, 84, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 96, 98, 100, 102, 104, 106, 108, 110, 112, 114, 116, 118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 128, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 142, 144, 146, 148, 150, 152, 154, 156, 158, 160, 162, 164, 166, 170, 172, 176, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188

global, 11, 13, 17, 21, 23, 29, 34, 37, 73, 75, 83, 93, 101–102, 110, 115, 121–122, 157, 166, 172, 174, 176, 178

globalisation, 13Gorbachev, 41governance, 11, 19–20, 24, 37, 50–52,

58, 64–66, 70, 72, 76, 80, 96–97, 104, 117, 161

governed, 65, 114–115governing, 14, 43, 70, 85Government, 14, 22, 24, 49, 57–58,

98, 100, 104, 139, 151, 158, 181government, 2–3, 6–8, 11–16, 19–23,

27, 40–43, 46, 48–57, 59–62, 65–68, 70–72, 74–78, 80, 82–83, 85–91, 94, 96–103, 105–108, 110–115, 118–130, 132–133, 136–147, 149–151, 153–157, 159–164, 166–167, 170–173, 179–180, 182–185

governmental, 8, 21, 27–28, 42, 66, 96, 108, 113, 115

governments, 13, 21, 23, 38, 54, 56, 65, 80, 88, 101, 104–105, 113–114, 118, 121, 123, 128–129, 145, 181

governor, 43, 85governorates, 144, 161grassroots, 11, 13, 142grievance, 13, 15, 29–30, 95grievances, 48, 52, 68, 116, 125, 144,

170, 180

Index 235

growth, 10, 18, 26, 47, 51, 59, 66, 70, 75–76, 85, 95, 105, 117, 121–122, 124–125, 143–144, 160

guerrilla, 11–13, 41, 59, 61–62guerrillas, 21Guinea, 33Gulbuddin, 42, 44, 62–63Gulf, 134, 136, 171gun, 46, 58, 71, 87, 103–104,

150–151guns, 1, 62, 150Gurjat, 184Gvosdev, 176

Habibullah, 39Hafizullah, 40Hagel, 121Haghani, 42Haiti, 33Haji, 42–43Halabja, 133Hamahangi, 43HAMAS, 9Hamas, 9, 31Haqqani, 59, 81, 108Harakat, 31, 63, 111Haram, 187harassment, 67hatred, 79, 112haven, 9, 53, 101–102, 116, 129,

146–147havens, 8–9, 34, 53–55, 101, 104,

129, 146–147, 177, 179–181, 184, 187–188

Hazara, 50, 68HDI, 23, 37health, 51, 58, 73, 94, 96, 100, 116,

118, 144, 161healthcare, 18, 20, 56, 97, 100–101,

112, 120–121, 123, 134, 144, 146Hekmatyar, 42–44, 62Helmand, 50, 53–54, 73, 76, 78,

108, 183Herat, 41–43, 46, 53Hezbollah, 9, 31, 169hierarchical, 16, 130hijacked, 107hijackings, 5Hikmatul, 63

Hindu, 10, 92, 126Hindus, 123historical, 20–21, 38, 47, 49, 83,

97–98, 127, 130, 164, 175, 188historically, 64, 68, 91, 117Homeland, 6homogeneity, 35homogeneous, 37, 163–164hopelessness, 150hostage, 8, 130hostile, 43, 105, 125, 129, 157hostilities, 20, 86hotbed, 83hotspots, 129HUJI, 31, 63HUM, 31humanitarian, 18–19, 23, 37, 96, 135,

161, 174hunting, 46Hussein, 9, 130, 132–134, 137–139,

144, 148, 152, 162, 164, 167, 172, 185

Hyderabad, 88

identity, 21, 70, 84, 114, 117, 119, 158, 164, 166

Ideological, 180ideological, 2–4, 37, 62, 69–70, 79,

98, 101, 116, 138, 164, 166, 179–180

ideologically, 103, 115ideologies, 4, 69–70ideology, 7, 12–13, 38, 69, 109, 112,

116, 119IDPs, 144–145, 159IECI, 140IED, 147IEDs, 104, 141Iftikhar, 92IJU, 31, 63illegal, 12, 104, 148–149illegally, 104, 127illegitimate, 42, 104illicit, 37, 48, 66, 70illiteracy, 144imbalance, 77, 81imbalanced, 77imbalances, 77, 153, 180IMF, 75

236 Index

impact, 16–17, 20, 38, 48, 65, 67, 74, 95, 113, 116–118, 124, 126, 129, 134, 136–137, 149–150, 157, 159–160, 164, 167, 170–173, 179, 181, 186

impacts, 20, 64, 137, 153, 167implementation, 100, 137, 151, 187implications, 32, 179IMU, 31, 63incentives, 76–77, 105, 160, 181incidents, 32–33, 147, 159independence, 15, 84–85, 100, 117,

