Periodic Tales - Web Education

PeriodicTales

ACulturalHistoryoftheElements,fromArsenictoZinc

HughAldersey-Williams

TomyparentsMaryRedfieldAldersey-Williams(23June1930–16May2004)

ArthurGrosvenorAldersey-Williams(6June1929–23December2008)

withloveandgratitude

Contents

ListofIllustrations

Prologue

PartOne:Power

ElDoradoGoingPlatinumNobleMetals,IgnoblyAnnouncedTheOchreousStainTheElementTradersAmongtheCarbonariPlutoniumCharadesMendeleev’sSuitcasesTheLiquidMirror

PartTwo:Fire

TheCircumnavigationoftheSulphurPeeisforPhosphorus‘Asunderagreensea’‘Humanitariannonsense’SlowFireOurLadyofRadiumNightglowofDystopiaCocktailsatthePaleHorseTheLightoftheSun

PartThree:Craft

TotheCassiteridesDullLead’sGreyTruthOurPerfectReflectionTheWorldwideWebAuZincBanalization‘Turn’dtobarnacles’TheGuildofAerospaceWeldersTheMarchoftheElements

PartFour:Beauty

ChromaticRevolution‘Lonely-chromeAmerica’AbbéSuger’sSheetSapphireInheritancePowderRainbowsintheBloodCrushingEmeraldsTheCrimsonLightofNeonJezebel’sEyes

PartFive:Earth

SwedishRockEuropiumUnionAuerlichtGadolinandSamarsky,EverymenoftheElementsYtterbyGruva

Epilogue

Notes

ReferencesandSelectBibliographyTextCreditsSearchableTermsAcknowledgementsAbouttheAuthorOtherBooksbyHughAldersey-WilliamsCreditsCopyrightAboutthePublisher

ListofIllustrations

DetailfromSimonPatterson,Untitled,1996.(Copyright©SimonPatterson.CourtesyHaunchofVenisonGallery,London.)MarcQuinn,Siren,2008(solidgold).(Copyright©MarcQuinn.CourtesyWhiteCube.)CrippleCreek.FilmposterforPlatinumBlonde.(Copyright©1931,renewed1958,ColumbiaPicturesIndustries,Inc.Allrightsreserved.CourtesyofColumbiaPictures.)Scratchcardadvertisement.(WillHammond.)Wollaston’sanonymouspalladiumannouncement.(ReproducedbykindpermissionoftheSyndicsofCambridgeUniversityLibraryfromMcDonaldandHunt,AHistoryofPlatinum,p.105.)MaxWhitby’selementspecimens.Charcoal-making.(TheDorsetCharcoalCo.)Carbonariinitiationceremony.(JohnMurray,1821.)AEREbus.(MikeBennett.)HomoeopathicPlutonium.Mendeleev’sfirstprintedperiodictable.(ReproducedbykindpermissionoftheSyndicsofCambridgeUniversityLibraryfromGordin,AWell-OrderedThing,p.29.)MercurymirrorinJeanCocteau’sOrphée.(14(c)1946SNC(GroupeM6)/ComitéCocteau.SpecialThankstoPierreBergé,PresidentoftheComitéCocteau.)AlexanderCalder,MercuryFountain.(Copyright©2010CalderFoundation,NewYork/DACSLondon.)ThomasAquinas.(ReproducedbykindpermissionoftheSyndicsofCambridgeUniversityLibraryfromRoberts,TheMirrorofAlchemy,p.34.)Mercury–sulphurexperiment.(NicolasThomas,INRAP–UniversitéParis1Panthéon-Sorbonne.)HMSSulphur.(ReproducedbykindpermissionoftheSyndicsofCambridgeUniversityLibraryfromBelcher,NarrativeofaVoyageRoundtheWorld,frontispieceandtitlepage.)JosephWright,TheAlchymist,1771.(Copyright©2010DerbyMuseumandArtGallery.)

Tryingtoisolatephosphorus.Thefire-bombingofHamburg.(ImperialWarMuseumIWMC3677.)JohnSingerSargent,Gassed,1919.(ImperialWarMuseumIWMART1460.)TheBromo-SeltzerTower.(VisitBaltimore.)TheRadiumPalaceHotel.(Lé ebnélázn Jáchymova.s.)Radiumleatherdye.Sodiumstreetlighttownscape.(Copyright©DavidJones.)HumphryDavy’svoltaicpiles.(CourtesyoftheRoyalInstitutionofGreatBritain.)AViewoftheFireworksandIlluminationsathisgracetheDukeofRichmond’satWhitehallandontheRiverThames,onMonday15thMay1749,colouredengravingbytheEnglishSchool(eighteenthcentury).(PrivateCollection/TheBridge-manArtLibrary.)CuruppumullageJinarajadasa’satomdiagrams.(ReproducedbykindpermissionoftheSyndicsofCambridgeUniversityLibraryfromBesantandLeadbeater,OccultChemistry,plateIV.)ErnstHaeckel’smarineorganisms.(ReproducedbykindpermissionoftheSyndicsofCambridgeUniversityLibraryfromHaeckel,KunstformenderNatur,plate41.)ACornishtinmine.ZoeLaughlin’stuningforks.(ZoeLaughlin.)Bleigiessen.CraneParkshottower.AnselmKiefer,Jason.(Copyright©LouisianaMuseumofModernArt.)SilverRingThingpromotionalmaterial.(Copyright©TheSilverRingThing.)DavidClarkesilverware.(DavidClarke.)CorneliaParker,StolenThunder,1997–9:tarnishfromJamesBowie’s(inventoroftheBowieknife)soupspoon.(Oneofasetoften,each63×63cm.CourtesyofCorneliaParkerandFrithStreetGallery,London.)ChristopherWren’soriginalsketchofanalternativedetailforthetopoftheMonument.(CourtesyCodringtonLibrary,AllSoulsCollege,Oxford.)MoritzSeeligzincstatue.(CarolGrissom.)Zinccladding,JewishMuseum,Berlin.(BitterBredtFotographie.)MauriceLambert,headofEdithSitwell.(CourtesyMrsAlexandraHayward,RenishawHall,Derbyshire.)PicquotWaretea-set.Hopscotchgridinchalk.Orvietocathedral.(MoiraMorrissey.)Michelangelo,tombofPopeJuliusII.(Imagecopyright©Jean-Christophe

Benoist.)BarbaraHepworth’sstudiowithmarblesculptures.(Copyright©BownessHepworthEstate,BHM,StIves,1976.)DavidPoston’sstudio.AnnMarieShillito’sjewellery.(AnnMarieShillito.)Myfather’spaints.Cornelissen’sartists’materialshop.LongwoodHouse.(Ripetungi.)WilliamMorriswallpaper.(AndrewMeharg.)Seatunicates.(Copyright©GaryBell/OceanwideImages.com.)WilliamRamsay’sgasdischargetubes.FionaBannerStudio,Bones,2007:questionmark.(Oneoftenneonpartsbentbytheartist,papertemplates,clamps,wireandtransformers,each70×100cm.Studioinstallationshot.)‘Neonboneyard’,LasVegas.(CourtesyoftheNeonMuseum,LasVegas,NV.)Antimonystar.(IsaacNewton,‘Newton’sMostCompleteLaboratoryNotebook’,inWilliamR.Newman,ed.,TheChymistryofIsaacNewton,http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/collections/newton.)StatueofCarlScheele,Stockholm.Achemist’sblow-pipe.GiovanniMataloni,IncandescenzaaGas.(CourtesyofItalgasHistoricalArchive.)Berzelius’slabelledchemicalbottles.(LennartNilsson.CourtesyCentreforHistoryofScience,RoyalSwedishAcademyofSciences.)Ytterbymine.

Alluncreditedphotographsarebytheauthor.

Prologue

Likethealphabetorthezodiac,theperiodictableoftheelementsisoneofthosegraphicimagesthatseemtorootthemselvesforeverinourmemories.TheoneIrememberisfromschool,hungonthewallbehindtheteacher’sdesklikeanaltarscreen,itsglossyyellowingpapertestamenttoyearsofchemicalattack.It’sanimageIhaven’tbeenabletoshakeoff,despitescarcelyventuringintoalaboratoryforyears.NowIhaveitonmyownwall.

Oratleastaversionofit.Thefamiliarsteppedskylineisthere,andtheneatlystackedboxes,oneforeachelement.Eachboxcontainsthesymbolandatomicnumberappropriatetotheelementinthatposition.However,allisnotquiteasitshouldbeinthistable.Forwherethenameofeachelementshouldappear,thereisanothernameentirely,onethatisnothingtodowiththeworldofscience.ThesymbolOrepresentsnottheelementoxygenbutthegodOrpheus;BrisnotbrominebuttheartistBronzino.Manyoftheotherspacesaretaken,forsomereason,byfiguresfrom1950scinema.

ThisperiodictableisalithographbytheBritishartistSimonPatterson.Pattersonisfascinatedbythediagramsthatarethemeansbywhichweorganizeourworld.Hiswayofworkingistorecognizetheimportanceofthethingasanemblemoforderbutthentoplayhavocwithitscontents.Hisbest-knownworkisaLondonUndergroundmapwiththestationsalongeachlinerenamedaftersaintsandexplorersandfootballplayers.Strangethingshappenattheintersections.

Itisnosurprisethatheshouldwishtoplaythesamegamewiththeperiodictable.Hehasgrimmemoriesofhowitwastaughtbyroteathisschool.‘Itwasconvenienttoteachitthatway,butIcouldneverrememberit,’Simontellsme.Yetherememberedtheideaofit.Tenyearsafterleavingschool,heproducedaseriesofvariationsonthetableinwhichthesymbolforeachelementkicksoffafalseassociation.CrisnotchromiumbutJulieChristie,CunotcopperbutTonyCurtis;andtheneventhiscrypticsystemissabotaged:Ag,thesymbolforsilver,isnotJennyAgutter,say,orAgathaChristie,butofcoursePhilSilvers.Thereareteasingmomentsofapparentlogicinthisnewtabulation:thesequentialelementsberylliumandboron(symbolsBeandB)aretheBergmans,IngridandIngmarrespectively.TheactingbrothersRexandRhodesReasonappearadjacenttooneanother,co-optingthesymbolsforrhenium(Re)andosmium

(Os).KimNovak(Na;sodium)andGraceKelly(K;potassium)sharethesamecolumninthetable–bothwereHitchcockleadingladies.Butingeneralthereisnosystem,onlytheconnectionsyoumakeforyourself:Iwastickledtosee,forexample,thatPo,thesymbolforpolonium,theradioactiveelementdiscoveredbyMarieCurieandnamedbyherforhernativePoland,denotesinsteadthePolishdirectorRomanPolanski.

Inowlovetheludicirreverenceofthiswork,butmyschool-ageselfwouldhavebeenquitescornfulofsuchnonsense.WhileSimonwasdreamingupwildnewconnections,IwasmerelyabsorbingtheinformationIwasmeanttoabsorb.Theelements,Iunderstood,weretheuniversalandfundamentalingredientsofallmatter.Therewasnothingthatwasnotmadeoutofelements.ButthetableintowhichtheRussianchemistDmitriiMendeleevhadsortedthemwasevenmorethanthesumoftheseremarkableparts.Itmadesenseoftheriotousvarietyoftheelements,placingthemsequentiallyinrowsbyatomicnumber(thatistosay,thenumberofprotonsinthenucleioftheiratoms)insuchawaythattheirchemicalrelatednesssuddenlyleaptout(thisrelatednessisperiodic,asrevealedinthealignmentofthecolumns).Mendeleev’stableseemedtohavealifeofitsown.Forme,itstoodasoneofthegreatandunquestionablesystemsoftheworld.Itexplainedsomuch,itseemedsonatural,thatitmustalwayshavebeenthere;itcouldn’tpossiblybetherecentinventionofmodernscience(althoughitwaslessthanacenturyoldwhenIfirstsawit).Iacknowledgeditspowerasanicon,yetItoobegantowonderinmyowntentativewaywhatitreallymeant.Thetableseemedinsomefunnywaytobelittleitsowncontents.Withitsrelentlesslogicofsequenceandsimilarity,itmadetheelementsthemselves,intheirmessymateriality,almostsuperfluous.

Indeed,myclassroomperiodictableprovidednopictureofwhateachelementlookedlike.TherealizationthattheseciphershadrealsubstancestruckmeonlyatthevastilluminatedtableofthechemicalelementstheyusedtokeepattheScienceMuseuminLondon.Thistablehadactualspecimens.Ineachrectangleofthealreadyfamiliargridsquattedalittleglassbubblebeneathwhichasampleoftherelevantelementglimmeredorbrooded.Therewasnoknowingwhethertheywerealltherealthing,butInotedthatthecuratorshadomittedtoincludemanyoftherareandradioactiveelements,soitseemedsafetoassume

thattherestwereauthentic.Hereitwasvividlyclearwhatwehadbeentoldatschool:thatthegaseouselementsweremostlytobefoundinthetoprowsofthetable;thatthemetalsoccupiedthecentreandleft,withtheheavieronesinthelowerrows–theyweremostlygrey,althoughonecolumn,containingcopper,silverandgold,providedastreakofcolour;thatthenon-metals,morevariegatedincolourandtexture,layoverinthetoprightcorner.

Withthat,Ihadtostartmyowncollection.Itwouldnotbeeasy.Fewoftheelementsarefoundintheirpurestateinnature.Usually,theyarechemicallylockedupinmineralsandores.Soinstead,Ibegantocastaboutthehouse,takingadvantageofthecenturiesduringwhichmanhasextractedthemfromtheseoresandpressedthemintoservice.Ibrokeopendeadlightbulbsandsurgicallysnippedfreethetungstenfilaments,placingthewrigglingwiresintoalittleglassvial.Aluminiumcamefromthekitchenintheformoffoil,copperfromthegarageaselectricalwire.AforeigncointhatI’dheardwasmadeofnickel–thoughnotanAmericannickel,whichIknewwasmostlycopper–Icutupintocoarsechunks.Itwasworthmoretomelikethis.Itmadeitmore,well,elemental.Idiscoveredthatmyfatherhadsomegoldleafkeptfromhisyouth,whenheuseditfordecorativelettering.Iremovedsomeofitfromthedrawerwhereithadlainindarknessforthirtyyearsandallowedittoshineoncemore.

ThiswasadefiniteimprovementontheScienceMuseum.Icouldnotonlyseemyspecimenscloseup,butfeelwhethertheywerewarmorcoldtothetouchandhefttheminmyhand–abrightlittleingotoftin,whichIhadcastinasmallceramicbathfromameltedrollofsolder,wasastonishinglyheavy.Icouldmakethemringorrattleagainsttheglassandappreciatetheircharacteristictimbres.Sulphurhadaprimrosecolourwithaslightsparkle,andcouldbepouredandspoonedlikecastersugar.Forme,itsbeautywasinnowaytaintedbyitsslightlypungentodour.Ihaveremindedmyselfofthissmelljustnow,withatinofsulphurboughtfromagardenshop,whereitissoldtofumigategreenhouses.Thedry,woodyaromaisonmyfingersasItype,tomenothellishastheBibleteaches,butevocativesimplyofchildhoodexperimentalenquiry.

Otherelementsneededmorework.Zincandcarboncamefrombatteries–zincfromthecasing,whichservesasoneelectrode,andcarbonfromtherodofgraphiteinsideitthatprovidestheother.Sodidmercury.Moreexpensive,mercurybatterieswereusedtorunvariouselectronicgadgets.Bythetimetheyhadrundown,themercuricoxidethatpoweredthemhadbeenreducedtometallicmercury.Ichoppedofftheendsofthebatterieswithahacksawandscoopedoutthesludgeintoaflask.Byheatingtheflask,Iwasabletodistiloffthemetal,watchingastinyglisteningdropletscondensedfromthethicktoxicfumesandthenmergedintoasinglehyperactivesilverybead.(Theexperiment

wouldbebannednowforhealthreasons,asarethesebatteries.)Afewoftheelementsyoucouldstillbuy,inthoseinnocentdays,ata

dispensingchemist’s.Igotmyiodineinthisway.OtherscamefromasmallchemicalssupplierinTottenhamlongsincedrivenoutofbusinessbyrestrictionsonthesaleofwhatwereofcoursetherawmaterialsforbombsandpoisons–aswellaseverythingelse.Althoughmyparentswerehappyenoughtoindulgemyobsessionbydrivingmethere,thesetripsalongthefartherreachesoftheSevenSistersRoadtotheshabbycounterbeneaththethunderingrailwayarches,withitsaromasaspromisingasanyspicemarket,alwayshadaclandestinefeelaboutthem.

Imadegoodprogresswithmytable.Ihaddrawnthegridoutonabackboardofplywoodandhungitonthebedroomwall.AsIgotit,Idroppedeachnewsampleintoauniformvialandclippeditintopositiononthegrid.Thepureelementsthemselveswereoftenchemicallyratheruseless.Isawthat.Theusefulchemicals–theonesthatreactedorexplodedormadebeautifulcolours–weremostlythechemicalcombinationsofelementsknownascompounds,andtheseIkeptinacupboardinthebathroomwhereIdidmyexperiments.Theelementswereacollector’sobsession.Theyhadabeginningandacompellingsequence.Theyseemedalsotohaveanend.(LittledidIknowthenoftheferociouscoldwarbetweenAmericanandSovietscientists,whowerestrivingtoaddtothe103Ihadfixedinmyheadbysynthesizingnewones.)Asacollector,myaim,howeverunattainableitwasdestinedtobe,wasofcoursetocompletetheset.Butitwasfarmorethancollectingforcollecting’ssake.HereIwasassemblingtheverybuildingblocksoftheworld,oftheuniverse.Mycollectionhadnoneoftheartificeofstampsorfootballcards,wheretherulesofthegamearesetarbitrarilybyothercollectorsor,worsestill,bythecompaniesproducingtheitemsinthefirstplace.Thiswasfundamental.Theelementswereforever.TheyhadcomeintobeinginthemomentsaftertheBigBang,andwouldbeherelongafterhumankindhasperished,afteralllifeonearth,evenaftertheplanetitselfhasbeenconsumedbyitsownballooningredsun.

ThiswasthesystemoftheworldthatIchose–asystemascompleteasanyotheronoffer.History,geography,thelawsofphysics,literature:eachwasall-embracingaccordingtoitslights.Everythingthathappenshappensinhistory,hasitsplaceingeography,isreduciblesolelytotheinteractionofenergyandmatter.Butitisalsomateriallyconstitutedoftheelements,nomoreandnoless:theGreatRiftValley,theFieldoftheClothofGold,Newton’sprism,theMonaLisa;allimpossiblewithouttheelements.

Atschoolaroundthistime,wewerereadingTheMerchantofVenice.IwasBassanioforoneforty-minutesession–notabadrole,thoughIloathedreadingoutloud.WecameatlengthtothescenewhenitisBassanio’sturntoselecttheoneofthreecasketsthatcontainsPortia’slikenessinorderthathemightwinherhandinmarriage.TheunluckyboywhowasPortiaprattledonwhileIwaitedindreadformyentrance.‘Letmechoose/ForasIam,Iliveupontherack,’Iintonedwithnofeelingwhatever.ThenIwashavingtochoosebetweentheimaginarycaskets.Iamsurenobodycouldhavegleanedanythingofmycharacter’sreasoningfrommyfeaturelessvoiceasIrejectedfirstthe‘gaudygold’andthenthesilver,‘thoupaleandcommondrudge/’Tweenmanandman’,beforeplumpingfor‘meagrelead’.Butsomewhereinsidemyheadsomethingclicked.Threeoftheelements!WasShakespeareachemist?(Later,IfoundthatT.S.Eliotwasachemisttoo,aspectroscopistinfact:inTheWasteLand,hepresentsavividimageasanail-studdedship’stimber‘fedwithcopper/Burnedgreenandorange’–greenfromthecopper,orangefromthesodiumintheseasalt.)

Dimly,Ibegantoperceivethattheelementstoldculturalstories.Goldmeantsomething.Silvermeantsomethingelse,leadsomethingelseagain.Moreover,thesemeaningsaroseessentiallyfromchemistry.Goldispreciousbecauseit’srare,butit’salsoconsideredgaudybecauseitisoneofthefewelementsthatnaturallyoccursinitselementalstate,uncombinedwithothers,glitteringboldlyratherthandisguisedasanore.Wasthere,Iwondered,suchamythologyforalltheelements?

Theirverynamesoftenspokeofhistory.ElementsdiscoveredduringtheEnlightenmenthadnamesbasedonClassicalmythology–titanium,niobium,palladium,uranium,andsoon.Thosefoundduringthenineteenthcentury,ontheotherhand,tendedtoreflectthefactthatthey–ortheirdiscoverers–weresonsanddaughtersofsomeparticularsoil.TheGermanchemistClemensWinklerisolatedgermanium.TheSwedeLarsNilsonnamedhisdiscoveryscandium.MarieandPierreCuriefoundpoloniumandnamedit–notwithoutencounteringsomeresistance–afterMarie’sfondlyrememberedhomeland.Alittlelater,thescientificspiritgrewmorecommunitarian.Europiumwasnamedin1901–andtowardstheendofthatnewcenturysomehumorousbureaucratinoneofEurope’sbankswoulddecreethatcompoundsofthiselementshouldbeusedfortheluminescentdyesthatareincorporatedintoeurobanknotesfortheeasierdetectionofcounterfeits.Whowouldhavethoughtit?Evenobscureeuropiumhasitsculturalday.

Sotheelementsinhabitourculture.Weshouldnotreallybesurprisedatthis:theyaretheingredientsofeverything,afterall.Butweshouldbesurprisedat

howseldomwenoticethisfact.Thismissedconnectionispartlythechemists’faultforpresumingtostudyandteachtheirsubjectinloftyisolationfromtheworld.Butthehumanitiesarealsotoblame:Iwasastonishedtofind,forinstance,thatabiographerofMatissecouldcompleteherworkwithoutsayingwhatpigmentstheartistused.Perhapsthismakesmeunusual,butthenagainI’msureMatissecannothavebeenindifferenttothematter.

Theelementsdonotsimplyoccupyfixedspacesinourcultureastheydointheperiodictable.Theyriseandfallonthetideofculturalwhim.JohnMasefield’sfamouspoem‘Cargoes’listseighteencommoditiesinitsthreeshortversesportrayingthreeerasofglobaltradeandplunder,elevenofthemeitherelementsintheirpurestateormaterialswhichderivetheirvaluefromtheparticularnatureofoneelementingredient,fromthequinqueremeofNinevehwithitscalcareouswhiteivorytothedirtyBritishcoasterwithitsloadof‘Tynecoal,/Road-rails,pig-lead,/Firewood,iron-ware,andcheaptintrays’.

Fromthemomentofitsdiscovery,eachelementembarksuponajourneyintoourculture.Itmayeventuallycometobevisibleeverywhere,likeironorthecarbonincoal.Itmayloomlargeeconomicallyorpoliticallywhileremaininglargelyunseen,likesiliconorplutonium.Oritmay,likeeuropium,provideagracenoteonlyappreciatedbythoseintheknow.WhenIwrotemyschoolessays(‘WhydoesBassaniochoosetheleadcasket?’)itwaswithanOsmiroidpen,abrandnameinspiredbytheosmiumandiridiumthatitsmanufacturerusedtohardenthenibs.

Duringitsgradualassimilation,wecometounderstandtheelementbetter.Theexperienceofthosewhomineit,smeltit,shapeitandtradeitgivesitmeaning.Itisthroughthesemuscularprocessesthatanelement’sweightisfeltanditsresistanceisgauged,sothatShakespearecanthenrefertogoldandsilverandleadinthewaysthathedoesknowingthathisaudiencewillunderstandhim.

Itisnotonlytheancientelementsthatareculturallyinvolved.ContemporaryartistsandwritershaveusedrelativelynewfoundelementssuchaschromiumandneontosendparticularsignalsjustasShakespeareusedtheelementsknowninhisday.Theseelements,whichfiftyyearsagosignifiedtheinnocentglamouroftheconsumersociety,nowseemtoustawdryandfullofemptypromise.Theplaceonceoccupiedby‘chrome’isnowperhapstakenbyanewerelement,‘titanium’,whichbrandsfashionableclothingandcomputerequipment.Insuchcases,theelement’smeaningdetachesitselfalmostcompletelyfromtheelementitself:howmanymoreplatinumblondesandplatinumcreditcards(neitherincorporatinganyplatinum)theremustbethanplatinumrings.Evensomehighlyrecherchéelementsundergothisshift.‘Radium’wasoncepopular,sometimesinsubstance,sometimesinnamealone,forallmannerofhealth

remedies.TherearenolongerOsmiroidpens,butthereisanIridiumtelephonecompany.

IfIweretoreassemblemyperiodictablenow,Iwouldstillwanttoincludeaspecimenofeachelement,butIwouldalsowanttotraceitsculturaljourney.Ifeelthattheelementsleavegreatstreaksofcolouracrossthecanvasofourcivilization.Theblackofcharcoalandcoal,thewhiteofcalciuminchalkandmarbleandpearl,theintenseblueofcobaltinglassandchinaslashboldlythroughplaceandtime,geographyandhistory.PeriodicTalesisthestartofthatcollection.

Itisthereforeabookofstories:storiesofdiscoveryandofdiscoverers;storiesofritualsandvalues;storiesofexploitationandcelebration;storiesofsuperstitionaswellasscience.Itisnotachemistrybook–itcontainsasmuchhistory,biographyandmythologyaschemistry,andgeneroushelpingsofeconomics,geography,geology,astronomyandreligionbesides.Ihavepurposelyavoideddiscussingtheelementsintheirperiodictablesequenceorgivingasystematicdescriptionoftheirpropertiesanduses.Otherbooksdothiswell.Ibelievethattheperiodictablehasbecomeanicontoopowerfulforitsowngood.Theorderedgridofsquareswithitsraggedyedges,thestrangenamesandcrypticsymbols,thewaytheelementsfollowasequenceasfixedyetasapparentlyarbitrarilyasthelettersofthealphabet:allthesethingsarestrangelycompelling.Theyprovidelimitlessrawmaterialfortelevisionquizzes:whatelementliesdirectlysouth-eastofzinc?*Whocares?Evenchemistsdonotusethetableinthisway.

Theelementsprovidetherealinterest.TheperiodictablethatIoncethoughtofasunquestionableIknownowdoesnotreallyexist.Afewchemistsmightdenyit,butitisonlyaconstruct,amnemonicthatarraystheelementsinaparticularlycleverwaysoastorevealcertaincommonalitiesamongthem.Yetthere’snoactuallawagainstarrangingtheelementsbydifferentrules.Inhisfamoussong‘TheElements’,theAmericansatiristTomLehrerreorderedthempurelyforthesakeofrhymeandscansion,tofitthetuneofArthurSullivan’spattersong,‘Iamtheverymodelofamodernmajor-general’,fromThePiratesofPenzance.

Iwishtodiscovertheculturalthemesthatgrouptheelementsanew,todrawuptheperiodictableasifsortedbyananthropologist.Tothisend,Ihavechosenfivemajorheadings:power,fire,craft,beautyandearth.

AsMasefield’spoemshows,imperialmighthasalwaysdependedonpossessionoftheelements.TheRomanEmpirewasbuiltonbronze,theSpanish

ongold,theBritishonironandcoal.Thebalanceofthetwentieth-centurysuperpowerswasmaintainedbyanucleararsenalbasedonuraniumandtheplutoniummadefromit.In‘Power’,Iconsidersomeoftheseelementsthathavebeenamassedasrichesand,ultimately,usedasameansofexertingcontrol.

In‘Fire’,Idiscussthoseelementswhoseburninglightorcorrosiveactionarethekeytoourunderstandingofthem.Wemayrememberfromschoolthatsodium,forexample,isanelementthatentertaininglyexplodesoncontactwithwater,butweknowitaboveallastheubiquitousmango-yellowcolourofourstreetlamps–averyparticularlightthatmanywritershaveseizeduponastheindexofageneralurbanmalaise.

Intheend,anyculturalmeaningthatanelementacquiresderivesfromitsfundamentalproperties.Thisisseenmostclearlyinthecaseofthoseelementsthatcraftspeoplehavechosenastheirrawmaterial.Itisthecenturiesormillenniaofhammeringanddrawing,castingandpolishingthathavegivenmanyofthemetallicelementstheirmeaning.‘Craft’explainswhyweregardleadasgrave,tinascheapandsilverasradiantwithvirginalinnocence.

Humankindhasmanipulatedtheelementsnotonlyfortheirutility,butalsoforthesheerjoyofthelookofthem.‘Beauty’showshowthecompoundsofmanyoftheelements,andthelightofothers,colourourworld.Finally,in‘Earth’,ItraveltoSwedentodiscoverhowparticularplaceshavemarkedmanyoftheelements,andhowthoseplacesaremarkedinturnbytheflukeoffindinganelementthere.

Myownjourneyhasledmetominesandartists’studios,tofactoriesandcathedrals,intothewoodsanddowntothesea.Ihaverecreatedearlyexperimentsinordertomakeafewoftheelementsformyself.Ihavebeenpleasedtofindtheelementsinabundanceinfiction,too,whereJean-PaulSartreseesfittoremarkupontheconstancyofthemeltingpointoflead(335degreescentigrade,hesays)andVladimirNabokovfindsmandalicsignificanceinthecarbonatom‘withitsfourvalences’.WanderingthroughShoreditchinLondononmywaytoseeCorneliaParker,anartistwhohasmadeitherbusinesstoremindusoftheculturalsignificanceofmanyoftheelements,Iwascaptivatedbyasculptureinashopwindowbysomeotherartistsofanuclearpowerstationwittilycastlikelimejellyinglowinguraniumglass.Itwasclear.Theelementsdonotbelonginalaboratory;theyarethepropertyofusall.PeriodicTalesisarecordofthejourneywiththeelementsthatIwasneverencouragedtotakewhenIwasachemist.Comealong:therewillbefireworks.

PartOne:Power

ElDorado

In2008,theBritishMuseumcommissionedalife-sizesculptureofthemodelKateMoss.Theartwork,calledSiren,ismadeentirelyofgoldandissaidtobethelargestgoldsculpturecreatedsincethedaysofancientEgypt,thoughit’simpossibletocheckwhetherthisistrue.Sirenwasplacedonshowinthemuseum’sNereidGallerynearastatueofabathingAphrodite.MyimmediateimpressiononseeingKateMoss’sotherwisefamiliarimageishowtinyshelooks,accentuatedbythefactthatsheisknottedinaparticularlyuncomfortable-lookingyogaposition,thoughthismaybeanopticalillusion–weareunused,afterall,toseeingsomuchoftheshiningmetalatonce.Thegold,Iamdisappointedtofind,isnotpolishedtoahighglossbuthasasteelybrushedfinish,whichelicitsahighsparklefromthegrainsinthetexturedsurface,nottheburnishedglowIhadexpectedtosee.Therearesignsofpittinginthecasting,whichadifferentgoldsmithmighthavetakencareof.Theuniquequalitiesofthemetalthathavemadeitprecioustoculturessinceantiquityseempoorlyserved.Onlythefaceisperfectlysmooth,andisimmediatelyreminiscentofthefunerarymaskofTutenkhamun.Thelifelessstaringvisagehasthedisturbingeffect,entirelyunexpectedgiventhehighpublicprofileofitssubject,ofpluckingthespectatoroutoftime:thisisnolongerarenderingofthetwenty-first-centurycelebrity,butadepersonalized,detemporalizedfigurewhosesharpnoseandpoutinglipsbelonglesstoalivingpersonthantoadeathmaskorvotivefigure.

Thepriceputonthestatuewas£1.5million.Itwasthewhimoftheartist,MarcQuinn,thattheworkbefabricatedfromgoldofequalmasstothemodel’sfifty-kilogrammebody,sothatinadditiontoappearinglife-size,itcouldbesaidtorepresentherweightingold,perhapsraisinginthemindoftheastuteonlookerthoughtsofransomandslavery.Insolidgold,Icalculate,Katewouldbeshrunktothesizeofagardenornament.Quinn’spiecemustthereforebehollow,whichmayalsobeanartisticcommentofsomekind.Althoughgoldistheonlydeclaredmaterialfromwhichtheworkismade,Ifiguretheremustbesomesortofarmaturetosupporttheweightofthesoftmetal,whichwouldotherwiseslumpoutofshape.Afterwards,Ilookupthepriceofgold.Although

Sirenwentondisplayduringaperiodofglobalfinancialupheaval,whenthepriceofgoldhaddoubled,itwasstillonly£15,000akilo,givingtheartworkascrapvalue,asitwere,of£750,000.Presumablytherestofthe£1.5millionistocoverlabour.

IwatchaspeoplequeuetotakephotographsofthegoldenMoss,eithersimplysnappingherimageorsometimesplacingtheirpartnerintheshotnexttoher,makingwhoknowswhatsortofcomparison.Iamcurioustoknowwhathasdrawnthemtothesculpture.Whichismorepowerful:thecultofcelebrityorthecultofgold?Whatisreallythesirenhere?ItismainlymenwhohavecometoworshipthismodernAphrodite.Afewpurporttoadmirethesculpturalqualitiesofthework.Someareindeeddrawnbythepowerofcelebrity,butarefansofQuinnmorethanMoss.IaskthegirlfriendofonetemporarilydistractedPolishmanwhatshethinksofit.‘Itisbeautiful,’sheconcedes,asiftosayotherwisewouldbeunacceptable,‘butitdoesn’tbelonghere.’Anotherwomanphotographingitwithherphoneisbrisklydismissive:‘Ineedsomegoldformymobile–it’swallpaper.’

Morethananyoftheancientelements,goldhasbeenjudgedtopossessatimelessallure.Noneoftheelementsdiscoveredbymodernsciencehaschallengedthissupremacy.Butwhat,ifanything,istrulyspecialaboutthismetal?

Goldischaracteristicallyyellow.Inaflower,onemightfindthisyellowattractiveornot–beautyisamatteroftaste,afterall.Butingold,apparently,the

uniquecombinationofthiscolourwiththelustreofmetalleavesusnootheroptionthantobedrawntoit.EventhesociologistThorsteinVeblen,whomonemightexpecttomaintainsomeprofessionalcautioninthematter,fallsforthestuff.Inachapteronthe‘pecuniarycanonsoftaste’inhisclassictextTheTheoryoftheLeisureClass(1899),hewritesthatgoldhasa‘highdegreeofsensuousbeauty’asifthatwereanobjectivefact,andnevermindtheeyeofthebeholder.

Thereisthenthefactthatthiscolourandlustreendure,becausegoldresistscorrosionbytheair,bywaterandindeedbyalmostallchemicalreagents.PlinytheElderthinksitisthisuniquequalityofendurance,andspecificallynotitscolour,thatexplainsourloveofgold:‘itistheonlymetalthatlosesnothingbycontactwithfire’,heobserves.Itisthisendurancethatgivesgolditsassociationwithimmortality,andsowithroyallinesanddivinity.TheBuddhaisgildedasanindicationofenlightenmentandperfection,andthemetal’sincorruptibilityinspiresatorrentofotherideals:thegoldensection,thegoldenmean,thegoldenrule.

Goldisspecialalsobecauseofitsgreatdensity,itsmalleabilityandductility–itcanbebeatenasthinashairand‘longenoughtoencircleawholevillage’,asoneWestAfricanproverbputsit.Itissurelythecasethatgold’sheaviness,inparticular,signifiesvalueinthewaythatdensematerialsoftendo,regardlessoftheiractualcomposition,becausetheirrelativeweighttransmitsasenseofsheerquantity.Gold’sresistancetochemicalattack–inotherwordsitsabilitytoretainitspurestate–signifiesvaluetoo,becausewenaturallyplacevalueinthingsthatendure.ItistheseeconomicallyimportantsecondaryattributesoftheelementthatgiveVeblencausetocommentonitatall.Anditisthismuddledequationbetweenbeautyandvaluethatliesattheheartofourunderstandingofgold.

Thoughgoldwasknowntotheancients,beingtheonlymetaltypicallyfoundintheelementalstate,itwastoosoftformakingweaponsandwasperhapsnotmuchusedatfirst,evenforornamentalpurposes.Evenwhereitisrelativelyabundant,suchasinpartsofAustraliaandNewZealand,aboriginalpeopleshaveoftenignoredit.InEurope,AfricaandAsia,however,themetalwasgenerallyhighlyprizedandwassoontakenupforjewelleryandthenforcoin.Thefirstcoinswerestampedoutofelectrum,anaturalalloyofgoldandsilver,inLydiaintheseventhcenturyBCE.Around550BCEKingCroesusmintedpurersilverandgoldcoins,andfromthenontheyellowmetalwasman’schosenelementfortheexpressionofgreatwealth.Backedbystateauthority,Croesus’coinageboostedtradeandbanking.Forgoldtoholditsgreatervalueascoinagainstnativeelectrumithadtobepure,anditspurityhadtobeascertainableby

assay.Withthis,goldbecamesubjecttocomparativetestingandvaluationaswellasabsoluteworship.

Sixhundredyearslater,Plinyisscathingaboutthecorruptingeffectofgold,whichhewished‘couldbecompletelybanishedfromlife’.Hedamnsequallythosewhowearitandthosewhotradewithit:‘Thefirstpersontoputgoldonhisfingerscommittedtheworstcrimeagainsthumanlife.’‘Thesecondcrimeagainstmankindwascommittedbythepersonwhofirststruckagolddenarius.’Thedifficultyliesnotwiththematerialitself,butwithman’stransforminghandsuponit.Naturalgoldmaycontainthelightofthesun,butmintedgoldbecomesa‘symbolofperversionandtheexaltationofuncleandesire’.SirThomasMoreconfirmsthismoraldistinctioninhisUtopia,reservingitsgoldnotforfinerybutformakingchamberpots.

Harderheadshavealwaysunderstoodthatgoldisthekeytopower.HadnotthePharaohsreignedfor3,000yearsrelyingontheirgoldtocontainthemoreingeniousSumeriansandBabylonians?HadnottheRomansbeendriventoconquestbytheirenvyofthegoldpossessedbytheGauls,theCarthaginiansandtheGreeks?

Suchisthemonetaryvalueofgoldthatnaturaldepositstendtoacquireanaurasodazzlingthattheysoonbecomedetachedfromanyrealgeography.OphirwasthebiblicalsourceofSolomon’sgold.Itistheport,probablyinsouthernArabia,fromwhichsailsthegold-ladenquinqueremeofNinevehinJohnMasefield’s‘Cargoes’.Strabo’sGeographicamentionsgoldminingontheAfricanbankoftheRedSea,presumablyonesourceoftheEgyptians’gold.Butasthemeansexpandsodotheimaginativehorizons.BythetimeofthePortuguesenavigatorVascodaGama,thebestadvicewasthatOphirlayinsouthernAfrica,roughlywhereZimbabweistoday,orperhapsinthePhilippines.ColumbusthoughtOphirwastobefoundontheislandofHispaniola.WiththeSpanishexpeditionstotheNewWorldcamenewstoriesoffabulousgoldandanewmythofElDorado.ElDorado,literally‘thegoldenman’,wassaidtobeatribalpriestwhowascoveredingoldfortheperformanceofasacredritual,butintheimaginationofWesternexplorersitbecameanotherunmappedplaceofriches,anewOphir.

InMarch1519,HernandoCortéssetoutonsuchanexpedition,sailingfromCubawithelevenshipsandaforceof600mentoclaimthemainlandofMexicoanditstreasurefortheSpanishcrown.Aftervariousskirmishes,CortésreachedtheAzteccapitalTenochtitlan,whereheandhismenwereceremoniallyreceivedbytheemperorMontezumaIIandshoweredwithgiftsofgold.BymeansofasubterfugeduringthehospitalitytheSpanishmanagedtotakeMontezuma

prisoner;beforelongtheAztecempirehadfallen,andSpainwasincontrolofmostofMexico.Foralltheirvictory,however,Cortés’smenfoundlittlegoldbesidesthepresentstheyhadbeengivenbytheirhosts.ItwaslefttolatersettlerstodeveloptheMexicansilverminesthatwouldbankrolltheSpanishempire.

Thirteenyearslater,FranciscoPizarro,afterlengthypreparationsincludingavoyageofreconnaissancedownthePacificcoasttothenorthernfringeoftheIncaempireandanotherbacktoSpaintoobtainfunding,setforthtoPeruinsearchofIncatreasure.Onceagainbetrayingthehospitalitytheywereshown(PizarrohadbeencoachedbyCortésbackinSpain),theconquistadoreslaunchedasurpriseattackandcapturedtheIncarulerAtahualpa.Asbefore,theirplanwastocontroltheterritorybyholdinghimasvassalruler.ButAtahualpahadanotheridea,aransomcalculatedtoappealtotheSpaniards:hebargainedhisfreedominexchangeforaroom,somesixmetresbyfivemetres,thatwouldbefilledoncewithgoldandtwicewithsilverashighasamancouldreach.This‘ransomroom’stillsurvivesinCajamarca,Peru.Itisclearitcannothavebeenliterallyfilled.Nevertheless,theSpaniardsmelteddownsomeeleventonnesofhandsomelycraftedgoldartefactsfortransportasbullionbacktoSpain.Astheshipssetsail,theyrenegedonthedealandputAtahualpatodeath.

Theseweregreatwindfalls.ButwherewasElDorado?Thesearchwenton.Pizarro’shalf-brotherGonzalosetoffinlandfromQuitoinEcuadorin1541,butfoundnocityofgold,onlyaroutetotheAtlanticOceanviatheRiverAmazon.OtherSpanishadventurersheardstoriesoftheMuiscapeopleofColombia,whothrewgoldofferingsintoamountaintoplakeinordertoappeasethegoldengodsupposedtoliveatthebottomofit.Whentheyarrived,theyrudelysetabouttryingtodrainthelake,butin400yearsonlyafewpiecesofgoldhavebeendredgedup.

In1596,WalterRaleghsailedtoVenezuela,comingawaywithlittlegoldbuthisbeliefinElDoradoneverthelessintact.AccountsofthesevoyagesgaveVoltaireplentyofmaterialwithwhichtolampoontherapacityoftheEuropeansinhispicaresquenovellaof1759,Candide.ThenaiveheroCandideisexpelledfromhisvapidandparadisiacallifeinWestphaliatotraveltheworldandwitnessitshardships,fromtheThirtyYears’WartotheLisbonearthquake.HefindsEldoradowithnotroubleand,afterbeingroyallyentertained,issentonhiswaywithgiftsoffiftysheepladenwithgoldandjewels.Atfirst,Candideandhiscompanionsarebuoyedupbythevisionofthemselvesasthe‘possessorsofmoretreasuresthanAsia,EuropeandAfricacouldgather’,butastheytravelon,thesheepfallbythewaysideinonesandtwos,boggeddowninswamps,orfallenfrompreci-pices,forcingCandidetoacknowledge‘howtherichesoftheworldareperishable’.

Between1520and1660,Spainimported200tonnesofgold,neverfindingitinoneconvenienthoard,butbyexpandingitsminingactivitiesthroughoutitsterritoriesintheNewWorld.ElDoradowasneveraplace;alwaysanidea.

Whattheserecurrentepisodeshaveincommon,apartfromEuropeangreedandtreachery,isthepresumptionthatallpartiesareagreedthatgoldisthemostvaluablesubstanceknowntoman.Thiswasnothinglikethecase.TheAztecsandtheIncasandotherNewWorldindigenouspeoplesmadegoldenofferingstothegodsbutdidnotusethemetalformoney,soithadlittletradeablevalue,andinsomecasesothermetalsweremoredesirableevenforreligiouspurposes.

TheTaínoinhabitantsofHispaniola,CubaandPuertoRico,forexample,assigneddistinctrolestogoldandsilver,andalsotoarangeofcolouredalloys.Thesenatives,treatedasslavesbyColumbusandhisfollowers,foundafriendinBartolomédeLasCasas,thefirstChristianpriesttobeordainedintheNewWorld.LasCasaswastheauthorofahistoryoftheIndies,afounderofutopiancommunitiesandabelieverinliberationtheologywhothoughtCortésavulgaradventurer.HeobservedtheTaínocustomsandfoundthattheydidnotprizegoldforitsweightorcolour,orregarditasself-evidentlyvaluableastheSpaniardsdid.TheTaínoplacedmoreimportanceonguanín,analloyofcopper,silverandgold.Whatpleasedthemaboutitwasitsreddish-purplishcolourandmostofallitspeculiarsmell,probablyarisingfromareactionbetweenthecopperandthegreaseofhumanfingering.Puregold,bycontrast,wasyellow-whiteandodourlessandunappealing.Bothgoldandguanínwereassociatedwithpower,authorityandthesupernaturalworld,butguaníncarriedthegreatersymboliccharge.Unlikegold,whichwasfoundnative,guanínhadtobesmelted.Thismadethealloystillmoreprecious,especiallysincethetechnologywasnotavailableonHispaniolaandhadtobeimportedfromColombia,whichmadeitseemasifitcamefromanotherworld.Goldcouldbedredgedupfromriver-beds,butitseemedasifguaníncouldonlybemadeinheaven.

Brass,anOldWorldalloyentirelyunknowntopre-Columbiansocieties,hadthesameattractivequalitiesasguanín.BroughtbytheSpanish,ittoowasseenascomingfromtheremoteheavensandgivenalocalnamelikeningitsbrightnesstothesunnysky.HowmuchdidgoldappreciateinvaluewitheachnauticalmileonitseastwardjourneytoSpain?Andhowmuchdidhumblebrassgainasitsailedwest?TheimageofSpanishshipsferryingthetwoyellowmetalseachwayacrosstheAtlanticwithnootherpointthantofeedtwomutuallyuncomprehendingsocieties’tasteinluxuryisonetobringanironicsmiletothelipsofanyVeblenorVoltaire.

IfeelitistimeIgotmyhandsonsomegold,andarrangetomeetRichardHerrington,aneconomicmineralogistattheNaturalHistoryMuseuminLondonandanauthorityonthestuff.Thefloorofhisofficeisstrewnwithvariegatedrocks,redochre,glitteringwhite,metallicblack,eachsnuginitsownbox.Ihavetopickmywaycarefullyjusttotakeaseat.Herringtonhimselfwearsalumberjackshirtasifhehasjustcomeinfromthemountainside.‘Ilovegold,’hesayssimply.‘Ilovefindingitintherock.’Hehandsmeapaperweight-sizedpieceofquartzwithadarkyellowinclusionofgoldthesizeofafingernail.‘Everybodyunderstandsgold.We’veseenitinthecreditcrunch.It’sanalternativeandtrustedcommodity.Evenapopularpaperwillquotethegoldpriceeveryday.’Thevalueofadiamonddependsonitsopticalquality,thatofapaintingoneverybodyelse’sopinionoftheartist.Butgoldisalwaysgold,pureandsimple.‘Ican’tseeitbeingreplaced.’

Goldbecameamoredemocraticpursuitwiththegoldrushesofthenineteenthcentury.TheAmericanpresidentJamesPolkinadvertentlylaunchedthefirstofthesewhenhementionedthatgoldhadbeenfoundatSuttersFort,California,inhisannualstatementtoCongressinDecember1848.Bytheendof1849,thenon-native-Americanpopulationofthestatehadquadrupledto115,000.InAustralianotlongafter,theBritishcrownattemptedtoassertitsmedievalprerogativeovergoldmines,butthegoldrushwassofrenzied,andtheadministrationsoinept,thatitcouldnotbeenforced.RepeatedoverandoveragaininNorthAmerica,Australiaandelsewhereupuntiltheearlyyearsofthetwentiethcentury,therushforgold,andtheconsequentincreaseingoldproduction,ledeconomists,unabletoseethemetalasanythingotherthancoincurrency,tofearawholesalecollapseinthevalueofmoneyitself.

OneoftheearlyAmericanprospectorswasSamuelClemens,whoonlybecamethewriterwenowknowasMarkTwainwhenhefailedinhisquestforgold.Clemenswentwestin1861totheNevadaTerritory,wherehisbrotherwasthegovernor.Hetriedhisluckatseveralseamsandwroteabouthisexperienceinhismemoir,RoughingIt.Thememoirispepperedwiththegrandiloquentnamesgiventothemodestledgesandseamsheacquiredasstakes,butitalsobetraysTwain’ssheerdistasteforthework,repeatedlyblastingandsiftingthe‘hard,rebelliousquartz’toobtainthetiniestspecksofcolour.

Twainhadeveryreasontofeeldisheartened,forhemayevenhavefinishedhisspellasaprospectordownonthedeal.Havingfailedtofindgold,hefetchedupinVirginiaCity,Nevada,andtookajobinanoremillseparatingthepreciousmetalfromthedross.Onemeansofdoingthiswasbyamalgamation,using

mercurytodissolvethegold,whichcouldthenberecoveredfromtheamalgambyheating.Unfortunately,Twainneglectedtoremovethegoldringhehabituallywore,whichhesoonobservedhadcrumbledtopiecesunderattackfromthemercury.

Thegoldmaynowbegone,butevidenceoftherushremainsinthetownsthatsprangupwhenamajordepositwasfound.Yearsago,IvisitedCrippleCreek,inthehighvalleysofColorado,oncethesiteoftheworld’sbiggestgoldmine.Thestoryofthetownbeganwhenarancher,RobertWomack,foundoretherein1890.Theorewasararemineralthatcontainedsilverandgoldintheformofsaltsratherthanasnativemetals.Oneversionhasitthatthediscoverywasmadewhentheheatfromafurnacehearthcausedthegroundtosweatwithmoltengold.Theprospectorscame,andayearlater,ontheFourthofJuly,acarpenter,WinfieldStratton,laidclaimtoIndependencelode,oneofthelargestgolddepositseverfound.In1900,Strattonsoldhisminefor$10million,whileWomackdrankawaywhatlittlemoneyhemade.CrippleCreekeventuallyyieldedsome$300millioningold.

Iwalkedthelengthofthebroadmainstreet,agentlycurvingdiplikethetrackofapendulum.Ateachend,vistasopenedtowardssnow-coveredmountainswiththegeologynakedabovethetreeline.Thebuildingsthatlinedthestreet–anice-creamparlour,ageneralstore,afewcraftshops,theboarded-upPhenixBlockyettoriseagain–sportedarichvarietyofVictorianornamentationinbrickandplasterandwereoverhungbyelaboratewoodencornices.Manyofthemborethedate,thesameineverycase:1896.Atownthathadgrownfromnothinginayearandwherenothinghadhappenedsince.Itwaseasytopicturethemadexcitementoftherushthatmadetheseplacesovernightandthenalmostasquicklyleftthemtorot.Inoticedtheofferof‘freegoldoresamples’atFrego’sEmporium.Itseemedtoconfirmthatthegreatdayswereover.(Peoplestillseekinstantrichestodayeveniftheyarenolongerpreparedtoworkforit:thetownhasrecentlysoughttoreviveitsfortunesbyintroducinglegalizedgambling.)

Mythologyhasoftenassociatedgoldwithwater.ThePhrygiankingMidaswashesawayhiscurseofthegoldentouchintheRiverSardis,whilethestoryoftheGoldenFleeceoriginatesfromthetrickofplacingwoolinarunningstreamtocatchfineparticlesofpreciousmetal.Itisnosurprisethentolearnthatscientiststoohavedirectedtheirquestbeneaththewaves.TheSwedishchemistSvanteArrhenius,thefirstdirectoroftheNobelInstitute,madesignificantstridesinmanyfields,includingprescientspeculationsaboutthegreenhouseeffectintheearth’satmosphere.Muchofhisresearchwasdoneontheelectricalconductivityofsolutions,duringthecourseofwhich,in1903,hearrivedatanestimateoftheamountofgolddissolvedinthesea.Hiscalculationsputtheconcentrationoftheelementatsixmilligrammespertonneofseawater.Atthislevel,thetotalreserveofgoldintheworld’soceanswouldbeeightbilliontonnes.Theglobalannualproductionofgoldatthetimewasafewhundredtonnes.

InMay1920,Arrhenius’sGermanfriendFritzHabertravelledtoStockholmtocollecttheNobelPrizethathehadbeenawarded(fortheyear1918,butpostponedbecauseoftheFirstWorldWar)forhisdiscoveryofasyntheticrouteformakingammoniafromnitrogenintheatmosphere,abreakthroughthathadquicklyprovedvitalforthemanufactureofbothfertilizerandexplosives.The

twomenheldlongdiscussions.AfewdaysafterHaberarrivedbackinGermany,thevictoriousAlliesannouncedtheirpeaceterms:hiscountrywastopay269billiongoldmarksinreparations.Heresolvedtofindthemoneyusingscience.

SomewhereatthebackofhismindmusthavebeenthelegendoftheRhinegold.InthefirstoperaofWagner’sRingCycle,DasRheingold,thegoldappearsgleaminginthesunlightatthebottomoftheriver,guardedbythreeflippertigibbetRhinemaidens.ThedwarfishAlbericheyesthegirls,butsettlesforthegoldandthesecrettheywhispertohimthataringmadefromitwillconferuponthewearerpowerwithoutlimit.IncommonwithPlinyandthegreatGermanmetallurgistAgricola,Wagnerisatpainstomakeclearthatthenativemetalisquiteinnocentinallthis,anditisonlyobjectsmadefromitbyhumanartthatarecorrupting.AsGeorgeBernardShawexplainsinThePerfectWagnerite,hiscritiqueoftheRingCycle,theRhinemaidensvaluethegold‘inanentirelyuncommercialway,foritsbodilybeautyandsplendor’.Theysingthatonlymanhasthecrafttofashionthegoldintoaring,whichisnaturallywhatthejilted,venalAlberichgoesanddoes.Overthecourseofthenextthreenightsintheoperahouse,theringistraded,stolen,foughtoverandpaidasransom,workingitscurseasitgoes,untilfinallytheriverreclaimsitsown.ItisperhapssignificantthatWagnerwrotethelibrettoofthecycleatthetimeofthefirstgreatgoldrushes,whileShawusedtheKlondikegoldrushof1898toillustratehiscriticisms.

ThecurseworkedmoreslowlyonHaber.HelaunchedintotheprojectbycallinginsamplesofseawaterfromaroundtheworldtohisBerlinlaboratory.ThechemicalanalysesconfirmedArrhenius’sfigures.Then,backedbyaconsortiumofmetalsinterests,heequippedashipandputtoseain1923.Butonthistransatlanticjourneyandonsubsequentvoyagesinotheroceansoverthenextfouryears,hismeasurementsseemedtoshowlessandlessofthepreciousmetal.Heconcludeddespondently–and,itnowappears,erroneously–thattherewasonlyatinyfractionofthedissolvedgoldthathadbeenthought,andcertainlynotenoughtocoverthemassivecostofextractingit.

Morerecentestimationsofthequantityofgoldinseawateraremoreoptimistic,puttinglevelsatthreetimesthosethatHaberconsideredworthexploring–twentymilligrammespertonne.Inprinciple,theoceansoftheworldcouldcontaingoldworthsome£300millionmillionatcurrentprices,ortoputitanotherway400millionKateMosses.Butevenatthismoreattractiverate,accordingtoRichardHerrington,‘thecostofextractionistoogreattobecontemplatedatthemoment’.Therereallyis,hefurthernotes,goldintheRhine,‘withproductioninthebestyearsreachingupwardsof15kg’.

Thesheerunexpectednessofdissolvedgoldhasbeensuccessfullyexploited

onatleastonenotableoccasion.By1933,NazioppressionofGermany’sJewishscientistswasleadingmanytoemigrateortakerefugeinforeignlaboratories.TwoNobelphysicslaureates,MaxvonLaue,whowontheprizein1914forhisdiscoveryofX-raydiffraction,andJamesFranck,whowonitin1925forproducingexperimentalconfirmationofthequantizationofenergy,depositedtheirmedalsforsafekeepingwithNielsBohrattheInstituteforTheoreticalPhysicsinCopenhagen.BythetimetheGermanarmymarchedintoDenmarkinApril1940,BohrhadalreadydonatedhisownNobelmedalforawarreliefauction,buthewasconcernedtohidetheGermans’medalsastheirdiscoveryinhislaboratorywouldfurthercompromisethealreadydiscreditedscientists.Themedalsborethenamesoftheirrecipients,and,astheyweremadeofgold,itwasillegaltotakethemoutofGermany.

WorkingwithBohrinCopenhagenwastheHungarianchemistGeorgedeHevesy,whoin1923haddiscoveredtheelementhafnium,namingitaftertheLatinforthecity,‘Hafnia’.Hevesyfirstsuggestedthattheyburythemedals,butBohrfeltitwastoolikelytheywouldbediscovered.Instead,asNazitroopsfloodedintothecity,hesetaboutdissolvingtheminaquaregia–withsomedifficulty,hecomplainedlater,astherewasaconsiderableamountofgoldanditwasreluctanttoreactevenwiththisstrongacid.TheNazistookovertheInstituteforTheoreticalPhysicsandcarefullysearchedBohr’slaboratory,butomittedtoenquireastothecontentsofthebottlesofbrownliquidonashelf,whichremainedthereundisturbedforthedurationofthewar.Afterthewar,BohrwrotealettertotheRoyalSwedishAcademyofSciencesaccompanyingthereturnofthemedalgoldexplainingwhathadhappenedtoit.Thegoldwasrecovered,andtheNobelFoundationdulymintednewmedalsforthetwophysicists.

Aquaregiawasoneofthemanyuseful,andoftenunacknowledged,contributionstomodernchemistrymadebythealchemists,whosediscoverythatitwoulddissolvegoldnaturallyoccasionedgreatexcitement.InMilton’sParadiseLost,Satanisgivenatourofthewondersoftheearthandseesthatthe‘Riversrun/PotableGold’.Ifsolidgoldwasthesymbolofperfection,immortalityandenlightenment,itsavailabilityinaformthatcouldbeimbibed–thesolutionwastypicallyblendedwitharomaticoilstomakeasortofmetallicvinaigrette–surelyheldpromiseforageneralcure-all.

Butgold’sothergreatclaim–itsresistancetochange–leftroomforscepticstowonderwhetheritdidanybodyanygood,orinfactdidanythingatall.ThomasBrowne,theNorwichphysicianandauthor,tacklesthisquestioninhisPseudodoxiaEpidemica,aneruditeandentertainingcatalogueofseventeenth-centuryurbanmythsscientificallydebunked.‘Thatgoldinwardlytaken,’wrote

Browne,‘isacordialofgreatefficacy,insundrymedicaluses,althoughapracticemuchused,isalsomuchquestioned,andbynomandeterminedbeyonddispute.’Observingits‘invincible’passagethroughfire,hefindsiteasytobelievegoldcouldalsopassthroughthebodywithoutalterationoreffect–athoughtthatpromptshimtotakeamomenttodiscreditthetalesofMidasandthegoldengoose.Butthenhechangestacktoadmitthat,thoughitmaynotbemateriallychanged,goldmightyetexertsomeeffect,perhapssimilartothemagneticforceofthelodestoneortheelectricalchargeofamber.Intheendheequivocates:‘itmaybeunjusttodenythepossibleefficacyofgold’.However,Etienne-FrançoisGeoffroy,aFrenchphysicianandchemistofthefollowingcentury,hadnosuchdoubts.‘Gold,’hewrotedrily,‘ofalltheMetalsisthemostuselessinPhysick,exceptwhenconsideredasanAntidotetoPoverty.’

Igotmychancetotry‘goldinwardlytaken’oneChristmaswhenIboughtsome‘gold,frankincenseandmyrrh’chocolate.Thefrankincenseandmyrrhcouldnotcompeteforflavourwiththecocoasolids,butthegoldwasatleastvisibleaslittleflakesoneachsquare.IobservednoilleffectsasIate.Perhapsitwasdoingmeapowerofgood,butIfeltnoelixirboosteither.Iturnedoverthewrapperandidlyreadthelistofingredients.Gold,Iwassurprisedtolearn,meritsitsownEnumber,E175.Itseemsthatthefoodregulators,likeBrowne,wanttokeeptheiroptionsopen.

GoingPlatinum

WallisSimpson,thetwice-divorcedAmericansocialitewhoin1937marriedtheformerKingEdwardVIIItobecometheDuchessofWindsor,wasnotrenownedforherattentiontocorrectsocialprocedure.Butonthematterofjewelleryshewasadamant:‘Anyfoolwouldknowthatwithtweedsandotherdaytimeclothesonewearsgold;witheveningclothesonewearsplatinum.’

Platinumroseduringthefirstpartofthetwentiethcenturytobeseenasthepreferredjewellerymetalofthosewhofoundsilversimplytoocommon.Itisoneoftheheaviestlustrousmetals,fullytwiceasdenseassilver,butnotaspurelywhite.Itrarelydazzles,butshineswithwhatJohnSteinbeckcalleda‘pearlylucence’.Platinum’sappealisparticularlyrelative:itisheavierthansilver,trendierthangold.Itisfashion’sanswertothesetimelesselements,fullofitsownimportance,andself-ordainedinitsrank.

Atatimeofwidespreadeconomicsuffering,platinumfulfilledtheneedofanincreasinglydisconnectedhighsocietyforasubstancemoreprecious,andpossiblylessobvious,thangold.Itisoddinaway,then,thatthematerialchosenforthistaskisifanythingalittlemoreabundantthangold–althoughbothmetals

areequallyscarceintheearth’scrust,thereistentimesmoreplatinumthangoldinthesoil.Nomatter.Induecourse,platinum–ifnotthebullionitself,thenatleasttheideaofitasthemostvaluableofallmetals–wouldpercolatedowntobeunderstoodevenamongthelowersocialstrataandsecureitssymbolicplaceabovegoldintheleaguetableofluxury.Platinumimmediatelysignifiedanewkindofrich,abadgeofwealthnotamassedoverageslikeahoardofgold,butacquiredsuddenly,boldly,speculatively–andliabletobelostthesameway.InthesecondbookofhisAmericatrilogy,TheBigMoneyof1936,JohnDosPassosdepictsanarrayofcharactersastheystruggletoreconciletheiridealswiththeneedtogetoninthefebrileyearsleadinguptotheDepression.The‘ghostsofplatinumgirls’hauntthenovellikesirenswarningagainstthetemptationofthenewriches.

FrankCapra’sfilmof1931,PlatinumBlonde,madecapitaloutoftheemergingsymbolismofthemetal,anddonateditstitletothelanguageinreturn.Theplatinumblondeinquestionisanotherrichsocialitewhoseduces,marriesandthencontrolsareporterwhoisinvestigatingascandalinherfamily.JeanHarlowtookthelead.Originally,thefilmwastohavebeencalledGallagher,thenameofthegirlwholosesandthenregainsthereporter’saffections.Buttheproducer,HowardHughes,hadHarlowunderpersonalcontractandinsistedonthechangeoftitleinordertopromotehisstarlet.Itworked,launchingbothHarlowandacrazefortheetiolatedhaircolour.Throughhisstudios,Hughesevenofferedaprizetothemain-streethair-dresserwhocouldbestreplicatetheshade.Butperhapshismoneywassafe:onlythosewhohadbeenonsetwouldhavebeeninanypositiontoknowiftheyhadgotitrightsincethefilmwasmadeinblack-and-white.

