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Organizational BehaviorOrganizational Behavior Ch# 1Ch# 133

““Power & Politics”Power & Politics” ““Power is not revealed by striking hard or often, but by striking Power is not revealed by striking hard or often, but by striking

true.” true.” (Honore de Balze)(Honore de Balze)

ByByKaleem A BarlasKaleem A Barlas

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Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives 1-Define power and contrast leadership and power.1-Define power and contrast leadership and power. 2 -Contrast the five bases of power.2 -Contrast the five bases of power. 3 -Identify nine power or Influence tactics and 3 -Identify nine power or Influence tactics and their contingencies.their contingencies.

4 -Show the connection between sexual harassment 4 -Show the connection between sexual harassment and the abuse of power.and the abuse of power.

5 -Distinguish between legitimate and illegitimate 5 -Distinguish between legitimate and illegitimate political behavior.political behavior.

6 -Identify the causes and consequences of 6 -Identify the causes and consequences of political behavior.political behavior.

7 -Apply Impression management techniques.7 -Apply Impression management techniques. 8 -Determine whether a political action is 8 -Determine whether a political action is ethical.ethical.

9 -Show the Influence of culture on the uses and 9 -Show the Influence of culture on the uses and perceptions of politics.perceptions of politics.

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1-A Definition of Power 1-A Definition of Power Define power and contrast Leader ship Define power and contrast Leader ship

and Powerand Power Power refers to a capacity’ that Power refers to a capacity’ that A A has to influence the has to influence the

behavior of behavior of B’B’ so so BB acts in accordance with acts in accordance with A’A’s wishes,s wishes, Someone can thus have power but not use it; It is a capacity Someone can thus have power but not use it; It is a capacity

or potential.or potential. Probably the most important aspect of power is that It is a Probably the most important aspect of power is that It is a

function of dependency. function of dependency. The greater The greater B’B’s dependence on s dependence on A,A, the greater the greater AA’s power in the ’s power in the

relationship. relationship. Dependence, In turn, Is based on alternatives that Dependence, In turn, Is based on alternatives that B B

perceives, and the importance perceives, and the importance BB places on the alternative's) places on the alternative's) AA controls. controls.

Contrasting Leadership and Power Contrasting Leadership and Power • How are the two terms different? How are the two terms different? • Power does not require goal compatibility ,merely dependence. Power does not require goal compatibility ,merely dependence.

Leadership, on the other hand, requires some congruence Leadership, on the other hand, requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led. between the goals of the leader and those being led.

• A secondA second difference relates to the direction of influence. difference relates to the direction of influence. Leadership focuses on the downward influence on followers.Leadership focuses on the downward influence on followers.

• It minimizes the importance of lateral and upward influence It minimizes the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. patterns.

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2-Bases of Power:-(2-Bases of Power:-(Contrast the five bases of Contrast the five bases of

PowerPower)) The bases or sources of power into two general groupings-The bases or sources of power into two general groupings- FormalFormal and and PersonalPersonal and then breaking each of these down Into and then breaking each of these down Into

more specific categories.more specific categories. Formal Power:-Formal Power:- Formal power is based on an Individual’s position Formal power is based on an Individual’s position

in an organization, it can come from the ability to coerce or in an organization, it can come from the ability to coerce or reward, or from formal authority. reward, or from formal authority.

Coercive Power:-Coercive Power:-The coercive power base depends on fear of the The coercive power base depends on fear of the negative result from failing to comply.negative result from failing to comply.

it rests on the application, or the threat of application, of it rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the Infliction of pain, frustration physical sanctions such as the Infliction of pain, frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. basic physiological or safety needs.

Reward Power:-Reward Power:-The opposite of coercive power is reward power, The opposite of coercive power is reward power, with which people comply because it producer, positive benefits; with which people comply because it producer, positive benefits;

someone who can” distribute rewards others view as valuable will someone who can” distribute rewards others view as valuable will have power over them. have power over them.

Legitimate Power:-Legitimate Power:-Legitimate Power In formal groups and Legitimate Power In formal groups and organizations, probably the most common access to one or more of organizations, probably the most common access to one or more of the power bases is through legitimate power. the power bases is through legitimate power.

