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An offprint from

Becoming EuropeanThe transformation of third millennium Northern

and Western Europe

edited by

Christopher Prescott and Håkon Glørstad

© Oxbow Books 2012ISBN 978-1-84217-450-0

This book is available fromwww.oxbowbooks.com

Preface ......................................................................................................................................................................vChristopher Prescott and Håkon Glørstad

Contributors and abstracts ................................................................................................................................ vii

1. Introduction: becoming European ....................................................................................................................... 1Christopher Prescott and Håkon Glørstad

2. Personhoods for Europe: the archaeological construction and deconstruction of European-ness .........12Herdis Hølleland

3. Demography and mobility in North-Western Europe during the third millennium cal. BC................... 19Marc Vander Linden

4. Perceiving changes in the third millennium BC in Europe through pottery: Galicia,Brittany and Denmark as examples .................................................................................................................. 30M. Pilar Prieto-Martínez

5. Body use transformations: socio-political changes in the Bell Beaker context ........................................... 48Lucía Moragón

6. Late Neolithic expansion to Norway. The beginning of a 4000 year-old shipbuilding tradition ............ 63Einar Østmo

7. Towards a new understanding of Late Neolithic Norway – the role of metal and metal working ........ 70Lene Melheim

8. Historical ideal types and the transition to the Late Neolithic in South Norway .....................................82Håkon Glørstad

9. The last hunter-fishers of western Norway .................................................................................................... 100Knut Andreas Bergsvik

10. Third millennium transformations in Norway: modeling an interpretative platform ............................ 115Christopher Prescott

11. Technology Talks: material diversity and change in Northern Norway 3000–1000 BC .......................... 128Marianne Skandfer

12. Cultural Reproduction from Late Stone Age to Early Metal Age – a short discussion of the cultures in Finland, the northern part of Fennoscandia and Karelia, 3200 cal. BC to 1500 cal. BC .................... 144Mika Lavento

13. Tracing pressure-flaked Arrowheads in Europe ...........................................................................................156Jan Apel

14. The Bronze Age expansion of Indo-European languages: an archaeological model ..............................165Kristian Kristiansen

Contents

2

Personhoods for Europe: the archaeological construction and deconstruction of European-ness

Herdis Hølleland

Introduction: material manifestations of personhoodThe concept of personhood is a rather new addition to the archaeological vocabulary that, to use Chris Fowler’s (2004: 7) defi nition, refers to ‘the condition or state of being a person, as it is understood in any specifi c context’. Personhood, as Fowler (2004: 37) understands it, materialises itself through a person’s interactions and social strategies. As a result, both past and present personhoods become visible through ‘what people do, who they exchange with, what they give, [and] what eff ects these exchanges have’. However, while one can argue that personhoods manifest themselves materially, personhoods of the past are also interpretative products of the way in which archaeological material is categorised, classifi ed and theorised. While European Bronze Age (BA) research is very diverse, the majority of BA studies do share at least one thing in common: they are rarely explicitly concerned with the topic of personhood. However, if one examines the actual interpretations of BA Europe, one can easily observe that the texts do in fact reveal a great deal about how archaeologists conceptualise the peoples and persons of the BA, and essentially contribute to the creation of a BA personhood. Thus, while the topic of personhood has yet to be fully integrated in European BA research, I argue that, by analysing archaeologists’ categorisations of the material culture, one can, in the grand narratives of the period, detect the existence of a particular ‘pan-European BA personhood’. The aim of this paper is therefore to highlight how archaeological interpretations, not primarily concerned with personhood, have contributed to the archaeological construction of European-ness.

The emergence of a pan-European Bronze Age personhoodWritt en during the period now known as culture-historic archaeology, V. Gordon Childe’s (1925, 1926, 1957, 1962) and C. F. C. Hawkes’ (1940) interpretations of BA Europe stand as useful examples of how a people’s state of being is inferred from assemblages of material culture. The basis for these interpretations is a normative notion of culture, where the characteristics of the material culture are understood as direct refl ections of the social and cultural qualities and values of the people who produced it. In this sense, both Childe’s and Hawkes’ interpretations are typical of their time. Yet equally they are also atypical as they are not concerned with national or regional matt ers, but the whole continent of Europe. Thus these interpretations are explicitly concerned with European prehistory, and can be categorised as grand narratives. As one of the underlying themes of their work is the origin of Europe, they are implicitly dating and defi ning the emergence of European-ness. On slightly diff erent grounds both Childe and Hawkes date the origin of Europe, the time when Europe, so to speak, became European, to the BA (Childe 1925, 1926, 1928, 1957, 1962; Hawkes 1940). Even though neither is concerned with the topic of personhood, I would nevertheless argue that these authors are the fi rst to produce a pan-European BA personhood and more generally contribute to the early ideational dimension of the European discourse (see Hølleland 2008).

