Practitioners of Risky Sports

Practitioners of Risky Sports:A Quantitative ExaminationAviv ShohamISRAEL INSTITUTE oF TECHNOLOGY

Gregory M. RoseUNIVERSITY oF MISSISSIPPI

Lynn R. KahleUNIVERSITY oF OREGON

The consumption of risky sports continues to grow. Risky sports include awful fall stops. The much-anticipated tap of Mordi on myshoulder starts 40 seconds of pure happiness . . . I amactivities such as skydiving, deep-sea diving, and parachuting that entail

a high level of physical risk. To date, most studies of risky sports have engulfed with optimism, screaming with the feelings oftended to be more qualitative than quantitative and were based on partici- freedom and liberation. An addictive sensation. Birds feelpant observation. The research described here builds on earlier research similarly [(Zundar, 1995), p. 68].by integrating the frameworks within which risky sports’ consumptionhave been documented—drama, danger neutralization and peer identifi-cation, and extraordinary experiences—into an empirically testable

This first skydiving experience described by an Israelimodel. The model is tested on the basis of responses from 72 individuals,

journalist is similar to that discussed by Celsi, Rose,who have been active in sports such as deep-sea diving, parachuting, and

and Leigh (1993). Similar sensations of fear trans-rock or mountain climbing. Substantial empirical support is found for the

formed into happiness have been described for river raftersintegrated, drama- and extraordinary-based frames of reference. The

(Arnould and Price, 1993; Arnould, Price, and Tierney, 1998a,findings are used to generate managerial implications, a topic mostly

1998b; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995) and Canadianneglected in previous research. J BUSN RES 2000. 47.237–251. 1999

hang gliders (Brannigan and McDougall, 1983). Many leisureElsevier Science Inc.

activities involve some level of physical risk. Risky sports differfrom other sports in that consumers knowingly face the riskThe plane climbs slowly, until it reaches 11,000 feet. Theof a serious injury and even death when judgment or equip-door opens, and a wave of fear strikes me. A strong, veryment fail (Lyng, 1990). Annual deaths range between one ofcold gust rushes inside and makes me jam into a corner.250 ultra-light airplane pilots to one of 100,000 scuba divers,I try to remember the instructions . . . Another second,the latter still twice the rate for football players (Celsi, Rose,and Mordi [the instructor] jumps. We are falling. The windand Leigh, 1993).hits us and overpowers my facial muscles. I think that one

Risky sports are increasingly practiced in developed na-cheek engulfs an ear. A sharp pain shoots through mytions. This increase is due to the juxtaposition of a dramaticlower stomach. The amazing speed of the fall accumulates.world view, perpetuated by the mass media, with the special-Something very bad is happening. Mordi is late or has lostized and bureaucratic social forms of the twentieth century.control . . . Just then, not more than five seconds since weThus, risky sports may provide a release from the tensions ofleft the plane, Mordi opens the tiny balancing canopy. Thethe modern era. The popularity of risky sports has createdmarket opportunities for emergent industries, such as clubs,

Aviv Shoham is a lecturer of marketing at the Faculty of Industrial Engi- equipment stores, and magazines. The interest of marketingneering and Management, Technion–Israel Institute of Technology, Tech-

scholars in the study of risky sports parallels the populariza-nion City, Haifa, Israel. Gregory M. Rose is an Assistant Professor of Marketingat the University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi. Lynn R. Kahle is the tion of these sports. Prior research has described the experi-James H. Warsaw Professor of Marketing at the University of Oregon, Eu-

ence of rafting, hang gliding, and skydiving (Arnould andgene, Oregon.Address correspondence to Dr. Aviv Shoham, Technion–Israel Institute Price, 1993; Brannigan and McDougall, 1983; Celsi, Rose,of Technology, Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management, 32000

Technion City, Haifa, Israel. and Leigh, 1993; Celsi, 1992) and has provided thick descrip-

Journal of Business Research 47, 237–251 (2000) 1999 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved. ISSN 0148-2963/00/$–see front matter655 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010 PII S0148-2963(98)00093-9

238 J Busn Res A. Shoham et al.2000:47:237–251

tions of the hedonic aspects of risky sport consumption. Ar- viewed as a need for thrill, adventure, and novel experiencesnould and Price (1993) and Celsi, Rose, and Leigh (1993) (Zuckerman, 1983, 1984; Zuckerman, Buchsbaum, and Mur-use induction to suggest two frameworks for understanding phy, 1980; Zuckerman, Kolin, Price, and Zoob, 1964). It isthe seeming paradox between rational behavior and the con- trait-based in that individuals have given levels of needs forsumption of risky sports. They link the transcendent nature sensation. The scale for measuring sensation seeking (SSS-V;of risky sport to increased participation (Celsi, Rose, and Zuckerman, 1979) includes sub-dimensions for thrill and ad-Leigh, 1993) and satisfaction (Arnould and Price, 1993). Indi- venture seeking, experience seeking, boredom susceptibility,vidual and group variables are combined with insights from and disinhibition. The scale exhibits acceptable reliability andthe extraordinary experience model to provide an excellent convergent validity (Wahlers, Dunn, and Etzel, 1986; Whalersbasis for a managerially oriented, empirical examination of and Etzel, 1990). Sensation seeking has been linked to higherthis paradoxical consumer behavior. consumption of drugs, smoking (Burns, Hampson, Severson,

This article explores the frequency of participation in risky and Slovic, 1993; Severson, Slovic, and Hampson, 1993),sports. It synthesizes findings from previous research into an and risky sports (Hymbaugh and Garrett, 1974; Zuckerman,empirically testable model. The framework used here inte- Buchsbaum, and Murphy, 1980).grates the drama-form (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993), danger- Telic dominance, a state-based theory, is a second theoryneutralization and peer-identification explanations (Brannigan used to explain the probability of engaging in risky sportsand McDougall, (1983), and the extraordinary experience (Apter, 1976, 1982; Smith and Apter, 1975). It has beenmodel (Arnould and Price, 1993; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, operationalized by measuring individual differences based on1995). We adopt a managerial focus in developing our model. one’s propensity toward two stable states (telic and paratelic).Arnould and Price (1993) and Price, Arnould, and Tierney The dominance of either of these states has been viewed as a(1995) focus on the attitudinal outcome of satisfaction. We personality trait (Murgatroyd et al., 1978). In a telic state,examine the behavior (frequency of engagement in current individuals try to gain arousal (felt as pleasant); in a paratelicrisky sports) and future behavioral intention (probability of state, individuals try to reduce arousal (seen as unpleasant).entering other risky sports). The frequency of risky sport’s While telic dominance and reversal theory, on which it ispractice can be used in segmentation and positioning by iden- based, are state-based, the Telic Dominance Scale assessestifying the characteristics and preferences of heavy versus light three trait sub-dimensions: arousal avoidance, serious-mind-practitioners. The probability that practitioners of one risky edness, and planning orientation (Murgatroyd et al., 1978).sport will enter into others is also managerially relevant, be- Telic dominance and arousal avoidance differ between riskycause if engagement in new risky sports is predicated on sports practitioners and the general population (Kerr, 1991).similar explanatory constructs as participation in current risky In marketing, sensation seeking and telic dominance be-sports, then firms catering to one risky sport could target long to studies of optimal stimulation levels. These studiespractitioners of other risky sports. As previous research has assume that there exist one (homeostatic) level of sensationmostly ignored managerial implications, generation of such or two (bi-stable) levels of stimulation (telic or paratelic) withimplications is an important part of this article. which individuals are comfortable. Deficiency or surplus of