131, 158–159independent, 6, 23–24, 27, 66, 71,

127, 157Index, 19, 23–25, 30, 32, 34–35, 37,

48, 93, 95, 143, 175, 177–179, 186–187

index, 1, 23–24, 34, 178India, 3, 39, 84, 86, 88, 90–91, 105,

107, 115, 117, 125–129Indian, 38, 84, 92, 106–107,

126–129indicator, 47, 94, 179indicators, 18, 23–24, 47–48, 95,

112, 153indigenous, 47, 64, 74indirect, 105–106indoctrinated, 124Indonesia, 34, 178Indus, 123ineffective, 47, 50, 58, 115inefficient, 71, 118, 121inequalities, 22, 52, 72infidels, 78infiltrate, 99, 104, 113–114, 122, 144,

148, 186infiltrated, 99–100infiltration, 81, 95, 98, 100, 119,

148, 174inflation, 95, 122–123, 160, 171infrastructural, 136, 163infrastructure, 16, 37, 83, 115, 121,

124, 134, 136, 138, 145, 147, 152, 171

insecure, 73, 117insecurities, 117insecurity, 2, 24, 52, 58, 72–74, 145,

156, 162

instability, 27, 36–37, 40–41, 43, 45, 47, 49–50, 52, 58–59, 66, 69, 73, 82, 90–91, 94–95, 97, 99, 105, 107, 112–113, 115, 117, 126–128, 131, 139, 144, 151, 157, 160–163, 165, 167, 170, 172, 183, 186

Institute, 24, 102institution, 42–43, 99, 156institutional, 1–2, 21, 65–67, 114–115,

132, 153–155, 179–180institutions, 18, 20–22, 26, 30, 38, 48,

50–52, 56, 66–67, 70, 72, 81–82, 91, 94, 96, 99, 109, 112–114, 118–119, 121, 137–138, 143, 151, 154–156, 164, 182–184, 186

insurgencies, 11–13, 15–16, 28, 32, 34–36, 38, 123

Insurgency, 1–32, 34–38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, 50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60–62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82–84, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 96, 98, 100, 102, 104, 106, 108–110, 112, 114, 116, 118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 128, 130, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 142, 144, 146, 148, 150, 152–154, 156, 158, 160, 162, 164, 166, 170, 172, 176, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188

insurgency, 10–17, 27–30, 34–36, 40, 46–47, 50, 54–55, 58–62, 64, 66–68, 71, 73–77, 79–81, 84, 98, 102, 109, 112, 120, 127, 137–141, 146, 148–152, 156, 160, 163–166, 172, 183–185

Insurgent, 11–12, 57, 74, 163insurgent, 11–16, 32, 34–36, 53, 102,

105, 107, 110–111, 124, 139, 144–147, 149, 154–155, 157, 161–162, 167, 170–172

Insurgents, 12, 14, 81, 170insurgents, 12–13, 15–16, 34, 36, 50,

52, 54–55, 62, 71, 75, 78, 81, 106, 140–142, 148–150, 157, 170–171

integration, 82, 115interference, 22, 28–29, 53, 59, 79interim, 42, 89, 147internal, 18–21, 24, 29–30, 37, 40–41,

51, 53, 69, 79, 82, 84, 96–98, 107, 113, 127, 130, 140–141, 144,

Index 237

148, 152, 155, 162–163, 166, 170–171

internally, 21, 28, 84, 89, 93, 95, 110, 112, 137, 161, 176, 188

International, 23, 48, 55, 63, 75, 102, 111

international, 2, 7, 9, 11–12, 17–18, 21, 23, 28–29, 34, 36, 38, 41, 45–46, 50–54, 67, 69, 74–75, 78–80, 82, 98, 101, 107, 116, 136, 145, 148, 161, 174, 178, 186–188

intervention, 21, 51, 78, 80, 95, 99, 125, 134, 179–180, 185

intimidate, 2–3, 12intimidation, 2–4, 156invaded, 39, 107, 127, 130invasion, 10, 37, 40, 47, 54, 61–62,

64, 79–80, 87, 91, 104–106, 109, 125, 130, 134–137, 144, 148–149, 151–153, 156, 159, 162, 164–167, 172, 175, 182–183, 185–186

IRA, 6–7, 31Iran, 8–10, 41, 47, 105, 134–135,

147–150, 157, 167, 169–170Iranian, 9–10, 63, 87, 106, 131,

133–135, 167, 169Iranians, 134Iraq, 9, 17, 30–35, 62, 64, 109,

111–112, 125, 130–167, 169–173, 175, 178–182, 184–185

Iraqi, 130–151, 154–173, 185Iraqis, 134, 138, 140–141,

144–145, 156, 159–161, 163, 167

Irbil, 158Ireland, 76, 93, 186Irish, 6, 31, 186irregular, 12–13, 156Ishaq, 88–89ISI, 43, 105–107Islam, 10, 31, 55–56, 63, 65, 69,

84–85, 87, 95, 115–117, 119, 124, 157, 166, 184, 186–187

Islamabad, 46, 54, 79, 97, 106–109, 115, 121, 123, 129, 183

Islami, 31, 42, 63, 81, 88, 110–111

Islamic, 1–2, 6–7, 9–10, 29, 31, 37, 42, 62–63, 65, 69, 78, 84, 86–88, 90, 99, 102–103, 105, 107, 109–111, 114, 116, 134, 157, 166, 172, 175, 182, 184, 187

Islamisation, 87, 89, 93, 101, 123Islamising, 56Islamism, 85, 87Islamist, 38, 70, 91, 103, 141Islamists, 91Islamiyya, 9, 31, 63Ismaeli, 43Ismail, 42–43Israel, 9Israeli, 8Itihad, 88

