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Physical characteristics, physiological attributes, and on-courtperformances of handball players: A reviewGal Ziv a; Ronnie Lidor a

a Zinman College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel

To cite this Article Ziv, Gal and Lidor, Ronnie'Physical characteristics, physiological attributes, and on-court performancesof handball players: A review', European Journal of Sport Science, 9: 6, 375 — 386To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/17461390903038470URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17461390903038470

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REVIEW ARTICLE

Physical characteristics, physiological attributes, and on-courtperformances of handball players: A review

GAL ZIV & RONNIE LIDOR

Zinman College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel

AbstractThe main purpose of this article was to review a series of studies (n�23) on physical characteristics, physiological attributes,throwing velocity and accuracy, and on-court performances of male handball players � amateur players, experienced players,professional players, and players on the national team. Five main findings emerged from our review: (1) Elite players areheavier and have higher fat-free mass than amateur players. (2) The maximal oxygen uptake of male players is between 50and 60 ml �kg�1 �min�1. (3) Throwing velocity is higher by as much as 9% in elite male players compared with amateurmale players. (4) Heart rates can rise above 160 beats �min�1 in male players during a game. (5) On-court distance coveredin a game averaged approximately 4 km and ranged between 2 and 5 km, depending on playing position. Ourmethodological concerns based on the reviewed studies are: (a) a lack of on-court physiological data; (b) a lack ofexperimental/manipulative studies; (c) limited data on throwing accuracy; and (d) a lack of longitudinal studies. Thepractical implications include: (a) strength and power exercises should be emphasized in conditioning programmes, as theyare associated with both sprint performance and throwing velocity; (b) speed and agility drills should also be implemented inconditioning programmes; and (c) specificity of training based upon the position of the player is of great importance whenplanning strength and conditioning programmes.

Keywords: Team handball, sports performance, throwing velocity, throwing accuracy, on-court performances

Introduction

Since the 1960s, handball has established itself as one

of the most popular team sports (Clanton & Dwight,

1997; Marczinka, 1993). In this review, we use the

term ‘‘handball’’ to refer to the game that is played

between two teams, each comprising six court players

and a goalkeeper. We are not referring to the game

played in North America (also called handball) by two

(singles), three (cutthroat) or four (doubles) players

on a one-, three- or four-walled court (Tyson &

Turman, 1983). Professional and amateur handball

is played in countries on every continent. World

championships, continental championships, and in-

ternational tournaments in handball take place reg-

ularly. Handball has been played in Olympic

competition since the 1972 Games in Munich.

For handball players to attain and sustain a high

level of proficiency, their training programmes

should use knowledge from various sport-related

domains, including exercise physiology and sports

medicine. Information on training-related issues,

such as anthropometric measurements of handball

players (e.g. Noustus et al., 2008), physiological

attributes (e.g. Ramadan, Hasan, & Barac-Nieto,

1999), throwing velocity and accuracy (e.g. van den

Tillaar & Ettema, 2003, 2004, 2006), and on-court

performance (e.g. Delamarche et al., 1987; Luig

et al., 2008) can be utilized effectively in handball

programmes, especially strength and conditioning

programmes developed for handball players. Profes-

sionals involved in training programmes for hand-

ball players, such as handball coaches, strength and

conditioning coaches, athletic trainers, and sport

physicians, should have access to the physical and

physiological aspects of handball players so that

they can use this information when planning short-

and long-term programmes for their players. In

addition, this knowledge can be beneficial when

Correspondence: G. Ziv, Zinman College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Wingate Institute, Netanya 42902, Israel.

E-mail: galziv@yahoo.com

European Journal of Sport Science, November 2009; 9(6): 375�386

ISSN 1746-1391 print/ISSN 1536-7290 online # 2009 European College of Sport Science

DOI: 10.1080/17461390903038470

Downloaded By: [Zinman College for Physical Education and Sport Sciences in] At: 17:58 10 November 2009

these professionals assess the contribution of their

programmes to the development of their handball

players.

An attempt is made in this article not only to

review relevant studies on physical and physiological

characteristics of handball players, but also to adopt

a critical approach while analysing the designs of

these studies as well as their findings. Handball

coaches and strength and conditioning coaches who

aim in their training programmes to use (a) the

physical and physiological tests selected by these

researchers, (b) the test protocols adopted by them

or (c) the recommendations they offer, should also

be aware of the limitations and methodological

concerns of the reviewed studies. This information

should help these professionals select and perform

the most appropriate tests and test protocols for the

benefit of their players.

Therefore, the current article has three aims: (a)

to review a series of studies (n�23) on physical

characteristics, physiological attributes, throwing

velocity and accuracy, and on-court performances

of male handball players � amateur players, experi-

enced players, professional players, and national

team players; (b) to outline a number of methodo-

logical concerns and testing limitations associated

with the studies reviewed; and (c) to suggest

practical recommendations for handball coaches

and strength and conditioning coaches who work

with handball players at all levels (e.g. elite, amateur,

adolescent).

The reviewed articles were selected from an

extensive search of the English language literature,

including major computerized databases (PubMed

and SPORT Discus) and library holding searchers.

Search terms included, among others, handball,

team handball, handball physiology, and handball

players. Twenty-three articles matching our criteria

were identified.