Represents the formal authority to control and use Represents the formal authority to control and use organizational resources based on structural position in the organizational resources based on structural position in the organization.organization.

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Personal Power:-Personal Power:-Influence derived from an individual's Influence derived from an individual's characteristics. characteristics.

There are two bases of personal power, expertise and the respect and There are two bases of personal power, expertise and the respect and admiration of others. admiration of others.

Expert Power:-Expert Power:-Expert Power Expert power is influence wielded Expert Power Expert power is influence wielded exercise) as a result of expertise special skill, or knowledge. exercise) as a result of expertise special skill, or knowledge.

It is generally acknowledged that physicians have expertise and hence It is generally acknowledged that physicians have expertise and hence expert power Most of us follow our doctor’s advice. expert power Most of us follow our doctor’s advice.

Computer specialists, tax accountants, economists, industrial Computer specialists, tax accountants, economists, industrial psychologists, and other specialists wield power as a result of their psychologists, and other specialists wield power as a result of their expertise.expertise.

Reference Power:-Reference Power:-Referent Power Referent power is based on Referent Power Referent power is based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits.traits.

Some people who are not in formal leadership positions nonetheless Some people who are not in formal leadership positions nonetheless have referent power and exert influence over others because of their have referent power and exert influence over others because of their charismatic dynamism, likeability, and emotional effects on us.charismatic dynamism, likeability, and emotional effects on us.

Which Bases of Power are most Effective?Which Bases of Power are most Effective? Of the Of the three bases of formal power (coercive, reward, legitimatethree bases of formal power (coercive, reward, legitimate) and ) and two bases of two bases of

personal power (expert, referent), personal power (expert, referent), which is most important to have? Research suggests pretty clearly which is most important to have? Research suggests pretty clearly

that the personal sources of power are most effective. that the personal sources of power are most effective. Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees’ Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees’

satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to b their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to b unrelated to these outcomes. unrelated to these outcomes.

One source of formal power—coercive power—actually can backfire in One source of formal power—coercive power—actually can backfire in that it is negatively related to employee satisfaction and that it is negatively related to employee satisfaction and commitment.commitment.

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Dependency:-The key to PowerDependency:-The key to Power (How understanding dependency helps us understand (How understanding dependency helps us understand

power itself?)power itself?) The General Dependency Postulate:-The General Dependency Postulate:-Let’s begin with a general Let’s begin with a general

postulate: the greater B dependency on A, the more power A postulate: the greater B dependency on A, the more power A has over B. has over B.

When you possess anything others require that you alone When you possess anything others require that you alone control, you make them dependent on you, and, therefore, you control, you make them dependent on you, and, therefore, you gain power over them.gain power over them.

If something is plentiful, possessing it will not Increase If something is plentiful, possessing it will not Increase your power. your power.

But as the old saying goesBut as the old saying goes, , ““In the land of the blind, the one-eyed In the land of the blind, the one-eyed man is kingman is king”” Conversely, the more you can expand your own Conversely, the more you can expand your own options, the less power you place in the hands of others. options, the less power you place in the hands of others.

What Creates Dependency?What Creates Dependency? Importance:Importance:

If nobody wants what you’ve got, it’s not going to create If nobody wants what you’ve got, it’s not going to create dependency. To create dependency, therefore, the things you dependency. To create dependency, therefore, the things you control must t perceived as being important.control must t perceived as being important.

Scarcity:Scarcity:If something is plentiful, possession of it will not If something is plentiful, possession of it will not increase your power . A resource needs to be perceived as increase your power . A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependency.scarce to create dependency.

• Non substitutability:Non substitutability:The more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more The more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control over that resource providespower that control over that resource provides

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3-Power Tactics 3-Power Tactics (Identify 9 power Influence tactics & their (Identify 9 power Influence tactics & their

contingencies)contingencies) Research has identified Nine distinct Influence tactics:Research has identified Nine distinct Influence tactics: • • LegitimacyLegitimacy . . Relying on your authority position or saying Relying on your authority position or saying

a request accords with organizational policies or rules.a request accords with organizational policies or rules. ••Rational PersuasionRational Persuasion . Presenting logical arguments and . Presenting logical arguments and

factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable.factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable. • • Inspirational appeals:-Inspirational appeals:-Developing emotional commitment by Developing emotional commitment by

appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes, and appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.aspirations.