Theoretically, sensation seeking and risky sport consump- environmental stimulation will result in individual behaviortion are frequently treated as stable traits. However, skydiving to increase or reduce stimulation (Raju, 1980; Wahlers andmotivations evolve over time. While an individual may initially Etzel, 1990).join to comply with a friend’s request, efficacy, identity-con- The purpose of this study is to identify differentiating fac-struction, higher-order group motives, such as communitas, tors for individuals, who already practice risky sports. Suchbecome more important over time. Thus, empirically examin- individuals are expected to score high on sensation seekinging the association between various needs and motives for and low on arousal avoidance. Although sensation seekingparticipating in risky sports and the expected probability of and telic dominance have been used mostly to predict risk-participating in other risky sports should help identify the taking behavior in the general population, we use them toextent to which specific needs are sport-specific, providing establish validity. Comparing sensation seeking in our sampleadditional evidence in the trait versus process debate. with levels in previous studies can substantiate the generaliz-

Finally, we use an Israeli sample of practitioners. This choice ability of our findings. Furthermore, inclusion of the twoshould help to extend the generalizability of findings from scales can be used to identify sub-populations within riskyprevious research beyond the U.S. samples used in the past. sport practitioners.

We synthesize findings from Celsi, Rose, and Leigh (1993),Brannigan and McDougall (1983), Arnould and Price (1993),Theory and Research Hypothesesand Price, Arnould, and Tierney (1995). They view riskysport participation as a continuous process and describe theSubstantial research on joining risky sports is based on twoevolution of motives throughout this process. We integratetheories. The first is a trait theory based on an individual’s

need for sensation (Zuckerman, 1979). Sensation seeking is their findings into a model of continuous involvement in risky

239Practitioners of Risky Sports J Busn Res2000:47:237–251

sports. This model has an advantage in that comparisons can (Bandura, 1965; Brannigan and McDougall, 1983; Celsi, Rose,be made within the group of practitioners. All three ap- and Leigh, 1993).proaches share four building blocks, which explain the con- Arnould and Price (1993) also argue for the importancesumption of risky sports: the need for identity construction, of efficacy. River rafting guides help rafters acquire new skills.efficacy, camaraderie, and experience. We examine each of Progressive mastery continues throughout the rafting trip.the four separately, although they are related. Because of its long duration, one river rafting experience af-

fords the individual an opportunity to satisfy needs for efficacywithin a single trip. In contrast, similar needs are satisfiedIdentity Constructionover multiple consumption activities for skydivers due to theCelsi, Rose, and Leigh [(1993), p. 11] discuss identity con-short duration of a jump. In both cases, the need for efficacystruction as a motive for continuous involvement in riskyis a motive for continuous involvement. Thus:sports. They refer to this opportunity as “. . . a well-defined

context for personal change, as well as a clear-cut means to H2: The relationship between the perceived satisfaction oforganize a new, and sometimes central, identity.” Initiation efficacy needs in a risky sport and both the frequencyis a structured process, similar to a pilgrimage (Arnould and of engagement in it and future probability of engagingPrice, 1993) or rite of passage (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993). in other risky sports is positive.Participation in the sport is seen as special or unique. Thisstructured opportunity for self-construction through a unique, Camaraderieextraordinary experience provides a powerful motive in the

The importance of the group within which a risky sport islate twentieth century, where adult roles are frequently rou-practiced is an additional motive for practicing it. Celsi, Rose,tine, bureaucratic, and hard-to-change.and Leigh [(1993), p. 12] use group camaraderie as one ofArnould and Price (1993) identify extension and renewalthree transcendent motives-flow, communitas, and phaticof self as a theme associated with satisfying river rafting trips.communion. They define communitas as “a sense of commu-Part of this growth is acquiring a new sport-specific jargon.nity that transcends typical social norms and convention.” ItNewcomers to ultra-light plane flights start using terms suchprovides a sense of camaraderie for people from differingas “air pocket,” “lower the nose,” “throttle,” and “flaps” (Kafra,backgrounds; they can regard their joint activities as sacred1995). Skydivers use “free fall,” “secondary canopy,” and(Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry, 1989). Communitas develops“main canopy” (Zundar, 1995). The new terms are used towhen shared experiences transcend the drudgery of everydaysignify one’s membership, acceptance, and understanding oflife and provide shared rituals or extraordinary experiences.the special viewpoint of risky sport participants (Celsi, Rose,Group members recognize the irrelevancy of external roles andand Leigh, 1993). Price, Arnould, and Tierney (1995) useddevelop expertise and specialized roles within the community,identity construction as a measure of provider performance,maintaining the separation between the everyday world andwhich led to satisfaction. Brannigan and McDougall (1983)the extraordinary risky sport experience.identify the ego-gratifying aspects of continuous involvement

Arnould and Price (1993) include communitas as a themein risky sports. Ego gratification results from internal, sub-of satisfying rafting trips. In the process of negotiating white-culture-based status and from external, media-based attention.water rivers, team members develop feelings of belonging toIn sum, given identity construction’s important role inthe group. The group is united by its devotion to a single,explaining continuous risky sport participation and satisfac-transcendent goal. In the process, rafters dispose of personal,tion, it is hypothesized that:non-task-related possessions, in favor of shared and goal-

H1: The relationship between the perceived satisfaction of relevant ones. The process is aided by rafting guides, whoidentity construction needs in a risky sport and both provide reinforcement for teamwork. Consequently, Price,the frequency of engagement in it and future probabil- Arnould, and Tierney (1995) use a measure of the serviceity of engaging in other risky sports is positive. provider having created a team spirit in their performance

scale. Positive social relationships serve to reinforce participants’Efficacy continuous involvement (Brannigan and McDougall, 1983).

Communitas is manifested in identity construction andCelsi, Rose, and Leigh [(1993), p. 10] suggest efficacy as aefficacy in the drama form (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993), themotive for “sticking with it.” They define the need for efficacydanger neutralization and peer identification (Brannigan andas “a desire to develop technical skill for both personal satisfac-McDougall, 1983), and the extraordinary experience modelstion and social status within the sky-diving community.” Con-(Arnould and Price, 1993; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995).sumers are motivated to stay involved with the sport becauseInitiation processes in the pilgrimage metaphor (Arnould andthey get getter at it (Branningan and McDougall, 1983). Fur-Price, 1993) and in rites of passage (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh,thermore, standards shift and become more demanding with1993) are important aspects of satisfaction of identity con-increased expertise. Thus, self-expectations increase with ex-

pertise, maintaining the importance of efficacy over time struction needs. Identity construction takes place within


H4b: The relationship between the experience in a riskygroups with common interests and goals. Further, efficacysport and the future probability of engaging in otherinvolves the development of sport-related skills and expertiserisky sports is negative.(Arnould and Price, 1993). Such skills differentiate the experi-

enced from novices and from non-participants. Efficacy con- Finally, we controlled for age in our analyses because ittributes to one’s standing within the community. In sum, the can have opposite effects. Older people may not be as fit forgroup motivates members to continue and increase their level the physical demands of many risky sports. Therefore, theof involvement: frequency of practice of the sport and the probability of enter-