Physical characteristics

A summary of the physical characteristics of handball

players across the reviewed studies is presented in

Table I. The mean height of handball players ranged

from 1.7490.06 m in 35 adolescent players (Barata,

1992) to 1.8990.08 m in 15 players of the best team

in Spain (Gorostiaga, Granados, Ibanez, & Izquierdo,

2005). The two studies recording the lowest mean

body mass focused on young players: the partici-

pants in one study were 35 adolescent players (age

16.590.8 years) (Barata, 1992), and those in the

second study were seven players of the Greek national

second division (age 19.791.1 years) (Delamarche

et al., 1987). In contrast, the two studies that reported

the highest mean body mass included national team

handball players (Gorostiaga et al., 2005; Gorostiaga,

Granados, Ibanez, Gonzalez-Badillo, & Izquierdo,

2006). Percent body fat ranged from 11.592% in

Kuwaiti national team players (Ramadan et al., 1999)

to 14.994.2% in elite Spanish players (Gorostiaga

et al., 2006).

To succeed in a sport, it is important usually to

have specific bodily attributes (Malina, Bouchard, &

Bar-Or, 2004; Malina, Meleski, & Shoup, 1982). In

one study (Gorostiaga et al., 2005), elite and

amateur handball players of the same age were

compared. The elite players were heavier and had a

higher fat-free mass and higher body mass index

(BMI) than the amateur players. The authors con-

cluded that a high body mass and specifically high

fat-free mass is advantageous in handball. In con-

trast, a study of first division and second division

Greek handball players showed no differences be-

tween divisions in terms of height or body mass

(Bayios, Anastasopoulou, Sioudris, & Boudolos,

2001); however, descriptive statistics only were

reported in this study.

Gorostiaga et al. (2006), who assessed 15 elite

players four times over one season � the first week of

the preparation phase, the beginning and the end of

the first competition phase, and the end of the

second competition phase � found no differences in

body mass or percent body fat. Fat-free mass

increased slightly over the season but returned to

baseline values by the end of the second competition

phase.

In a study comparing athletes from different

sports, handball players were taller and heavier

than soccer players in a sample of Kuwaiti national

players (Ramadan et al., 1999). Compared with

basketball players, elite handball players were shorter

than basketball forwards (1.88�2.00 m) and centres

(1.93�2.14 m) but of a similar height to guards

(1.85�1.91 m) (Ziv & Lidor, 2009).

Physiological attributes

Aerobic profile

The maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) of

handball players was 50.891.4 ml �kg�1 �min�1

in one study (Ramadan et al., 1999) and 58.39

5.3 ml �kg�1 �min�1 in another (Delamarche

et al., 1987). In the latter study, testing was con-

ducted on a cycle ergometer. It is possible that a

treadmill test would have resulted in higher values,

as handball players do not adapt particularly to

cycling and therefore local muscular fatigue may

have caused general fatigue before reaching the

limits of the cardiovascular system. In the study by

Ramadan et al. (1999), a comparison of handball and

soccer players with a control group (non-players)

revealed that handball players had lower VO2max

376 G. Ziv & R. Lidor

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(50.891.4 ml �kg�1 �min�1) than soccer players

(59.691.0 ml �kg�1 �min�1), and higher VO2max

than controls (45.992.0 ml �kg�1 �min�1).

In a third study, Buchheit et al. (2009) exam-

ined VO2max using a portable metabolic system in

nine skilled players during a graded exercise test, a

high-intensity intermittent endurance test, and a

four-a-side handball game that was designed

with simplified rules and no stopping to increase

the exercise load. Maximal oxygen consumption

was 57.3, 56.4, and 60.2 ml �kg�1 �min�1, respec-

tively. The authors suggested that VO2max values

obtained in a field-graded exercise test may not be

reliable and could underestimate the real VO2max.

However, several other factors may have interfered

with achieving maximal results in that test (e.g.

motivation of participants and methodology of the

test).

Ziv and Lidor (2009) reported the VO2max of

handball players to be similar to that of basketball

players (50�60 ml �kg�1 �min�1), and to be only

slightly higher than the 80th and 90th percentiles

values (52.1 and 55.1 ml �kg�1 �min�1) found in

20- to 29-year-old males (Whaley, Brubaker, & Otto,

Table I. A summary of the physical characteristics of male handball players (Mean9SD)

Study Participants Height (m) Body mass (kg) Percent fat (%)

Fat-free

mass (kg)

Asci and Acikada

(2007)

Experienced players

(n�16)

1.8590.06 86.198.9 N.A. N.A.

Barata (1992) Adolescent players aged

16.590.8 years (n�35)

1.7490.06 65.091.7 N.A. N.A.

Bayios et al. (2001) Greek Division 1 players

(n�15) and Division 2

players (n�12)

Division 1:

1.8190.06

Division 2:

1.7990.09

Division 1: 83.195.2

Division 2: 85.8912.7

N.A. N.A.

Buchheit et al.

(2009)

National level players

(n�9)

1.81 78.4 N.A. N.A.

Delamarche et al.

(1987)

National Division 2 players

and finalists of the Under-18

French championship (n�7)

1.8090.07 77.397.5 N.A. N.A.

Gorostiaga et al.