Jaish, 31, 62–63, 110–111, 129, 169Jalalabad, 44, 53Jalaluddin, 108JAM, 169Jamhoori, 88Jamiat, 42, 111Jammu, 111, 126–127JeM, 63Jews, 123, 131Jhangvi, 31, 63, 110–111, 184Jihad, 9, 31, 63, 110–111jihad, 31, 61–62, 67, 107, 110, 115,

124–125, 166Jihadi, 166jihadi, 85, 105, 110, 128jihadist, 81–82jihadists, 64, 148, 170, 184Jordan, 147–148, 167judicial, 65, 71, 146judiciary, 113, 115, 118–119Junejo, 88–89

Kabul, 40–44, 46–47, 49, 51, 53–54, 64–66, 74, 79, 81, 88–89, 106, 184

Kahn, 86Kamal, 142Kandahar, 41–42, 44, 46, 50, 53–54,

73, 76, 78, 108, 183Karachi, 88, 90, 107, 123Karbala, 148, 162, 166, 185Kargil, 127Karim, 131

238 Index

Karkat, 110Karmal, 39–41Karzai, 46, 48, 50, 55, 78Kashmir, 9, 86, 92, 101, 106–107,

110–111, 126–128, 184Kashmiri, 92, 106–107Kashmiris, 127Kenya, 33, 45Keyani, 43Khabab, 126Khalid, 110Khan, 39, 42–43, 85–89, 100Khyber, 86, 88–90, 96, 98, 100, 102,

104, 109, 113, 115–116, 120–122, 125

kidnapping, 3, 62kidnappings, 4, 6, 8, 145killed, 5, 7, 38, 40, 43–44, 88, 107,

126, 131, 133–134, 147, 167killing, 51, 92, 101, 103, 107, 126,

129killings, 134, 141, 149Kirkuk, 139, 141, 144, 158–159KRG, 158–159Kunar, 50, 53, 81, 107Kunduz, 43, 50Kurd, 145, 154, 163–164Kurdish, 6, 133–134, 139–141, 144,

151, 157–158, 169, 185Kurdistan, 31, 133, 140–141, 144, 158Kurds, 131, 133, 139, 141–142, 146,

157–159, 166, 185Kuwait, 134–136, 147, 167

Laden, 44–46, 91, 101, 108, 129Lahore, 128, 184Lashkar, 31, 63, 81, 107, 110–111,

128, 184lawless, 89, 183lawlessness, 47, 50, 165laws, 3, 21, 65, 71, 99, 156–157leader, 7, 38, 41–42, 45–46, 49, 59,

84–85, 87–89, 91–92, 108, 114, 131, 133, 137, 143

leaders, 9, 16, 20–21, 41, 43–45, 51, 59, 68, 78–80, 84–85, 97, 100, 117–118, 125, 130, 133, 137, 140, 150–151, 169

leadership, 16, 42–43, 59–60, 85, 87, 90, 93, 106, 128, 131–132, 137, 142, 145, 147–148, 151–152, 154, 162, 171–173

leaderships, 26, 153League, 84–86, 111, 131, 135Lebanon, 5, 21, 34–35, 178legal, 20, 65–66, 71, 75, 118, 143,

146, 150, 158legally, 104, 158Leghari, 89–90Legitimacy, 65, 151legitimacy, 12, 14–16, 19–20, 24,

41, 48, 50, 52, 64–65, 70, 76, 113, 117, 122, 129, 139–140, 151, 154–155, 157, 160, 183, 185

legitimate, 19, 65–66, 76, 79, 124legitimising, 117, 172LeT, 128–129Liaquat, 85liberal, 39, 70, 116liberalism, 77liberated, 46, 135Liberation, 31, 42, 63, 111, 184links, 35, 64, 72, 77, 106, 110, 171literacy, 94, 100, 144literature, 3–4, 7–8, 19, 23, 25, 29–30,

98, 175–177, 187Logar, 50, 53, 73, 81, 183London, 27looting, 138, 164loyalists, 165LTTE, 31

madrassas, 44, 56, 87, 100, 105, 110, 120, 124

Maghreb, 31majoritarian, 154Malaysia, 63Maliki, 141–143, 151–152, 154–155,

171, 173malnutri, 136malnutrition, 137marginalisation, 67, 115, 120–121,

123, 133, 180marginalised, 67, 121, 165martial, 86, 88, 90–91, 117

Index 239

mass, 3, 40, 83, 87, 94–95, 97, 103, 112, 126, 133, 139, 141, 150–152, 159, 165

massacre, 133massacres, 134Massoud, 42–45, 182MEK, 9, 31militancy, 79, 87, 93, 109, 120, 126militant, 61, 77, 79, 91, 94, 102, 104,