While Childe and Hawkes are situated within the tradition of culture-historic archaeology, their creation of what can be understood as a European personhood owes as much to the philosophic traditions of the nineteenth century as to the archaeological material

2. Personhoods for Europe: the archaeological construction and deconstruction of European-ness 13

itself. Both move towards a defi nition of what it means to be European by contrasting the archaeological material from Europe and the Near East. Hence, the state of being European is in a classic way constructed in relation to an idealised notion of the Oriental. In short, to Childe and Hawkes the BA represented the period when Europe was capable of not only adapting and adopting, but of drawing on the innovations of the Orient in order to develop its own innovations and cultural expressions. Thus the reasoning builds both on the Hegelian notion of sublation and Marx’ material concept of history (Rowlands 1994; Skirbekk and Gilje 2007). The materialist notion of history is then combined with the archaeological normative notion of culture: based on diff erences in monumental architecture and the existence of regional variations of type objects, Childe and Hawkes construct ideas about the social structures and essentially the essence of Oriental and European cultures (see Table 2.1). The dawn of the European personhood therefore rests on culture-historic archaeology on the one hand, and older Western philosophers such as Montesquieu’s, Smith’s, Hegel’s and Marx’ conceptualizations of the Occident-Orient opposition on the other (Gathercole 1971, 2009; Rowlands 1987, 1994; Skirbekk and Gilje 2007).

Neither Childe nor Hawkes are particularly interested in the persons of the BA; rather they aim to explore and explain the state of being European. In order to arrive at this generalised idea of European-ness, they have to reduce the differences within each geographical area as a means to highlight the continental diff erences. This generalised state of being is perhaps most developed in Childe’s interpretations of the bronze smiths of Europe. Inspired by Hegel’s notion of sublation and Marx’ Asiatic mode of production,

Childe gives us hints into the formative stages where Europe parted from the Orient.

Childe argues that, in contrast to the Oriental craft smen, the Europeans had not been reduced to an underclass, as no class division was present in Europe. Rather the European craft smen were free and could travel about and choose their markets (Childe 1957: 9–10). Childe (1962: 114, 157) draws on Homer to explain the smiths’ freedom, arguing that ‘a craft sman is welcome everywhere’. According to Childe, the creative and progressive situation was maintained because the Aegean region was too remote to be ‘the victim of Oriental imperialism’ (1957: 10; see also 1958: 72; 1962: 160–161). Even if they were aliens in a society organized around kinship, and landless in communities where access to land was ‘the fi rst consequence of membership to the tribe’ (Childe 1957: 11; see also 1962: 169), the European smiths held a particular position in BA society due to their skills and achievement. The travelling smiths gradually created an integrated Europe, and from 1500 BC ‘an international commercial system linked up with a turbulent multitude of tiny political units’ was established in temperate Europe (Childe 1962: 172). Furthermore, it is argued that in order to sustain the fl ow of raw materials the smaller city-states or tribes had to surrender their economic independence. This did, however, lead to a situation in which ‘they also benefi ted from a free circulation of ideas and their exponents’ (Childe 1962: 172). Thus:

‘in a classic version of Marxist ontology, the freedom of the European Bronze Age smiths to seek work and outlets for their products free from political constraints inverts the social conditions of production in oriental despotism and patronage by court elites’ (Rowlands 1994: 38).

MATERIAL CULTURESOCIO-POLITICAL INTERPRETATION

NORMATIVE INTERPRETATION

NEAR EAST

• Monumental structures such as temples, tombs

• Litt le artistic and technological development once a form is set

• Urban

• Empires ruled by kings

• Class divisions

• Totalitarian• Despotic• Static

EUROPE

• Lack of large-scale monumental structures

• Diverse material expressions – local and regional variations over similar themes

• Barbarian

• Warriors• No strong class

division

• Dynamic • Economic

developments• Positive• Original• Individuality

Table 2.1: Defi ning European and Oriental BA. Based on Childe (1925, 1926, 1928, 1957, 1962) and Hawkes (1940) – see also Rowlands (1987).

Herdis Hølleland14

As such, a truly European arena can emerge, and the state of being European becomes directly linked to the freedom of the bronze smiths.