(2005)

Elite (n�15) and amateur

(n�15) players. Elite players

were members of the current

Spanish handball champions

Elite players:

1.8990.08

Amateur

players:

1.8490.07

Elite players: 95.29

13.0

Amateur players:

82.4910.0

Elite players:

13.892.0

Amateur

players:

11.693.0

Elite players:

81.799.0

Amateur

players:

72.497.0

Gorostiaga et al.

(2006)

Members of one elite

Spanish handball team

(n�15) measured four times

during a season: T1 � first

week of preparatory phase,

T2 � beginning of first

competition phase, T3 � end

of first competition phase,

T4 � end of second

competition phase

1.8890.07 T1: 95.6914.3

T2: 95.2913.4

T3: 95.6912.1

T4: 93.9916.9

T1: 14.994.2

T2: 13.992.6

T3: 13.692.6

T4: 14.093.1

T1: 80.798.8

T2: 81.899.4

T3: 82.198.8

T4: 80.3911.8

Marques &

Gonzalez-Badillo

(2006)

High-level players (n�16) 1.8490.13 84.8913.1 N.A. N.A.

Marques et al.

(2007)

Elite players (n�14),

including 4 Portuguese

internationals

1.8290.07 82.5912.2 N.A. N.A.

Noutsos et al.

(2008)

Elite junior Greek national

team players aged 15.590.4

years (n�30)

1.8090.07 77.8911.2 14.493.9 66.297.6

Ramadan et al.

(1999)

Kuwait national players

(n�15)

1.7990.02 85.893.2 11.592.0 75.9*

van den Tillaar &

Ettema (2003)

Players playing in Division

2 of the Norwegian national

competition (n�9)

1.8390.07 82.999.3 N.A. N.A.

van den Tillaar &

Ettema (2004)

Experienced players playing

in Divisions 2 and 3 of the

Norwegian national

competition (n�20)

1.8590.08 84.7910 16.793.2 70.6*

*Data not available in original paper calculated by authors.

Physiological attributes of male handball players 377

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2006), suggesting that this attribute is not the one

that distinguishes elite handball players from non-

players.

A study that examined endurance capacity in

elite and amateur handball players while running at

10, 12, 14, and 16 km �h�1 found no differences

in mean blood lactate concentration or in mean

heart rate (Gorostiaga et al., 2005). The mean

running velocity and heart rate that elicited a blood

lactate concentration of 3.0 mmol � l�1 were similar

in both elite and amateur players, suggesting that

endurance capacity per se does not differentiate

elite from amateur handball players. In addition,

no significant differences in endurance running at

10, 12, 14, and 16 km �h�1 were observed in elite

players over the course of a season (Gorostiaga

et al., 2006).

Power and strength

Four studies have examined changes in power and

strength with training in male handball players

(Bonifazi et al., 2001; Gorostiaga et al., 2006;

Gorostiaga, Izquierdo, Iturralde, Ruesta, & Ibanez,

1999; Marques & Gonzalez-Badillo, 2006). In one

study (Gorostiaga et al., 2006), one-repetition max-

imum (1-RM) bench press increased by 2% from the

beginning of the preparation phase to the beginning

of the first competition phase (from 104.8915.6 to

106.9911.6 kg). This increase remained relatively

stable at the end of the first competition phase.

However, the power outputs of the lower and upper

extremities remained unaltered throughout the sea-

son. In another study (Bonifazi et al., 2001), 10

weeks of training significantly increased vertical jump

performance [countermovement jump (CMJ) �hands on waist] from approximately 49 cm to

51.5 cm (exact values were not presented). Average

power as measured from a 15-s set of consecutive

jumps also increased (from approximately 26 W �kg�1 to 29 W �kg�1).

In a study of 19 adolescent players (age 14�16

years), Gorostiaga et al. (1999) examined power and

strength changes after 6 weeks of heavy resistance

training. In the strength training group, maximal

dynamic strength of the leg extensors and the upper

extremity muscles increased significantly (12.2%

and 23%, respectively). No changes in strength

were observed in the group that undertook regular

handball training only or in the control group (non-

players). Interestingly, the strength training group

failed to show an improvement in vertical jump,

whereas the group involved in handball training

improved their vertical jump from 29.5 to 31.4 cm.

The authors suggested that this finding can be

explained by the strength training programme,

which focused on heavy loads and slow contractions.

They claimed that while this type of training can lead

to increased strength, it has not been found to

increase power and can even lead to a reduction in

power. However, others have suggested that heavy

loads and slow contractions can increase power

(Aagaard, Simonsen, Trolle, Bangsbo, & Klausen,

1994).