H3: The relationship between the perceived satisfaction of ing new risky sports in the future should decline with age.camaraderie needs within a group of practitioners of In contrast, some of the needs Celsi, Rose, and Leigh (1993)a given sport and both the frequency of engagement discuss may be more important for older individuals. Theyin it and future probability of engaging in other risky have had more opportunity to face the tension emanatingsports is positive. from the workplace, causing them to look for the release and

catharsis that can be gained from a risky sport. Older peopleExperience may also have had more years to develop the skills relevant

to risky sports, thus reducing the risks. Given these conflictingThe importance of experience in determining present androles, age is used as a convariate, and no hypothesis is ad-future behavior is multi-faceted. It runs through Celsi, Rose,vanced about its effect.and Leigh’s discussion (1993) of the need for efficacy and

To sum, perceived fulfillment of identity construction, effi-identity construction. Efficacy is predicated on developing thecacy, and camaraderie needs by a risky sport affects the fre-prerequisite technical skills and jargon of the sport. Duringquency of engagement in it and the probability of engagingthis process, attention shifts from anxiety about the physicalin other risky sports positively. The relationship between expe-risks involved in the sport to achieving greater performancerience is a risky sport and the frequency of engagement isthrough the successive mastery of greater challenges (Celsi,

Rose, and Leigh, 1993). also positive, but the future probability of engaging in otherThe importance of experience is also evident in the process risky sports is negative.

of identity construction. Sustained participation provides anindividual with an opportunity to construct a new self (Belk,

Methods1988). The opportunity to construct a new self depends onsufficient commitment to a new set of life tasks with associated Pretestplans for implementation. Sticking with the sport (Celsi, Rose,

The pretest involved two stages. First, interviews were heldand Leigh, 1993) is a form of such commitment. Arnould andwith practitioners of risky sports to assess the appropriatenessPrice (1993) trace the evolution of three themes over the riverand clarity of the questionnaire. Then, the revised question-rafting experience. Communitas, communion with nature,naire was tested on a sample of 60 students. Since the question-and extension and renewal of self make river rafting an extraor-naire included items about non-risky sports as well, reliabilitydinary experience. Each of these themes changes as the tripand validity of the various measures could be assessed by useprogresses because opportunities for their manifestations ac-of responses to the non-risky sport scales. Respondents werecumulate. As the rafting trip draws to an end, “participants’also asked to comment on the clarity of the instructions andembodiments of communitas become particularly evident anditems. Examination of these responses resulted in a fewstriking. [Field notes] disclose the depth of emotional attach-changes. Some items were deleted, others were replaced orments formed among the members of the trip” [Arnould andre-phrased, and new items were added. Additionally, a fewPrice (1993), p. 35].introductory questions were re-worded to clarify the instruc-In sum, experience plays a role in risky sport consumption.tions to respondents.Celsi, Rose, and Leigh’s (1993) satisfaction of participants’

motives and Arnould and Price’s (1993) evolution of themesSampleare related to experience. Sport-specific expertise and experi-

ence is a progressive process—successive stages of mastery Data were collected in a survey of risky sports practitionerslead to a desire for greater challenges (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, in Israel. Respondents were active participants in at least one1993). Thus, experience should be related positively to the of the main risky sports practiced in Israel: skydiving, rock andfrequency of engagement. Experience in a given sport, how- mountain climbing, deep-sea diving, and gliding. Potentialever, should be related negatively to the probability of con- participants were identified either through professional guidessumption of other risky sports. Experience and expertise in or through national associations of the sports.one sport are not transferable, which forces an individual to The sample (Table 1) includes more males (59, or 81.9%)start participation in any new risky sport from scratch. In sum: than females (13, or 18.1%). Most individuals have an under-

graduate degree (47.9%), followed by high school graduatesH4a: The relationship between the experience in a riskysport and the frequency of engagement in it is positive. (35.2%), elementary school (7.0%), and graduate degrees


Table 1. Sample Characteristics and 25 gliders. Finally, 27 risk-preferring individuals wereused in a sample. Calls to a sample of non-respondents yieldedDemographic Variable n (%)questionnaire length (15 pages) as a main reason for non-

Education response.Up to 8 years 5 (7.0)9–12 years 25 (35.2) Development of MeasuresUp to undergraduate degree 34 (47.9)

The first step involved a development of multiple items forGraduate studies 7 (9.9)Gender the study’s constructs based on a literature review. Two schol-

Male 59 (81.9) ars from the United States and one from Israel developed theFemale 13 (18.1)

items in English. The items were translated from English toMarital StatusHebrew by one bilingual individual and back translated by aSingle 44 (64.7)second bilingual individual. Instructions to the two individu-Married with children 17 (25.0)

Married without children 6 (8.8) als emphasized the need to create equivalency on four dimen-Unmarried with children 1 (1.4) sions: functional; operationalization; items; and scalar (Hui

Income Groupand Triandis, 1985). The two English versions were comparedUp to US $1000 32 (52.5)by a third bilingual individual (Brislin, 1970). Changes were1000–1330 6 (9.8)

1330–1670 3 (4.9) made by consultation of the three individuals. The items and1670–2000 3 (4.9) alphas for the scales are reported in the Appendix.2000–2330 3 (4.9) Analyses of the items and exploratory factor analyses were2330–2670 1 (1.4)

used to clarify the scales. Items with high factor loadings and2670–3000 2 (2.8)item-to-total correlations were retained. This resulted in the3000–3330 0 (0.0)

3330–3670 2 (2.8) use of three items for the potential of the risky sport to satisfy3670–4000 1 (1.4) the need for efficacy, four for the need for identity construc-Over US $4000 8 (13.1) tion, and three for the need for camaraderie. The three scales

were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis to establishNote: Percentages do not add to 100.0 due to rounding off. Sub-sample sizes do notadd up to 72 due to a few missing values. unidimensionality (Gerbing and Anderson, 1988). Due to

sample size, separate analyses were performed for each scale.In each, only one factor emerged and all items had high

(9.9%). Most are unmarried and have no children (64.7%), loadings on the single factor.but married with children are also represented (25.0%) as are Experience and age were measured by open-ended items.married with no children (8.8%) and unmarried with children The two measures should be highly correlated. This is because,(1.5%). Income is bimodally distributed with 52.5% at the other things being equal the older the respondent, the longerlowest end of the scale (up to $1000 gross per month), 9.8% his (her) potential experience in the sport. This indeed wasjust above the lowest ($1000–1330 gross per month), and the case, as the two are highly (but not perfectly) correlated13.1% at the highest end of the scale (above $4000 gross per (r 5 0.80, p , 0.05).month). The high concentration of low-income respondentssuggests that many respondents are either students or very Measuresyoung, which is consistent with the mean age (30.3) of the

The three scales for need satisfaction were introduced by ansampled individuals. Finally, deep-sea diving was the mostidentical question. “Different people have different motives forpopular (28 individuals), followed by gliding (20), rock andbeing active in any given sport (such as soccer, swimming, ormountain climbing (12), and skydiving (8).jogging). Think about a risky sport that you are involved inand indicate your agreement or disagreement with each of theResponse Ratefollowing statements. If you strongly disagree, you may mark