106–107, 109–110, 115militants, 45, 78, 80, 91, 96, 99,

102–103, 106–107, 110, 113, 115, 125–126, 148, 172

militarisation, 58, 117military, 5–6, 8–9, 11–16, 19, 23,

40–44, 46, 48, 53, 55, 61, 66, 71, 78–81, 83–85, 88–93, 96–97, 100–101, 106, 109, 111–114, 117, 121, 123–124, 126–129, 131–135, 138–139, 145, 147, 150, 152–153, 162, 167, 169, 171, 173, 185

militia, 27, 42–44, 61, 68, 133, 148militias, 76, 102, 142, 150–151, 157,

169minorities, 67–68, 115, 141, 146, 164minority, 11, 29, 67–68, 123, 130,

139, 144, 146, 158, 162–163, 166Mirza, 85–86mission, 50, 54, 81, 185missions, 80, 108, 129, 184mistrust, 38, 79, 132, 143mobilisation, 16, 40, 43, 147mobilise, 16, 117modernisation, 22, 122, 162–163, 180modernity, 118Mohammad, 31, 39, 62–63, 85–86,

92, 110–111, 129Mohammadi, 63, 111money, 44, 68, 76, 102, 106, 122monopoly, 21–22, 132Moroccan, 31, 63mortality, 24, 47, 136–137Mosul, 131, 141motivated, 1–2, 9–10, 15, 92, 123,

138, 150motivations, 4, 9motives, 117, 138movements, 7, 11, 61, 87, 141, 150

MQM, 88Muhammad, 39, 84–85, 88, 111Mujadidi, 42Mujahideen, 31, 63, 108, 110–111mujahideen, 40–44, 46, 53, 55, 61–62,

87, 106Mullah, 42, 44–46multilateral, 135Musharraf, 84, 90–92, 105–106, 118,

121–122, 125, 128Muslim, 38, 55, 63, 65, 84–85, 88, 92,

111, 117, 126, 146, 163, 175, 185Muslims, 63, 84, 95, 116, 119,

130–131, 133, 146, 163, 166, 185Muthanna, 144, 148, 162

Nafaz, 63, 111Najibullah, 41, 44Nangarhar, 42–43, 75, 81, 108, 183narcotics, 38, 52, 76, 88nation, 20, 23, 25, 37, 43, 47–48,

56, 66, 69–70, 83–85, 90, 117, 119–121, 123, 129, 134, 138, 153, 161, 167

nationalism, 4, 69, 114, 157nationalistic, 79, 119, 157nationalists, 119, 165–166nationhood, 116, 167Nations, 2, 21, 47, 131nations, 20–21, 37, 46, 72, 125,

128, 187NATO, 54, 57, 59, 65Nawaz, 88–90, 92, 103, 128negotiate, 41, 59negotiations, 9, 128neighbouring, 34, 42, 75, 79, 95, 107,

124, 129, 142, 147, 167, 171–172, 178–180

neighbours, 38, 142, 148, 158, 164, 167

nexus, 51, 76, 133Nidal, 31Nifaz, 111Niger, 33Nigeria, 33, 55, 187Nimroz, 54, 76Ninawa, 148, 159Ninevah, 185

240 Index

Norway, 8Nouri, 151, 173nuclear, 90–91, 99, 112, 126Nuristan, 40, 81, 107NWFP, 86, 183

Obama, 79, 99, 166occupied, 146occupiers, 13, 79, 165occupying, 14–15, 78, 131OECD, 2, 19, 25oil, 134–136, 157–162, 167, 170oilfields, 167Oman, 187Omar, 44–46, 63, 111Operation, 46, 62, 122, 134operations, 13, 15–16, 28, 32, 40–41,

81, 101, 126, 136operatives, 110, 147–148, 170opium, 38, 70, 75–76opponents, 6, 13, 40, 79, 87, 117opportunities, 28, 52, 124, 149, 161,

163, 176opportunity, 18, 40, 56, 74, 86, 88–89,

134, 137, 162opposition, 16, 40, 43, 62, 67, 81, 86,

91–92, 132–133, 141, 143organisation, 2, 10–12, 15, 19, 23,

27, 30, 32, 46, 103, 107, 154, 164

organisations, 3–4, 11–12, 21, 28, 30–32, 34, 41, 66, 80, 82–83, 100–101, 103, 105, 109–110, 112–114, 116, 119, 123, 129, 139, 148, 157, 160, 166, 174, 177–178, 182, 184, 187–188

organised, 7, 12, 14–16, 47, 50, 99, 137–138, 165

Oruzgan, 108, 183Osama, 44, 91, 101, 108, 129outbreak, 101, 130overthrow, 6, 11–12, 14, 77, 110, 131overview, 1, 17, 38, 48, 62, 64, 83,

110, 136, 176, 180, 186

pacification, 18Pakhtunkhwa, 86, 88–90, 96, 98, 100,

102, 104, 109, 113, 115–116, 120–122, 125

Pakistan, 17, 21, 27, 32–35, 41, 44–47, 50, 53–56, 59, 63, 79–81, 83–129, 147, 152, 162, 178–185

Pakistani, 9, 53–55, 63–64, 80, 83–84, 88–89, 91–92, 94, 96–99, 101–112, 117–122, 124–129, 147, 184–185

Pakistanis, 94, 120Paktia, 50, 78, 81, 108, 183Paktika, 50, 73, 78, 81, 108, 183Palestine, 31Palestinian, 9Palestinians, 146Panjshir, 50Parachinar, 53, 106paramilitary, 21, 148Parliament, 46, 85, 143parliamentary, 65, 85–87, 142,