Improvements in dynamic strength and vertical

jump were indicated in a study of 16 elite handball

players over 12 weeks of resistance training that

included dynamic strength exercises (e.g. bench press

and half squat) and power exercises (e.g. counter-

movement jumps and sprinting) (Marques &

Gonzalez-Badillo, 2006). Bench press 1-RM and

parallel squats 4-RM increased from the beginning

of the training programme (58.5910.64 kg and

93.5913.9 kg, respectively) to after 6 weeks of the

programme (67.9912.8 kg and 122.2921.6 kg, re-

spectively) and after 12 weeks (74.7912.00 kg and

134.1919.4 kg, respectively). Players were also

tested for three types of vertical jumps: counter-

movement jump, countermovement jump with a

20-kg load, and countermovement jump with a 40-

kg load. Similar to dynamic strength, the increases in

performance were significant for all three types of

jumps, from the beginning of training to after 6 weeks

and to after 12 weeks of training. Based on the four

studies examining the effects of training on power and

strength, it can be concluded that handball players

can increase dynamic strength after participating in

resistance training programmes. However, improved

power was seen in only two of the studies (Bonifazi

et al., 2001; Marques & Gonzalez-Badillo, 2006),

with the other two failing to show improvements

(Gorostiaga et al., 1999, 2006). These differences can

be explained by the different types of training applied

in each of the studies. In the study by Marques and

Gonzalez-Badillo (2006), the training programme

included resistance training and explosive-type train-

ing (e.g. sprints and box jumps). These explosive-type

exercises are expected to improve power. In contrast,

in the study of Gorostiaga et al. (1999), the training

programme included heavy resistance training with

slow movements. As indicated earlier, these exercises

may hinder explosive performance. Another explana-

tion for the lack of power improvement during in-

season training was provided by Gorostiaga et al.

(2006), who suggested that low-intensity aerobic-

type training may have inhibited power and sprint

performance. Unfortunately, Bonifazi et al. (2001)

did not report the details of the training programme in

their study.

Differences in power and strength have been

shown to be relatively marked between elite and

amateur players. Bench press 1-RM was 22%

higher in elite players (106.9911.6 kg) than ama-

teur players (82.5914.8 kg) (Gorostiaga et al.,

378 G. Ziv & R. Lidor

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2005). Power output at all loads was also signifi-

cantly higher in elite players. Similarly, at all

absolute loads, half-squat power output was higher

in elite players. These findings suggest that power

and strength in a contact sport such as handball are

essential for achievement at the highest level of

sport performance.

Two studies compared power and strength in

handball players to athletes in other sports. One

study found no differences in bench press 1-RM and

peak power between handball players, basketball

players, volleyball players, sprinters, and body-

builders (Asci & Acikada, 2007). In contrast,

Izquierdo and colleagues (Izquierdo, Hakkinen,

Gonzalez-Badillo, Ibanez, & Gorostiaga, 2002)

found that handball players had higher half-squat

1-RM values than middle-distance runners and a

control group (non-athletes) (29% difference).

The effects of fatigue on performance are im-

portant. If fatigue hinders players’ performance,

coaches can make substitutions in the later stages

of a game. In addition, strength and conditioning

coaches can design the fitness programme with the

aim of delaying the players’ development of fatigue.

In one study (Thorlund, Michalsik, Madsen, &

Aagaard, 2007), fatigue was found to reduce muscle

performance in male players. Ten players were

assessed for maximal voluntary contraction

(MVC), rate of force development, and vertical

jump before and after a simulated handball game.

Quadriceps and hamstrings MVC and rate of force

development decreased significantly after the game

by 10% and 16�21%, respectively. In addition,

vertical jump height decreased after the game by

5.2%. These acute effects following exertion during

a game suggest that performance during the later

stages of a game may be impaired.

It should be noted that not only does increased

muscle mass increase power and strength, but neural

aspects are also important contributors. The neural

adaptations to strength training include an improved

synchronization of motor unit firing and an im-

proved ability to recruit motor units (Powers &

Howley, 2001). However, these neural aspects were

not examined in the studies reviewed.

Agility and speed

Sprint performances over 5 m and 15 m were

reported to be similar between elite and amateur

handball players by Gorostiaga et al. (2005), and

no differences in sprint performance were observed

in elite players throughout one season (Gorostiaga

et al., 2006). According to the authors of the

latter study, the low-intensity aerobic-type train-

ing used during the season may have inhibited

sprint performance. It was suggested that more

high-intensity endurance running and leg strength

training should be incorporated to improve sprint-

ing performance, whereas low-intensity endurance

running should receive less attention (Gorostiaga

et al., 2006).

In contrast to the previous two studies, Marques

and Gonzalez-Badillo (2006) reported improve-

ments in sprint performance in 16 elite handball

players over 12 weeks of resistance training. The

resistance training programme was undertaken 2�3times a week, and included dynamic strength ex-

ercises (e.g. bench press and half-squat) and power

exercises (e.g. countermovement jumps and sprint-

ing). A 30-m sprint test was performed with time

recorded at 15 m and 30 m. Results showed im-

provements in 30-m times after 6 weeks (2.24%

improvement) and after 12 weeks (3.13% improve-

ment) of training. Similar results were observed for

the 15-m sprint times (1.57% improvement after 6

weeks and 2.35% improvement after 12 weeks). This

improved performance may be explained in part by

the correlation between 4-RM parallel squats and

30-m sprints (r�0.52, P�0.04), and by the fact

that handball players worked on sprinting through-

out their regular practices (Marques & Gonzalez-

Badillo, 2006). In addition, compared with previous

studies that failed to report improvements in speed,

this study used a conditioning programme that

targeted improvement in both power and strength.

The 30-m sprint times observed in this study were

similar to those reported in another study of 30

junior (age 15.590.4 years) handball players (4.4 s)

(Noutsos et al., 2008).

Throwing velocity and accuracy

One of the most vital elements of handball is

throwing ability (Gorostiaga et al., 2005). Handball

players improve their chances of scoring by throwing

the ball as fast as possible and by aiming accurately

at the goal.