PlatinumwasrecognizedasanelementbyEuropeanchemistsintheeighteenthcentury,hailedthenas‘theeighthmetal’,anexcitingadditiontothesevenknownsinceantiquity:goldandsilver,copper,tin,lead,mercuryandiron.ButitwaseffectivelydiscoveredbytheindigenouspeoplesofSouthAmerica2,000yearsago.Thenativeformoftheelementknownasplatina–thediminutiveoftheSpanishforsilver,plata–occursasgranulesornuggetsoflargelypuremetalwithinclusionsofotherpreciousmetalsoriron.Itistypicallyrevealedinriversorduringpanningforgoldwhenheavypalegrainsareseenamidthepotentiallypreciousresidueafterlightermineralshavebeenwashedaway.Platinummeltsatatemperaturefarhigherthangold,bronzeandeveniron,andhigherthancanbereachedbycharcoalfires.Itshouldhavebeenimpossibleforindigenoussmithstoconvertthesegranulesintoaformwhichcouldthenbeworkedintojewelleryandotheritems.YetarchaeologicalfindsinEcuadorhaverevealedjustsuchpre-Columbianartefacts,forcingEuropeanmetallurgiststoacknowledgethemasteryofthenativesmiths,whohadperfectedamethodofsintering,wherebya

granularmaterialcoalescesintoamasswithoutmelting,byaddinggolddusttotriggerthefusionofthemetal.

Hell-bentforgold,theSpanishconquistadoreshadpaidnoheedatfirsttothedullgreyplatina.Somegoldmineswereevenabandonedbecausethepresenceofplatinarenderedthemuneconomic.Thatattitudechanged,however,whentheworkofayoungFrenchchemist,Pierre-FrançoisChabaneau,sequesteredattheRoyalSeminaryatVergaraintheBasquecountry,cametotheattentionofKingCharlesIIIofSpainin1786.TheseminarywasinfactsomethingofamineralogicalhothouseandmusthaveconcealedquiteahoardofexoticspecimensbythetimethatChabaneauarrived:thebrothersFaustoandJuanJoséElhuyar,whohadbeenengagedtoteachthere,hadalreadyisolatedtheelementtungstenfromwolframite,anexceptionallydenseorewhichtheyhadobtainedduringtheirstudiesinGermany.TheyputChabaneautoworkextractingplatinummetalfromtherawplatinatheyhadaccumulatedfromSouthAmerica.

Induecourse,theElhuyarswerepromotedtodirectthenewminesintheSpanishcolonies,whileChabaneauwasbroughttoMadridandgivenaluxuriousprivatelaboratoryinwhichtocarryonhisresearchesintoplatinum.Theking’sminister,themarquisofAranda,sawtoitthatthestate’sentirestockofthemetal–seenaslessvaluableeventhansilver–wasturnedovertotheFrenchman.OnereasonforthelowestimationofplatinumatthistimewasthattheSpanishwereunabletoemulatetheNewWorldcraftsmenandconvertthemetalintoamalleableformthatcouldbeworkedintoobjects.Chabaneausoonthoughthehadmanagedtoisolatethepuremetal,removingthegold,ironandotherimpuritiesthatmadeitunworkable.Buthewaspuzzledtofindthatitspropertiesrefusedtosettledowntoastandardpattern(thiswasbecauseitstillcontainedother,asyetunknown,elementsmorecloselyrelatedtoplatinumsuchasiridiumandosmium).Chabaneauabandonedtheworkinfrustration,buthispatronpersuadedhimtopersist.‘Threemonthslater,theMarquésfoundonatableinhishomeaten-centimetercubeofmetal.Attemptingtopickitup,hesaidtoChabaneau,“Youarejoking.Youhavefasteneditdown.”Thelittleingotweighed23kilograms;itwasmalleableplatinum!’

Atfirst,samplesofplatinumwerepassedaroundamongthearistocracyofEurope,withnobodyverysurewhattodowithit.Thedifficultyofhandlingthemetalmeantthatitremainedessentiallyuseless.(TheSpanishcrownhadlearntthehardlessonthatevenwell-fundedscientificresearchdoesn’talwaysyieldaquickreturnonitsinvestment.)Theeighteenth-centurymemoiristGiacomo

Casanovarecordsavisittoaladyalchemist,themarquised’Urfé,whoplannedtoconverthersintogold.Gradually,however,Chabaneau’smethodcausedthenewmetaltobegincreepingupinvalue.AplatinumchalicepresentedtothePopebythekingofSpainwasthefirstpreciousobjectmadefromhismalleableformofthemetal.Chabaneausawthathewasinapowerfulpositionandwentintobusinesssellingplatinumingots,cruciblesandotherspecialistutensils.Atthesametime,theSpanishgovernmentincreasedshipmentsofplatinafromitsSouthAmericancolonyofNewGranada.InAugust1789,asinglevessellanded3,000poundsofplatina.Althoughthemetalwasstrictlyplacedunderacrownmonopoly,itwasstillcheapenoughtoappealtosmugglersandcounterfeiterswhocouldplateitandpassitoffassolidgoldbecauseofitscomparabledensity.Spain’sbrief‘ageofplatinum’cametoanabruptendwithNapoleon’sinvasionofthecountryin1808andtheriseoftherevolutionaryindependencemovementunderSimónBolívarinNewGranada.Platinum’soddcombinationofgreatdensityandresistancetocorrosionmadeittheperfectchoiceforcastingthestandardkilogrammeandmetreoftheFrenchrepublic,butgranderideasofusingitfordecorativeobjectsrequiringtheservicesoftalentedcraftsmenweresoonforgotten.

Inthenineteenthcentury,thepriceofplatinumdeclinedagainasnewsourceswerefoundinRussiaandCanadaandmoreeconomicmeansweredevelopedforrefiningit.Russianaristocratsdidnotfindthemetalbrightenoughfortheirtastesand,intheabsenceofotherdemand,Russiain1828beganmintingthree-roubleplatinumcoinsinordertomakeuseofitsresource.Buteventhishadtostopwhentheworldwidepriceofthemetaltumbledstillfurther.

HavingreachedthislowpointsosoonafteritwasintroducedtoEurope,howdidplatinumthenrisetoovertakegoldinvalue?Thelawofthemarketssuggeststhatiftheanswerisnottobefoundinshortageofsupplythenitmustliewithexcessofdemand.Theexpansionoftechnicalapplications–inelectricalequipmentandinmanyindustrialchemicalprocesseswherethemetalservesasacatalyst–isundoubtedlyafactor.Butmoreinterestingistheperceivedincreaseinplatinum’svaluethatarosesolelyforreasonsofsocialstatusratherthanmarketeconomics.

In1898,LouisCartiersucceededtohisfather’sParisianjewellerybusinessandmadethefamilynamebypopularizingthewrist-worntimepieceinplaceofthepocketwatch.Cartierhadexperimentedwithplatinumforsomeyearsandnowmadethedecisiontouseitwhereverhecouldinplaceofsilverandevengold.The‘whitejewels’suchasdiamondsthatwerefavouredforeveningwearideallyrequiredcolourlesssettings.Goldclashedandwasseenasvulgar,andsilverhadapropensitytotarnish.Furthermore,bothmetalswereinconveniently

soft.HardplatinumensuredthatCartier’ssettings,especiallyofthelargeststones,couldbemadealmostinvisibleandyetstillprovehighlydurable.Theslightlygreylustreofthemetalcomparedwithgoldorsilverensuredthatattentionwouldbefocusedonthegemstonesalone.Cartier’sinnovationunleashedafashionforplatinuminthegrandestjewellerythatlasteduntiltheoutbreakoftheSecondWorldWarwhenthemetalwaspromptlyrationedbecauseofitsusefulnessasacatalystinimportantchemicalprocessessuchasthemanufactureofexplosives.Bythen,though,platinumhadsecuredanewcachet,cappedbythesettingofthefamousKoh-i-noordiamondinacrownmadeentirelyofplatinumforQueenElizabeth,thewifeofGeorgeVI,forthecoronationin1937.(WallisSimpsonmusthavesickenedtoknowhersister-in-lawhadthisbauble!)

AsCartierwaschangingtherulesofhigh-societyjewellery,therevivaloftheOlympicGamesmeanwhileimplantedtheideaofindicatingdegreesofexcellenceaccordingtoascaleofdifferentmetals.TheOlympicsofancientGreecehadmerelyawardedlaurelstothebestathletes.AtthefirstmodernGames,heldinAthensin1896,thewinnerofeacheventwasawardedasilvermedal,withbronzegoingtotherunner-up.OnlyattheStLouisGamesin1904didtheInternationalOlympicCommitteedecidethereshouldbegold,silverandbronzemedalsforthefirstthreeplaces,retrospectivelyamendingthemedaltableforthetwoprecedingGamesinlinewiththenewsystem.

Soithasremainedeversince.Thehierarchyofgold,silverandbronzehasbecometheconventionalwaytorankperformanceinsportandthearts.Recordcompaniesintroducedthegolddiscasawayofcongratulatingtheirartists–andthemselves–whentheysoldamillioncopiesofasong.PerryComowasthefirstinternationalartisttostrikegold.Whenrecordsalesgrewandgolddiscsbecametoocommon,themusicindustry,ratherthandotheobviousthingandsimplyraisethesalesthresholdforgold,sawthemarketingadvantageofintroducinginsteadthehighertierofaplatinumdiscin1976.Undertoday’srules,analbumgoesgoldwhenitsells500,000units,andplatinumatamillion.AmericanExpresssoonfollowed,trumpingits‘gold’chargecardwith‘platinum’in1984.

Noneofthiswasanylongerabouttheappearanceorpropertiesofplatinummetal.Norwasitreallyaboutitsrarity,whichis,aswehaveseen,nogreaterthanthatofgold.Formostofus–noWallisSimpsons–platinum’sstatusistheproductofamorecomplicatedsnobbery.Ifweperceiveitasmoredesirablethangold,itisentirelybyreverseassociation–byknowingthatarecordgoesplatinumafterithasgonegoldorthataplatinumcreditcardishardertogetholdofthanagoldone.Inanerawheninstantcoffee,cheapchocolatesandlavatorypaperarebranded‘gold’,somethinghadtobefoundwithgreaterprestige.Fornowatleast,thatsomethingis‘platinum’.

NobleMetals,IgnoblyAnnounced

InApril1803,asmallquantityofshinymetalwentonsaleinaSohocuriosityshop.AleafletdistributedanonymouslytoLondonscientiststrumpeteditas‘palladium;or,newsilver’,andpromisedthatitwas‘anewnoblemetal’.Itwentontodescribethematerial’spropertiesinsomedetail:the‘greatestheatofablacksmith’sfirewouldhardlymeltit’,forexample,andyet‘ifyoutouchitwhilehotwithasmallbitofSulphuritrunsaseasilyasZinc’.

Theannouncementcausedaninstantfurore.Whohadplacedit?Andcoulditevenbetrue?Ifitwastrue,thenwhyhadtheannouncementnotbeenmadeinthecivilspiritofopencooperationthathadbecomethenorminsciencebythistime?

Suspectingafraud,atalentedIrishanalyticalchemist,RichardChevenix,visitedtheshopandboughtupallofthesubstancethathadnotbeensold(three-quartersofanounce)andimmersedhimselfinaseriesofanalysestoexposethedeception.Hemusthavebeensurprisedtofindthatwhathehadboughtdidinfactpossessthenovelpropertiesclaimedforit.ChevenixneverthelesscommunicatedtotheRoyalSocietyhisopinionthatitwasnotanewmetal‘asshamefullyannounced’,andwasmorelikelyjustanamalgamofplatinumand

mercury.OtherscientistscouldnotconfirmChevenix’sresult,butscarcelywantedtocontemplatetheonlyalternativeinterpretation–thatamajorscientificannouncementmightbemadeintheguiseofanunsignedcommercialhand-bill.

Intheend,itwasalmostthatbad.Foritsoonturnedoutthatthemetalreallywasnewtoscience.Onlythefactthattheauthoroftheflyer,andofthediscoveryitself,wasoneoftheirownmitigatedthedisaster:hewasthealreadynoteworthychemistWilliamHydeWollaston,whowasknowntobedeeplyengagedinaprojectinvolvingplatinum.Butwhyhadheconductedhimselfinsuchapeculiarfashioninthiscase?

Forfiftyyears,EuropeangovernmentshadeyedtheplatinumbroughtfromSouthAmericawithamixtureoflustanddespair,awarethatithadthepotentialtobetransformedintoalustrouspreciousmetal,dreamingperhapsthatitwouldboosttheireconomiesasNewWorldgoldandsilverhaddoneacoupleofcenturiesbefore,butlackingthemeanstoeffectthistransformation.InSpain,Chabaneauhadkepthismethodaclosesecretandhadonlyfoundamarketforoccasionaldecorativeobjects.Wollastonandanotherchemist,SmithsonTennant,separatelytookuptheproblem,and,whentheybecameofawareofoneanother’sinterest,decidedtogointopartnershiptoseeiftheycouldproducePierre-FrançoisChabaneau’smalleableplatinumonalargerscaleandfindnewapplicationsforitinscienceandindustry.

WollastonandTennantwereboththesonsofclergymen,andbothhadstudiedmedicineatCambridgebutthenturnedtonaturalphilosophy.There,however,thesimilaritiesended.Tennantlostbothhisparentsinchildhoodandwaslargelyself-taught.Wollastongrewupinafamilywithfourteensiblingsandenjoyedacomfortablepathtoacademicsuccess.Tennant,fiveyearsolder,wasahumorousandkindlyman,untidyinhiswork,oftenindecisiveabouthisprojects,yetalwaysproperlyobservantoftherulesofexperimentalmethodandreportingwhenhedidfinallysettleonacourseofaction.Wollastonwaspreciseandself-controlledalmosttothepointofobsession–itwassaidhecouldwriteonglasswithadiamondascriptsosmallthatitcouldonlybereadusingamicroscope.Hewasalsosecretiveandeccentricandnotalwayseasytogetalongwith.Thefruitoftheircollaborationwastobeasubstantialfortunefromtheplatinumenterpriseandapermanentplaceintheannalsofscience,aseachmanwouldaddtwonewchemicalelementstothethirty-fiveorsothenknown.Butthewayeachchosetoannouncehisrespectiveelementaldiscoveriestotheworldwouldreflecttheirdifferenceintemperament.

OnChristmasEve1800,thetwomenboughtupnearly6,000ouncesofriver-dredgedplatinafromadisreputablevendorwhohadprobablyobtaineditsmuggledviatheBritishWestIndiesfromNewGranada.Thepurchasecost

them£795,ahandsomesum,butthequantitywasvast,andplatinumwasasyetfarcheaperthangold.Iftheysucceededinconvertingthisheapofgreycrumbsintolustrousmetal,theywouldbeveryrichmen.

Wollastontooktheleadinthiscommercialproject,dissolvingtherawmaterialapoundatatimeinaquaregia,thenreactingitwithammoniumsaltstoformaprecipitatewhichcouldbeheatedtoreleasethepreciousmetal.However,hisingotsturnedoutbrittleandwerenouseforfurtherwork.Tennantmeanwhileexaminedthesmallamountofblackresiduethatalwaysremainedbehindwhenthenativeplatinumwasdissolvedinaquaregia,quicklybecomingconvincedthatitwasnotmerelygraphiteasothershadsupposed,butmetallicinnature.Byextractingtheblackpowderandcarefullytreatingitwithvariouspowerfulreagents,hewasabletoobtainnewprecipitatesofdifferentcoloursandapungentoilyliquid.Theseprovedtobecompoundsoftwonewmetals,whichTennantnamediridium(aftertheGreekforrainbowbecauseofthecoloursofitssalts)andosmium(fromtheGreekforsmell).TennantwascloselypursuedinthisworkbyFrenchscientists,buthadwiselytakentheprecautionofsharinghishunchthattheresiduewasmetallicwithSirJosephBanks,thePresidentoftheRoyalSociety,therebyensuringthathewasrightfullyacknowledgedasthediscovererofbothelements.

Wollastonfollowedsimilarproceduresinexperimentswiththeplatinum-richliquorproducedbytheaquaregia.Hetoonoticedanunexpectedprecipitate,whichhesoonsatisfiedhimselfcontainedyetanothernewmetal.HethoughttocallitceresiumaftertheminorplanetCeres,whichhadbeendiscoveredafewmonthsbefore,butthenoptedforthenamepalladium.However,ratherthanpublishorcommunicatethenewsofhisdiscoveryinformallyasTennanthaddone,Wollastonwaiteduntilhehadamassedasignificantquantityofthenewmetal–andthenmadehiseccentricdecisiontoadvertiseitforsaleinsmallportionschargedatfiveshillings,halfaguineaandoneguinea.

WhenChevenixcommunicatedtheresultsofhisinvestigation,itputWollastoninaquandary.Hewasnowunabletoclaimthediscoverythatwashisduewithoutadmittinghissubterfuge.Instead,heissuedanotheranonymouscommuniqué,thistimeinachemicaljournal,offeringarewardof£20tothepersonwho,beforeajuryofthreechemists,couldmaketwentygrainsofpalladium.Nobodyseemstohaverisentothechallenge.Meanwhile,hequietlywentonwithhisresearches.Hisnextdiscoverywastoofferhimawayout.Furtherexperimentswiththerawplatinaandaquaregiayieldednewrose-colouredsalts,indicativeofanothernewelement,whichWollastonnamedrhodium.Thistime,therewouldbenofoolishnessabouttheannouncement.HisfriendTennanthadrecentlygivenhisownpaper,formallyannouncinghisdiscoveryofiridiumandosmium.WollastonfollowedhisexampleandreadouthispaperonrhodiumtotheRoyalSocietyinJune1804.Hedidnotusetheoccasiontodisclosethemysteryofpalladium,butafewmonthslater,hewroteagaintothejournalwherehehadadvertisedhisreward,explainingthatitwashewhohadsecretlydiscoveredpalladiumandoffereditforsale,puttingforwardasexcuseforhisbehaviourthatchemicalanomaliesobservedatthetimeofthepalladiumdiscoveryhadpreventedhimfromannouncingitthen,andthathehadresolvedtheseanomalieswiththesubsequentdiscoveryofrhodium.Thiswas

notquitetrue,butitdidenableWollastontosaveface.Thenewelementsatlastexplainedthebrittlenessoftheplatinumingots.

Armedwiththisknowledge,Wollastonpressedonwithhismanufacturingprocessandeventuallyobtainedavaluableproduct.Overthenextfifteenyears,hebuiltatidybusinessconstructingplatinumboilingvesselsforuseinchemicalfactoriesandotherspecialistdevices.Wollastononlyrevealedthedetailsoftheprocessamonthbeforehisdeathin1828whenheknewhewassufferingfromafatalillness.

Overtheyears,WollastonandhispartnerTennantpurchasedsome47,000ouncesofnativeplatinaandproduced38,000ouncesofmalleableplatinum–aboutabathfull–aswellas300ouncesofpalladiumand250ouncesofrhodium,enoughtofillapintglasswitheachmetal.Someoftheplatinumwasformedintocruciblesforscientificexperimentsorrodsfordrawingintowire,butmostofitwenttogunsmiths,whousedthemetaltoimprovethecontactpointsofflintlockpistolswhereitwascheaperandmoreeffectivethanthegoldtheyhadbeenaccustomedtousingforthepurpose.WollastonandTennantboughttheirplatinaatatypicalpriceoftwoshillingsforathousandounces,andsoldpureplatinumatsixteenshillingsanounce–a6,000-foldincrease!ThesecrecythatnecessarilyattendedtheperfectionofthishighlylucrativeprocesssimplyappearstohavewarpedWollaston’sjudgementwhenitcametothediscoveryofpalladium.

Wollaston’scareerprosperednevertheless.Hismomentarylapseofscientificprotocolwasforgiven,andhewonadmirationforfurtherdiscoveriesinchemistryandopticsaswellasforhisplatinumprocess,fromwhichhemayhavemadeafortuneof£30,000ormore,equivalenttoquiteafewmillionpoundstoday.Chevenix,disheartenedbytheepisode,renouncedscience,marriedaFrenchcountessandturnedtowritinghistoricaldramas.

TheOchreousStain

Earthlypowermayarisefromthepossessionofgold,butirononceradiatedcelestialpower.Lumpsofitfellfromthesky–theystilldo.Theseironmeteorites,giftsofpuremetalhandeddownfromtheheavens,heldaninstantsacredappeal.Insomeancientbeliefs,theskyitselfwasmadeofmetal.Ilmarinen,theEternalHammererofFinnishmythology,wassaidtohavehammeredoutthefirmamentatthedawnoftime.Amythforagrey-skiedland.

Havingfallenfromtheskyevidentlydirectedbynothingotherthandivinewill,theseaerolithsrepresentedheavenonearthmoresatisfactorilythananyterrestrialmaterialorartefactsanctifiedbyman.Worshipmusthavebegunlong

beforeitwaspossibletothinkofworkingthemetal:therewouldhavebeenlittleelsetodowiththemysteriousburnishedmassesthantoplacetheminthetemples.Butinmoretechnologicaltimes,ironalsothrowsdownamoralgauntlet.AccordingtotheQur’an(Sura57:25),Godsentdownmessengers,scriptureandlaw;‘AndWesentdownironinwhichismightywar,aswellasmanybenefitsformankind,thatAllahmaytestwhoitisthatwillhelp,unseen,HimandHismessengers.’

TheHaydenPlanetariumattheAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistoryinNewYorkishometosomeofthelargestironmeteoriteseverfound.OneprizeistheWillamettemeteorite,afifteen-tonneblack-and-silverlumpthesizeofasmallcarandcontouredlikeapieceofpopcorn.Itisalmostpuremetal–ironwithafewpercentofnickel–polishedbythetouchofvisitorsoverthecourseofthecenturythatithasbeenondisplay.Visitingthemuseumoneday,Ifinditcrowdedroundbychildrenlikeatreeinaplayground.Itouchthemeteorite,andrealizethatIhavedonesoentirelycasually.Ifeelnomagic–unlikethetimewhen,atanothermuseum,IwasluckyenoughtobeallowedtoholdinmyhandatinymeteoritethathadfallentoearthhavingfirstbeenblastedoffthesurfaceofMars.OthervisitorstouchtheWillametteirontoo,withcuriosityandadmiration,withrudefamiliarityorcasualindifference,butnotwithspecialreverence.Paradoxically,itisthemuseumsettingthatmakesthisremarkableobjectseemordinary,justoneamonghundredsofspectacularexhibits.IstruggletoreimaginethemetalmasslyinginthecraterofitsownmakingdeepintheOregonforestwhereitwasfound.There,itcouldonlylookalien,trulyanobjectfromanotherworld,agiftfromthegods.

Themeteoritewasfoundbychancein1902byaWelshimmigrant,EllisHughes,onlandbelonging,fittinglyperhaps,totheOregonIronandSteelCompany.Overaperiodofmonths,Hughesdugoutthemassivelump,constructedacartandtransportedittheshortdistancetohishouse.Claimingtohavefoundthemeteoriteonhisland,hechargedpeopletwenty-fivecentsatimetoseethecuriosity.Unluckily,oneofhisvisitorswasthelawyerforOregonIronandSteel,whosuspectedthattheironhadbeentakenfromcompanyland.Hughesdulylostthecomplicatedlegalcasethatfollowed,andthecompanygainedpossessionofthemeteorite,latersellingittothedonorwhogaveittothemuseum.

TheWillamettemeteoriteisdeeplypittedfromcenturiesofcorrosioninthehumidwoods.Thebestironmeteoritestendtobefoundnearthepoles,wheretheyarepreservedinice.In1818,theBritishArcticexplorerJohnRosswassurprisedtocomeacrossInuithuntersusingsteeltools.Hesuspectedtheirmetalwasmeteoriticinorigin,butitwasnotuntil1894thatanAmericanexpedition

ledbyRobertPearyfoundthesource–threeofagroupofmeteoritesthathadbeennamedbytheInuitaccordingtosize:‘tent’,‘man’,‘woman’and‘dog’.Withagreateffort,Pearyretrievedthethirty-one-tonne‘tent’,whichisalsonowintheAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistoryalongwith‘woman’and‘dog’.Thefourthofthegroup,‘man’,wasonlyfoundinthe1960sandwastakenfordisplayinCopenhagen.

Thereisadeliciousironyhere:inordertorecoverthemassiveironmeteoritesthathefoundintheArcticicePearywasobligedtobuildarailway.Itsconstructionmusthaverequiredtheimportofaquantityofironfarinexcessofthemassofthemeteorites–proofthatcelestialironretainsitspowerovertheterrestrial.

Ironmeteoritesmademightyobjectsofworship.Butwheresheersurvivalwasthepriority,thepracticalvalueofthemetalcouldnotbeignored.Foralongtimebeforeitwasdiscoveredthatitcouldbeextractedfromterrestrialores,thismetalfromheavenwashumankind’smainsourceofiron.Meteoritesfallrarely,however,andsoinsocietiesfromancientEgypttotheAztecs,ironwasappreciatedforitsutility,yetatthesametimeoftenregardedasmorepreciousthangold.Objectsforgedfromitsuchasswordswerefunctionallysuperiortoanyalternative.SomeBedouinbelievethatamanarmedwithaswordofmeteoriticironbecomesinvulnerableandall-conquering–somethingquiteplausiblegiventhesuperiorqualitiesofthealloy.Buttherawmaterialwasneverabundantenoughtoequiparmies,andsotheseweaponswerereservedforritualratherthanpracticaluse.Thefolkmemoryofatimewhenforgingironmeantworkingwithmaterialfromheavenbeginstoexplainthemythicpotencyofironandthesmithswhohavemasteryoverit.

Itwasaround5,000yearsago,probablyinMesopotamia,thathumankindgainedtheabilitytosmeltironfromwidespreadterrestrialores.Gradually,reverenceforthesecelestialobjectswasreplacedbysheerincredulity.Wellintothenineteenthcentury,eventhemostlearnedsocietiesscornedtheideathatlumpsofpuremetalcouldsimplydropfromtheskies.Ononeoccasion,theFrenchAcademyofSciencespassedavotethatironmeteoritesdidnotexist.Onlylaterwerenewtechniquesofanalysisabletoconfirmtheirother-worldlynature.Specifically,ironmeteoritestendtocontainasignificantproportionofnickel,whichindicatesthattheycannothavebeenmadefromterrestrialores–theyareineffectakindofstainlesssteel.Indeed,whenalloysteelwasfirstproducedwithnickelitwasmarketedinrecognitionofitssuperiorpropertiesas‘meteorsteel’.Conversely,ifnickelisabsentfromtheironinanancientobject,thistellsthearchaeologistthattheironmusthavebeensmeltedfromore.

AlthoughthewordsforallthemetalsinlanguagesderivedfromLatinaregenderedmale(neuterinGerman),itisquiteclearthatthesubstancesthemselvesconnotegenderquiteindependentlyofthislinguistichappenstance.Goldandsilverarelinkedwiththesunandmoon,whicharealmostuniversallyregardedasmaleandfemale.InGreekmythology,forexample,thesungodApolloisclothedingold,andhissisterArtemishuntswithasilverbow,andfortheIncasthemoonwastheincestuousbrideofthesun.Otherancientmetalsmaybemoreambiguouslygendered–mercury,forexample,isthefemaleprincipletosulphur’smaleinChineseandWesternalchemicaltheory,yetislinkedtothemalegodShivainHindutradition.However,nometalismoreclearlymasculinethaniron.

WhentheSovietpresscalledMargaretThatchertheIronLadyforherpersistentoppositiontocommunismshetookitasacompliment.Ironhasalwaysindicatedstrengthandtoughness–qualitiesalmostsynonymousineverydayusage,butwhichhaveratherprecisemeaningsinmaterialsscience.Themetalisgenerallyhard,whichmeansthatitchangesshapeonlyveryslightlywhenlargeforcesareappliedtoit,butitisalsolessductileandmalleablethantheotherancientmetals.Itisthisunbendingquality,notsimplyitshardness,thatdrives‘iron’asametaphor.Churchill’sinspiredcoinageofthe‘ironcurtain’drawsonthisphysicalandattitudinalinflexibility,aswellasmakingslyreferencetoStalin,anomdeguerremeaning‘steel’.Wellington,ontheotherhand,earnedhisnicknameastheIronDukenotthroughmilitaryprowessbutforputtingironshuttersonthewindowsofhisLondonhomeasprotectionagainst‘themob’.

Iron’smasculinityisreinforcedbythemetal’seminentsuitabilityformakingweaponsofwar.However,thisisnottosaythatfashioningaserviceableswordwasaneasybusiness.AtSuttonHooinSuffolk,anAnglo-Saxonroyalburialsiteuncoveredin1939,archaeologistsfoundthehelmet,madefromasinglepieceofiron,thoughttohavebelongedtoKingRaedwald,whodiedaround625CE.Theyalsofoundhisswordandshield,thoughlesswellpreserved.Thebladeoftheswordwaspattern-welded,aprocessthatinvolveslayeringsheetsofirontogethertobuilduptheshapeoftheblade,andwhichoftenresultsinafinedecorativepatternatthesurface.Inthisway,desirablepropertiescanbedirectedwheretheyareneeded–extremehardnesstowardstheedgeoftheblade,butadegreeofflexibilityinthecoresothattheweapondoesnotshatteruponimpact.Theskilloftheforgerlayinhisintuitiveknowledgeofwhentoincorporatemorecarbon,obtainedfromthecharcoalofhisfire,intothemoltenironto

produceahardersteel.TheSuttonHoovisitorcentrehasarrangedadisplayofironsheetsandrodsofthekindthattheswordsmithwouldhavestartedwith.Theylooklikenewgreyplasticine.Butwithouttheheatoftheforge,Ifindithardtocomprehendhowtheymightbetransformedintosuchabeautifulweapon,ortosensethepatient,repetitiveactionsofheatingandsoftening,hammeringandquenching,withtheirimpliedcycleofdeathandrebirthbyfire,thatwouldhaveendowedtheswordwithritualsignificance.

Thelong-timerarityofironandthetechnicaldifficultyofforgingitmadeblacksmithingatradeofgreatprestigeandmystique.Thesmithywasaplaceofhellishfireandstenchfromthesulphurreleasedbyunconvertedore.WaylandorWieland,theblacksmithgodoftheAnglo-Saxons,likeHephaestusinGreekmyth,isoftenrepresentedasbanishedalongwithhisforgetoanislandbecausehisworkissorepulsive.Yetthesmithhimselfisthemasterofanecessaryartandisknownforhisingenuityaswellashisskill.Ilmarinen,forexample,inFinnishmythology,isaninventoraswellasasmith.

Swordsmadeofironwerethusexceptionallypreciousartefacts–fartoopreciousforuseinrealbattle–anditisnaturalthattheywereseenaspossessingmythicqualities.Althoughthemetallurgyoftheseweaponsisnotalwaysexplicit,itseemsthatExcalibur,theswordofArthurianlegend,wasmadeofiron–thenamemayderivefromtheWelshcaled,meaninghard,orfromtheGreekandLatinwordforsteel,chalybs.Sigurd’ssword,Gram,inNorsemythologyisirontoo.IroncraftsmanshiphasbeenraisedtoahighartinJapan,whoseislandsarepoorlysuppliedwithcopperforbronze,orwiththemetalsregardedaspreciouselsewhere.Kusanagi,theseventh-centuryswordthatispartoftheimperialregaliaofJapan,isthusalmostcertainlymadeofiron,althoughitisimpossibletoknowastheobject,oritsreplica,iskeptinashrinewhereitisforbiddentobeinspected.

NotcontentwiththesceneinDasRheingoldwheretheheroSiegfriedforgessuchamagicsword,WagneralsobegananoperabasedonthelegendofWielandtheBlacksmith(aswellasanotherbasedonE.T.A.Hoffmann’sstory‘TheMinesofFalun’,setinSweden’svastcopperfields,whichwewillhearmoreoflater).WhenexcerptsfromdocumentssupposedtobeHitler’sdiarieswerepublishedandthensensationallyrevealedtobeforgeriesin1983,itwasoneofthemoreplausibleaspectsofthehoaxthatHitler,anavowedWagnerite,shouldhavetakenuptheunfinishedtask.

Thoughironhaslongbeenaccordedwarlikemaleattributes,itisonlywiththeadventofmodernscientificmethodsthatithasbeenpossibletoprovethatthe

redofbloodandofironoreareduetothesamecause.Yettheconnectionseemstohavebeensensedlongbefore.WhenSiegfriedslaughtersthedragonFafnerwiththeswordhehasmade,helicksthedragon’sbloodthathasspiltontohishand.Theblood,likethesword,confersmagicalpowers,andtheheroissuddenlyabletounderstandthebirdsintheforest.PerhapsevenIrn-Bru–‘madeinScotlandfromgirders’,accordingtotheadvertising–appealsinpartbecauseitflirtswiththetabooagainstdrinkingblood,althoughtheamountofironitcontainsisminuscule,anditsrustycolourismainlyduetoEnumbers.

Thoughnotedoftenenough,themetallictasteofbloodwasonlyexplainedinthemideighteenthcentury.Itisastoryseldomfoundinhistoriesofscience.Yettheexperimentwassimple,andseemstohavebeenfirstperformedbyVincenzoMenghini,aBolognaphysician,around1745.Heroastedthebloodofvariousmammals,birdsandfishaswellashumans.Hethenpokedamongthesolidresiduewithamagneticknifeandwaspleasedtofindthatparticlesofitwerepickedupontheblade.Fromfiveouncesofdog’sblood,heobtainednearlyanounceofsolidmaterial,thebulkofitbeingmagnetic.(Hepresumablyobtainedsimilarresultsusinghumanblood,althoughaccountsdonotexplainhowhegotholdofit.)

Theexperimentisveryeasytorepeat:placeinaramekinatablespoonofblood(Idrainedmineoffapackoffrozenchickenlivers)andpartiallyevaporateinalowoven.Transferthesludgyresiduetoasmallcrucibleorothercontainerabletoresistheatandroasttodryness.Scrapeouttheresidueandgrindtoacoarsepowderuntilitresemblescoffeegrounds.Spreadthepowderonasheetofpaper,andpassamoderatelystrongmagnetcloselyoverit.Afewparticleswillbeliftedontothemagnet.

ThiswasclearlytheresultMenghinihadbeenexpecting.Butthequestionthenarises:whydidhethinkironwouldbepresent?ItcanonlybebecausetheassociationofironandMars,bloodandwar,originatinginGreekandRomanmythology,wassosecurelyrootedinthealchemicalorthodoxyofthetime,eventotheextentthatthosesufferingfromdisordersofthebloodweresometimesrecommendedtotakeironsalts.Furtherevidencethatithadlongbeentacitknowledgethatironandbloodwereconnectedinsomewaycomesfromthenameofoneofthemetal’sprincipalores,haematite,asixteenth-centurycoinage,theprefixhaem-,beingderivedfromtheGreekforblood.

Menghinitoowentontomakeuppreparationsrichinironwhichhefedtohumanandanimalsubjects,afterwardsobservingtheenrichmentoftheredbloodcells,therebyprovingthatthecolourwaslinkedtoiron.Hisresearchmadeavitalcontributiontowardsexplaining–andcuring–chlorosis,adiseasecharacterizedbyagreenishpalloroftheskin,whichonlythenacquiredits

presentnameofanaemia,froman-plushaem-,meaningwithoutblood.Iron’sassociationwithMarshasequallyconfusedbeginnings.Itwasnatural

enoughformysticsandphilosopherstoseekcorrespondencesbetweenthesunandthemoonandthefiveobservableplanetsandthesimilarnumberofancientmetals.Butintheabsenceofacompetentmetallurgyitwasimpossibletodecidewhichmetalswerepureandirreducibleratherthanmixtures.Asaconsequence,brass,bronzeandalloysusedforcoinswereoftenplacedonanequalfootingwithgold,silver,leadandtin,whilethespecialalchemicalstatusofmercurymeantthatitwasnotatfirstlinkedwithaplanetatall.InPersia,ironwasfirstlinkedwiththeplanetMercury.OnlymuchlaterdidWesternalchemistsreassignMercurytoitselementnamesake,freeingirontopairwithMars.

WhenwasitfirstthoughtthatMarsmighthaveamorematerialconnectionwithiron?Theinventionofthespectroscopein1859enabledscientiststoanalysethelightemittedbyluminousbodies,leadingtothediscoveryofseveralnewelementsidentifiedbythesignaturecoloursoftheirflames.Aspectrumislikearainbowinwhichonlyafewbandsofcolourappear.Eachelementhasacharacteristicatomicspectrum,duetotheabsorptionandemissionoflightassociatedwiththeuniqueenergylevelsofitsorbitingelectrons.Theseearlyspectroscopes,however,wereonlysensitivetoemissionsoflight,suchasfromlaboratoryflamesorfromthesun.Theywerenotabletosayanythingaboutthelightreflectedfromnon-luminousobjectsthatgivesthemtheircolour.Scientistsmightspeculatethattheredplanetwasrichinironore,butitwasnomorepossibletocheckthisthanitwastoprovethatthemoonwasnotmadeofcheese.Andatthetimewhentheymightprofitablyhavebeguntoinvestigatethequestion,inthelastyearsofthenineteenthcentury,manywereinanycasedistractedbytheplanet’swhite,earth-likepolesandthesupposed‘canals’crisscrossingitssurface.

Itwasnotuntilspacecraft–Vikingin1976andPathfinderin1997–landedonMarsthattheoriginofthecolourcouldatlastbeexplained.Ratherthanthedarkblueexpectedfromitsthinatmosphere,theyfoundtheskytobethecolourofbutterscotchowingtoduststorms.Theplanet’ssurfaceiscoveredwiththesamefinedust,composedoftheironoxideminerallimonite.RecentanalysisofdatafromtheMarslandershasindicatedthattheconcentrationofironontheplanet’ssurfaceisgreaterthanitisinthecrustbelow,suggestingthattheironmayhaveoriginatedfrommeteoritesratherthanasaresultofvolcaniceruptionsbringingmantlerocktothesurface.

Itisrarethatsciencefindsitselfinapositiontovindicatesuperstitiousbelief,butithappenedtwicewiththerevelationofironinbloodandonMars.

Irontodaybringstomindnotveneratedmeteoritesormagicswords,buttheengineeringachievementsoftheIndustrialRevolution.TheRomanshadmadegooduseofthemetalforweapons,toolsandconstruction,butitwasnotuntil1747,whenitwasfoundhowtousecoalwithirontomakesteel,thatthemetalreallytookover.Inthatyear,RichardFord,whohadinheritedAbrahamDarby’spioneeringironfoundryatCoalbrookdaleinShropshire,showedthatitwaspossibletovarytheamountofcokeorcoaladdedtotheoreinordertoproduceironthatwaseitherbrittleortough.Thegreatercontrolofthemetal’spropertiesachievablebytheadditionofsmallamountsofthiscarbonallowedirontobemanufacturedforverydifferentuses,fromthestructuralbeamsofgreatbridgestothecogsandwheelsofsteamenginesandspinningmachines.

Themosttransforming,extravagantandjoyousexpressionofthenewironagewastherailroad,aninnovationwhosedebttothemetalisrecordedinpracticallyeverylanguageexceptEnglish:chemindefer,Eisenbahn,ferrovia,víaférrea,järnväg,tetsudou.Theironwayswiftlymadethiselementamorevisiblesymbolofpowerthangoldeverhadbeenorsiliconeverwouldbe.SentimentalpoetsnaturallyreadtheIndustrialRevolutionasadestructiveforceanduseditsironasachiefsignofitsenslavingeffect.Asearlyas1728,JamesThomson,theScotresponsibleforthewordsof‘RuleBritannia’,bewailedthelossofthepoeticgoldenagein‘theseirontimes’.Blake’slongpoem‘Jerusalem’positivelyclankswithsuchreferences,asinthissharptiradeagainstbothscienceandthetechnologytowhichitgivesrise:

ODivineSpirit,sustainmeonthywings,ThatImayawakeAlbionfromhislongandcoldrepose;ForBaconandNewton,sheath’dindismalsteel,theirterrorshangLikeironscourgesoverAlbion.

Butitwasn’tallbad.IthinkAldousHuxleystrucknearerthemark,when,inEyelessinGaza,hecommentsashiscentralcharacterembarkswithchildlikedelightuponatrainjourney:‘Themalesoul,inimmaturity,isnaturaliterferrovialis.’(Thatistosay:boysbynatureloverailways.Huxley’stypicallycleverallusionistotheearlyChristianwriterTertullian’sbeliefthatthesoulisbynatureChristian,animanaturaliterchristiana.)Romanironmighthavebeenthematerialofshacklesandchains,butVictoriansteelopenedupnewterritory,crossedoceansandbroughtpeopleintocontact;itliterallybuiltbridges.ThemagnificentcastironbridgethrownacrosstheSevernnearCoalbrookdalein

1779isnowaUNESCOWorldHeritageSite.TheMenaiStraitsuspensionbridgedesignedbyThomasTelfordin1819usedwroughtironchainstospanachannel166metreswide.ThismettherequirementoftheBritishAdmiraltythatshippingbefreetopassunderneath,somethingthatwouldhavebeenimpossiblewithabridgebasedonstonepiers.Thirtyyearslater,RobertStephensoncompletedasecondironbridgebasedonatubularboxdesignthatwouldcarrytheheavierloadofasteamlocomotiveacrossthestraitinarectangulartunnel.Betweenthem,thetwostructuresdemonstratedthelightweightstructuralgymnasticsthatwerepossiblewithproperlyengineerediron.FromJosephPaxton’sCrystalPalacetoIsambardKingdomBrunel’sGreatEastern,westillregardtheseengineeringachievementswithrealwonder.Buttherailwayabovealloccasionedexcitementatthetime–thinkofTurner’stumultuouspaintingofatrainrattlingalongaviaduct,Rain,Steam,andSpeed–andstilloccasionsfondnessinthememory.

Astheironmeteoritesthatfelltoearthnowshow,wherethereisiron,rustisneverfarbehind.Rusthasitsownpotentsymbolism,linkedtoitsdistinctivebloodycolour,andproportionatetothepowerofiron.Astheriseoftheindustrialagehadbeenaccompaniedbyimagesoffresh-forgedironsoitsdeclinewastobestreakedwithrust.ThebandofAmericanstatesfromMichiganeasttoNewJerseybecameknownastherustbeltastheirsteelyardsandmetal-bashingindustriessuccumbedtoforeigncompetition.Theimageofrustmightbeexpectedtobeanentirelynegativeone.Butnotso.Justastheloveofruinsstemsfromthevicariousthrillofimaginingthecollapseofourowncivilization,sothecorrosionofironandsteelbacktothemorenaturalformofrustappearstopromiseanArcadianreturn.EvenattheheightoftheIndustrialRevolution,JohnRuskinlongedtoseetimeandentropydotheirwork.In1858,hegavealectureatTunbridgeWells,wherethefamousspringwaterwasapttoturnrusty,commendingthe‘ochreousstain’whichhesaidshouldnotbeseenas‘spoilediron’butastheelementinits‘mostperfectandusefulstate’.(Heignoredanobvioustautologyforthesakeofhishappyphrase,sinceochreissimplyironoxideanyway.)

Ruskin’ssentimenthasbeenenthusiasticallyendorsedbymodernsculptorswhosepreferenceisoftenforsteelwithaninstantpatinaofrust.AntonyGormley’sAngeloftheNorthinGatesheadembracesmultitudeswithitswidemetalwings.ThesteelfromwhichitwasbuiltrecallstheheroicshipbuildingforwhichTynesidewasfamous(ironicallyfromaroundthetimeofRuskin’slecture),buttherustplainlyrecordsitsdemise.RichardSerra’sgreatarcsof

rustedsteel,too,strikemeassalutaryremindersthatourfeatsofaccomplishmentareonlytransient.Mostsquatingalleriesandcitysquares,butattheLouisianaMuseumoutsideCopenhagen,IdiscoveranotherSerraslabspanningawoodedgulch.Itisakindofinverseoftheachievementofthatfirstgreatironbridge–avalleyblocked,notcrossed,itsironnotpreservedfromnaturebutlefttodecomposequietlyintothefallenbeechleaves.Iwalkuptothebrownwallandtapittoreassuremyselfthatmetalliesunderneath.IrubmyfingersalongitasRuskinmusthavedonetosomealreadyneglectedVictoriandevicetocapturetheochreousstain.Thecolourtastesofblood.IwonderiftheMartianmeteoriteI’dheldwouldtastethesame–thetasteofhumanbloodinastonefromMarsgeneratedfromcelestialiron.

TheElementTraders

Thestartingpointforthisbookwasmyadolescentcollectionoftheelements.Iprobablynevergotpastthirtyorfortyoutofthehundred-pluscompleteset,harvestingthemfromroundthehouse,evenwiththehelpofoneortwomoreelusivesubstancesstolenfromschool.Iamnotanaturalcollector.ButasIsettoworkthistime,Ibegintorealizethereisquiteacommunityofpeopleouttherewhohavestuckwithitandwhohavenotonlycompletedtheirset,butmadeitintoaproject,amissionandevenabusiness.

Theyareabettedinthisbytheinternet.Theperiodictableprovidestheperfectmap,afamiliarvisualmnemonicthatleadsdownmanyrabbit-holes.PetervanderKrogt,ageographerattheUniversityofUtrechtandacartographichistorian,clearlyappreciatesthis.Hiswebsitegivestheetymologyandthehistoryofthediscoveryof112elements.(Thesitealsoincludesalinktohiscollectionofcarlicenceplatesandcoinswithmapsonthem.)Onanotherwebsite,TheodoreGray’speriodictableisamasterpieceofthecarpenter’sart–hewillevensellyouaperiodictabletable.Thestoryofeachelementliesontheothersideofanengravedwoodenportal.Oncepastthistimberthreshold,therearebeautifulimagesoftheelementanditsmineralsanddetailsofwhereandhowheobtainedthem.Thesourcesaresometimesexotic,butmoreoftenveryordinary:hisceriumcomesfromacamp-firestarterboughtfromWalmart,hisbromineintheformofsodiumbromideusedtosaltthewaterinhot-tubs.Healsoacceptsdonations.‘Alotofpeopleseemtohaveanelementortwointheirattic,’henoteslaconicallyonthesite.‘Bytheway,ifyouhaveanydepletedUraniumfromAfghanistan,Icoulduseit.’

MaxWhitbyandFionaBarclayhavemademorethanahobbyoftheelements.Theyareelementtraders,supplyingfellowenthusiastslikeGraywith

specimensofthepureelementsfromtheirmewsstudio-cum-laboratoryinaformerchocolatefactoryinWestLondon.WhitbyisaformerdirectoroftheBBC’sTomorrow’sWorldprogramme.Hesetupabusinesspublishingmultimediabeforegoingbacktoschoolandrediscoveringhisscientificroots.Hehasrecentlybeenawardedadoctoraldegreeforresearchincarbon‘nanopipes’,thetinyrollsofgraphitethatarecurrentlyoneofthehottestfieldsofchemicalinvestigation.FionamanagesacompanycalledBird-Guides,whichproducesexactlywhatitsnamesuggests.TogetherthetwohavecombinedtheirintereststoproducelavishnaturalhistoryDVDs,and,ontheside,runtheirtradeintheelements.

WemeetforlunchatalocalgreasyspoonservingimprobablyauthenticThaifood.MaxandFionahavecomeprepared.Outontothetablecomesamplesofvariousmetallicelements,solidlumpsthesizeandshapeofthirty-five-millimetrefilmcanisters.Iaminvitedtoguesswhattheyare.Magnesiumandtungstenareeasyenoughtotellapart,butothershavemestumped.Somanyaresimilaratfirstglance,withthesamegreysheen.However,closerinspectionrevealsslightdifferences.Thelighttheyreflectissubtlydifferentincolour–somemetalshavethebaresttingeofpink,oryellow,orblue.Thesurfaceshaveallbeenpolishedsmooth,butaccordingtothewaythemetalsnaturallysolidify,theyvaryinappearance,somebeingalmostmirror-likewhileothersareslightlygrainy,hintingatadistinctivecrystallinemicrostructure.

Itiswhenyoupickupthespecimensthattheyreallystarttoseparatethemselves.Youstartoutwithafairlyclearideaofwhatyouthinkalumpofmetalthatsizeshouldweigh–informationyou’vegatheredoveralifetimefrom

shufflingcoinsorhandlingkitchenutensils.Butthesemoreunusualspecimenssoonconfoundthoseexpectations.Some,likethetungsten,areastonishinglyheavy,andafewaresoimprobablylightthatyoudoubttheycanbemetalatallandwonderiftheyarecunninglydisguisedplastic.Liftingtheminturn,youunlearnwhatyouthinksubstancesoughttoweighandlearntobesurprisedeachtimebyhowheavyorlighteachsampleiscomparedwiththelast.Theyfeeldifferentagainsttheskin.Somearewarmtohold,othersseemtosucktheheatfromyourhand.Theysmelldifferenttoo,somemetalstaintedbythegreaseofprevioustouchings,othersmaintainingacitruscleanness.AsIpickuponesampleafteranother,IamdisappointedathowmanyIgetwrong.Itakesomeconsolationfromthefactthatthebarissetprettyhigh.Onespecimenisablockofhafnium,anelementmainlyusedtomakecontrolrodsinnuclearreactors.Whatoneartharetheydoingwithit?‘Contemplatingit,’saysMax.

Whytheelements,Iask.‘Ilikethewaythetableexplainsourworld.Eachallocationisalittlebitofourcivilization,’Maxsuggests.ForFiona,it’saboutcollectiblesets–‘birds,butterfliesandelements’.

Thetrickistobuytheelementsinbulk,astheyaretypicallysuppliedforindustry,andthentomeltthemdownandremakethemintomoreattractiveforms.Mostenthusiastsprefertheirmetalelementspreparedasshinybeadsthatshowtheirlustretogoodeffect.Others,Germancollectorsespecially,forsomereason,wantmorenatural-lookingspecimens,andcreatingthesemayinvolveheatingandcoolingpiecesoftheelementinsuchawaythattheyformlargecrystals.

Perhapsthirtyoftheelementscanbeboughtoverthecounter,ifyouknowtherightcounter.Magnesium,forexample,issoldbyships’chandlersforuseas‘sacrificialanodes’placedbelowthewaterlinewheretheycorrodeinpreferencetoothermetalpartsofthevessel.Max’srawmagnesiumisthesacrificialanodeofanoiltanker,awhoppinglumpthesizeofahipbath.Rarermetalsusedascatalystsaresoldintheformofpowder.MaxandFionachopandmouldtheserawmaterialsintotheprettierformsthatcustomersappreciateas‘elementsastheytrulyare’.Whetherthisisastheytrulyareisamootpoint,ofcourse.Butdiced,sautéedandservedupintheseways,theelementsarecertainlydeliciouslytransformed.Theinertgasescomeindischargetubesbentintotheshapeofthelettersoftheirrespectivechemicalformulae.Themostreactiveorpoisonouselementscomeinsealedampoules–subjecttoshippingrestrictions.Evenradioactiveraritiessuchasradiumandpromethiumareofferedforsale,intheformofglowinghandssalvagedfromoldwristwatchesandsafelyencasedinresin.

Theirclientsincludeschoolsandchemicalcompanies,forwhomthey

constructbeautifuldisplaysofelementsandtheircompoundspigeonholedintoilluminatedboxes.Butanothersignificantportionoftheirbusinesscomesfromobsessiveindividuals.Radiologistsareprominentamongtheircustomers:perhapsthedependencefortheirworkontheabilityofradioactiveformsofcertainelementstodecayintootherelementsleavesthemcravingtheapparentfixityoftheperiodictable.Forothersitisundoubtedlythefinitudethatappeals.Acompletesetoftheelementsisafteralltheultimatecollection:fromityoucouldinprinciplemakeanythingfoundinanycollectionanywhere.

Theyshowmebeadsofraremetals:rhodium,ruthenium,palladiumandosmium.Alltheseelementsarecloselyrelatedtoplatinumandshareitsseriousgreylustre.Theylookextremelysimiliar,althoughdetailedexaminationrevealsslightvariationsamongthem.Icanseethatosmium,forexample,hasadistinctlybluetingecomparedwithitspreciousneighbours.Iheftthepiecesinmyhand–thedensestofalltheelementsandthereforethedensestsubstanceknowntoexist.Icautiouslysniffthemtoo.Althoughosmiummetalisbenign,itsvolatileoxideisoneofthesmelliestandmostpoisonoussubstancesknown.IamrelievedtofindIcansmellnothing.In2004,osmiumtetroxidewasatthecentreofaterroristalarminLondon.Iaskifinnocentelement-tradingisn’tmadedifficultbecauseofsuchthings.Maxadmitshehasbeenvisitedonceortwicebythe‘nuclearpolice’.‘Theywereverynice.Theygaveussomeadviceonhowtoimproveourinventory.’

MaxandFiona’staskforthedayistoprettifysomeindustrialmolybdenum.Molybdenumisagoodexampleofthemanyelementswetendtohearlittleabouteventhoughtheyarenotrareandareoftenquietlyuseful,thisonebeingemployedmainlyinspecialiststeelalloys.Theystartwithafewpiecesofdullgreymetalinpowderformpressedintocakeratherthancastingotsorforgedbars.Molybdenumhasoneofthehighestmeltingpointsofalltheelements,andsothenextstageisquiteapalaver,requiringapowerfulelectricfurnace.Thefloorofthefurnaceisacopperplatewhichwillitselfbepreventedfrommeltingundertheextremeheatbycoldwaterrunningunderneathit.Aroundthisiswhatlookslikeaglassbelljar,butisinfactaprotectivescreenofquartz,whichmakesatransparentcircularwall.Thewholecontraptionisnobiggerthanapressurecooker,butseemsable,likeanElizabethantheatre,tocontainworlds.

Unexpectedly,therearethreechemicalactorsuponthecopperstage:smallpiecesoftungstenandtitaniumaswellasthemolybdenum.Fionaopensthevalveonanearbygascylinderthatpumpsinertargongasthroughthechamber.Maxswitchesonthecurrent–453amps,fedfromathrummingelectricwelderofthetypeusedinbuildingsteelbridges.Thetungsten–theonlyelectricalconductorthatwouldnotmelt–servesasthe‘striker’thatwillcompletethe

circuitandignitetheflame.Next,thesmallpieceoftitaniumissacrificedinwhatfeelslikearitualbutissimplyaprecautionarywayofmoppingupanyoxygenremaininginthechamberwhichmightotherwisespoilthemolybdenum.ThenMaxbringstheflametoeachchunkofgreymolybdenuminturn.Viewingtheproceedingsthroughathickplateofdarkglass,Iseethemetalgloworangeandpuckerupintoabead.Theorangefadesaseachbeadcoolsbefore,miraculously,abrightgleamseemstoforceitswaythroughthesootysurface.Thethreeelementshaveallrespondeddifferentlytotheirshock–onetransformed,onedestroyed,oneunmoved.Thedramaiscomplete.Whentheyhavecooled,Maxtricklestheshiningbeadsofmolybdenumintomyhand,dimpledlikeovercookedpeas.Theyarebrighterthanironandalittlegreyerthanchromium.Ituckthemawaytoaddtomyownperiodictable.

AmongtheCarbonari

Aslongagoas1939,amanstylinghimself‘TheLastCharcoalBurner’wassaidtobemakinghislivingbysupplyingthegrillroomsofLondonhotels.Yethewasnotthefirstpretendertothistitle,northelast.ObadiahWickensofTonbridgeinKentandHarryClarkofEastSussexeachpurportedtobethelastbeforehim.AndintheForestofDean,EdwardRoberts,whohadbeencallinghimselfthelastcharcoalburnerasearlyas1930,wasstillplyinghistradeinthe1950s.Perhapsitislonghoursspentponderingthestifledflameoftheirfiresthatinspiressuchdoomyclaims.

Thesedays,Iamabletofindacharcoalburnerwithoutdifficulty.ItwouldevenbestraightforwardtotrackonedowninmyownthinlywoodedcountyofNorfolk,butinsteadIhavechosentopayavisittoJimBettle,whoworksinthewoodsofBlackmoorVale,whereThomasHardysetTheWoodlanders.Thisbookhasindelible,thoughnotexactlyfond,memoriesforme,beingthenovelIwasrequiredtostudyforOLevel.JimpicksmeupnearhishomeinHazelburyBryan,andwedriveforafewmilesbeforeturningupahillsidetrackandpassingthroughlockedgatesontoprivateroadsuntilwereachthewoodwhereoneofhiskilnsshouldbereadyforemptying.

InalateadditiontotheprefaceofTheWoodlanders,Hardyrespondedmischievouslytothemanyenquirieshehadreceivedfromreadersregardingthelocationof‘LittleHintock’,thevillagewheretheactionofthebooktakesplace.Evenhedidnotknowquitewhereitwas;hesaid:‘ToobligereadersIoncespentseveralhoursonabicyclewithafriendinaseriousattempttodiscovertherealspot;butthesearchendedinfailure.’AlthoughtheacademicwisdomhasitthatLittleHintockisbasedonavillagecalledMinterneMagnasomemilesto

thewest,JimhasreasontobelievethattheplaceisinfactTurnworth,whichisthehamletnearesttowhereweareheading.

UnlikeHardy’swoodlanders,whowereobligedtoscrapealivelihoodfromthelivingfuelthatgrewaroundthem,Jimturnedtocharcoal-burningbychoice.Havingseenthatthelocalgolfcoursesandestateshabituallyjustburntwoodoffaswaste,hefelthecoulddobetter,andbegantoinvestigatepotentialmarketsforlocallypreparedcharcoal.In1996,heboughthisfirstkilnandwentintobusiness.JimrecountsaconversationwithhisBusinessLinkadvisor,whowasfullofadmirationforhisambition,butspoilttheeffectsomewhatwhen,afteranhour’sdiscussion,sheaskedhimwherehewasgoingtobedigginguphischarcoal.‘It’samazinghowmanypeopledon’tknowthatcharcoaliswood,’hesays.Charcoalisalmostpurecarbon–purerthanmostcoal–andwhenefficientlyburntreleasesmoreheatthanwoodburntinanopenfire.Itisalsolargelylackinginthesulphurandoilsthatmakecoalsounpleasant.

Wearriveatourdestination,BonsleyWood,highonthehillsouthofBlandford.Jim’skilnisasteeldrumtwoorthreemetresindiametercoveredbyathinsteellid.Rounditsedgeareeightlittlehatchesthatcontroltherateofburningoncethefireisset.Itsitsharmoniouslyenoughinahazelclearing,itsrustwallsblendingwiththeautumncolours.Jimandhishelperswilltypicallysetupakilnwherethesurroundingwoodtobecoppiced–undergrowthofhazel,birchandashmostly–willsupportadozenormoreburns.Thentheywillmoveittoanotherlocation.Theydothistwoorthreetimesduringtheseasonwitheachoftheirkilns.ItismidOctoberwhenwemeet,andthisparticularkilnwillnowbeputtobedforthewinter;the135thburnoftheyear.Otherwoodsareburnttomakecharcoalforspecialistmarkets:artistsfavourwillowcharcoal;laboratories,whichusecharcoalasaneutralabsorbent,preferpine.Manufacturersofpyrotechnicsbuyseveraldifferentcharcoalstogivetheirexplosivemixturesjusttherightoomph.

Eachkilnhascapacityforatonneandahalfofwoodbutwillyieldonlyaquarterofatonneofcharcoal.Thissimplefactofcharcoal’sphysicalnatureimmediatelyexplainstheitinerantlifeofthecharcoalburner.Itisfarmoreefficientforhimtoburnthewoodwherethewoodgrowsthantotransportitforburninginsomeremotepermanentkiln.Thisinturnconfershismarginalpositioninsociety,amanapartfromthecommunity,alwaysonthemove,hiddenbytrees,andperhapsofnofixedabode.

Thewoodiscarefullyarrangedforeachfiring.First,acoreofcharcoalfromthepreviousburnispiledupinthecentre.Longtimberscalledrunnersarethenlaidoutfromthetopofthisheaptowardstheventstoensureanairwaytotheheartofthefire.Afterthat,othertimbersarecarefullylayeredin,interleaved

withmorecharcoal.Smallerpiecesofwoodareplacedtowardstherimofthekiln,andlargeronesatthecentrewhereitishotter,sothatallthewoodburnsevenly.AlthoughJim’skilnsaresteel,thiscarefulselectionandarrangementofthewoodandcharcoalispartofthetraditionalmethodofcharcoal-burningthatgoesbacktoancienttimes,whenthewoodwasstackedinashallowpitdugintothegroundandthencoveredwithturftocontroltherateofburning.

Thefireislitbyignitingthecharcoalatthecentreandallowedtoflareupbeforethesteellidisputon.Thisrestrictstheamountofoxygenletintothekilnandpreventsthecarboninthewoodfrombeingconsumedaltogetherandconvertedintocarbondioxidegas.Fromnowon,thereisnoflameandverylittlesmokeasthewoodiscarefullyburnttocharcoal.Therateofburnisgovernedbytheeightventsaroundthefootofthedrum,whicharealternatelyfittedwithlongchimneyssothattheyactasflues,orleftalonetoserveasairintakes.Jimandhismenswapthechimneysroundduringthecourseoftheburntoensurethatallthewoodinsidethekilnreceivesequalheat.

Atthekilnwearetoempty,thefirewassettwodaysagoandthenstarvedofallairfromthefollowingmorning,whichhasgivenittwenty-fourhourstocool.Jimandahelperliftoffthelid.ThecharcoalisnotallblackasIhadexpected.Freshlyprepared,itliesinlargesmoothlimbswithasheenlikebrushedsteel.Manypiecesstillholdtheshapeofthebranchortrunkofthetreethatwentin.Insomecases,itisalmostpossibleformetoidentifythespeciesoftimber.Thejobissimplytoreachintothekilnandliftoutthepieces.Twistedinthehands,theybreakintofragmentssuitableforbaggingasbarbecuefuel.Thecharcoalisindeedsurprisinglylight–Ifindittakesmanygatheredhandfulstofillaten-

kilogrammepapersack.Itmaybetoomuchtoclaimthatcharcoal-burningisundergoingarevival.

ThereareonlyafewscoremenlikeJiminthecountry.‘It’squitechallengingtoremaininbusiness,’Jimadmits.Importedcharcoal,consumerignoranceandcentralizedpurchasingbytheretailersaresomeoftheproblems.Buttheeconomic,environmentalandmoralargumentssurelylieinhisfavouroverthelonghaul.DemandforcharcoalhasrisengreatlyinBritainaspeoplehavebecomemoreenthusiasticaboutbarbecues,but,Jimclaims,morethanninetypercentofthecharcoalsuppliedforthismarketcomesfromabroad,muchofitastheby-productofuncontrolledtimberextractioninthetropicalforestsofWestAfrica,South-eastAsiaandBrazil.Jim’stimberissustainablysourced–hehasacoppicingleasefromtheForestryCommission–buthesaysitwouldcosthissmall-scaleoperationtoomuchtogettheaccreditationthatwouldallowhimtoprovethistoconsumersbyputtingtheForestSteward-shipCouncilsymbol(seenonthecopyrightpageofthisbook,forexample)onhischarcoalsacks.Meanwhile,BritishbarbecuechefsunwittinglyplaytheirpartintherazingoftheAmazon,unawarethattheveryword‘Brazil’referstoburnttimber,thecountryhavingbeennamedbythePortugueseafterbrasa,meaning‘hotcoals’,inreferencetotheredofthebrazilwoodtreesthatarebeingclearedatarateof10,000squarekilometres(fourtimestheareaofDorset)everyyear.