153–154partition, 126, 163Pashtun, 42–43, 46, 50, 55, 68, 81, 91,

94, 106, 115, 119–120, 126Pashtuns, 43, 64, 68, 94, 119Pashtunwali, 46, 94patronage, 59, 118, 132PDPA, 39–40perception, 18, 125, 138, 174perceptions, 70, 164Pervez, 84, 90, 106, 122Peshawar, 41–42, 59, 123Petraeus, 57, 142, 169phenomena, 1, 4, 11, 29, 174–175,

177phenomenon, 10, 13, 17–18, 20–21,

27, 58, 61, 83, 117, 132, 155, 165, 183

Philippines, 31, 34, 178polarisation, 103police, 7, 66, 107, 118–119, 138, 145,

148–149policies, 15, 27, 48, 89, 106, 109, 121,

129, 157, 184, 187Policy, 23–24, 104, 155policy, 3, 8, 22, 25, 29, 36, 51, 56,

59, 68, 79–80, 84, 96, 105, 107, 128–129, 132, 139, 145–146, 151, 155, 162, 166, 170, 172, 176, 182, 187

Index 241

Political, 14, 22, 24, 52, 64, 112, 116, 118, 133, 153, 180

political, 2–16, 18, 20–24, 26–29, 37–38, 40–44, 47–48, 50–53, 55–59, 61–62, 64–71, 73, 75, 77, 79, 81, 83–97, 99–101, 105, 109, 112–118, 120, 122–125, 127–128, 130–133, 137–143, 145, 149, 151–158, 163–167, 169–171, 176, 179–185, 188

politicides, 24politics, 18, 20, 52, 68–69, 82, 84–85,

94, 96, 98, 101, 103, 116–118, 130, 155, 158, 166, 186

poppies, 75–76Porous, 22, 54, 101, 147, 181porous, 54, 82, 96–98, 101–102, 129,

146–149, 172, 179–180Poverty, 22, 47, 72–73, 160, 180poverty, 23, 38, 55, 58, 72–75, 94,

109, 120, 143–144, 159–160, 162power, 3, 11–16, 19–20, 26, 28, 39–40,

42–47, 53–54, 61–62, 66, 68–69, 77, 84–86, 88–93, 95–96, 102, 113–115, 118, 125, 130–134, 136–137, 139–140, 143, 145, 151–152, 154, 156, 158, 165, 176, 182–183, 185

PPP, 86, 88–89, 92, 128President, 8, 39, 44–46, 77–79, 86–91,

93, 99, 106–107, 132–133, 139, 150–151, 166

president, 40, 86–89, 133presidential, 86, 93procedures, 99, 157processes, 65, 71, 73, 158, 186programme, 23–24, 58, 87, 89–90, 99,

136–137, 142, 148programmes, 80–81, 162–163, 184proliferation, 29, 57–59, 92, 94, 104,

112, 115, 120, 124–125, 138, 151, 153, 160, 163, 174

propaganda, 116, 132, 157protests, 126, 171province, 43–44, 53–54, 76, 78, 81,

119, 142, 146, 164, 171, 183–185provinces, 38, 42, 44, 46, 50, 54,

67–68, 73–75, 78, 80–81, 85–87, 100, 102, 104, 107–108, 113, 115,

119–122, 139–140, 148–149, 154, 158–160, 162, 182, 185

provincial, 48, 51, 66, 86, 88, 93, 155provincialism, 115proxy, 88, 106, 169psychological, 3–5, 38Punjab, 85, 87–89, 104, 109Punjabis, 94, 115, 123purges, 146

Qadir, 42Qadisiyah, 185Qadissiya, 144Qaeda, 9, 13, 30–31, 45–46, 53–54,

57, 63–65, 76–77, 79, 81, 91–92, 94–95, 98, 101–102, 104–106, 109–110, 112, 126, 139, 141, 144, 146–147, 160, 170, 172, 184

Quetta, 88, 106

Rabbani, 42–44, 56radical, 30, 40, 70, 82, 87, 92–93, 99,

103, 109, 124, 150, 166, 169radicalisation, 103, 124, 175radicalised, 103, 124radicalism, 184radicals, 150Rank, 33, 48rank, 22–25, 48, 62ranked, 22, 37, 47, 72, 105ranking, 22–24, 30, 95, 175, 177, 186Rashid, 111, 114Rawalpindi, 39, 85, 92, 97, 110, 115,

121, 123, 184rebellion, 40, 93, 134, 138rebellions, 61rebels, 134, 150, 171reconstruction, 59, 74, 77, 79, 143,