A summary of studies examining throwing velo-

city and accuracy in male handball players is

presented in Table II. Differences in throwing

velocity between elite and amateur players were

reported by Gorostiaga et al. (2005): elite players

threw the ball faster in the standing throw and the

three-step running throw than amateur players (an

8% and 9% difference, respectively). In both elite

and amateur players, bar velocity at 30% of 1-RM

correlated positively with throw velocity (r�0.67

and r�0.71, respectively; PB0.05�0.01). These

values suggest that players with higher bar velocities

at lower relative loads may be able to throw the ball

faster (Gorostiaga et al., 2005). In elite players,

significant correlations were found between three-

step throw velocity and velocities at different

Physiological attributes of male handball players 379

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percentages of bench press 1-RM and half-squat 1-

RM. The strongest correlation was found at a

concentric velocity of 30% of bench press 1-RM

(r�0.72). No such correlations were observed in

amateur players, probably due to the poor techni-

que or poor throwing coordination of amateur

players. It should be noted that inferior bench press

technique could also contribute to this lack

of correlation in amateur players. Marques and

colleagues (Marques, van den Tillaar, Vescovi, &

Gonzalez-Badillo, 2007) also found significant cor-

relations between three-step running throwing velo-

city and bench press 1-RM (r�0.63), peak power

at 52% and 67% of 1-RM (r�0.58), and weight

bar velocity at 38% (r�0.56) and 52% (r�0.62) of

1-RM.

A study examining the relationship of throwing

velocity and isokinetic strength of the internal and

external shoulder rotators found that players of

Division 1 of the Greek national league had higher

throwing velocities than players of Division 2 and of

physical education students (Bayios et al., 2001).

This finding applied to three types of throws � a set

throw, a three-step running throw, and a jump throw.

Interestingly, no differences between groups were

seen in isokinetic strength of the shoulder rotators,

suggesting that peak torque of the shoulder rotators

is not related to throwing velocity. It was noted by

the authors that lower extremity strength as well as

trunk rotation may play an important role in throw-

ing velocity.

In contrast, a study of 11 US national squad

players found strong correlations between jump

throwing velocity and each of the following vari-

ables: peak torque of shoulder extension, internal

rotation, horizontal abduction, and elbow extension

and flexion (at velocities of 180, 240, and 300 deg �s�1) (Fleck et al., 1992). Correlations between

isokinetic torque and all three velocities for standing

throws were found only for horizontal shoulder

abduction. The results of this study (Fleck et al.,

1992) suggest that upper extremity isokinetic torque

is more important in jump throws than in standing

throws. This finding makes sense, since during a

standing throw one can use the lower extremities

and trunk rotation to increase ball velocity. In a

jump throw, it is much more difficult to use trunk

rotation or lower extremity force (Fleck et al.,

1992). Throwing velocity has also been reported

to be closely related to physical characteristics. For

example, van den Tillaar and Ettema (2004) found

correlations between body mass and throwing

velocity (r�0.54), fat-free mass and throwing

velocity (r�0.62), and height and throwing velocity

(r�0.60).

All of the above studies were of a correlative nature

and not of a causative nature. More intervention

studies are needed to elucidate the importance of

upper and lower extremity isokinetic torque and

throwing velocity in handball.

A number of studies have assessed the contribution

of training to increasing throwing velocity in handball

players. One study examined changes in throwing

velocity over a handball season in elite players and

found significant increases in standing throws and

three-step running throws at the end of the competi-

tion phase compared with the beginning of the phase

(Gorostiaga et al., 2006). In addition, significant

correlations were observed between total strength

training time and standing throwing velocities (r�0.58, PB0.05). Another study examined the effec-

tiveness of a 12-week resistance and power training

programme on three-step running throwing veloci-

ties, and found improvements after 6 and 12 weeks of

training (Marques & Gonzalez-Badillo, 2006). How-

ever, no changes were observed between Week 6 and

Week 12 of the training programme. In addition,

after 7 weeks of detraining, ball-throwing velocity

was reduced significantly. The authors argued that

the elite players may have reached their ball-throwing

velocity ceiling, and therefore no changes were

observed from Week 6 to Week 12 of the resistance

training. It can be determined from these two studies

(Gorostiaga et al., 2006; Marques & Gonzalez-

Badillo, 2006) that resistance training should be an

integral part of a handball player’s strength and

conditioning programme.

In another study, Barata (1992) examined

whether training with overweight balls (800 g) over

9 weeks would increase throwing velocity compared

with resistance training with loads of 1�12 kg and

with a control group (no resistance training). The

group that trained with heavy balls did show a

greater improvement in throwing velocity in both a

standing free throw and a free throw with three

preparatory steps than the resistance training group.

While the results were statistically insignificant for

both types of throws, confidence intervals suggested

that the differences were meaningful. The control

group showed a similar or even greater increase in

ball velocity than the resistance training group. The

authors suggested that this may have been due to the

relative lack of handball experience in the members

of the control group (70% of them were in their first

year as competitive athletes).

In highly skilled elite players who have great

throwing ability, specific resistance training with

underweight balls can add a positive training effect.

However, it is advisable that this type of training

should begin only after the athletes are well condi-

tioned (van den Tillaar, 2004).