Practitioners were contacted personally or by phone. Ques- a ‘1’ or ‘2’; if you strongly agree, you may mark a ‘6’ or ‘7’.”tionnaires were handed personally or mailed to practitioners

SATISFACTION OF THE NEED FOR EFFICACY. Need for efficacywho indicated that they did not object to participation in thewas defined as a desire to develop technical skills for personalsurvey. In all, 47 questionnaires were handed out, all of whichsatisfaction and group status. In line with this definition, thewere returned. Of the 60 mailed questionnaires, one waspotential of the risky sport to satisfy an individual’s need forundeliverable, whereas 25 were returned for an effective mailefficacy was operationalized based on three 7-point Likertresponse rate of 42.4%. Total response rate was 72 of 106items. These include becoming a better person due to becom-(67.9%). Other studies of risky sports used similar or smallering an expert in the sport, being appreciated by peers becausesamples. Cronin (1991) used 20 mountain climbers and Hym-of improving skills in the sport, and gaining satisfactionbaugh and Garrett (1974) used 21 skydivers. Kerr (1991)

studied 63 surfers/wind-surfers, 39 parachutists/motorcyclists, through improved skills in the sport. The three items had a


lower a (0.53) than advocated by Nunnally (1967), an issue of income and seasonality. Some sports may be more costlythan others. Skydiving, for example, necessitates a flight,discussed further in the “Limitations” section.

Earlier, we suggested that satisfaction of the need for effi- whereas other sports require lower access costs. By standard-ization, these potential effects are removed. The second depen-cacy is related to the motive of satisfying communitas-related

needs in the drama form (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993), dent variable is the probability of entering other risky sportsin the future, operationalized as the average future probabilitythe danger-neutralization and peer-identification explanations

(Brannigan and McDougall, 1983), and the extraordinary ex- of joining new risky sports. For each non-practiced risky sport,respondents were asked to indicate on 7-point scales (veryperience model (Arnould and Price, 1993). Thus, it was ex-

pected that the scale for efficacy will be related moderately and probably not to very probably yes) the probability of joiningin the future. We preferred these measures to percentagepositively to the frequency at which the sport and associated

experiences are discussed with fellow practitioners, a related probabilities, which were also included in the questionnaire,because of their lower item non-response. However, the corre-measure from the data set. The scale and item were related

moderately and positively (r 5 0.41, p , 0.05), indicative of lation between the 7-point scale and the percentage-basedscale is high (r 5 0.71, p , 0.05) suggesting acceptable relia-the validity of the scale.bility.

SATISFACTION OF THE NEED FOR IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION. Iden-Given the mostly similar structures of explanatory con-

tity construction was defined in terms of the existence of astructs for the two dependent variables, it was expected that

well-defined context for personal change, including the meansboth will be related to the measures of talking about the

for organizing the new identity. Therefore, the potential ofexperiences with friends in and out of the club discussed

the risky sport to satisfy a need for identity construction wasabove; and that these correlations would be positive and mod-

operationalized based on four 7-point Likert items. The itemserate. This indeed was the case. The two correlations for

were: the sport having changed one’s life perspective; beingaveraged frequency were both positive and significant (r 5

able to measure one’s improvement in the sport helping de-0.40; 0.30, p , 0.05). The two for future probability are also

velop skills; becoming a better person since joining the sport;positive and significant (r 5 0.20; 0.21, p , 0.05). This

and not having changed much since joining (reversed). Thepattern of correlations strengthens the argument for validity

scale’s a (0.65) is close to the level advocated by Nunnallyof the two dependent variables.

(1967).Identity construction should be related to sharing of one’s

experiences within and outside of the club. To assess the Analysis and Resultsscale’s validity, its correlation with four related items designed Statistical Techniqueto measure the frequency at which the sport and associated

Analysis of the findings began with an examination of the inter-experiences are discussed with fellow practitioners, with fam-construct correlation coefficients. Then, a structural equations’ily, with non-club friends, and in general was examined. Mod-model, specifically LISREL 8 with maximum likelihood esti-erate and positive correlations were expected, which indeedmation, was used to test the hypotheses. This methodologywas the case as all four correlations were positive, moderate,allowed the simultaneous estimation of a series of interdepen-and significant (0.39 < r < 0.41, p , 0.05).dent relationships, incorporated measurement error between

SATISFACTION OF THE NEED FOR CAMARADERIE. The potential latent and observed variables, and allowed for the assessmentof the risky sport to satisfy a need for camaraderie was assessed of overall model fit. Model constructs were represented byby three 7-point Likert items. The items were: having close single indicators using averaged scales (for efficacy, identityrelationships with fellow practitioners, practitioners forming construction, and camaraderie) and direct measures (for agea close group, and having a pleasant and important relation- and experience). The use of single indicators was preferred,ship with fellow practitioners. The scale showed acceptable given the complex structure of the hypothesized relationships,reliability (a 5 0.85). the large number of required estimates for the specified model,

On the basis of the need to interact with fellow practitioners and the small sample size (Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995).to satisfy the need for camaraderie, we anticipated a positiveand moderate relationship between camaraderie and an item Within-Sample Differences on Sensationmeasuring frequency of discussing the sport with club mem- Seeking and Telic Dominancebers. This indeed was the case (r 5 0.61, p , 0.05), substanti-

As expected, the sample means for the scales that have beenating the validity of the scale.

found to differentiate risky sport practitioners from others inprevious research (total Sensation Seeking Scale [SSS] andDEPENDENT MEASURES. Two measures were used. The first

was a mean standardized monthly frequency of engagement Thrill and Adventure Seeking [TAS]) were high in our sample:0.77 (TAS) and 0.56 (total SSS). These values are similar toin risky sports (some individuals indicated more than one

type). Standardization of the four type-specific frequency vari- those reported in other studies [SSS 5 0.60 in Hymbaughand Garrett (1974); SSS 5 0.58 and TAS 5 0.86 in Croninables was needed to remove the potential confounding effect


Table 2. Within-Sample Mean Differences

TAS (SD) Arousal Avoidance (SD)

Total Sample 0.77 (0.25) 0.32 (0.14)Gender:

Male (n 5 59) 0.81 (0.24)a 0.33 (0.15)Female (n 5 13) 0.62 (0.25)a 0.30 (0.13)F-ratio (p 5 value) 6.93 (0.01) 0.35 (0.56)

Marital Status:Single 0.80 (0.21) 0.28 (0.12)a

Married, No children 0.74 (0.35) 0.37 (0.15)a

Married, with children 0.75 (0.16) 0.38 (0.15)F-Ratio (p 5 value) 0.33 (0.72) 3.18 (0.05)

Correlation Coefficients Thrill and Adventure Seeking Arousal AvoidanceAge 20.18 (0.07) 0.28 (0.01)b

Income 20.04 (0.37) 0.36 (0.01)b

aThe two sub-groups differ at p , 0.05.bSignificant r (p , 0.05).