TryingtosurviveinbusinesshasnecessarilyturnedJimintosomethingofanenvironmentalcampaigner.Butperhapsthereisalsosomethingaboutthecommodityhedealsinthatkindlestheactivistinhim.Forblackcarbon–charcoalorcoal–hasalwaysbeenstuffforrebelcauses.Itiswonbythepoortowarmtherich.Aslongagoas1662,JohnEvelyngaveadiscoursetohisfellowmembersoftheRoyalSocietyontreesandwoodlandculturecalled‘Sylva’,inwhichhenotedthatallthecharcoalmadeintheforestswentforiron,forgunpowderandfor‘LondonandtheCourt’.(Evelynknewhisbusinessashisownfamilyhadalicencetomakegunpowderforthecrown.)

Thereisalwaysafrissonbetweenthegettersandtheconsumers,thewinnersofthefuelandthewinnersintheend,thatremindsusthatenergyispower.Coalminers’strikesaretraditionallythebloodiestandmostintractableofallindustrialdisputes.InTheRoadtoWiganPier,GeorgeOrwelllionizescoalminersasthe‘grimycaryatids’proppingupthenationaleconomy.Hisfamousdescription,bothadmiringandappalled,ofacoalminepaintsthemenas‘splendid’,thequantitiesheftedas‘monstrous’,thenoiseas‘frightful’,butthecoalitselfasmerelyblack,anundifferentiatedcommoditytobeattackedand

demolished.InLadyChatterley’sLover,D.H.Lawrence’sConnie,LadyChatterley,fears‘theindustrialmasses’andholdstheminersinaweanddread;theyare‘Faunaoftheelements,carbon,iron,silicon…Elementalcreatures,weirdanddistorted,ofthemineralworld!’EmileZola’snovelGerminalgivesagraphicportraitofthecollier’slifeinnineteenth-centuryFrancewithabitterstrikeattheheartofitsstory.Afterthedefeatedminershavereturnedtowork,theeldestsonoftheprincipalfamilyiskilledinanundergroundexplosion,andhisbodyisbroughtuptothesurface,reducedto‘blackcharcoal,calcined,unrecognizable’.Wearewhatwemine.

Charcoalburnersandtheforestersforwhomtheyoftenworkexcitesimilarfearsandadmiration,themoresosincetheyatleastappeartooperatewithadegreeofautonomy,butalsobecausethewoodswheretheyfreelywanderhavealwaysbeenthedomainofoutlaws.Inthemedievalperiod,theforeststhatcoveredmuchofBritainbelongedtotheking.‘Forestcourts’decreedseverepenaltiesrangingfromdeathfortakingtheking’sdeertoblindingorcastrationforlesseroffences.Eventhetakingofwindfalltimberwasforbiddenafterthekingusurpedcommoners’traditionalrightsandtookcontrolofevermorewoodlandforhunting.Charcoalburnersneededaroyallicencetoburntimberforfuelandforuseinforgingiron.Charcoal-burningwasthusoneofthefewmoreorlesslegitimatethingsonecouldclaimtobedoingintheforestifchallengedbytheking’smen.

TalesofRobinHoodaboundwithdisguises,includingdisguisesascharcoalburners.AmoreauthenticatedmedievalstoryconcernsFulkFitzWarin,aShropshiregentlemansentinchildhoodtothecourtofHenryII,laterdispossessedanddriventoliveasanoutlaw.Atcourt,hequarrelswiththeboyprinceJohn.Later,whentheoutlawedFulklearnsthatJohn,nowking,isnearbyinWindsorForest,hedisguiseshimselfasacharcoalburnerinordertolurehimdeeperintothewoods,sayingthathehasseenamagnificentstag.Whenhehasthekingathismercy,heforceshimtopromisethathewillrestorehisinheritance.Johnreignedatthebeginningofthethirteenthcenturyanddecreedthattheforestforgesbeshutdown,perhapsafteronetoomanyencountersofthissort.MagnaCarta,theEnglishbillofrightsthatKingJohnwasforcedtoacceptin1215,wasmotivatedinpartbypopularrejectionofthesedraconianwoodlandpowers.

Theideaofstrangemenfromthewoodspassingoutgiftsprobablystrikesusascreepytoday,butitisathreadthatrunsfromthemythofRobinHoodtotheoriginallygreen-robedSantaClaus,whoarisespartlyfromthe‘greenman’ofpaganreligion.Theassociationisnotonlywiththetreesbutwiththeircombustionproducts.IntheBasquecountry,SantaClaustakestheformofthe

fatcharcoalburner,Olentzero,whobringswoodentoysthathehascarvedinhischarcoalsack.

TheredistributionofwealthandpowerwasalsooneobjectiveoftheCarbonari,revolutionaryprecursorsoftheRisorgimentothatwouldleadtotheunificationofItalyin1871.TheybeganasasecretsocietyintheKingdomofNaples,formedtoresistFrenchoccupationduringtheNapoleonicWars,takingtheirnamefromtheItalianforcharcoalburner,carbonaro.Theirflagwasred,blueandblackforcharcoal,onlylaterbecomingthered,whiteandgreenofmodernItaly.TheimpulsesoftheCarbonariwerepatriotic,liberalandsecular.AfterthedefeatofNapoleon,theydirectedtheireffortsagainsttheirnewover-lords,theAustriansandthealliedPapalStates.Themovementspreadand,in1820,afteranumberoffaileduprisings,theCarbonaristagedpatrioticrebellionsinseveralItaliancities.ShortlyaftereightintheeveningofFriday8December1820,thepoetLordByron,thenlivinginRavenna,wascaughtupinoneofthesedramaswhenapowerfullocalCarbonarichiefwasassassinated.InDonJuan,hedescribes–‘Thisisafact,andnopoeticfable’–howheheardshotsandranoutofhishometofindthemanlyinginthestreet:‘forsomereason,surelybad,/Theyhadslainhimwithfiveslugs’.Thoughhedistanceshimselffromthecrime–‘Themanwasgone:insomeItalianquarrel’–ByronwashimselfactiveintheCarbonarimovement,havingbeenelectedacapo,andwasinvolvedinbuyingandstoringarms.

TheCarbonariorganizedthemselvesalongsimilarlinestothefreemasons.TheideathattheyworecharcoalsackingandthattheirleadersatonathronemadeofacharcoalbundlewasmerelyaninspiredpieceofinventedtraditiontogowiththeromanticimageoffreemenplottinglibertyandindependenceintheforestsoftheAbruzzi.Inreality,theywerefarmersandlabourers,butalsotailors,andevenmembersofthejuniorclergy,whomerelyfeltacertainsolidaritywiththesooty-facedpractitionersofoneofthemostancientcrafts.TheItalianCarbonarowasasignorantofcharcoal-makingasthefreemasonisofstonework.

Carbonenjoysitseconomiccentralitynotbecauseitistheonlyfuel,butbecauseitistheonlysolidfuelwiththeconvenient,andinfactessential,propertythatitburnsawaytonothing.In1860,MichaelFaradaydevotedoneoftheRoyalInstitutionChristmaslectureseriesthathehadmadefamousto‘TheChemicalHistoryofaCandle’andexplainedtohisyouthfulaudiencehowtheproductofallcarboncombustioniscarbondioxide,agasthatleavesnoresidue.Nearlyfiftyyearsbefore,hehimselfhadseenthisdemonstratedinthemostdramaticfashioninFlorencebyhismentorHumphryDavy,whoburntadiamondawaytonothingusing‘thegreatburningglassoftheGrandDukesofTuscany’.Inthisbehaviour,carbonisunlikealmostallothercombustiblematerials.Ifcarbonleftbehinditthesolidwastethatmetalsleavewhentheyburn–thatistosay,anoxideheavierthantheoriginalmaterial–thevolumeofwastefromourhearthswouldbeinsupportable.

Gasthoughitis,evencarbondioxidehastogosomewhere,ofcourse.Faradayrecognizedthischemicalquirkasaneconomicmiracle,buthewasnotinsensitivetowhatwewouldnowcallthecarbonemissionsoftheVictoriancity.‘Acandlewillburnsomefour,five,six,orsevenhours.What,then,mustbethedailyamountofcarbongoingupintotheairinthewayofcarbonicacid[carbondioxide]!’Amaninadayconvertssevenouncesofcarbonfromsugarinhisbody,Faradaycalculated,andahorseseventy-nineounces.‘Asmuchas5,000,000pounds,or548tonnes,ofcarbonicacidisformedbyrespirationinLondonaloneintwenty-fourhours.’Faradaymarvelledthatplantswereabletotakeupallthiscarbondioxide,ignorantashewasofthelevelofthegasalreadybuildingupintheearth’satmosphere.London’scarbonemissionsaretodayestimatedas44milliontonnesofcarbonayear,220timestheamountdueto

respirationaloneinVictoriantimes.

PlutoniumCharades

GlennSeaborgwasarguablythegreatestelementdiscovererofthemall.Heproducedplutoniumin1940,curiumandamericiumin1944,berkeliumandcaliforniumin1949and1950andhadahandinseveralothers.HistallysurpassesthatofWilliamRamsay,whodiscoveredtheinertgases,andbeatstheserialdiscoverersofnewmetals,HumphryDavyand,moresignificantlyperhaps,thegreatJönsJacobBerzeliusofStockholm.

ForSeaborg,likesomanydiscoverersoftheelements,hadSwedishbloodinhisveins.Hisfather’snamewasAmericanizedfromSjöberg,hismotherwasSwedish,andSwedishwasthefirstlanguageinthehousewherehegrewupinIshpeminginnorthernMichigan,aregionoftheUnitedStatesfavouredbyScandinavianimmigrantswhomustimmediatelyhavefeltathomewalkingalongearthenstreetsofpackedironore.

Seaborg’shigh-schoolyearshadbeenpunctuatedbynewsofchemistsaroundtheworldexcitedlyclaimingtohavefoundthelastfewelementsthatwouldplugtheremaininggapsinMendeleev’speriodictable.Thenamestheyproposedinvariablydeclaredageographicallegiance:alabamine,russium,virginium,moldavium,illinium,florentium,nipponium.BythetimeSeaborgwasseventeenandgraduatingfromschoolin1929,theperiodictableseemedcompleteuptouranium,withninety-twoprotonsinthenucleusofeachatom,andthereforeatomicnumberninety-two.Althoughsomeoftheseclaimswereerroneousoratleastpremature,itwaseventuallyconfirmedthattheelementswenowknowastechnetium,astatine,promethiumandfranciumhadbeensuccessfullysynthesizedinradiationlaboratories.

Seaborgwasexcitedbythenewrealmontheborderofphysicsandchemistrywherechemicalelementscouldbetransformedintooneanotherandtowhichthesepowerfullaboratoriesheldthekey.Assoonashecould,hewasdoinghisownradiationexperiments.WhilestillagraduatestudentattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,forexample,hebombardedtelluriumwithdeuteriumatomsandneutronsinordertoconvertitintoaheavyisotopeofiodinewhoseradioactivepresencecouldbetracedandusedtomonitorthefunctioningofthethyroidgland.TumourscouldthenbefoundbyusingaGeigercountertolocatethehotspotswheretheiodineconcentrated.Workingwithtelluriumisalwaysunpleasant–thecompoundthatitformswithhydrogenislikehydrogensulphide,withitsinfamousrotten-eggssmell,butfarmoreoffensive.Later,Seaborgmanagedtodelegatethetelluriumchemistrytohisownstudent,

whohadgreattroubleriddinghimselfofthestink.Daysafterwards,itwasevenpossibletotellwhichlibrarybookshehadbeenconsultingfromtherevoltingodourtheyexuded.

Seaborgwasnotcontenttoleavehisexperimentsintransmutationoftheelementsatthat.Herealizedthattheapparentceilingonthenumberoftheelementswasonlyamatterofpower.Thestrongnuclearforcethatbindsneutronsandprotonstogethertoformthenucleiofatomsisonlystrongoverextremelyshortdistances.Inlargeratomicnuclei,themutualrepulsionofthepositiveelectricchargesoftheprotonsbecomesmoreimportant.‘Atsomepoint,thetwoforcescouldequalize.Noonehadrealizedthatthismightbewhywehadfoundnoelementsinnaturewithmoreprotonsthanuranium’s92,’Seaborgwroteinamemoir.

Theobviousthingthenwastobombarduraniumwithparticlesandseewhetheranyofthemstuck.Byearly1939therewereotherreasonstodothis.Theworldwasarmingrapidlyinpreparationforglobalwar.AtomicfissionhadbeenreportedbyOttoHahninNaziBerlin.Hahnhadbombardeduraniumatomswithneutronsandfoundnotmerelysmallparticlesbreakingoffasinanaturalradioactivedecaychainbutwholeatomssplittingintwo–hewasbaffledtofindbarium,justoverhalftheatomicmassofuranium,amonghisreactionproducts.Hisbafflementsubsidedsomewhatwhenhislong-timecollaborator,theJewishLiseMeitner(withwhomhehaddiscoveredtheelementprotactiniumin1918,andwhowasnowinexileinSweden),madecalculationsthatconfirmedthetruthofwhathehadseenbutnotbelieved.Shealsonoticedthatheavyuranium,whoseatomscontainedmorethantheusualnumberofneutrons,couldbeexpectedtosplitintoatomsoflessmassiveelementswiththereleaseofhugeamountsofenergy.Seaborg’scolleagueEdMcMillansoonmadesimilarobservations,whichledhimtotheconclusionthatnotalltheuraniumatomssplitinthisway,andthatsomemightsimplybeabsorbingtheneutrons.Ifso,theywouldbetransmutedintoatomsofanewelement,numberninety-three.Thissuppositionwassoonconfirmedandthediscoverypublishedin1940.Bythistime,Europewasatwar,andtheopenpublicationofsuchpotentiallystrategicinformationprovokedafuriousreactionfromtheBritish.Itseemsthattheonlythingthatwaskeptquietwastheelement’sname:McMillanhadchosentocallitneptunium,followingtheprecedentofuranium,eventhoughtheplanetNeptunehadbythenbeenknownfornearlyacentury,butthisinformationwasnotmadepublicuntilafterthewar.

Seaborg’sresearchintoelementnumberninety-fourwastoproceedbycontrastunderacloakofsecrecy.Neptuniumhadtooshortahalf-lifeformanyapplications,andcertainlyformakingwhatwasnowbeingreferredtoasan

‘atomicbomb’(althoughH.G.Wellsseemstohavecoinedthephraseinhis1913novelTheWorldSetFree).Buttherewasreasontothinkthenextelementinthesequencewouldbedifferent.TheresearchbeganatBerkeley,butfollowingtheAmericanentryintothewarandthesettingupoftheManhattanProject,thelocusoftheefforttosynthesizeplutoniummovedtoChicago.Seaborgworkedhereforthreeyearsuntil1945inabuildingcalled,withdeliberateobfuscation,theMetallurgicalLaboratory,orMetLab.Thefirsttaskwastobuildanatomicpileinwhichslugsofuraniumwerestackedinsuchawaythattheywouldundergoachainreactiontoproduceelementnumberninety-four.Atthestart,thesought-forelementwasreferredtosimplyas94,but,asthiswasalittleobvious,thechemistsbrightlyadoptedthecodenumber49insteadandtooktocallingit‘copper’.Thiswasfineuntiloneexperimentactuallyrequiredsomecopper,whichthenhadtobedistinguishedbycallingit‘honest-to-Godcopper’.

ThenewelementwasisolatedinAugust1942.Seaborgwrote–ratherself-consciously–inhisjournalabout‘themostthrillingday’intheMetLab:‘Ourmicrochemistsisolatedpureelement94forthefirsttime!Itisthefirsttimethatelement94(oranysyntheticelement,forthatmatter)hasbeenbeheldbytheeyeofman.I’msuremyfeelingswereakintothoseofanewfatherwhohasbeenengrossedinthedevelopmentofhisoffspringsinceconception.’

Next,theoffspringhadtohaveapropername.Extremiumandultimiumwererejected,wiselyinviewofthechemicalandmilitaryeventsthatweretounfold.SeaborginsteadfollowedMcMillan’sexampleandtookadvantageofthefactthattherewasoneplanetinthesolarsystemleftforinspiration,Pluto,whichhadbeendiscoveredin1930.‘Webrieflyconsideredplutium,butplutoniumseemedmoreeuphonious,’hewrotelater,insistingthattheplanetshadbeenhisonlyguideinchoosingasuitablename.WhenhewasremindedthatPlutoisalsotheRomangodoftheunderworldandofthedead,Seaborginsistedthatanysuchsymbolicmeaningwas‘entirelycoincidental;Iwasunfamiliarwiththegodorwhytheplanetwasnamedforhim.Weweresimplyfollowingtheplanetaryprecedent.’

Ithinkthechemistproteststoomuch.Seaborghadliteraryleaningsatschoolandcamerelativelylatetoscience.ItseemsimpossiblehecouldhavebeenunawareofPluto’sdarkermeanings.Certainly,histhinkingwasmoreknowingwhenitcametothechemicalsymbol.‘Eachelementhasaone-ortwo-letterabbreviation.Followingthestandardrules,thissymbolshouldbePl,butwechosePuinstead,’heexplained.P.U.–peee-euggh–wasandisAmericanslangforastink,somethingobjectionable.‘Wethoughtourlittlejokemightcomeundercriticism,butitwashardlynoticed.’Forcertainkeyworkersonthe

chemicalsideoftheManhattanProject,therewaseven‘theUPPUclub’–youpeeplutonium.Toqualifyformembershipyouhadtohavehadenoughexposuretoplutoniumforittoshowupinyoururine.

SeaborghadhisfirstmicroscopicspeckofplutoniumbyAugust1943,ayearafterhehadisolatedthefirstinvisibleatoms.Anotheryearlater,hisreactorswereproducingmassesofagrammeormore,whichwerestockpiledatLosAlamos.Withtheneedtopressonandcompletethebuildingofthebomb,therewaslittletimeformeditationonthethrillofdiscovery,andstilllessformuchconsiderationofwhatplutoniumwasactuallylike.Inmostcases,thediscoveryofanelementisfollowedbyarushofchemistskeentomeasureitsproperties,testitsreactivityandprepareitscompounds.Inthecaseofplutonium,itwasimportanttoverifycertainhighlytechnicalparameterstodowithitsnucleardecay.Butbeyondthat,nobodyseemedtocare.Eventhename–theusualsignofprideinwhatonehasbroughtintotheworld–hadtowaitbeforetheworldcouldknowit.Attheendofthewar,someoftheManhattanProjectworkersandtheirwivesgottogetherforagameofcharades,whichconfirmedthatsecrecyhadbeenmaintained:‘Whenthehusbandstriedtoactouttheword“plutonium,”thewivesweremystified;they’dneverheardofthestuff.’

ThenaturalchemistinSeaborgreappearedmuchlater.Ina1967reportcalledwithperhapsunintentionalpoetryTheFirstWeighingofPlutonium,hedescribedhisnewchemicalelementwithobviousawe:‘Plutoniumissounusualastoapproachtheunbelievable.Undersomeconditionsitcanbenearlyashardandbrittleasglass;underothers,assoftasplasticorlead.Itwillburnandcrumblequicklytopowderwhenheatedinair,orslowlydisintegratewhenkeptatroomtemperature…Anditisfiendishlytoxic,eveninsmallamounts.’Despiteallthis,Seaborgfondlybelievedthatplutoniummightonedayreplacegoldasamonetarystandard.Maybehereallywasobliviousofallplutoniansymbolism.

Thepotencyofplutoniumwas–andstillis–feltinanothersphere,ofcourse.Afewpoundsoftheelementisenoughforanatomicbomb,makingitfarmoreefficientthanthealternativefissileisotopesofuranium.WernerHeisenbergandotherGermanscientistswereawarein1941thatelementnumberninety-fourmightbeapowerfulnuclearexplosive.However,itseemsthattheAlliesneverseriouslyentertainedthepossibilitythattheNazismightbeworkingonplutonium,whiletheGermansdidn’trealizethattheAllieshaditeither.Ifeithersidehadknownoftheother’sinterestandtakenitsimplicationsintoaccountintheirmilitaryplanning,thewarmighthaverunaverydifferentcourse.

Plutonium,anelementwhichhardlyanybodyhasseen,hasmovedswiftlytooccupythedemonicspacetraditionallyreservedforsulphur,atfirstbecauseofitsuseinthebombandthenbecauseofgraduallydawningpublicawarenessof

thedifficultyofgettingridofit.Theradioactivehalf-lifeoftheisotopemainlypresentinplutoniumnuclearwasteis24,000years,whichmakesplanningforitssafedisposalanissuethattranscendsnormalengineeringconsiderations.AnystoragestructuremustbesuretooutlastthePyramidsandmustcommunicateitsdeadlycontentsinawaythatissuretobeunderstoodbycivilizationsthatwillsucceedourown.

Asabuddingchemist,IonceappliedforasummerjobatwhatwasthengrandlycalledtheAtomicEnergyResearchEstablishmentatHarwellinOxfordshire.ItwasherethatIhadmyfirstandonlyencounterwithplutonium.Theauraofpowersurroundingtheelementwasmadeapparentwhen,asaconditionofemployment,IhadtosigntheOfficialSecretsAct.Wasitthespartanaccommodationtheywantedtokeepsecret,orpossiblytheclapped-outmilitarybusthatferriedustowork?IpassedthejourneysknowinglyreadingCatch-22asthebuscougheditswayalongtheweedyrunwaysofthewartimeairfieldwheretheresearchestablishmenthadpitchedcampafter1945.

Ifoundmyselfassignedtoworkinalaboratoryledbyapipe-smokingfigurewiththewindblownstrideofMonsieurHulot.Thelabwasdesignated‘red’,thethirdoffourlevelsofsecurity.ThismeantIwasclearedforlaboratoryworkondilutesolutionscontainingplutoniumandgottowearcanvasovershoeswhichweregoodforglidingalongthelinoleumfloors.Immediately,though,Ifeltafaintenvyofthosesummerstudentswhohadbeenassignedtoworkin‘purple’,theareasofhighestsecurity.Theobjectivewastoseehowplutoniummightbeabsorbedinmaterialwhichcouldthenbeturnedintoblocksofglass.Thisvitrifyingwasthoughttobeapromisingwaytosecurethewastefordisposalbymeansandinlocationsneverdiscussed.Myexperimentwasalwaysthesameandinvolvedpouringsolutionsof‘ploot’intocolumnscontainingthewhite

titaniumsandthatwastherawmaterialfortheglass.IhadnorealsenseofthedangersasIcarriedflasksoftheradioactiveliquidbackandforth.Itdidn’tglowgreenasitdoesinTheSimpsons,nordidIfindmyselfcarelesslyleavingworkwithtesttubesofitstuffedinmypocketsasHomerSimpsondoesattheSpringfieldreactor.(Idon’trecalleverbeingsearchedeither.)MyabidingmemoryisofthequiettediumasthesummerdaysslippedbywhileItransferredendlessreadingsfromthecolumnsofsandintocolumnsoffiguresonmustygovernmentstationery.ItwastheonlytimeIworkedinalaboratory.

Recallingthosedays,Ifeelanostalgicurgetoaddplutoniumtomyownperiodictable.Iammissingallthenaturalelementswithatomicnumbersbeyondeighty-two,lead;andofthoseaboveuraniumwhichhavetobemanufacturedartificiallyIhaveonlySeaborg’samericium,plunderedfromthemechanismofadomesticsmokedetectorwherethestreamofalphaparticlesemanatingfromitcompletesanelectriccircuitthatisonlybrokenifsmokeblocksthepath.Idon’tevenhaveapieceofthehighlycollectibleradioactiveFiestachinawaremadeintheUnitedStatesfromthe1930s,whosepapayaorangecolourarisesfromuraniumoxideusedinitsglaze.

TrackingdownaspecimenoftheelementIhadoncedecantedingushingquantitiesclearlyisn’tgoingtobeeasy.ThereactorsandresearchprogrammeatHarwellweregraduallywounddownduringthe1990s,amidaccusationsofcontaminationofthelocalwatersupplyand,ironicallyenough,poorwastedisposalpractices.AEATechnology,theprivatecompanythatinheritedthebusinessoftheUnitedKingdomAtomicEnergyAuthority,hasperhapswiselychangedtackandpositionsitself,slightlyimprobably,asacrusadingconsultancyonclimatechange.Itisunabletohelpme.ItryBritishNuclearFuels,theoutfitinchargeofBritain’snuclearwaste,butfindthetelephonenumberofitsdirectorofcorporatecommunicationsmysteriouslycutoffandlaterlearnfromitswebsitethatthecompany‘hasprogressivelydivestedallitsbusinessesandrundownitscorporatecentre’.

TheAmericansseemmoreopenaboutthesethings.JeremyBernstein’sbookPlutoniumthoughtfullyreproducesthespecificationoftheisotope239ofplutoniumthatisavailableforpurchasefromOakRidgeNationalLaboratoryinTennessee.Itissoldasoxidepowder,atleastninety-ninepercentpure.‘Thiswouldbesuperweapons-gradeplutonium.’Thereisatelephonenumberandanemailaddress,[email protected],plaintivelyaddingthatitwouldbeanicereminderofthehoursIspenthandlingplutoniumsolutionsasastudent.Thereplyisaspromptasitisadamant:‘Nowecouldnotofferasampleofplutoniumforanydisplay.’

Thisseemsalittlemean-spirited.Plutoniumappearstoberestrictedsimply

because,sofarasitsofficialguardiansareconcerned,theonlyconceivablereasonanybodycouldhaveforwantingitisiftheyareplanningtoaddtotheglobaltotalof23,000nuclearwarheadsbybuildingtheirownatomicbomb.Theelement’sviolentreputationisallthatseemstomatter;thefactthatitisalsoablamelessoccupantofthechemicalpantheon,simplyelementnumberninety-four,countsfornothing.

Besides,itisnotasifIwantalotofit.Theonecourseofactionlefttomeistopursuethislogictoitsultimateconclusion.IlearnthatIcaninfacteasilybuy‘plutonium’overthecounterasahomoeopathicremedy.Thepointofhomoeopathicremediesofcourse–incomprehensibletoanybodywithscientifictraining–isthattheycontainonlythetiniesttrace,orpossiblyevenpreciselynone,ofthestatedactiveingredient.SoPlutonium(HomoeopathicProving),aliquiddistributedbyHeliosHomeopathyofTunbridgeWellsinKent,presumablycontainsanextremedilutionofsomeplutoniumsolution,perhapsofthekindIonceworkedwithatHarwell.Itseemedperversetonameaproductdesignedtoappealtosoft-headedmysticsafterthechemicalelementthathascometobeseenasthedistillationofthehumanurgeforself-destruction.TheHeliosliteraturemakesawildstabatanexplanation:‘ThePandora’sboxofradioactivityhasbeenopenedandhasreleasedthedarkintothelight,’itsays.‘Torekindlethelightouronlyoptionistoenterthisdarksidefully.Theseradioactivematerials,plutoniuminparticular,affectthedeepestlevelsofthehumanbeing–bonemarrow,DNA,geneticstructure,innerorgans,andthedeepestemotions.’

Ishouldsaytheydo.Still,thefaretothedarksideisareasonablefourteenpounds.IdashtotheHeliosshopinCoventGarden.

‘I’dlikesomeplutoniumplease,’Iasksweetly.Theassistantlooksserious.‘I’llhavetoaskthepharmacist.’Thewhat?Iwonder,lookingupfromreadingthenonsensicalblurbonsome

remedy.Therearemutteredwordsfrombehindawalloflittlebrownbottlesbeforetheassistantreturns.ItseemstheshopdoesnothaveanyPlutonium.It’slistedonthewebsite,Ipointouthelpfully.Reluctantly,the‘pharmacist’emergesfromherlairandexplainsthattheyneverhaveit–notthatit’srestrictedorbannedinanyway,sheadds.IfIwanttoknowmoreIwillhavetotalktoheadoffice.Thenshebreakstheshopkeeper’scodeofdiscretionand,throughnarrowedeyes,demandstoknowwhyIaminterestedinPlutoniumanyway.IsayI’machemist,andthatI’dlikesomeplutoniumformyelementscollection.PerhapsIshouldhavesaidIwanteditincaseI’mstruckbysomeformoflate-onsetradiationsickness,butit’stoolate.She’sexultantathavingexposedanobvioushomoeopathysceptic.

AtTunbridgeWells,JohnMorganismorehelpful.‘Thereisnophysicalpresenceoftheelement,’hetellsme.Isupposethisisahomoeopath’sideaofaguarantee.‘Itisonlytheimprintofthatelement,’madebyaprocessof‘moleculardilutions’orperhaps‘radionically’,he’snotsure.‘It’sobviouslyimpossibletogotoasourcematerial.’Whenitwas‘proved’,theremedywasjudgedtobeparticularlyefficaciousindealingwithdepression.But,Morganaddsbrightly,‘Isupposeitcouldhelptorepairsomedamageifyouhadbeenexposedtoplutonium.’

Mendeleev’sSuitcases

BlackballedbytheRussianAcademyofSciencesandoverlookedinthefirstyearsoftheNobelPrizes,DmitriiMendeleevwasonlyproperlyrewardedforhisdiscoveryoftheperiodictablenearlyfiftyyearsafterhisdeath.Then,finally,in1955,honourwasbestowedinthemostfittingway,bynamingafterhimoneoftheelements–the101st–inthetable.Astonishinglyforthislatedate,Mendeleevwasthefirstfull-timechemisttobecommemoratedinthisway.Theelementsthatprecedemendeleviumintheperiodictable,fermiumandeinsteinium,arenamedafterphysicists,reflectingtheirgenesisinthegreatphysicsexperimentknownastheManhattanProject.Later,otherelements,too,wouldbenamedafterphysicists–Rutherford,Bohrandsoon.Theonlyelementscelebratingchemistsweregadoliniumandcurium,andevenMarieCuriewasasmuchaphysicistasachemist.Itisthechemists’misfortunethattheheydayofelementdiscoveryoccurredintimesmoreconcernedtoseehonourdonetonationandtoClassicalidealsthantotheirfellows.Today,theirchanceseemstohavegone.It

isunlikelynowthatwewillseedavium,berzelium,bunseniumorramsayon.Bornin1834,probablythefourteenthandlastchildofaSiberianfamily,

youngDmitriiwastakenbyhismothertoStPetersburginthehopesthatatleastoneofherchildrenmightimprovehimself.Likemanyaspiringscientistsoftheday,hetravelledtoGermanytocompletehiseducationonagovernmentsubsidy.HiskindisunfairlysatirizedinseveralnovelsbyTurgenev.However,foraRussianchemistofanyambitionthiswasnotdilettantismbutanessentialwaytocatchuponthelatestdevelopmentsinthescience.UponhisreturntoStPetersburgin1861,Mendeleevdividedhistimebetweentheuniversity,wherehesoonoccupiedthechairinchemistry,andexpeditionstoremoteregionsoftheUralsandtheCaucasus,whereheactedasaconsultantforthegovernmentandvariouscommercialinterestsoneverythingfromcheese-makingandagriculturalproductivitytothenascentoilindustry.

Theperiodictableisoneofthosediscoveriesofsciencethatsuddenlyexplainssomuchthatitseemsitcanonlyhavesprungfullyformedfromthemindofitscreatorasifrevealedinadream.Mendeleevobliginglyconcoctedamyththatthiswasexactlyhowhehadcomebyit.Butinthewayofthesethings,hisstoryofadreamcamealongratherlateintheday.Infact,ofcourse,theperiodictablearoseastheproductoflongcogitation.Mendeleevstruggledtofindawayofmakingsenseoftheelementsforstudentsasheworkedonamuch-neededintroductorytextbookintheRussianlanguage.Hewroteouttheknownelementswiththeiratomicweightsandsomeoftheirchemicalcharacteristicsonsixty-threecards.Thenhebegantogroupthecardsasifplayingagameofpatience,placingthelightestelementsinarowtobeginwith,butmindfulthatcertaincards,forexamplethoserepresentingthehalogenssuchaschlorineandiodine,seemedtobelongtogether.Hesoonfoundthatthelightestelementsofeachtypicalkind–thelightesthalogen,thelightestalkalimetal,andsoon–providedatemplateforplacingtheirheaviercousins.Thisbreakthroughwasmadeinthespaceofaday.Fromthere,itmightsimplyhavebeenamatterofinsertingalltheremainingelementsbeneaththetop-rowelementoftheirgroupinorderofincreasingatomicweight.Butthisistoreckonwithouttheambiguitiesamongthesixty-threesupposedlyknownelements,orthenumberofsubstancesthententativelyacceptedaselementsthatwouldlaterproveinfacttobesomeotherelementorcombinationofelementsentirely.BothofthesefactorsmadeitmuchharderforMendeleevtobesurehehadprovidedthebestfitforthescientificevidence.Theresulting‘AttemptataSystemoftheElements,BasedonTheirAtomicWeightandChemicalAffinity’finallyappearedinhistextbookPrinciplesofChemistryin1869,andonlythefollowingyear,moreconfidentlystated,inascientificpaper.Hecoveredhisbetsby

includingvariantsofthelayoutthataretodayforgotten,andthoughby1871hewascallingit‘periodic’,itwastobemanydecadesbeforeallthecardswereproperlyplacedintotheirfinal,familiarpattern.

ThedifficultyforeverybodyelsewasthatMendeleev’stableseemedtocomefromnowhere.Forseveralyearstherewasnotellingwhetheritwastrueorfalse.Whatcouldbe‘true’anywayaboutanarrangementofsymbolsonpaper?TheRussianclaimedhistablecouldbeusedtopredictimportantpropertiesoftheelementssuchasdensitiesandmeltingpoints,butthefactthatitdidthisfromanentirelytheoreticalstandpointwasmerelygristtothemillforhisopponents.

However,thecriticsweresilencedin1875whenPaul-EmileLecoqdeBoisbaudran,entirelyunawareofMendeleev’swork,announcedthathehaddiscoveredanewaluminium-likeelement,whichhenamedgallium.ItsatomicweightcorrespondedexactlytothevalueMendeleevhadassignedtoagapinhistabledirectlybelowaluminium,andeventhemodeofitsdiscovery–byidentificationofitscharacteristicspectrum–wasashehadpredicted.LecoqreportedadensityratherlowerthantheRussianhadestimated,butMendeleevbrazenlywrotetoLecoqsuggestingheprepareapurersample.Whenhedid,thedensityverycloselymatchedMendeleev’svalue,dramaticallyvindicatingtheRussian’stheoreticalscience.(Gallium’smoststrikingproperty,however,itslowmeltingpoint,hadbeenanticipatedbynoone–itmeltsinthehand,makingitonlythesecondmetal,aftermercury,readilyobservedintheliquidstate.)

Thestorywasrepeatedin1879,whenLarsNilsonatUppsalaUniversityfilledthespaceMendeleevhadleftbetweencalciumandtitaniumwiththediscoveryofscandium,andagainin1886,whenClemensWinklerattheFreibergmininguniversityintheore-ladenmountainsontheborderofSaxony

andBohemiaisolatedthesemi-metalgermanium,intermediateintheperiodictablebetweensiliconandtin,fromalocalmineralspecimen.

SubsequentprintingsofMendeleev’sPrinciplesfilledineachgapasthenewscamethrough,andthe1889editionwentsofarastoprintphotographicportraitsofLecoq,NilsonandWinkler,lionizingthemas‘reinforcersoftheperiodiclaw’.Thoughnowhonouredbymanyforeignscienceacademies,MendeleevwasneverthelessblockedfromhigherrecognitionattheStPetersburgAcademyofSciencesbecauseofconcernsabouthisanti-imperialpolitics,theseedsofwhichhadbeensowninhisSiberianyouthwhenhefellinwithagroupofexiledDecembrists,thefailedrevolutionarieswhotriedtotoppleTsarNicholasIin1825.Laterhewasforcedtoresignhisprofessorshipattheuniversity.Ironicallyenough,hequicklyfoundalternativeemploymentinadvisorypositionstothegovernment.

Forawhile,eachdiscoveryofanewelementdrewanappreciativeresponsefromMendeleevwhenitfittedintohisgrandplan.Butintime,moresophisticatedtechniquescamealongthatwereabletorevealnewelementswithunforeseenpropertiesthatcouldnotbesoreadilyembraced.WilliamRamsay’sdiscoveryoftheinertgases,beginningwithargonin1894,wasthefirstmajorinterrogationoftheperiodictableaftertwenty-fiveyearsofsuccessfulconsolidation.Mendeleevhadonceagainobservedthatthereweregaps,basedonatomicweights,betweenthealkalimetalsandthehalogens,butonthisoccasionthescarcelybelievableimplicationwasthatanentirefamilyofelementswasmissing,anditwaslessclearhow,orindeedwhether,thetableshouldbeamended.The1895editionofhisstillstandardtextbookenteredanoteofscepticismaboutthefirstreportsofargonandhelium.Therefollowedatetchycorrespondencebetweenthetwomen,withMendeleevatfirstrefutingRamsay’sclaimandsuggestingthathisnewgasargonwassimplyaheavyformofnitrogen.(Liketheozoneformofoxygen,whichcontainsthreeatomsratherthantwo,thisputativethree-atommoleculewouldbehalfasheavyagainasthenormalnitrogenmoleculeoftwoatoms,bringingitclosetotheobservedweightofRamsay’sargon.)AsRamsayaddedmoreelementsofsimilarcharacter,firsthelium,andthenneon,kryptonandxenon,inrapidsuccession,Mendeleevcameroundtotheideathattheycouldafterallbeaccommodatedinhissystembythesimpleexpedientofaddinganewcolumntotheedgeofthetable.Astonishingly,itappearsthatMendeleev’sfailuretopredicttheinertgasesaftersomanyothersuccessesmayhavebeenamajorreasonwhytheNobelCommitteedecidednottoawardhimtheprizeinchemistrywhentheyconsideredthepossibilityin1906.

ThediscoveryoftheradioactivedecayofelementsbyMarieCurieand

othersinMendeleev’sdecliningyearsplayedfurtherhavocwithhissystemofchemicalorder.Whatwasthepointofputtingelementsinboxesiftheycouldsimplyjumpfromoneboxtoanotherbysheddingafewsubatomicparticles?MendeleevhadoncetakentotheroadinRussiainordertodobattleagainstthespiritualismthathefeltwaspreventingprogressinthecountry;visitingtheCuries’laboratoryin1902,hefelthewasonceagaindealingwiththesameungovernableforces,whichhescathinglycalled‘spiritinmatter’.

Mendeleevhasfrequentlybeencharacterizedasamysticandaprophet,butthisismoretodowithhisSiberianorigins,hisirascibilityandhisdishevelledbeardthanhisprofessionalrecord.Contemporaryportraitsdon’talwayshelp:oneshowsthechemistleaningbackinhischairmaniacallyclutchingabooktohisfacewithbothhands,aglowingcigaretteheldinhisfingers.Mendeleevhadbrilliantlydevisedaperiodicsystemoftheelementsinwhichhehadsufficientconfidencetoleavegaps,butthiswasasensibleconjecturebasedonscientificevidence,notprophecy.Hisotheractivitieswereequallygroundedinrationalism–tacklingspiritualism,advisingonthenationaleconomy,recommendingagriculturalreforms.Thoughfullofideas,hewasbynaturesomethingofaconservativeand,whilenotacceptedintoinstitutionssuchastheAcademyofSciences,hestillseemedlikeanestablishmentfiguretoothers.Thefinalsealofconventionalitysurelycamein1893,whenhewasputinchargeofthenewlyfoundednationalboardofweightsandmeasures.

Shortlybeforebecomingaprofessor,MendeleevhadboughtasummerestateoutsideMoscow.LikeLevininAnnaKarenina,heusedthelandtoshowcasehisideasofprogressivefarming.Here,hisdaughterLiubov’DmitrievnaMendeleevametandfellinlovewiththeyoungpoetAlexanderBlok,whosefamilyownedaneighbouringestate.In1903,theyearoftheirmarriage,BlokwroteadmiringlytoMendeleevaofherfather,who‘knowseverythingthathappensintheworldalreadyforalongtime.Hehasenteredintoeverything.Nothingisconcealedfromhim.Hisknowledgeismostcomplete.’Blok–theauthorof‘TheScythians’andotherworksinwhichaRussianidentityrootedinthewildestregionsisgivenvoiceinthelanguageoftheliteraryavant-garde–surelyrespondedtoMendeleev’sincongruousblendofdeepRussianancestryandimmersioninthelatestcurrentsofthoughtinscientificEurope.AfterMendeleev’sdeathin1907,Blokcontrastedhimfavourablywiththecynicalestablishmentintelligentsiaforholdingtoanoptimisticviewofthecountry’sfuture.Butlatersomethingsnapped,andthepoet,filledwithrevolutionaryzeal,decidedthathisfather-in-lawbelongedtoomuchtothepast.On31January1919,hewroteinhisdiary:‘Symbolicaction:ontheSovietNewYearIsmashedMendeleev’sdesk.’

Mendeleev’suniversityapartment–thoughsadlynotthelaboratorythatonceadjoinedit–isnowpreservedasamuseum.IvisiteditoneblisteringJuneday,crossingtheglitteringNevainadazzleofgoldendomestofindmyselfstrollingalongtheelegantterracedavenuesoftheuniversitycomplexonthegrid-plannedVasilevskiiIsland.TheentireplacestillglowedwiththesenseofPetertheGreat’sambitiontofoundacitythatwouldrivalthegreatestinEurope.

ThiswaswhereMendeleevlivedfortwenty-fouryears,fromhisappointmenttothechairofchemistryin1867,throughthetimewhenheworkedouttheperiodictableandenjoyedthesatisfactionofseeinghispredictionsofmissingelementsrealized,tohisforcedretirementin1890.Theroomswerecrowdedwithheavyarmchairsandsofasandequallyheavyvolumesofjournals.Inone,acigar-smokingportraitpresidedoverthescene.PhotographsofMendeleevwithscientists,includingthediscoverersofhispredictedelements,andleadingfiguresinStPetersburglinedthewalls.Thesignaturesofhisvisitorswereillegiblyinscribedonatablecloth.Therewasalsoadesk.Wasthiswherehehadlaidouthiselementcards,orwasthatonthedeskthatBlokdemolished?ThepackofcardsandotherdocumentsshowingMendeleev’sworkingsarelonglost,buthistextbooksurvives,andsodoestheperiodictableinit,thesequenceoftheelementsinstantlyrecognizable,eventhoughthewholethingistwistedthroughninetydegrees,makingrowsintocolumnsandcolumnsintorows.Thus,B,C,N,O,Fappearsasacolumnontheleft;Al,Si,P,S,Cltoitsright.Astheatomicweightsincreased,Inoticedalignmentsthatwewouldnowthinkofasmisleading–mercurygroupedwithcopperandsilver,forexample,whilegoldwasalignedwithaluminium.ButtherewerealsothequestionmarksagainstgapsinthesequencethatwerethetruesignofMendeleev’sgenius.

Seeingthefamiliararrayoflettersincoldprint,itwashardtobelieveithadnotsweptallbeforeit.Iaskedthemuseum’scurator,IgorDmitriev,whythiswas.‘Thereweremanyclassificationsalready,’heexplained,‘noneofthemtakenseriously.SoitisunderstandablethatMendeleevwouldhavehadahardtime.’

Butitwasthesuitcasesthatreallystuckinmymind.Mendeleevmaynothavebeenamystic,buthecertainlyhadhiseccentricities,andoneoftheoddestofthemwashishobbyofmakingleathersuitcases.Hisapartmentwasclutteredwithcasesinvaryingstatesofcompletion,aswellastheleatherandbucklesandtoolsusedtomakethem.It’stemptingofcoursetoseethiscuriouspastimeasametaphor,asmaterialevidenceofthecharacterofamanobsessedwithpackingthingsneatlyaway.Butit’sneithernecessarynorhelpfultodothis.Intruth,Mendeleevcouldconfesstohisfairshareofnineteenth-centuryscience’spassionfororganizingnature–hehadbeenattentivetocontemporarynaturalists’

effortstoclassifylivingspecies,forexample.Buthissystemforthechemicalelements,theultimatepigeonholingofnature,sprangsimplyfromapedagogicalneedtostreamlinethepresentationofchemicalknowledgeratherthanfromrageatthedisorderoftheworld.

Mendeleviumwasthefirstelementthathadtobedraggedintotheworldatombyatom,beginningin1955.Evennow,ithasneverbeenmadeinquantitiesvisibletotheeye.‘WethoughtitfittingthattherebeanelementnamedfortheRussianchemistDmitriiMendeleev,whohaddevelopedtheperiodictable,’wroteitsdiscoverer,GlennSeaborg.‘Innearlyallourexperimentsdiscoveringtransuraniumelements,we’ddependedonhismethodofpredictingchemicalpropertiesbasedontheelement’spositioninthetable.’AttheheightoftheColdWar,this‘somewhatboldgesture’,asSeaborgadmits,wascondemnedbysomeAmericans,butwasnotunappreciatedintopSovietcircles.ThetinyamountsofmendeleviumthathavebeenmadeintheparticleacceleratorsatBerkeleyandelsewheredecayrapidly,andithasnotbeenpossibletomakemorethanastartonmeasuringitsessentialpropertiesorinvestigatingitschemistry.OnesuspectsthatthiswouldhavebotheredDmitriiMendeleev,thesupremetheoreticalchemistofhisday,notonebit.

TheLiquidMirror

InJeanCocteau’s1949filmOrphée,OrpheusenterstheunderworldinpursuitofEurydicebypassingthroughamirrorofmercury.Thesceneisamasterlycinematicsleightofhand.Orpheus,playedbyaGrecian-coiffedJeanMarais,isledtoalargedressingmirror.Hedonslatexgloves–amagicalpreparatoryritualthatdoesn’tentirelydisguisethefactthatCocteau,therenownedavant-gardeartist,seemstohavehadathoroughlymodernconcernforhealthandsafety.‘Withthesegloves,youwillbeabletopassthroughthemirrorlikewater’,Orpheus’guideexplains.‘Firstthehands.’Doubtfully,Orpheusdoesasheistoldandputshispalmstothereflectivesurface,andismetbyitsresistance–it’sjustamirror.‘Ils’agitdecroire’,heisadvised:youmustbelieve.Thenweseehisfingersinclose-uppushingthroughthebarrier,itssurfacesetaquiverbythefatefulaction.Thefilmcutstoanoverheadshot.Withtheliquidmirrorsurfacenowhiddenfromourview,Orpheusandhisguidedisappearthroughtheportal.

Itisaxiomaticthatwecannotknowtheunderworlduntilweourselvesleavetheworld,andforthisreasonCocteausoughtforhisdividebetweenthetwoatotalopticalbarrierthatwasneverthelessphysicallypenetrable.Theset-upissaidtohaverequiredareservoirofhalfatonneofmercury.Thisseemsexcessiveuntiloneremembersthatthismetalissodensethatleadwillfloatonitssurface.Apoolofthisweightthesizeofafull-lengthmirrorwouldbenotmuchmorethanacentimetredeep.Itisofcoursenotpossibletoarrangeforsuchapooltostandupright,soCocteauhadtoturnhiscameratoproducetheillusionofaverticalmirrorforthebriefscenewhereOrpheus’handspassthroughthebarrier.Anditisnotpossible,orsafe,forwholebodiestobeimmersedinmercury,hencethesubsequentcutawaytooverhead.

Theartistmighthaveusedmilkorpainttoachievesomeofthenecessaryeffect,butmercurywaswellchosenastheonlyliquidabletoprovideaperfectreflection.Thematerialalsoofferedaserendipitousbonus.Inaninterview,Cocteaulaterexplained:‘Inmercurythehandsdisappear,andthegestureisaccompaniedbyakindofshiver,whereaswaterwouldhaveproducedripplesandcirclesofwaves.Ontopofthat,mercuryhasresistance.’Inthissingleaction,then,aremadevisiblesignsofOrpheus’trepidation,ofhisfrightandoftheeffortofwillhemustsummoninordertoabandonlife.Furthermore,theunfamiliar,almostunnatural,qualityofthemercuryhintsnicelyatuncertaintiestocomeinthesupernaturalworld.

Knownforperhaps5,000years,mercuryhasalwaysbeencelebratedforitsuniqueconfluenceofliquidandmetallicproperties,evenifthismadeitnoeasierforpeopletofindauseforthestuff.Foramaterialthatisclearlyspecial,yet

alsoratheruseless,thereisoneobviousapplication,andthatisinsacredrites.Cocteau’semploymentofmercuryasthegatewaytoanotherworldismerelyamoderntwistinalonganduniversaltale.

ThefirstemperorofChina,QinShiHuang,whounifiedthecountryin221BCE,issaidbylegendtolieburiedbeneatharuggedverdantmoundnearXi’anintheShaanxiProvinceofnorthernChina.ThehistorianSimaQian,writingacenturyaftertheemperor’sdeath,describesavastbronze-linedchamber,itsceilingjewelledtorepresenttheheavens,containingafantasticmodeloftheemperor’spalace,hiscapitalcityXianyanglyingaroundit,andhisentireempirebeyond.ThroughthemodellandscapearesaidtorunchannelsofmercuryrepresentingthehundredgreatriversofChina.Althoughitisnoteasytoseehowitcouldbedone,Simawritesofmechanismstopumptheheavyliquidround,maintainingacontinuousflowthatsymbolizestheeternallifebloodoftheemperor.Itislikely,what’smore,thatQin’sbloodactuallydidcontainmercuryatthetimeofhisdeathasheisthoughttohaveswallowedmercurypillsinthehopeofobtainingimmortality.

ItwasinthisregionofChinain1974thatarchaeologistsbegantouncoverthenowfamousTerracottaArmy,hundredsoflife-sizeearthenwarefigures,soldiersfirst,thenlatermusicians,athletesandbureaucrats,providingextraordinarydetailsoflifeatthebeginningoftheQinDynasty.ThelocationofthefindwassoonmatchedwithdescriptionsofthelandscapeinSima’shistory,andfromthisitwassurmisedthataparticulareminenceakilometreofftothewestmighthidetheemperor’stomb.SubsequentexcavationshaverevealedthatthepitscontainingtheTerracottaArmywerejustpartofalargeundergroundcomplexaroundthisfeature,butthemounditselfhasnotyetbeenbroachedforfearthatitmaynotbepossibletopreserveitscontents–notleastitsfabulousmercuryrivers–iftheyaredisturbed.However,scientistshavecarriedoutvariousnon-destructivetestsatthesite,includingchemicalanalysisofsoilsamples.Thesehaverevealedlevelsofmercurywellabovethenormalintheimmediatevicinityoftheburialmound.InSima’saccount,themodelempireiscarefullyorientedundergroundtocorrespondwiththerealgeography,andithasbeenfoundthatsomeofhighestconcentrationsofmercuryalignwithsomeofChina’scoastalseasandthevastsweepofthelowerYangtzeRiver.

TheChineseobtainedmercurymetalreadilyenoughfromtheabundantredorecinnabar,andthispigmenthasitselfpermeatedthecultureintheformoftheubiquitousvermilionthatisregardedasauniquelyauspiciouscolour.Cinnabarwasstrewningravestorestorecolourtothecheeksofthedead,andasearlyastheShangDynasty,1600BCE,itwasbeingusedtomakeinkwithwhichtotinttheChinesecharactersincisedinpiecesofbone.Themetalitselfwasusedasan

alternativeliquidtodrivewaterclocksorinmechanizedarmillaryspheres.Itwasevenusedtomaketumblingtoys.‘TheChinesehaveprobablyusedmercuryandcinnabarmoreextensivelythananyotherpeople,’accordingtothegreatsinologistJosephNeedhaminhistwenty-four-volumeScienceandCivilisationinChina.

AmodernmercurycascadewithitsownmessageoflifeanddeathwascreatedbyAlexanderCalderfortheSpanishPavilionatthe1937ParisExposition.TheAmericanartistreceivedthecommissionindirectlyfromtheshort-livedrepublicangovernmentinthemidstofSpain’scivilwar,andhisMercuryFountaindulywentondisplayinthesamespaceasthedocumentarymasterpieceofthoseyears,Picasso’sGuernica.Calder’sworkismoreobliqueinitsreferencetotheconflict.Themobilesculptureconsistsofaseriesofthreemetalplatesarrangedabovealargepoolofmercury.Mercuryispumpedupsothatafinestreamtricklesontothetopplate.Itquickensindropletsandrivuletsacrosstheplatesinturnwhiletheygyreandbowundertheweightofthemetal,beforeitvanishesquietlyintothepoolbelow.Themercuryisthekeytothemeaningofthework.Itcame,likethemajorityoftheworld’smercuryatthattime,fromthecinnabardepositsatAlmadéninCiudadRealsouthwestofMadrid.ThisstrategicallyimportantlocationwastoberepeatedlybesiegedbyFranco’sinsurgents,andCalder’sworkcommemoratestheminerswhohadsuccessfullyheldoffthefirstnationalistonslaughtafewmonthsearlier.Inoneofthemostimaginativewarmemorialseverdevised,weseebrightlivesaggregating,separating,shapinglargerevents,andthoseeventsinturndeterminingtheirfate,beforetheirultimateabsorptionintostillness.

Almadénmeans‘themine’inArabic,andthissitewaswellknowntotheArabswhoruledSpainfromtheeighthtothefifteenthcenturies.Calder’sfountainisanacknowledgementofthishistorytoo.In936,atMedinaAzaharanearCórdoba,somehundredkilometrestothesouthofAlmadén,thecaliphAbdal-RahmanIIIbegantoerectavastpersonalestatewithamosqueandgardensoverlookedbyasumptuouspalace.Anenchantingfeatureofthisrichlydecoratedalcázar,orpalacecomplex,wasapoolofmercurypositionedsuchthatitbouncedbrightshaftsofsunlightroundtheinterioroftheroominwhichitwassituated.Guestswereabletodabbletheirfingersinthemetal,enjoyingitscool,envelopingtouch,andsendingwilddapplesacrosstheceilinglikeanearlyversionofadance-floorglitterball.OrnamentalpoolsofmercurywereafeatureofIslamichighliving,andthereisevidencethattheywerealsousedinpre-ColumbianAmerica.Beforetheelement’spoisonousqualitieswereknown,itwasnaturalinplaceswhereitwaseasilyobtainedtorejoiceinthecoursing,trickling,glitteringqualityoftheliquid.

WhenitwasmovedtotheJoanMiróFoundationinBarcelonain1975,MercuryFountainwasputondisplayinitsownglasscubicle.NolongercouldvisitorsdoastheyhaddoneinParisandthrowcoinsontotheliquidsurfacejusttoseethemfloatthere.Ithadinfactshownaremarkablylaxattitudetopublichealththattheviewerswereallowedtoenjoysuchopenaccesstoitin1937.Ofthe200litresofmercurythatarrivedfromAlmadénontheafternoonofthepressopeningoftheSpanishPavilion(Calderhadusedsteelballbearingstomockuptheactionofthesculptureasheworkedonit),anastonishingfiftylitreswereto

beheldinreserve,saidCalder,totakecareoflossesduetosplashingandleakageoverthecourseoftheexhibition.Thetoxiceffectsofmercury–familiarasanoccupationalhazardofhattersandotherswhousedmercurycompoundsintheirwork–arefeltwhenitisabsorbedthroughtheskinorwhenvapourentersthelungs.YetforadmirersofCalder’sartworktherewasnotevenCocteau’srudimentaryprecautionoflatexgloves.

ThequarantiningofMercuryFountainisemblematicofwhatishappeningtotheelementeverywhere.Fromitsbeginningsasadecorativeandmysticalwonder,mercurywentontofindmanyusesexploitingitsexceptionalcombinationofproperties–density,fluidity,conductivity.Itscompoundshavebeenusedaspigmentsandcosmetics.Theiroftenpoisonousnaturesuitsthemforinsecticidesandmarineantifouling.Inmedicine,theyhaveprovidedtheactiveingredientsofeverythingfromdrasticsyphilistreatmentstoroutinelaxativesandantisepticssuchascalomelandMercurochrome.Butalltheseandmanyotherapplicationsarenowfallingintodisfavour.On1January2008,Norwaybannedallimportsandmanufacturinginvolvingmercury,evenincludingthemakingofdentalamalgams.TheEuropeanUnionistobantheexportofmercuryfromJuly2011inanefforttoreduceglobalexposuretotheelement.Mercurythermometersandbarometerswillbecomehistoricalrelics.Almadénhasfinallyceasedproductionaftermorethan2,000yearsofoperation.Withmercurystoppedatitssource,attentionturnstowhatisalreadyincirculation.ABritishstudyofcremationshasevenraisedconcernabouttheelementescapingintotheenvironmentasthefillingsintheteethofthedeceasedarevaporized–thespectreofouronce-easycoexistencewiththemetalcometohauntus.

Soononlyhighlyspecializedapplicationsmaybeleft,althoughitissomeconsolationthatoneortwooftheserecapturethesurrealdelightofmoreancientmercuryamusements.InthemountainsofBritishColumbianotfarfromVancouveristheLargeZenithTelescope,whichobtainsitsimagesoftheheavensusingaliquidmirror.Mercuryispouredintoawok-likedishsixmetresindiameter.Thedishrevolvesatastatelypace,forcingthesurfaceofthemercuryintoaparaboloidmoreperfectthancanbeobtainedbysolidglassoraluminium.Theideahadbeenaroundformorethanacentury,butitisonlyrecently,asthemetalwasdrawingopprobriumelsewhere,thatithasbecomepossibletocreateasufficientlysmooth-runningmechanismtoenablesharpimagestobeproducedfromsuchamercurypool.Liquid-mirrordevicesmustofcoursebeheldhorizontaliftheyarenottospilltheirmagicalfluid.Constrainedtogazeeverupward,thesetelescopesdonotscattersunlightbutgatherthelightofthestars,offeringawindownotontheunderworldbutoutontootherworlds.

Manychemicalproceduresthatwerewellknowntothealchemistsnowliebeyondtheboundsofnormalscientificpractice,notbecausetheyareespeciallycomplicatedorobscure,butbecausetheyareregardedassohazardousthatmodernhealthandsafetylawswillnotpermitthemtobeundertakenevenwithallthesafeguardsofastate-of-the-artlaboratory.Oneoftheseproceduresisthereversiblecombinationofmercuryandsulphur,areactionthatwascentraltoalchemicaltheory.Thealchemists’interestinthissimplereactioniseasilyexplained.Byputtingyellowsulphur,whichisdryandhot,togetherwithliquidmercury,whichfeelscoolandwet,theybroughttogetherthefourprinciplesofallmatter.

Thecolourofthesulphurandthebrightgleamofthemercurysuggestedfurthermorethatgoldmightbetheoutcomeofthefusion.Thealchemistsbelievedthatallmetaldepositsintheearthwereontheirwaytobecominggold;ifamanfoundinsteadtinorleadhehadsimplycometooearly.Withtheirauspiciousappearance,mercuryandsulphur,bothfrequentlyoccurringintheirnativestate,lookedtoofferafasterroutetothisgoal.ThegreatArabalchemistandmysticoftheeighthcentury,JabiribnHayyan(hisnameoftenappearslatinizedasGeber),whomayhavebeenresponsibleforbringingChineseknowledgeofcinnabarandmercurytotheWest,believedthatperfectioninmetals,whetherfoundinnatureormadebyman,couldonlybeachievedwhenthesetwoelementswerepresentinthecorrectproportionandattherighttemperature.Lackofperfection–thatistosayfindingbasemetalwhenonehopedforgold–wassimplyexplainedasadisproportionofthesefactors.InJabir’sview,themorepreciousmetalsweremadebyensuringthatarelativelygreateramountofmercurywaspresent.Buttherewerefurtherprovisostodowiththepurityandtypeofeachelementused.SilverwastobemadebycombiningmercurywithwhatJabircalledwhitesulphur,forexample,whereasgoldwasmadefrom‘best’mercurywithonlyalittleredsulphur,thoughitisimpossibletobesureexactlywhathemeantbytheseterms.

Thatwasthetheory.Experimentsproveddisappointing,needlesstosay,althoughsomedisreputablepractitionersmanagedtopersuadeafewcreduloussoulsthattheyhadatleastincreasedthequantityoftheirexistinggoldthroughtheadditionofmercuryandsulphur–thesulphurwouldhaveburntoffwhilethemercurymergedwiththegoldbyamalgamation,producinganapparentgaininweight,butofcoursenomoregold.Ratherthanabandontheircherishedhope,thealchemistselaboratedJabir’stheoryinthelightoftheseunsatisfactoryresultsbysuggestingthatallmannerofmetalsinadditiontogoldmightbebrought

forthsimplybyjugglingtherelativeproportionsofthesetwoelements.ThisreactionwasthereforeattheheartofmainstreamscienceinmedievalEurope,andremainedcoretoalchemicalthinkingforseveralcenturies.Itwasoftenperformedanditenjoyedscholarlyapproval.Oneearlyseventeenth-centurytextshowsanengravingofThomasAquinaspointinglikeaholidaytourguidetowardsaninstructivelycutawayturf-coveredfurnaceinwhichthevapoursoftwoelementsintertwine.‘Asnatureproducesmetalsfromsulphurandmercury,sodoesart,’readsthecaption.Thisreaction,thoughundertakenonthebasisoferroneousbelief,wasneverthelessakeyturningpointontheroadtomodernchemistry.Itwasperhapsthefirstinstanceoftheinformedsynthesisofanewsubstancefromtwoknowningredients.Furthermore,itwasthefirstcleardemonstrationofthereversibilityofchemicalreactions–fornotonlydidmercurycombineeasilywithsulphurtoformmercurysulphide(cinnabar),butthemercurysulphidealso,whenheated,separatedbackintoitstwoconstituentelements–soprovidinganimportanthintthatmattercouldbeneithercreatednordestroyed.

Itisnotadifficultexperiment.Icouldeasilycannibalizethemercuryfromanoldthermometer,putitinacrucible,mixinanappropriateamountofsulphur,coverit,andheatituntiltherichvermilioncolourofmercuricsulphidebegantoappear.Icouldheatitagaininordertoseparatethesetwoconstituentelements,

distillingoffthemercuryasthesulphurburntaway.But,whileIamscepticaloftheadvertisedhazardsofthemanychemicalexperimentsoneisthesedaysdiscouragedfromattemptingathome,Iamawarenow(asIwasn’twhenIusedtoobtainmymercurybyroastingdeadbatteries)thatmercuryvapourisdeeplyunpleasantstuff.