155–156, 160–161, 163, 165, 183recruit, 56–57, 66, 78, 104, 146, 150,

163recruitment, 56, 73, 79, 94, 124,

159–160recruits, 28, 55–57, 77–78, 81–82, 101,

103, 124, 129, 141, 144, 149–150, 162, 176, 179–181

reform, 154–155reforms, 11, 15, 39, 89, 133, 155refuge, 54, 91, 102, 118

242 Index

refugee, 47, 144, 146refugees, 41, 47, 67, 88, 95, 115,

144–145, 149, 171Regime, 112, 180regime, 9, 15–16, 22, 39–41, 46, 48,

64–65, 67, 69, 71, 79, 88–89, 110, 112, 116, 128–134, 136–139, 144–145, 149–150, 152–154, 158, 164–165, 170, 172, 179–180, 185

regimes, 112, 114, 117, 132, 136region, 6, 14–16, 40, 46, 80, 92,

101–102, 107, 111, 113, 120–121, 129, 134, 144–145, 151, 158–159, 170, 173, 184–185

regional, 38, 42–43, 72, 79–80, 84, 98, 114, 116, 130, 158, 164, 182–183

regions, 8, 49–50, 54–55, 76, 78, 81, 87, 91, 98, 102, 109, 113, 116, 119–120, 125, 129, 131, 159, 161, 163, 181, 183–185

reign, 38–39, 88, 92, 137, 140relationship, 17, 27–28, 57, 69, 79,

85, 108–109, 114, 117, 125, 170, 177, 186

relationships, 9, 60, 85, 185Religion, 22religion, 4, 10, 13, 62, 65, 69, 85, 95,

110, 123, 157, 170Religious, 14, 68, 133religious, 2–3, 6, 9, 16, 19–21, 27,

37, 42, 55–56, 61, 65, 67–70, 79, 83, 85, 87, 89, 91, 93, 95, 107, 109–110, 115, 117–120, 123–124, 130, 141, 146, 152, 163–165, 170, 185

religiously, 1, 9, 92, 118, 123representative, 13, 50, 65, 85, 112, 140repression, 158repressive, 50, 67, 72, 119Republic, 21, 32, 39, 93, 178Republican, 6, 31, 86, 186resentment, 51, 74, 143, 149, 156,

160, 183resilient, 25–26, 96, 179resistance, 14, 40–41, 44–45, 52, 61,

78, 106, 127, 144, 166Resolution, 2, 24, 135–136

resources, 2, 12–13, 15, 30, 41, 53, 66, 68–69, 74, 96, 98, 127, 136, 144, 156, 160–162

resurgent, 50retaliate, 134retaliation, 78revenue, 28, 158, 160–161, 176revolts, 61, 119Revolution, 9, 39, 87, 134revolution, 10–11, 22, 87, 107Revolutionary, 15, 31, 40, 63revolutionary, 6, 13, 24, 41riots, 85, 87, 92, 126, 164RIRA, 31root, 73, 76, 82, 88, 102, 109, 115,

124, 149rural, 40, 51, 71–72, 74, 144, 183Russia, 38Russian, 39, 104

sabotage, 14Saddam, 9, 130, 132–135, 137–139,

144–145, 148–150, 152, 155, 158, 162, 164, 167, 172, 185

Salafists, 166Salahuddin, 185Salam, 131Samangan, 43, 50Samarra, 141sanctions, 19, 134, 136–137, 162sanctuaries, 116, 126, 176sanctuary, 13, 59, 79, 81, 108, 113,

185Saudi, 44–45, 76, 105, 134, 147–148,

167, 170Saudis, 170Sayyaf, 31, 62–63Sayyed, 42–43secession, 117secessionist, 98sectarian, 37, 49, 62, 65, 87, 90–92,

95, 102, 104, 109–110, 116, 124, 130, 137, 139, 141–143, 145, 150–151, 154, 163–164, 166–167, 170–171, 173, 184

sectarianism, 85, 107, 154Security, 2, 19, 135, 152, 169, 172security, 8, 18–20, 24, 28, 30, 34, 45,

50–53, 65–66, 70–78, 80–81, 84,

Index 243

92, 95, 97, 111, 117, 120, 125, 127–128, 138, 140–142, 145–149, 154–155, 163–167, 171–172, 176, 178, 184

separation, 43, 69, 126Separatist, 15separatist, 1, 6, 107separatists, 106September, 37, 40, 44–45, 85–86, 91,

93, 106, 122–123, 131, 134, 142, 165

service, 71–72, 86, 94, 144, 155Shabaab, 31, 187Shah, 38–39, 42, 44Sharia, 13, 71, 89Shariat, 63, 89–90, 111Sharif, 42, 46, 88–92, 118, 128Shia, 43, 92, 95, 110, 119, 130–131,

133, 139–142, 144–146, 150, 154, 163, 171, 185

Shias, 110, 166Shinrikyo, 31Shura, 42–43, 59Sindh, 87–88, 90, 96, 104, 109, 119,

122Sindhi, 88, 94Sindhis, 115skirmishes, 37, 48, 134, 184smuggling, 46, 148Social, 22, 58, 76, 122, 156, 163, 180societal, 11, 19, 57, 68societies, 13, 18, 29, 55–58, 103society, 6–7, 12–13, 27, 40–42, 51–52,

60, 66, 69–70, 83, 85, 89, 91, 100, 103, 107, 110, 124, 131, 135, 143, 146, 151–152, 155, 161, 163–164

socioeconomic, 49soldiers, 40, 78, 127, 142Somalia, 21, 33, 93, 175, 187sovereign, 19–20, 131, 143, 166sovereignty, 18, 24, 68, 139, 149Soviet, 10, 17, 38, 40–41, 46–47,