(1991)]. The mean score for Arousal Avoidance—the Telic mean future probability of engagement. Notably, the modelchi-squared (15.92, 9 degrees of freedom, n 5 72) is notDominance sub-scale reported to differentiate risky sport prac-

titioners from others—was low in our sample (0.32). This is significant (p , .07). Additionally, the chi-squared to degreesof freedom ratio improved to 1.77. Other fit statistics remainedsimilar to the means reported by Kerr (1991): mean 5 0.32

for surfers and motor-cyclists; mean 5 0.35 for gliders. substantively the same (normed fit index 5 0.93, non-normedfit index 5 0.92, and standardized root mean squared residu-Given the important role of TAS and AA in explaining risky

sport consumption, we assessed the differences on these scales als 5 0.09) and also suggest acceptable fit. Notably, none ofon the basis of gender, family status, age, and income. ANOVA the substantive results changed in the trimmed model. Thesewas used for gender and family status and correlations were statistics show that the data do not deviate from the re-speci-computed for age and income. The results were useful in fied model. We examined the modification indexes for possi-generating managerial implications (Table 2). Males have ble changes to the model. None could be justified theoretically.higher scores (0.81) than females (0.62) on TAS. This is the Additionally, re-specifying the model to account for modifica-only significant demographic correlate of TAS. Singles report tion indexes carries the risk of maximizing the fit for thelower (0.28) AA than married (0.37) individuals. Lower scores idiosyncrasies of our data. Therefore, only the original andon AA are also associated with younger, less affluent individu- trimmed models are discussed below.als. These demographic differences are discussed in the “Impli- H1 posited that the relationship between the perceivedcations” section. satisfaction of identity construction needs in a risky sport and

both the frequency of engagement in it and future probabilityTests of Research Hypotheses of engaging in other risky sports in positive. H1 was partially

supported. Identity construction was unrelated to the fre-Table 3 provides the means and correlation coefficients for thequency of practice of the sport (b 5 0.08, t 5 0.57). However,study constructs. The correlation matrix was used to providethe relationship is positive and significant for future probabil-additional insights to the LISREL analysis (see the “Discussion”ity of engagement (b 5 0.46, t 5 3.91 in the original and thesection). The results of the LISREL maximum likelihood esti-trimmed model). In other words, the higher the individual’smation are shown in Table 4 (for the original and the re-perceived satisfaction of identity construction needs in onespecified model, discussed below) and Figure 1 (for the origi-risky sport, the higher the probability that the same individualnal model). With the correlation matrix used as input, thewill engage in other risky sports in the future.model appears to fit the data well. The model chi-squared

The perceived satisfaction of efficacy needs in a risky sport(14.75, 7 degrees of freedom, n 5 72) is significant (p ,was expected to be related positively to both the frequency0.04). Notably, the use of chi-squared has been questionedof engagement in it and future probability of engaging in(Loehlin, 1987). Based on Loehlin (1987), we assessed otherother risky sports (H2). The relation was insignificant in thefit statistics. The value for chi-squared/degrees of freedomfrequency model (b 5 0.07, t 5 0.46) and significant (but(2.11), the normed fit index (0.93), non-normed fit indexopposite expectations) in the future model (b 5 20.33, t 5(0.89), and standardized root mean squared residuals (0.08)22.71 in both models). Thus, H2 was disconfirmed.suggest acceptable fit.

The relationship between the perceived satisfaction of ca-We also tested a trimmed model by eliminating the non-significant paths from identity construction and efficacy to maraderie needs in a given sport and both the frequency of


Table 3. Means and Correlation Coefficients for Study Constructsa,b

MF MP IC EF CAM AGE EX

Mean frequency of engagement in 0.03risky sports (.97)

Mean future probability of entry to 0.16 3.57new sports (.20) (1.90)

Satisfaction of need for identity 0.40 0.33 4.11construction (.00) (.01) (1.26)

Satisfaction of need for efficacy 0.35 0.13 0.69 4.92(.01) (.30) (.00) (1.08)

Satisfaction of need for camaraderie 0.45 0.24 0.47 0.50 5.06(.00) (.05) (.00) (.00) (1.48)

Age 0.26 2 0.38 0.24 0.09 0.20 30.25(.04) (.00) (.05) (.45) (.11) (11.26)

Experience 0.03 20.51 0.00 20.04 0.13 0.80 6.78(.84) (.00) (.98) (.75) (.32) (.00) (7.30)

a Means (standard deviations) are on the diagonal; correlation coefficients are off the diagonal (p-values in parentheses).b All correlatioins above 0.23 are significant (p , 0.05; two-way tests).

engagement in it and future probability of engaging in other measure one’s improvement (efficacy) was important to manyrespondents. The importance of challenge, thrill, and adven-risky sports was expected to be positive (H3). The model

substantiates this hypothesis. Both coefficients are positive ture was also evident, as was the satisfying group experienceduring practice (camaraderie). In sum, the need for efficacy,and significant (bfrequency 5 0.35, t 5 2.93, bfuture 5 0.26, t 5

2.62 in the original model; bfrequency 5 0.41, t 5 4.10, bfuture 5 identity construction, and camaraderie were all used in re-sponse to the open-ended question.0.26, t 5 2.62 in the trimmed model).

H4 hypothesized that experience in a risky sport wouldbe positively related to the frequency of engagement in it (H4a) Discussionand negatively related to the future probability of engaging inother risky sports (H4b). Experience was negatively related We expected the potential of a risky sport to satisfy identityto the frequency of practicing the sport (b 5 20.42, t 5 construction needs to have a positive effect within two time22.56 in the original model; b 5 20.48, t 5 22.88 in frames. First, it was expected to affect present behavior, re-the trimmed model)—disconfirming H4a—and to the future sulting in a higher frequency of practicing the sport. Second,engagement in new risky sports (b 5 20.38, t 5 22.76 in it was expected to affect future behavioral intentions throughboth models)—confirming H4b. its hypothesized relationship with the probability of engaging

No hypothesis was advanced for the influence of age on in other risky sports. The latter relationship was substantiatedeither of the dependent variables. Interestingly, age was a by the data. The potential of one risky sport to aid in identitypositive and significant predictor of frequency (b 5 0.51, t 5 construction carries through to other, non-practiced risky3.11 in the original model; b 5 0.57, t 5 3.43 in the trimmed sports. This implies that respondents view new risky sportsmodel), but an insignificant predictor of future probability of as providing similar contexts in which they can evolve andentering new sports (b 5 20.19, t 5 21.40 in both models). their identity develop (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993). The

The questionnaire included an open-ended question that importance of identity construction may well depend on Ar-asked respondents to explain their choice and practice of a nould and Price’s (1993) extension and renewal of self. In otherrisky sport. In all, 47 respondents of the total sample of 72 words, entering into new risky sports provides an opportunityprovided between one and six motives. The distribution of to move from self-extension to self-renewal within the novel

sport.responses is shown in Table 5. The two general and genericmotives were the most popular. Fifteen practitioners reported Interestingly, identity construction potential did not have

a significant effect on the frequency at which individuals prac-fun as a major motive and 11 reported that it has been a life-long dream. Nature also played a role in motivating practice their chosen sport. As can be seen in Table 3, the correla-

tion between the need for identity construction and the fre-titioners. However, it has opposite effects on two-sub-groupsof respondents. Some respondents emphasize the need to quency of practice is positive and significant (r 5 0.40, p ,