• • Consultation:-.Consultation:-. Increasing the target’s support by Increasing the target’s support by involving him or her indicating how you will accomplish involving him or her indicating how you will accomplish your plan.your plan.

• • Exchange:-Exchange:- Rewarding the target with benefits or favors Rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for following a request.in exchange for following a request.

• • Personal:-Personal:- Asking for compliance based on friendship or Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.loyalty.

• • Ingratiation;-Ingratiation;- Using flatter praise, or friendly behavior Using flatter praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request.prior to making a request.

• • Pressure:-Pressure:-Using warnings, repeated demands, suit threats,Using warnings, repeated demands, suit threats, • • Coalitions:-Coalitions:- Enlisting the aid or support of others to Enlisting the aid or support of others to

persuade the target to agree.persuade the target to agree.

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4-Sexual Harassment:-Unequal Power in the 4-Sexual Harassment:-Unequal Power in the WorkplaceWorkplace (connection between sexual harassment and the (connection between sexual harassment and the abuse of power)abuse of power) Any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an Any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an

individual’s employment and creates a hostile work environmentindividual’s employment and creates a hostile work environment In addition to the legal dangers to sexual harassment, In addition to the legal dangers to sexual harassment,

obviously it also can have a negative impact on the work obviously it also can have a negative impact on the work environment, too. environment, too.

Research shows sexual harassment negatively affects job Research shows sexual harassment negatively affects job attitudes and leads those who feel harassed to withdraw from attitudes and leads those who feel harassed to withdraw from the organization.the organization.

A manager’s role in preventing sexual harassment is critical. A manager’s role in preventing sexual harassment is critical. The following are some ways managers can protect themselves The following are some ways managers can protect themselves

and their employees from sexual harassmentand their employees from sexual harassment1.1. Make sure an active policy defines what constitutes sexual Make sure an active policy defines what constitutes sexual

harassment, informs employees they can be fired for sexually harassment, informs employees they can be fired for sexually harassing another employee, and establishes procedures for how harassing another employee, and establishes procedures for how complaints can be made. complaints can be made.

2.2. Ensure employees that they will not encounter retaliation if Ensure employees that they will not encounter retaliation if they issue complaint.they issue complaint.

3.3. Investigate every complaint and include the legal and human Investigate every complaint and include the legal and human resource departments. resource departments.

4.4. Make sure offenders are disciplined or terminated.Make sure offenders are disciplined or terminated.5.5. Set up in-house seminars to raise employee awareness of the Set up in-house seminars to raise employee awareness of the

issues surrounding sexual harassment.issues surrounding sexual harassment.

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Politic: Power in ActionPolitic: Power in Action 5-(Distinguish between 5-(Distinguish between LegitimateLegitimate and and illegitimate illegitimate

PoliticalPolitical behavior behavior ) ) When people get together in groups, power will be exerted. People want When people get together in groups, power will be exerted. People want

to carve out a niche from which to exert influence, earn rewards, and to carve out a niche from which to exert influence, earn rewards, and advance their careers.advance their careers.

Political Behavior:-Political Behavior:-Activities that are not required as part of Activities that are not required as part of

person’s formal role In the organization but that influence or attempt person’s formal role In the organization but that influence or attempt to influence the distribution of advantages and to influence the distribution of advantages and disadvantsgeswlth1ntheorganlzatlon.disadvantsgeswlth1ntheorganlzatlon.