There are two possible strategies for scoring a goal

in handball: (a) throwing the ball as fast as possible

without any intent to aim accurately, surprising the

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Table II. A summary of studies on throwing velocity and accuracy in male handball players (Means9SD)

Study Participants Treatment Characteristics of Throw

Barata (1992) Adolescent players

aged 16.590.8 years (n�35)

9 weeks of training:

Group a: throw training with heavier

balls(800 g) and official balls

Group b: regular resistance

training with loads of 1�12 kg

Group c: control

Standing free throw:

Group a: pre: 18.4 m � s�1, post: 20.5 m �s�1, improvement: 11.4%

Group b: pre: 18.9 m � s�1, post: 20.2 m �s�1, improvement: 6.9%

Group c: pre: 17.9 m � s�1, post: 19.3 m �s�1, improvement: 7.8%

Free throw with three preparatory steps:

Group a: pre: 21.0 m � s�1, post: 22.5 m �s�1, improvement: 7.1%

Group b: pre: 21.4 m � s�1, post: 22.2 m �s�1, improvement: 3.7%

Group c: pre: 20.3 m � s�1, post: 21.6 m �s�1, improvement: 6.4%

Bayios et al. (2001) Greek national league

Division 1 (n�15),

Division 2 (n�12) players, and

physical education students (n�15)

Descriptive study. Three types of

throws tested:

On the spot (spot)

Crossover step (step)

Jump throw (jump)

Division 1:

Spot: 23.5192.23 m � s�1, step: 26.279

3.21 m � s�1, jump: 22.7492.16 m � s�1

Division 2:

Spot: 20.0891.12 m � s�1, step: 23.229

1.86 m � s�1, jump: 20.5491.63 m � s�1

Physical education students:

Spot: 16.8591.58 m � s�1, step: 18.99

1.98 m � s�1, jump: 15.5491.42 m � s�1

Fleck et al. (1992) US national team

training squad (n�11)

Descriptive study. Two types

of throws tested:

Three-step running throw

Jump throw

Maximum ball velocities:

Three-step running throw: 28.190.81 m �s�1

Jump throw: 26.390.54 m � s�1

Average of three fastest throws:

Three-step running throw: 26.790.7 m �s�1

Jump throw: 25.290.54 m � s�1

Gorostiaga et al. (2005) Elite players (n�15)

and amateur players (n�15)

Descriptive study Elite players:

Standing throw: 23.891.9 m � s�1

Running throw: 25.392.2 m � s�1

Amateur players:

Standing throw: 21.891.6 m � s�1

Running throw: 22.991.4 m � s�1

8�9% difference between elite and amateur

players

Physiologica

lattribu

tesof

male

handba

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Table II (Continued)

Study Participants Treatment Characteristics of Throw

Gorostiaga et al. (2006) Elite players (n�15) of the Spanish

national First Division league

Follow-up during a season.

Testing at beginning of preparation

phase (T1), beginning and end of first

competition phase (T2 and T3, respectively),

and end of second competition phase (T4)

Standing throwing velocity:

T1: 24.392.3 m � s�1, T2: 23.891.9 m �s�1, T3: 26.092.2 m � s�1

Running throwing velocity:

T1: 25.991.9 m � s�1, T2: 25.392.2 m �s�1, T3: 27.692.2 m � s�1

Significant difference between T3 and T2

to T1 in both standing and running throws.

No differences between T4 and T3

Marques & Gonzalez-Badillo

(2006)

High-level players (n�16) 12 weeks of resistance training (two cycles

of 6 weeks) followed by 7 weeks of detraining,

2�3 sessions per week.Principal exercises: bench

press, parallel squat, vertical jump onto a box,

vertical jump with weights, and sprint exercises

Three-step running throwing velocity in-

creased from approximately 22 m � s�1 at

the beginning of training to 24.5 m � s�1 at

the end of the 12 weeks. After 7 weeks of

detraining throwing velocity

was reduced to approximately 23.8 m � s�1

Ball throwing velocity increased only until

Week 6 of training and did not increase

further by Week 12

Marques et al. (2007) Elite players (n�14) Descriptive study. Three-step running throw Running throwing velocity: 23.9891.7 m �s�1

Correlations between throwing velocity and

bench press 1-RM (r�0.63), peak power at

52% and 67% of 1-RM (r�0.58), and

weight bar velocity at 38% (r�0.56) and

52% (r�0.62) of 1-RM

van den Tillaar and Ettema (2003) Experienced players of Norwegian

Division 2 (n�9)

Five instructional conditions:

(1) throw as fast as possible, (2) throw as

fast as possible while trying to hit the target, (3)

hit the target and throw as fast as possible, (4) hit

the target and try to throw as fast as possible, and

(5) hit the target

Throw velocity was decreased when accu-

racy was prioritized

No differences in accuracy bet-

ween instructional conditions

van den Tillaar and Ettema (2004) Players from Divisions 2 and 3 of the

Norwegian national league (n�20)

Descriptive study. Standing throw from the 7-m line Standing throw velocity: 23.291.6 m � s�1

Positive relationship between body size and

throwing performance

van den Tillaar and Ettema (2006) Two groups: Experienced players of Norwegian

Division 2 (n�9) and individuals who had

never participated in organized sports

Similar study to above Throwing performance significantly better

in experienced players

Ball velocity decreased when accuracy was

prioritized in both groups

Accuracy was not affected by instructional

condition. No velocity�accuracy trade-off

was observed

382

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goalkeeper; and (b) throwing the ball as accurately

as possible, trying to keep it out of the reach of the

goalkeeper (van den Tillaar & Ettema, 2003). Of

these two options, the first has been discussed

thoroughly in the literature. Van Den Tillaar and

Ettema (2003) studied the influence of instruction

on both velocity and accuracy of handball players.