50–51, 53, 61–62, 67, 87–88, 105–106, 109, 125

Soviets, 40–42, 61Spain, 186spectrum, 17, 19, 23–27, 35, 146, 175,

177, 179, 181–182spillover, 34, 64, 170, 172, 178

spillovers, 27sponsor, 8–9, 89sponsored, 1, 6, 8, 127sponsoring, 8sponsors, 8sponsorship, 8stabilisation, 161stabilise, 40, 42, 46, 67, 84, 96, 169stabilised, 145stabilising, 44, 55, 57, 142stability, 2, 26, 44, 51–52, 59, 66–67,

69, 72–74, 80, 82, 84, 93–95, 99, 102, 112–113, 118, 121–122, 124, 126, 129, 132, 135, 139–145, 149, 151, 153–155, 159–165, 167, 170–173, 179

stagnation, 75, 159, 162, 180State, 1–3, 5, 7–9, 11, 13, 15, 17–19,

21, 23–32, 34–35, 37, 42, 47, 61, 83, 93, 95, 109, 130, 143, 153, 175, 177–179, 182, 186–188

state, 1–2, 5–6, 8, 13, 17–30, 32, 34–38, 40, 42–43, 47–53, 56–59, 64–66, 69–71, 73, 75–76, 78, 81–85, 87, 89–93, 95–101, 103–105, 107, 112–114, 116–118, 120–124, 126–135, 137–138, 143–147, 152–153, 155–166, 169, 172–188

statehood, 21, 186STATES, 25–26States, 19, 23–25, 27, 30, 37states, 3, 11, 17–30, 32–36, 55–56,

58, 65, 72, 79–80, 84, 95, 99, 104–105, 117, 123, 127, 129, 135, 143, 147, 149, 167, 169, 172, 174–180, 186–188

Stockholm, 34strategic, 12, 38, 53–54, 62, 79, 106strategies, 4, 27, 79, 169strategy, 4, 11, 13, 23–24, 81,

105–106, 142, 147, 170strength, 18, 23, 25, 36, 47, 50, 65,

67, 93, 99, 146–147, 158–159, 172, 184

STRONG, 25–26strong, 6, 18, 21, 24–26, 30, 37,

46–47, 49–50, 53, 55, 65, 68, 71, 75, 82, 93, 98, 103, 116,

244 Index

123, 129, 141, 154, 161, 172, 176–177, 179, 186

structural, 49, 52, 57, 98, 115, 121, 164structure, 7, 11, 15–16, 42, 49, 56, 66,

76, 84–85, 94, 96–97, 103, 116, 145, 173

structures, 7, 15–16, 50, 66, 71, 113, 155, 166, 175, 181

struggle, 12–14, 31, 40, 43, 61, 69, 83, 95–96, 119–120, 131, 139, 141, 157, 163, 180

subcontinent, 116, 126Sudan, 8–9, 32–33, 44, 93, 178suicide, 10, 62, 64, 92, 94, 98, 104,

141, 145, 148, 170Sunni, 92, 95, 110, 119, 130–131,

133, 139–142, 144–146, 150, 154, 157–159, 163–165, 170–171, 184–185

Sunnis, 110, 130–131, 141, 147, 166, 171

Swat, 113, 115Sweden, 7Swedish, 7Syria, 8–9, 21, 147–149, 157, 167,

169–172Syrian, 130, 171

tactic, 5–6, 9, 14, 16, 62, 64, 142tactics, 4, 10–11, 13, 15, 53, 61, 87,

125, 132, 138Tajik, 63, 68Tajikistan, 45Tajiks, 68Taliban, 9, 13, 31, 43–48, 50, 53–65,

67–81, 89, 91–92, 94–95, 98, 101–102, 104–108, 110–112, 116–118, 125–126, 147, 182–185

Taraki, 39–40Tehrik, 31, 63, 92, 102, 111, 116territorial, 20, 55, 98, 116, 128territories, 18, 20, 40, 42, 81, 127territory, 7, 12–13, 15, 18–20, 22, 35,

43, 45, 49, 53–55, 81, 87, 98–101, 104, 108, 121, 127, 129, 134, 141, 147, 174–175

terror, 2, 4–8, 10–11, 17–18, 46, 106, 110, 112, 125, 127, 132–133, 165, 172, 175, 178, 184, 186

Terrorism, 1–32, 34–38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, 50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60–64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82–84, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 96, 98, 100, 102, 104, 106, 108–112, 114, 116, 118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 128, 130, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 142, 144, 146, 148, 150, 152–154, 156, 158, 160, 162, 164, 166, 170, 172, 176, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188

terrorism, 1–14, 16–18, 25, 27–30, 32–37, 45, 47, 49, 51, 56–62, 64, 66–67, 71, 73–74, 76–77, 79–85, 89, 92–94, 98, 101–102, 104–105, 107, 110–112, 115–117, 119–122, 124–126, 129, 138, 141, 144–157, 159–162, 164–165, 167, 169–170, 172–180, 183–188