Essentially, Hawkes and Childe’s pan-European BA personhood is a product of mixing grand trans-continental diff erences and the categorisation of one, in many ways atypical group of people, i.e. the bronze smiths. These smiths are then presented as: ‘the lineal ancestors of the natural scientists who since Galileo, Newton and Pascal have been pooling their results in an international society’ and the links between the recent scientists and the bronze smiths are ‘the travelling scholars and migrant guildsmen of medieval Europe and in less familiar fi gures in the Dark Ages and Iron Ages’ (Childe 1957: 14). This argument is further developed in Childe’s last book, The Prehistory of Europe:

‘The national states that eventually emerged were indeed enormously larger than our Bronze Age tribes and fewer in number. But they have all shown themselves just as mutually jealous in policy and as competitive economically. All have been increasingly dependent on a supra-national economic system for vital raw materials as well as the disposal of their own products. While peasantries have oft en been reduced to serfdom even more rigorously than under the despotic monarchs of the Bronze Age Orient, craft smen, the exponents of applied science, have preserved their traditional freedom of movement within a supranational economy. The metics at Athens, the way-faring journeymen of the Middle Ages, and the migrant craft unionist of the nineteenth century are the lineal descendants of the itinerants just described. But so were the Natural Philosophers and Sophists in Classical Greece, the travelling scholars of medieval Europe, and the natural scientists who from the days of Galileo and Newton have freely exchanged information and ideas by publication, correspondence, and visits regardless of political frontiers.’ (Childe 1962: 172–173).

Through this line of reasoning Childe connects past and present, and is, to use M. Rowlands’ (1994: 38) words creating a ‘grand sociological history of freedom’. For Childe the reason why the freedom arose and became such a central value in Western society therefore lay in the circumstances of innovation in production and the essentially diff erent social circumstances of BA Europe and the Orient. As such, the European personhood is directly linked to the introduction of metallurgy, which enables Childe to demonstrate prehistory’s relevance for Hegel’s view that ‘the purpose of history’s lay in creating the conditions for the achievement of absolute knowledge’ (Rowlands 1994: 38).

A Bronze Age personhood in the era of early European cultural politicsWith the death of Childe the style of grand narratives lost ground, and while some large-scale studies of prehistoric Europe were produced before the 1990s (e.g. Coles and Harding 1979; Piggott 1965; Renfrew 1973), it was not until the mid-1990s that this type of large-scale perspective on the European BA was taken up again (Kristiansen 1994, 1998; Sherratt 1993). In the early 1990s a new Europe was in the making, due to the expansion and consolidation of the European Union and the opening of Eastern Europe. Rather than an archaeological return, a driving force behind this return was the political quest for a new European identity and its need for a common European heritage. Both of these are refl ected in the Valett a Convention’s goal of protecting ‘the archaeological heritage as a source of European collective memory’. As a means to achieve this goal, the European Plan for Archaeology introduced a campaign which was meant to ‘increase the public awareness of the value and signifi cance of the archaeological heritage, based on the theme of “The Bronze Age” (Archaeological Heritage 2007). On the initiative of the European Council the idea of the BA as the fi rst golden age of Europe was realised during the period of 1994–1996, and its goal was ‘to present the concept of a culturally unifi ed Europe to a broad public’ (Demakopoulou et al. 1999: 5).

While the archaeological interpretations have a wider range of themes, the political themes of ‘unity in diversity’ and ‘the birth of Europe’ aff ect the emergence of a pan-European BA personhood. Unlike Childe’s construct this personhood is not fi rst and foremost established through the Occident-Orient opposition, but rather in terms of 1) a shift in burial practice, 2) long-distance trade and travels, 3) the Homerian hero. Nevertheless, the BA personhood portrayed in the campaign share several traits with Childe’s general characteristics.

The Homerian heroes were originally understood as the kings and nobles of the palaces of Mycenaean era and pre-Classical Greece. However, in the exhibition catalogue, Gods and Heroes of the European Bronze Age, the idea of the hero is used as a means to conceptualise the owners of the rich burials and splendid objects from all over Europe. This pan-European hero enters the historical stage at the turn of the second millennium BC when societies outside the Aegean were transformed due to an increased demand for metal. According to O’Brien (2007 [1994]) the rich burials ‘tend to emphasize the special role of adult male warriors

2. Personhoods for Europe: the archaeological construction and deconstruction of European-ness 15

whose authority was ultimately held through force of arms’. As the hero is understood as a male warrior, heroic life is centred round the material aspects of war and war ceremonies. Furthermore it is stated that the warriors were ‘responsible for the spread of metallurgy along the Atlantic coastline of Europe at the beginning of the Bronze Age’ (O’Brien 2007 [1994]). First the dagger, and from the Middle BA, the sword, are viewed as the heroes’ insignia dignitas, in other words they are international symbols of the warrior heroes (Jensen 1999: 93). Acquired through travelling or foreign contacts, the precious metal objects were only in the hands of the few. These objects therefore become symbols of alliances (Jockenhövel 1999: 57). Understood as symbols these objects lack the social agency of the heroes. The objects function as material proofs of the heroes’ actions that materialize social diff erences, and give the heroes a sense of individuality as entrepreneurial adventurers. This makes it possible for O’Brien (2007 [1994]) to conclude that the BA is ‘widely associated with entrepreneurial leadership, with initiative and innovation of the kink [sic] which is characteristic of modern Europe’.