IsettleforwitnessingtheexperimentatoneremovewiththeassistanceofMarcosMartinón-TorresatUniversityCollegeLondon.Marcoshascarvedoutanacademiccareeratthejunctionofarchaeologyandmaterialssciencethatgiveshimamarvellouspretextforre-enactingtheexperimentsofthealchemistsintheinterestsofhistoricalaccuracy.Whenitcomestorepeatingthemercury–sulphurexperiment,however,evenheisbanishedfromthelaboratoriesofhisinstitutionandobligedtomakehimselfscarceinasecretfieldhiddeninthesuburbs.

Thereactionvesselisaclayaludel–anArabicword,likesomanyinchemistry–whichisakindoflargecruciblewithahighpointedlidlikeawitch’shatwherevapourscanmingleandcool.Thecontraptionisaboutthesizeandshapeofanostrichegg.Asmallventatthetoppreventsthepressurefrombuildingupinsidethevesselandcausinganexplosion.Marcosandacolleague,NicolasThomasfromthePanthéon-SorbonneUniversityinParis,sprinklethecinnabartheyhavebroughtintothebottomofthealudel,putthehatonandsealitshutwithwetclay.Thentheybuildasmallfurnaceofbricksandclayandfillitwithcharcoalandlightit.Whentheyjudgeitishotenoughtodecomposethecinnabar,butnotsohotthatthemercurywillescapeasvapour,theyplacethealudelinthefurnace.Wearingbreathingapparatus,theycrouchatthefieldedge,watchingthealudelcarefullyastheredheatofthefirebeginstowarmit.Relievedthatithasnotcracked,theysoonobservesmallbeadsofmercurythathavecondensedaroundtheventhole.Thisisthesignthatthereactionhasoccurred.Theyallowthevesseltocoolandthenbreakitopen.Afirmamentoftinybrightglobuleshassettledovertheinnerwall.Bycollectingthemercury,addingsulphurandheatingoncemore,theyrecoverthecinnabar,ayellowandorangemess,partsolid,partmelt,lookingforalltheworldlikeasteamedtreaclepuddingbutsmellingofthedevil.

PartTwo:Fire

TheCircumnavigationoftheSulphur

Goldandsilver,ironandcopperallappearscoresoftimesintheBibleowingtotheirmonetaryorutilitarianvalue.Leadandtinarementionedinpassing.Thesearesixofthetenelementsknownfromantiquity.Onefurtherelementhasasymbolicvalueofanentirelydifferentkind,andthatissulphur,orbrimstoneasitisuniversallytermedinEnglishBibletranslations.

Brimstoneearnsfourteenmentionsinall,andnotoneofthemiscomplimentary.Itseveryappearanceisaccompaniedbyscenesofpunishmentanddestructionoratleastthethreatofgreatviolence.InGenesis,thedepravedcitiesofSodomandGomorrahareoverthrownwhen‘brimstoneandfirefromtheLordoutofheaven’israineduponthem.SixofthereferencescomeinthecentralchaptersofthebookoftheRevelationofJesusChristgiventotheApostleJohn,andcovertheGreatTribulation,theReturnoftheKing,theMillenniumandtheLastJudgement.Thesulphurstartstoflowoncethesevensealshavebeenopenedandsixoftheseventrumpetshavesounded,andscarcelyletsupuntiltheNewJerusalemisrevealed200verseslater.

InchapternineofRevelation,Johnseesathirdofhumanityslainbyanarmyof‘twohundredthousandthousand’horsemen.Theridershave

breastplatesoffire,andofjacinth,andbrimstone:andtheheadsofthehorseswereastheheadsoflions;andoutoftheirmouthsissuedfireandsmokeandbrimstone.Bythesethreewasthethirdpartofmenkilled,bythefire,andbythesmoke,andbythebrimstone,whichissuedoutoftheirmouths.

Thentheseventhtrumpetsounds,proclaimingGod’skingdominheaven.Satanicbeastsreartheirmanyheads,andanangelwarnsthatanybodywhoworshipsthebeast‘shalldrinkofthewineofthewrathofGod,whichispouredoutwithoutmixtureintothecupofhisindignation;andheshallbetormentedwithfireandbrimstoneinthepresenceoftheholyangels,andinthepresenceoftheLamb’.

Babylonfalls,heavenrejoices,andChristappearsonawhitehorse.IntheBattleofArmageddonthatfollows,theDevilandhisaccomplicesare‘castaliveintoalakeoffireburningwithbrimstone’.Finally,JohnhearsGodpronouncesentenceontheremainderofpeoplewhorejectHisword:‘thefearful,andunbelieving,andtheabominable,andmurderers,andwhore-mongers,andsorcerers,andidolaters,andallliars,shallhavetheirpartinthelakewhichburnethwithfireandbrimstone:whichistheseconddeath’.

God,orJohn,showssolittleimaginationintheformsofpunishmentadministeredduringthelastdaysthatwemusttakeitthatfireandbrimstonehaveaparticularritualsignificance.Thefactthathellfireisalwaysaccompaniedbybrimstone,thatbrimstoneisneverpresentwithoutfire,indicatesnotonlythatbrimstoneisflammablebutalsothatthereissomethingspeciallyhorrificaboutitsflame.Miltonwaswellawareoftheseproperties,whicharecrucialinsettingtheopeningsceneofParadiseLost,wherewefindtheDevilcastoutfromheavenin

ADungeonhorrible,onallsidesroundAsonegreatFurnaceflam’d,yetfromthoseflamesNolight,butratherdarknessvisibleServ’donelytodiscoversightsofwoe,Regionsofsorrow,dolefulshades,wherepeaceAndrestcanneverdwell,hopenevercomesThatcomestoall;buttorturewithoutendStillurges,andafieryDeluge,fedWithever-burningSulphurunconsum’d.

Forsulphurburnsnotlikeacandle,butwithalowblueflamethatisbarelyluminous–‘darknessvisible’indeed.Itisnotrapidlyconsumedlikeawoodfire,sothatitiseasytoimaginetheflameas‘ever-burning’,especiallyiftheignitedsulphuroccurs,asitsometimesdoesinnature,inaseamthatrunsendlesslyandinvisiblyintotheearth.

CouldthisdreadfulmaterialreallybethesameasthesulphurI’donceseenstackeduponthedocksatGalvestoninTexas?Lemon-yellowbricksofthestuff,eachthesizeofacontainertruck,werearrayedseveralhighandseveraldeep,thecheerfulcolourmakingthemlookmorelikeanunusuallysuccessfulpieceofpublicartthanavitalindustrialcommodityawaitingshipment.Thesubstancewastheformoftheelementpurifiedbysublimation–thatis,by

condensingthesoliddirectlyfromthevapour–knownquaintlyasflowersofsulphur,andinthespringsunshineideasofhellfireanddamnationwereveryfaraway.

Elementalsulphurisblandenough;itsdisagreeablealteregoisonlyawakenedwhenitundergoeschemicalchange.Thesimplestreactioniscombustion,whichproducesthecorrosive,bleachingandchokinggassulphurdioxide.Itseffectiscleansingaswellasburning–somethingthatobligesustobegintodifferentiatebetweensimplefire,whichisdestructive,andbiblicalbrimstone,whoseburningstenchcanalsobepurgative:perhapsthroughtheactionofsulphurevenSatanmightberedeemedinhisformerguiseasLucifer,theangelwhofellfromheaven.Inantiquity,sulphurwaswidelyusedasadisinfectantandforrelatedritualpurposes.WhenOdysseusreturnstoIthacaandslaughtersthesuitorswhohavebeenpesteringhiswife,Penelope,heordersthenurseto‘bringsomesulphurtocleanthepollution,andmakeafiresothatIcanpurifythehouse’.Sulphurisstillsoldforthispurposetoday,thesuggestionbeingthatyouuseitinthegreenhouseratherthantodispelunwantedpersonalattention.Sulphurfireswereusedtocombatcholeraintothetwentiethcentury,andsulphurwastakeninternallyfordigestiveandothercomplaints.MrsSqueersholds‘brimstone-and-treaclemornings’atDotheboysHallinDickens’sNicholasNickleby,thefilthymixtureadministered,assheexplains,‘partlybecauseiftheyhadn’tsomethingorotherinthewayofmedicinethey’dbealwaysailingandgivingaworldoftrouble,andpartlybecauseitspoilstheirappetitesandcomescheaperthanbreakfastanddinner’.

Combustionisarapidformofoxidation,thechemicalcombinationofasubstancewithoxygen,whilewhatgoesoninthestomachistheoppositeprocess,knownasreduction,whichisaccomplishedbytheactionofbacteria.Thesimplestreductionofsulphuryieldsanotherfoulgas,hydrogensulphide.Betweenthemthesetwobasicchemicalprocessesaccountforavastrangeofsulphurchemistrythatisessentialtolife.Thehandfulofnoxiouscompoundssomadeundoubtedlygivetheelementitsevilreputation,butthisreputationwouldnotexistifthesecompoundswerenotlockedintoacyclewithothersresponsibleformorepleasantsensations.Forexample,thevariouspungentodoursofthealliumsarisefromthischemistry,withonion,garlic,leeksandchiveseachcontainingadifferentsulphurcompoundinminutequantities.Duringcooking,thesecompoundsareconvertedintosubstancesfarsweeterthansugar,relatedtothoseusedinartificialsweeteners.Inthecabbagefamily,ontheotherhand,cookinggraduallyconvertssulphur-containingcompoundsintosmellierforms,whichisoneofthethingsthatmakesovercookedbrusselssproutssounappealing.Thesulphurcompoundsreleasedwhenwedigestourfoodare

passedoutofthebodyinexcrement,andespecially,becausesomanyofthemarevolatile,asflatusandbadbreath.Oneofthem,methylmercaptan,allegedlytheworld’ssmelliestmolecule,isaddedtootherwiseodourlessnaturalgassothatwemaybesensitivetoleakingpipes.Thoughthesulphurisonlypresentintinyamounts,itsfoulodoursandassociationwithbodilyfunctionsareenoughtoexplainitsdevilishculturalreputationamongtheelements.

ThesulphurIsawonthequayatGalvestonwasaby-productofthelocalpetrochemicalindustry.ItmademethinkofthefumarolesundertheGulfofMexicowherespecializedmarinebacteriasynthesizepureyellowsulphuroutofthegasesreleasedfromthebowels(theclichéaptforonce)oftheearth.Iknew,ofcourse,thattheelementwasinfactrecoveredfromhydrogensulphideinthenaturalgasbroughtashorefromtheoffshoreplatforms,butinbothcasesthegasisultimatelytheproductofthedecayofpalaeozoicplants.Eventhe‘smellofthesea’,ithasrecentlybeenfound,isowingtoasulphurousgas,thistimedimethylsulphide,releasedbylivingmicrobesinsurfacewaters.

ThesmelloftheseamusthavebeckonedthesailorswhoembarkedatPlymouthonChristmasEve1835atthebeginningofwhatwastobeaseven-yearcircumnavigationoftheglobewiththepurposeofsurveyingtheoceansandcollectingscientificspecimens.TheirshipwascalledHMSSulphur.

TheexpeditionwassimilarinintenttothatofHMSBeagle,whichwasthenonthefinallegofitsownlongvoyage,andshortlytosetashoreitsdangerouscargoofCharlesDarwinandallhisspecimensandnewideas.ItisrecountedinthetwovolumesofaNarrativeofaVoyageRoundtheWorld,performedinHerMajesty’sShipSulphur,duringtheyears1836–1842,includingdetailsoftheNavalOperationsinChina,fromDec.1840,toNov.1841bytheship’scaptain,EdwardBelcher.Thesurgeononboard,RichardBrinsleyHinds,producedthreecompanionvolumesdescribingthemammalia,molluscaandfloratheysawonthevoyage.

Belcher’sSulphur,aten-gunbombvessel,wasthethirdofthreeRoyalNavyshipsofthatname.ThefirstofthemalreadyborethiscuriousnamewhenthenavyboughtitfromitsAmericanownersin1778.Ihavebeenunabletodiscoveraspecificreasonforitschemicalchristening.IsupposethatitwassimplyregardedasasuitablesignofbelligerencesincethesecondHMSSulphur,purchasedin1797,tookpartintheBattleofCopenhagenalongsidesistershipsnamedVolcano,ExplosionandTerror.Likethesecond,thethirdSulphurwasequippedwithmortarsthatwereabletolobexplosiveshellsor‘bombs’forwardfromthebowratherthansimplyfiringcannonfromthesides.ThiscapabilitywastobeputtousewhentheshipwassidetrackedfromitsscientificmissionintomilitaryconflictwithChinaduringtheFirstOpiumWar.

HerroutetooktheSulphurviaTenerifeandtheCapeVerdeIslands,aroundCapeHorn,anduptheSouthAmericancoasttoPanama,fromwhereshemadethreehugeperambulationsofthenorthandsouthPacific,plumbingthedepthsandscanningthehorizonsforunknownislands,beforepassingwestwardthroughthePacificislandsandtheMalaccaandMadagascarstraitsandroundtheCapeofGoodHopetohome.Themaintaskwassurveywork,forwhichtheshipwasequippedwithchronometers,both‘pocket’and‘heavy’,androcketsthatcouldbesentuptoprovidetimesignals.Comparingchronometerreadingsattwostationsonlandatthemomenttherocketflareisseenallowsthedistancebetweenthemtobecalculated.AsthecrewtookreadingsontheislandofGorgona,offtheColombiancoast,somefaultyrocketswentoffatgroundlevel.

Fortunately,though,therewasenoughgunpowdertotryagain.Asecondsignalwassuccessfullyimprovisedbyhaulingsomebagsofpowderupatalltreeandignitingthemthere.

AtNootkaSoundinBritishColumbia,‘Indians’gatheredroundtheSulphurintheircanoesseekingtotradefishandfurs.Someformofentertainmentseemedtobeinorder,andsoCaptainBelchersportinglywentashoreatduskwith‘amagic-lanthornandsupplyoffireworks’.Thelanternshowinspireddelight,butthefearoccasionedbythefireworkswassuchthat‘Ihadseveralwomengraspingmebyeachhand’.

TheSulphur’svoyageuptothispointhadamountedtoaCook’stourofsomeoftheworld’sgeologicalhotspots–theCanaries,Panama,theSandwichIslands(Hawaii),Alaska.BelcherwentyompingupMexicanvolcanoesasiftheyweretheMunros.FivethousandfeetupontherimofoneofthethreecratersoftheViejovolcano,heplungedathermometerintothesoilandfoundthetemperaturewentoffthescale.‘Itspeedilywarmedmetoanunpleasantdegreethroughthickboots.’Anothertime,atTepitapa,wheretheLakeofManaguafallsintotheNicaraguaRiver,theydalliedbyasulphurspring:‘Mythermometerwasnotgraduatedabove120°,thereforeIcannotstatemorethanthateggswereboiledinit,’Belcherreported.‘Crystallizationwasabundantonthesmallstonesbetweenwhichitflowed,andsomespecimensIexaminedwereamixtureofsulphurandcalcareousmatter.Thetastewasnotunpleasant.’Belcherdoesnotonthisoranyotheroccasionthinkitworthnotingthecoincidenceofhisvessel’sname.

Meanwhile,SurgeonHindsandhisscientificassistantsobservedorcollectedwhelks,clamsandscallops,lemursandjerboas,parrotsandkingfishers,mimosas,euphorbias,cactusesandoaks.Thediscoverythatsulphurplaysaroleinplantandanimallifehadbeenmadeagenerationortwoearlierfrominvestigationsofhorseradishandoxbile.Themenperhapswouldhavebeenawareofthis,althoughtheywouldnothaveknown,forexample,thattheirclamsfedforbacteriaaroundsubmarinesulphurvents.Norweretheyfortunateenough,astheSulphurpassedthroughtheMalaccaStrait,todiscovertheSumatrantitanarum,orcorpseflower,whosemassivebloomburstsopenonceeveryseveralyearstoreleaseacadaverousstinkbasedonacocktailofdimethylpolysulphides.

Butmoresulphurousadventureslayinwait.AtSingapore,BelcherpickedupordersfromtheAdmiraltytoproceedinstantlytoCantoninordertotakepartinnavaloperationsagainsttheChinese.TheFirstOpiumWarhadbrokenoutin1839,whenBritainseizedHongKonginanattempttoforceChinatoopentotrade.TheSulphur’sbotanistonboardmadehisexcusesandlefttoreturnto

Kew,‘conceivinghimselfoutofhissphereinourprospectivecruize’.On7January1841,theSulphurtookupherpositionattheouterdefencesoftheCantonRiverandbeganshellingtheenemy,‘givinglowerChuenpeeadoseofgrapeandcanister’.Thentheyattackedthejunks.OnerocketsetoffthemagazineoftheshipclosesttotheChineseflagship‘andsheblewupingreatstyle’.TheBritishprosecutedtheirsuccessbycapturinganimportantfort,onlytofindthattheenemyhadremoveditsgunsinthenight.‘A“flareup”wemighteasilyhavehad,asthelineswereplentifullystrewedwithpowder.’

OntheirreturntoSpithead,thesurvivingcrewoftheSulphurwerepleasedtolearntheyhadqualifiedforabonusunderaschemebroughtinduringtheirabsencetocompensatethemforthelongevityoftheirvoyage.EdwardBelcherwasknighted.RichardHindsopenedhiscasestofindthatmanyofhisspecimenshadbeen‘reducedtopowder’byinsectsandlaterlearntthat200speciesofplantslaboriouslygatheredfromCaliforniaandthePacificislandswere‘alreadydescribed’.

WhatthecircumnavigationofHMSSulphurunwittinglydemonstratedwastheubiquitousoccurrenceanddailyutilityoftheelementforwhichshewasnamed.Hercrewpaidtheirrespectsatitsfrequenteruptionsfromtheearthandputittouseforscience,revelryandwar.TheshipreturnedtoacountrywheretheinventorThomasHancockhadjustobtainedapatentfortheuseofsulphurinthevulcanizationofrubber,andthebrimstoneterrorsoftheBookofRevelationhadbeensufficientlytamedthatthenameofLucifercouldbetoleratedasabrandofmatches.

PeeisforPhosphorus

Longbeforephosphoruscametoscientificlight,therewasPhosphorus,gentleusherofthedawn:

SweetPhosphor,bringtheday!LightwillrepayThewrongsofnight;SweetPhosphor,bringtheday!

SowroteFrancisQuarlesinhisEmblemsDivineandMoralof1635,inatypicalevocationofthemorningstarknowninGreekasPhosphorosandLatinizedasPhosphorus.Themorningstarweknownow–andintruthitwasknownthen,althoughpoeticfancyfavouredtheideaofaself-generatinglight–istheplanet

Venus,whichisalwaysseenintheskynearthesun,andbrightlyreflectsitslightsotoappeartousastheheraldofthenewday.ThesameplanetdoesdoubledutyastheeveningstarHesperus,whichcatchesthelightofthesunjustset,andtowhichthepoets,naturallaterisers,referrathermoreoftenthanPhosphorus.

Sousefulweretheseluminouscompanionsofthedawnandduskthattheycontinuedtogainlyricemploymentlongaftersciencehadshownthenamestobefalselyapplied.PoeticPhosphoruswasnotyetatitszenithwhenoneHennigBrandofHamburgtookitforthenameofthenewelementhediscovered,probablyin1669.Slowly,though,thepoetsbegantoassimilatetheadditionalmeaning.Inthenineteenthcentury,forexample,Tennyson’s‘InMemoriam’stillinvokesPhosphortoindicatethetimeofday,asdoesKeatsatopBenNevis.Butinhispoem‘Lamia’,Keatsisdrawntotheideathatthisnaturalglowmightbecapturedbyman–literallycaged,infact–ashedescribesaportal‘Wherehungasilverlamp,whosephosphorglow/Reflectedintheslabbedstepsbelow,/Mildasastarinwater’.Thisimagecorrespondsinturntoaccountsof‘perpetuallamps’,whichwerepresumablybasedonphosphorescentmaterials,supposedlyusedbyearlyChristianssuchasSaintAugustine.

Theideaofasubstanceglowingwithlightthatseemsnottobefireisacompellingone,andelementalphosphorusdoesindeedglowinthedark.Thelightcomesfromthecombustionofshort-livedoxidesthatarecreatedatitssurfacewhenitisexposedtoair,somethingonlyconfirmedin1974,300yearsafterBrandfirstobservedtheeerielight.Butnoteverythingthatwetendtodescribeasphosphorescentactuallyowesitsglowtophosphorus.Marinephosphorescence–observedatnightinwarmwaterswhentheseabloomsmilkywhitelikethenegativeofaphotograph–occurswhenenzymestriggerchemicalreactionsinbioluminescentbacteriaanddoesnotinvolvephosphorusitself.Similarchemistryisobservedinotherluminescentorganismsfromfirefliestohoneyfungus.

Phosphorusisinvolvedinsomeequallypeculiargoings-on,however.Herring,forexample,aresaidtoemitlightastheyrotaway.Intriguedbythisunlikelyclaim,Iboughtsomeherring,andsetoneouttodecayinthegaragewheretheammoniasmellwouldnotbetoooppressive.Twonightslater,IfeltmywaytowardswhereIhadputthefish.Atfirst,Isawnothing.Butasmyeyesgrewaccustomedtotheblackness,Iwasamazedtodetectthefaintestofglowsfollowingthetorpedoshapeoftheherring,thebrightestpartlyingtowardsthehead.InTheRingsofSaturn,W.G.Sebaldsays‘thisglowingofthelifelessherring’remainstobeexplained.Butthechemistryisstraightforward.Alongwiththeammoniaisgeneratedasmallerquantityofitsphosphorusanalogue,phosphine,andarelatedcompound,diphosphine,whichisspontaneously

combustible.Theslowflameofthisgasburningasitseepsforthfromthefishycarcassiswhatproducesthelight.Thesamereactionhasbeenproposedtoexplaintalesofhumanspontaneouscombustion.InBleakHouse,CharlesDickensmemorablyhastherag-and-bonemanKrookmeethisendinthisway.Hislodgerfindshima‘crumpledblackthing’havingsufferedadeath‘engenderedinthecorruptedhumoursoftheviciousbodyitself’.Dickensrevealsthathehadreaduponhumanspontaneouscombustionwhenhecitesanumberof‘true’casesinhisaccountoftheinquestintoKrook’sdeath.Whentheepisodefirstappearedinserialform,DickenswascriticizedbythephilosopherGeorgeHenryLewesandothersforgivingcredencetopseudoscientificideas.Buthestoutlydefendedhispositionintheprefacetothepublishednovel,addingareferencetoafurthercaseonlyrecentlyreported.Puzzlingstoriesofhumanspontaneouscombustionstillcropupfromtimetotime,althoughfirst-handwitnessestendtobethinontheground.Phosphorusreleasedbythebodyhasnotbeeneliminatedasapossiblesourceofignition.

HennigBrandwasanalchemistwhohadmarriedwell,andwithhiswife’sindulgence,hewasabletomaintainalaboratoryontheMichaelisplatzintheshadowofthenewlycompletedStMichaelischurchinthenewpartofthethrivingHanseaticportofHamburg.Hewasanupright,ifsomewhatpompous,citizen,earningthesatiricalnicknameofDrTeutonicus,althoughhisrealnamenowseemsmoreappropriatethananyalternative:BrandistheGermanforfire.Hebelievedaccordingtothealchemicalorthodoxythattheremightbeadivineconnectionbetweenthegoldhesoughtandthatabundantgoldenliquid,humanurine.Thisledhimtocollectandevaporatealargequantityofurineandthentodistiltheresidue.Henoticedthatthevapourwhichcameoffhadaghostlyglow,andthatthewaxywhitematerialwhichcondensedfromithadthesameinnerlight.Italsoburstintoflameasitescapedfromtheretortandcameintocontactwiththeair.Hewasastonishedtofindthatthelightwasnotdependentupontheheatoftheexperiment,butseemedtobeanintrinsicpropertyofthemysterioussubstance.Brandrealizedthathewasnowinpossessionofsomethingquiteremarkable,amiraculouslightthatsprangfromthesubstanceofourownbodies.Perhapsitwasthephilosopher’sstoneitself.Attheveryleast,ithadtobeasign.Diligentalchemistthathewas,hespentthenextfewyearsinafutileattempttoconverthisfindintogold.OtherssoughttotakeadvantageofBrand’ssuccess,butthephilosopherGottfriedLeibniz,thenintheemployofDukeJohannFriedrichofHanover,befriendedthealchemistandsetupcontractsforhimwherebyhewasableintheendtoobtainatleastsomegoldforhisefforts.

Brand’sexperiment–theearliestdocumentedpieceofsciencethatledtothediscoveryofanewelement,evenifitwasnotappreciatedassuchatthetime–lookedlikethesortofthingIoughttobeabletorepeatathome.Icouldmakemyownphosphorusfrommyownurine.

Butfirst,ifIwastohaveanychanceofsucceeding,Iwouldneedamorepreciserecipe.Wherewasthistobefound?Branddidnotpublishhiswork,atfirstkeepingitsecret,onlyoccasionallyspillingcrucialdetailsinexchangeforafewthalers.Withthesemeagreclues,Brand’srivalswereunabletorepeathisachievementforsomeyears.Ontherareoccasionswhensomebodysucceeded,theytootookstepstopreservethemystery:itnaturallyheightenedpeople’sinteresttounveilaglowingspecimenofthemiraculoussubstanceifonekeptquietabouthowitwasmade.

Therearemanypaintingsofthefamousscientistsassociatedwiththediscoveryoftheelements–foremostamongthemJacques-LouisDavid’ssumptuousportraitofthegreatchemicalmodernizerAntoineLavoisierandhiswife–butveryfewthatshowthematwork,orthatpurporttoshowthemomentofdiscovery.However,thediscoveryofphosphorusisanexception.OfthisthereisamarvellouspaintingmadebyJosephWright.Itbearsthecunninglyrevealingtitle:TheAlchymist,InSearchofthePhilosopher’sStone,DiscoversPhosphorus,andpraysforthesuccessfulConclusionofhisoperation,aswasthecustomoftheAncientChymicalAstrologers.

IwenttoseethepaintinginthecityartgalleryofDerby,whereWrightwasbornandworkedformostofhislife.Therewasmuchinittowonderat.Whyisthe‘alchemist’,Brand,wearingmonkishrobesandworkinginavaultedGothicroomifthisis1669?ThesceneismorelikeaFrankensteinfilmsetthanaproperlaboratory.Suchanachronismsareprobablydeliberate,asweshallsee.Forthemoment,though,Ineedtofocusontheexperimentinprogress.WrightshowsBrandkneeling,handsoutspreadinamazement,beforeabrightlyglowingglassflaskwhichsitsonatripodstool.Nexttothisisaplasteredbrickchimneyflue,free-standingintheroom,whichisfedbyanunseenfire.Apiperunsoutfromthetopoftheflueanddownintotheflask,andsomeluminousmaterialispouringalongthispipeintotheflask.Itisclearthatnoheatisbeingappliedtotheflask,andthateveryefforthasbeenmadetoexcludeairfromtheapparatus,forthejointbetweenthepipeandtheflaskiscarefullysealedwithclay.Bothofthesedetailsemphasizethatthegeneratedlightistoberegardedasanaturalwonderandnotasanysleightofhandonthepartofthealchemist.

Wright’sfancifulimagecouldnotbetakenasreliableevidence,ofcourse,butitseemedtoofferencouragement.Theset-upwassimpleandbrutal,whichwouldmakeiteasierformetoreplicatetheexperiment.AndInowknewwhatIshouldexpecttoseeifitworked.Butthestartingmaterialsconcealedwithinthefurnaceremainedasmysteriousasever.Howdidonegetfromliquidurinetoanythingthatcouldbeputinafurnace?

Fortunately,asBrandandhiscompetitorstraipsedroundthecourtsofEuropewithspecimensofthenoctiluca,or‘night-light’,stopperedupintheirpockets,someoftheleadingscientistsofthedayweretheretotakenotesandmaketheirowninvestigations,fromwhichmorecoherentrecipesdidbegintoappear.OneoftheclearestistobefoundinthepapersofRobertHooke,oneoftheoriginalfellowsoftheRoyalSociety,publishedtwenty-threeyearsafterhisdeath,in1726:

TakeaQuantityofUrine(notlessforoneExperimentthan50or60Pailsfull);letitliesteepinginoneormoretubs,oranHogsheadofoakenWood,tillitputrifyandbreedWorms,asitwilldoin14or15days.Then,inalargekettle,setsomeofittoboilonastrongFire,and,asitconsumesandevaporates,pourinmore,andsoon,till,atlast,thewholeQuantitybereducedtoaPaste,orratherahardCoal,orCrust,whichitwillresemble;andthismaybedoneintwoorthreeDays,iftheFirebewelltended,butelseitmaybedoingaFortnightormore.ThentakethesaidPaste,orCoal;powderit,andaddtheretosomefairWater,

about15Fingershigh,orfourTimesashighasthePowder;andboilthemtogetherfor1/4ofanHour.ThenstraintheLiquorandallthroughawoollenCloth;thatwhichsticksbehind,maybethrownaway,buttheLiquorthatpassesmustbetakenandboil’dtillitcometoaSalt,whichitwillbeinafewHours.

Afterthat,itwassimplyamatterofaddingsomeCaputMortuum(or‘death’shead’,which,apparently,‘youhaveatanyApothecary’s’)tothesaltandsoakingtheresultingmessinalcohol‘soasitwillbecomeakindofPap’:

ThenevaporateallinwarmSand,andtherewillremainared,orreddish,Salt.TakethisSalt,putitintoaRetort,and,forthefirstHour,beginwithasmallFire;morethenext,agreaterthe3d,andmorethe4th;andthencontinueit,ashighasyoucanfor24Hours.SometimesbytheForceoftheFire,12Hoursprovesenough;forwhenyouseetheRecipientwhite,andshiningwithFire,andthattherearenomoreFlashes,or,asitwere,BlastsofWind,comingfromTimetoTimefromtheRetort,thentheWorkisfinished.Andyoumay,withFeather,gathertheFiretogether,orscrapeitoffwithaKnife,whereitsticks.

TheFireisbestpreservedinaVesselofLead,closedupfromtheAir.Buttobeseen,’tisalsoputintoaGlass,inWater,whereitwillshineintheDark…

Thiswasbeginningtosoundepic.Fiftyorsixtypailsofurinewasanawfullotforastart.Howlongwouldittakemetoproducethatmuch?Infact,Ilearnt,Ishouldbeabletotakesomeshortcutsandstandachanceofreplicatingtheexperimentonasmallerscale.Onebucketofurine–aboutthreedays’worth–shouldcontainaroundfourgrammesofphosphorus.This,ifonlyIcouldseparateit,wouldbemorethanenoughtoignite‘theFire’.

Thefirstquestionwaswhichurinetocollect.Thehealthguidesalwayssayitshouldbe‘straw-coloured’,asifeverybodyisintimatelyfamiliarwiththecolourofstraw.ShouldItakethistypicalsauvignonblanceffluence?Idecideitwouldbebettertousetheover-oakedchardonnayofthemorning’sfirstpee.Thisstrikesmeasmorelikelytoberichindissolvedsubstances.IcollectfourlitresandallowittoevaporateinanopencontainerwhichIputoutinthegarden.Itreeksatfirst,butgraduallythedisgustingsmelldisperses,andtheliquorturnsarichalebrown.Iamrelievedtoseethatitshowsnosignofbreedingworms,not

onlybecauseIhavenoespecialwishtopickthemoutoftheputrifyingconcentrate,butalsobecauseitimpliesthatmysampleisuncontaminatedwithstrayorganicmatter,andthatImightthereforebeabletoomitsomeoftherepetitiouspurifyingstagesfoundnecessaryintheseventeenthcentury.Afterseveralweeksbakinginthesun,alltheliquidhasevaporated,andIamleftwithtwenty-twogrammesofanalmostodourlesscrystallineresiduethecolourofsawdust.This,Ihope,isthereddishsaltobservedbyHooke.

NowIamreadytobeginthelongroastingprocess.ForthisIneedsomemoreprofessionallaboratoryapparatusandadvice.IenlistthehelpofAndrewSzydlo,oneofmyformerchemistryteachers.Andrewisamanofmanytalents,andIrememberhimasalwaysliabletowhipouthisgipsyviolininmid-lesson,orpassonsomepieceofloreaboutbee-keepingorcarmaintenance.Morepertinently,heisanauthorityonalchemicalhistoryandtheauthorofatreatiseonMichaelSendivogius,thePolishalchemistwhomayhavediscoveredoxygenintheearlyseventeenthcenturyandcontributedtoitsuseinapioneeringmannedsubmarinecrossingoftheThamesbytheDutchmanCornelisDrebbelin1621.AndrewspeakswithanEnglishorotundityandthetraceofaPolishaccentandiswonttogreethisformerpupilsas‘professor!’Heisenthusiasticabouttheattempttoreplicatethisfirstisolationofachemicalelement,andhassetoutvariousingredientsthatmayprovehelpfulinourquest,notleastsomebest-qualitygunpowdercharcoalhehasmadefromwillowwood.

Wegrindupsomeofmyurineresidueinapestleandtipitintoatesttubeforheating.Thistubeisconnectedtoanapparatusthatwillallowustocollectanydistillateandtestanygasesthatcomeoff.Volatilematerial,includinganyphosphorus,shouldcondenseinasecondtesttube,whilethegasesescapethroughavent.Weaimtwobunsenburnersatthebaseoftheloadedtesttube,turnthemuptomaximumheatandwait.Atfirst,alittlewatervapourcomesoff,whichisfollowedbythickyellowcurlsthatlookandsmellalittlelikeburningtobacco.‘Verycurious,’saysAndrewinhisdemoniacalway.‘It’sthemostbizarreexperiment,Imustsay.’Thisvapourcondensesasatarrybrownoilmuchlikethatwhichisproducedwhenmanyformsoforganicmatterareburntinthiscontrolledfashion.Atthevent,wispsofawhitevapourappear.Couldthisbephosphoruspentoxide,theacidiccombustionproductofphosphorus?Litmuspapershowsthatunfortunatelyitisalkaline;anotherquicktestwithhydrochloricacidconfirmsthatitismerelyammonia.Weallowthesolidremaininginthetesttubetocool.Itisnowadarkslategrey.Aflametest–alittleofthissoliddabbedontoaplatinumwireandplacedinahotblueflame–revealsthecharacteristicyellowlightofsodiumandafaintercarmineredduetocalcium.Andrewisnowgivingmeamasterclassinanalyticalchemistry,which

heintersperseswithtiradesagainsttheparlousstateofchemicaleducation:howtheschooljanitorsarealwaysseekingtoclearawaymiscellaneousapparatusthattheytaketobescrap;howstudentsarehardlyallowedtodoexperimentsforthemselvesthesedays;or,iftheyare,howtheexperimentsmustbedesignedsoastodeliveraresultbeforetheendofthelesson–aconstraintthatslamsthedooronanyslow-roastingchemistrysuchasthis.

Isthesodiumjustordinarysalt–sodiumchloride–orisitperhaps,aswehope,aphosphateorphosphitesalt,whichwouldmeanwe’regettingclosertoourgoal?Dissolvingalittleofthegreyresidueinwaterandaddingadropofsilvernitraterapidlyproducesadirtyprecipitate.Thisseparatesintoamilkywhitesludge–thestandardproofofchloride–andamysteriousbrownresidue,whichdoesnotdissolveeitherinacidoralkali,suggestingthatitisrichininorganicsubstances.Thisisprobablywherethephosphorusstilllurks.WedecidetoreheattheresiduemixedwiththespecialcharcoalAndrewhasbroughtinordertoreducethephosphateorphosphitetoelementalphosphorus.Wegrindthetwomaterialstogether–thegreyburnturineresidueandtheblackwillowcharcoal–andsubjectthemixturetothebunsenburners.‘We’reroastingthepantsoffthisnow,’hesaysgleefully.

Iamsurprisedwhentheresidue,whichhasalreadyspentanhourorsoatthehighesttemperatureswecanproduceinaschoollaboratory,beginstoreactanew.Andrewexplainsthatbygrindingitwiththecharcoalwehavegreatlyincreasedthesurfaceofcontactbetweenthetwomaterials,soboostingthechancesofareaction.Moreammoniacomesoff,followedbyagasthatburnswithalowblueflamewhenataperisputtoit.Itisnowdusk,andweturnoutthelaboratorylightsinordertostudytheflamemoreclosely.Couldthisbeourphosphorus?Itcannotbe,becauseitwouldproduceathickwhitesmokeofphosphoruspentoxide.Itispresumablycarbonmonoxideburningtotheinvisiblecarbondioxide.Astheflamedwindlesawayinthedarkenedlaboratory,itseemstobetrayafaintwhiteedgeinitsdyingmoments.‘Wemayjustbebeginningtogetsomething,’Andrewtellsme.Limitednowbythetemperature–fiveorsixhundreddegreesCelsius–achievablewithbunsenburners,wearebroughtupagainsttheknowledgethatBrandandhisimitatorsusedfarhotterfurnacesandrantheexperimentforhoursordays.Weresolvetomeetagain,armedwithquartztesttubesandanoxyacetylenetorchthatwillenableustoturnuptheheat.

Thistime,itisimmediatelyclearwearereachingamuchhighertemperature.Thesequenceofobservationsthatwepreviouslynotedoveranhourormoreisrepeatedwithinminutes.Verysoon,theroastedresidueinthequartztubebeginstoglowwithadazzlingwhitelight.Excitedly,weassumethismaybeourphosphorus,buttheglowstaysresolutelyatthetipoftheturquoiseoxyacetyleneflamewheretheheatisgreatest.Ifitwasreallyphosphorus,itwouldflowoutofthetubeinavapourwhichwouldcondenseinthecoolersecondtube,asinWright’spicture.Itseemsitismerelyanincandescenceproducedbytheextremeheatasitvaporizestheverysubstanceofthequartztube.Weareforcedtoconcedethat,whateverhisdelusions,Brandwasclearlyaformidableexperimentalscientist.

JosephWrightofDerbypaintedTheAlchymistin1771.Itwasoneofanumberofscientificdemonstrationshecommittedtocanvas:hismostfamousworkisprobablyAnExperimentuponaBirdintheAirPumpdoneafewyearsearlier,inwhichawell-to-dohouseholdgathersinvariousstatesofwonder,horrorandpityaroundaglassbulbfromwhichthenaturalphilosopherwhostaresunflinchinglyoutatusfromthecentreofthecompositionhasevacuatedalltheair,extinguishingthelife,oratleastthetemporaryconsciousness,ofthebirdinside.

WrightwaswellconnectedwiththeLunarSocietyinnearbyBirmingham,whosemembers,includingJamesWatt,theinventorofthesteamengine,thephysiologistandpoetErasmusDarwinandthechemistJosephPriestley,metmostlyonthefullmoonsothattheycouldseetheirwayhomeaftereveningsof‘dinnerandalittlephilosophicallaughing’thatonoccasionalsoincludedanexperimentaldemonstration.InspiredbyRobertBoyle’sworkonvacuumsinthe

1650s,thepaintingseemsalsotoanticipatePriestley’sexperimentsonthelife-affectingpropertiesofthenewgasesoxygenandcarbondioxidethatlayafewyearsinthefuture–andthefullmoonshinesinthroughthewindow.Othermembersofthesociety,suchastheindustrialistsJosiahWedgwoodandRichardArkwright,boughthiswork.Withthesepaintings,WrightmadehisnameasarecorderofthescientificEnlightenment.

LikeTheAirPump,TheAlchymistisreimaginedhistory.Itpurportstoshowthefirstmakingofphosphorus,whichalsohappenedmorethanacenturybefore.Interpretedasanallegory,thepaintingseemstorepresentmodernscienceshiningitslightintothealchemicaldarkness,amessagethatwouldnaturallygodownwellwithWright’spatrons.However,theworkappealedneithertothemnortocontemporaryviewers;itwasunsoldatWright’sdeathin1797.AnastuteanalysisbytheartandsciencehistorianJanetVertesiattemptstoexplainits‘curiousfailure’,andtoaccountfortheweirdget-upoftheprotagonist.Thepaintingbalancesthreesourcesoflight–onceagainthefullmoonoutside,theradiantphosphoruspouringintotheflask,and,onabenchinthebackground,thedimmerlightofanoillampbywhichtwolaboratoryassistantsaregoingabouttheirownbusinessapparentlyobliviousofthemiraculoussceneunfoldingbeforethem.Thistrinityoflightsmayhavereligioussignificance,butitalsosymbolizesacontestbetweennature(themoon),theEnlightenment(theoillamp)andsomemysterious,morepowerful,thirdforce.Therationalstudentsofnature(theyareinmoderndressandusemodernapparatusincontrasttotheirdruidicalmaster)toilbylamplight,buttheyareoutshone,literally,bythelightoftheignorantalchemist’saccidentaldiscovery.RecallWright’scarefullyphrasedtitle:‘TheAlchymist,InSearchofthePhilosopher’sStone,DiscoversPhosphorus…’Inotherwords,thealchemist,whiledoingwhateveritisthatalchemistsaresupposedtodo,inadvertentlymakesagenuinecontributiontoscience,acontributionmoreoverthattherationalistshavefailedtomakeforthemselves.WhatkindofmessagedidthissendtotheEnlightenmentprogressivesoftheLunarSocietyinthefast-industrializingEnglishMidlands?

Sciencehadthelastlaugh,however.BrandandthefewrivalswhoeventuallymanagedtorepeathisexperimenttouredthecourtsofEuropewiththeirpreciousluminouscargo.InEngland,CharlesIIattendedademonstration,asdidSamuelPepysandhisfellowmembersoftheRoyalSociety.JohnEvelynwroteofhow,whilediningwithPepysin1685,theywitnessed‘averynobleexperiment’inwhichtwoliquidsweremixedtoproduce‘fixeddiverssunsandstarsofrealfire,perfectlyglobular,onthesidesoftheglass,andwhichtherestucklikesomanyconstellations,burningmostvehement’.Butforalongtimephosphorusremainedlittlemorethanahigh-endpartytrick.Obtainingitwas

arduousandobscure,anditselementalstatuswasfarfromagreed,withchemicaldictionariessometimeslistingitasnomorethana‘speciesofsulphur’.

Exactly100yearsafterHennigBrandisolatedphosphorusfromurine,theSwedesCarlScheeleandJohanGahnshowedthatitwasamajorconstituentofbone.Thisrichersourceoftheelementmadeitpossibleatlasttoconsiderhowitmightbeputtopracticaluse.Formorecompellingthanamysteriouslightinnatureis,asKeatsobserved,alightthatmaybecapturedbyman.BythetimethatKeatswaswriting‘Lamia’in1819,phosphoruslampssuchashedescribeswerethelatestthing,inventorshavingfoundawaytopreventtheoutrightcombustionofthephosphorusbydilutingitinasuitableinertmediumandregulatingtheadmissionofair.Inthisway,theywereabletoobtainalampthatcouldgiveasteadyglowondemandoveraperiodofweeks.Thediscoveryandapplicationofphosphoruswaswelltimedfortheelementtobecomeasymbolofthetamingofnature,ofprogress,and,literally,ofenlightenment.

TheBritishreturnedHamburg’schemicalgifttotheworldwithvengefulinterestduringthelastweekofJuly1943.Innightlyraids,hundredsofaircraftdropped1,900tonnesofwhitephosphorusincendiarybombsonthecity,theculminationofastrategyof‘moralebombing’authorizedin1941bytheprimeminister,WinstonChurchill,andArthurHarris,thechiefoftheRoyalAirForceBomberCommand,whosoughttodirecttheaerialassaultonlocationsmostlikelytoweakenthespiritoftheenemy.Increasingly,themannerofthebombingbecameafactortoo,sothatbythesummerof1943theAllies’objectivewastodestroycitiesnotonlyofhistoricandindustrialimportance,butalsothosedenselypopulatedwithkeyworkers,andtousemeansspecificallydesignedtoterrifytheGermansintosubmission.Thisledtoanunprecedentedemphasisonincendiarybombs,andespeciallyonphosphorus.

On27July,thethirdnightoftheonslaught,incendiarybombingcombinedwiththehot,stillweathertoproduceafire-storm,aphenomenonwheretheintensityoftheconflagrationsucksinairfromalldirections,sofeedingtheflamesandcreatingaferociouslyhotvortexoffire.InthewordsofarecentanalysisbyaGermanhistorian:

Thecombinationoftheclimate,theincendiaryratio,thecollapseddefenses,andthestructureofthecityblockscreatedwhatHarris’scode-name‘Gomorrah’predicted:LikeAbrahaminGenesis19:28,Harrislookedtowardthesinfulcity‘andbeheld,andlo,thesmokeofthecountrywentupasthesmokeofafurnace.’Itmeltedbetweenfortythousandandfiftythousandpeople.

Manyotherswereasphyxiatedastheupwardrushofflamesimplysuckedtheairoutoftheirundergroundshelters.Althoughtheoldtownsurvived,thefiresdevastatedmuchoftherestofHamburg-Mitte,thecentraldistrictwhereBrandhadfirstisolatedphosphorusnearly300yearsbefore.Morethanaquarterofamilliondwellingsweredestroyed,alongwithfactories,shippingandtheall-importantU-boatdocks.Fifty-eightchurcheswerereducedtorubble,butalthoughitsneighbourhoodwasbadlyhit,StMichaelissurvivedforanotheryear

untilitwasbadlydamagedinanAmericanbombingraid.ThatautumnthetreesofHamburgfloweredagainasifitwerespring.

‘Droppingphosphorusbombsonthehomesofinnocentciviliansisneverlikelytohappenagain,’writesJohnEmsley,whileexplainingthattheelementisneverthelessboundtoremainapartofmodernarmouriesbecauseofitssheerversatility,usedtoilluminatetargets,tocreatesmokescreensortoigniteandclearvegetation.YetasIwrite,inJanuary2009,IsraelhasadmittedusingwhitephosphorusduringitsoffensiveinGaza.IsraelifirefirsthitaUnitedNationsschool,andaweeklaterofficialsattheUnitedNationsReliefandWorksAgencyforPalestinianRefugeesintheNearEastclaimedthatitsGazaCitycompoundwassetablazebyphosphorusshells.Inthisconflict,asinotherssincetheFirstWorldWar,phosphorusisregardedasalegitimateagentofwarfare,butitsuseisconfinedbyconventiontotheopenbattlefield,anditisnotallowedtobeusedagainstcivilianpopulations.InGaza,ithappenedthatthe‘battlefield’wasdenselypopulated:thesmokescreenthatphosphorusproducesremainsmoralaswellasliteral.

‘Asunderagreensea’

Theredpoppy,whichweweartocommemoratethelossoflifeintheFirstWorldWar,offersusconsolationbecauseitisasymbolofsurvival:aflowerthatgrewfromthesoilofbattlefields,whichhadbeenfertilizedwiththebloodoftheslain.Butoneoftheweaponsofthatwardestroyseventhissentimentalconstruction.Thepoisongasthatbothsidesemployedoffensivelyforthefirsttimein1915hadhorrificpowertochokethelungs,andtobleachthegrassandflowerswhite.Thegaswaschlorine.

Bytheoutbreakofthewar,ithadbeenanticipatedforsomefiftyyearsthatnewchemicalweapons,builtonthescientificadvancesofthenineteenthcentury,wouldbedevelopedforuseinwar.However,sostrongwasthispossibility,andsostrongtoothesensethatthiswassomethinguniquelyabhorrent,thatapre-emptivebanhadlongbeeninplacetoregulatetheuseofsuchlethalagentsonthebattlefield.

Teargasremainedlegalbecauseitdidnotkill.Thechallengeformilitaryengineerswastofindameansofdeliveringittoenemylinesonalargescaleandensuringitwoulddisperseinsuchawayastocausemaximumdisruptionwhilepresentingminimaldangertoone’sownforces.TheGermanchemistgiventhisjobwasFritzHaber–thesameHaberwhowouldlaterendeavourtoextractgoldfromseawaterforhiscountryandwhowasalreadycelebratedasoneoftheinnovatorsofaprocessforconvertingnitrogenfromtheairintoammonia.

When,later,hewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforthiswork,thechoicewashighlycontroversialbecausehehadbythenbeenlistedbytheAlliedPowersasawarcriminal.

Haber’sbrainwavewastokeepitsimple.Chlorinewasastepbackwardsfromteargasinchemicalsophistication,butaconsiderableleapforwardinpracticality.Ratherthantrytoencapsulateitinshellsthatcouldbefiredbehindenemylines,Haberproposedsimplytoreleasethegasfromground-basedcylindersandallowthewindtodotherest.Thechlorine,twiceasheavyasair,wouldrollalongthegroundinachokingblanketbeforewhichtheenemywouldhavenooptionbuttoretreat.AtYpresinnorthernBelgium,Haberpersonallyoversawtheinstallationofmorethan5,000cylindersalongaseven-kilometrestretchoftheWesternfront.Chlorinebecamethefirstweaponofgaswarfareontheafternoonof22April1915,whenalightnorth-easterlywindblewfavourablyfortheGermanarmy.ThesurpriseattackseemedtoengulftheAlliedsoldiers,mainlyFrenchandAlgerians.Swallowedupbythecorrosivecloud,theycouldnolongertellwhethertoretreatfromthegasorpushthroughitinthehopeoffindingclearairbeyond.Bytheendoftheday,hundredsofmenlaydead,andthousandswereincapacitated,manyremainingpermanentlydisabled.

DidchlorinebreakTheHagueconventionsbanning‘asphyxiatinganddeleterious’substances?Haber’sargumentthatchlorinewasnon-lethal,liketeargas,andsoalegitimateweaponofwar,seemsdisingenuousinthelightofhisinfamouslaterboastthathehaddevised‘ahigherformofkilling’.ThedeathtollonthatAprilafternooninYprespronounceditsownverdict.

CertainlytheattackwasfelttobemorethanenoughtosanctionresponseinkindbytheAllies.Bothsidesemployedgasperiodicallythroughouttherestofthewar,althoughitwasneversodevastatingaswhenusedbytheGermansatYpresandafewweekslaterontheEasternfrontwestofWarsaw.Bothsidesalsodisplayedanalarmingreadinesstodeployevermoreunpleasantgases,escalatingthechemicalwarwithagentssuchasphosgene(carbonylchloride),whichsmellsfaintlyoffreshhay,mustardgasandotherchlorinatedcompoundsofsulphurandarsenic.Butitischlorinethatstillseemsthemostbrutalweaponbecauseofitselementalsimplicity.Thegasripsthroughthebloodvesselsthatlinethelungsandthevictimeventuallydrownsinfluidproducedasthebodyattemptstorepairthedamage.

Haber’spatrioticeffortscastalongshadow,notleastoverhisownfamily.Hiswife,Clara,committedsuicideonthenightof1May1915usingherhusband’sservicerevolver.BiographersargueovertheextenttowhichthedeathwasherprotestagainstHaber’schemicalwar,butitisworthnotingthatshewasaqualifiedchemistherself,havingtrainedinthesubjectinordertocatchFritz’s

attention,andhadobservedtheeffectsofchlorineinHaber’sanimalexperimentsandfieldtrials.Haberwasapparentlyunfazed;hedepartedthefollowingmorningtosupervisetheinstallationofgascylindersontheEasternfront.

Haber’ssonbyhissecondmarriage,Lutz(acontractionofLudwig-Fritz),washauntedbyhisfather’shistoryandtriedtolaytheghostinabookcalledThePoisonousCloud,whichremainsoneofthestandardworksonchemicalwarfare.HaberwasforcedtoleavehisbelovedGermanywithhisfamilywhenhisBerlinresearchinstitutewasshutdownbytheNazisin1933.(Althoughhischemicaltalentswouldundoubtedlyhavebeenputtouse,andindeedheofferedhisservices,Haber’spartlyJewishancestrymadehimunacceptable.)HeconsideredsettlinginPalestine,thenlookedtofindahomeinCambridge;intheendtherewastimeforneither,andhediedjustafewmonthsafterhisjourneyintoexile.

LutzHaberandhissisterEvaCharlottestayedinEngland.Anumberofyearsago,IvisitedtheminanincongruouslygenteelcottageinBath,thecitytowhichtheyhadretired.Lutzwasthennearlyeightyandalittlefrail,butEvaCharlottewasthekindofwomanwhoseemstosavehersharpfocusforoldage.Theyrememberedtheirfatherdimly–theoddgameofbowls,helpinghimupthestairs,thatsortofthing.EvarecalledhowEinstein,afamilyfriend,explainedrelativitytoherbyanalogywithmovingtrains,andtoldmehowsheandLutzonedayclimbedupaladderandintoHaber’sinstitute,trippingoveranassistant’sapparatusandbreakingit,sendingtheirfatherintoarage.WhydidLutzwritehismagnumopus?‘IfeltIshouldcontributemybit,’heconfided.Inhis‘personalintroduction’tothebook,heelaborateswithacriticalsketchofhisfatheras‘theembodimentoftheromantic,quasi-heroicaspectofGermanchemistryinwhichnationalpridecommingledwiththeadvancementofpurescienceandtheutilitarianprogressoftechnology’.Hejudgeshisfather’spatriotism‘unusualeveninanagewhenjingoism,intowhichitsofrequentlyspillsover,wascondoned’.Asforchlorine,Lutztoldme,itwassimply‘themostreadilyavailablesubstance.Thechemicalindustrywasverycapableofproducingchlorinequicklyandinquantity.’

WilfredOwenusesachlorinegasattackasthetableauagainstwhichtoexpose‘TheoldLie’ofpatriotisminthemostfamouspoemoftheFirstWorldWar:

Gas!Gas!Quick,boys!–Anecstasyoffumbling,Fittingtheclumsyhelmetsjustintime;ButsomeonestillwasyellingoutandstumblingAndflound’ringlikeamaninfireorlime…

Dim,throughthemistypanesandthickgreenlight,Asunderagreensea,Isawhimdrowning.

Inallmydreams,beforemyhelplesssight,Heplungesatme,guttering,choking,drowning.

IfinsomesmotheringdreamsyoutoocouldpaceBehindthewagonthatweflunghimin,Andwatchthewhiteeyeswrithinginhisface,Hishangingface,likeadevil’ssickofsin;Ifyoucouldhear,ateveryjolt,thebloodComegarglingfromthefroth-corruptedlungs,Obsceneascancer,bitterasthecudOfvile,incurablesoresoninnocenttongues,–Myfriend,youwouldnottellwithsuchhighzestTochildrenardentforsomedesperateglory,TheoldLie:DulceetdecorumestPropatriamori.

Owenlimnstheeffectsofthegaswithapathologist’saccuracy.JohnSingerSargent’sfamouspaintingGassed,completedafterthewarin1919,confrontsuswithnoneofthisfrenziedhorror.Hisvastcanvasshowsawalkingcolumnofelevenmen,allbutthemanwhoisguidingthemblindfoldedandholdingontotheshoulderorknapsackstrapsofthemaninfront.Asimilarcolumnisledoffbywhite-coatedmeninthedistance.Aroundthewalkingwoundedotherinjuredmenlieontheground,onedrinkingfromawaterbottle,anotherclutchingahandtohisbandagedeyes.Thebleak,flatlandscapeispunctuatedonlybythepitchedcanvasofthenursingstations.Overitall,alowrancidsunforcesitslightthroughagreenishsky.

Thereisclearlysomethingwrongwiththispicture.Itmaynotbeapicnic,

butthesceneiscuriouslystatic,almostreposeful.Thesoldiersarenotsuffering.Therearenovisibleinjuries,noscarredorburntskin,noblood;uniformsareneatlyinplace.ThereisnosignofthechokingthatOwendescribes.ThepicturewaspaintedfollowingavisitthattheartistmadetoFranceinthesummerof1918.Thegasatthislatestageofthewarismorelikelytohavebeenmustardgas,althoughthesicklygreenishmisthintsatchlorine.Theartisthasclearlyrespondedtotheofficialbriefhewasgiventoemphasizesoldierlycomradeship,buthecannothavepaintedwhathesawifhesawtheaftermathofagasattack.HisgiantmiseenscèneparadesitsidentikitblondAryanheroes–thesonsofthesocietywomenwhoseportraitshehadgrownrichby,perhaps–likeanheroicfilminCinemascope.

Inthelight,airycalmofthereadingroomatthetopoftheImperialWarMuseum,IreadlettershomefromYpresandfindthesamescenepaintedinverydifferentcolours.SergeantElmerCottonoftheFifthBattalionNorthumberlandFusiliersdescribedhow

Theflatcountryallaroundwascoveredtoaheightoffrom5to7feetwithagreenishwhitevaporouscloudofChlorinegas…furtheronwepassedadressingstation–proppedupagainstawallwereadozenmen–allgassed–theircolourwasblack,greenandblue,tongueshangingoutandeyesstaring.Oneortwoweredeadandtheothersbeyondhumanaid,somewerecoughingupgreenfrothfromtheirlungs.

Ireadotherlettersthatspeakoftheconfusionproducedbythenovelweapon(‘agreatstreamofSulpher’,accordingtoInfantrymanJamesRandall;carbonmonoxideaccordingtoanerroneousfirstreportoftheYpresattackinTheTimes);oftheAllies’unpreparedness(theBritishhave‘bicarbofsodaorsomethingasanantidote’,wroteLieutenant-ColonelVivianFergusson);andoftheeffectsfromaCanadiannursenamedAlisonMullineaux,whotendedtwomen‘bothlungsburntoutineachofthem’,thedoctorhimselfhavingtoleavethewardinordertovomitfromthegashebreathedoffthepatients.

Chlorine’spungentnaturewasnotedfromtheoutset.TheSwedeCarlScheelewasthefirsttoisolatethegasin1774,notingitsgreencolour,chokingpowerandbleachingeffectonlitmuspaperandplants.Hemadethediscoveryinpursuitofoneofthegreatchemicalprojectsoftheday:toconfirmwhetherornotallacidscontainedoxygen.Well-knownacidssuchassulphuricandnitricwereknowntocontainoxygen.Hydrochloricacid,thenknownasmuriaticacid

(aftermuria,theLatinforbrine),wasamystery.AntoineLavoisierevencalleditoxymuriaticacid,believingitsacidityhadtobelinkedtooxygen.Scheelesucceededinobtainingchlorineduringthecourseofhisownexperimentswiththisacid.However,thisdidnotprovetheabsenceofoxygen.Itwasnotuntil1810thatthiswasdonebyHumphryDavy,whoconfirmedthatthegasScheelehadisolatedwasindeedanelement,bycombiningmuriaticacidwithhisownnewlydiscoveredmetal,potassium,andobtainingfromthereactiononlypotassiumchlorideandhydrogengas–nooxygen.

Chlorine’spropensitytocombinewithotherelementstoformhazardousnewcompounds,suchasmustardgas,wasalsonotedearlyon.Oneofthesesubstanceswasthehighlyexplosiveliquidnitrogentrichloride.WhenPierre-LouisDulongfirstmadethiscompoundin1811,itcosthimaneyeandthreefingers.André-MarieAmpèrewarnedDavyaboutthedangers,butDavyrepeatedtheexperimentanyway,andreceivedcutstohiseyefromflyingglass.

ThecriticJohnRuskinwassufficientlystruckbythecontrastbetweenplacidnitrogengasanditsexplosivechloridetocitethemfigurativelyinhis1860essayUntoThisLast,makinganargumentinfavourof‘accidentals’andagainstman’scompletecontrolofhismaterials:

Wemadelearnedexperimentsuponpurenitrogen,andhaveconvincedourselvesthatitisaverymanageablegas:butbehold!thethingwhichwehavepracticallytodealwithisitschloride;andthis,themomentwetouchitonourestablishedprinciples,sendsusandourapparatusthroughtheceiling.

Thedangerouscompoundsofchlorinethataremorefamiliartodayarethosethathavebecomenotoriouspollutantsoftheenvironment.SomeofthesehavetheiroriginintheresearchdonebyHaberandhiscolleagues.Theceaselesssearchfor‘higherformsofkilling’hadconsequencesforspeciesotherthanman.DDTwasoneby-productofthisresearch,itsefficacyasapesticideidentifiedduringthecourseoflaboratorytestsoninsectsofpotentialwarfareagents.DDTisachlorinatedhydro-carbon,aclassofcompoundsinwhichchlorineatomsaresubstitutedforhydrogenatomsonacarbonbackbone.TheherbicideknownasAgentOrangeusedasadefoliantduringtheVietnamWarisanother.ThegroupofrefrigerantgasesknownasCFCs–chlorofluorocarbons–areothers.

ChlorineisaJanus-facedelement.Itisabundantinnature–notleastinthesaltoftheoceans–andisessentialforlife,playinganimportantroleinregulatingbodyfunctions.Likesulphurandphosphorus,itisusuallysafeenoughinnatural

combinations.Butwhenitslipsitsleashitcandogreatharm.ThisiswhathappenedinthecaseofCFCs,thefamouslyinertcompoundsoriginallyadoptedasasafealternativetoexistingaerosolpropellantsandrefrigerantgases.Highinthestratosphere,sunlightstripsouttheirchlorineatoms,settingupachemicalcyclethatallowsthemtorampagethroughtheozonelayer,breakingitupmoleculebymolecule.

Releasedincontrolleddoses,however,chlorinehasthepowerforgood.Ourawarenessofthestingingsmellofchlorinegascomesnotfromthebattlefield,butfrompublicswimmingpoolswhereitisusedasadisinfectant,fromthebleachunderthekitchensink,andfromthemedicinecabinetandpreparationssuchasTCPandthechloroquinetabletswetakeonexoticholidays.ItissaidthatchlorinateddrinkingwaterbroughttotroopsintheFirstWorldWarsavedmorelivesthanwerelosttothegasasaweapon.

Asearlyas1785,Claude-LouisBerthollet,afollowerofLavoisierandaninspectorofdyeworks,publishedanaccountofhisexperimentswiththenewelement.AddingtoScheele’sobservationthatthegashadableachingeffect,heshowedthatitwaspossibletomakeasafeandpracticalbleachingagentbymixingpotash–potassiumcarbonateoriginallyobtainedfromwoodash–withchlorinewater.Berthollet’sdiscoverywaswelltimed.Bleachingclothhadtraditionallybeenalaboriousbusiness,involvingrepeatedwashingandthenprolongedexposuretosunlight,aprocedurethattooksomemonthseveninfavourableweather.Thecommonsightoffieldslaidoutwithsheetsoflineninspiredsomememorableimages,especiallyinDutchart,suchasthepaintingattributedtoJacobvanRuisdaelofthebleachingfieldsoutsideHaarlem.(TheculturalmemoryofwhiterectanglespaperingthelandscapewaslaterperhapsaninspirationtotheabstractpainterPietMondrian.)TheIndustrialRevolutionledtoanincreaseintextileproductionandademandforafasterbleachingtechnique.BertholletadvertisedhisdiscoverytoBritishscientists,andin1786theleadingindustrialistsoftheday,JamesWattandMatthewBoulton,travelledtoParistoseeBertholletdemonstratehisinstantbleachingprocess.WattdiscussedhissteamenginewithadmiringFrenchacademiciansandbroughthomeinformationaboutBerthollet’sprocess,whichhethenappliedinhisfather-in-law’stextilefactory.