Legitimate Political BehaviorLegitimate Political Behavior:: Refers to normal everyday politics— Refers to normal everyday politics—complaining to your supervisor, bypassing the chain of command, forming complaining to your supervisor, bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions, obstructing organizational policies or decisions through coalitions, obstructing organizational policies or decisions through inaction or excessive adherence to rules, and developing contacts inaction or excessive adherence to rules, and developing contacts outside the organization through professional activities.outside the organization through professional activities.

illegitimate Political behaviorillegitimate Political behavior:-:-that violates the implied rules of that violates the implied rules of the game. illegitimate activities include sabotage, whistle-blowing, and the game. illegitimate activities include sabotage, whistle-blowing, and symbolic protests such as wearing unorthodox dress or protests buttons symbolic protests such as wearing unorthodox dress or protests buttons and calling in skis a group. and calling in skis a group.

Reality of PoliticsReality of Politics:-:-Organizations are made up of Individuals and Organizations are made up of Individuals and groups with different values goals, and Interests.groups with different values goals, and Interests.

This sets up the potential for conflict over the allocation limited This sets up the potential for conflict over the allocation limited resources such as departmental budgets, space, project resources such as departmental budgets, space, project responsibilities . and salary adjustments, If resources were abundant, responsibilities . and salary adjustments, If resources were abundant, then all constituencies. then all constituencies.

Within the organization could satisfy’ their goals But because they are Within the organization could satisfy’ their goals But because they are limited not everyone’s Interests can be satisfied. limited not everyone’s Interests can be satisfied.

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Causes & Consequences of Causes & Consequences of Political BehaviorPolitical Behavior

(identify the causes and consequences of Political (identify the causes and consequences of Political behavior)behavior)

Factors contributing to Political Factors contributing to Political Behavior (Exhibit 13-3)Behavior (Exhibit 13-3)Not all Not all

groups or groups or organizatioorganizations are ns are equally equally political. political. In some In some organizatioorganizations, for ns, for instance, instance, politicking politicking is overt is overt and and rampant, rampant, while in while in others others politics politics plays a plays a small role small role in in influencing influencing outcomes. outcomes.

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How Do People Respond to How Do People Respond to Organizational Politics?Organizational Politics? The politics performance relationship appears to be moderated by The politics performance relationship appears to be moderated by

an Individual’s understanding of the “how.” and “whys” of an Individual’s understanding of the “how.” and “whys” of organizational politic.. organizational politic..

““An Individual who has a clear understanding of who Is responsible An Individual who has a clear understanding of who Is responsible for making decisions and why they were selected to be the decision for making decisions and why they were selected to be the decision makers would have a better understanding of ho and why things makers would have a better understanding of ho and why things happen the way they do than someone who does not understand the happen the way they do than someone who does not understand the decision-making process In the organization decision-making process In the organization

When both politics and understanding are high, performance is When both politics and understanding are high, performance is likely to increase because the Individual will see political likely to increase because the Individual will see political actions as an opportunity. actions as an opportunity.

This is consistent with what you might expectThis is consistent with what you might expectamong individuals with well-honed political skill .among individuals with well-honed political skill . Defensive Behaviors:- Defensive Behaviors:- defensive behaviors— reactive and protective defensive behaviors— reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, change. behaviors to avoid action, blame, change. And defensive behaviors are often associatedAnd defensive behaviors are often associated with negative feelings toward the job and work with negative feelings toward the job and work environment. In the short run, employees may find environment. In the short run, employees may find that defensiveness protects their self-interest, but that defensiveness protects their self-interest, but in the long run it wears them down. People who in the long run it wears them down. People who consistently rely on defensiveness find that, consistently rely on defensiveness find that, eventually, it is the only way they know how toeventually, it is the only way they know how to behave. At that point, they lose the trust and support of behave. At that point, they lose the trust and support of their peers, bosses, employees, and clients.their peers, bosses, employees, and clients.

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7-Apply impression Management 7-Apply impression Management Technique (IM)Technique (IM)

IM-impression ManagementIM-impression Management ; ;The process by which individuals attempt to The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them.control the impression others form of them.

Impression management Technique:Impression management Technique: Conformity:-Conformity:-Agreeing with someone else’s opinion to gain his or her Agreeing with someone else’s opinion to gain his or her

approval Is a form of Ingratiation.approval Is a form of Ingratiation. Favors:-Favors:-Doing something nice for someone to gain that person’s Doing something nice for someone to gain that person’s

approval is a form of ingratiation.approval is a form of ingratiation. Excuses:-Excuses:-Explanations of a predicament-creating event aimed at Explanations of a predicament-creating event aimed at

minimizing the apparent severity of the predicament It a defensive IM minimizing the apparent severity of the predicament It a defensive IM technique.technique.