With Ulysses as the ideal hero, the journey becomes a particularly important aspect of the hero and his diff erentiation from ordinary people. The journeys function as initiations that form the hero and set him apart from the rest of society. During the course of such a journey the hero acquires new skills and knowledge as he becomes familiar with the world outside the farming universe in which he grew up (Priego 1999). As such, objects acquired through travelling become important for the BA nobility because power is

illustrated by ability to own, acquire and exchange precious objects. While ornamental styles diff er from area to area, the symbols of power became similar across Europe (Jensen 1999: 92). As a result, Jensen (1999: 92) argues that an ‘individualising tendency emerged, resulting in increased individual burial’ among the nobility, and hence the BA becomes the fi rst period where ‘the individual beings come into clearer focus’ (Longworth (2007 [1994]).

Thus, the changes in the material culture of the BA are presented, in a similar way as the culture-historic approaches, to reflect the emergence of qualities such as enterprise, inventiveness, individuality and entrepreneurialism cherished in today’s Europe. As such, the BA can emerge as the birth of Europe and European-ness. As shown in Figure 2.1, the BA can, therefore at once seem familiar, even if distant:

Essentially past and present is blurred, and the BA functions as a means to give historical roots to the desired European identity of the present. At the same time it is portrayed in a fashion which gives meaning to the state of being European. As trading is presented as a core aspect of the heroic BA life, the practice of trading is naturalised as ‘evidence’ for the European personhood’s long historical roots. Thus it is possible for O’Brien (2007 [1994]) to argue that ‘This period of prehistory mirrors to a great extent our Europe, a shift ing mosaic of regional identities bound closer by a common interest in trade and enterprise’. Using the concepts of trade and prestige goods rather than their sibling the Maussian gift exchange, the individualised individual enters the historical stage, and the individuals, whether they are heroes or bronze

Figure 2.1: Blurring past and present personhoods.

ENTREPRENEURIAL TRADE-NETWORK

Inventiveness Demand

Dependency

EUROPEAN

PERSONHOOD

=

INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUALITY

PAST

=

PRESENT?

Herdis Hølleland16

smiths, are separated from the goods they exchange. As a result, BA personhood comes to resemble the modern Western notion of commodifi ed personhood as a ‘”thin” theory of self, because nothing in it “is intrinsic but the bare undiff erentiated free will”; everything else is alienable’ (Radin 1996 in Osteen 2002: 239–240). Thus things are separable from humans; and the person is understood, to use Lynn Meskell’s defi nition:

‘as the fount of agency, consciousness, interpretation and creativity in cultural and social life, by virtue of his or her sole ownership of discrete, corporeal, sense-making apparatuses … the skin-bound mortal human being’ (Meskell 1999: 9, 32 in Thomas 2004: 122).

Therefore it is only a human that can be regarded as a person. In this sense the heritage presentations like the earlier culture-historic interpretations create a cultural continuity through their construction of European-ness.

European personhoods in the era of multi-vocality: towards an archaeological deconstruction of European-nessWhile neither the public BA campaign nor the European identity has made any profound impact on the peoples of Europe, BA research has nevertheless benefi ted from this campaign, as there has been an increased archaeological interest for the period. However, within the ‘post-BA-campaign’ research we can observe a general tendency towards the deconstruction, rather than the construction, of European-ness. Both recent macro- and micro-studies share the post-processual aim of grasping the ‘otherness’ of the BA, and they use the same methodological strategy of analogical reasoning as a means to explore the ‘otherness’ of the period. Yet the interpretative results are very diff erent, and in many ways contradictive, as two mutually exclusive notions of personhood are recognised.