0.01). However, this relationship does not carry through toenjoy nature and become one with it. Others point out theirattempt to overcome and conquer nature by their acts. the LISREL analysis. It may be that the path estimates were

reduced due to inter-scale correlations. If this is the case, theThe three themes included in this research are also presentin Table 5. The ability to become better at a given sport and bivariate correlation coefficient may be a better measure for


Table 4. Frequency of Practice and Future Probability of Entering New Sports: LISREL Maximum Likelihood, Standardized Estimates(t-values in Paranthesis)

Mean Frequency of Mean Future ProbabilityIndependent Variables Engagement in Risky Sportsa Of Entry to New Sports

Satisfaction of need for identity constructionb 0.08 (0.57) 0.46 (3.91)Satisfaction of need for efficacyc 0.07 (0.46) 20.33 (22.71)Satisfaction of need for camaraderie 0.35; 0.41 (2.93; 4.10) 0.26 (2.62)Age 0.51; 0.57 (3.11; 3.43) 20.19 (21.40)Experience 20.42; 20.48 (22.56; 22.88) 20.38 (22.76)Squared multiple correlations for structural equationsc 0.29 0.50

a Original model appears first, followed by the trimmed model.b These paths were excluded in the trimmed model.c Original model’s v2 (14.75, 7 degrees of freedom) is significant (p , 0.04). Its ratio of v2/degrees of freedom is 2.11. The normed fit index is 0.93, non-normed fit index is 0.89,and the standardized root mean squared residuals equal 0.08. The trimmed model’s v2 (15.92, 9 degrees of freedom) is not significant (p , 0.07). The ratio of v2 to degrees offreedom is 1.77. Normed fit index 5 0.93, non-normed fit index 5 0.92, and standardized root mean squared residuals 5 0.09.

the association between the two variables in support of the identity construction does not affect practice frequency. Hav-ing achieved a level of competence in a sport may resultfirst research hypothesis.

Alternatively, the potential of practice to contribute to iden- in sufficient satisfaction, thus reducing the need for furtherimprovement and practice. The distance between the idealtity construction may be subject to a ceiling effect. Once

individuals attain given levels of expertise and satisfy their and real selves (Rogers, 1980) when beginning a new sportmay be much larger than at latter stages. Initially, the noviceneed for identity construction, the sport may lose its luster.

If a ceiling effect is operating, practice may be limited to levels knows very little, especially when compared to experts andprofessionals. As one becomes an expert, the distance betweendesigned to maintain one’s standard of expertise (similar to a

minimal number of flights required of amateur pilots). This real and ideal selves is reduced, resulting in a lower motivationfor action (Rogers, 1970).explanation also agrees with the significant effect for future

probability discussed above. Engaging in new sports enables The need for efficacy was insignificant in the present fre-quency model and, contrary to expectations, was negativelyconsumers to break the barrier within the original sport.

Couched in the terminology of self-actualization (Bandura, related to the future probability of engaging in new sports.Notably, the bivariate correlation coefficients differed. The1965; Rogers, 1970), our findings show that the need for

Figure 1. LISREL maximum likelihood model estimates.


Table 5. Motives for Entry and Continuous Involvement in Risky Sports

Motive Number of Responses Examples

General Motives 26Personal

Fun and enjoyment 15 1. It’s a lot of fun1. Flying is a life-long dream of mine.

Life-long dream 11 2. I loved flying since I was a child.3. I have always seen myself as a bird.

Nature 14Enjoying nature 8 1. Becoming one with nature.

2. The view changes.Overcoming nature 6 1. Being alone opposite nature and using it to the limit.

2. Fighting nature.Personal Motives 37

Efficacy 11 1. The ability to become better at it.2. Knowing the improvements and growth I gain.

Challenge 8 1. It’s a challenge.2. Pushing myself to the limit.

Thrill 7 1. This is a very thrilling experience.2. Adrenaline flowing.

Interesting 6 1. It fills my life with something interesting.2. The interesting discoveries I make.

Adventure 5 1. Every dive is an adventure.2. I chose it because of the adventures it provides.

Group 4Done with Others 4 1. It requires cooperation between practitioners.

2. It exposes me to new people.

need for efficacy was positively and significantly related to sports, compare the skills in river rafting (Arnould and Price,1993; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995) and those in sky-the frequency of practice (r 5 0.35, p , 0.01), but not to

the future probability of engagement in additional sports (r 5 diving (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993). Furthermore, becauseskills are not transferable, having mastered one sport hinders0.13, p , 0.30). However, we believe that in this case the

LISREL analysis provides a better measure for the direction the probability that one will initiate a new sport and start theapprentice phase all over again.and strength of the two relationships. It is well documented

that structural equation modeling has advantages when as- Camaraderie positively affected both present frequency andfuture probability of engagement in risky sports, as hypothe-sessing the interdependent relationships between multiple de-

pendent and independent variables. This may well be a case sized. The significant correlation coefficients in Table 3 carriedthrough to the LISREL analysis. The strong effect of commu-in point.

Another possible explanation for the failure of efficacy to nitas on skydiving (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1993) and onsatisfaction with river rafting experiences (Arnould and Price,have an effect on how frequently individuals practice risky

sports is similar to the one discussed above for identity con- 1993; Price, Arnould, and Tierney, 1995) carries through tothis study’s dependent variables. Stated differently, not onlystruction needs, namely the existence of a ceiling effect. There

may exist some level of expertise beyond which frequent dives, does the potential of a risky sport affect satisfaction with agiven instance of consumption of the sport (river rafting) orskydives, or climbs fail to contribute sufficiently to encourage

further practice (Bandura, 1965). Similar to the need for iden- continued involvement (skydiving), it also results in morefrequent participation and a higher probability of joining othertity construction, the perceived distance between the original

ideal self and the evolving real self may result in a lower drive risky sports.Camaraderie was the only significant explanatory variablefor improvement (Rogers, 1970).

Efficacy is negatively related to the probability of engaging for frequency of engagement. We suggested earlier that iden-tity construction and efficacy are subject to a ceiling effect.in new risky sports. Efficacy is closely related to competence

in a given risky sport. Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, (1993), for No such effect is evident for the need for camaraderie. Thisfinding is consistent with past descriptions of communitas asexample, link personal satisfaction and enhanced social stand-

ing to the development of expertise in skydiving. There is a higher order, transcendent motive (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh,1993), that remains important, even for the experienced andno reason to expect skydiving-related skills to enhance one’s

competence or social standing in another sport such as deep- expert. Quoting an experienced skydiver: “I’m getting intodifferent aspects of the sport now [e.g., flying the jump plane],sea diving. For an exposition of differences between two such


but I still can’t think of anything better to do than to come out and stronger needs for new selves may have balanced out.This would explain the LISREL-based findings.here with my friends and make a skydive” [Celsi, Rose, and

Leigh (1993), p. 12; emphasis added]. Another experienced We also note here that experience and age were highlycorrelated and that our sample is composed primarily ofjumper commented: “Jumpers have a special kind of bond . . .