Apologies:- Apologies:- Admitting responsibility for an undesirable event and Admitting responsibility for an undesirable event and simultaneously seeking to get a pardon for the action Is a defensive simultaneously seeking to get a pardon for the action Is a defensive SM technique.SM technique.

Self-Promotion:- Self-Promotion:- Highlighting one’s best qualities, downplaying one’s Highlighting one’s best qualities, downplaying one’s deficits, and ceiling attention to. I sewed it up hi six weeks. I’m deficits, and ceiling attention to. I sewed it up hi six weeks. I’m the best closer this company has.”the best closer this company has.”

Enhancement:- Enhancement:- Claiming that something you did is more valuable than Claiming that something you did is more valuable than most ether members of the organizations would think is a self focused most ether members of the organizations would think is a self focused SM technique.SM technique.

Flattery:- Flattery:- Complimenting others about their virtues in an effort to Complimenting others about their virtues in an effort to make oneself appear perceptive and likeable is an assertive IM make oneself appear perceptive and likeable is an assertive IM technique.technique.

Exemplification:- Exemplification:- Doing more than you need to In an effort to show Doing more than you need to In an effort to show how dedicated and hard working you are Is an assertive IM techniquehow dedicated and hard working you are Is an assertive IM technique..

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8-The Ethics of Behaving 8-The Ethics of Behaving PoliticallyPolitically

(Determine whether a Political action is (Determine whether a Political action is ethical)ethical)

How does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance out How does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance out any harm (or potential harm) it will do to others? Complimenting a any harm (or potential harm) it will do to others? Complimenting a supervisor on his or her appearance in order to curry favor is probably supervisor on his or her appearance in order to curry favor is probably much less harmful than grabbing credit for a project that others deserve.much less harmful than grabbing credit for a project that others deserve.

Finally, does the political activity conform to standards of equity and Finally, does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice? Sometimes it is difficult to weigh the costs and benefits of a justice? Sometimes it is difficult to weigh the costs and benefits of a political action, but its ethicality is clear. political action, but its ethicality is clear.

The department head who inflates the performance evaluation of a favored The department head who inflates the performance evaluation of a favored employee and deflates the evaluation of a disfavored employee—and then employee and deflates the evaluation of a disfavored employee—and then uses these evaluations to justify giving the former a big raise and uses these evaluations to justify giving the former a big raise and nothing is the latter—has treated the disfavored employee unfairly.nothing is the latter—has treated the disfavored employee unfairly.

Unfortunately, powerful people can become very good at explaining self. Unfortunately, powerful people can become very good at explaining self. serving behaviors in terms of the organization’s best interests. serving behaviors in terms of the organization’s best interests.

They can persuasively argue that unfair actions are really fair and just. They can persuasively argue that unfair actions are really fair and just. Our point is that immoral people can justify almost any behavior. Our point is that immoral people can justify almost any behavior.

Those who are powerful, articulate, and persuasive are most vulnerable to Those who are powerful, articulate, and persuasive are most vulnerable to ethical lapses because they are likely to be able to get away with ethical lapses because they are likely to be able to get away with unethical practices successfully. unethical practices successfully.

When faced with an ethical dilemma regarding organizational politics, try When faced with an ethical dilemma regarding organizational politics, try to consider whether playing politics is worth the risk and whether others to consider whether playing politics is worth the risk and whether others might be harmed in the process. might be harmed in the process.

If you have a strong power base, recognize the ability of power to If you have a strong power base, recognize the ability of power to corrupt. Remember that it’s a lot easier for the powerless to act corrupt. Remember that it’s a lot easier for the powerless to act ethically, if for no other reason than they typically have very little ethically, if for no other reason than they typically have very little political discretion to exploit.political discretion to exploit.