The main contributors to the post-processual grand narratives of BA Europe are Kristian Kristiansen and Thomas B. Larsson (Kristiansen 1998; Larsson 1997; Kristiansen and Larsson 2005). Again the main character of the narrative is the travelling warrior or hero (Kristiansen 1998; Kristiansen and Larsson 2005). While Kristiansen and Larsson (2005: 360) stress the cosmological similarities within Europe, these similarities are, however, not linked to the emergence of European-ness. On the contrary, Kristiansen and Larsson eagerly present the transmissions and transformations of BA Europe as part of a much wider phenomenon that transgresses regional, national and continental borders. Through the linking of historical sources and

the process of institutionalisation, they connect, rather than oppose Europe and the Near East and move towards an Indo-European notion of the BA. Thus, this grand narrative is not about the Europeanization of Europe even though the heroes and warriors to a large extent can be understood as individualised persons. Hence, what essentially diff erentiates it from earlier perspectives is the intercontinental angle where a chain of contacts enables interaction ‘from the Orient to Scandinavia’ (Kristiansen and Larsson 2005: 62). As such, it is fair to say that this interpretation contributes to a deconstruction of the archaeological construction of BA European-ness.

While Fowler’s interpretation is a very brief introduction to BA personhood at micro level, it, even more than Kristiansen and Larsson’s book, contributes to the deconstruction of the BA European-ness. Using Joanna Brück’s (1995, 1999, 2001) BA studies from southern Britain, Fowler (2004: 40–41) approaches the BA personhood. Middle and Late BA cremation and sett lement material in Britain are characterized by fragmentation. Both fragments of artefacts and human remains are deposited in pits, ditches, ramparts, post-holes and middens, and as such they were incorporated into structures of regeneration. As objects and humans are not diff erentiated, it is reasonable to argue for an understanding of the individual as dividualised rather than individualised. That is, the conceptualised person, whether it is a human or an object, is understood as composite and multiple-authored, and in this context characterized by partibility. As Fowler approaches a BA personhood closer to the Melanesian ethnography than our own, the BA as a period of Europeanization fades and its links to European-ness are further deconstructed.

The recent exhibition ‘Journey of the Sun – Rogaland in European Bronze Age’, at the Archaeological Museum in Stavanger (AMS), manifests the ambiguous role and status of the BA in archaeological discourse. This exhibition was a result of a European construct: in 2008 Stavanger was the European Capital of Culture. Essentially the exhibition was to function as a culture-historic backdrop for understanding the city’s vision of Open Port; a port that is not only open to Europe, but also part of Europe. This is not, however, a particularly European-centred exhibition.

Following the majority of BA research and public dissemination, personhood is not a topic of the exhibition. Contrary to most permanent exhibitions, however, this exhibition is deeply rooted in recent archaeological research. As such it brings together a variety of artefacts not only from Europe, but also from Egypt. The small exhibition catalogue extends the geographical scope of the exhibition by drawing

2. Personhoods for Europe: the archaeological construction and deconstruction of European-ness 17

on texts from the not only Norse, Greek and Egyptian literature, but also the Indian Rig-Veda (Pedersen 2008). As such the audiences encounter a BA rather unlike the Childean prehistory. It is an exhibition which exposes the ‘global’ character of the BA – in this sense it enables the audiences to draw lines between the past and present situations of openness and interaction. The way in which the artefacts are placed in a mythological framework does, however, make the period’s ‘global’ character essentially diff erent from today. As a result, it in many ways frees itself from more problematic sides of the fi eld of heritage and its tendency to highlight similarity and familiarity. Furthermore, this intercontinental cosmological point of departure creates a situation in which artefacts, animals and humans hold a more equal status whilst it simultaneously downplays the idea of the BA as purely European. In this sense the exhibition is theoretically balancing between the grand narratives and the micro studies; it has the geographical scope of the grand narratives, but it is closer to Fowler’s dividuals than the usually favoured individuals. The result is an inconsistent storyline: rather than situating Rogaland in BA Europe, the exhibition situates it in a much wider Indo-European framework which extends far beyond Europe. On the one hand one can argue it fulfi ls the vision of Open Port. On the other hand it also exposes the outdated character of sett ing clear geographic boundaries for openness in the past and once again reveals the tendency of discrepancy between political visions and academic discourses.

ConclusionBy approaching BA research from a personhood perspective it is possible to detect certain patt erns within the BA discourse. Within the grand narratives of the BA the individualised individual holds a strong position. The individualised individual has in the culture-historic and archaeological heritage interpretations been directly linked to the idea of the emergence of Europe and European-ness. While still very much present in the grand narrative of the twenty-fi rst century, the emergence of the individualised individual is no longer conceptualised as a sign of European-ness. This is largely a result of the central aim: to explore the otherness of the past. As such we can speak of a tendency towards the deconstruction of BA European-ness – a tendency that is even stronger in micro studies. At present it seems fair to argue that the deliberate archaeological construction of European-ness belongs to the present past.

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