What people do and how much money they make just doesn’t younger individuals. Future research with a broader cross-section of ages may find that experience behaves in a curvelin-matter. There’s just this closeness here” [Celsi, Rose, and Leigh

(1993), p. 12; emphasis added]. ear fashion. Given these multiple competing explanations,further research is needed on the impact of age on risky sportAs expected, experience is related negatively to the future

probability of joining new sports, as evidenced by a significant consumption.correlation coefficient and a significant path in the LISRELanalysis. Non-transferability of skills developed in one sport Managerial Implicationsresults in a reluctance to consider additional sports. Compare Previous hedonic research has focused on thick descriptionMichael Jordan’s mediocre baseball performance to his success and has largely ignored managerial implications. Our discus-in basketball, for an example of the difficulty of moving from sion of managerial implications is divided into four parts.one sport to another. Although efficacy and identity construc- First, we discuss the implications for maintaining membershiption do not affect the frequency of practice in a given sport, in a given sport and increasing practice frequency. Then, wea strong need for efficacy inhibits entry into other sports. In discuss the findings as they relate to attracting individualscontrast, identity construction is positively related to entering from one risky sport to another and encouraging multi-sportnew sports. Once individuals have satisfied their need for participation. Finally, we discuss the responses to an open-identity construction in one sport, they seek additional or ended question about reasons for practicing the sport andrenewed extensions of self in new sports. This behavior is suggest possible advertising themes and messages.consistent with a need for unique and arousing experiences,

MAINTAINING MEMBERSHIP AND INCREASED USAGE. Individu-which is typical of sensation-seeking individuals who practiceals who practice more often are sometimes older and lessrisky sports.experienced practitioners. These two findings suggest thatIt can be argued that experience and the need for efficacyolder members of the club are prime targets for frequency-should be related. In other words, as individuals gain experi-enhancing marketing strategies. Prices may be lowered toence they become more proficient in their chosen sport. Suchfacilitate extended membership for members above a certaina process should lead to a reduction of the impact of the needage. Alternatively, homogeneous groups of older practitionersfor efficacy. However, this was not the case in our study.may be organized to facilitate camaraderie needs within aThe two constructs’ correlation coefficient was not significant.more homogeneous age group. Such groups will benefit fromAdditionally, we ran another LISREL model allowing the twothe findings that similarities attract (e.g., Newcomb, 1960,to be correlated. This model resulted in lower levels of fit1961). Given that older members also tend to be arousalstatistics and the path between the two constructs was notand, marginally, thrill and adventure avoiding (Table 2), thesignificant. In other words, the need for efficacy is not weak-message to these individuals should stress camaraderie. How-ened by experience. It may be that the emphasis shifts (e.g.,ever, age-homogeneous grouping is a risky strategy becausehigher peaks, longer free falls, etc.), but the impact remainsolder individuals serve an important purpose in socializingstrong.newcomers. This purpose also serves to enhance the efficacyAge was posited to have conflicting effects on frequencyand communitas aspects of practicing high-risk sports. Thus,and future probability. Interestingly, older people tend tothe forming of homogeneous age groups should not carrypractice the sport more often (both the correlation coefficientthrough to all club activities. Ample opportunity should beand the path estimate were positive and significant). The physi-provided for heterogeneous groups to interact as well.cal costs of participation for older people may be higher; there-

Less experienced individuals provide an important sourcefore, only those individuals that are really committed to a spe-of future revenue. Marketing managers can create member-cific sport participate in it as they get older. The need to createship-enhancing strategies for this group. One option is tonew selves may also be stronger among older individuals.create social events that cater to the less experienced members,Age did not affect the future probability of entering new

risky sports. The effect was negative, but failed to reach signifi- regardless of age. Additionally, more experienced membersshould be encouraged to mentor less experienced ones throughcance. However, the correlation coefficient was negative and

significant (Table 3). Our path estimates may have been re- social events and discounts for mixed experience participation.Homogeneous experience groups can also be organized, butduced because of the nature of the data. In other words,

the bivariate correlation coefficient provides support to the it is still important to encourage camaraderie and modelingacross experience levels. Such activities should carry throughstronger negative impact of the physical fitness argument over

the positive impact of the need to build a new self. Alterna- to heavier practice and to heavier use of facilities and equip-ment. The need to organize age- or experience-based cohorttively, the two opposing explanations based on physical fitness


groups should be balanced with mixed audience activities to in advertising copy. This may include slogans such as “Isn’tit time to realize your life-long dream?” Nature also played aallow socialization.

Camaraderie has a positive impact on practice frequency significant role in practitioners’ motives. Respondents empha-sized a need to enjoy nature and a desire to overcome andand risky sport clubs should provide activities that enhance

it both within and across experience levels. The more frequent conquer it. Therefore, a balance needs to be maintained be-tween these facets. One possibility is to separate the consump-and successful the meetings of older or less experienced mem-

bers (in addition to mixed functions) the more frequent the tion experience. One can enjoy nature during the slower por-tions of a river yet overcome and conquer the rapids.practice due to the potential to satisfy camaraderie needs.

Camaraderie in an important motive for risky sport partici-ATTRACTING INDIVIDUALS FROM ONE RISKY SPORT TO ANOTHER. pation. Individuals pointed out the satisfying group experienceIndividuals who are engaged in one risky sport are a target during practice and their desire for challenge, thrill, and ad-segment for other sports. Less experienced members are more venture. Challenge, thrill, and adventure can be seen as spe-likely to intend to engage in additional risky sports in the cific manifestations of identity construction, which is posi-future. Thus, members just beginning the ascent to expertise tively related to the probability of engaging in new risky sports.are prime candidates for managers in other clubs. Stated differ- These themes should be emphasized when targeting peopleently, young and inexperienced practitioners of one risky sport who practice another risky sport.have already made the commitment to the risky sport they The negative correlation between efficacy and frequencyselected—they have gone over the threshold once. As they of practice provides an interesting problem for managers:have less expertise and investment in a specific sport and have how do you motivate experienced individuals to continue tonot yet satisfied the various needs that drove them to join the participate after they have reached a given level of compe-initial sport, an effort could be made to attract them to switch tence? Many individuals tend to “collect” achievements insports. For example, given the low income of many younger a risky sport. Belk [(1995), p. 67; emphasis added] noted:practitioners, special prices may be offered for cross-member- “Collecting is the process of actively, selectively, and passion-ship. Emphasis may also be placed on age-cohort positioning. ately acquiring and possessing things removed from ordinarySince younger practitioners tend to be arousal and thrill and use and perceived as part of a set of non-identical objects oradventure seekers, communications with younger members experiences.” The most important benefit of collecting is theshould stress these benefits. This is especially important for feeling of mastery, competence, or success (Belk, 1995). Thesesingle members whose arousal avoidance scores were lower benefits may provide a means of maintaining the participatorythan those for married individuals. motivation of experienced members. Additionally, the benefit

Identity construction and camaraderie were found to affect of the specialized vocabulary and knowledge used by collec-potential participation in additional sports. Thus, advertising tors provide additional motivation for collecting (Belk, 1995).and promotion should reflect this potential. Messages should In short, collecting high-risk sport achievement can be viewedemphasize the opportunity to enhance camaraderie and build as any other collecting-type phenomena. Viewed in this light,new selves. Visuals (photos, posters, videos, etc.) should incor- individuals may count the number of peaks climbed in theporate group settings and convey a feeling of camaraderie. Canadian Rockies. This suggests another fruitful theme forGiven its negative impact on switching behavior, the need for advertising campaigns. A firm catering to divers in the Middleefficacy should be de-emphasized. Managers are advised to East could emphasize a message such as “Dive all the majorde-emphasize the efficacy enhancing potential of the new sites along the eastern Sinai desert.” Such themes would en-sport, so as not to remind targeted individuals of the invest- courage participation among experienced practitioners.ment they have made in developing expertise in another sport.