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9-Globall Implication9-Globall Implication (Show the influence of culture on the uses and (Show the influence of culture on the uses and

perceptions of Politics)perceptions of Politics)Three questions are particularly important Three questions are particularly important

(1) Does culture influence (1) Does culture influence perceptions of perceptions of politicspolitics??

(2) Does culture affect the (2) Does culture affect the power of influence power of influence tacticstactics people people prefer to use prefer to use? and ? and

(3) Does culture (3) Does culture influence the effectiveness of influence the effectiveness of different tacticsdifferent tactics??

Perception of PoliticsPerception of Politics:: --(US Research) when people see their work environment as (US Research) when people see their work environment as

political, the effect on their overall work attitudes and political, the effect on their overall work attitudes and behaviors is usually negative.behaviors is usually negative.

When employees of two agencies in a recent study in When employees of two agencies in a recent study in Nigeria viewed their work environments as political, they Nigeria viewed their work environments as political, they reported higher levels of job distress and were less likely reported higher levels of job distress and were less likely to help their co-workers. to help their co-workers.

Thus, although developing countries such as Nigeria are Thus, although developing countries such as Nigeria are perhaps more ambiguous and more political environments in perhaps more ambiguous and more political environments in which to work,. the negative consequences appear to be the which to work,. the negative consequences appear to be the same as in the United States.same as in the United States.

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Preference for Power Tactics:Preference for Power Tactics: --Evidence indicates people in different countries tend to prefer different Evidence indicates people in different countries tend to prefer different

power tactics. power tactics. In a cross-cultural study of upward influence (strategies USCI by In a cross-cultural study of upward influence (strategies USCI by

subordinates to influence their supervisors) among managers from six subordinates to influence their supervisors) among managers from six countries—Germany.countries—Germany.

Hong Kong India, Mexico, the Netherlands, and the United States—it was Hong Kong India, Mexico, the Netherlands, and the United States—it was found that in all the cultures, there was universal acceptance of the. found that in all the cultures, there was universal acceptance of the. existence of six job tactics—good soldier tactics, rational persuasion, existence of six job tactics—good soldier tactics, rational persuasion, image management, personal networking, information control, and strong-am image management, personal networking, information control, and strong-am coercion. coercion.

Good soldier tactics meant working overtime, if necessary, to get job done Good soldier tactics meant working overtime, if necessary, to get job done Effectiveness of Power Tactics:- Effectiveness of Power Tactics:- The few studies that have included other countries suggest some minor The few studies that have included other countries suggest some minor

modifications. One study of managers in U.S. culture and three Chinese modifications. One study of managers in U.S. culture and three Chinese cultures (People’s Republic of China, Hong Kong, Taiwan) found U.S. cultures (People’s Republic of China, Hong Kong, Taiwan) found U.S. managers evaluated “gentle persuasion.” tactics such as consultation and managers evaluated “gentle persuasion.” tactics such as consultation and inspirational appeal as more effective than did their Chinese counterparts. inspirational appeal as more effective than did their Chinese counterparts.

As another example, Israelis and the British seem to generally respond as As another example, Israelis and the British seem to generally respond as do North Americans—that is, their perception of organizational politics do North Americans—that is, their perception of organizational politics relates to decreased job satisfaction and increased turnover. relates to decreased job satisfaction and increased turnover.

But in countries that are more politically unstable, such as Israel, But in countries that are more politically unstable, such as Israel, employees seem to demonstrate greater tolerance of intense political employees seem to demonstrate greater tolerance of intense political processes in the workplace, perhaps because they are used to power processes in the workplace, perhaps because they are used to power struggles and have more experience in coping with them.struggles and have more experience in coping with them.

This suggests that people from politically turbulent countries in the This suggests that people from politically turbulent countries in the Middle East or Latin America might be more accepting of organizational Middle East or Latin America might be more accepting of organizational politics, and even more willing to use aggressive political tactics in the politics, and even more willing to use aggressive political tactics in the workplace, than people from countries such as Great Britain or Switzerland. workplace, than people from countries such as Great Britain or Switzerland. <<<<<end>>>>><<<<<end>>>>>

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Thank YouThank You

QuizQuizList 9 power tactics List 9 power tactics