LikeOdysseus’sulphur,chlorinewasalsosoonrecommendedinthefightagainstinfectionanddisease.Thegaswasawkwardtoadminister,however,andalwaysunpleasant,andforalongtimewasnotapopulartreatment.ItwasthedevastatingepidemicofinfluenzaimmediatelyaftertheFirstWorldWarthathelpedtomakechlorineacceptable–adoubleironysincethegassorecentlyusedforkillingmenwasnotactuallyeffectiveagainstthefluvirus.WhenCalvin

Coolidge,themostinertofAmericanpresidents,underwentchlorine-inhalationtherapyforacoldoverthreedaysin1924,theWashingtonPostheadlined:‘chlorinegas,warannihilator,aidspresident’scold.CoolidgeMuchRelievedAfter50MinutesinAirtightChamber.’Over-the-counterchlorineremediesbegantoproliferate.Oneointment,ChlorineRespirine,appliedtothenostrils‘liberatedpurechlorinegas’.Theproductadvertisingburbled:‘Itsdiscoveryis,infact,oneofthegreatesttriumphsofscience.’In1925,thepresident’shealthpresumablyrestored,thePostjoyouslydrewthebiggerpicture:‘Chlorinetosavemorelivesayearthanitswartoll.’

Iamindebtedforsomeoftheseinsightsintochlorine’spropertiestoanunusualbookthatisineffectabiographyoftheelement,butismorenotableasthepermanentrecordofanintriguingpedagogicalexperiment.TwolecturersinthehistoryofscienceatUniversityCollegeLondonaskedtheirundergraduatestudentseachtoexploreadifferentaspectofchlorine’slife‘inscience,medicine,technologyandwar’.Theprojectwascompletedoverseveralyears,withstudentsinheritingworkfromtheirpredecessors,addingtoitandimprovingitlittlebylittleuntilauniquechemicalcommonplacebookhadbeenbuiltup.ThecopyIborrowedfromthelibraryhadneverbeenopened.WasitjustfancythatIsensedawhiffofchlorinerisingfromitsfreshbleachedpages?*

‘Humanitariannonsense’

InStanleyKubrick’sblackestofblackcomedies,Dr.Strangelove,theparanoidAmericangeneralJackD.Ripper,holeduponBurpelsonAirForceBase,undersiegebyhisownmen,finallyrevealstothehaplessRAFofficerLionelMandrakewhyhehaslaunchedthenuclearattackontheSovietUnionthatwillleadbytheendofthefilmtothedestructionofhumancivilization.‘Doyourealize,’hesays,chewingmightilyonhiscigar,‘thatfluoridationisthemostmonstrouslyconceivedanddangerouscommunistplotwehaveeverhadtoface?’Ripper,itshouldbesaid,isdrivenbyapathologicalfearofcontaminationofhis‘preciousbodilyfluids’,somethingthatfirstcametohim‘duringthephysicalactoflove’.Asmachine-gunfirerakesthroughhisoffice,heexplainsthatfluoridationbeganin1946:‘Howdoesthatcoincidewithyourpost-warCommieconspiracy?Mandrake,doyourealizethatinadditiontofluoridatingwater,why,therearestudiesunderwaytofluoridatesalt,flour,fruitjuices,soup,sugar,milk,icecream?Icecream,Mandrake,children’sicecream.’

Thehalogens,ofwhichtheelementfluorineisthefirstandmostreactiveexample,havequietlyinsinuatedthemselvesintoourlives.Likeanightnurse,

theygoabouttheirbusinessdosingusupwithoutouragreement,mutteringastheygo,‘it’sforyourowngood’.Waterischlorinatedandfluoridated,bromidesareprescribed,tablesaltisiodized.Weareneverconsulted,butweknowthewords.Thesesimplemedicamentshaveaprimalqualitythatencouragesustoreachforthemasreadilyasweoncereachedforhyssoporrue.Thebromide,orBromo-Seltzer,featuresinhard-drinkingAmericanliteraturealmostasoftenasthebourbonsandmartiniswhoseeffectsitistheretoassuage.InTennesseeWilliams’sAStreetcarNamedDesire,thealcoholicBlancheDuBoisclutchesherheadandannouncestonobodyinparticular:‘SometimetodayI’vegottogetabromo.’InErnestHemingway’sTheSnowsofKilimanjaro,amandiesatlengthonthemountainsidebecausehehasfailedtoputiodineonhisinjuredleg.Thecauseofdeath,itismadeclear,isnottheoriginalaccidentbuttheman’sfailuretoapplytreatment;itseemshesubconsciouslychoosesdeathbecauseitoffershimanescapefromthatworstofHemingwayfates,theformingofamaturehumanrelationship.Iodinewasamiraculousdisinfectantbutitdeliveredasalutarysting.‘Nohumanitariannonsenseaboutiodine,’asthecynicaladventurerMarkStaitheswincesapprovinglyinAldousHuxley’sEyelessinGazawhilebeingtreatedforasimilarlytestinginjury.LeonardCohen’s1977song‘Iodine’gainsitssensefromthiswomanishcontrarinessoftheelementinmedicine–stingingoneminute,soothingthenext.

GeneralRipperwasrightaboutonething.FluoridationdidbegininAmericajustastheSecondWorldWarwasending.InDecember1945,GrandRapids,Michigan,becamethefirstcitytobesuppliedwithfluoridatedwater.Anearbycitywasdesignatedasacontrolinwhatwastobeaten-yeartrialofitslong-termeffectsondentalhealth,butfluoridationwaspreemptivelydeclaredasuccessandrapidlyextendedtoothermetropolitanwatersuppliesincludingthecontrolcity,therebyruiningtheexperiment.WelloverhalfofAmericansdrinkfluoridatedwatertoday–asneartofreeuniversalhealthcareasthatcountrycomes,perhaps.TheprogrammehasbeenresistedbythelibertarianJohnBirchSocietyandmanyotherlobbygroups.Accusationsofconspiracyhavebeentradedeversince:thatfluoridationwasaschemesolelydreamtupsothatthealuminiumindustrycoulddisposeofthelargequantitiesoffluorinecompoundsusedinthemetal’smanufacture;thatitwasfundedbythesugarindustrytogetthemselvesoffthehookforrottingpeople’steeth;and,becausefluoridationinMcCarthy-eraAmericawasbackedbythegovernment,thatitwastheanti-fluoridationists,ironically,whoweretheleft-wingstooges.Theobjectiononprinciplehasbeenmostlynotabouttheefficacyoffluorideinpreventingdentaldisease,butdirectedtowardsthecavalierattitudeofofficialdomincompulsorilyimposingblanket‘treatment’withoutthenormalmedicalprecautionsofprior

diagnosis,prescriptionanddeterminationofdosage.SomeEuropeancountrieshavediscontinuedwaterfluoridationandhaveintroducedoptionallypurchasedfluoridatedsaltandtoothpasteinitsplace.Meanwhile,thepeopleoftheUnitedStatesstillunexpectedlycompriseoneofthemostcomprehensivelyfluoridatedpopulationsintheworld,andcontroversycontinuestoflourish,withonetypicalwebsitetermingfluoridation‘medicallyevil,aswellassocialistic’.

Thereneverwasacampaignagainstbromides,saltsoncesowidelyemployedasall-purposesedativesthattheverywordstillretainshumorousconnotationsofsexualunderperformance.Althoughtheyhadenjoyedgreatfavour,theywerewithdrawnfromtheAmericanmarketwithoutfussin1975.Bythistime,somanydangerousside-effectshadcometolightthattheyearnttheirowndiagnosticdescription:bromism.

Bromideshadbeguntogainareputationasaremedymorethanacenturybefore.In1857,SirCharlesLocock,thephysician-accoucheurwhohadattendedQueenVictoriaatthebirthofherninechildren,havingheardthatepilepticpatientstreatedwithbromidealsoexperiencedreducedlibido,decidedtotryitonwomensufferingfrom‘hysterical’disorders.TheamusinglynamedLococksharedtheexpertopinionofthetimethatepilepsywaslinkedtomasturbation,nymphomaniaandothermanifestationsof‘excessivesexualexcitation’,andreasonedthat,sincehiswomenappearedtobeattheirmostdisturbedduringmenstruation,thebromidetreatmentmightalsobeaneffectivewaytosuppressthelustfuldesiresthatweresupposedlytroublingthem.Proventobeeffectiveasbothanticonvulsantandanaphrodisiac,bromideseemedtoconfirmalinkbetweenepilepsyandonanism,anditbegantobeprescribedwhereverageneraldullingactionwasrequired.WhentheAmericanhumoristGelettBurgessdividedtheworldintotwotypes,thesulphitesandthebromides,inhis1907bookAreYouaBromide?,thetermwaswidelyunderstoodtorefertoabore–sulphites,presumably,werepeoplewhobycontrastbroughtacertainpungencytothetable.

Thesamesalt,potassiumorsodiumbromide,wasalsotheactiveingredientinthe‘bromos’calledforbyBlancheDuBois,W.C.Fieldsandotherhighrollers.ThegenerictermevolvedfromBromo-Seltzer,acommercialantacidsoldintheformofafizzypowderdevelopedbyCaptainIsaacEmersonofBaltimore,Maryland.ThesplendidFlorentineBromo-SeltzerTowerstillstandsinthecity,thetwelvepositionsonitsclockfacespellingoutthenameofthedrug.Thebrandpersistsalthoughtheproductnolongercontainsanybromine,whilethetowerhasbeenconvertedintowriters’studioswhereanewgeneration

cannursetheirhangovers.Iodine,thoughtheelementalequaloffluorine,chlorineandbromine,

appearstousnotonlyaslessdangerousthanitshalogenfellowsbutevenassomethingofabeneficence.IodizedsaltisjustaswidespreadinAmericaasfluoridatedwater,yetitsintroductionfromthe1920sneverarousedlibertarianpassions.Itsfamiliarmedicinalformistinctureofiodine,simplytheelementinalcoholicsolution.Brownliquidinabrownbottle,itseemspureunction,itsheadyaromaandstainingcolourlikeakindofvanillaessenceforexternaluseonly.

Iodineisoneofthegreataccidentaldiscoveriesofscience.In1805,BernardCourtoistookovertherunningofhisfamily’sloss-makingsaltpetrefactoryinPariswhilehisfatherwasindebtors’prison.AlthoughtheNapoleonicWarshadbegun,Pariswasatpeaceaftertheyearsofrevolution,andtherewaslittlelocaldemandforhisexplosives.Neverthelesshisrawmaterial,inparticulartheguanofromwhichsaltpetreismostconvenientlymade,wasbecomingincreasinglyhardtoobtain.Courtoisstruggledtokeepthebusinessgoing,preparingsaltpetre(nitrateofpotassiumorsodium)insteadfromwoodash.Whenevenwoodashranshort,heturnedtoseaweed,traditionallyharvestedfromtheBrittanyand

Normandycoastforitssoda,whichwasusedinthemakingofglass.Onedayin1811,henoticedsomecorrosionofthecoppervesselsinwhichhemixedseaweedashwithotheringredientstomakethesaltpetre.Byexperiment,hefoundthatthepittingaroseduringthefuriousreactionthatoccurredwhensulphuricacidwasaddedtothealkalinesoda.Thisreaction,hecouldn’thelpnoticing,alsoreleasedpuffsofanentrancingvioletvapour.Investigatingfurther,Courtoisfoundthatthevapourdidnotcondensetoaliquidbutformedunfamiliarblack,metallic-lookingcrystals.Courtoissuspectedhemighthavediscoveredanewelement,butlackedtheequipmenttomaketestsandcouldnotaffordtotakethetimefromhisbusiness.Instead,heaskedtwofriendstofinishthework.Oneofthem,thegaschemistandballoonistJoseph-LouisGay-Lussac,proposedthenameiodineinanalogytochlorine.

Byastrangechance,HumphryDavywasalsopresentatthechristeningifnotthebirth.Since1792,ithadbeendifficultforBritishtravellerstoenterFrance,butDavy,whohadbeenawardedtheNapoleonPrize,waspersonallygrantedapassportbytheemperorinorderthathemightcollecthisaward.InOctober1813,thenewlymarriedDavys,withanervousyoungMichaelFaradayactingastheirfootman,embarkedatPlymouthonashipusedfortheexchangeofprisonersofwarandsetsailforBrittany.Afterarainyvoyage,theylandedinenemyterritoryandweresearched,evenincludingtheirshoes.AstheyprogressedtowardsParis,theyfoundthekitchensfilthybutthefoodsurprisinglyagreeable.Davyhadhighhopes‘throughtheinstrumentalityofmenofscience,tosoftentheasperityofnationalwar’,butseemedunwillingtomakethefirstmove:attheLouvreheavertedhiseyesfromthepaintingslesthefeltobligedtopayacomplimenttohishosts.JaneDavy,meanwhile,shockedpassers-byintheTuileriesGardenswithherunfashionablytinyhat.

DavymetwithAmpère,hiscorrespondentwhohadwarnedhimofthedangersofnitrogentrichloride,andwhohadobtainedsomeofCourtois’snewsubstance.Usinghistravellingsetofchemicalapparatus,DavysubjectedittoanalysisandconcludedwithGay-Lussacthatitwasindeedanewelement,andrelatedtochlorine.DavyannoyedGay-LussacbyfiringoffapapertotheRoyalSocietytothiseffect,whileDavyfelttheFrenchmanhadmerelyaskedhiminthefirstplaceinordertopickhisbrains.However,itwasallsmileswhen,towardstheendofhistwomonthsinParis,DavywashonouredtobemadeacorrespondingmemberoftheFrenchAcademyofSciences.TheDavysdidnotmeetNapoleonhimself,buttheydidvisittheEmpressJosephineatMalmaisonbeforepressingontoItaly,Switzerland,AustriaandGermany,returninghomeinApril1815,afewweeksbeforetheBattleofWaterloo.Somewhereenroute,Davymusthaverevisedhisopiniononthe‘asperityofnationalwar’,forsoon

afterwardshewrotetothePrimeMinister,LordLiverpool,urgingseveretreatmentfortheFrenchunderthetermsofthepeacetreaty.

After1815,asthedemandforsaltpetrefellstillfurther,Courtoissoughttoprofitfromhisdiscoveryofiodine,manufacturingtheelementandvariouscompounds,usingchlorinegastodisplacetheiodineintheliquorobtainedfromkelpash.Buthewasagainunlucky,soonovertakenbymoreefficientprocesses.Fameultimatelyeludedhim,andhediedpennilessin1838.

FollowingCourtois’sdiscovery,iodinewassoonidentifiedinseawaterandinvariousmineralsourcesandwasrecognizedtobeeffectiveintreatinggoitre.Thisrevelationexplainedthetraditionalremedyofusingburntspongesorkelptotreattheswelling.Thekelpashindustrythathadbeenestablishedalongtheweed-strewnrockycoastsnotonlyofnorthernFrancebutalsoofwesternScotlandhadgoneintodeclinewhenvastdepositsofsodaandpotashwerediscoveredinSpainandSouthAmerica,butnowitenjoyedabriefrevivalproducingiodineformedicine.Thisbusinessprovidedameagresubsistenceforcrofterswhokeptkelpfiresburningsummerlongtoproducetheiodine-ladenash.Entrepreneurssoughttoputthisactivityonanindustrialfooting,withGlasgowbecomingthecentre.In1864,thefirstfactoryonClydebankwasoneerectedinordertoprocessthousandsoftonnesofkelpbroughtuptherivereachyearfromtheScottishislands.Butinanechoofwhathadalreadybefallenthesaltpetreindustry,thislabour-andenergy-intensiveprocessbecameuneconomicovernightwheniodidedepositswerefoundinChile.

AlthoughmynearestcoastlineistheflatsandandmudofEastAnglia,wheretheseaweedsarenotsolushasonrockiershores,IdecideIshouldhaveagoatmakingmyowniodine.IreadcarefulinstructionsthatIshouldselectonlythiskelporthatlaminaria,but,slippingamongthetidalpoolsonafreezingDecemberday,itishardenoughtodistinguishonespeciesfromanotheratall.Withnumbhands,Irandomlyscoopupabucketfulofwrackandtakeithometodry,spreadoutbytheboiler.Afterseveralweeks,Ihave400grammesofdriedweed,whichIplaceinanopenceramicbowlinthefire.Orangeflamesfromthesodiuminthebrinedancelazilyasitburns,andafterwardsIamleftwithjustsixtygrammesofacrispygreyash.Ipoundthistoapowderandstirintoitaminimumofwatertocreatearunnyblacksludge,whichinturnIplaceinafunnelwithafilterpaper.Aclearliquortricklesfromthespout,richwithmarinesalts.Mostofthesolutionwillbesodiumchloride,ofcourse,butbromideandiodideshouldalsobepresent.Seaweedsareefficientatconcentratingtheseelements.Theconcentrationofiodineinseawaterislessthanahundredpartsperbillion,butinseaweeditcanbeseveralthousandpartspermillion,ahundredthousandtimesgreater.Iallowthefiltratetostandforafewdays,duringwhich

timeanimpressivequantityofwhitesaltcrystallizesfromthesolution.Nowitistimetoattempttheconversionofthecolourlessiodideintothe

gaudyhuesofthepureelement.LikeCourtois,Iaddasplashofsulphuricacidandfollowitwithagoodquantityofhydrogenperoxide(notterroristgrade,butfairlystrong)whichshouldoxidizetheacidifiediodidetoiodine.Ishakethemixturetospeeditonitswayandseetheliquidbegintocolour.Paleyellowdarkensthroughshadesofsaffronandsettlesafterafewminutestothecolourofstewedtea.Iamtrulyamazed.Ihaveneverattemptedtheexperimentbeforeandhavebeenentirelycarelessincollectingmyrawmaterial,butIhavemyiodine.Ornearly–thisrichbrownisduetoiodinemixedwithiodidesalts.IstillwanttoseethebrilliantvioletvapourthatastonishedCourtois.

Idecantthebrownliquidandshakeitupagainwithcarbontetrachloride.Thissweet-smellingbutunlovelychemical–carcinogenicandozone-depleting–ispracticallyunobtainablethesedays,butIhavefoundsomeinmyfather’scomprehensiveselectionofdodgysolvents.Itdoesnotmixwithwaterbutpreferentiallydissolvestheiodine.Inthisverydifferentsolvent,Iseeforthefirsttimethecharacteristiccolour.Violetistherightword:itisfarbeyondmauveinintensity,yetlacksthesinisterdepthofapurple.Isayaquickmeaculpaforthesakeoftheozonelayerandallowthecarbontetrachloridetoevaporate,leavingbehindablackfilmontheglass.Thesearetinyiodinecrystals.Theyemanateafaintpungentsmell,similartobutlessacridthanchlorine,notentirelyunpleasant,thekindofsmellthatwenowthinkofasmedicinal,retrospectivelyapplyingourculturalknowledgethatthehalogensareusedasdisinfectants.Iapplygentleheattothecrystals,andwatchasthefirstpinkwraithsbegintoriseupinthetesttube.Soonthesolidisgone,andallthatremainsisanintenselycolouredswirlingvapour,whichrecondensesonthecoolerpartsofthetube–thesamepureelement,itsatomsreconfiguredinnewblackcrystals.WhenJohannWolfgangvonGoetheperformedthesameexperimentfortheamusementofsomehouseguestsin1822,hedelightedinthesupportitgavetohisinfluentialtheoryofcolours,whichheldthatredsandyellowswererelatedtowhitewhilethe‘cool’coloursatthevioletendofthespectrumwerederivedfromblack.

SlowFire

Ifapersontodayknowsonlyonechemicalformula,itissuretobeH2O,theformulaforwater,acompoundcomprisingtwopartsoftheelementhydrogentooneoftheelementoxygen.Intheeighteenthcentury,however,neitherHnorOwasknown,andwateritselfwasstillwidelybelievedtobeoneoftheirreducible

elementsofwhichallmatterwascomposed.EversinceAristotle,waterhadseemedthemostsecureofthefourelements.

Ontheoccasionswhenphilosophersandalchemiststhoughttoquestionthetheory,itwasfire(whichneededtofeedonotherelementsinordertosustainitself),orearth(whichsoobviouslycomprisedmanydistinctsubstances),orair(whichmightbenothingnessitself)thatgavethemtrouble.Wateratleasttendedtolookandfeellikewater,andremainedtheelementmostclearlylinkedtoits‘principles’orfundamentalpropertiesofbeingcoldandmoist.Yetwaterwasapuzzletoo.Itmightappearconstant,butwatersfromdifferentsourcesoftentastedverydifferent,rangingfromstrangelyrefreshingtoquiteundrinkable.

ModernsciencehadreasontoinvestigatethenatureofthisAristotelianelementmoreclosely.Inthegrowingcities,sanitationwasnon-existentandcleanwateralwaysinshortsupply.Utopianfictionsalwaysincludeabountifulsupplyofpurefreshwaterontheirinventoryofbenefits.TheprincipalriverofThomasMore’sUtopia(1516)istheAnyder,itsnamederivedfromtheGreekfor‘nowater’,justasMore’scoinageof‘utopia’means‘noplace’.ThestrangelyThames-liketidalriverisnouseforsupplyingthecitywithdrinkingwater,whichMoredescribesasbeingbroughtinsteadbyelaboratemeansofchannelsandcisterns.FrancisBacon’sNewAtlantis(1624)goesascientificstepfurtherandimaginesthepurificationbyosmosisofwaterinto‘pools,ofwhichsomedostrainfreshwateroutofsalt,andothersbyartdoturnfreshwaterintosalt’.

Hazily,thegenerationofnaturalphilosopherswhocameafterthealchemistsbegantounderstandthatthequalityofwatermatteredtopublichealth.Whatdrovethemwasnotonlyasensethatfilthcontaminatingthewaterwasacauseofillness,butalsoabeliefthatcertainsubstancesaddedtoitmightmakeitpositivelyhealth-giving.Outofthisworkbyturnswouldemergescience’sunderstandingofacidsandsaltsaswellastheisolationofwater’sgaseousingredients,hydrogenandoxygen.

In1767,thethirty-four-year-oldnonconformistministerJosephPriestleyreturnedfromoneofhisregularlongvisitstoLondontosettleinLeeds,thecityofhisbirth,andmovedintoahouseadjacenttoabrewery.Amanofhugeintellectualcuriosity,hehadwrittenbiographicalandscientifichistories,publishedpamphletscriticalofBritain’spolicytowardsitsAmericancoloniesandchallengedcongregationsbypreachinghisunorthodoxvarietyofChristianbelief.However,inspiredbymeetingsinLondonwithBenjaminFranklin,Priestleynowfoundhistruemétierinexperimentalscience.MovingtoLeeds,it

wasonlynaturalthatheshouldturnhisattentiontotheconstantbubblingoftherecentlyidentified‘fixedair’,emanatingfromthebeermashnextdoor.

Priestleymadeasystematicstudyofthepropertiesofthisgas,notingthatitwouldextinguishaflameandcausetheasphyxiationofanimals,butthatplantsthrivedinit.Heconvincedhimselfthatthegashadabeneficialeffectagainstailmentssuchasscurvy,whichledhimtoconsiderwhetheraconvenientmeanscouldbefoundtoadministerit.Bysloshingwaterfromglasstoglassoveratubofthebrewer’sbarleymash,hediscoveredthatsomefixedairwoulddissolveinthewaterandrealizedthathehadhisanswer.Priestleydevisedageneralmeansofmakingtheeffervescentdrink–forthosenotblessedtohaveabreweryontheirdoorstep–andin1772published‘DirectionsforImpregnatingWaterwithFixedAir’,basedonreactingsulphuricacidwithchalkandthenbubblingthegasreleasedthroughordinarydrinkingwater.Hesuggestedthatthefizzyliquidthatresultedmighthaveboththerapeuticandmilitaryapplications.

‘Fixedair’was,ofcourse,carbondioxide.TheFrenchmanGabrielVenelhadearliercombinedmuchthesameingredients,butexpectedpeopletodrinkthewholesludgyconcoction.Priestley’swasthefirstdrinkablecarbonatedwater,althoughhedidnotexploitthediscovery,leavingthistoJacobSchweppe,theSwissémigréwhoin1792establishedtheLondonsodawaterbusinessthatstillbearshisname.

InFrance,meanwhile,along-runningnationalexercisewasunderwaytogatherinformationforamineralogicalatlasofFrenchwaters.VenelhadcontributeddatafromhisanalysisofthewatersofSelters,orSeltz,ontheFrenchbanksoftheRhinein1755,theauthenticsourceofseltzerwater.TheyoungAntoineLavoisier,whowouldrisetobecomeFrance’sgreatestchemist,alsoplayedapartinthisproject.Hisexperienceherelaidthegroundworkforhisjourneyofdiscovery:that‘waters’weresimplyuniversalwatercombinedwithdifferentsalts;thatthesesaltswerecharacterizedinturnbydifferentcombinationsofmetalsandacids;andthattheseacidsgenerallygainedtheircorrosivepropertiesfromtheirincorporationoftheasyetunknownelementoxygen.

LikehisEnglishcompetitors,PriestleyandlaterHumphryDavy,Lavoisierwaseducatedinthehumanitiesbutsoonrealizedthatthequestionstomatchhisintellectweretobefoundinscience.Atfirst,however,hefollowedinhisfather’sfootsteps,studyingthelawandpurchasingaroyalconcessiontocollecttaxes.Hishighlyprofitabledutiescoveredthepreventionofsmugglingofdrinkandtobaccoandthecollectionofthenotoriousgabelle,orsalttax,thatwouldlaterbeonecauseoftheFrenchRevolution.Meanwhile,hisscientificacumen

wasdirectedtowardsassayingthemineralsinnaturalwatersources.TheworkgaveamplescopeforLavoisiertorefinetherigorousanalyticaltechniquesthatwouldsealhisreputationfordraggingchemistryoutoftheeraofalchemy.Heinvestedsomeofthefortunehemadeasa‘taxfarmer’inbuildingthebestinstrumentsthathecould.Byaccuratelymeasuringtheveryslightlydifferentdensityofvariouswaters,hewasthenabletosayhowmuchsalttheycontained.Buthedidnotmuchenjoytheroutineofdaysspentinthesunandrainandnightsbillettedincheapinns.Hepreferredthecomfortsofthelaboratoryandworkedhardtoearnthem.

WhilePriestleywasexperimentingwithcarbondioxide,Lavoisier,bynowmorehappilysituatedinParisandfreshlyelectedtotheFrenchAcademyofSciences,turnedhismeasurementskillstocombustionreactions.Hefoundthatdiamond,sulphurandphosphoruswhenburntinairallgainedweightifthegasesproducedwerefiguredintothecalculation.Thesamehappenedontheslowerscaleofmetalliccorrosion.In1773,hegaveanimportantpapertotheAcademy,properlyrecordingforthefirsttimethatthetransformationofcopperandironintoverdigrisandrustwasalsoaccompaniedbyagaininweight.Heexplainedtheseobservationsbysuggestingthatthesubstancesmustbeabsorbingsomethingfromtheair.

InOctoberthefollowingyear,LavoisierandhisfellowacademicianshostedJosephPriestleyatadinnerinParisandheardofPriestley’slatestexperimentinwhichhehadheatedmercuricoxide(knownasredcalxofmercury)torelease‘anewsortofair’,leavingbehindonlypureliquidmercury.Themonthbefore,LavoisierhadreceivedcorrespondencefromCarlScheeleinSweden,whohaddonethesameexperimentalittleearlier.ScheelewasanexceptionallymodestfellowwhoneversoughtacademicrecognitionandonlyeverattendedonemeetingoftheRoyalSwedishAcademyofSciences.Heleftbehindhimnoreliableportrait,sothatevenhisstatueinaStockholmparkisaGrecianfancyratherthanagenuinelikeness,and,worstofall,hedidnothastentopublishhiswork.Priestley,meanwhile,wasinatheoreticalmuddleastowhathehadfound.ThisleftthewayfreeforLavoisier,whorepeatedthetwomen’sworkandperformedfurtherexperimentsofhisownbefore,in1777,namingthegasoxygen,meaninggeneratorofacid.

Priestley’sscientificinterestwaschieflyinthegasesoftheair,whereasLavoisier’swasinthewaters.And,likemostSwedishchemists,Scheele’sfocuswasonthemineralsoftheearth.Convergingonthisvitalelementfromeachofthethreestatesofmatter,gas,liquidandsolid,itishardlysurprisingthatthethreescientistshadtroublecomparingnotes.However,thecloudsofconfusionwouldeventuallylifttorevealtheubiquitousimportanceoftheelementinallof

nature.ItisfairtoattributethediscoveryofoxygengastoScheeleandPriestley,butitisLavoisierwholockedthenewfoundelementintotherestofchemistrybyprovingitscentralitytowater,acidsandsalts.

Elevenyearsearlier,in1766,HenryCavendish,amanofGetty-likewealthandeccentricity,haddiscoveredhydrogen,or‘inflammableair’,byreactingmetalswithacidinhisprivatelaboratoryinLondon.Heamusedhimselfthereafterbysettingoffexplosionsbysparkingmixturesofthegaswithair.Theliquidthatcondensedfromtheseexplosionswassimplywater.Inthisway,Cavendishconfirmedthatwaterwasnotanelementbecauseitcouldbecreatedfromotherfundamentalingredients,namelyhydrogenandsomethingintheair.

LavoisierwasabletorepeatCavendish’sexperimentonalavishdemonstrationscaleusingpurehydrogenandwhathenowknewtobepureoxygeninthesummerof1783.ApparatusofthekindthatheusedispreservedattheMuséedesArtsetMétiersinParis.EventodaythefinebrassworkandelegantlyblownglasswaresuggesttheprecisionofLavoisier’smethod.Twohugegasometerscontainingthegaseswerefirstweighed,beforethegaseswereallowedtomixinavastglassbulb.Wiresrunningintothebulbcreatedasparkthatignitedthehydrogen.Theonlyresiduewasafewgrammesofwater,whichshowedconclusivelythatwaterwascomprisedsolelyofthesetwogases.Thatsamesummer,theMontgolfierbrotherswentaloftinthefirsthot-airballoon.Lavoisiersawimmediatelythatifultra-lighthydrogengascouldbemadeeconomicallyinbulkfromwater,therewouldbeademandforitinballooning.

IrememberperformingthesamedemonstrationatachemicalhappeningwhichIorganizedatmyschool.TheeventwasbilledasExplo’76.Thehydrogen–oxygenreactionwasnotthemostcolourfulorthesmelliestitemonthebill,butitcertainlyproducedtheloudestbangwhenIsetofftheballooncontainingthetwogasesusingalightedtaperlashedtotheendofalongstick.Indeed,thesharpnessofthereportwasourgaugeofhowaccuratelythegaseshadbeenintroducedinthecorrectproportionsoftwotoone.Afractionofasecondlaterafinemisthunginthesilentspacewheretheballoonhadbeen.TheExploevents,Ilaterlearnt,hadcontinuedforsometwentyyearsafterIlefttheschooluntiltheyeventuallybecamesograndiose–Iheardtellofdemonstrationssobombasticthattheywerestagednolongerinalecturetheatrebutintheschool’sobsoleteanddrainedoutdoorswimmingpool–thattheyattractedtheattentionoftheemergencyservices.

Ihavetriedtoreachthisfamousturningpointinthehistoryofchemistrywithoutusingthedreadword‘phlogiston’,aconceptsotenaciousduringtheeighteenth

centuryandyetsomistakenandconfusingthatitstillhasthepowertodetertheamateurscientist.Phlogistonwasthe‘principleoffire’whichPriestleyandmanyothersatthetimemistakenlybelievedtohavematerialexistence.Phlogisticatedairisthereforeairwherecombustionhastakenplace,anddephlogisticatedair,perversely,isairwiththepotentialforcombustion.Theconfusionarisesbecauseapresumedabsence(ofphlogiston)infactturnsouttobeapresence(oftheelementoxygen).

Thephlogistontheoryexplainedwhatchemistsobservedverywell,butprovidednorealunderstandingoftheprocessesinvolved.Onewaytopicturetheconfusionistothinkofamouldedmaskofahumanface.Stronglylitfromtheside,youcanclearlyseethepeakofthenoseandthesocketsoftheeyes.Butitisonlybychangingyourperspective,orbetterstillbyreachingforwardandtouchingthemask,thatyoufindthelightiscomingnotfromtherightasyouhadthought,butfromtheleft,andyouareinfactseeingthefacefrombehindandnotinfront.Phlogistonwasjustsuchareverseimage,accuratetoallappearances,andyetstillfundamentallydeceptive.ItrequiredLavoisier’salteredperspectivetoseethingsastheyreallywere.

Althoughitcorrectlyexplainednothing,phlogistonwasastubborntheoreticalconcept.EvenLavoisier,anotablephlogistonscepticevenbeforehisexperimentswithoxygen,usedtermssuchasairdéphlogistiquéaswellasairempiréalandairvitalalongsidehisnewwordoxygenuntilatleast1784.Inanamusingpre-echoofourpresentobsessionwithanti-oxidantcreams,GustaveFlaubertmakesreferencetoa‘pommadeantiphlogistique’inMadameBovary,whichissetagoodfiftyyearsafterthetheoryceasedtohaveanyscientificcurrency.

Lavoisier’sworkplacedoxygen–ratherthanfire–atthecentreofcombustionandsoofmuchofchemistry.In1789,ontheeveoftheFrenchRevolution,hepublishedanElementaryTreatiseonChemistry.Itincludedacomprehensivelistof‘simplesubstancesbelongingtoallthekingdomsofnature,whichmaybeconsideredastheelementsofbodies’.Theseweredividedintofourcategories.Thefirstincludedthegases,hydrogen,oxygenandnitrogen,aswellaslightand‘caloric’,orheat.Thesecondcomprisedsixnon-metallicsubstancesthatformedacids–carbon,sulphur,phosphorusandtheunknownbasesofmuriatic(hydrochloric),fluoricandboracicacids.Thethirdcategorylistedseventeen‘oxydable’metalsfromantimonytozinc,andthefourthaddedfive‘salifiablesimpleearthysubstances’includinglimeandmagnesiathatLavoisiercorrectlyintuitedtobeconcealingfurthernewmetalelements.

Lavoisier’stextbooksoldwell.Hehadlaunchedachemicalrevolution;nowcamethepoliticalrevolution.Lavoisierwasclearlysympathetictotheancien

régime,althoughherejectedLouisXVI’slast-ditchinvitationtobecomehisministeroffinancein1791,claimingthattodosowouldjeopardizethe‘idealofbalance’thathesoughttobringtoeconomicsandpoliticsasmuchastochemistry.AcrosstheChannel,meanwhile,PriestleythrewapartytocelebratetheanniversaryofthefalloftheBastille,andlaterthatdayaroyalistmobdestroyedhishome.LavoisierwastosufferanevenworsefateatthehandsoftheJacobins–on5May1794,hewenttotheguillotine,hatedasataxcollectorandignoredforhisscience.

Itispossiblethat,iftheconcurrentdiscoveriesofoxygeninairandwaterhadnotbeenmadewhentheywere,wewouldnotnowaccordthiselementtheimportancethatwedo.Thechemicalrevolutionwouldhavebeenpostponed,perhapsnottriggereduntilAlessandroVoltamadethefirstbatteryin1800usingelectrodesofcopperandzinc.Ourperceptionofchemistrywouldthenariselessfromthedoingsofoneubiquitous,hyperactiveelement–gaseousbutmaterialnonetheless–andmorefromthefleetingexchangeofincorporealelectricalchargesbetweenchemicalbodies,andwewouldnowbewithout‘theexcessivedominationofoxygenindoctrineandnomenclature’.

Butoxygendidmovetothechemicalcentre,andinduecoursealsocametoacquireafarbroadersymbolicroleinourlanguage.Thisdidnothappenimmediately,asitdid,forexample,withelectricity.Theromanticwritersfamouslysawthedramaticandmetaphoricpotentialofgalvanism,MaryShelley’sFrankensteinbeingonlythemostcelebratedworkinspiredbythenewunderstandingofelectricity.Buttheyalsotookinspirationfromthenewchemistry.WhereShakespearehadtomakedowith‘sweetair’and‘summer’sripeningbreath’,thepoetsofthenineteenthcenturycouldsampletheconcentratedessenceofairandlifeandconsiderwhethertoaddittotheirlexicons.ColeridgeattendedDavy’slectures–hecameinorder,ashesaid,‘toincreasemystockofmetaphors’–andobservedononeoccasionhowether‘burnsbrightindeedintheatmosphere,buto!howbrightlywhitelyvividlybeautifulinOxygengas’.Anothertime,henotedhowoxygenandhydrogencouldbeprisedfromwaterwithelectricity.Thoughintenselyawareofthediscoveryofoxygenandofitsroleinlife,theromanticsdidnotputitintheirpoetry,however.PoemssuchasPercyShelley’s‘OdetotheWestWind’and‘ToaSkylark’burstwithlife-givingairandwaterandthebluesandgreenstheyoccasioninnaturebutdonotmentionoxygenbyname.Perhapstheyfearedtheirreaderswerenotsowellacquaintedwiththelatestscienceasthey.Morelikely,theysimplyrejectedthewordaslyricallyunfit,apolysyllablethatparadoxically

seemedtochoketheflowofbreath.Muchlater,RogerMcGoughgotroundtheproblembyusingtheelement’ssmoke-ringofachemicalsymbolratherthanitsnameinhispoem,‘Oxygen’,whoselastlinerepresentsaperson’sfinalbreathsbyafadingsequenceofeight‘o’s.

Howthendidoxygencometogaincurrencyasametaphorfor‘essence’,sothatweimmediatelyunderstand,forexample,theVictorianpoetFrancisThompson’swritingofShelleyhow‘Thedimmest-sparkedchipofaconceptionblazesandscintillatesinthesubtileoxygenofhismind’,orthevowofMargaretThatcher–aone-timechemist,ofcourse–todenyterrorists‘theoxygenofpublicity’?

Theanswermaylieinthespreadofoxygentherapyduringthenineteenthcentury,whichintroducedthegaseouselementtothepublicforthefirsttime.Understoodasnecessarytosupportlife,oxygenwasnowthegasofchoiceforuseagainstallmannerofills.Itcouldbereadilymadebyheatingsaltpetreandwasobservedtoproducefeelingsof‘comfortableheat’inthelungsandlimbs.Oxygentreatmentcouldrelievediseasesthatledtobreathingdifficultiessuchasphthisis(pulmonarytuberculosis),althoughthereliefonlylastedaslongasthegas.Againstmanyotherailments,oxygenhadnoobviouseffect,butthisofcoursewasnobarriertothosepromotingthecurativepowersof‘vitalair’.Earlyenthusiasmsoonwanedamidaccusationsofquackery,butanewmethodofproducingoxygenfromtheairandstoringitunderpressureineasilytransportedcylindersledtoaresurgenceofinterestinthemiddleyearsofthecentury.Withverylittlepropermedicalinvestigationofthetreatment,oxygentherapywasusedlargelyindiscriminatelyandcontinuedtobechallengedbysceptics.‘Aquestionisfrequentlyasked,“IsOxygenGasInhalationdangerous?”Thereplyisdecidedly,notatallso;itcanbeusedwithoutanypossibleriskofharm,andalwayswitharealhopeofdoinggood,’ranonedefensiveadvertisementin1870.

MedicalrespectabilitycametooxygentherapyaftertheFirstWorldWar,whenthedistinguishedphysiologistJohnScottHaldaneshoweditsbeneficialeffectonsoldierssufferingthechroniceffectsofpoisongas.Haldanewasanotoriousself-experimenter.Hecarefullyexposedhimselfandcompliantcolleaguestovariousunpleasantgasesinasealedchamberknownasthe‘coffin’andnotedtheireffectsonbodyandmind.HeclimbedPikesPeakinColoradoinordertobreatheforhimselfthethinairat14,000feet.Hismajorscientificcontributionwastounderstandtheroleofhaemoglobininregulatingbreathing,buthealsomadeanumberofhelpfulinnovations,introducingthedecompressionroutinefordiversandtheminer’scanarytowarnoflowoxygenlevelsunderground.

Thelegacyofhisworkisseeninthenowfamiliarterminologyofoxygen

masksandoxygentents.Meanwhile,commercialproductssuchasOxydolsoapalsobegantotradeonthehealth-givingandcleansingpropertiesofoxygen.EachboxofRadoxbathsaltsonceexplaineditsbrandnameasacontractionofthelargelymeaninglessphrase:‘radiatesoxygen’.TherestorativepromiseofthegaslivesoninthelatelyfashionableoxygenbarsofTokyoandBeijing,whereforafeeonecanbreatheapurerair.

Onceitwasunderstoodthatitwasnotanelementinitsownright,ozonetoo–comprisingthreeatomsofoxygenbondedinatriangleratherthanthehand-holdingpairofatomsintheoxygenwebreathe–begantobemarketedaswhat,inessence,itwas,amoreintenseformofoxygen.Itwascalled‘electricoxygen’,areflectionofthemeansofitsmanufactureaswellasanexcitingpieceofbranding,andusedtopurifydrinkingwater,removeodoursandgenerallyimbueallittouchedwithahealthyvigour.Onebottledwaterborethestrapline‘ozoneislife’,whilelongbeforethe‘oxygenofpublicity’therewas(inJohnDosPassos’sTheBigMoney)the‘ozoneofrevolt’.

Recently,though,wehavebecomeinclinedtoviewoxygenasthedestroyer,notthesupporter,oflife.Followinghisexperimentsinwhichheobservedmicethrivinginoxygenandtheincreasedrateatwhichcandlesburntdown,PriestleyinhisExperimentsandObservationsonDifferentKindsofAir(1776)brilliantlyforesawthatanycreaturegiventoomuchoxygenmight‘liveouttoofastandtheanimalpowersbetoosoonexhaustedinthispurekindofair’.OneofPriestley’sfellowmembersoftheLunarSociety,ErasmusDarwin,wroteinhispoem‘TheBotanicGarden’ofoxygenas‘Air’spureessence’thatnurturesplantsandfeedsthebeatingheart,butalsoas‘softcombustion’.

Thisflamelessfirecorruptsallthatittouches.Itisthisubiquitous,constantandinescapablereactionthathaspositionedoxygencentre-stage.Itiswhyweclassifymanyimportantchemicalprocesseseitherasoxidationsortheirreverse,reductions.Oxidationdoesnotalwaysrequireoxygenitself.Itcanbeaccomplishedbyotherchemicaloxidizingagentssuchaschlorineorbytheapplicationofenergysuchasviaultravioletlight.Photosynthesisinplantsuseslightfromthesuntopromotebothoxidationandreduction.Themainreactionsofphotosynthesisconvertcarbondioxideintoglucose.Butinanotherpartoftheforest,asitwere,lightoxidizeswater(usingmanganeseasacatalyst)toreleaseoxygen,dailyrepeatingineachgreenleaftheexperimentsofScheeleandLavoisier.Oxygenismerelythewasteproductoftheseprocesses,acorrosivegasthatwoulddestroyanimallifeifanimalshadnotevolvedintandemwiththeincreasinglevelsofoxygenintheearth’satmosphere.

Whentheyundergochemicalcombination,theelementsaresaidtoexhibitdifferentoxidationstates.Ofteneachisassociatedwithacharacteristiccolour,suchastheferrousgreenandferricbrownofthesaltsofiron.Butwhenironrustswearemorelikelytonotethecorrosionoftimethantoseetherich-huedbeautythatRuskinsaw.Oxygen,‘thatinsinuatingvamp’,asanotherwritertermsit,istheelementthatruinsothers,crustingtheirpuresurfacewithalayerofchaosanddecay.

Whatisnotyetoxidizedispotentiallyso.Thecarboninthewoodofthetreesistomorrow’scarbondioxide.Therustinghulkisyesterday’sironcladbattleship.Civilization,itisimmediatelyapparent,issimplyorganizedresistancetooxidation.Weareabletostemthetideinsomeplaces,andevenreverseitinafewbyvariousdesperatemeasures–wrestingmetalsfromtheirores,plantingforests,extinguishingfires–butneverforlong.Oxidationbetraysthemarchoftimeandtheinevitabletriumphofentropy.Thegasgiveslifeandindoingsobringsdeathcloser.Oxygenis,accordingtoarecentbookontheelement,‘thesinglemostimportantcauseofageingandage-relateddisease’.Someofthedamagecomesfromreactivechemicalsproducedasintermediatesduringnormalrespiration–notoxygenmolecules,buttheshort-livedspeciescontainingunpairedoxygenatomsknownasfreeradicals–thatfindthemselvesatalooseend,asitwere,andabletowreakbiochemicalhavoc.Oneofthemostmeaningfulmeasuresofageingistolookattheextentofdamagetobiologicalcellsduetothisoxidation,thescientificequivalentofcountingcrow’sfeetorliverspots.

AsIamwritingthisinJune2009,IhearthatthesingerMichaelJacksonisdeadattheageoffifty.Isitpossiblethattheoxygententhereportedlysleptunderacceleratedhislifeandbroughtforwardhisdeath,asPriestleyobservedandfeared?Immediately,thereistalkthathisbodywillbepreserved,inhistrademarkmoonwalkpose,by‘plastination’usingspecialresins,anddisplayedinthespacewherehehadbeenplanningtogiveacomebackconcert:London’sO2Arena.

OurLadyofRadium

Everynowandagain,anelementwhichevenmostscientistsmayneverseewillneverthelessescapetheconfinesofthelaboratorytoachieveakindoffameornotorietyinthewiderworld.Ithappened,aswehaveseen,withplutoniumafterthedroppingoftheatomicbomb.Butithappenedfirstwithradium.Anelement–anexplosivelyreactiveaswellasradioactivemetal–ofwhichno

ordinarymortalhadtheslightestpracticalexperiencesuddenlyburstupontheworld,wasseizeduponasamiraculoustalisman,soughtafterandfoughtover,adoptedforplacenamesandproductbrands,andthenwasequallydramaticallydroppedafewdecadeslaterlikeahotbrick.

Thecentralfigureintheradiumstory–andoneofthereasonswhyitbecamesuchaphenomenon–isMarieCurie.ShewasbornMariaSklodowskanearWarsawin1867,but,excludedfromuniversityinPoland,emigratedtoParistocompletehereducation.ShefeltliberatedinParis,andstillmoresoattheSorbonne,whereshewasfreetofindherowndirectionwithoutthestiflingsupervisionshehadknowninherPolishgymnasium.Unusually,shestudiedbothchemistryandphysics;shewouldgoontowintheNobelPrizeinbothfields,anachievementstillunequalledbyanywomanorman.MariewouldhavereturnedtoPolandtofollowherparentsintoteachingbutthen,asshepreparedforhergraduationexams,shemetPierreCurie;theymarriedquietlythefollowingyear,1895.

ThenextdecadeuntilPierre’sdeathattheageofforty-six,crushedunderthewheelsandhoovesofapassinghorse-drawnwagon,markedascientificpartnershipofrareharmonyandproductivity.WithPierre’sencouragementandspaceinhislaboratory,MariedecidedtoinvestigatethespontaneousemissionofX-ray-likeenergy–anewlyreportedeffectthatshetermed‘radioactivity’–identifiedfromsamplesoftheuraniumoreknownaspitchblende.HerchieftoolwasaquartzdeviceinventedbyPierresomeyearsearlier,whichexploitedthepropertythatsomecrystalspossessofemittinganelectricalchargeinresponsetopressureexerteduponthem.Thismeterwascapableofdetectingtheverysmallelectriccurrentsassociatedwithradioactivedecayprocesses.Mariefoundthatradioactivitywasaphenomenonintrinsictoparticularsubstances,andnottheproductofsomekindofinteractionwithothermatterorenergyasmanypeoplethenthought.Duringthecourseofhermeasurements,shealsofoundthatsomeuraniumoresweremoreradioactivethanothers,andthatsome–bizarrely–wereevenmoreradioactivethanpureuraniummetal.Thiscouldonlymeanthattheoremustcontainanunknown,highlyradioactivematerial.

ThiscaughtPierre’sinterestand,droppinghisownresearch,heandMariehastilybegantopulverizeahandfulofpitchblendeandthendissolveitusingchemicalsthatwouldenablethemprogressivelytoisolatethemostradioactivecomponents.Overaperiodoftwomonths,theygraduallyobtainedaproduct300timesmoreradioactivethanuranium.Theynoticedthatsomeoftheradioactivitywaslinkedtobariuminthesampleandsometotheelementbismuth.Threeweekslater,theywereconvincedthatanewelementmustbemimickingthechemistryofthebismuth,whichisnotnaturallyradioactive.The

CurieshadalreadychosenthenamepoloniumafterMarie’sbelovedhomeland–shehadoncedressedas‘Polonia’atagatheringofexpatriatesinParis–andon13July1898Pierrewasabletowriteinthelaboratorynotebooktheletters‘Po’.ButtheirinabilityyettoseparatetheelementfrombismuthwasasourceoffrustrationespeciallytoMarie.Shewantedtoholdpoloniuminherhand.

Meanwhile,thecouplecontinuedtochasedowntheradioactivespecieslinkedtobariumusinganewsampleofpitchblende.TheysucceededjustbeforeChristmas,thistimeobtainingunequivocalevidencefortheexistenceofanothernewelement,evenmoreradioactivethanpolonium,towhichtheygavethenameradium.Thesaltsofbariumandradiumaremoresolublethanthoseofbismuthandpolonium.Itmadesensetotrytoisolateradiumbyrepeatedlyboilingupsaltsolutionsandthencoolingthemslowlysothatpureradiumchloride,whichwasmarginallylesssolublethanbariumchloride,crystallizedoutfirst.Mariesetouttotacklethisimmensechallengein1899.Sheacquiredtentonnesofpitchblenderesidue,alreadymoreradioactivethanthebasicore.Itcameinsacksofbrowndustmixedwithpineneedles.Processingthematerialintwenty-kilogrammebatches,sheturnedtheprimitive‘hangar’ofalaboratoryintoafactorywithcauldronsofboilingradioactiveliquorinvariousstagesofpreparation.Theworkwasphysicallyexhausting,buttherewasalwaystheexhilarationofthechase.Atlast,by1902,shehadtangibleevidenceofthenewelement,atenthofagrammeofpureradiumchloride.

Whatdoesachemistfeelwhenshediscoversanelement?Thesensationsareoftendissipatedbylengthyeffort,buttherearemomentsofintensepleasure.WiththeirtwoelementsandtheirtwoNobelPrizes,theCuriesexperiencedmoreofthesemomentsthanmostscientistseverdo.Certainly,theywerenotenamouredoftheofficialballyhoothatcamewiththeirsuccess.Attendingeventheirownawardceremonieswasnevertheirhighestpriority,understandablysoinMarie’scasewhentheawardsweresometimesgrudginglygiven–shehadnotatfirstbeenincludedontheNobelnominationpaperswhenPierrewasputforwardwithHenriBecquerel,thediscovererofuraniumradiation.Andthepublicitythatensuedwassimplyanuisance.

Butthematerialaspectofthediscoveriesthrilledthem.Suspicionhadquicklyturnedtoconvictionthatthepitchblendewashidingsomething.Beforelong,theyknewtheywerelookingfornewelements–andtheyhadthenamesready.Theirscientificpaperslaidclaimtothediscoverieswithaseemlyboldness:theyproposedthesenameswithoutapology,buttheywerealsogenerousinacknowledgingthecontributionofothers.Marieinparticularfeltproudof‘ournewmetals’,andwasfrustratedtoknowthatradiumandpoloniumexistedwithoutbeingabletotakephysicalpossessionofthem.Theyhadhoped

toseecolouredsalts,butdelightedinthelightthatshoneunexpectedlyfromtheimpurematerial.Sometimesafterdinnertheywouldsneakbacktothelaboratorytoseethesamplesglowingintheirplaces,asightthatneverfailedtostirthemwith‘newemotionandenchantment’.

Howdidradium,thisrare,peculiarandintractableelement,cometopublicnotice?Inthefirstplace,ofcourse,itdidsobecauseoftheNobelPrize.Thesevenawardsmadeinphysics,chemistryandmedicineduringthefirsttwoyearsoftheprizesreceivedlittleattention.Butthischangeddramaticallywiththefirstawardmadetoawoman,andtoamarriedcouple,whichhandedthemediamaterialforallmannerofromanticfantasies.Thestrangepropertiesofradium–itsluminousblueglowanditsmysterious,invisibleradioactivity–addedspicetothemix.MarieCuriewasbeatifiedas‘OurLadyofradium’,yetwasalsobeginningtosufferfromwhatwasnotyetknownasradiationsickness.

GeorgeBernardShawgaugedthepublicexcitementwithsatiricalaccuracy,butwastooquicktodenythattheremightberealsubstancetoit.Radium,hewroteintheintroductiontohisplayTheDoctor’sDilemma,‘hasexcitedourcredulitypreciselyastheapparitionsatLourdesexcitedthecredulityofRomanCatholics’.Forradium,whoseabilitytodamagetheskinhadbeennoticedfromthefirst,wasnowfoundtobemiraculouslyeffectiveinthetreatmentofcancers.Thisdiscoveryatoncelaunchedanindustryandafolklore.By1904,therewasalargebrickfactoryonthebanksoftheMarneoutsideParismakingradiumsaltsonascaled-upversionoftheprocessusedbyCurie.Othersquicklyfollowed.Radium,destroyeroftumours,wastoogoodtoleaveatthat,andwasquicklyandindiscriminatelyexploitedasa‘therapy’forailmentsoftheblood,thebonesandthenerves.

Scientistsrushedtoexperimentwiththenewelement.WilliamRamsayboughtasamplefromaLondonchemicalsupplierandtookitbacktohislaboratorytoconfirmthatitwasgenuine.Heputalittleofthesampleonawireandputthewireinaflame.Theredcolourconfirmedthatitwaspureradium,uncontaminatedbybarium,whichwouldhaveturnedtheflamegreen,buttheradioactivevapourthatRamsayunwittinglyreleasedintothelaboratoryasaresultofthetestrenderedituselessthereafterforexperimentsinradioactivity.

Visitorsflockedtothemountainswhereradiumwasnaturallyabundant–theErzgebirge.These,thefamous‘oremountains’ofBohemia,werealreadyknownasthemostprolificmetal-producingregioninEurope.Themineswerereopenedin770CEafterthefalloftheRomanEmpirebyCharlemagne,whobroughtinprisonersfromSaxony–longcelebratedforitsminers–toobtaingold,silverand

lead.Later,uraniumandcobaltwereminedaswell,forcolouredglassesandceramics.

Joachimstal(nowknownasJáchymovintheCzechRepublic)becameacentreofthetouristboom.In1912,theRadiumPalaceHotel,amassiveneoclassicalconfectionclingingtothewoodedmountainside,openeditsdoorstoofferradioactivespatreatments.Thewaterscontainedlowconcentrationsofdissolvedradiumandgainedaslighteffervescencefromitsradioactivedecayintoradongas.(Joachimstalhasotherelementalconnections,too:inthesixteenthcentury,thefirstsilverdollarcoins,orJoachimsthaler,weremintedhere,anditwaswhereAgricolawrotehismetallurgicalmasterpiece,DeReMetallica.)*

TheRadiumPalaceHotelhasrecentlyreopened,promisingtreatmentsbasedon‘thehealingeffectofradon-richwatersthatflowdeepbelowthesurfaceoftheEarth’.Ifyou’refeelingflushyoucanbookintotheMadameCurieapartment.Notfaraway,anotherspatownstillrejoicesinthenameRadiumbad.RadonwaterhealinggallerieswerealsowidespreadintheUnitedStates,wheretherewereoncesettlementsnamedRadiuminsevenstates.TherearestilltownscalledRadiumSpringsinGeorgia,WyomingandNewMexico.

Spashavealwaysbeenplacesofelementalrenewal.TheRomanscametoBathforthesulphurouswaters.BadSuderodeintheHarzMountainsofGermanyistheplaceforcalcium,Buxtonformagnesium,whileMarienbadwillspritzyouwithcarbonatedwaters.Otherwatersareoxygenatedoriodized.Itseemsonlyfairthatthiscustomshouldkeepabreastofchemicaladvance,andthatthenewfoundelementsradonandradiumshouldalsohavetheirday.

Thosewhodidnottakeradiumatthesourcefoundradiumbroughttothem.Radiumwasdemonstratedatparties.Peopleplayedradiumrouletteandwenttoradiumdances.The‘RadiumModels’posedinluminouscostumes.Radiumwaspopularizedincartoonsand,aboveall,hailedasanall-purposemiraclecure.Radiumwasaddedtoproductsofallkinds,especiallythosesupposedtooffertherapeuticbenefit.Thewordappearedonmanyotheritemsasafashionable

brandname.TherewasRadiumbutter,Radiumcigars,Radiumbeer,RadiumchocolateandRadiumtoothpaste,Radiumcondoms,RadiumsuppositoriesandRadiumcontraceptivejelly.

Thepublicwasbeforelongfamiliarenoughwiththebizarrepropertiesofradiumthattheywereaneffectivemeansofenhancingalmostanymanufacturer’sclaims.AuroraRadiumFertilizerwassoldwiththepromisethatit‘heatsthesoil’.Radiumwasputinchickenfeedinthehopethattheeggsmightbeself-incubating,ifnotactuallyself-cooking.Oradiumwoolforbabieswas‘endowedwithaphysico-chemicaltreatmentofremarkablepower:radio-activity’:‘Everybodyknowstheextraordinaryeffectsoforganicstimulationofcellularexcitationpassedonbyradium…Woolsotreatedcombinesthestandardadvantagesofthetextilewithundeniablehygienicvalue.ToknitBaby’slayette,children’swoollengarments,yourunderclothesandyourpullover,uselaineoradium.’

TheCurienamewasofteninvokedtoendorsetheseremedies,illicitlyinmanycases.CurieHairTonicwassaidtorestorehairgrowthandcolour,forexample.ThiscommerciallicencecanbeexcusedtosomedegreeastheCuries’ownRadiumInstitutewouldgiveitsimprimaturtoproductswheretheygenuinelycontainedasourceofradiumemanation.Thiswasdoneoutofscientificprobity–astamp‘duLaboratoireCuriedeParis’woulddiscreetlyguaranteethatapreparationcontained,forexample,‘5millimicrogrammesdeRadiumélémentpour1grammedeCrème’.TheRadiumInstitutewasalsoenlistedtobrandchromium-platedbath-sidedispensersofradiation.Theseemanateursor‘fountains’bubbledradongasfromadecayingradiumsourcealongarubbertubeintothebathwater;theywerealsousedtoaddradioactivefizztodrinks.Theyarenowhighlycollectible.

Theauraofanelixirismostevidentintheillustratedboys’adventurebooksthatmadetheelementcentraltotheirquest.Theypositionedradiumasanexoticmaterialtobeplunderedfromfar-offlandswithmuchderring-do.Thesplendidcoverofoneofthesebooks,LaCourseduRadium(bettertranslated,bytheway,asTheDashforRadium,notTheCourseofRadiumTreatment),showstribalhorsemengallopingthroughthedeserttoolatetocatchourheromakinghisgetawayinabiplane.Thiswasallpurefancy.Formostpracticalpurposes,theonlysourcesofpreparedradiumwereinthetwomostgenteelandsophisticatedcitiesofEurope,ParisandtheCuries’laboratory,andViennawithitsrivalRadiumResearchInstitute.

Itwasabundantlyclearbythe1930sthatradiumwasaseriousdangertohealth.ThecaseoftheNewJersey‘radiumgirls’,whopaintedthedialsonluminouswatches,hadseentothat.In1925,oneofthesewomensuedher

employer,theUSRadiumCorporation,fordamagetoherhealth.Sheandhercolleagueswereinthehabitofusingtheirlipstoputafinepointonthebrushestheyused.Intheend,atleastfifteenworkersdiedsufferingextremesymptomsofanaemiaanddecayofthetissueinthejaw.MarieCuriewasawareofthedeathsofseveralFrenchengineerswhohadbeeninvolvedinpreparingtherapeuticradiumsources,althoughtherewereatthisstagenoneatherowninstitute,afactthatsheputdowntosuperiorsafetyprecautions,whichwereindeedremarkablythoroughforthetime.Butverysoon,anumberofCurie’scolleaguesbegantosuccumbtoradiationsickness.

Despitetheincreasinglyrecognizeddanger,radium’spopularityasabrandremainedundimmed.Frenchpharmaciessold‘Tho-Radia’eaudecologne,powder,creamsoapandlipstick‘accordingtotheformulaofDrAlfredCurie’–thedoctorinpointbeingeitheranimpostororafigmentofthemanufacturer’simaginationastherewasnobodyofthatnameintheCuriefamily.Tho-Radiacosmetics,advertisedas‘scientificbeautyproducts’andpromotedbyoneJacquelineDonny,whowasMissFrancein1948andMissEuropein1949,mayormaynoteverhavecontainedthoriumandradium–theCurieInstitutefoundnonewhentheytestedthem.Manyotherproductsplainlyhadnobusinessincorporatingradiumatall.Nevertheless,Radiumrazorstradedonit,promisingthattheyhad‘thescientificedge’.Abrandof‘parfumatomique’depictedabottlelabelled‘Atome58’withaglowinghaloaroundit,nomatterthattheelementwiththeatomicnumberfifty-eightisharmlesscerium.Thelastfewbrandsfailedaspublicoppositiontonuclearweaponsandnuclearpowergrewstrongerinthe1960s.Radiumitselfisnowrestrictedtouseinradiologicalclinics.

TheroomwhereCuriediscoveredpoloniumandradium,whichshelaterrecalledas‘aclapboardhutwithasphaltfloorandglassroofgivingincompleteprotectionagainsttherain’,nolongerexists.Sciencedoesnotsanctifythespaceswherebreakthroughsaremade,onlythebreakthroughsthemselves,andoccasionallythosewhomakethem.TheCuriecouplethemselvesembodiedtheextremesoftheattitudesscientistsmaytaketowardstheirachievements.MarieadmiredPierre’sattitudethatitdidnotmatterwhomadeadiscoverysolongasitwasmade,butcouldnotshareit,alwaysfeelingmorepossessiveaboutherscientificachievements.Haditsurvived,thelaboratorywouldhaveservedasareminderthatdiscoverydoesnotrequirecomfortablesurroundings,merelytherightequipmentattherighttime,inthiscasethepitchblendeandPierre’ssensitivequartzbalance.MarieCuriewroteofthattimethatsheandPierrehad

been‘livingwithasolepreoccupation,asifinadream’.In1914,eightyearsafterPierre’sdeath,MarieCurieatlastmovedtomore

adequatequarters,aclusterofnewbuildingscomprisingtheRadiumInstituteand,acrossasmallgarden,thePasteurInstitute.FrenchwindowsinMarie’slaboratoryopenedontoasmallgardenbetweenthetwobuildings,symbolizingtheclosenessofchemistryandbiologytonatureandeachother.Marieoccupiedthisofficeuntilherdeathin1934,whereuponshewassucceededasdirectorbyAndré-LouisDebierne,whodiscoveredanotherelementinpitchblende,actinium.Later,Marie’sdaughterIrèneandherhusbandFrédéricJoliot-Curietookoverthehelm.In1958,thebuildingwasclosedbecauseitwastoosaturatedwithradiationtodoanythingelsewith.