Limitations and Directions forMULTI-SPORT PACKAGES. Marketing multi-sport packages maybe used as well. While each risky sport competes for a share Future Researchof the overall market, multi-sport participation may increase Two of the three needs’ satisfying scales resulted in medium-the size of the market. Thus, marketers of a high-risk sport strength reliability coefficients. More work is needed to expandmay consider diversification or tie-ins with other sports. Once and refine the measures employed, especially for the set ofthe diversification is carried out, such firms may develop items to measure the need for efficacy. Additionally, we mea-multi-sport advertising themes. For example, a firm catering sure the probability of joining other risky sport activities.to river rafting and mountain climbing may run a campaign Measuring actual behavior (joining a second risky sport) maysuch as: “Take our river rafting trip from ‘A’ to ‘B’ and then yield additional insights. Longitudinal research designs areclimb atop mountain ‘C’.” necessary for this purpose.

Our study was conducted in Israel and included prac-Advertising Themes titioners of four risky sports. Thus, the issue of generalizability

to other cultures and other types of risky sports is important.Joining and sticking with a risky sport is a realization of alife-long dream. Thus, fulfilling the dream should be stressed We believe that the impact of this limitation is minor, at least


in the context of industrialized nations and cultures that have force (operationalized here as justifying the communion withnature). They also see nature as playground—their thirdbeen studied to date. Sample means on sub-scales of thetheme, which emerged in our research as well. However, bothSensation Seeking scale and the Telic Dominance scale wereSimmons’ (1993) and Arnould, Price and Tierney’s (1998a,comparable to means from other countries (e.g., Germany)1998b) analyses of nature as a social construction includes aand other sports (e.g., surfing and motor-cycling). Apparently,fourth theme of nature as a reserve. For example, Simmonsengagement in risky sports transcends national cultures, at[(1993), p. 16] sees nature as a reserve of resources, used toleast for the developed nations where catharsis and escapepotential depletion by humans (p. 36). Most high-risk sportsfrom bureaucratic roles provides a context for risky sportdo not use these resources, enhancing their potential valueconsumption (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh, 1992). However, furtherto practitioners.research is needed in multiple contexts. First, there is a need to

Future research should measure the importance of con-study high-risk sport consumption in less developed countries.quering and communing with nature, as well as the impor-Second, it may be necessary to recognize that even within atance of nature as a reserve of playground. Nature may repre-dominant, national culture, there may be sub-cultures that differsent as additional motivation for risky sport consumption.in high-risk sport consumption. For example, the very orthodoxFuture research should determine the extent to which natureJewish sub-population may also be less inclined to engage incan be incorporated into our model, particularly the extent tohigh-risk sports. Additionally, as indicated in our qualitativewhich nature-related motivations are sport specific or operateinterviews with practitioners, what sport is perceived as riskyacross a range of sports. Future research is also needed tois a subjective evaluation that may vary across cultures and sub-identify the potential impact of these attributes for sub-seg-cultures. Thus, there is a need for additional research to morements of the population.finely identify the boundaries under which the trans-national

Future research could also examine the influence of theand trans-sport applications of our model hold.variables used in this study to other facets of consumer risk-Our sample included younger, male-dominant individuals.taking behavior. For example, drug abuse and excessive con-We believe that this bias reflects the demographic compositionsumption of alcohol may also depend on the (albeit misguided)of practitioners in Israel. However, the generalizability of theneed for camaraderie and identity construction (Burns et al.,findings to older, more balanced gender samples is open to1993; Severson et al., 1993).question. There is a need for further studies with more hetero-

Finally, our model accounts for frequency of engagementgeneous samples in Israel and in other nations.in risky sports at the present and the probability of joiningOur study examined individuals, who are already engagedother risky sports in the future. It will be interesting to studyin risky sports, which may have restricted our range on someother outcome measures. For example, does the same set ofvariables. Practitioners of risky sports may have a higher needexplanatory variables used here account for commitment tofor thrill, adventure, efficacy, identity construction, and cama-the sport? Are the relationships similar for measures such asraderie than the general population. Thus, our findings mayinvesting in equipment, subscribing to professional journals,understate the relationship of some variables in our model.and practicing the sport in other countries? Alternatively, doesIt is also necessary to study pre-joining behavior amongthe same set of explanatory variables account in a similarthe general population. Celsi, Rose, and Leigh (1993), Arnouldfashion for the probability of future commitment to the sport?and Price (1993), and Brannigan and McDougall (1983) sug-

gest that engaging in risky sports may depend initially onThe authors thank Miss Dorit Gack, Dalia Hagiz, and Rinat Rabinovich forfactors such as liking for thrills, adventures, social enhancingtheir help in data collection and Professor David Boush for comments madeactivities, and curiosity satisfying experiences. Future researchon an earlier draft. We also thank the associate editor and two anonymous

could assess the impact of the potential of risky sports to deliverreviewers for many helpful comments on an earlier draft. This research was

satisfaction of these needs on the future probability to join. supported in part by the Technion V.P.R. Fund.Importantly, responses to the open-ended question re-

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Appendix. Measurement Scales

Measurement scalesNeeds were measured on 7-point scales: 1 5 strongly disagree to 7 5 strongly agree. Exact wording appears below the table.

Correlation withMean Future

Scale Mean/ Correlation with Probability ofStandard Cronbach’s Factor Frequency of Joining Other

Measure Deviation Alpha Loading Engagement Risky Sports

Need for Efficacy 4.92/1.08 0.53 0.35 0.13(p , 0.01) (p , 0.15)

Better Person 0.81

Think Highly of Me 0.74

High Degree ofSatisfaction 0.60

Need for Identity 4.11/1.26 0.65 0.40 0.33Construction (p , 0.01) (p , 0.01)

I am a Better 0.79

Have NotChanged Much 0.70

My Perspectiveon Life 0.68

Measure MyImprovement 0.62

Need for 5.06/1.48 0.85 0.45 0.24Camaraderie (p , 0.01) (p , 0.03)

Close Relationships 0.88

Close Group 0.88

My Relationships 0.87

Need for Efficicacy (a 5 0.53).

1. Mastering this sport makes me a better person2. My friends think highly of me because my skills at this sport are improving.3. Becoming better at this sport gives me a high degree of satisfaction.

Need for Identity Construction (a 5 0.65).

1. I am a better person than I was when I began practicing this sport.2. I have not changed much since I began practicing this sport (reversed).3. This sport has changed my perspective on life.4. Being able to measure my improvement helps me become better at this sport.

Need for Camaraderie (a 5 0.85).

1. I have close relationships with other people who practice this sport.2. People who participate in this sport are a close group.3. My relationships with people who practice this sport are pleasant and important to me.

Future Probability of Engagement in New Risky Sports (measured on 7-point scales; 1 5 very unlikely to 7 5 very likely).For the following sports you do not practice today, please mark what is the probability that you will start practicing in the future (deep-sea diving, mountain or rock climbing, gliding, or skydiving).

Practitioners of Risky Sports

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