Players threw the ball under five conditions: (1)

throw as fast as possible; (2) throw as fast as possible

while trying to hit the target; (3) hit the target and

throw as fast as possible; (4) hit the target and try to

throw as fast as possible; and (5) hit the target. As

expected, throwing velocity decreased from Condi-

tion 1 to Condition 5. In contrast, no differences in

accuracy were observed among the conditions. In all

conditions, velocity was at least 85% of the maximal

velocity measured in Condition 1. Although velocity

was reduced to 85% of maximal throwing velocity,

accuracy did not improve. The authors suggested

that this may have been due to the high profession-

alism of the sample of handball players. However,

this explanation was refuted in another study con-

ducted by the same authors. In this study, van den

Tillaar and Ettema (2006) compared the throwing

velocity and accuracy of expert and novice players.

The novices had no previous experience in orga-

nized sports that involved throwing. Players threw

the ball under the same five conditions (1�5) as

described above (van den Tillaar & Ettema, 2003).

As expected, velocity was reduced from Condition 1

to Condition 5 in both groups. However, no

velocity�accuracy trade-off was observed in either

group. When accuracy was prioritized, as in

Conditions 3�5, velocity indeed decreased, but

accuracy did not improve. The authors suggested

that the characteristics of the task at hand were not

the cause of a velocity�accuracy trade-off, but rather

the level of skill of the players.

The fact that most studies have examined velocity

but did not look at throwing accuracy is a matter of

concern. Theoretically, it could be argued that a

threshold for throwing velocity exists, above which

increasing throwing velocity has little practical

meaning. This would be the velocity that is

faster than the fastest reaction time of a handball

goalkeeper. Once a field player has managed to

achieve this velocity, it would make more sense to

practise perfecting the accuracy of the throw at that

velocity rather than on continuing to increase

velocity. Future studies should attempt to discover

this threshold throwing velocity, based on known

neural reaction times and experimental trials.

On-court performances

Time�motion analysis is based on continuous ob-

servation of what players do during match-play.

By studying the actions that handball players per-

form during games, researchers and practitioners

(handball coaches and strength and conditioning

coaches) can better understand the physical de-

mands imposed on their players. Unfortunately,

handball studies using time�motion analyses are

rare.

Delamarche et al. (1987) assessed blood lactate

concentration and heart rate in seven Under-18

handball players during a practice game. Each

player was given an activity score based on distance

covered, frequency of ground contacts, arm move-

ments, and shots and jumps. Blood lactate was

sampled every 5 min during game play. Activity

ratings varied between players, suggesting different

intensities of play. Heart rate changed frequently

but remained within a range of 20 beats �min�1 for

each player. Maximal heart rate rose as the game

progressed. The three most active players reached

heart rates of over 190 beats �min�1 and blood

lactate concentrations of over 7.5 mmol � l�1. These

players ran for 20�30 min with blood lactate over

4.0 mmol � l�1. As the authors showed, the most

active players tolerated high lactate concentrations

for relatively long durations. It was also reported

that the increase in blood lactate stopped during the

10 min half-time break.

A cautious approach should be adopted when

interpreting blood lactate data. Lactate concentra-

tion is a consequence of lactate appearance and

disappearance. It is possible that players with low

concentrations of blood lactate actually work at

similar, or even higher, intensities than players with

high blood lactate concentrations. This can be due to

an efficient rate of lactate disappearance in those

players. The data in the study of Delamarche et al.

(1987) shows two players with the same activity

rating; however, while one player had a high heart

rate (195 beats �min�1) and high blood lactate

concentration (6.4 mmol � l�1), the other player

had a low heart rate (188 beats �min�1) and low

blood lactate concentration (4.0 mmol � l�1). These

differences suggest that while playing at similar

intensities, individuals can use aerobic and anaerobic

metabolism differently. These differences can be due

to genetic differences, different standards of fitness,

and/or other variables.

Luig et al. (2008) conducted time�motion ana-

lyses during nine games of the 2007 men’s World

Cup. The analyses were conducted using a compu-

terized match analysis system. Four movement

categories were defined in this study: walking, slow

running, fast running, and sprinting. Playing time

was significantly higher in wings (37.3792.37 min)

and goalkeepers (37.1193.28 min) than backcourt

players (29.1691.70 min) and pivots (29.379

2.70 min). Total distance covered was higher in

Physiological attributes of male handball players 383

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wings (3710.69210.2 m) than in backcourt players

(2839.99150.6 m) and pivots (2786.99238.8 m).

As anticipated, goalkeepers covered the shortest total

distance (2058.1990.2 m). The total distance cov-

ered by field players consisted of 34.394.9% walk-

ing, 44.795.1% slow running, 17.993.5% fast

running, and 3.092.2% sprinting. Compared with

other players, wings covered significantly shorter

distances while slow running but significantly longer

distances while fast running and sprinting. As the

authors suggested, these on-court data can help

coaches plan specific strength and conditioning

programmes for individuals playing in different

positions.