In1995,however,itreopenedastheCurieMuseum.Imeetthemuseum’scoordinator,MaritéAmrani,whohasarefreshinglyunParisianenthusiasmforherwork.Sheshowsmeexamplesofradium-brandedproductsbeforeleadingmeintotheroomswhereMarieCuriedidmostofherwork.Sheassuresmethattheplacehasbeenpronouncedsafe,butthedishevelledstateofthecupboardsandtheantiquebottlesofchemicalsleftontheshelvesmakemewonder.Iexamineasampleofpitchblende,adull-greyrockwithhintsofpinkishsparkle,andwonderwhatemanationsitisstillgivingforth.DisplayedonthewallisapageofMarieCurie’snotebook,andalongsideitablackenedradio-graphofthesamepagebetrayingtheheavycontamination.Herlabcoat–blackwithwhitepolkadots–betraysahintofParisianchic.InacorneristhemahoganyboxthatoncecontainedthegrammeofradiumthatMarieacceptedasagiftfromthewomenofAmericawhohadraisedthe$100,000necessarytoacquireit.InsidetheboxisasolidcylinderofleadthesizeofaStiltoncheesewithasmallwelldroppedintothecentretohousetheradioactivesource.Itryandfailtoliftit–‘Itweighsforty-threekilogrammes,’Maritétellsme.‘Andtodayyouwouldusemuchmorelead.’

OneofMarieCurie’sgreatestlegaciesisthepeereffectthatshecreated.‘Shewelcomedmanywomenintothelaboratoryhere,’saysMarité.‘Ifsomeonewasmadeforscience,shewouldencouragethem.’Marie’sdaughterIrènewashermostobviousprotegée,whowentontowinherownNobelPrizejointlywithherhusband–thesecondwomanafterhermotherinbothdistinctions–in1935.AnotherwasMargueritePerey,whodiscoveredherownnewelement,francium,in1939.Pereyrose,liketherestaurantplongeurwhobecomesthechef,fromtest-tubewashertobefirstMarie’spersonalpreparatoryassistantandthenafinescientistinherownright.Herdiscovery,madeontheeveoftheSecondWorldWar,metwithnoneofthefussthatsoirritatedtheCuries.PereyhadfirstproposedthenamecatiumandthesymbolCmfortheelementprecedingradium

intheperiodictable(becauseofitspredictedlikelihoodofforminghighlyreactivepositiveions,orcations),butbythetimethatnewelementnamesnextcameupforofficialconsideration,in1947,aflurryofotherradioactiveelementshadbeendiscoveredasaconsequenceoftheManhattanProject.OneofthesenewelementshadabetterclaimtothesymbolCm:curium.Pereyacceptedhersecondchoiceofname,francium.In1962,shebecamethefirstwomantobeelectedtotheFrenchAcademyofSciences,whichhadchauvinisticallyexcludedbothMarieandIrène.Perhapsshenamedherelementwiselyintheend.

OnmyreturnfromParis,IgotofftheEurostarandmademywaytomyparents’house,whichIwasusingasaLondonway-station.IwenttowipefrommyblackshoesthechalkdustthathadsettleduponthemfromwalkingthroughtheParisparks,andwasastonishedtofindalongwiththetinsofMeltonianpolisharectangularcartonofblackleatherdyebranded‘radium’inbold1960slettering.

NightglowofDystopia

Gaswastheprincipalmeansoflightingcitystreetsandtownhousesfromthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury.Itshissingwhitelightwasexcitedlyevokedinitsprimeandwasstillmissedlongafteritsdemise.Bythetimethatincandescentelectriclightwastakingoveraroundtheturnofthecentury,themereimageofgaslightwassufficienttodeliverapowerfulnostalgickick.InthefamousGermanwartimesong‘LiliMarleen’,writtenin1915,Liliissimplypresentedstandingunderneathalamp-post(Laterne).BythetimeoftheSecondWorldWar,however,whenthesongenjoyedrenewedpopularity,theEnglish

translationhasherrepackagedas‘Lilyofthelamplight’theallureisasmuchforabygoneageofinnocenceasforthefemmefatale.

Thewonderofartificialilluminationnaturallyfindsitswayintodescriptionsoftheurbanworld.Yetitslightisnotsimplylight.Itradiates,illuminatesandleavesshadowsaccordingtoitskind,andindoingsoestablishesmoodstowhichwritershavebeenmoreorlesssensitive.Darkdeedsmightbedonebyitsbeams,butgaslightitself–understandablysinceitwasthefirstpubliclighting–wasaninnocentmarvel.Eveninnovelsbesetwithshadows,suchasJosephConrad’sTheSecretAgent,gaslightcomesoutofitwell.Indeed,Conradisatpainstopointoutthatitslightiscompletelyneutral.Atonepoint,itcatchestheanti-heroineWinnieVerloc’scheeksglowing‘withanorangehue’.Thisorangeisnoeffectoftheillumination;itisthecompositeofaredblushseenthroughherbiliousyellowcomplexion.Thewhiteofthegaslightshowsthingsintheirtruecolours.

Writershavegreetedthemoderninnovationofsodiumstreetlightingdifferently.Likegas,theincandescentlampsthatsodiumwoulddulyreplaceshoneagenerouswhitelight,combininglightofmanycolours,createdbytheflowofanelectriccurrentthroughametalfilament.Sodiumontheotherhandshineslightofasinglewavelength–589nanometres.Whenlightfromasodiumdischargestrikesacolourfulobjectallweseeisthefractionofthat589-nanometrelightthatisreflectedandnoothercolour.Thismonochromewashisdeceptive,nottruth-telling;itsoakseverythinginanicotinicglaresuchthatitisnolongerpossibletoperceivecolouraccurately.

Thefirstsodiumlightswereinstalledinthestreetsadjacenttothelightingmanufacturersthemselves,OsraminBerlinandPhilipsnearMaastrichtintheNetherlands.PurleyWay,nearthePhilipsfactoryinCroydon,wasthechosenBritishtestsitein1932.AssodiumstreetlampsbecamemorecommonplaceaftertheSecondWorldWar,theirstaininglightcametotheattentionofwritersseekingtoconveyasinistercityatmosphere.InNausea,Jean-PaulSartre’salterego,theyoungwriterRoquentin,istormentedbyhispointlessexistence,the‘Nausea’ofthetitle;atonepointhecrossesthestreettothepavementopposite,drawnby‘asolitarygaslamp,likealighthouse’,andisastonishedtofindthat‘TheNauseahasstayedoverthere,intheyellowlight’.ThepoetJohnBetjeman,whilefondoftheMetrolandwhichitillumined,reviledthe‘yellowvomit’thrownoutbythenewconcrete‘gallowsoverhead’.Agenerationlater,J.M.CoetzeemakesthisideaworkharderinhisnovelAgeofIron,setinapartheid-eraSouthAfrica.Coetzee’snarrator,MrsCurren,aretiredprofessorwhoisdyingofcancer,isbeingdrivenwithhermaidintooneofthetownships,wheretheywilldiscoverthebodyofthemaid’ssonmurderedbythepolice.Thecar

splashes‘throughpoolsontheunevenroad…underthesickorangeofthestreetlights’.Thelightisametaphorbothforhercancerandforthecancerthatisdestroyingthecountry.AnthonyBurgessandJ.G.Ballardalsobathetheirdystopianvisionsinsodiumlight.TheelementwassurelyawornclichébythetimethatWillSelf,inTheBookofDave,hashiseponymousLondontaxidrivereyeinguppotentialfaresloitering‘frowstyunderthesodiumlamps’.

JosephO’Neillmanagestorefreshtheimageinhis2008novel,Netherland.Thecentralcharacteriscomingtotermswithhiswife’sdecisiontoleavehim.StaringoutfromthebalconyofhisapartmentinNewYork’sChelseaHotel,hebitterlytwistsametaphorofpotentialsunriseintoaGötterdämmerungsunset:

asuccessionofcross-streetsglowedasifeachheldadawn.Thetaillights,thecoarseblazeofdesertedofficebuildings,thelitstorefronts,theorangefuzzofthestreetlanterns:allthisgarbageoflighthadbeenrefinedintoaradiantatmospherethatrestedinalowsilverheapoverMidtownandintroducedtomymindthemadthoughtthatthefinaltwilightwasuponNewYork.

TheReagan-eraThreeCaliforniastrilogybyscience-fictionwriterKimStanleyRobinsonpresentsdifferentscenariosforthegoldenstate.Thesecondnovelintheseries,TheGoldCoast,depictsperhapsthemostlikelyofthesefutures,neitherpost-nuclearnorecotopian.Here,RobinsonriffsmoreextendedlyonthelightsofLosAngelesandtheirelementalorigins:

Thegreatgridworkoflight.Tungsten,neon,sodium,mercury,halogen,xenon.Atgroundlevel,squaregridsoforangesodiumstreetlights.Allkindsofthingsburn.Mercuryvaporlamps:bluecrystalsoverthefreeways,thecondos,the

parkinglots.Eyezappingxenon,glaringonthemalls,thestadium,Disneyland.Greathalogenlighthousebeamsfromtheairport,snappingaroundthe

nightsky.Anambulancelight,pulsingredbelow.Ceaselesssuccession,redgreenyellow,redgreenyellow.Headlightsandtaillights,redandwhitebloodcells,pushedthrougha

leukemicbodyoflight.

There’sabrakelightinyourbrain.Abillionlights.(Tenmillionpeople.)Howmanykilowattsperhour?Gridlaidovergrid,fromthemountainstothesea.Abillionlights.Ahyes:OrangeCounty.

Oneverycontinent,sodiumisnowthecolourofthecityatnightandtheprincipalmeansofourknowingthiselement,itslurid,unlovelylightaninescapablefeatureofmetropolitanlife.Eventhemanufacturersandauthoritiesresponsibleforinstallingthemrecognizethatsodiumlampsarenotriumphofaesthetics,buttheyarefavouredneverthelessbecausetheyaremoreenergy-efficientthanthealternatives.Attemptstochangeovertowhiterlightsbasedonmixturesofotherchemicalvapourshavebeenthwartedbysuccessiveoilcrises,andsowegoaboutournocturnallivesundersodium’ssingularglare.

Itisnotthe589-nanometrecolourthatoffends.Inanothercontext,thiscanoffercheer,aswhensea-salttintstheflamesofadriftwoodfire.Itisthefoggyubiquityofit.IconfessIsharethegeneraldistasteforthisartificialilluminationinflictedcitywide,thoughIhaveonlyhappymemoriesofthesinglesodiumlampthatshonefromtheothersideofthestreetintomybedroomasachild.Icanrecallwatchinghowitflickeredwithfresh-washedpink(duetoneonaddedtoactivatethesodiumatalowervoltage)whenfirstshockedintoactionondampautumneveningsbeforebrighteningandpassingthroughredandorangeonitswaytothefullradiancethatmeantIhadnoneedofanightlight.Ihadnotreadanydystopiannovelsthen.

Itwasnotitscharacteristiclightthatledchemiststothediscoveryofsodium,aswastobethecasewithvariouselementsidentifiedlater.In1801HumphryDavy

movedfromBristoltotakeupapositionasdirectorofthelaboratoryatthenewlyfoundedRoyalInstitutioninLondon.Hetookwithhimhisgalvanicpiles,theprimitivebatterieswithwhichhehadlatelybeguntoexperiment,andahunchthattheelectricitytheygeneratedmightbekeytothediscoveryof‘thetrueelements’ofsubstances.

AttheRoyalInstitution,hebuiltmorepowerfulpilesbyinterleavingdozensofsquareplatesofcopperandzincinelongatedboxeslikeChristmaspacksofAfterEightMints.HesummarizedhisfirstexperimentswiththenewapparatusinaprizelecturetotheRoyalSocietyinNovember1806.Itwasapieceofworkofsuchpromisethatitimmediatelysecuredhisinternationalreputation,includingtheawardfromNapoleonthatprovidedthereasonforhislatertriptoFrance.Havingconcludedaninvestigationoftheelectrolysisofpurewaterandvarioussolutionsbythismethod,Davyturnedhisattentiontomeltedsalts.ThefollowingOctober,heimmersedtheplatinumwireelectrodeofhisbatteryintomoltenpotashandalmostimmediatelymanagedtodecomposethematerialandproduceahighlyreactivenewmetal.Davy‘dancedabouttheroominecstaticdelightattheendofit’,accordingtohiscousinEdmund,whohadbeenenlistedasanassistant.Afewdayslater,Davyrepeatedtheexperimentwiththecorrosivelyalkalinecausticsoda,orsodiumhydroxide,inplaceofthepotash,andthesamethinghappened–anothernewmetal.

InNovember,hereturnedtotheRoyalSocietytogivethesameprizelecture,aperformancethatwouldtrumptheachievementofthepreviousyear.Davydescribedhow‘amostintenselightwasexhibitedatthenegativewire,andacolumnofflame,whichseemedtobeowingtothedevelopementofcombustiblematter,arosefromthepointofcontact’.Themetalobtainedfromthepotashwasliquidandlookedlikemercury,whilethatfromthesodawassilveryandsolid.Bothweredangerouslyreactive:‘theglobulesoftenburntatthemomentoftheirformation,andsometimesviolentlyexplodedandseparatedintosmallerglobules,whichflewwithgreatvelocitythroughtheairinastateofvividcombustion,producingabeautifuleffectofcontinuedjetsoffire’.Davy

announcedthathehadchosenthenamespotassiumandsodiumforthenewelements.Butweretheymetals?Theywereextraordinarilylight.Ifitwerenotforthefactthattheyexplodedoncontactwithwater,theywouldeasilyfloatonitssurface.Hefoundtheyfloatedevenonnaphtha,apetroleumoilconsiderablylessdensethanwater.Heconcludedthattheirexceptionallightnessshouldnotbeconsideredasoverrulingtheirotherproperties,suchashighelectricalconductivity,whichshowedthemtobeindubitablymetallic.Usinghisuniquelypowerfulelectrolyticapparatus,Davyhadjustdiscoveredthetwomostreactivemetalsknowntoscience.

Chemistsstronglysuspectedthatothermineralswouldprovetocontainfurtherexplosivelyreactivenewmetalsthatsimplyawaitedapowerfulenoughforcetoprisethemfree.Oneofthesemineralswaslime,whichLavoisierhadincludedinhislistof‘simplesubstances’onthispromise;anotherwasmagnesia,whichJosephBlackinEdinburghhadshowntobechemicallyanalogoustolimeandthereforelikelytobeacompoundofacloselyrelatedmetal.StrontiaandbarytaweretwomoresubstancesthathadbeenobtainedbyBlack’spupilCharlesHope,whohadnotedtheircolouredflames(redandgreenrespectively)asindicatingthepresenceofnewelements.Davyproceededtosubmiteachoftheseso-calledalkalineearthsinturntohiselectrolytictreatment,thistimeusinganelectrodeofliquidmercurytocapturethemetalsastheywerereleasedinanamalgambeforetheycouldburnaway.Throughthecourseof1808,Davysucceededinisolating,oneafteranother,calcium,magnesium,strontiumandbarium.

ChemistrywasnotDavy’sonlytalent.Hewasalsoaromanticpoetofseriouspromise.RobertSouthey,laterPoetLaureate,includedsomeofDavy’sverseintheAnnualAnthologythatheedited,andadmiringlycalledhim‘theyoungchemist,theyoungeverything’.Davysawnocontradictionbetweenhisscienceandhisart,linkingthestudyofnaturewithaloveofthebeautifulandthesublime.Thefirststanzaofapoemhewroteatthistimeseemstoincorporateimagesoftheinflammablemetalsreleasedsodramaticallyfromunyieldingminerals:

Loo’ertheearththekindlingspiritspourTheflamesoflifethatbounteousNaturegives;Thelimpiddewbecomesarosyflower.Theinsensatedustawakes,andmoves,andlives.

Twofurthermembersofthehighlyreactivegroupofelementsknownasthe

alkalimetalswerefound,unlikeDavy’ssodiumandpotassium,bymeansthatdiddependuponthesignaturelightoftheirsalts.In1859,RobertBunsenandGustavKirchhoffinHeidelbergmadeaspectroscope,akindofsophisticatedprismthatenablesscientiststoidentifyelementsbyseparatingoutthecolourstheygiveinaflame(providedperhapsbyoneofBunsen’sfamousburners)intocharacteristiclineslikeabarcode.BunsenandKirchhoffusedtheirnewgadgettomakeasystematicinvestigationofthedissolvedingredientsofmineralwatersincaseanundiscoveredelementshouldlurkthere.Bychemicallyremovingtheobvioussaltsofsodaandlime,andthelessobviousstrontiaandmagnesia,theywereleftwithasolutionofrarersalts,fromwhichtheythenevaporatedallthewater.Placingthesolidresidueofthissolutioninaflame,BunsenandKirchhoffobservedanew,blue,light,whichcouldonlybeduetoanundiscoveredelement.Theynameditcaesium,aftercaesius,theLatinwordforthecolourofthesky.Afewmonthslater,theyfollowedasimilarprocedureonamineralsamplefromSaxonyandsawdark-redlinesofanothernewelement:rubidium.

Afifthalkalimetal,lithium,hadbeenfoundsomeyearsbeforebymoreconventionalmethods(namedthereforenotforitslightinaflamebutaftertheearth–lithosinGreek–inwhichitwasfound).Now,thankstospectroscopy,itseemedthatthesemetalswereeverywhere.OnemorningBunsensurprisedhiscoworkerbyannouncing,‘DoyouknowwhereIfoundlithium?Intobaccoashes!’Theelementhadpreviouslybeenthoughttobeveryrare.

Theexistenceoftheserelativelyuncommon,buthardlyrare,elements,caesium,rubidiumandlithium,hadsimplybeenobscuredbytheomnipresenceofsodium.Sodiumisbyfarthemostabundantalkalimetalinthesaltoftheearth,anditsbrightyellowlighteasilywashesoutothercoloursfromaflame.Whenastronomerscomplainoflightpollution,itisoftensodiumstreetlightstheyhaveinmind.EdwinHubbleescapedtheglareof‘Orangecounty’byretreatingtoamountaintopobservatorynorthofPasadena,whereherecordedthemotionsofthegalaxiesthatledtohisdiscoveryoftheexpandinguniverse.Butitwasn’tsodiumthatcausedhimdifficulties.Potassiumburnswithamauveflamewhichcansometimesbeseeninagunpowderexplosionorwhenlightingamatch.OnenightHubblewasexcitedtodetectapotassiumspectrumwhileheexaminedthegalaxiesthroughtheworld’smostpowerfultelescope.Butitsoonbecameapparentthatthereadingmustbefalse.EventuallyHubblerealizedthattheequipmenthadpickedupthelightfromthepotassiuminthematchthathehadusedtolighthispipe.

Themakersoffireworks,unlikethesuppliersofartists’paintsorpreparedfoods,

areundernoobligationtodeclarethechemicalcontentoftheirgoods.Tothosewithrudimentaryknowledge,theirnamesmaysuggestcertainingredients.MycheapFifthofNovemberboxmadebroken-Englishpromisesof‘silverglittering’,‘greendiamondsfountain’and‘goldennuggets’.Probablymagnesium,copperandsodium,Ithought.Butverificationcomesonlywhentheskiesareilluminatedintheelements’signatureshades.

Differentyellowsandorangesarecreatedbysodiumsalts,powderedcharcoalandironfilings,forexample.Greenhastraditionallybeenmadeusingcoppersalts,suchasverdigris.Longbeforetheyknewabouttheotherelementsthatcouldanswertheirwishes,pyrotechnistswantedtorecreatethefullspectrumofcoloursthroughtheircraft.TheChineseachievedsomethingapproachingtheeffectbyusingribbonsofcolouredpaperasfiltersthroughwhichthelightoftheirexplodinggunpowdercouldshine.Asearlyasthemideighteenthcentury,fireworkswereadvertisedasofferingproperrainbowcolours.Butintruth,itseemsthatthecoloursarebrighterindescriptionthantheycaneverhavebeeninthefireworksthemselves.Goldandsilverwerethepredominanttones,obtainedfromvariousmixturesofpowderedironandtheblacksulphideoreofantimony,whichsparkledorangeandwhiterespectively.

KingGeorgeIIattendedoneofthemostelaboratedisplaysoftheageatGreenParkinLondonin1749,followingthesigningoftheTreatyofAix-la-Chapelle.Handelwrotea‘grandovertureonwarlikeinstruments’,thepiecewenowknowashisMusicfortheRoyalFireworks.However,HoraceWalpolewasdisappointedthatthedisplayitselfwas‘pitifulandillconductedwithnochangeofcolouredfiresandshapes…andlightedsoslowlythatscarceanybodyhadpatiencetowaitforthefinishing’.Evenifthingshadgonetohissatisfaction,thegreenofcopperwouldhavebeentheonlycolourhewouldhaveseenapartfromthewhitesandyellowsseeninallincandescentfire.

CharlesDickens’s1836SketchesbyBozdelightsin‘red,blue,andparti-colouredlight’atonedisplay,whileinPendennis(1848)WilliamThackerayhasthegirlFannyBoltonthrillingtofireworksof‘azure,andemerald,andvermilion!’Bothdescriptionsimplyanintensityofcolourfarbeyondthatachievableatthetime,andbearwitnessmoretotheever-wishfulimaginationofthefireworksspectator.Evenwhenstrontiumandbariumsaltsbecameavailable,theredandgreencolourtheygavewasoftenstillfeebleowingtothepresenceofimpurities.

Theearlyfireworksdisplayswereabstractaffairs,butinVictoria’sreignafashiondevelopedforpictorialrepresentationsinflame,withjingoisticre-enactmentsofCrimeanbattlesandIndiancampaignsbeingespeciallypopular.Whentherewerefewergloriousvictoriestoreport,thetrendrevertedtodisplaysinwhichtherewaslesstodistractfrompurepyrotechnicartistry.However,publicenthusiasmforfireworksalmostdiedaltogetherwhenthenoveltyofgaslightledtoanalternativefadforadorningmajorbuildingswithspecialilluminationsattimesofcelebration.

Thesedays,fireworkdisplaysarerelayedontelevision,theeuropiumandzincofthephosphorscreenmakingafeebleimitationofsodiumandbariuminthenightsky,andtherearenewfearsforthepyrotechnist’sart.HiddenamongthebushesinaCambridgeshirelayby,IfindanunmarkedgatethatopenstoadmitmetotheredoubtoftheReverendRonLancaster,themanagingdirectorofKimboltonFireworks,Britain’slastremainingmakerofdisplayfireworks.LancastergrewupinHuddersfield,thehistoricalcentreoftheBritishfireworkindustry,andbeganmakinghisownfireworksthereduringtheSecondWorldWar.(These

werethedayswhenyoucouldeasilybuysaltpetreandmixyourowngunpowder.)HebecameacurateandlaterchaplainatKimboltonSchool,wherehetaughttheunusualcombinationofdivinityandchemistry.Thesummerholidaysprovidedampleopportunityforgivingfireworkdisplays.In1964,hebuiltalaboratorytopursuehispyrotechnicexperimentsandfinallysetupthecompany.

Foramandevotedtobringingjoyaswellassalvationintopeople’slives,Ifindthereverendinagloomymood.Theindustrycannotsurvivemuchlonger,hefears.Herattlesthroughalonglistofobstacles:‘healthandsafetypropaganda,supermarketBOGOFs,Chineseimports,bureaucracy’.OneprotestorwrotetoLancaster:wasn’theashamedthathisfireworkswerefillingtheatmospherewithcadmiumandmercury?‘Iwroteback:lookatthecrematoria,andthemercuryfillingsandtheexplodingpacemakers,Isaid.’Icanseehefacesproblems.Followingaspateof‘stupid’accidentsandvigorousconsumercampaigning,fireworksretailershavebeensubjectedtoatighteningratchetofrestrictions–thenoisiestbangerswereoutlawed,thenfireworkswitherraticflight,andotherfireworksweremuffledortamed.Yetitisanti-socialusageratherthantheintrinsicdangeroffireworksthemselvesthathasdriventhenewlegislation.Mostofall,Lancasterregretstheside-effectofallthis,whichhasbeentoinitiateatrendawayfromback-gardenfireworkstowardslargemunicipalevents,leadingto‘thecontrolofbigdisplaysbypeoplewhohatefireworks’.

NovembertheFifthisnohelp,either.‘It’sanawfulday.’LancasterbelievesBritainwouldbehappieraboutfireworksifourannualexcuseforlettingthemoffdidnotfallinthisdankmonth.ButakindofDunkirkspiritmeansthatwestubbornlytoughitouteachyearwithouteverreallyenjoyingthespectacle.‘Ourphlegmaticapproachhaskilledit.GotoSpain,andseehowfireworkshavetobepartofeveryfiestaineverycommunity.’Byemail,IpollaselectionoffriendsintheUnitedStates,Israel,Russia,Italy,Spain…andindeedreceiveinreplyabarrageoffestiveoccasionswhenfireworksareletoff.

Fortunately,perhaps,theReverendLancaster’spassionisnotrunningthebusiness,butpyrotechnicresearch.Isteertheconversationontotheproblemofcolours.Lancaster’sfirstbreakthroughcamewhenhewasofferedasupplyoftitaniumturningsfromanaircraftmachineshop.Althoughtheyaretrickytohandle–theyareveryhard,whichmakesthemsensitivetofrictionandhenceliabletotriggeranaccidentalignition–hefoundawaytoincorporatethemsafelyinfireworks,wheretheyburntoproducebeautifulsilversparks.Acenturybefore,aluminiumandmagnesiumhadbeenintroducedintofireworkstosimilareffect,buttitaniumisbrighterand,moreover,immunetodamp.Foratime

duringthe1960s,itswhitesparklesbecamequiteafad.OneofLancaster’sgoalswastocreatenewincandescentcolours

intermediatebetweenthosemadebythewell-knownchemicalsalts.Onetargetwaslime-green(bariumandcopperburnwithmoreofasea-greencolour).Becauseheisdealingwithdazzlinglight,thepyrotechnist’scraftismoresubtleeventhanthatoftheartistmixingpaints,combiningelementsofchemistry,ballistics,opticsandperception.Inthecaseoflime-green,simplyblendingthegreenofcopperorbariumandtheyellowofsodiumwasnottheanswerbecauseeachcolourrequiresadifferentflametemperature.Addingmagnalium(analloyofmagnesiumandaluminium)enabledLancastertoproducethecomponentcoloursundergreatercontrolatahighertemperature,butthisthenrequiredtheadditionoffurtherchemicalstogivethemintensity.

Thecreationofagoodorangelightislikewisenotsimplyamatterofblendingtheredofstrontium,say,andtheyellowofsodium.Lancasterdiscoveredthat,forsomereasontodowithhumanvisualperception,alittlegreenisalsonecessarytoproducethedesiredeffect.HiseurekamomentcameatthelocalcinemaashewatchedthelightsoftheWurlitzermergingfromredtogreen,momentarilyproducingthecolourhewasafter.

Bluehasprovedespeciallyelusive.InNapoleonicFrance,Claude-FortunéRuggieriwasthefirsttomakesystematicuseofmetalsaltstoproducecolouredflames.Thesewereusedformilitarysignallingaswellasforpublicspectacles.HepublishedmanyeditionsofhisElémensdePyrotechniethroughthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury,givingrecipesformanycolourcompositionsbutneverablue.Nocommonlyavailablemetalorsaltproducesastrongblueemission–abluedemandsmoreenergythanistypicallyreleasedfromtheelectronictransitionsofexcitedatomsthatgeneratelight.Allsortsofsubstancesweretriedinthenineteenthcentury,fromivorytobismuthtozinc,butthebestcolourthatcouldbemanagedwasacoldwhitethatonlylookedbluealongsidesomeyellowerlight.Thackeray’s‘azure’waspureexaggeration.Onlylaterwasitlearntthatcoppersaltsthatnaturallyburntwithagreenflamecouldbechemicallymodifiedtoburnblue.Beforemodernregulations,manufacturerssometimesusedthepoisonousandunstablecopperacetoarsenite,thepigmentartistscallParisGreen,forthispurpose.Morerecently,ithasbeenfoundthattheeffectcanbeproducedbythelessnoxiousexpedientofburningcopperinthepresenceofchlorine.Forgoodmeasure,thepyrotechnistwillalsooftentricktheeyebysendingtheblueuptogetherwithsomecontrastinglighttoproducetheillusionofadeeperhue.

Iamgiventounderstandthatpsychologymattersasmuchaschemistryincreatingtheperfectfireworksdisplay.Today’sorganizedshowsdrawlarge

audiencesandconsumemassiveamountsofordnance.Theprofessionalismisadmirable,witheachfireworksetoffelectronicallyoftentothebeatofaccompanyingmusicwithaprecisionthatwouldhavecausedHandeltomarvel.ButtheReverendLancasterdeploreseventhisdevelopment.‘Theproblemisthatitallhappenstooquickly,becauseitismadetobecontinuoustofitwiththemusic.’Hemakesamoresubtlepoint:‘Whatyousee,andwhatyouthoughtyousaw,dependsverymuchonyourviewpointandtheconditions.’Amassivecoordinatedpublicdisplaycanstilldisappointiftheweatherorthecrowdssodetermine.Allthequick-firerazzmatazzcanbepoorcompensationforthecordonedremotenessfromtheaction,whereasasmall-scalespontaneousdisplay–Lancasterrecallsstanding,drinkinhand,withfriendsonthebeachatAldeburghafterthesummercarnival,andlettingoffafewrocketsatintervalsoverthesea–ismorelikelytoberemembered.

And,asIfindwhenNovembertheFifthrollsround,mildanddryenough,evenamodestpackoffireworksisenoughtooccasionwonder.Thecolours,redandgreen,arescorchinglybright.Occasionalwhiteflashesproducearetinalburnagainstwhichshowersoforangesparksfromironfilingsappearmerelybrownandhardlyluminous.Bysomechemicalorperceptualhocuspocus,onefireworkproducesaquitedeepindigo,moreanabsencethanapresence,amomentaryvoidoflightinthesky.Asimplecatherinewheelmynine-year-oldsoninterpretsasasolareclipse,asitsbrightdiscfirstgatherspace,forcingthefirelightcentrifugallyouttotherimtoformadazzlingcorona,beforerematerializingasaluminousdisconcemoreasitslowsandfinallydies.Thereverendisright.Thereismoremagichereonthismuddyfieldedge,feelingtherainofgrittysootaseachrocketgoesupandsavouringthesulphurfragranceinthemistyair.

CocktailsatthePaleHorse

InThePaleHorsebyAgathaChristie,astringofmurdersisfoundtobeattributabletopoisoningbytheelementthallium.WhydidChristiechoosesucharecherchématerialwhenshehadfreereinofallthepoisonsknowntoman?Howdidsheknowaboutit?

ThalliumwascontroversialfromitsfirstpublicappearanceattheInternationalExhibitionheldatSouthKensingtonin1862,whereitwastheboneofcontentioninasharpscientificdispute.InspiredbyBunsenandKirchhoff’sdiscoveryofcaesium,ayoungchemistcalledWilliamCrookesattheRoyalCollegeofChemistryacquiredhisownspectroscope–oneoffewintheland–andin1861begantoturnitonhisexperiments.Investigatingaparticularmineral

fromtheHarzmountains,fromwhichhewashopingtoobtaintellurium,heobservedanunfamiliarlineinthegreenregionofthespectrum.‘Haveyouevernoticedasinglebrightgreenline,almostexactlyasfarfromNa[sodium,yellow]ononesideasLi[lithium,red]isontheotherside.Ifnot,Ihavegotanewelement,’hewrotetohiscollaborator.Hehadindeedgotanewelement,whichhenamedthallium,aftertheGreekforthegreenshootsofnewplants,forthediscoverywasmadeinthespring.(Ifthalliumweren’tsoscarceandpoisonous,itmightdoforRonLancaster’slime-green.)Crookesbeganscrapingtogetherenoughoftheelementtodisplayatthecomingexhibition,hopefulthatitmightassistinhiselectiontotheRoyalSociety.

Meanwhile,Claude-AugusteLamy,whowasprofessorofscienceattheUniversityofLilleinFrance,alsoisolatedthallium,extractingitfromresidueliningtheleadchambersofasulphuricacidplant.InJune1862,hearrivedinLondoncarryingwithhimafourteen-grammeingotofthenewmetal,whichheunveiledattheexhibition,declaringCrookes’sblackpowderspecimentobenomorethananimpuresulphide.CrookeswaspeevedwhentheFrenchmanwasawardedanexhibitionprize,andenlistedhisfriendsinthescientificpress,wholoudlyproclaimedhimasthefirstBritishdiscovererofanelementsinceHumphryDavy.CrookesdulyobtainedredressfromtheexhibitionorganizersandthefollowingyeargainedtheRoyalSocietyfellowshiphecoveted.

InAgathaChristie’sthriller,theshadygoings-onthatwearefirstmadeawareofrevolvearoundanoldinn,thePaleHorse,whichisoccupiedbythree‘witches’whoareapparentlypreparedtoarrangemurders.Ahitlistisfound.Thosealreadyfounddeadhavesuccumbedtosicknessesdisplayingsymptomsofsuchvarietythatitisinitiallysupposedtheymustallhavediedofunrelatednaturalcauses.However,MarkEasterbrook,theheroofthetale,hashissuspicionsarousedwhenhelearnsthatoneofthevictims’hairwasfallingout.‘Thalliumusedtobeusedfordepilationatonetime–particularlyforchildrenwithringworm.Thenitwasfoundtobedangerous,’heexplains.‘It’smainlyusednowadaysforrats,Ibelieve.’Ittranspiresthatthecovenisasmokescreen,thewitchesdon’tcarryoutkillingstoorder,andthemurderswereperpetratedbythe‘witness’whofirstimplicatedthem,byreplacingobjectsinhisvictims’homeswithsubstitutescontaminatedwiththallium.

Christieclearlychosethalliuminordertoprolongthemystery.Itisthesheerdiversityofthevictims’symptomsthathasthebook’scharactersandusmystifiedfor300pages.HowdidChristieknowaboutit?ShetellsusthroughthepersonofEasterbrook,whoisconvenientlyasked:‘Whatputthalliumintoyourhead?’Hereplies:‘IreadanarticleonthalliumpoisoningwhenIwasinAmerica.Alotofworkersdiedoneaftertheother.Theirdeathswereputdown

toastonishinglyvariedcauses.Amongstthem,ifIrememberrightly,were…’andhegoesontoitemizetwelvediagnosedcausesofdeathandfivesymptoms(presumablysothatweknowChristiehasdoneherhomework).

ThePaleHorse‘popularized’thallium,andissurelyonereasonwhyitwasatfirstsuspectedasthepoisonusedagainsttheformerRussianspyAlexanderLitvinenko,whowasassassinatedinLondonin2006.(Thecauseofdeathturnedouttobetheevenmoreexoticradioactivepolonium,althoughitislikelythattheKGBdidusethalliuminpoisoninganotherdissident,NikolaiKhokhlov,in1957.)

Inothercases,awarenessofthedangersofthalliumpromotedbyChristie’sthrillermayhavehelpedtofoilreal-lifekillers.Reversingtheusualpresumptionthatmurderfictionsencouragecopycatkillings,TheAgathaChristieCompaniongivesthreeinstanceswhere,itclaims,‘thesymptomsofthalliumpoisoning…wererecognized,andlivessaved,becauseofthequickthinkingofindividualswhojusthappenedtohavereadThePaleHorse.’Inoneinstance,aLatinAmericanwomanwrotetotheauthortosaythatshehadidentifiedthesymptomsinamanwhowasbeingslowlypoisonedbyhiswife.Ayearortwolater,anineteen-month-oldQatarigirlwasbroughttotheHammersmithHospitalinLondonapparentlydyingofamysteriousdisease.Thedoctorswerebaffled,butanursewhohadreadThePaleHorsesuggestedtreatmentforthalliumpoisoning.Theinfanthadingestedthalliumusedbyherparentsasinsecticide.

ThethirdandmostalarmingcaseoccurredattheHadlandsphotographicworksatBovingdoninHertfordshirein1971.Aroundseventypeopleweremadeillbywhatbecameknownasthe‘Bovingdonbug’,andtwodied.Theworkerssuspectedenvironmentalpollution,buttestsatthefactoryrevealednothing.Atameeting,thecompanydoctorruledoutheavy-metalcontamination,butoneworker,GrahamYoung,interrupted:‘Doyounotthinkthesymptomsareconsistentwiththalliumpoisoning?’TheforensicspecialistbroughtinbyScotlandYard,meanwhile,rememberedthesymptomsdescribedinThePaleHorse.WhenthepolicesearchedYoung’sflattheyfoundlargequantitiesofthallium,andinduecoursehewasfoundguiltyofthemurders.Afterthetrial,itemergedthathehadbeenrecentlyreleasedfromBroadmoorhigh-securitypsychiatrichospital,wherehehadbeenimprisonednineyearsearlierforattemptingtopoisonmostofhisfamilyincludingthecat.

TheauthorsofTheAgathaChristieCompaniondon’tcommentonthepossibilitythatmurdererstoomighthavereadThePaleHorse,althoughChristieherself,thoroughasever,wentoutofherwaytoexpressthehopethattheyhadnot.Thepopulationatlarge,meanwhile,remainshappilyignorantoftheeffectsofthallium.WhatelsecouldexplainthedecisionbytheperfumerJacquesEvard

tolaunchamen’sfragrancecalledThallium,aproductwhoseimpliedpromiseincludesbaldnessandimpotence?

TheLightoftheSun

Thesearchfortheelementshasalwaysbeenanedgybusiness.Ithappensattheedgesofrecognizedscientificdisciplinesandattheedgesofrespectableenquiry.Newelementshavebeenfoundasby-productsofthealchemicalquestforgoldandthephilosopher’sstone.Discoverieshavebeenclaimedlongbeforetherewastangibleevidenceofpurenewmaterial,fromthemerecolourofaflameorwhensomeinexplicableresiduewasleftafterastandardchemicalanalysis.Moreoftenthanyouwouldthink,thesefindshavebeenshownlatertobenomorethanfanciesbasedonthesebrief,freakishobservationsandthevainambitionofthewould-bediscoverer.Youcouldcompileaparallelperiodictableofahundredelementsthatwerenamedinhopeandyetneverseen.Butthestoryofoneelementsuggeststhatforgivenessmaybemoreinorderthancondemnationforthoseinvestigatorswhofoundthemselvescaughtinthesethickets.

Sincethespectroscopehadrevealednewelementsintheflamesofhumblesaltandtobaccoash,itwasentirelytobeexpectedthatbeforelongsomebodyshouldtakethehotnewtoolofchemistryandturnittowardsthesun.In1868,theFrenchastronomerPierreJanssentravelledtotheBayofBengaltoobservethetotalsolareclipsethatwouldgivescienceitsfirstopportunitytoprobethesolaratmosphere.DisembarkingatMadras,hewasgreetedbytheBritishgovernoroftheprovinceandinvitedtosetuphisobservationstationwherehewished.HechosethecottontownofGuntur,whichlayinthemiddleofthepathoftheeclipseandnestledbetweentheseaandthemountains,wheremistandcloudwereunlikely.Itrainedforseveraldaysleadinguptotheeclipse,andJanssenbegantofearthathemighthaveluggedhisgearhalfwayacrosstheworldfornothing.However,accordingtoJanssen’saccount,on18August,‘thedayoftheeclipse,thesunshoneatrising,althoughstillinabedofmist;hesoonemergedfromit,andatthemomentwhenourtelescopesgaveusnoticeofthecommencementoftheeclipse,heshoneoutinallhisbrilliancy’.Then,asthedarknessenvelopedthewaitingobservers,Janssenrecorded:‘Twospectra,composedoffiveorsixverybrightlines,red,yellow,green,blue,andviolet’,arisingfromtwo‘magnificentprotuberances’inthecoronaoneithersideofthesunatthemomentoftotaleclipse.Totheeye,thislightappearednotwhitelikefullsunlight,butlike‘theflameofaforgefire’.Thespectroscope,however,sawdiscretelinesofcolourseparatedbyregionsofblack,whichmadeitasimple

mattertocomparethemwiththespectrallinesproducedbyknownelementsthathadbeenconfirmedinlaboratories.Whiletheredandbluelinesmatchedthelight–seenalsointhenormalsolarspectrum–emittedbyhotatomsofhydrogen,theyellowlinedidnot.Thoughcloseincolour,itdidnotcorrespondpreciselytothecharacteristicyellowofsodiumeither.Janssenconcludedthatthislinemustbeowingtothepresenceofanunknownelement,though,perhapsfoolishly,hewasnotboldenoughtogiveitaname.Acoupleofmonthslater,theBritishastronomerNormanLockyerobservedthesunthroughtheautumnalCambridgeskyand,comparinghisfindingswiththosefromadischargetubeofhydrogen(theprincipalsolargas),arrivedindependentlyattheverysameconclusion.Thinkingtheelementmightbepresentonlyinthesunandnotfoundonearth,Lockyernameditheliumafterhelios,theGreekforsun.

Withnohardevidencetosupporttheiraudaciousclaims,bothJanssenandLockyerfacedyearsofmockeryduringwhichirreverentscientistswouldquiptooneanotherofthisorthatunknownconcoction,‘that’shelium’.Manyspectroscopistsdoubtedwhetherheliumtrulyexisted,andevenEdwardFrankland,thechemistwhohadassistedLockyerinhisexperiments,continuedtobelievethatsomeundiscoveredemissionofhydrogenwasamorelikelyexplanationoftheyellowline.Itwasnotuntil1895thatLockyerwasfinallyvindicated,whenWilliamRamsaywasabletosendhimadischargetubefullofheliumgasthathehadgatheredfromtheradioactivedecayofauraniummineral.Lockyerrejoiced:‘thegloriousyelloweffulgenceofthecapillary,whilethecurrentwaspassing,wasasighttosee’.

Inthemeantime,beforeRamsaycouldcometothetwomen’srescue,otherastronomershadgailybegunreportingfurtherdiscoveriesofcelestialelementsthatwerebeyondthereachofanyconfirmatorylaboratorytest.Coroniumwasclaimedin1869,andonlyin1939provedtobeiron.Nebuliumfollowed,butturnedouttobeanenergizedformofoxygen.ItwasMendeleev’sorganizationoftheperiodictable–andthegradualfillingofitsvacantspacessince–thatfinallyputanendtothesewildclaims.Thereremainmanyunidentifiedspectrallinesintheannalsofastronomy,butthechancesthatanyofthemareowingtoanundiscoveredelementratherthantouncataloguedelectronicexcitationsinknownsubstancesarenowzero.

Lessreputableinvestigators,however,havebeenkeentoexploittheairofmysterythatoftenclingstonewfoundelements–orelements,asitmightbesaidofhelium,uncomfortablystalledonthethresholdofdiscovery.Tothelayobserver,afterall,thecodedevidenceofthespectroscopesurelyappearedhardly

morecrediblethantheravingsofacabalist.InascientificagewhenpeoplewereaskedtobelieveininvisibleX-raysthatcouldseethroughsolidmatterandradioactivitythatcouldmagicallycauseoneelementtobetransmutedintoanother,anynoveltyseemedpossible.Andifelementsweretobefoundbeyondtherangeofhumanperceptionbylookingtotheheavens,thenwasitnotreasonablealsotoseekforthemclosertohomebymorecongenialextra-sensorymeans?

Thecaseofoccultumpresentsthisothersideofthebalancesheet–anelementalfindclaimednotbylearnedmenofsciencebutbyself-avowedmystics,yetreliant,justlikeLockyer’sclaimtohelium,onvisualevidenceproducedbyarcanemeansandonlydirectlywitnessedbyaselectfewobservers.

Occultumwasthe‘discovery’ofAnnieBesantandCharlesLeadbeater.Besantwasaleadinglightinthetheosophistreligiousmovement,aclairvoyant,afeministactivistandaleadingpoliticalradicaloftheVictorianperiod.WithLeadbeater,aformerAnglicanpreacher,shewrotemanybooks,amongthemonecalledOccultChemistry,afusionoftheselaterinterestswithwhatshehadlearntwhilestudyingchemistryasoneofthefirstwomanundergraduatesatLondonUniversity.Thisvolume,firstpublishedin1909andlaterrunningtoseveraleditions,gaveexhaustiveandprecisedescriptionsoftheappearanceofindividualatomsofmanyoftheelementsastheyappearedfirsttoLeadbeaterandthen,underhistutelage,toBesant,viewedbythe‘thirdeye’ofclairvoyance.TheatomswereillustratedbyCuruppumullageJinarajadasa,Leadbeater’syoungSinghalesecompanion,whoattendedthechemicalséancesalongwithhiswhitekitten.Hedidnotseetheatomshimself,butmadebeautifullydetaileddrawingsofthembasedonLeadbeater’sandBesant’sdescriptions.TheylookeduncannilylikethespirogyraandspicularmarineorganismsillustratedbytheGermanbiologistErnstHaeckel,whosemagnificentcompendiumKunstformenderNaturhadbeenpublishednotlongbefore.

LeadbeaterandBesantlaunchedtheireccentricatomicprojectin1895.Besant,rememberingherstudentdays,statedtheimportanceofobservationaboveall,andmadeashowofreportingneutrallywhattheyclaimedtosee.Theystartedwithanattempttoobserve‘amoleculeofgold’butapparentlyfoundit‘fartooelaborateastructuretobedescribed’.Leadbeaterhadbetterluckwithhydrogen,whichheannouncedhadacountablenumberofminoratoms‘arrangedonadefiniteplan’.Thissimplestofelements‘wasseentoconsistofsixsmallbodies,containedinanegg-likeform.Itrotatedwithgreatrapidityonitsownaxis,vibratingatthesametime,andtheinternalbodiesperformedsimilargyrations.’Itwasfoundtoweigheighteenanu,aunitofmeasurementdevisedbytheoccultists,whonameditafterthewordfortheindivisibleunitof

matterinJainmetaphysics.LeadbeaterandBesantobservedelementsmoreelaboratethanhydrogenbutlessdauntingthangoldand‘weighed’themtoo.Nitrogenandoxygenwerefoundtomeasure261anuand290anurespectively.Theagreementbetweenthesenumbersandthetwoelements’relativeatomicweights,asdeterminedbymoreconventionalmeans,wasquiteremarkable.

Thatsameyear–theyear,itshouldberemembered,whenRamsayconfirmedtheterrestrialexistenceoftheelusivesolargas–theyalsoobservedanatom‘solight,andsosimpleinitscomposition,wethoughtthatitmightbehelium’.Unabletogetholdofaverifiedsampleofhelium,however,theyadmittedtheywereunabletoconfirmthisattribution.In1907,LeadbeaterandBesantdidfinallyobtainsomeheliumgasandsubjectedittothemysteriousscrutinyofthe‘thirdeye’.Theypronouncedthemselvessurprisedthat‘itprovedtobequitedifferentfromtheobjectbeforeobserved,sowedubbedtheunrecognisedobjectOccultum,untilorthodoxscienceshallfinditandlabelitinproperfashion’.

Orthodoxscienceneverdidfindit,ofcourse;occultumdulywentthewayofcoroniumandnebulium.YetBesantandLeadbeatercannotsimplybedismissedascranks.Theyconsortedwithscientists.Theyobservedandmeasured,andrecordedtheirobservationsandmeasurements,withgreatthoroughness,justas

scientistsdo.Furthermore,leadingscientistswerenotunknowntodabbleinalternativereligion.WilliamCrookes,thediscovererofthallium,wasafellowoftheTheosophicalSocietyhimselfandonoccasionprovidedsamplesandadvicetotheoccultchemists.

Ontheotherhand,Besant’sandLeadbeater’sresearchdoesfailthefirsttestofexperimentalscienceinasmuchasnobodyhasbeenabletoreplicatetheirresults.Recently,MichaelMcBride,achemistatYaleUniversity,lookedagainattheirdataandsubjectedittoastatisticalanalysis.Hefoundthattheagreementbetweentheirfiguresforrelativeatomicweightsoftheelementsandthoseacceptedbysciencewasnotjustclose,itwastooclosetobetrue:anygenuineexperimentalprocedurewouldhaveproducedawiderspreadofdata.McBrideclearsBesantandLeadbeateroffraud,however.Hebelievesinsteadthatacollectivedelusionledthemtoassociatetheir‘observed’valueswiththeestablishedones.

Theyplainlydidnotseeindividualatomsastheyclaimed,yetcomparedwithsomuchelsehappeninginchemistryandphysicsatthetime,youcouldarguethatthisactuallymadetheirresultsappearmorescientificratherthanlessso.(X-rays,alsodiscoveredin1895,wouldeventuallyenablescientiststo‘see’atoms.)TheplausibilityofBesant’sandLeadbeater’sclaimsisfurtherenhancedbythedetailoftheiraccounts,theirinsistenceonthepietiesofscience(‘itisverydesirablethatourresultsshouldbetestedbyotherswhocanusethesameextensionofphysicalsight’),andtheirirresistibleillustrations;illustrationswhichlooklikestrangeseacreatures,yes,butalso–andthisisuncanny–verylikethediagramsoftheorbitsofelectronsaroundatomsandmoleculesthatweremuchlaterdevisedasanaidtounderstandingthenatureofchemicalbonding.Thoughitwascertainlynotitstellers’intention,thestoryofoccultummightalmostbeconsideredasasatireontherhetoricofscientificpresentation,gussiedupasitiswithitstechnicalterms,lengthyexegesesandelaboratevisualizationsofwhat,infact,cannotbeseen.

TherearemomentswhenBesant’sandLeadbeater’simaginedsystemoftheelementsbasedontherecurrenceofcertainsubatomicshapescomesacrossasplaincrazy,aswhentheywrite,forexample:‘Manganeseoffersusnothingnew,beingcomposedof“lithiumspikes”and“nitrogenballoons.”’YetthegreatCrookes,admittedlycarefulinhispraise,recommendedthat‘theirworkwouldbeusefulatleastinsuggestingtoscientiststhekindofelementstheymightstilldiscoverintheasyetunfinishedperiodictable’.Intheevent,theirvisionscameclosesttorealityinatomicphysics.BesantandLeadbeaterbelievedthateventhesimplestatom,hydrogen,wascomposedofmanysubatomicparticles,andthatboththeatomsandtheirconstituentparticleswereconstantlyspinningand

vibrating–allphenomenathatwouldbeobservedbyphysicsduringthenextfewdecades,thespinoftheelectronrevealed,infact,byexaminingthedetailoftheheliumspectrum.

TheintangibilityofheliumfinallygottoLockyer.NotsatisfiedwithRamsay’sgift,hesoughttoobtainhisownsampleoftheelementandin1899wroteoffforpromisingsourcematerials.Inreply,thesuperintendentofwellsandbathsatHarrogatesentLockyersomesaltsfromhisspa.Thewatersofsuchplaceswereknownbynowtofizznotonlywithhydrogensulphideandcarbondioxidebutalsowithsmallamountsoftheinertgases.Carefullycollectingthegasreleasedbythesalts,Lockyeratlastheldinhishandtheelementhehaddetectedmorethanthirtyyearsbefore.

PartThree:Craft

TotheCassiterides

ThePhoenicianssailedfarandwideinsearchoftin.TheyprobablyobtainedthemetalfirstfromsourcesinCreteandTurkey,then,rangingwest,fromEtruriainItalyandTarshishinsouthernSpain,andeast,fromasfarawayastheMalaypeninsula,wheremuchtinisstillsmeltedtoday.ButtheirmostfabledsourcewastheislandsknownastheCassiterides.

ThePhoeniciansflourishedinthelandthatisnowSyriaandLebanonformorethanamillenniumbeginningaround1500BCE,promotingtradeandtechnologicaldevelopmentbutleavingfewrecordsoftheirdoings.ItistheGreekwriterHerodotuswhoislargelyresponsibleforthemythoftheCassiterides,theplacetowhichthemetalisforeverlinkedbythenameofitsore,cassiterite.Thoughhepersonallydoubtedtheislands’existence,heneverthelesswrotethemintohisHistoriesaround430BCE,andso,trueornot,intohistory:

OftheextremetractsofEuropetowardsthewestIcannotspeakwithanycertainty;forIdonotallowthatthereisanyriver,towhichthebarbariansgivethenameofEridanus,emptyingitselfintothenorthernsea,whence(asthetalegoes)amberisprocured;nordoIknowofanyislandscalledtheCassiterides,whencethetincomeswhichweuse.ForinthefirstplacethenameEridanusismanifestlynotabarbarianwordatall,butaGreekname,inventedbysomepoetorother;andsecondly,thoughIhavetakenvastpains,Ihaveneverbeenabletogetanassurancefromaneye-witnessthatthereisanyseaonthefurthersideofEurope.Nevertheless,tinandamberdocertainlycometousfromtheendsoftheearth.

YetthereisseaonthefarthersideofEurope,andtheCassiteridesmustexist,fortinwasindeedbroughttotheMediterraneanfromthewest,thetradebeingrunfromthePhoenicianport-stateofCarthage.Butwhereinthewest?Themysterymaybedeliberate.PlinytheElderinhisNaturalHistorywritesthatthemetal

camefrom‘Lusitania’and‘Gallaecia’andwasalso‘broughtfromtheislandsoftheAtlanticseainbarkscoveredwithhides’,whiletheGreekgeographerStrabo,writing400yearsafterHerodotus,suggeststhatthePhoeniciansmayhavedeceivedtheirenemiesastowherethesevaluableresourceslay,buthazardsthattheseislandslayofftheIberiancoast‘tothenorthoftheportoftheArtabrians’.Buttherearenosuchislands.LaterscholarshaveinterpretedClassicalaccountsasreferencestothenorth-westernextremityofSpainitself,orBrittany,ortheislandsatthemouthoftheLoireandtheCharenteintheBayofBiscay.Buttheseplaceshavenotin.Sofar,sounreliable,andafterall,asonemodernmetallurgicaltexttartlyremindsus,‘howmanyhistoriansofourdaycouldtelluswhencewederiveourtin?’

AnotherAtlanticpromontoryisrichintin,butthenCornwallisnoisland.Perhapswearetakingthethird-handreportsofships’lookoutstooliterally.ForMediterraneanscribes,itwouldhavebeenasuperfluousactofimaginationtogivedefiniteshapetoanyextensivelandreportedfromvoyagesintotheendlessoceanthatlaybeyondtheStraitsofGibraltar;howmuchmorefabuloussimplytoconjureanisland.Andmoreplausibletoo,forwhowouldbelieveitmorelikelythatthePhoenicianshipshadsimplydoubledbackonthemselvestodiscovernomorethanthefarsideofacontinenttheyalreadyknew?

TinhasbeenexploitedinCornwallsinceatleast2000BCE,obtainedfromriver-bedsorbysettingfiresdirectlyagainsttherocktomeltitout,andthuswaslongestablishedbythetimePhoeniciantradersheardofit.YettheideathattheCassiterides,knowntotheancientworldsospecificallyastheTinIslands,and‘teninnumber’accordingtoStrabo,weretrulyislandsratherthanpartsofalargermassoflandcannotbesoeasilydiscarded.ThelogicalassumptionthattheymaybetheIslesofScillyseemstofallatthefirsthurdle–theypossessverylittletin.IaskRichardHerringtonattheNaturalHistoryMuseuminLondonwhathemakesofthecompetingtheories.HefavourstheideathatthetindidcomefromCornwallandthattheIslesofScillyservedasaconvenienttradingcentre.Here,inshorecraft–Pliny’s‘barkscoveredwithhide’–mightmeetthelargeshipsofthePhoeniciantraderswho,sailingnorthpastCapeFinisterre(‘Artabria’),mightjustconsidertheScillyislandsaslyingoffthecoastofSpain.Thisscenarioatleastreconcilesthehistorians’descriptionswiththemineralogicalfacts.ThePhoeniciansneedneverhaveseentheBritishmainland.

ThereisanotherdimensiontothemysteryoftheCassiterides–theirname.Thestandardviewisthattheislandsarenamedafterthevaluableorefoundthere,butsomehavewonderedwhetherthebootisnotontheotherfoot,andtheoretakesitsnamefromapre-existingnameoftheislands–muchasitisbelievedthattheLatinwordforcopper,cuprum,mayderivefromCyprus,theplace

whichwastheMediterraneanworld’smainsourceofthiselement.Thisseemsratherunlikely–theSanskritwordfortin,kastira,pointstoanIndicetymologybasedonAsiansourcesofthemetal.ButthisancientrootdoesatleastunderlinetheclaimofCornwalltobeamongtheveryoldestknownsourcesoftin.

Ihaveamodernmapwhich,althoughitdoesnotclaimCornwallastheCassiterides,doesshowittobealandoftin.Itisa‘metallogenic’mapoftheBritishIsles–ittellswherethenation’streasureisburied.Thelandareaistintedinpastelcolourstorepresentthemajorgeologicalperiods,andontopofthisarescatteredlittlecolouredlozengeslikeaspiltpick’n’mix.Thescatterisnotablyuneven.Itdividesthecountrysharplyintwo:theblandMesozoictothesouthandeast,andtheCelticregionstothenorthandwest,wherethegeologyrushesbackwardsintimethroughtheCarboniferoustotheCambrianperiodandbeyond.Thecolouredshapesclusterintheselatterregions,denotingthepresenceofelementssuchasstrontiumatStrontianinArgyllshire,Welshgoldandmanyothers.Theshapesaredesignedtogiveanideaoftheextentofeachdepositandeventoshowwhichwaythestratarun.ThespineofCornwallisfestoonedwithorangerectangles,whichsignifythepresenceoftin,tungsten,copper,molybdenumandarsenic.ThelargestrectanglesareattheveryendoftheCornishpeninsula(althoughtherearenoneontheIslesofScilly).IdecideImustmakemyownvoyagetotheCassiterides.

ItisimmediatelyobviousthatIaminalandofmoreinterestinggeologyasIcrossintoCornwall.Everywhereisevidenceofquarryingandmining,whitescarsinthehillsidesleftbychinaclayworkings,pointedslagheaps,theoccasionalmineshaftorchimney.Theoldest,andnowmostpicturesque,tinminesareontherockynorthcoastoftheLand’sEndpeninsula.TheareaisnowdesignatedasaUNESCOWorldHeritageSite,placingthem,incredibly,onaparwithEasterIslandandthePyramids.Strangely,theruinedstonebuildingsliveuptothishonour,theirconicalstonechimneysandtheblockyverticalityoftheirshafthousesproducingtheirownausteregeometry.

Therearemanyoftheseconstructionslitteringtheruggedlandscape,butthesurfacebuildingsaretheleastofit.Underground,asIlearnfromanintricatewiremodelthesizeofalargeroomatGeevormine,liesacomplicatedgridoftunnelsandshafts,averitableundergroundcity,constructedtofollowthetinlodeswherevertheyled,sometimesevenoutunderthesea.AtourofGeevorgivesmeapropersenseofthetinminer’slot.Onthesurfacearetheshedswheretheorewasbrokenupandgraded,thehugeslopingroomsofshakingrhomboidaltableswhereheavyorewassiftedfromthelight,andthePiranesian

horrorofthecalcinerwherearsenicwasroastedoff.Finally,wearetakendownWhealMexico,oneoftheoldestpartsofthemineworkings,whosehardgranitewallsstilloozeluridbluecopper.Whenwecome‘backtograss’,Iamstruckinaconceitedtwenty-first-centurywaybytheincongruityofthebreathtakingscenerywiththehellofworkbelowground.

NextdoortoGeevor,theLevantmineremindsmeofmypurpose.ArethesetheCassiterides?Levant,thetraditionalnameoftheeasternMediterraneanshore,seemstooobviousaclue.Itmakesmesuspectacertainamountofromanticpost-rationalization.IfashaftcanbenamedMexicointhehopethatitmightyieldrichestheequivalentofthatcountry’ssilver,thensurelyothernamesmaymeanaslittle.ButIamassuredthatthenamedatesbackwellover1,000years,andarosefromcommerciallinkswithaMediterraneantradingcompany.IlearnthatinadditiontotheIslesofScilly,theislandofStMichael’sMount,thenknownasIctis,intheshelteredsouthernbaybetweenLand’sEndandtheLizard,mayalsohavebeenapointofloadingBritishtinforexport.

Cornishtinwasexceptionallypure,andmaintaineditsreputationthroughoutEuropeforcenturies.Mostoftheminesonlyclosedinthemidtwentiethcentury–thereasontheylooksofineisnotthattheyhavebeenrestored,butsimplythattheyhaven’thadtimetofalldown.Afewmines,suchasGeevor,pressedonuntilaround1990,bywhichtimetheinternationaltincartelhadcollapsedandthepriceofthemetalfellbelowthreedollarsapound,makingfurthermininguneconomic.Recently,thepriceoftinhasrecovered,whichhasencouragedhopesthatminingmayrestart.‘Cornishpeoplewanttoseeitback,’DavidWright,Geevor’sassayer-turned-tourguide,tellsme.‘Itcausedagreatdealofmisery,butit’spartofCornishhistory.’

PrimoLevicallstina‘friendly’metal.Helistshighamongitsamicablequalitiesthatitgivesusbronze,‘therespectablematerialparexcellence,notoriouslyperennialandwellestablished’.

Therawmaterialforbronzeinantiquitywascopperorethat,unknowntothemetalworkersoftheday,containedenoughtintomakethealloy.Inmanyplaces,bronzeandcoppermusthavebeenthoughtofasdistinctmetals.Therewasnoquestfortheelementsandnoincentivetotrytoseparatebronzeintoingredientssinceitwasalreadythesuperiormetalforsomanypurposes.Inafewplaces,puretinwassmeltedfromitsownore,cassiterite,and,toosoftforweaponsandutensils,wasformedintoornaments.Wheretinandcopperwereobtainedfromseparateores,itwasnaturallynotlongbeforebronzewasbeingmadepurposelybyputtingthetwometalstogether.Onceitwasknownthatbronzecouldbemadeinthiswayratherthanrelyingonoresthathappenedtocontaintherightproportionsofcopperandtin,thehuntwasonforthemiraculousmetalwhichhadthepowertomakecopperbothmoreusefulandmorebeautiful.

Yetitisnotonlyastheessentialingredientofbronzethattinhasfounditsrole.Themetalhasitsownadvantages.Unlikelead,itisshinyandbright.Itisstrongenoughtomakeusefulitems,yetsoftenoughthatthesearticlesmaybeformedbysimplehammering,demandingnogreatartisanalskill.Aboveall,itiseasilysmeltedandcast,meltingat232degreesCelsius,farlowerthancopperorsilver.