Terrorist, 30, 63, 111, 166, 186terrorist, 2–3, 6–11, 13, 17, 28–32,

34–36, 45, 48–49, 53–58, 61–62, 64, 67–69, 73, 75–76, 78–80, 82–83, 90–91, 94, 98–103, 105–106, 109–116, 118–129, 137–141, 144–147, 149–155, 157, 159–164, 166–167, 170–172, 174, 176–179, 181–188

terrorists, 7, 9, 13, 32, 35–36, 53, 57, 60, 95, 99, 101–102, 104, 107, 116, 140, 146–149, 176, 178, 181, 184

theory, 23, 56, 65, 70, 103, 120, 147, 155, 160

totalitarian, 65, 132trade, 24, 49, 53, 70, 75–76, 88, 116,

121, 135–136, 162, 169tradition, 66, 98, 162traditional, 4, 6, 12, 15, 25, 38–39, 46,

62, 65, 69, 102, 104, 114, 128, 146, 170

traditionally, 16, 37, 157traditions, 7, 40, 65, 87trafficking, 47–48, 50, 75, 108transformation, 132, 142, 153transition, 81, 139–140, 143transnational, 81–82transparency, 48, 58transparent, 11, 20, 155

Index 245

tribal, 16, 37–38, 46, 49, 54, 61–62, 69–71, 78, 90–91, 96, 98, 102, 104, 106, 108, 113–115, 117, 120, 122, 125–126, 130, 141, 145, 150, 170, 184

tribalism, 96, 157tribes, 69, 145, 148tribesman, 171trigger, 151triggered, 51, 61, 124–126, 141, 152,

165, 171–172, 175, 183, 185triggering, 39, 85, 185troops, 41, 61, 64, 75, 77–81, 91,

105, 111, 134–135, 138, 142, 148, 150–151, 166–167, 171, 185

troubled, 27, 43, 89, 146, 152tumultuous, 85, 89, 131Tunisian, 63Turkey, 147, 157, 167, 170Turkish, 131Turkistan, 63Turkmen, 139Turkomans, 146, 159

UK, 78, 105, 135UN, 23, 67, 127, 134–136, 143, 171uncontrolled, 47, 50, 58, 151, 170underemployment, 162unemployed, 139, 144, 149, 163unemployment, 11, 23, 56, 72, 123,

143, 150, 160, 162, 181uneven, 30, 73–74, 96, 100, 121, 145,

159–162, 180ungoverned, 54, 102UNHCR, 72, 149UNICEF, 100, 137unrest, 56, 73, 78, 88, 90, 115, 170UNSC, 136–137urban, 15–16, 41, 72, 74, 124, 144USAID, 19, 24, 154USSR, 41, 105Uzbek, 68Uzbekistan, 31, 63Uzbeks, 43

vacuum, 21, 44, 53, 85, 137–138, 140, 145, 165, 183

variables, 24, 35–36, 103

Violence, 2–3, 77, 131, 151, 184violence, 2–6, 9–14, 18–19, 21–22,

28, 30, 34, 37, 43–45, 48–49, 52, 57–59, 61–62, 64, 66–69, 71, 75–78, 87–88, 90–92, 95, 97–98, 103, 107, 112, 115–117, 119, 122, 124–125, 127, 132–133, 138–141, 145–146, 148, 150–155, 158–159, 161–162, 164–167, 176, 178–180, 182, 184–185, 187–188

violent, 7, 12, 21, 39–40, 44, 48, 58, 61, 67, 73, 77, 82, 96, 104, 110, 116–119, 121–124, 130, 142, 144, 148, 152, 156, 159–160, 184

violently, 8, 119volatile, 37, 68, 70, 80, 96, 113, 129vulnerable, 15, 29, 56, 59, 72, 114,

118–119, 124, 132, 160, 167, 188

Wardak, 50, 53, 68, 183warfare, 5, 11–13, 61, 156warlords, 21, 46, 66, 68, 75water, 51, 76, 136, 144, 161Waziristan, 91, 98, 114, 116, 119, 183WEAK, 25–26weak, 16, 19–20, 24, 26–27, 29, 35,

47, 50, 52, 55–56, 58, 64, 67, 70–72, 81, 84–85, 92–93, 96–102, 113, 122, 132, 149, 152–153, 156, 164, 177, 179, 182, 184, 187–188

weakened, 21, 40, 47, 114, 123, 128, 134

weakening, 57, 97weaker, 10, 99, 122weakness, 19–20, 22–24, 27, 49–51,

53, 57, 59, 65–66, 76, 81, 94, 98–99, 104, 114, 119, 122, 181–182, 184, 188

weaknesses, 59, 184wealth, 15, 73–74, 121, 123, 159–162,

180weaponry, 58, 103weapons, 8–9, 13, 34, 57–58, 76, 83,

88, 103–104, 106–107, 112, 126–127, 148–152, 172, 179, 181

246 Index

West, 84–85, 87, 105, 109, 117, 127western, 34, 55, 75, 78, 97, 102, 126,

148, 170, 178, 183–184withdraw, 15, 41, 65, 135, 147withdrawal, 41, 50, 53, 61, 64, 67,

75, 79, 106, 111, 140, 147, 149, 151, 166–167, 173, 185

wounded, 43, 45, 85, 135writ, 54, 71, 100, 102, 113

Yazidis, 131Yemen, 5, 33, 63youth, 47, 55–56, 58, 77, 79, 94, 103,

107, 149, 181

Zabul, 50, 53, 73, 183Zardari, 93, 99, 107Zia, 85, 87–89, 105, 116, 118Zimbabwe, 33, 93Zulfikar, 63, 84, 86–87

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