Unfortunately, we could not identify studies that

examined oxygen consumption during a handball

game. This fact, in addition to the limited informa-

tion on time�motion analyses, prevents researchers

and coaches from thoroughly quantifying the phy-

siological demands imposed on handball players.

More studies in these areas are urgently required.

More specifically, these studies should include blood

lactate sampling, on-court oxygen consumption

measurements using a portable metabolic system,

and time�motion analyses focusing on specific hand-

ball actions, such as jumping, running, sprinting,

throwing, and walking.

Research concerns and testing limitations of

the studies reviewed

Based on the studies reviewed on physical character-

istics, physiological attributes, throwing velocity and

accuracy, and on-court performances of handball

players, five research concerns and testing limitations

are discussed.

1. The lack of on-court physiological data. Only two

studies (Delamarche et al., 1987; Luig et al., 2008)

examined on-court performances of male handball

players. By understanding the physical and physiolo-

gical demands of handball players during match-play,

handball coaches and strength and conditioning

coaches can effectively plan their strength and con-

ditioning programmes. More time�motion analyses

are needed to fully understand what handball players

do during games.

2. The lack of experimental/manipulative studies. Most

of the studies reviewed in this article were of a

correlative or descriptive nature, and did not include

interventional programmes (e.g. strength and con-

ditioning programmes for improving throwing velo-

city and/or throwing accuracy). The descriptive and

correlative nature of most studies implies certain

possible conclusions; they can by no means suggest

causality. In fact, correlational studies can only

provide association among variables, and cannot

entirely explain any variations in the results obtained.

Therefore, more studies should encourage implemen-

tation of conditioning programmes for agility and

speed and power and strength, with at least one

intervention/training group and one control/no train-

ing group. It is the case that some studies reviewed here

(e.g. Marques & Gonzalez-Badillo, 2006) did examine

the contribution of interventional programmes to

physiological attributes of male handball players;

however, more studies should be conducted to assess

the contribution of different training programmes to

the physical attributes of handball players.

3. The limited data on throwing accuracy. Although

some data are available on throwing velocity and its

relationship with power and strength, very little data

are available regarding throwing accuracy. This is

unfortunate, as accuracy is just as important as

velocity when handball players are attempting to

score a goal. More studies should examine throwing

accuracy, in particular the effect of different training

programmes (e.g. virtual reality, simulation, and

accuracy games) on throwing accuracy.

4. The lack of longitudinal studies. By using a long-

itudinal approach, relevant information on the devel-

opment of the physical attributes of beginning and

advanced handball players, as well as their physiolo-

gical characteristics and on-court performances, can

be collected, analysed, and interpreted.

5. The lack of studies examining handball performance

under conditions of fatigue. In real handball practice

and match-play, the players are required to perform

under fatiguing conditions. It has been shown that

high fatigue can hinder sport performance involving

endurance, rapid movements, and strength (see

Montgomery et al., 2008; Pack, 1974; Reilly, Drust,

& Clarke, 2008). Therefore, different protocols for

tests assessing physical abilities under fatiguing

conditions should be used in handball studies.

Conditioning for team handball: Practical

suggestions for handball coaches and strength

and conditioning coaches

Based on the studies reviewed, five practical sugges-

tions are offered to handball coaches and strength

and conditioning coaches who work with male

handball players:

1. Power and strength exercises should be empha-

sized in conditioning programmes, as they are

associated with both sprint performance and

throwing velocity and can distinguish between

amateur and elite handball players. However, it

384 G. Ziv & R. Lidor

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should be noted that strength training with

heavy loads and slow movements can hinder

vertical jump performance (Gorostiaga et al.,

1999). Coaches should keep in mind the con-

cept of specificity in training and base their

conditioning programmes on performance goals

for individual players. In a review of throwing

velocity, van den Tillaar (2004) suggested that

specific resistance training with underweight

balls can be effective in increasing throwing

velocity in highly experienced players.

2. Specific speed and agility drills should be

implemented in conditioning programmes.

Gorostiaga et al. (2006) showed that sprinting

performance did not improve over a season

when specific drills were not provided. Sprint

training should be specific to the on-court

sprint demands of handball players.

3. Specificity is of great importance when planning

a strength and conditioning programme. If

players are expected to run faster, sprint training

should be implemented. If wings are expected to

jump as high as possible above the defenders’

hands in order to throw, explosive-type power

training should be implemented. Handball

players in different positions should practise

those feats which they are required to perform.

4. Strength and conditioning programmes should

be developed according to data collected from

time�motion analyses. The specific strength

and conditioning programme developed for a

given handball team should reflect the data

collected on the performances of that team

during match-play. In addition, strength and

conditioning programmes should be developed

according to the individual playing positions

and skill of the handball players.

5. A careful approach to the selection of (a) testing

devices, (b) test protocols, and (c) testing

phases should be adopted by handball and

strength and conditioning coaches. The tests

selected should primarily help coaches asses

both the physical/physiological state of the

players and their skill mastery at a specific

phase of the training programme (i.e. prepara-

tion, competition or transition phase). Coaches

should be aware of the various tests performed

in the studies as well as of their specific

objectives and emphases, so that they will be

able to select the ones that provide them with

the most relevant and useful information.

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