Iknewthisfromrepeatedlymeltingandcastingthesamepieceoftinindifferentshapesasaboy.ButIamremindedofitwhenIgoalongtoaworkshopintendedtoreacquaintdesignersandacademicswhospendtheirdayscreatingcomputergraphicsorcompletingstudentassessmentswiththequiddityofrealmaterials.OurtutorforthisexerciseincastingtinisMartinConreenofGoldsmithsCollegeinLondon.Conreenhasthetwinkleinhiseyetomakeagooddepartment-storeSantaClaus,althoughhisbeardisginger.Gleefully,hereachesintohissackanddistributeshismetallichoard,asmall,shiningingotoftinforeachofus–andacuttlefishbone.Cuttlebones,Conreenexplains,havebeenusedatleastsinceRomantimesasmouldsfortinornaments.Weeyehimdoubtfully,butassoonaswestartscrapingawayforourselvesweunderstandwhy.Theporousboneiseasilycarvedbutalsoabletowithstandtheheatofthemoltentin.Carefully,wemeltourtinandpouritintotherecesseswehavecarvedinthebone.Afterafewmomentscooling,itispossibletoturnoutthetrinkets.Theirweightandsilverylustremakethemadelighttohold.ThemoltenmetalhasfaithfullyfollowedeveryrunnelIcarvedandhasevenpickedupthe

finehoneycombtextureofthecuttleboneitself,addingaserendipitouslayerofnaturalornamentation.Thesatisfactionofmakingsomethingsosolidandpleasingtellsinthesillygrinsonourfaces.

Becausetinissoreadilyrecast,ithasaspecialvalueinstorytelling:itmayberecastindifferentroles.HansChristianAndersen’sfairytaleof‘TheSteadfastTinSoldier’endstragicallywiththesoldierbeingconsumedinafirealongwiththepaperballerinaheloves.Rakingtheasheslater,amaidfindsthatthesoldierhasmeltedintotheshapeofaheart.Tinisdisposableyetalsoindestructible;thetinsoldierismortal,buthisloveendures.Heisalsocruellysubjecttofate.Theboywhofeaturesinthestoryhasthrownhim‘withoutrhymeorreason’intothefire.Andthereisahintatthebeginningthatfatewillbeplayingapartasthetinheroisalreadydifferentfromtheothertwenty-threesoldiersinthebox:hewasmadelastwhenthemetalwasrunningoutandhasonlyoneleg.Thisfatalthreadinthetale,too,isdrawnfromthewaythemetalishandled:thedieiscastatthebeginningandrecastattheend.

Itseaseofworkingmadetinthecommonplacemetal.Bronzewasreservedforweapons,goldandsilverfortheChurchandcourt.Ironwarerequiredtheservicesofablacksmith,butanybodymightworkapieceoftinintosomethinguseful.Forthepeasant,tinstoodinforallofthesemetalsforornamentandutensilalikeandwasmadeintoplates,jugsandtankards,musicalinstruments,jewelleryandtoys.

Tinwasalsoidealformakingprostheseswhichcouldbemouldedandbeatentofollowtheintricateshapesofthebody.Thephrase‘tinear’,meaningtone-deaf,datesfromthedayswhenpeoplecouldalltooeasilyloseanextremitytotheravagesofthepoxorsomegrimaccident.(Coppernoseswerenotunknowneither.)TheTinWoodmaninTheWonderfulWizardofOzisawoodchopperwhoseaxeisbewitchedsuchthatitsevershislimbsoneafteranotherandthenfinallylopsoffhishead.Eachtime,heisgivenreplacementsoftin–thoughhischronicallyrust-pronejointssuggestthatmetallurgywasn’tFrankBaum’sstrongsuit.

Medievalcraftsmenworkedwithtinasitcame:smeltedfromtheorewithoutfurtherrefining.ThoughCornishtinwasrenownedforitspurity,eventhismetalwasfrequentlycontaminatedwithlead,copper,antimonyandarsenic,whichaffecteditsproperties–oftenforbetter,sometimesforworse.Laterbismuthwasaddedinsmallamountstoconvertthesoftmetalintoaharder,morelustrousandsonorousalloy.Bismuthindeedwasthoughttobeamixtureofleadandtinuntilproperchemicalinvestigationintheeighteenthcenturyshowedthatitwasa

distinctelement.(Today,mostofusencounterbismuthonlywhenwehaveanupsetstomach:itisthepepsin-zappingactiveingredientofPepto-Bismol.)

Thealloyingoftinwasthesecretofthepewtersmith.Pewtertodayprobablyconjuresupimagesofchristeningmugsofdubioustasteortheengravedtankardsoftheregularsinunreconstructedpubs.Historically,itwasanalloymainlyoftinwithlead,whichfellfromfavourwhenthepoisonousnatureofthelatterwasunderstood.Todaypewterisentirelymadefromtinwithalittleantimony,bismuthandcopper.TheWorshipfulCompanyofPewterersisoneoftheoldestofLondon’sguilds,withitsoriginsinthefourteenthcentury,butitismakingadeterminedefforttorehabilitatethemetalwithanannualcompetitionfordesigners,whorespondvaliantlywithnecklacesandwinecoolersandlightfittingsthatdoindeedsucceedinslippingtheshacklesofhistory.

Whilepewterstrugglestoretainitsfootholdasanattractivematerial,tinhasbecomeapejorativetermforanycheapmetal.Low-valuecoinage,usuallybasedoncopper,is‘tin’.HenryFord’sModel‘T’,themostbasicofautomobiles,madeofsteel,wastheTinLizzie.Hastenedbythegrowthoftin-platingduringthenineteenthcentury,tinhasstretchedtobecomealoosermetaphorforanythingsuperficialorcontemptible,forthemarked-downandthejumped-up.RudyardKiplinginvented‘thelittletingod’asanepithetforanypettydespotinhisDepartmentalDittiesof1886.‘Tin-pot’continuestobeusedasanadjective,reservedalmostexclusivelyforforeigndictators,todescribeonewhoisreliantonthefineryofhisofficetodisguisehisunderlyingcorruption–Britishleaderswerenaturallynevertin-potthemselves.

Themetaphorishardlyfairtothemetal,asthetinofthetinnedcanswhichfedtheBritishEmpirewastheretopreventcorruptioninthefirstplace.Ononeoccasion,aspartofastudentlectureatGuy’sHospitalinLondon,atinofmeatleftoverfromanavalexpeditionin1826wasopenedsometwentyyearslater.Thecontentswerefoundtolookandsmellgood,sogoodinfactthattheywereswiftlyconsumedbysomepassinghospitalstaff.

Tinkers,too,areregardedwithsuspicion.Thelabelispopularlysupposedtoapplytotinsmiths,butreallyreferstoanyitinerantmenderofutensils.Somebodywhotinkersisgenerallyguiltyofineptoruncertainhandiwork.Thedignityoftheitinerantandoftinisreasserted,however,inRoseTremain’srecentnovelTheRoadHome,whichdescribestheexperienceofLev,amigrantfromEasternEuropewhotravelstoBritainforwork.Tremainsubtlyopposestwoelements,sodiumandtin,inhernarrative.Lev’sbuscrossesintoAustriaduringthenightandstopsforpetrolundera‘sodiumsky’,arecurrentimage.BackinPoland,hisgrandmothersupportshisfamilybymakingjewelleryoutoftin.Sodiumsignifiesthemodern,technologicalsophistication,theurbanWest.

TinspeaksofhomeintheruralEastofsimplecrafts,aworldLevevokessofondlythatevenhisIrishflat-sharerconsidersmovingthere.Tin,likeLevinthestory,iscompliantandcheapbutneverthelessfundamentallyhonestanddecent.

Tinissaidtocrywhenastickofitisbentorbroken,whichPrimoLevigivesasonefurtherreasonforconsideringitafriendlyelement,eventhoughhedoesn’tappeartobelieveit–‘neverseenorheard(thatIknow)byhumaneyeorear’.

Levi’signoranceandincuriosityonthisoccasionisapuzzle.Ihavecertainlyheardthisweeping,andIhearditagainduringMartinConreen’smaterialsmaster-classasItorturedmyownpieceoftin–adrawn-outcrackingsoundwithasquealingovertone,liketheopeningofadoorinahorrorfilm,asthecrystalsofmetalwerewrenchedapart.Intruth,thephenomenonisnotevenuniquetotinbutcanbeproducedbystressinganysuitablybrittlemetal.

Thesoundworldoftinisspecialnevertheless.Itsverynamerings:tinnnnn.Andthisisnotbychance.Asthemetalmostcommonlymadeintodomesticutensils,tinbroughtsonorityintoordinarylives.TheringingofbellsandgongsconfinedtoChurchandstateritualsreceivedahumbledomesticechointhesoundoftinontininpeople’shomes.Thequalityofthemetalwasmeasuredbythepurityofitsring.Theonomatopoeiaiswidespread.TheEnglishwordcomesfromtheOldHighGermanzin–it’sstillZinninGerman,andhassimilarnamesinotherNordiclanguages.TheFrenchword,eventhoughitderivesseparatelyfromtheLatinstannum,isthealmosthomophonousétain.Theword‘zinc’,itisworthnotinginpassing,mayalsostemfromzin,whichmayhavesomethingtodowiththeuncertainchemistryofatimebeforeitwasknownthatzincwasanelementdistinctfromtin.Lead,incidentally,Shakespeare’s‘dulllead’,isnamedwithequalonomatopoeictruthbecauseitdoesnotring,themoresoinScandinavianlanguageswhereitiscalledlod.

ZoeLaughlin,amaterialsscientistatKing’sCollegeLondon,hasmadeastudyofthecharacteristicsoundsmadebydifferentmaterials,goingtothetroubleofmakingidenticaltuningforksinglassandwoodaswellasvariousmetals.Shethennotedthesoundtheymadewhenstruck,recordingobjectivemeasurementsofpitchandtimbre,loudnessandattenuation,aswellasaskingapanelofmusiciansforamoresubjectiveassessment.Shefoundthatsteelforksproducedthebrightestsoundatthehighestpitch.Copperandbrasssoundeddeeperbutalmostasbright.Forreasonsthatremaintobeexplored,thebrightesttoneofallcamefromasteelforkthathadbeenplatedwithgold.Sadly,aforkcastinsolder,whichismainlytin,failedtoproduceatone,andsoonexhibitedsignsofmetalfatigue:whetheritcriedisnotrecorded.

Manyofthewordstodowithringingmetalsaregeneric;itdoesn’tmatterwhichmetalisbeingbeaten.Tinkersthenarenotexactlytinsmiths,butsocalledfromthetinkingsoundmadebytheirworkingwithmetal,beittinorsomethingelse.InSpaintinkersareknownasquinquillerosandFrenchironmonger’sstoresarequincailleries,thewordsamplyexpressiveoftheclankingsoundofanymetalmerchandise.NorseandGermanicmythmakesastrongconnectionbetweensmithingandsong,andwestillspeakof‘hammeringoutatune’,somethingWagnerdepictsliterallyinAlberich’ssubterraneanforgeinDasRheingold.

Othersenseassociationsarespecifictotin,notwithstandingLaughlin’sdisappointingresultwiththetuningfork.Somearephysicallyconnectedwiththematerial’sproperties,butothersreachfigurativelydeeperintotheauralworld.Mostmajesticallyresonantofall,organpipesaretraditionallymadeoftinalloyedwithlead,theproportionsvariableaccordingtothetonethatisdesired.Attheotherendofthespectrum,tinwhistlesandtindrumsneednotbemadeoftinbutcertainlyhavethesoundthatwecharacterizeastinny.TinPanAlleyinNewYorkgotitsnamefromthenoisemadebythepianosofcomposers–tune-smiths–bangingoutpopularmelodies.Eventinnitus,thesensationofringingintheears,joinsthisclangorousfamily.

Letusleavethiselementtothesoundofbells,ortintinnabulation.Bellscanbemadeofanysonorousmetal–myfriendAndreaSellaevenhasonemadeofmercurywaitinginadeepfreezeatthechemistrydepartmentofUniversity

CollegeLondonforthecolddaywhenitwillberung.*Butithaslongbeenknownthatanalloyofcopperandtinintheproportionsofthreeorfourtooneproducesthebesttone.Thisspecialbronzeisbrittleandnotoriouslydifficulttocast,andanumberofoldfablesturnonthefortunesofthepersonwhopossessesthesecretofbell-making.Manybellshavecracked,amongthemtheLibertyBell,which,havingsafelycrossedtheAtlanticin1752,splitfromliptowaistuponitsfirststrikinginPhiladelphia.BigBen,too,crackedshortlyafteritwasinstalledinthenewlybuiltHousesofParliamentin1859.Thepompousbronzeofstatuesmayberespectableparexcellence,asLevisuggests;bellmetal,withitsgreaterproportionoftin,ringsoutthehappyimperfectionsofhumanity.

DullLead’sGreyTruth

Duringthe1880s,AugusteRodin,themostfamousandcontroversialartistofhisage,createdwhatwouldprovetobehismostpopularwork,TheThinker.Itwasintendedasthecentralfeatureofamuchlargercomposition,TheGatesofHell,whichwastoserveasamonumentalportalforthenewmuseumofdecorativeartsinParis.Themassivework,nearlysevenmetreshighandseethingwithhumanity,wasneverfinishedtotheartist’ssatisfaction,butpartsofit,includingTheThinker(originallyenvisagedasafigureofDante),wereeventuallyfinishedseparatelyonanevenlargerscale.Thepose–handproppingchin,elbowrestedonknee–maybeover-familiarnow,butthesculpturestillhasthepowertoriseaboveparody.Thefigureleansforwardimpossiblyfar.Thecantilever–whichwouldhavebeenstillmoredramaticviewedfrombelowasyoupassedunderthelintelofthemuseumdoorway–iscrucialtoRodin’sachievement.ThisstaticlumpofbronzeisanimatedevenbyRodin’susualstandard,producingnotanoutwardappearanceofmovementassculptorsoftensoughttodo,butaprojectionofinternalactivity.Iturgentlywantsustoknowsomething,toknowinfacttheverypowerofthought.RecentX-raystudieshaveshownthatthesculptureisonlyabletodothistosuchanextraordinarydegreebecauseitconcealswithinitsbaseamassivecounterweightmadeoflead.

Leadisthereificationofgravity,bothphysicalandintellectual,andisthechemicalelementmostcloselyassociatedwithdeathitself.Whenwespeakofaleadensky,itisnotonlythecolourwemean:thegravitationalimpossibilityoftheimagepresagesworsethanrain–thedoomofaworldturnedupsidedown.Leadsarcophagiaretraditionallyusedtopreservethebodiesofpopesandkingstoensurethatthesouldoesnotescape.TheheartofthekingofScotsRoberttheBrucerestsinaleadcasketatMelroseAbbey,asdoesthelankybodyofhisfoe,

theEnglishKingEdwardI,atWestminster.The‘HammeroftheScots’instructedthatthecasketwastobeexchangedforregalgoldonlyuponthefinaldefeatofScotland;theleadcasketremainstothisday.

Leaddoesnotcorrode,andsopreserveswhatitcontains,becauseitformsasurfacelayerwhichblocksfurtherchemicalattack.Itisthisthinlayer–thesamesubstanceasartists’leadwhite–whichultimatelypreservestheroofsofmanyofthecathedralsandchurchesofEuropeaswellasthebodiesoftheirprelates.Thiscompoundalsorobsthemetalofwhatlittlelustreithaswhenfreshcut,leavingitanelephant-greythathardlyreflectssunlight.This,too,seemstorenderleadmoresuitablethanothersforritualsofdeathandburial.

Lead’sweightyrelationshipwithgravityanditsconnotationsoftheultimatecollapse–intothetomb–arebutthemostextremeofitsvariousassociationswithfateandfalling.Whenweagreetoleaveamattertochance,weletthechips‘fallwheretheymay’,governednotbyusbutsolelybythelawsofphysics.OneofthesecondarymeaningsoftheGermannounFallissimply‘event’,somethingthathappensorbefalls.Andafallgainsemphasisifwhatfallsdoessoheavily.Aheavyfallisdecisive.ForthisreasontheRomansmadediceoutoflead.

InpartsofcentralEuropewhereleadoresareabundant,thecustomhasgrownofpredictingthefuturebypouringsmallquantitiesofthemoltenmetalintowater.Themetalsolidifiesnaturallyinextravagantshapes,anditisfromthesethatthepourer’sfortuneisdeduced.GermansperformthisceremonyofBleigiessen(lead-pouring)onNewYear’sEve.Ifthesolidifiedleadresemblesaflower,thenyouwillenjoynewfriendshipinthecomingyear.Theshapeofapigforetokensprosperity,ashipalongvoyage,andsoon.InHungary,theceremonytakesplaceonLuca’sDay(13December),whenloverspourleadtodivinethequalitiesoftheirintendedpartners.Thetraditionsstillthriveand,surprisinglyperhaps,youcaneasilybuychildren’skitscontainingrealleadformeltingandpouringathome.

Certainly,it’saprocedurethatdoesn’tseemtorequireanexpertonhandtointerprettheresults.Idecidetoimproviseforthebenefitofmyfamilyusingsomeleadsalvagedfromanoldleadedwindow.Heatedinaladlebytheflameofaportablebunsenburner,thecrumpledmetalquietlycollapsesuntilitquiversbeneathalayerofwhiteandyellowoxideandisreadyforpouring.Canyoureallytellfortunes,wondersmynine-year-oldsonaswewatch.Hegoesfirst.Ipouraboutadessertspoonfulofmoltenleadintoabucketofwaterandheretrievesoneofthebiggerpieces.Itispear-shaped,andweareatalossforanycareeritmightportend.Thenheturnsittheotherwayupanddeclaresthatit

lookslikeaballoon.Perhapshewilltraveltheworldbyair.Mywifeisnext.Withmorepractisedpouring,moreelaborateshapesareformed.Shepicksoutanelongateddribblethatmiraculouslydoesindeedresembleafloweronastem.Anewfriendshipinthecomingyearseemsasafeenoughbet.Finallyit’smyturn.Ipourtheleadagain,andextractfromthewatersomeattenuatedlumpsthatfailtoinspire.Butonemoresculpturalfragmentoffersgreaterscopefortheimagination,conceivablysuggestingahumanfigure.Theresemblanceismarredbyasplatofleadfuseddiagonallyacrossthemiddleofthetorso.Perhapsamusicalinstrument.ShouldItakeupthelute?

Shakespearerecodeslead’spredictivepotentialinTheMerchantofVenice.InordertowinthebeautifulheiressPortia,hersuitorsmustmakeanelementalchoicebetweencasketsofgold,silverandlead.Eachcasketbearsaninscription.Theinscriptionsontheprecious-metalcasketsmakepromisesthatseemdeliverableinsomematerialformeveniftheyareenigmaticallystated.Thegoldencasketisinscribed:‘Whochoosethmeshallgainwhatmanymendesire’,thesilver:‘Whochoosethmeshallgetasmuchashedeserves’.Theinscriptionontheleadcasketrecognizesonlytheuncertainworld:‘Whochoosethmemustgiveandhazardallhehath’.Tochooseleadnowisacknowledgementthatfortunesmaynotbetoldatall.

Thefirsttwosuitorstoappearintheplay,whomPortiacalls‘deliberatefools’,aretheprincesofMoroccoandArragon.Theyjudgethattheycannotaffordlife’sgamble;theypreferwhatisclearlyatrade,evenifthetermsaren’tclear.VainMoroccochoosesthegold,calculatingArragonthesilver.TheworthysuitorBassaniorationalizesthechoicedifferently.Ina‘worldstilldeceiv’dwithornament’herejectsbothgoldandsilverandchoosestheleadcasket,openingittofind‘FairPortia’scounterfeit’,thesignthathehaswonher.

Allthreesuitorshavebeenguidedintheirchoicebytheirperceptionsoftherespectivemetals’worth.Duringthecourseoftheirdeliberations,themenhavecalledlead‘dull’,‘base’and‘meagre’inturn,althoughPortiahasbeenscrupulousinneverassigningvaluetoanyofthemetals.MoroccoandArragonallowtheaccompanyingriddlestocompoundtheirconfusion,butBassanio,sofaraswecantell,doesnotreadthemessagesatall.Hischoiceiscorporeal.MoroccoandArragonareoffendedbytheordinarinessofleadbutBassanioisundeterred.

Fortunesmaynotbefortelling,butonethinginlifecanbeforetoldalltoowell.WhatBassaniohaswonheknowstoothathewillultimatelylose.Hiscorrectchoiceindicatesanacceptanceofmortality–bothhisownandPortia’stoo.Theleadofthecaskethasalreadyspeltthisouttoallcomers,asMoroccomakesplainwhenhepiouslyannounceshecannotbearto‘thinksobaseathought’thatPortia’sportraitshouldbesheathedinleadinprevisionofherdeath.Bassanio’sparadoxisthat,whilehedesiresthebeautifulPortia,hecanneverthelessconfessoftheleadencasket:‘Thyplainnessmovesmemorethaneloquence’.Lead’sdulltruthisthatbeautyfades.Timecorrodesourbodies,ourskinacquiresitsownoxidecoating,butthesoulmaybekeptpurewithin.Thechoiceoftheleadcasketembracesthisinevitability,showingthatBassaniowillbeasteadfasthusbanduntodeath.‘Inthisway,’wroteFreudinanessayonmythicthree-waychoices,‘manovercomesdeath,whichhehasrecognizedintellectually.’

‘Youthatchoosenotbytheview,’runsthescrollBassaniofindsinsidetheleadcasket,‘Chanceasfairandchooseastrue!/Sincethisfortunefallstoyou,/Becontentandseeknonew.’Itisafinalreminderofthegravityofthedecisionhehasmade.

Thefortuneofallhumankindistoldinlead.Theelement’straditionalapplications–manyofthemnowperformedbysubstitutesforhealthreasons–echotheambiguousroleitplaysinmyth.Twoofitsoldestusesshowhowleadencompassesthefullrangeofhumancreativityanddestructiveness:soldiers’shotandprinters’type.Ballsofleadwereusedasslingshotprojectilesinancienttimes,butitwasnotuntilthediscoveryinthefourteenthcenturythatgunpowder,thennewtoEurope,couldbemadetoprojectaballfromatubethatthecannonbecameaweaponofwar.Thiscrudedevicewasgraduallyrefinedintoabroadrangeoffirearmsforwhichanequallydiversebatteryofleadshotandbulletswasrequired.Laboriouslycastatfirst,leadshotsooncametobemade,asfortunesaretold,withtheassistanceofgravityinpurpose-designed

towers.ButunlikeinBleigiessen,theelementofchanceisherecarefullyexcluded.Moltenleadispouredfromaheighttoformdropletsofacertainsize,whichcoolastheyfallbeforebeingquenchedinatroughofwater.ImakemywaytoCraneParkonthewesternoutskirtsofLondon,whereoneofthesebuildingsstillstands.Thistaperedroundtowerwasbuiltin1823fortheHounslowGunpowderMills.Today,ithasbeenrestoredandliespicturesquelysituatedontheedgeofwoodlandwithparakeetsswoopingnoisilyinandoutofthecupolaatthetop.Ashallowriverrushingbyprovidedtheessentialwater.Standingononeofthesixcirculargalleriesthatgirditsbarebrickinterior,itiseasytoimaginethehotleadfallingdownthemiddleandsputteringintothewaterbelow.Alongfall–thetallestshottowersweremorethantwentystoreyshigh–ensuresthateachpieceisclosetosphericalbythetimeithitsthewater,buteventhenfurtherworkisnecessarytosortandgradetheshot.Gravityisputtousehere,too,asthespherulesaresetoffdownaninclinedplanetowardsakindofjump.Thosethatrollwellareabletojumpthebarrier,whiletheoversizedandmisshapensluggardsfallshortandarecollectedforremelting.(Theluckfactorreturnswhentheshotisfired:thoughbillionsofleadballisticshavebeenmanufacturedandfiredinanger,theyhaveclaimedmeremillionsoflives.Thislowstrikeratioisdecliningstillfurther,accordingtotheexperts,forthesimplereasonthattechnologicaladvancesinfirearmdesignmakeitsoeasytopullatriggerprematurely.)

OneoftheseveraldistinctinnovationsofJohannesGutenbergthatleadsustoclaimhimasthefatherofprintingwashisadoptionofleadfortype.Gutenberghadsometrainingasagoldsmithandwasaskilledmetallurgistbythetime,around1440whilelivinginStrasbourg,heturnedhismindtotheproblemofprinting.Hesawthatthepressesusedlocallyforwine-makingmightbeadaptedtopressletteringontopaper,butfortheletteringtobechangeablesothatdifferenttextsmightbeprinted,hewouldneedamaterialwithspecialproperties.Itwouldhavetobehighlymouldabletotaketheintricateshapeofeachletterform,butalsosufficientlydurabletobearrepeatedimpactonthepaper.Forfullymovabletype,eachsmallpiececomprisingasingleletterwouldfurthermorehavetoremainloosesothat,oncereleasedfromthepress,itcouldberearrangedtosetnewtext.Gutenberg’sanswer–alsoreachedindependentlyinKoreaaroundthesametime–wastouseleadalloyedwithtinandalittleantimony.Thismadethemetalflowbetterwhilemoltenandyetformaharderletterwhensolid.Thisleadalloyprovedidealcomparedtobronze,whichwashardertoworkwith,ortraditionalmaterialssuchaswoodblocksandclay,whichwerelessdurable.This‘typemetal’dominatedprintinguntilthemidtwentiethcentury,greatlyacceleratingthespreadofknowledgeandexpandingtheroleof

literature.

Theprofoundandcontradictorymeaningsoflead–fortuneandfate,creativityanddestruction,humourandseriousness,loveanddeath–haveledanumberofcontemporaryartiststoemployitintheirwork.Notmanyaredrawntosuchanunfashionableandhumblematerial,perhaps,butthefewwhohavebeenareamongthemostreputed.TheBritishsculptorAntonyGormleyandtheGermanartistAnselmKiefer,forexample,useleadinwaysthatexploitcontrastingaspectsofitsnature.

Kieferworkswithanunusualrangeofbasic,onemightsayprimal,mediaincludingash,chalk,strawandfingernails.Lead,whichisregardedinalchemicalandCabalisticthoughtasprimordialmatter,hasbeenimportantforKieferformorethanthirtyyears,chosenforpracticalreasonsofworkability–itisoneofthemostmalleableofmetals–butalso,moreimportantly,foritsmultipleculturalechoes.Itis,hesays,‘amaterialforideas’.

In1989,asEastandWestGermansbegantochipawayattheBerlinWall,Kieferwasfinishingamajorworkmodelledonamodernbomberaircraft.Kiefer’splaneismadenotofaluminium,thelightestpracticalmetal,butoflead,theheaviest.Itspatchworkleadsheetsarebentandfoldedintoshape,andfinishedoffwithacrudeparodyofthebrightrivetsthatwedependupontocarryussafelyaloft.IseetheworkattheLouisianaMuseuminDenmark,aplaceofharmonybetweenlandandsea,architectureandart,whereitdeliversaviolentjoltlikeaninjuredbirdseenonacountrywalk.Inonesense,itisanhilariousproposition,aplanethatcouldneverfly.LiketheleadaxesmadebytheRomansitwouldbeuselessasaweaponofwar.And,liketheminiatureleadboatsthat

havebeenfoundontheGreekislandofNaxosdatingbacktotheCycladicperiod5,000yearsago,itisgoingnowhere.Itpromisesflightsoffancyyetremainsheavilyearthbound.Evenitslongwingsandfuselageseemtoslump,thespindlyundercarriagebarelyabletoresisttheinexorablepullofgravity.TheworkiscalledJason.IntheGreekmyth,JasonandtheArgonauts,whomherecruitstosailwithhiminsearchoftheGoldenFleece,buildaship,theArgo,butfindthatitistooheavytolaunch.ItrequiresthemagicalinterventionofOrpheus,whohasjoinedthecrew,beforetheirvoyagecanbegin.

Kieferisinterestedinthefactthatleadismutablenotonlyinphysicalways;likeus,italsoseemstochangeitscharacter.Manymetalssufferfromaphenomenonknownascreepwherebytheygraduallydeformunderanappliedstress.Leadissodenseandsoftthatitcreepsundergravityalone,andKieferhasexploitedthispropertyinworkswhereripplesofleadpileuplikewavesonabeachatthebottomofthepicture.Ofthesevenmetalsknownintheancientworld,leadwasregardedasthe‘base’fromwhichalltheothersweremadeinnature,andwastheobviousstartingpointforalchemistsstrivingtomakegold.Kieferbelievesthewhite-and-yellowcrustthatformsonthesurfaceofmoltenleadisindicativeofits‘potentialtoachieveahigherstateofgold’.Theelementthusembodieshope,andKiefer’sworksthatemployitareintendedtobeexpressiveofhopeforhumanitywithitspotentialtochangeforthebetter.Buttoanartistbornin1945,theyearinwhichtheatombombwasdropped,leadisalsolinkedtoadarkerkindofmutability.Leadistheultimateproductofmanyradioactivedecaychains,includingthoseofthekeyatomicbombingredients,uraniumandplutonium.Intheoldalchemy,leadspeaksofpotentialforthebettermentofhumanity,butinthenewitforeshadowsitsviolentdestruction.

AntonyGormley’sviewofleadisinformedbymorefamiliarprocedures.His1986workHeartisanirregularleadpolyhedron.Italludestothecustomofpreservingbodyorgansinlead,and,coincidentallyornot,alsoreferencestheworkoftheGermanartist,forthesametruncatedcuberecursinalong-runningseriesofKiefer’sworkscalledMelancholia,inspiredinturnbyAlbrechtDürer’sengravingMelencoliaI.TheuseofleadisapthereasthealchemistsequatedthemetalwithSaturn,whowastheRomangodofmelancholy.

Gormley’sstudioisagrandaffair,walledandgatedlikeanembassycompoundinawarzone.Inside,metalmeshhumanfigureshangbychainsfromthehighceiling.Lightfloodsthevastwhitespace.Iasktheartistabouthismaterials.‘Ilikeclaybecauseitisearth.Ilikeironinitsoriginalformaspigiron,’hesays.‘Iamdistrustfulofbronze.’Whereasthealloybronzeischargedwithhumanartificeevenbeforethesculptorseesit,theclayoftheearthandironareelementalinonesystemoranother.Leadisequallybasic.‘Itisimportanttomethatit’sontheperiodictable.Ilikethefactthatitbridgesthealchemicalandnuclearworlds.’UnlikeKiefer,Gormleycoatstheleadheusesinordertopreventoxidation,whichlendsitafaintredemptivegleam.InaworkcalledNaturalSelection(1981),familiarobjects–abanana,alightbulb,agun–aresheathedinthisanointedmetal.Humanandotherlargeformsaresimilarlytreatedinotherworks,notablyaseriesentitledACaseforanAngel,inwhicheachsculptureintheseriesrepresentsahumanbodywithvastoutspreadwings,leadenforerunnersofhissteelAngeloftheNorthof1998.These‘bodycases’arehollow–theartistlistsairasoneofhismediainorderthatweunderstandthis–sotheylacktheheavysuspenseofKiefer’sleadpieces.ForGormley,itisthesarcophagalimpenetrabilityoftheleadthatcounts.Wearesealedout;air–andperhapssomethingmorespiritual–issealedin.

Kiefer,ontheotherhand,prizesleadforitshonesty.Itpresentstheunvarnishedtruthwithalltheambiguousconsequencesthatflowfromit.‘Itis,ofcourse,asymbolicmaterial,’hesays,‘butalsothecolorisveryimportant.Youcannotsaythatitislightordark.Itisacolorornon-colorthatIidentifywith.Idon’tbelieveinabsolutes.Thetruthisalwaysgray.’

Jason,theleadplanewithitsmacabrecargoofhumanteethandsnakeskin,isoneofseveralaircraftKieferhasmadethathecallshis‘angelsofhistory’inreferencetotheideasofthephilospherWalterBenjamin.Benjamin’s‘angel’isabackward-gazingwitnesswhoseeshistory,notaswedoasasequenceofpassingevents,butasanever-accumulatingpileofdisasters,andwho,despitewishingto,cannotgobackandundothedamagebecauseoftheirresistiblewindofprogressblowinginhisface.Kieferworkedonthesculptureasthecoldwarwascomingtoanend,atimewhenoursafetywasunderwrittenbysuchaircraft.

Thewindoftechnologicalprogresshadbroughtustothepointwhereourcreativeanddestructivewillshadconvergedinthesupremeachievementofahigh-techmachineformassslaughter,andthatsamewindwouldnowcarryusonintothefuturewithallitsunknowablechoices.Likesomanyoftheleadenartefactsofthepastthen,Jasonisavotiveoffering,onethatexpressesnotonlythebrighthopethatwewillsurvivebutalsothedarkfearthatwewillnot.

OurPerfectReflection

InRichardStrauss’sshimmeringMozartianoperaDerRosenkavalier(1910),theplotturnsuponthemomentwhentheamorousbutessentiallyinnocentOctaviangivesthenewlyennobledmerchant’sdaughterSophieasilverrose.Anobjectofcomplexsymbolisminanoperaofsymbols,theroseismeantasacustomarytokenofnuptialengagementbetweenSophieandtheboorishBaronOchs.Theseventeen-year-oldOctavianhasbeenpersuadedbyhisworldlylover,theMarschallin,toactasthebaron’semissary,therose-beareroftheopera’stitle.Needlesstoadd,SophieisdisgustedbyOchsbutsmittenbythehandsomeOctavian,whoappearsbeforeherdressedforgoodmeasureinsilverbrocade.Thedramaproceeds,withtheusualoperaticconfusions,totheyounglovers’inevitableduet.

TheGreatGatsby,F.ScottFitzgerald’sportraitofrichAmericainthejazzage,dripswithgoldbutalsowithsilver.Themetalispresentinimagesofthemoonandstarsandtheirreflectionsandintheopulentclothingwornbythefast-moneymillionaireGatsby.Itisboththesignoffinancialwealthandanindicatorofitsmineralprovenance,forGatsby’smentorCody,wearetold,is‘aproductoftheNevadasilverfields’.ButsilverisusedespeciallytocharacterizethelivelyDaisyBuchanan,withwhomGatsbyhadyearsagofalleninlove–‘thefirst“nice”girlhehadeverknown’–beforeshemarriedanotherman.Daisyiscomparedtoasilveridolwhentheymeetagain,whiletheyoungGatsby,notyetrich,wasdrawntoherinthefirstplacebothforherwealthandforhercorruptedinnocence,findingher‘gleaminglikesilver,safeandproudabovethehotstrugglesofthepoor’.

ItisthesameinEngland.InTheForsyteSaga,too,silverentangleswealth,classandthefeminine.SoamesForsyte,‘themanofproperty’whogivesthefirstinJohnGalsworthy’ssequenceofnovelsitstitle,collectsanddisplays‘littlesilverboxes’,whichheholdsequalamonghispossessionswithhiswife.‘Couldamanownanythingprettierthanthisdining-table…andquaintsilverfurnishing;couldamanownanythingprettierthanthewomanwhosatatit?’

Silverhasadeepculturallinkwiththefeminineandwiththemoon,

implicitlyopposedtogold,whichisequatedwiththesunandrepresentsthemaleprinciple.ThisbeliefmaynotbequiteuniversalbutitissharedverywidelybyancientculturesfromGreecetothepre-ColumbianAmericas.Thewhitelustreofthemetalthatexplainstheseassociationsalsocarrieswithitmoreprecisemeaningstodowithpurityandvirginity,andbyextensionwithvirtue,innocence,hope,patienceandthepassageoftime.

ForBaronOchs,thesilverroseisjustanemptychivalricgesture(onewithnobasisinauthenticcustom,incidentally,butinventedfortheoperabyStrauss’slibrettist,HugovonHofmannstal).InthehandsofOctavianthough,itbecomesapotentsymbolinwhichmanyofthesemeaningsaresimultaneouslyandconfusinglypresent.ThefeminineaspectisespeciallyhighlychargedastheroleofOctavian,whomustalsoappearatonepointintheoperadisguisedasamaidservant,issungbyawoman.

ThesesilverobjectscontinueathreadthatrunsfromthesilverbowcarriedbyArtemis,theGreekgoddessofthemoonandvirginityandprotectressofwomen,toWilliamBlake,forwhomtherewere‘girlsofmildsilver,oroffuriousgold’.Buttheelementseemsespeciallyathomeintheearlytwentiethcentury,duringtheyearsknownastheBelleEpoque.Bythistime,householdsofevenquitemodestpretensioncouldaffordsilvertablewarethankstotheexpansionofmininginNorthandSouthAmerica,oriftheycouldnot,thentherewasatleastsilverplate.Itwassaidofthesenewmines,asitwassaidofMediterraneandepositsduringtheClassicalperiod,thatthemoltenmetalwouldrunfreefromthesoilatthesourcewhenforestfiresbrokeout.Argentina–theonlycountrynamedafterachemicalelement–wasbrieflythetenthwealthiestoftheworld’snationsbasedonthisresource.

Silvernolongerpossessesthesocialcachetthatitdidacenturyagoanditscommoditypricehasplummeted.But,surprisinglyperhaps,ithaslostnoneofitssymbolicvalue.TheSilverRingThing,forexample,isamovementbegunin1996intheUnitedStatestopromotechastityamongChristianteenagers,although,acknowledgingtherealityofthesituation,the‘para-churchyouthministry’behinditallhasmadethestrategicmove,usefulforrecruitmentnodoubt,butunluckyforthesymbolism,toadmitnotonlythechastebutalsotheregretful,whoareencouragedto‘embraceasecondvirginity’.

Silveralsoremainsafamiliarqualifierofbrandedconsumergoods,whereitisgenerallyunderstoodtoconveyasenseofpurenessorevenacleansingproperty.TheBritishSugarCorporationproducesagranulatedsugarcalledSilverSpoonthatbetraysitscustomers’dyed-in-the-woolconsciousnessofsocialclassaswellasplayingwithideasofrefiningandrefinement.Silverlabelsproductsrangingfromlightbeersandmineralwaterstocosmetics,especiallywhenthesearetargetedatyoungerwomen.ItwasentirelyinkeepingthatRevlonshouldmarkthetwenty-fifthanniversaryofitsgirlishperfumeCharliebyrebrandingitCharlieSilver,forexample.

Perhapsbecauseofitsabundanceofassociations,andthefactthatsomanyofthemaretiedupwiththeyouthfulvicissitudesofgettinglaid,silveris,accordingtoacuriouspieceofresearchbySantiagoAlvarez,aprofessorofchemistryattheUniversityofBarcelona,thechemicalelementmostcitedinsong.Oneofthesesongs,DonMcLean’sfamouspaeantovanGogh,‘Vincent’,evenmanagesanechoofDerRosenkavalierwithanimageofasilver-thornedroselyinginthevirginsnow.

Silverwasthebrightestandwhitestoftheelementsknowninantiquity.ItsLatinnameargentumisderivedfromtheSanskritarjuna,whichmeanswhite.Thisisnogreatclaimfromatimewhensofewmetalswereknown.Goldandcopperarecoloured,whichleftonlylead,tinandiron,whichareallgreyer,andmercury,which,thoughliquidandthereforeoftennotregardedasatruemetal,isneverthelesscomparableincolourandsoearnsthenamequicksilver.Whatismoreremarkable,andhelpstoexplainthiselement’senduringsymbolism,isthatsilverisstilloneofthebrightestandwhitestelementsinthemodernperiodictable,whichcontainsmorethaneightymetals.

Apolishedsilversurfacehasevenlyhighreflectivityofnearly100percentacrossthefullrangeofthevisiblespectrumofcolour.Itisthepreferredcoating

forthemirrorsinreflectingtelescopesforthisreason.(Aluminium,incomparison,reflectsonlyaboutninetypercentoflightacrossthespectrum.)Thereflectivityofsilverdipsslightlytoninety-fivepercentintheviolet,andthissmalldiminishmentofreflectedvioletlightiswhatgivesthemetalitscharacteristicwarmtingeofyellow.Silver,then,deservesitsstatusasthepre-eminentgleamingwhitemetal,andthisqualityalonecouldperhapsbeheldtoaccountforitssymbolicimportance.Butthereisafurtherreasonthatexplainswhythiselementhasretainedandevenconsolidateditspowerfulsignificancethroughtheagesoftinplate,stainlesssteelandchrome.

Morethananyothermetal,silversignifiespurityandespeciallyvirginitynotsimplybecauseofitswhitelustre,butbecauseofthatlustre’salmosthumanpropensitytolapseintotarnishedblackness.

Golddoesnottarnish,whichiswhyitisassociatedprimarilywithimmortality.Thealchemicalsymbolforgoldisthenever-endinglinethatisacircle,whichrepresentsnotonlythesunbutalsoperfection.Silver’sisahalf-circle–aniconofthemoon,butasymboltooofincompletenessorimperfection.Silverwasregardedasincompletesimplybecauseitwasn’t(yet)gold.Thealchemistsreasonedthatitwantedonlyforgreateryellowness,whichtheysoughttotransferfromyellowmaterialsasvariedascopper,saffron,eggyolkandurine.Theimperfectionlayinitsevidentmortality,thetendencyforapurebodyofsilvertobecomecorrodedovertimeandtoendinablackdeath.

Unlikemanymetals,silverisnotreadilyoxidized.Butthesulphidecoatingthatformswheneverapolishedsilversurfaceisexposedtosulphurintheair–whichhappensanywherethatcandlesorfiresareburnt–isnotbrownliketheoxidesofironandcopperbutafine,deepblack.Agoodlayeroftarnishrendersthesurfaceofasilverobjectasblackandmatt–thatistosay,asunreflectiveoflight–asitoncewasshinyandwhite.

Silversmithshavetraditionallysoughttoaccentuatethosequalitiesofthemetalthatenhanceitsconnectionwithpurityandfemininity,favouringbright,smoothsurfacesandfluid,voluptuousshapes.Theywereencouragedintheirworkbythemetal’slowmeltingpointandhighmalleability,whichmakeiteasytocastandcold-forge.Silvervesselsintendedforwashingordrinkingfrequentlydepictwaterintheirreliefworkandaredecoratedwithsuchthingsasdolphinsandmermaids.Oneespeciallyextravaganteighteenth-centuryEnglishewerandbasinintheVictoriaandAlbertMuseumadoptsthefourAristotelianelementsasitsthemeandusestheircontrastingpropertiestocreateamasterpieceofthissortofworkmanshipinwhichsilverflameslickandsilverrivuletsflowwithastonishingsuppleness.

Eveninmoreegalitariantimes,silverremainsametal‘foritemsofluxury

anddecoration’,inthewordsofonehistoryofthematerial,‘bestsuitednottothemonotonyofamachine-inducedfinish,buttothecaressingtouchofthehand’.Themass-manufactureofsilverwarehasnowdeclined,andtherehasbeenarevivalofcraftinterestinthemetal.Craftspeopletoday,however,areaslikelytoworkthemetalagainstexpectationastostaywithintheboundariesoftradition.Silverisanespeciallytemptingmaterialforpolemicalorsatiricaltreatmentbecauseithasforsolongbeenidentifiedwiththeupperclasses.In2008,IhappenedacrossanexhibitionatLondon’sContemporaryAppliedArtsgallerycalled‘Tea’sUp’,ariotousdisplayofhandmadetablewarethatrippedapartthecomplacentnicetiesoftheposhEnglishteaparty.Chinawasbrokenandwronglyreassembled,silverspoonswerereducedtocrumblingwispslikearchaeologicalfragments,cupsandsaucerswererenderedasuselesswire-frameoutlines.Onesetofpieceswastitledwithironicalchutzpahafterbattlecriesfromtheclasswar–‘’OiPolloi’,‘Queenie’,andsoon.Otherswerenamedwithmemorablevulgarityafterstatesinducedbystrongerdrinkthantea.Awobbly-leggedsilverjugcalled‘Trollied’–acolloquialismforbeingdrunk–sticksinthemind.Theauthoroftheseworks,DavidClarke,clearlystruggleswiththehypocriticalvirtuethathoversaroundsilver.‘It’swhatIreactto,’hetellsme.‘Attimes,Igettotallyirritatedbyitsalmostreligiousassociations.Irespondinadevilishmannertocorruptthepurity.’‘Trollied’turnsouttobearelativelymildexercise.Inotherworks,Clarkebakessilverwithbrineormixesitwithlead,whicheatsintoitlikeacancer.Theresultingworkischemicallyalive,changinginresponsetotheatmosphere.Insummer,thesaltcausescopperfromthesoldertobloomgreen,whileinwinterthepiecerevertstogrey.‘Itsetsupadilemma.Whatdoyoudo:savethesilverorenjoythemoment?Silversmithingissuchanentrenchedtradition.Itisripetofeastfrom.Itisimportantforthefutureofsilverthatithasthischance.Thedisciplinediesifitstaysself-congratulatory.’

Thisprojectofsubversiondemandsanexplorationofsilver’sblack‘other’,andClarkedulyplanstoturnhisattentiontotarnish–‘notthepuresideofsilver,butthedirtyside!’Meanwhile,theartistCorneliaParkerhasgonetotheextremeofmakingtarnishalonetheessenceofthework.InaseriescalledStolenThunder,shehasrubbedthedirtfilmfromvarioussilverandothermetalobjectsontohandkerchiefs.Itisnotbeautifulart–theyarejustdirtyhandkerchiefs.Buttheyaremademorearrestingwiththeinformationthattheabsentobjectsbelongedtowell-knownfigures–SamuelColt’ssouptureen,CharlesDickens’sknife,HoratioNelson’scandlestick,GuyFawkes’slantern.Insomecomplexway,thetarnishseemstorepresentthepricepaidforthesparkleofcelebrity.Theeasychemicalchangeofthemetaltoblacktarnishandtheeffortfulphysicaltransformationbacktoshiningmetalbyritualpolishinghaswrittenintoitanarrativeofdeathandresurrection,corruptionandredemption.ThehandkerchiefsareevidencethatParkerhasspenttimerestoringsomeofthelustretofamousandinfamouscareers;andtheviewerisinvitedtoponderthemoralityofthatact.‘Silverformeistentimesmorefascinatingthangoldbecauseithasthisdualityaboutitandallthegradationsbetweenthetwo,’theartisttellsme.‘Youhavetopolishittokeepitshiny,andyetyou’relosingit,takingoffalayeratatime.Thereisataintaboutit,anoriginalsin.’

Itisnotonlyitstendencytoblackenthatsulliessilver’sreputation,itisalsothatitpassesthroughsomanyhandsintheformofmoney.Thisusageofthemetaldeepensitsambivalenceinculture,asShakespearewasaware.Itis

paradoxicallytherelativeabundanceofsilverwhichhasenabledittofulfilthisfunction.Gold,theobvioustokenofwealth,issimplytooscarce.Ascoinagespread,itquicklybecameclearthattherewouldneverbeenoughgoldtosupplythedemandforcurrency.Silverwasrareenoughtobevaluable,butcommonenoughtobeapracticalmaterialforminting,andsothismetalslippedintoitsnowfamiliarroleasthesymboloftradablevalue.

Emperorsmaylustforgold,butempiresriseandfallinproportiontotheiraccesstosilver.ItwasironicallythesilverminesofLaurionatCapeSounionthatsustainedAthensinitsgoldenage.Later,acombinationofslaverevoltsintheminesandexpensivemilitarycampaignsagainstPersiameantthat,inordertokeeptheeconomygoing,thesilverhadtobestrippedevenfromtheVictorystatuesontheAcropolis.Finally,in406BCE,coppercoinagewasintroduced.

TheRomans,too,usedsilverforcoin.Theyneverreallycountedminingamongtheirtechnologicalaccomplishments,buttheyknewwellenoughhowtoexploitestablishedminesintheterritoriestheycontrolled,suchasIberia,andtotakeadvantagewhensubjectpopulationsmadenewdiscoveries,astheydidinthemountainsofcentralEurope.Muchofthisnewfoundsilvermadeitswayeastwardinexchangeforsilkandspicesduringthedecadentfinalyearsoftheempire.

Therealpriceofsilverreachedanall-timehighinEuropeinthelatefifteenthcentury,andthismadethesearchfornewreservesworthwhile.TheSpanishdiscoveriesofgoldandsilverinMexicoandSouthAmericasoonafterwardsfundedtheexpansionofanewempire.Althoughitisthefabulousgoldthatisremembered,Spainimportedsixtimesasmuchsilverinmonetaryvalue.ThebountyoftheNewWorldledtoaperiodofsilversurplusthat,boostedbyfurthersilverfindsinNorthAmericaduringthenineteenthcentury,

continuestoday,withtheresultthatsilvernowisworthlessthanone-hundredthofwhatitwasatitspeakin1477.

GoldandsilverarefairlyinterchangeableintheChristianliturgy.Goldsmithshabituallyworkedwithbothmetals,silverwasfrequentlygildedoralloyedwithcoppertomakeitlooklikegold,andgoldandsilverwereusedtogethertoproducemoredecorativedesigns.Allthishelpedtobluranydistinctionbetweenthetwometals.Andintheyellowcandlelightofachurchinterior,goldandsilverstarttolookmuchthesame–equallyresplendentandgenericallyprecious.

MoresignificantthanthematerialofobjectssuchasthechalicesandpatensusedduringHolyCommunionandeventhebishop’scrozierwasthestyleoftheirdesignandtheirdegreeofdecoration.Thesecouldrevealareligiousdenominationataglance.Duringthemedievalperiod,goldsmithsviedtodemonstratetheirskillwithpiecesevermoreelaboratelycrustedwithornament.ButduringtheReformationthesefancyobjectswereseenasunacceptable‘popishplate’andmelteddowntoberefashionedonplainerlines.Silverwasnowjudgedmoreseemlythangold,anditwasfinishedwithoutdecoration,thegleamofasmoothexpanseofthepolishedmetalofferinggloryenoughtoGod.Aspartofthesamechangesinliturgicalpractice,thecongregationbegantoshareintheCommunion,whichpreviouslyhadbeenenactedbythepriestalone.Inthepurereflectingsurfacesoftheplainersilverware,worshippersmightfindthemselvesconfrontedattheheightoftheceremonywiththatraresight,inthedaysbeforemirrorswerewidelyknown,oftheimageoftheirownfaceframedinvirtuoussilver.Andbydrinkingfromsilver,communicantsmayhavereceivedmorethanspiritualbeneficence:chemicalarchaeologistshaverecentlybeguntorecognizethatthesmallamountofsilverreactingwiththeorganicingredientsofwinemayhavegivenitantisepticproperties,ratherlikethebacteria-battlingsilvernanoparticlesthatfeatureintoday’srefrigerators.

AlthoughtheRomanshaddiscoveredhowtodepositsilverontoglassinsuchawayastoproduceareflectivesurface,andthesecrethadbeenrediscoveredintheMiddleAges,itwasaskilledjobtoproduceasurfacelargeenoughtocheckone’sappearance,andmirrorsremainedluxuriesbeyondthereachofallbutthenobilityuntilwellintotheeighteenthcentury.Shakespeare’sdeposedKingRichardIIcallsforamirrorthathemayseehimself‘bankruptofhismajesty’.Helooks,andthendashestheglasstotheground:‘Abrittlegloryshinethinthisface;/Asbrittleasthegloryistheface’.WhenthePrinceofArragonopensthesilvercasket,heisdismayedtofindnotthelikenessofPortiaheisseekingbutthe‘portraitofablinkingidiot’–inshort,hetooseeshimselfin

amirror.Heistheidiotforhavingchosenwrongly,findingonlysilvercontainedwithinsilver,alooking-glasswithinthecasket.

Thesetwoancientqualitiesofsilver–itspropensitytotarnishfromwhitetoblack,andtheabilityofitspolishedsurfacetoreflectlightsoperfectlythatonecanseeinitone’sownface–cometoasurprisingconvergenceinthemodernworld.Forlikethemirrorimage,thephotographisanopticalrecordcapturedinsilver.Fromthebeginning,pioneersofphotographyusedlight-sensitivesaltsofsilverastheirmeanstocreateblack-and-whiteimages.Yetstrangely,nothingseemstohavebeenwrittenaboutthesymbolicimportanceofsilver,longestablishedandwidelyagreedafterall,inthismajorcontemporaryrole.Howdoesthechoiceofsilver,theelementalembodimentofpurity,virtueandthefeminine,addmeaningtothephotograph?Howdoitsvaluesrelatetothevaluesofthecamera’seye,itstruthfulnessandall-seeingness?Doesthephotograph,liketheregalmirror,bringanecessarymessageofdisillusion?Ordoesithavethepowertopurifythesitter?Certainly,fromtheverybeginning,photographywaspursuedwitheachofthesemotives,asameansofdocumentingreality,andasameansofpresentinganideal.Yetwhenitcomestosilver–thebridgebetweenthesetwotechnologiesof(human)image-making–thegreatcommentatorsonphotographysuchasSusanSontagandRolandBarthesaresilent.Whatsporttheymighthavehadwiththechemicalsemioticsofthephotographicprocess.Forhere,puresilverappearsunexpectedlyastheblackknight,notthewhite.Photographicimage-makingdependsonthechemicaltransformationofsilversaltsintosilvermetalbytheactionoflight,andthistimeitisthepuresilver,releasedfirstassingleatomsandthenastinyclusters,thatappearsblack.

Itwasin1614thatoneAngeloSala,aphysicianfromVicenza,firstrecordedthenaturaldarkeningofnitrateofsilverwhenexposedtosunlight.Acenturylater,silversaltswerebeingusedtodyefeathersandfurspermanentlyblack,andin1727JohannHeinrichSchulzefromMagdeburgmadephotographicimagesofwordsbyplacingpaperstencilsoverthesurfaceofabottlecontainingamixtureofchalkandaquaregiacontaminatedwithsilver.Despitethisdemonstration,anddespitepainters’widespreaduseofthecameraobscurafortheaccuraterenditionoflandscapes,anddespiteevenadetailedprevisionofphotographyinCharles-FrançoisdelaRoche’s1760novelGiphantie,itseemsthatnobodythoughttobringtheseopticalandchemicalprocessestogetherandrecordanimageofthemselvesortheirfellowmanforanotherhundredyears.Photographycouldhavebeeninventedmuchsoonerthanitwas.

Thoughthehonoursforitsinventionarecontested,andintruthclaimablebynoonefigure,theFrenchmanJosephNicéphoreNiépcewasthefirsttocreate

originalpicturesusinganopticalapparatusthatwewouldrecognizeasacameraandasilverchloridemedium.LouisDaguerrecontinuedhisworkusingsilveredplatessensitizedwithiodinevapourtoproduceafilmofsilveriodidewhichwasthenexposedtothescenetoberecorded.Thesilveriodidewasconvertedbacktosilverwherethelightstruckittocreateanegativeimage.Depositeddirectlyonthesilvermirrorsurface,however,thisnegativecouldbemadetoappearasapositiveimagesimplybyalteringone’sangleofview.Manyothersmadeimportantcontributions,HumphryDavy,WilliamFoxTalbotandJohnHerschelamongthem,butneithertheartists,dashingbetweenthesunlitworldandthedarkroom,northechemistsobservingsilver’sabrupttransitionsfromwhitetoblackandblacktowhiteeverpausedtoconsiderthedeepermeaningofthemetalundertheirgaze.

TheWorldwideWeb

ChristopherWren’svisionfortherebuildingofLondonaftertheGreatFireof1666wasanunashamedproductofitsera,arationalgrandplanbasedonmodernscientificprinciplesthatwouldsweepawaythefetidtangleofmedievallanesthathadenabledthefiretocausesuchdevastation.Buttheproposedcitylayoutwasonlyeverrealizedinsmallpart.ThevistasthatWrenimaginedstretchingfromLudgateinthewesttoAldgateandtheTowerintheeast,andthegreatpiazzaswiththeiroctagonallyradiatingstreets,nevermaterialized–suchgrandioseParisian-influenceddesignsstanktoohighlyofaroyalabsolutismunbearablesosoonaftertheRestorationofthemonarchy.Attheheartoftheplan,StPaul’sCathedralwasrebuilttoWren’sdesign,andservesnowasatokenoftheidealcitythatthearchitectsawinhismind’seye,onethatmightjustlyhavelaidclaimtobeamodern-dayRome.

Wrenstudiedtheworld’sgreatestdomedbuildings,takinginspirationfromItalyaswellasByzantineandIslamicarchitecture,includingworkssuchastheHagiaSophiabasilicainConstantinople,inordertodeviseameansofraisingthelargestdomethathecould.GreatestofallwastheconcretedomeofthePantheoninRome,whosebronzecoveringwaslootedin1625byPopeUrbanVIIIformorepressingprojects.Fortheweather-tightcoveringofLondon’snewcathedral,Wrenconcludedinfavourofpurecopper,whichcouldbebeatenthinnerthanothermetalstocreatealightweightroofthatneededfewersupportingcolumnsandwouldthereforeallowamaximumquantityoflighttopercolatethroughthevastinterior.

ForWren,copperhadavisualandsymbolicadvantageaswellasstructuralbenefits.Overtime,themetalwouldacquireapalegreenpatinathatwould

makethedomethemostconspicuousfeatureoftherecreatedcity.Amongthestonetowersandspiresofotherchurches,StPaul’swouldstandoutasthebeaconofanewageofscience.However,thearchitect’spreferenceforcoppermetwithoppositioninParliament,ashadhiscityplanbefore.DanielDefoe,whooncepersonallysuppliedWrenwithbuildingmaterialsfromhisTilburybrickworks,describesinATourthroughEnglandandWaleshowthediscussionproceededintrueEnglishfashionalongresolutelypracticallines:inresponsetothosewhothought‘thecoppercoveringandthestonelanthorn’tooheavyforthemassivecolumnsbelow,Wreninsistedthathisstructurecouldsupportnotonlytheroofbut‘seventhousandtonweightlaiduponitmorethanwasproposed’.Asforhimself,Defoeadmiredthe‘unashamedlycontinental(andHighChurch)design’ofWren’sdomethatmaywellhavebeentherealboneofcontention.

WrenalsowantedtoseecopperembellishmentoftheMonument,thecommemorativeDoricpillarthatheandthescientistRobertHookedesignedforthespotnearStPaul’swheretheGreatFirehadstarted.Apparentlyobliviousoftheirony,thearchitectproposedtotopthemonumentoffwith‘ABallofCopper,9footDiameter…byreasonofthegoodappearanceatdistance,andbecauseonemaygoeupintoit;&uponoccasionuseitforfireworkes.’Butcopperonceagainprovedtoorevolutionary.Intheend,thechosendesignwasbasedonanearlierideafavouredbythekingofa‘largeBallofmetallgilt’.

ThedomeofStPaul’swasfinallybuiltwithasheathofgreylead,requiringmuchrethinkingonWren’spartastohowthemetalsheetswouldbeattached

andhowtheirgreaterweightwouldbesupported.Thefactthattheleadroofweighedin,bysomeestimates,at600tonsheaviergivesthelietothepracticalargumentmadeagainstWren’spreferredcopper.Wrenmayhavegothiscalculationsright,butheseemsonthisoccasiontohavemadeafatalmisjudgmentofEnglishcharacter.Threehundredyearslater,itisimpossibletoimaginethisfamiliarlandmarkcappedeitherinthemetallicredofnewcopperorthegreenthatwouldhavegraduallytakenitsplaceastheacidfromthecity’sfiresraineddownuponit.Theleadumbrellaseemssorightinacountrycharacterizedbygreyskiesthatweseldomthinkofwhatmighthavebeen.

CopperdideventuallyfinditswayontothedomeofStPaul’sinasmallway.In1769,BenjaminFranklin,famousforhisproposaltoflyakiteinathunderstorminordertodemonstratethatlightningiselectricallygenerated,visitedBritainandpersonallyoversawtheinstallationoflightningconductorsonthebuilding.Thesewereofthekindthatheadvocatedgenerallyforbuildingsandships,basedonalongrodorbarofiron.Threeyearslater,thecathedralwasstruckbylightning,andtheironwasobservedtoglowredhotasitstruggledtotransmitthechargetoearth,andthegreatcathedralwasonceagainthreatenedwithdestructionbyfire.Afterthis,Franklin’slightningconductorwasreplacedwithamoreexpensivecopperonethatwouldconductelectricitymoreefficientlyandposelessofafirehazard.

Copperpossessesauniqueportfolioofproperties,identifiedandexploitedatdifferentperiodsinitslonghistory.Betweenthem,theyhaveensuredthattheelementhasneverslippedfromitsprimepositionsinceitbegantobeworkedbymanmorethan6,000yearsago.Themostimmediatelystrikingoftheseisofcourseitscolour.Itistheonlyredmetal.Thisgavecopperaspecialstatusinrelationtogold,theonlyothercolouredmetal.IntheNewWorld,EuropeanexplorerssuchasCabotinthenorthandCortésinthesouthfoundthemetalusedforjewelleryanddevotionalpurposes.TheFlorentinenavigatorGiovannidaVerrazzanobelievedcopperwas‘esteemedmorethangold’bythenatives.Thecontrastofcolourbetweenthepureredmetalanditswateryblueandgreensaltswaswidelyfelttobesignificanttoo.ThisembodimentofoppositeswasregardedassymbolicinculturesasdiverseastheAztecsandtheDogonofMali,forwhomtheaccretionofgreencorrosiononthebrownmetalsymbolizedthereturnofvegetationafterrain.

Thefirstofcopper’susefulpropertiestobeexploitedwasitsmalleability.Itwassoftenoughtobehammeredandbeatenintousefulartefactsyethardenoughthattheseitemswouldbeserviceable.TheancientEgyptiansused

coppertomakeswordsandhelmetsandevendrainpipes.Beingabundantaswellasmalleable,copperwasmorepracticalforcoinsthangoldandsilver,butsometimesraisedobjectionsfromthepeopleamongwhomitwascirculatedbecauseoftheobviousdisparitybetweenitsfacevalueanditsactualworth.HenryVIIIcametobeknownasOldCoppernosebecauseheintroducedsomuchcopperintothesilvercoinoftherealmthatraisedparts,suchastheking’snose,wouldturnredastheyworedown.Laterinnovationsmeantthatcoppercouldbemachine-rolledintothinsheets,producingthenowfamiliarroofingmaterialusedforthedomesofEuropeancathedralsand,induecourse,thenewcapitolbuildingsofNorthAmerica.

Themetal’sreadyconductionofbothheatandelectricitywerethenextpropertiestoberecognized.TheAmericanpatriotPaulRevereachievedfamewithhiscopper-bottomedcookingpotsandpansatthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury.Atthesametime,scientistsinvestigatingelectricityfoundthatcopperwouldcarryanelectriccurrentbetterthananyothermaterialapartfromsilver.AlessandroVoltamadehisfirstelectricpilefromlayersofzincandsilver,butthereaftermostbatteriesusedcopper.

Butitisonefinalproperty,itsductility,thathasgivencopperitsgreatestroleintransformingourworld.Itisthefactthatcoppercannotonlybebeatenintoasheetbutalsodrawnintoawire,awirefurthermorethatconductselectricity,thatledtothecreationofwhatcanfairlybedescribedasthefirstworldwideweb.

Thecablingoftheworldreliedonanumberofkeybreakthroughsmadeinarelativelyshortspaceoftime–batteriesthatcoulddeliverasteadycurrent;galvanometersthatcoulddetectanelectricalsignalandshowitbythedeflectionofaneedle;copperrefinedtosufficientlyhighpuritytoconductelectricityefficiently;andthediscoveryoftheinsulatingpropertiesofgutta-percha,aresinousrubber-likesubstanceobtainedfromMalayansapodillatrees.

Thefirstprimitiveelectrictelegraphlinewasbuiltinthe1790sbyFranciscoSalvaandwascapableoftransmittingsparksfromMadridtoAranjuezfiftykilometresaway.Salvaproposedaseparatewireforeachletterofthealphabetwiththearrivingsparkbrieflyilluminatinglettersinturninordertospelloutmessages.(Heapparentlyalsoconsideredconnectingapersontoeachwireandhavingthemshoutouttheletterwhentheyreceivedanelectricshock.)Manyequallyeccentricschemeswereessayedintheyearsthatfollowed,spurredonbytheobviousneedforamoreeffectivemeansofcommunicationthanthevisualmethodsofflagsandlightsusedbyrelaysofsignalmenduringtheNapoleonicWars.Buteffortswereheldbackbyapoorbasicunderstandingofelectricalphenomena.Itwasnotuntil1831,whenMichaelFaradayfirstwoundcopperwireroundanironringtodemonstrateelectromagneticinduction,thatthe

relationshipbetweenvariouskindsofelectricityandconductingmatterwasbetterunderstood.

CharlesWheatstoneandWilliamFothergillCookedemonstratedamorepracticaltelegraphin1837whentheybuiltatwo-kilometreconnectionalongtherailwaybetweenEustonandChalkFarminLondon,itselfthennewlylaid.AsimilartrialconnectionestablishedontheGreatWesternRailwaybetweenPaddingtonandWestDraytontwoyearslaterwasextendedtoSloughin1843.ThistelegraphcaughtthepublicimaginationsoonafteritsinstallationwhenJohnTawell,havingmurderedawomaninthetown,boardedaLondon-boundtrainthinkingtomakehisescape.Hefailedtoallowforquick-wittedstationstaffwhotelegraphedahead.ThepolicearrestedhimwhenhedulydisembarkedatPaddington.

In1838,meanwhile,theAmericaninventorSamuelMorsewasinEnglandseekingapatentforhisowntelegraphsystem.Wheatstoneusedhisconnectionstoensurethathiscompetitor’sapplicationwasrejected,andMorsehadtocontenthimselfwithaseatinWestminsterAbbey,wherehewitnessedthecoronationofQueenVictoriabeforereturningtotheUnitedStatestoobtainapatentthereforthecodedtelegraphicmethodthatstillbearshisname.

Progresswasrapidfromthesemodestbeginningsastheinventorssetthemselvesthetargetofbridgingsuccessivelywiderchasms.Thegreatestchallengeswerethesameastheywouldbeforpoweredflightfiftyyearslater:firsttheEnglishChannel,andthentheAtlanticOcean.Underseacablesposedfargreaterchallengesthanlandlines,whichcouldsimplybeburiedorcarriedoverheadonpoles.Thewirehadtobeprefabricatedinlonglengthsandwoundontorollssothatitcouldbespooledoutatseafromspeciallyadaptedships.In1850,JacobandJohnWatkinsBrettsuccessfullylaidagutta-percha-insulatedcoppercablebetweenDoverandCalais,buttheconnectionbrokeafteraday.Accordingtoonestory,thefishermanwhodredgeduptheseveredcablesawthegleamingmetalatitscoreandthoughthehadstruckgold.Acableoffourindependentlyinsulatedwires,protectedbylayersofhempandtarandstrengthenedwithironwire,thatwaslaidthefollowingyearprovedmoredurable.Inthefollowingdecade,EnglandwasjoinedtoIreland,DenmarktoSweden,andItalytoAfricaviaCorsica.NewfoundlandwaslinkedtoNovaScotiaacrosstheCabotStraitandthenceoverlandtoNewBrunswick,MaineandtherestofNorthAmerica.AllthatremainednowinordertocompletethecableconnectionofEuropeandAmericawastomakethelinkfromIrelandtoNewfoundlandacrossnearly2,000milesoftheAtlanticOcean.

Thetechnicalrequirementsforthisfarlongeranddeeperunderseaconnectionwerecolossal.Therewasnopossibilityofboostingthesignalat

intermediatepointsalongthecable,astherewaswithcablesonland,sothecopperconductorhadtofunctionasasinglelength.Thismadeitcriticalthattheengineersminimizedsignallossesduetoresistanceinthewireandtheeffectsofimmersioninseawater,itselfahighlyconductivemedium.TheScottishphysicistWilliamThomson,laterLordKelvin,whowasappointedasascientificconsultanttotheAtlanticTelegraphCompany,delightedinaproblemthatallowedhimtodeployhismasteryofthenewtheoriesofelectromagnetismforapracticalend.HewrotetohisfriendHermannvonHelmholtz:

Itisthemostbeautifulsubjectpossibleformathematicalanalysis.Nounsatisfactoryapproximationsarerequired;andeverypracticaldetail,suchasimperfectinsulation,resistanceintheexcitingandreceivinginstruments,differencesbetweentheinsulatingpowerofgutta-perchaandthecoatingoftowandpitchroundit…givesanewproblemwithsomeinterestingmathematicalpeculiarity.

Thomsonadvocatedtheuseofathickcopperwire,runningsmallcurrentsthroughitwhichcouldbepickedupwithsensitivedetectors,buthewasoutmanoeuvredbycompanymenwhofavouredthecheaperoptionofpushingstrongersignalsthroughnarrower-gaugewire.

Thefirstattempttomakethecrossingwassetforthesummerof1857,thesameyearthattheworld’slargestcopper-domedroofwascompletedovertheReadingRoomattheBritishMuseum.InAugust,themassiveHMSAgamemnonandtheUnitedStatesfrigateNiagaraaccompaniedbyaflotillaofsupportvesselssetsailfromValentiaonthewestcoastofIrelandcarrying1,200two-milelengthsofcopperwire,pre-joinedintoeight300-milelengths.Thecableweighedaboutatonpernauticalmile,mostofwhichwasaccountedforbytheouterstrengtheningofsteelwiresandinsulation;thecoppermadeuponly107poundspermileoftheoverallweightinwirenothickerthanapencillead.

Asthefinalplanswerelaidforthevoyage,Thomsonmadeacrucialfurtherdiscoverythatthepurityofthecoppergreatlyaffecteditsconductivity.PracticallyhislastactionbeforeboardingshipwastoreadapapertotheRoyalSociety,‘OntheElectricalConductivityofCommercialCopperofVariousKinds’,inwhichherevealedhisimportantnewfindings.Nobodyhadgiventhismatteranyconsideration.Despitehisscientificmisgivings,ThomsondutifullysailedaboardtheAgamemnoninhiscapacityasadirectoroftheAtlanticTelegraphCompany,whileSamuelMorsebattledwithseasicknessandaleginjuryaboardtheNiagara.

Itmightneverhaveworkedproperlyinanycase,butonly400milesoutfromValentia,thecablebroke,andthetaskwasgivenupforthewinter.Thefollowingsummer,twomoreattemptsweremadetocompletethejobusingthesameshipsandpickingupthesamecable.Thefirstwasdefeatedbyunseasonalgales.Thesecondattemptseemedsuccessful,butcelebrationsprovedprematurewhentheconnectionwaslostafterlessthanamonth.Recriminationswerefollowedbyaninquest,whichshowedthatthecablehadbeenfatallydamagedbyattemptstoboostthesignalstrengththroughtheapplicationofhighervoltagesthanthoseforwhichithadbeendesigned–exactlythemishapthatWilliamThomsonhadfeared.

Anglo-AmericanrelationsdeterioratedduringtheAmericanCivilWartotheextentthatPresidentLincolnpreferredtomakeoverturestoTsarAlexanderII,suggestingacablefromAlaskatoSiberiaandthroughRussiatothecitiesofEurope,ratherthanpersistwiththeAtlanticproject.However,apermanenttransatlanticcablewasfinallylaidin1866byBrunel’ssteamshipGreatEastern.AcorrespondentfromTheTimeslikenedherto‘anelephantstretchingacobweb’.Inaddition,acableabandonedthepreviousyearwasalsofinished,providingasparelineandreassurancetosorelytriedshareholdersinthetelegraphicenterprisethatthistimetheconnectionreallywouldlast.ThedesignofthesecableshadbeenmodifiedalongthelinesthatThomsonhadpreviouslyproposed,usingthreetimestheamountofcopperinsevenwires–365tonsinall–witheverylengthtestedinadvanceforpurityandconduction.

Afterthecablewentoperational,oneoftheengineersperformedasimpletestonthelineatValentia.HecabledtoaskthatthetwolinesbeelectricallyconnectedattheNewfoundlandend,andproceededtomakealittleelectrolyticcellusingapieceofzincandasplashofacidinathimble.Thezincwasthenconnectedtoonecopperendofthecablewhiletheothercopperendwasdippedintheacid.Thesinglevoltgeneratedbythismakeshiftbatterywasenoughtodriveacurrent3,700milesacrosstheoceanandback.

FurthercablesacrosstheAtlanticandelsewherewereswifttofollow,backedbymanynationalgovernments,whileBritainsoughttolinkallofitsdominions.In1901,attheendofQueenVictoria’simperialreign,theCableSteamshipBritannialaidpartsofacableacrossthePacificOceanfromAustraliaandNewZealandviaNorfolkIsland,FijiandtheremoteFanningIslandtoVancouver–completingtheunionofthepinknationsontheworldmapbypinkcopper.

Theworldtodayiscocoonedincopperwireand,notwithstandingtheadventofopticalfibresandsatellitesandwi-fi,morethanhalfthecopperminedisstilldrawnintowireorotherwiseemployedincommunicationsandelectrical

applications.Thoughlargelyhiddenfromview,copperhasbecomethesymbolofcivilizationthatWrenbelievedittobewhenhethoughttouseittocoverthedomeofStPaul’s.

AuZinc

NobodyhasputtheirstamponthecityofBerlinmorethoroughlythanthePrussianarchitectKarlFriedrichSchinkel.ThoughhecoulddoGothicifasked,heiscelebratedforhisdevelopmentofaGreek-influencedneoclassicalstylethattempersitsmonumentalitywithsuperbdetailing.ItwasinthisidiomthathedesignedmanyoftheculturaledificesthatgiveBerlinitsausteregrandeurtoday–theSchauspielhaus,theAltesMuseum,theSingakademie–aswellaschurchesandvillas,andbuildingsforhispatrons,KingFrederickWilliamIIIandhisheir,atnearbyPotsdam.

Thesebuildingsareforthrightandimpressive,astheywererequiredtobeinordertoexpressPrussia’srecentlyregainedindependencefromNapoleon’sarmiesandtheaccompanyinginfluenceofthefussyFrenchBeauxArtsstyle.Butappearancesaresometimesdeceiving.Schinkelbeganhiscareerdesigningtheatresets–hedevisedthestillfamoushemisphericalbackdropofstarsforaproductionofTheMagicFlute–andwassometimesmoreconcernedtoachievetherighteffectthanwithauthenticity.Thus,thestatuesthatpunctuatethecornicesandpedimentsofhisbuildingsarenotalwaysthestoneorbronzetheyappeartobebutareinfactsometimeshollowzinc.SchinkelalsodesignedtheIronCross,Germany’shighestmilitarydecoration,but,belyingitsname,eventhismedalwassometimespartlymadeofzinc.

Zincwasthefirstusefulmetallicelementtocometolightsinceiron,leadandtin,discoveredthousandsofyearsbefore.Athirteenth-centuryIndiantextdescribeshowthemetalwasmadebyheatingcalamine,atraditionalmedicamentwhichisprincipallyzincoxide,withorganicmatter.ThismakeszinctheonlyelementwithanattributabledateofdiscoverywhereWesternsciencecannotclaimtohavemadetherunning.NewsofthemetalcametoEuropeviaChina,whichwasfirsttoexploitzinconalargescale.TherenownedalchemistParacelsusreportedrumoursofthenewmetalinthesixteenthcentury,and,notlongafter,samplesofzincwareswerebroughttotheWestontradingships.ItwasnotuntiltheeighteenthcenturythatdepositsoforewerelocatedthatenabledthemetaltobesmeltedinEurope.

Zincinhabitsano-man’s-landbetweenthemetalsofantiquityandthemodernmetalsteasedfrompossessiveoresbytheingenuityofscienceandthemightoftheIndustrialRevolution.Itsambiguouspositionisunderlinedbythe

factthatithasbeenusedunwittinglyforthousandsofyearsintheformofbrass(analloyofcopperandzinc,knownlongbeforezincitselfbecausetheiroresoftenoccurtogether).Zincwouldbequicktofindapplicationinitsownright,butemergingasitdidinthisroundaboutway,ithadnoneoftheculturalbaggagethatcopperclearlyhadforChristopherWren.

ToSchinkel,thisblankhistoryspokeofpossibility.Thearchitectbecamethechampionofthezincfoundriesthatsprangupinthe1830s,usingthemetalforthestatuesanddecorationsonsomeofhislaterbuildings,andexhortingotherarchitectstodothesame.Oftenstampedfromsheetsofthemetalratherthancast,the‘whitebronze’quicklybecamepopularforstatuaryofallsorts,especiallywhereweightorcostruledoutrealbronze.Itwasnotlongbeforepopularzincfiguresofcemeteryangelsandgardendeitieswerebeingpressedoutdaily.ThetrendspreadtotheUnitedStateswhenoneMoritzSeeligfledthe1848revolutioninGermanytosetupazincfoundryinBrooklyn.Heprosperedas,likeSchinkelinBerlin,mayorsacrossAmericasoughttoembellishtheirtownswiththegrandestpossiblesculpturalfigurespurchasedonthesmallestpossiblebudgets.ThestatuesofJusticeandtheCivilWarmemorialsthatnowcrumblegentlyintheparksandplazasofprovincialAmericantownswerelargelyselectedfromSeelig’stradecatalogues.

Zinchasfoundamarketinarchitecturebutperhapsnotyetarole.However,oneremarkableBerlinbuildingmaychangethis.

ThecommissionforanewJewishMuseumintheGermancapital(apreviousonehadopenedin1933,threemonthsbeforeHitlercametopower)waswonbyDanielLibeskindin1989.Ofthe165competitionentries,theyoungAmerican’sdesign,basedonthefragmentedmusicofSchönberg,thewritingsofWalterBenjaminandmotifsinspiredbyotherJewishintellectualsresponsibleforenrichingGermanculturallife,struckthejuryasthemostbrilliantandmostcomplex–ifpossiblyunbuildable.Itprovedquitebuildable,though,anduponcompletionin1999wasjudgedsoremarkableastructurethatitwasopenedtothepublicevenbeforeanyexhibitswereinstalled.Visitorspaidtoexperiencetunnel-likevoidsandtwisted,ever-recedingspacesthatseemedtomanipulateperspectiveandevengravityitself,producingeffectsasunsettlingasanymaterialenvironmentcanoffer.

Theexteriorishardlylessdisconcerting.Thebuildingdescribesajaggedsquiggleonthegroundwithsheerwallsrisingonallsidesentirelysheathedinparallelogramsofzinc.StripwindowsslicediagonallyacrossthisfaçadeandeachotheratapparentlyrandomanglestracingoutwhatmaybeadeconstructedstarofDavidorazigzagpathofwanderingandloss.

LibeskindhasexplainedthathechosezincinresponsetoSchinkel’scall,andasanobviousgestureofharmonizationwiththeadjoiningBerlinMuseum,whosewindowsareframedinzinc.Butthereisdeepersymbolismthatmakesthematerialspeciallyappropriatehere.Indreaminterpretations,Idiscover,zinc

isassociatedwithmigration.Itisanaturalchoiceforabuildingcelebratingacitizenryofemigrantswhohaveemigratedoncemore.Thissymbolismmayperhapsbeexplainedbyzinc’spoorhistoricaltiming,arrivingtoolatetofindapartnerinthealchemicaldancethatpairedthemetalswiththebodiesofthesolarsystem.Copper,iron,tinandleadareeachassociated(somewhatdifferently,accordingtowhosetraditionyou’refollowing)withaplanet.Butzincdancesalone.Zincisalsosaidtosymbolizeprogresstowardsagoal,whichseemsaptforabuildingthatis,inLibeskind’swords,‘alwaysonthevergeofbecoming’.

Moreobviousiszinc’sconnectionwithceremoniesofpreservationandburial.WhenWilliamDeedes,thejournalistwhoprovidesthemodelforthecentralcharacterinEvelynWaugh’sScoop,wassenttocovertheAbyssinianWar,hetravelledwithhispossessionsinacedarwoodtrunkthatwaslinedwithzincinordertokeepouttheants.Themetalisalsooftenusedtolinecoffinsasarelativelycheap,safealternativetolead:mychemicalinformantAndreaSellahasapowerfulsensorymemoryfromhisItalianboyhoodofburialpreparationsbeingaccompaniedbythesoundofablowtorchasit’susedtosealthezincofthecoffinbeforethelidisscrewedshut.TheGermanartistJosephBeuyshasemployedzincchestsinsomeofhisworksascontainersforfat.Althoughitisthefatthathasreceivedmostofthecriticalattention,recognizedalongwithfeltasoneofBeuys’strademarkmaterials,thezincissignificanttoo,chosennotleastforitsrepresentationofopposites:aspoisonandsalve,asasealthatultimatelycrumbles.Inthiscontext,Libeskind’sbuildingbecomesavastsarcophagus,ametaphoricalcontainerofthebodiesofthesixmillionJewsmurderedintheHolocaust,aswellasameansofpreservingtheirmemory.

Zincisalsousedforthehygienictransportationofbodiesacrossnationalborders.Themetalprovidesatwo-waybarrier.Itistheretopreventtheingressofcontaminationthatwouldhastenthebody’sdecay,butitalsoservestosealinpotentiallyinfectivematter.InapoembyBertoltBrecht,‘BurialoftheAgitatorinaZincCoffin’,itisalsoanimpermeablelayerthatpreservesasinistermystery.Thepoemwassettomusic,alongwithanother,‘TotheFightersintheConcentrationCamps’,byHannsEisler,apupilofSchönberg,inhiscolossalGermanSymphony.Thepiecewasintendedtobeperformedatamusicfestivalconnectedwiththe1937ParisUniversalExposition,butNazipressureforcedtheorganizerstoproposethatthevocalpartsbereplacedbysaxophonessothatBrecht’swordswouldnotbebroadcast.Eislernaturallyrefusedthissuggestionandsubstitutedanearliercompositioninthefestivalprogramme.TheGermanSymphonywasheardforthefirsttimeonlyin1959.Brecht’spoembegins:‘Hier,indiesemZink/liegteintoterMensch…’:

Hereinthiszincliesadeadperson,orelsehislegandhishead,orstilllessofhim,ornothingatallsincehewasanagitator.

Parishashappierassociationswithzinc.EverywhereIturnIseerooftopsmadefrompalesheetsbentintocurvedmansards.Atsomepointthematerialmusthavetakenoverfromleadandslate,withthepleasingconsequencethattheroofsarenolongerdarklidsontopofthebuildings,butdissolveeffortlesslyintothemilkybluesky.

Atnight,however,itisinthebarsthatthemetalissupposedtobefound.TheEnglishlanguagehasitsshareofelementalsynecdoche–weuseirons,wespendnickelsandcoppers,weoncemadecarbonsofimportantdocuments.ButinParisinitsearlytwentieth-centuryheydaythebarsbecamezincs.JacquesPrévertputthedrunkenramblingsofazingueur,asthecity’szincrooferswereknown,atazincbarintoapoem,andYvesMontandturneditintoafamouschanson,‘Etlafêtecontinue’.IfindoneofthefewremainingzincsontheLeftBankjustroundthecornerfromthecelebratedDeuxMagotsandtheCafédeFlore.PerhapsErnestHemingwayandGertrudeSteinonceproppedupthisbartoo.Nowoperatedbyarestaurantchain,theplaceknowsitszincinessisitspedigreeandflauntsitaccordingly.Thechairsarecoatedwithmetallicpaint,therestaurantnamecutoutofsheetmetal,themenusdressedingrey.ThebonesofsomeextravagantArtNouveauironworkstillholdupthebuilding.Butoftheauthenticzincthereremainslessthanabarman’sarm’slength,nowtakenoverforthemaîtred’slectern,withitsintricatebasreliefofgrapesandvine-leaveswroughtinthedullgreymetal.Acrosstheroomisashinynewbar,butitgleamssuspiciouslybrightlyinthetonesofanothermetal.

Puzzledbythis,Itrackeddowntheonlyartisanstillsupplyingandrestoringthesebars.AttheAteliersNectouxroundthebackofLaDéfense,thesuburbanbusinessdistrict,ThierryNectouxrevealsthatallhisworkisinfactdoneintin,asithasbeenforthreegenerations.‘There’sneverbeenzincinthestudio,’hetellsme.‘Zinccan’tbeputoncountertopsbecauseitisnotalimentaire[suitableforusewithfood],anditoxidizes.Also,it’snoteasytocutcoldortoworkorclean.Tiniscompletelytheopposite.’Icouldseesomesenseinthis.Everybodyremembersfromschoolchemistrythatzincdissolvesinacid–itwouldnotgetonwellwithspiltlemonjuiceorCoca-Cola.

Butiftheyaremadeoftinhowdidthebarscometobecalledzincs?Nectoux’sthoughtsonthematterseemfanciful.Oneofhissuggestionsisthattheyacquiredtheirnamefromthezingueurswhowoulddropintothesebarsforadoseofvertigo-defyingDutchcouragebeforework.Thisdoesn’tsoundright.Surely,zincbarswerecalledzincsbecausetheywereoncetrulymadeofzinc,andtinwasanadulterationofthistradition.MyFrench-speakinggrandfather’sLaroussedePocheseemstoconfirmthishunch.Publishedin1922attheheightofthezincera,thedictionaryacknowledgesthecolloquialmeaningofthewordasacounteroverwhichwinesaresold.Itdoesnotelaborateastoitsorigin,butnordoesitsayanythingtosuggestthebarsweren’tgenuinelymadeofzinc.

Banalization

Thewatershadbeguntorisedecadesbefore,butthesurgetideofliterarymodernismreallybrokein1922withthepublicationofUlyssesandTheWasteLand.ThatyearalsosawthefirstperformanceinaBloomsburydrawingroomofamusicalentertainmentcalledFaçade:musicbythetwenty-year-oldcomposerWilliamWaltonlollopedalongtoDadaesquewordsbyEdithSitwell,thepoetanddoyenneofEnglisheccentrics,whoenunciatedherpartthroughamegaphonefrombehindacurtain.Thetwenty-oddauditorsoftheprivaterecitalwerevariouslybaffledandexhilarated.Thepublicpremierethefollowingyearwasmet,predictablyenough,withgeneralridicule.

ItwasduringthisperiodofwildexperimentthatEdith’syoungerbrotherOsbertcommissionedasculptureofhissisterfromanothermemberoftheirset,MauriceLambert.Castingsofthehead,somewhatlessthanlifesize,nowresideatRenishawHall,theSitwellancestralhomeinDerbyshire,andintheNationalPortraitGalleryinLondon.Theheaditselfissmallandoval,supportedbyanelongated,gentlycurvingneck.ThemodishangularcropofthehairandsharpnosegivetheworkaperhapsnotunintendedresemblancetoaSaxonhelmet.Butanyprimitivismisoffsetbythematerial:theheadsarecastinaluminium.

NeithertheSitwellsofthepresentgenerationnorEdith’sbiographerknowswhochosealuminium.NordoesthebiographerofMauriceandhiscomposerbrotherConstantLambert.WhenMauriceLambertsculptedtheheadofWaltonacoupleofyearslater,itwasconventionallymadeinbronze,fromwhichwecaninferthataluminiumismorelikelytohavebeenEdith’sideathanLambert’s.SufficeittosaythatthechoiceofmaterialinadvertentlyreflectedthemajoritycriticalopinionthatEdithSitwell’sartisticprojectwasbothlightweightandquiteunnecessarilymodern.

InBritain,youalmosthadtobeaneccentrictoseemeritinaluminium.Itwaslefttonationslessambivalentintheirattitudetotechnologicalnoveltytofindwaysofputtingthemetaltomorefunctionaluse.WhiletheBritishfoughttheclasswarwiththeirsilverandtheirpewter,theFrenchandtheAmericansturnedaluminiumintoobjectsthatwereswiftlyrecognizedasiconsofprogressandmodernity–thingsonlegs,suchasthefurnitureofCharlottePerriandandCharlesEames;thingsonwheels,suchastheAirstreamtrailerandthefirstCitroëns2CV.Aluminiumcutthetiestothepastandbroughtnewhopeofmobilityandliberation.TheGreyhoundbus,withitssignatureribbedaluminiumtrimanditsblatantpromiseoffreedom,wasthecreationofaFrenchémigrétoNewYork,

theflamboyantindustrialdesignerRaymondLoewy.Longbeforeitcouldattainthispopularappeal,aluminiumenjoyedabrief

spellofimperialpatronage.Thisnowubiquitousmaterial–asvitaltousassteelandmorevisiblethananyofthemetalsknowninantiquity–wasonlyisolatedasrecentlyasthe1820s,anditwasnotuntilthe1850sthatanevenremotelycommercialwaywasfoundtoseparateitfromitsore,bauxite,namedafterLesBauxinProvence,whereitisstillpossibletoseethebleachedquarryworksonthehillabovethetown.TheprocessdevelopedbyHenriSainte-ClaireDevilleinParisinvolvedheatingcompoundsofaluminiumwithsodiummetal,whichwasitselfexceptionallyhardtoobtain,andthismadehisaluminiumhugelyexpensive.Thoughitscarcelyseemscrediblenow,aluminiumwashailedasanewpreciousmetaltobeplacedalongwithgoldandsilver–itssheercostandexoticismcompensatingforitslowdensityanddiffuseshine–anditwasworkedandflauntedinwaysthatreflectedthisstatus.

Devilleachievedhisbreakthroughatanopportunemoment.Pariswasexcitedbyrumoursofthenew‘silverfromclay’.DevillepresentedaclutchoflittleingotsofaluminiumforthefirsttimeattheParisUniversalExpositionof1855,wheretheywereadmiredbytheEmperorNapoleonIII,whopromptlygavehisfinancialencouragementtothechemist.Themetalwasthenpricedat3,000francsakilogrammeandworthadozentimesitsweightinsilver.Butthiswasifanythinganincentiveratherthanadeterrenttothegreatestcraftsmenoftheday.TherenownedgoldsmithChristoflebecameinterestedinthenewmaterialandmadesomeofthefirsthandcrafteditemsoftablewareandjewellery.Theemperorissaidtohavegivenbanquetsatwhichthemosthonouredguestsweregivenaluminiumcutlerywhilethehoipolloihadtomakedowithsilverandgold.Napoleon’ssonandheir,thePrinceImperialEugène,bornin1856,wasgivenanaluminiumrattle,aclearsignalthatthecountryshouldembracethenew.Thebrasseaglesadorningtheflagstaffsoftheimperialguardwererecastinaluminium,agesturepresumablyappreciatedbytheirbearers.AlthoughcraftsmenlikeChristofleexploitedthemetalforornamentalpurposesmainlybecauseitwasregardedasprecious,Napoleonsawthatitwasaluminium’slightnessthatcouldbeitsmostvaluableproperty.Wemayseehintsofthispromisingfutureinafewobjectsmadeatthistimethatstraddletheworldsoffunctionandornament,suchasmedalsandoperaglasses.ButattheheightoftheIndustrialRevolution,withirontheengineeringwonderoftheday,itisnosurprisethatthegreaterpotentialofaluminiumwasnotmorewidelyrecognized.

InTheTheoryoftheLeisureClass,ThorsteinVeblenchoosesanaluminiumandasilverspoontoillustratehisdictumthattheutilityofobjectsvaluedfor

theirbeauty‘dependscloselyupontheexpensivenessofthearticles’.TheutilityVeblenreferstoissocialratherthanfunctional;he’ssayingwetendtovaluethingsmorehighlywhenweknowtheyareexpensive.Bythe1890s,whenVeblenwaswritingtheworkthatwouldgiveustheexpression‘conspicuousconsumption’,aluminiumwascheap;thealuminiumspoonmightcosttenortwentycents,thesilverspoonasmanydollars.Weknowthelighteraluminiumspooniseasiertouse,yetwepreferthesilverbecauseit‘gratifiesourtaste’.Theinsubstantialweight,machinemanufactureandgeneralplainnessallbetraythealuminiumspoonastheoneweshouldspurn.

In1855,though,NapoleonIII’spatronageentirelyreversedthesituation.ForabriefmomentintheunlikelyhallsoftheLouvrePalace,itwasaluminiumthatwasskilfullywrought,caressedforitslightnessandadmiredforitsmysteriouspallor.Theemperordidnotwantthisstateofaffairstopersistanylongerthanithadto,however.Hewasfiredbytheideathatthenewmetalcouldbeusedtomakearmourandweapons,andin1856aprototypealuminiumhelmetwassetbeforetheFrenchAcademyofSciences.Theassembledsagesjudgeditrobustandserviceable–and,alittlebesidethepoint,beautifultoo.Butreluctantlytheyhadtoreportthatitwasalsofartooexpensive.ItwouldbenearlyacenturybeforeNapoleon’shopesforaluminiumasautilitarianmetalwouldbefulfilled.

TheUnitedStatesCongress‘nearlyputashinyliningofaluminiumfoilatoptheWashingtonMonument’,accordingtoBillBryson’sShortHistoryofNearlyEverything,‘toshowwhataclassyandprosperousnationwehadbecome’.Infact,themonumentiscappedwithaluminium,althoughthejobwasdonewithnoneofthesymbolicintentthatBrysonimplies.Ittooksomedoing.Congresssettheballrollingin1783,atfirstmerelygivingitsapprovalforanequestrianstatueofthegeneralwhohadledthemtoindependence.Sixyearslater,GeorgeWashingtonbecamethenation’sfirstpresident,servinginthatofficeforeightyears.BythetimeWashingtondiedin1799,thecitynamedafterhimwasgrowingintoitspomp.TheCapitolbuildingwasrising,thefirstpearlinanecklaceofneoclassicaltemplestodemocracy,andthethoughtcreptinthatsomethingmoremajesticwasrequiredtohonourthefatherofthecountry.ThecornerstoneforthecolossalmarbleobeliskweseetodayattheaxialintersectionoftheMallwaseventuallylaidin1848,andthemonumentfinallydedicatedin1885.

Thetopmosttwenty-twocentimetresofwhatwasthenthetallestmanmadestructureintheworldweremadeupbyalightning-conductingpyramidofcastaluminium,itspointassharpasapencil.Variousmetalshadbeenconsidered,

includingcopper,bronzeandbrass,whichwouldthenbeplatedwithplatinum.ColonelThomasCaseyoftheUSArmyCorpsofEngineerschosealuminium‘becauseofitswhitenessandtheprobabilitythatitspolishedsurfaceswouldnottarnishuponexposuretoair’.Aspider’swebofcopperlightningrodsrunshiddenfromviewfromthealuminiumpointdowntotheground.Althoughtherewasnodeclaredattempttosendanyformofculturalsignalbysettingaluminiuminthisbeaconposition,themomentlivesinmemory,andespeciallyinthecorporatememoryoftheAmericanaluminiumindustry,whichstilltradesonitsWashingtonconnection.Atadollaranounce,aluminiumbynowcostaboutthesameassilver–asluckwouldhaveit,thepricebegantotumbleassoonasthemonumentwascompleted.InDecember1884,though,whenthelittlealuminiumpyramidwasbrieflydisplayedtothepublicinNewYorkbeforeitsfinalinstallation,itwasstilldefinitelyregardedasapreciousmetal:theexhibitionwasatTiffany’s,thefamousFifthAvenuejeweller.Christmasshopperstookitinturnstoleapfrogthefuturisticmenhirthatwouldsoonsoarhigherintheskythananyotherartefactofman.

Theseshinyembellishmentsmaybefunctionalbut,purposelysoornot,theyarealsorhetoricalpronouncementsfromthecentreofgovernment.BothNapoleonIII’scutleryandWashington’smonumentareexplicittokensofcommitmenttomodernitybythestate.Otherelements,suchasneonandchromium,asweshallseelater,becamesignsofaspirationandhopeforthefuture,buttheseweretobepopularenthusiasms,cheap,cheerfulanddemocraticallyspreadthroughtheland.Aluminiumwasaplaythingandaprojectofleaders.Butitwouldnotremainsoforlong.

Thehistoryofaluminiumis‘aprocessofbanalization’,accordingtothecompanyhistoryofthestateproducerL’AluminiumFrançais.Duringasinglecentury,aluminiumusagehastravelledfromthesingulartothegeneralandfromthegeneraltothebanal–aprogressthatironandcoppercompletedovermillennia.Thegreateststepinthisjourneywastheonenecessaryforittobeginatall,theonethatwastoknockaluminiumoffitspedestalasapreciousmetal.Fittingly,thebreakthroughwasachievedsimultaneouslybyaFrenchmanandanAmerican.PaulHéroultandCharlesMartinHallwerebothintheirearlytwentiesin1886whentheyseparatelyperfectedaprocessthatusedanelectriccurrentinsteadofthechemicalpowerofsodiumtoreleasealuminiumfromitsore.Themetalisstillmadeelectrolyticallytoday.Asthepriceofaluminiumfellfarbelowthatofsilver,andeventuallybelowevencopper,makerslikeChristoflelostinterestinit,anditcouldbegintofulfilitstruedestinyasthenewindustrialwondermetal.Thesophisticatedmethodofmakingitunderlineditscredentialsassomethingutterlymodern:linkedumbilicallytothe‘second

industrialrevolution’triggeredbythewideavailabilityofelectricity,aluminiumwassettobetheveryembodimentofthetechnologicaltwentiethcentury.

AmericaandFrancemayhavepioneeredthedevelopmentofaluminium,buttheydisagreedoveritsspelling.EventhegreateditorH.L.Menckenisatalosstoexplainthis.InTheAmericanLanguageheisforcedtoconfess:‘Howaluminium,inAmerica,lostitsfourthsyllableIhavebeenunabletodetermine,butallAmericanauthoritiesnowmakeitaluminumandallEnglishauthoritiessticktoaluminium.’OthersourcessuggestitmayhavebeenthedoingofCharlesHall.Thepatentshetookoutforhiselectrolyticrefiningprocessreferredto‘aluminium’whilehiscommercialpublicitymaterialtoutedthemeritsof‘aluminum’,whetherbyintentortypographicalerrorisnotknown.TheshorterwordspreadandstuckintheUnitedStates;inFrance,BritainandtherestofEurope,theextrasyllableremained.

Butperhapsthebootshouldbeontheotherfoot.Ratherthanaskinghowthenamewasshortened,weshouldgoinsearchoftheBritishfusspotwhoinsistedontheextrasyllableinthefirstplace.HumphryDavy,whorepeatedlytriedtoisolatethemetal,himselfchristeneditaluminumstraightforwardlyenoughafteritsorealumina(animprovementonhisfirstthought,alumium).Butthenin1812,ananonymousreviewerofDavy’sElementsofChemicalPhilosophywritingintheQuarterlyReviewobjectedtothe‘lessclassicalsound’ofthiswordand,convenientlyforgettingtheprecedentsofplatinum,molybdenumandtherecentlynamedtantalum,castthedieforaluminiumasbeingintunewiththemanyotherelementsterminatingin-ium.

TheHall–Héroultprocessprovidedthespark.Aluminium,themostabundantmetallicelementintheearth’scrust,couldnowbeputintotheserviceofman,thankstotherapidlyexpandingpowerofelectricity.Themostvisibleearlyapplicationswereintransport,wherethemetal’slowweightwasagreatadvantage.TheFrenchcarmanufacturersRenaultandCitroën,alwaysfamousfortheirinnovativedesigns,investigatedaluminiumthoroughlyinthe1920s.Theyuseditatfirstnottoreplaceheavysteelpanelsbutforwheelsanddecorativefeaturessuchashubcaps(whichtheFrenchcharminglycallenjoliveurs,meaningprettifiers).Themetalwasemployedonalargerscaletosheathindustrialmachineryandoncustom-builttransportsuchasrailwaycarriagesanddeliveryvans.APullmanrailwaycoachdisplayedattheChicagoCenturyofProgressExhibitionin1933weighedjusthalfwhatastandardsteelcoachweighed.TheParisUniversalExpositionin1937featuredanAluminiumPavilion,andthemetalwascopiouslyincorporatedintotheAlexanderIIIand

AlmabridgesandelsewherearoundtheCityofLight.Butitwasonlywhensheetsofthestuffwerepressedandbentintoseductive

curvesforaerodynamicperformancethattheromanceofitwastrulyunleashed.Aluminiumwastakenupmorewidelyfortheskinandskeletalstructureofpassengeraircraftquitesuddenlyin1931afterthefatalcrashofawooden-framedairlinercarryingafamousfootballcoachtoLosAngeles.AircraftsuchastheDouglasDC-3,theglamoroustransportofHollywoodstars,inspiredterrestrialimitationsintheformofcarsandbusesandmobilehomeswhoselustrous,bulgingformsprovidedtheglimmerofabetterlifeaftertheDepression.ThedecorattheRadioCityMusicHallinNewYorkisdominatedbycurvinghorizontalbandsofaluminium.ButtheAirstreamtrailerwentfarthestinreachingfortheskies,apingeventherivetlinesofaircraftpanelsalongitscontouredskin.AtatimewhentrailersinEuropelooked,intheviewofonedesigncritic,morelikegypsycaravans‘lackingonlyathatchedroof’,thisAmericandesign,developedwithhelpfromoneofthecreatorsoftheSpiritofStLouis,theaeroplaneinwhichCharlesLindberghhadflownfromNewYorktoParisin1927,revelledinitsbuxomaluminiumnakedness.

Aluminiummovedswiftlyintothehome,takenupwithenthusiasmbyindustrialdesignersandbyhousewives,whoappreciateditslowweightandthefactthatitdidn’tneedpolishing.Themetalcouldbetreatedinnewwayswhichaddedtoitsmodernisticappeal.Themostrepresentativetreatment,madefamousbythedesignsofRusselWright,wasspin-casting,inwhichthemoltenmetalwaspouredintoarotatingmould.MaryMcCarthywentsofarastopraiseWrightbynameand‘thewonderfulnewspunaluminium’inhernovelTheGroup.Aluminiumtookoverinkitchenutensilsthatwouldformerlyhavebeenmadeofpewter.Becauseitretainedheatbetterthancopperorcastiron,itwasalsoperfectfor‘stove-to-table’potsandpans,abooninservantlesshouseholds.Everywhere,thesmoothroundforms,frequentlyaccentuatedbythehorizontallinesofthespinningprocessandafinalbrushing,spokeofthestreamlinedneworderofthings.

AftertheSecondWorldWar,newdemandwasmatchedbynewcapacity,andaluminiumbegantobeconsideredfortheconstructionofentirehomes.AtWichitainKansas,thevisionarydesigner-poetRichardBuckminsterFullerturnedoveranentireaircraftfactorytoproducinghisdomedaluminiumhouses,anachievementhecelebratedbypenningthisditty:

RoamhometoadomeWhereGeorgianandGothiconcestood

NowchemicalbondsaloneguardourblondesAndeventheplumbinglooksgood

Basedonacircularplan,Fuller’shouseslookedlikehabitableversionsofthevesselsdesignedbyRusselWrightadecadebefore.InFrance,JeanProuvé,apioneerarchitectinmetalprefabrication,usedaluminiumpanelsinemergencyhousingforpeoplemadehomelessbythewar,andwentontodeviseflat-packmetalhomesforthelastgenerationofcolonialoverseersinFrenchWestAfrica.EventheBritishbuiltthousandsofaluminium-panelledhousesinthe1940s,thoughtheywerejoylesshutsincomparisonwiththestylishprototypesoftheFrenchandAmericans.

Fuller’sroundhousesnevercaughton,butthealuminiumofwhichtheyweremadewastoocheapandpracticaltoignore.Theunstylishlegacyofthisboldpost-warexperimentrestsinthousandsofacresofcorrugatedaluminumsidingthatwassolddoor-to-doorduringthe1950sand1960s,andclampedtoAmericanhomesasthelatestthinginweatherprotection,atleastuntilitwassupersededbythenextsuchfad,vinyl.Thefictionalescapadesoftwosuchsalesmenarethesubjectofthe1987filmTinMen.Thatthemetaltheywereselling,sorecentlytheprizeofemperors,wasnowdisparagedasmeretinisasuresignthattheprocessof‘banalization’wascomplete.

Thejourneyfromploughsharestoswordsandbacktoploughsharesisuniquetoaluminium,whichhasahighscrapvaluecomparedwithothercommonmetalsbecauseitselectrolyticextractionfrombauxiteissoenergy-intensive.JustasNapoleonIIIdreamtthathisaluminiumcutlerymightbeconvertedintobattlegear,soLordBeaverbrookappealedthroughhisnewspaperempirefortheBritishpeopletohandintheiraluminiumutensilstobe‘turnedintoSpitfiresandHurricanes’.Afterthewar,theprioritieswereabruptlyreversed,andthecatalogueofthe1946exhibition,BritainCanMakeIt,explainedhowwartimeproductionmethodswouldleadthecountrybackfrom‘Spitfirestosaucepans’.

Perhapsthisdidhappen,althoughforthemostpartpeoplewereunawareofit.AtanantiquesfairinDorset,IspottedaPicquotWaretea-setmadeinthe1950sfrom‘Magnailiumlustre’,andboughtit.Itwasunused,andthemetalhadanunusuallilacsheen.Butwhatwas‘magnailium’(apartfromanothermetalwithanapparentlysuperfluousi)?Thevendorhadsuggestedtomethatthesetwasmadefrommelted-downwartimeaircraftparts.Ilikedthewaythedesignseemedtocapturealuminium’sdownwardspiralintodomesticityfromhighercallings.Theword‘magnailium’waspresumablyacompositeofaluminiumand

magnesium.Thelattermetalbeingtwo-thirdsasdense,thetwowerecombinedduringthewartomakeanalloythatwaslighterandstronger,ifconsiderablymoreexpensive,thanpurealuminium.

ButIhadmydoubts.Forastart,thepiecesseemedratherheavy,evenallowingforthethick-walledcastings.Andthentherewasthelabel:‘DesignedbyJeanPicquot.Fashionedbycraftsmen’.WhowasthisdesignerIhadneverheardof,andwhowasnotlistedintheusualdesignreferences?HeorshesoonturnedouttobetheimaginaryfriendofthestolidlyEnglish-soundingmanufacturerofthewares,Burrage&Boyde,afigmentofsuavitypresumablyconjuredupinordertocapitalizeonthereputationaluminiumhadacquiredinthehandsoftheinnovativeFrench.

BynowIwasthoroughlysceptical.Idecidedasimpletestwasneededtoresolvethemysteryofmagnailium.Choosingthemilkjug,theonlypieceofthesetwithoutawoodenhandle,Ifirstweigheditandthenimmerseditinwater,usingthedisplacementtoestimatethevolumeofmetal.Dividingonebytheotherwouldgivemethematerial’sdensity,whichwouldbeanimportantclueastothemetalsitwasmadefrom.Thedensitycameoutataround3.9,morethandoublemagnesium’s1.7andgreatereventhanaluminiumaloneat2.7.Mymagnailiumwasclearlynofancyaerospacealloy.Ithadtobealuminiumcombinedwithaheaviermetalsuchasastandardalloywithcopper.Ipreferredthemyth,however,andcomfortedmyselfwiththethoughtthatatleastafewofthemetalatomsinmytea-setmayhaveflownintheBattleofBritain.

‘Turn’dtobarnacles’

Whenitwasbuilt,theAmericanpresidentialresidenceinWashington,DC,wascoatedinadamp-repellentmixtureofslakedlimeandglue,andpeoplestartedtocallittheWhiteHouse.Tombswerelikewisebrushedwithlimetoprotectthemfromtheravagesoftheweather.Whitedsepulchres–wereevertwowordsaslostwithoutoneanotheras‘whited’and‘sepulchre’?–occurinStMatthew’sgospelasanimageofhypocrisy,andrefertothosetombs‘whichindeedappearbeautifuloutwardly,butinsidearefullofdeadmen’sbonesandalluncleanness’.

Whitenessisfreedomfromcolourandanescapefromtherainbowchaosoflife.Lime’swhitenessisascourgingsimplicity,thepurityofanideal,thefinalityofadeath.Whitingistheactionofaddingalayeroflime-wash,yetitisalsoasubtraction,agesturetowardsliberation,abrushingawayofearthandtheearthly,adisencumbrance,aliterallighteningandalsothelighteningofaload.Thecleansingandpreservingactionofwhitewashingrituallyrepeatsthethrowingoflimeintothegravewiththecorpse.Ourbodiesdecay,ourbonesareleft,pickedcleanandbleachedofallcolour.Wefadetowhite.

Limeisoxideofcalcium.Itismadesimplybyheatingchalk,limestoneorseashellstodriveoffcarbondioxide.Thestronglyalkalinewhitepowderthatresultsthenslowlyabsorbswaterandcarbondioxidefromtheair,theseirresistibleactionsbeingthekeytoitsmanylong-establishedapplications.Limeisusedinburialsbecauseofthishygroscopicproperty:itdrawsoutmoisturefromthebodyandreducestheriskofdiseasefromputrefaction.Saturatedwithwater,orslaked,itbecomeswhitewash.Limeinmortarquicklydries,replacingthewateritloseswithcarbondioxide,causingthesoftwhitepowdertoturntodurablestone.Socentralwasthisactiontotheroutinesoflifeanddeaththatlime,theRomans’calx,gaveitsnametothealchemists’andearlychemists’generictermforburninginairorroasting,calcination.Lavoisiergavelimeaplaceonhislistoftheelements,rankingitasoneofthe‘salifiablesimpleearthysubstances’,evenasheguardedhishunchthatthewhitesubstancewasnotitselfapureelementbutwashidingwithinitanewmetalthatsciencewasasyetunabletoextract.Calciumwasonlyprisedfreefromitsindispensableoxidein1808whenHumphryDavysubjectedittotheelectrolysishehadalreadyemployedinthediscoveryofpotassiumandsodium.Themetalwasnotmadeonalargescaleforanother100years.

Calcium,then,istheelementatthechemicalheartoflime,limestone,chalkandmanymineralsbesides,suchascalciteandgypsum.Calciummaynotbetheonlyelementtoformpredominantlyorentirelywhitecompounds,butthroughtheseimportantandabundantnaturalmaterialsitistheelementwemostassociatewiththeabsenceofcolour.Apartfromsnow,oursimilesforwhitenessarecalcareous–whiteasmarble,alabaster,chalk;whiteasivory,boneorteeth;

whiteaspearl.Calcium’swhitenessisiconic:IhesitatetousesuchanoverworkedadjectivebuttheinstanceoftheWhiteHousealoneseemstosanctionit.TheWhiteCliffsofDover,too,wereapotentenoughimagethattheAmericanlyricistofVeraLynn’swartimesongfeltabletocompletehisworkhavingnomoreseenthemwithhisowneyesthanhe’dseenthe‘bluebirdsover’.ThewhitehorsesandotherfigurescreatedbycarvingoutturffromEngland’schalkhillsidesinNeolithictimes–withoccasionaladditionsstillbeingmadetoday–alsoretainatimelessgraphicpower.

WalkingthehillsanddownsofsouthernEnglandtodayonecanstillfeelhowacollectiveidentitycanspringfromautochthonousrock.Simplydrawnonpaper,figuressuchastheCerneAbbasGiantortheWhiteHorseatUffingtonwouldappearasnothingmorethangraffiti,vulgarlypriapicandPicasso-ishrespectively.Butinscribedinchalk,theybecomeEnglishdespitethemselves.OntheIsleofWightwherehorizontalgeologyistippeduponedgelikeasliceoflayercake,IheadtothewesterntipandthestandingchalkrocksknownastheNeedles–oncefour,nowthreeplustheirvitallighthouse,andneverquiteascraggyinfactasintheoldprintsetchedbyartistswhoseheadsspunwithideasofthesublime.Chalkcliffsdropahundredmetresandmoretotheseaonmyleft,whileonmyrightisAlumBay,itssandsonceminedforalum,nowlyingundisturbedinmulti-colouredridges.IamconsciousthatthissoutherncoastisBritain’sonlymarginthatliesatallclosetoothernations.Thesewhitecliffsarepristinebattlements,andscanningtheseaforships,Icannotavoidthefeelingofbeingonsentryduty,asensereinforcedbytheeruptionintothedownylandscapeeveryfewmilesoftheruineddefencesoffivecenturies–againsttheSpanish,theFrench,theGermans.

In1868,ThomasHuxleylectured‘OnaPieceofChalk’tothecitizensofNorwich.Beginningwiththechalkinhishand,heworkedbackthrough‘thatlonglineofwhitecliffstowhichEnglandoweshernameofAlbion’tofindhisDarwiniantheme.Hisdisputatiousclaimwasthat

themanwhoshouldknowthetruehistoryofthebitofchalkwhicheverycarpentercarriesaboutinhisbreeches-pocket,thoughignorantofallotherhistory,islikely,ifhewillthinkhisknowledgeouttoitsultimateresults,tohaveatruer,andthereforeabetter,conceptionofthiswonderfuluniverse,andofman’srelationtoit,thanthemostlearnedstudentwhoisdeep-readintherecordsofhumanityandignorantofthoseofNature.

Hedescribedthemicroscopicskeletonsoftheuncountablebillionsofcalciumcarbonatealgaethatlivedanddiedduringthecretaceousepoch,andeventuallybuiltupfromthepalesiltoftheirdecaythethicklayersofEngland’sprotectivechalkcliffs‘vastlyolderthanAdam’.Huxley’sgeologicalprospectsetnearbyCromerandtheGardenofEdenonequalfootingsofchalkandclay,surelysendingafrissonofpleasurethroughhisaudience.Forsome,though,thepleasuremayhavebeenshort-lived,forallthiswasnomorethanHuxleywarmingtohiscustomarytheme,wieldingthescientificevidenceoftherocksinordertodemolishthebiblicalversionofcreation.

Shakespeareseemstohavesensedthiscycleinwhichthesamewhitemineralendlesslylivesanddies.InTheTempest,TrinculoinvitesCalibanto‘putsomelimeuponyourfingers’inpreparationfortheirraidonProspero’scave.ButCaliban‘willhavenoneon’t.Weshallloseourtime,/Andallbeturn’dtobarnacles’.Itisstilloddtothinkthatlimethrownintothegravewasitselfoncelifeintheformofmillionsoftinymarineorganisms,andthatourbonesintheirturnmaybecomethefoodstuffoffuturegenerationsofshellycreatures.Wemayappreciatenature’scyclesofwater,oxygenandnitrogenbutweignorethegrindingstonycycleoflife-givingcalciumthatshiftsconstantlyunderourfeet.

Inhisrushtoscornotherwiseeducatedpersonswhounhappilyremainignorantofscience,Huxleyneglectedtoconsiderthatqualityofchalkmostlikelytodetainthe‘learnedstudentwhoisdeep-readintherecordsofhumanity’–itswhiteness.Wetendtoassumethattheformalmarksofhumancivilizationareblackonwhite,madewithcharcoalorgraphiteorthepowderedcarbonknownaslampblackusedinprinter’sink.Butourtraceshaveoftenbeentheprimalnegativeofthis,urgentbutjudiciousdelineationsscoredonthegroundinwhite–thefinishlineattheCircusMaximus,theCaucasianchalkcirclethatisthemeansofdispensingSolomonicjusticeinBertoltBrecht’splayofthatname,theoutlineofamurdervictim.Whiteisthereattheend,whenfinaljudgementispronounced.InItalian,calcioisthewordbothforcalciumandforthegameofsoccer,bothmeaningsderivedfromtheLatincalx,whichisnotonlyliterallimebutalsoametaphorforagoal,anachievementmarkedperhapsbyachalklinecrossed.

Humanintentionlinedinwhiteisnotalwaysgrimlyfateful.HermanMelvilleinachapter-longdigressionfromthehuntforMoby-Dickmeditatesonhow‘whitenessrefininglyenhancesbeauty,asifimpartingsomespecialvirtueofitsown,asinmarbles,japonicas,andpearls’.Twoofthesethree,itisnosurprisetofind,arecalciumwhite.Japonicaistheexception:whiteinnature

whereitisnotmineral–realwhitehorses,whitebears,whiteelephants,thealbinoandthealbatross–isattributablenottocalciumbuttothearrangementoforganicmatterintocellsinsuchawaythatitscatterslightofallcolours.Melville’sfamouswhaledisplayswhitenessofbothkinds,forwhileitsskiniswhiteduetoabsenceofotherpigments,itsivoryteethareimpregnatedwithcalciumsalts.

Thecompositestructureofivory,atoughfibrousmatrixwithastonyhardinfill,hasmadeitapleasingmediumfortheartist.Ivoryhasbeencarvedsinceancienttimes.TheseagoingPhoeniciansdecoratedthecalcareousremnantsofcreaturestheyfoundinandaroundtheMediterranean,includingthetusksofhippopotami.Butitwasthegrowthofthewhalingindustryinthenineteenthcenturythatgaverisetothecraftofscrimshaw,anartwhichisromanticallysupposedtobethecreativeby-productofsailors’longhoursspentontheoceansinsearchofleviathan.Thescrimshanders’favouritemediumwasthemassiveteethofthespermwhalesthatweretheirprimaryquarry,althoughnarwhalhornsandwalrustusks–bothevolutionarymutationsofteeth–werenotwasted.Theyengravedimagesofshipsandmapsandpatrioticsubjectsaswellaswomeninmermaidenlystatesofundress,thefinegrainofthemateriallendingitselfwelltothefine-linedexecutionofriggingortumblinghair,andattaining,asMelvillewrote,aqualityofsculpture‘asclosepackedinitsmazinessofdesign’astheprintsofDürer.

Themostexaltedmaterialinbothsculptureandarchitecture,togetherknownasthemonumentalarts,hasalwaysbeenmarble,thepurestandwhitestformofcalciumcarbonatethatrespondstotheartist’schisel.AncientGreeceandRomeachievedtheirresplendencepartlybecausemarblequarrieslaynearby.Phidias

usedPentelicmarblefromthemountainsnearAthensfortheconstructionoftheParthenon,anexperimentinstoneworkwhosemuscularDoriccolumnsreflectitsstructuralengineer’scautioninadaptingtraditionalwoodenconstruction.Somewhatcoarseringrain,ParianmarblecamefromtheislandofParos,andwasemployedatsitesawayfromAttica,suchasDelphi,CorinthandCapeSounion.

RomanmonumentsfromthePantheontoTrajan’sColumnwerebuiltofmarbleshippedfromthefamousquarriesatCarraraontheTuscancoast.Carrara’sSant’Andreacathedralisremarkablebecausetheentirestructureismadeofmarble–aninevitabledecisionperhaps,butonewiththeunfortunateconsequenceofproducinganinteriorasgrimasacave.OthergreatcathedralsmademoreartfuluseoftheCarrarastone,theLegostripesofwhiteanddarkgreenmarblethatrunroundtheexteriorandinteriorofthethirteenth-centuryduomoinSienabeingonestrikingexample.MyfavouriteItaliancathedral,however,istheonewhichstandslikeajewelledboxonthetable-tophillofOrvieto.Seenfromasidestreet,tightlyframedbyordinaryhouses,itswestfrontshineswithasoftwhitelight,aglowofcelestialbliss.Fromanotherangle,itsGothicfinialsclustertogetherlikethesparklingskyscrapersofagreatmetropolis,anEmeraldCity,aJerusalemindeed.Inside,thewindowsalongthenavearenotglazedbutfinishedwiththinsheetsofthesamemarble.Theyadmitasoothinglightthatcastsnoshadow.

MichelangelochoseCarraramarbleformanyofhismostimportantworks,andmadefrequentexcursionstoCarraratoselecttheblocksforDavidandothersculpturesfromthewhiteststatuariogrademarble.Thesevisitsprovidedatemporaryrefugefromwhicheverpopewasmakingunreasonabledemandsuponhimatthetime.Whenthingsweregoingwell,however,MichelangeloworkedinRome,whilehisfavouredstone-cutterTopolinosenthimconsignmentsofstone,amongwhichhewouldoftenincludeasculpturaleffortofhisown,totheinvariablemirthofthegreatartist.

OneprojectofgreatpersonalsignificancetoMichelangelowasthetombofPopeJuliusII,begunwhenJuliusdiedin1513andcontinuedoffandonthroughthereignsoffivesubsequentpontiffs.Theworkwasnevercompletedaccordingtoplan,butitsseveralstatuesshowtheartistathistechnicalbest.GiorgioVasari,Michelangelo’sapprenticeandbiographerandthesculptorofhistomb,foundthefigureofMosessohandsomeandrealisticthat‘onecriesoutforhiscountenancetobeveiled,sodazzlingandresplendentdoesitappearandsoperfectlyhasMichelangeloexpressedinmarblethedivinitythatGodfirstinfusedinMoses’mostholyform.’

ThegreatestfullyrealizedmarblecreationoftheRenaissanceisunsurprisinglyanothersepulchralwork:theMedicichapelandtombs,laidoutbyMichelangeloandcompletedbyVasari.Itistheprototypeofmodernart’s‘whitecube’,theneutralspaceinwhichpurelightrevealsthetruthoftheartist’svision.

AfterMichelangelo,sculptorssuchasGianLorenzoBerniniandAntonioCanovapushedCarraramarbletonewandopposingextremesofexpressiveexcessandClassicalvirtue,eachprizingitforthehomogeneouswhitenessthatlefttheviewerwithnothingtodistractfromthebrillianceofthecarving.Linkedtothistraditionbytheirchoiceofmaterial,modernsculptorsinmarblecannothelpbutinvokethespiritofClassicalantiquity.ForBarbaraHepworthandherpeersinthe1920s,determinedtorevivetheartofstone-carvingandobeisanttothedictumof‘truthtomaterials’,marbleprovidedthepurestsignalofintent.‘Whitewasthecolourofspirituality,’accordingtoherbiographer.‘InBarbara’swhitestudio,withgreyshadows,whitepaint,andwhitestone,theradiowastunedtoStravinskyandearlymusic.’Throughouthercareer,Hepworthproducedsmoothabstractforms–singlestones,pairsandtriplets,stonesnestedorstacked,solidorpiercedwithholes–inalabaster,Portlandstoneandmarble.Whitemarblewasbest,alwaysseemingtohertoreflectabrighter,moreMediterraneanlight.HepworthdiscoveredthematerialearlyonwhenshevisitedCarraraandlearnttocarvefromaRomanmarmista.ButatriptoGreecein1954followingthebreak-upofhermarriagetotheartistBenNicholsonandthelossofherfirstsoninaflyingaccidentbecameapilgrimageofartisticrededication,leadingtoaseriesofsculpturesnamedaftermythicfiguresandClassicalsitessuchas

MykonosandMycenae,executedinthemostperfecttranslucentwhitemarble.Sheselectedthematerialtoensurethefocuswasalwaysontheform,butalsoasademonstrationofsculpture’sorganicbirthinthelandscape,andtoforgeanewlinkinthechainthatrunsthroughPhidiasandMichelangelofromthechalkfiguresinthehillsofprehistory.

Thecycleoflifeanddeathneverstops,ofcourse.Calciumisgoodforyou,wearetold.Weareexhortedtodrinkmilkandeatcheeseinordertomaintainourbonesandteeth.(Chalkandcheesemaybedifferentinmanyrespects,buttheyarealikeinhavingahighcalciumcontent.)Wetakecalciumsupplements–chalkreshapedintosmooth,elongatedpillslikeminiHepworthsorancientsarcophagi.

PlinytellstheultimatecalciumsupplementstoryinhisNaturalHistory.WhenCleopatrawascourtingMarcusAntonius,shesoughttoimpressthejadedRomanbyannouncingthatshewouldthrowthemostexpensivebanquetevergiven.Thedaycameandtheusualfaremadeitsappearance,richenoughbuthardlythetenmillionsesterces’worththequeenhadpromised.Antoniusprotested,andthenCleopatrasummonedthemaincourse.Theservantsetbeforeherasingleglassofvinegar.AsAntoniusgrewmorebemused,Cleopatraremovedoneofherpearlearrings,thelargestpearlseverknown,inheritedfromthekingsoftheEast,anddroppeditinthevinegar,waitedforittodissolve,dranktheliquorandclaimedherwager.

Literaryscholarshavedisputedthisstory.RecenteditionsoftheNaturalHistoryarefootnotedwiththereceivedwisdomthattheaceticacidofvinegarisnotstrongenoughtodissolvepearls,andsuggestthat‘Cleopatranodoubtswallowedthepearl(undissolved)andsubsequentlyrecovereditinthenaturalcourseofevents.’Chemists,however,disagree,andexperimentsusingculturedpearlshaveshownthattheywilldissolveinordinarywinevinegartoyielda

potableifdisgustingcocktail.Eitherway,theconcoctioncanhavedonenolastingharm.Cleopatraissaid,

ofcourse,tohavepoisonedherselfmoreeffectivelyusinganasptotakeherownlifewhenshelearntofthesuicideofMarcusAntoniusafterhisdefeatattheBattleofActium.Thewhereaboutsofhertomb,andwhethershesharesitwithherRomanlover,hasexcitedgreatspeculationamongarchaeologists.Iffound,itstreasuresmightsurpassthoseofTutenkhamunandNefertiti.ThefocusofattentionrecentlyhasbeenamongthelimestoneruinsofthetempleofIsisandOsirisatTaposirisMagnasouthofAlexandria.Thechiefevidencetodateisasmallbustofawoman,unearthedin2008.Unfortunately,thenoseisrubbedoff,makingithardtosaywhetherornotitrepresentsthequeenofEgypt.Itiscarvedinwhitestalabaster.

TheGuildofAerospaceWelders

AthisstudioinruralSuffolk,DavidPostongreetsmewithacrushinghandshake,andushersmeindoors.Davidisajewellerandmetalworker,andthereasonIhavecometoseehimisthatamongthechosenmaterialsofhiscraftistheelementtitanium.TheclutteredspaceinwhichIfindmyselflooksmuchasyouwouldexpectametalworkingroomtolook.Thedominantcoloursaregrimygreysandbrowns.Hammersandotherhand-toolslieabout,andthearomaoffluxpervadestheair,aswelcominginitswayasthesmellofwarmbreadfromabakery.

Unusually,Poston’sstudioalsohasanupstairs,andthisislaboratory-white.Underatailoredplasticdustcoverinthemiddleoftheroomishislargestpieceofequipment–thelaser.Perhapsbecausetheyareintimidatedbyitsreputationinaerospaceandotherglamorousmodernindustries,manycraftworkersregardtitaniumasimpossibletoworkwith.ButtoDavid,anengineerandinventoraswellasacraftsman,itholdsnoterrors.True,itishard,andhasahighermeltingpointeventhaniron,butithascompensatingvirtuesthatmakeitworththegraft.Itislightaswellastough,andcantakeonabeautifulpatina.

Titaniummaybecutandhammeredbutnotsoldered.Joiningpiecesoftitaniumisamatterofspecialistwelding,whichiswhyDavidhasboughtthelaser.Hetreatedhimselftoitinsteadofanewcar.‘Muchmorefun,’hesaysashesitsmedownatthesilentmachine.IpassmyhandsthroughtwoarmholestoreachintotheweldingchamberwhereIpickuptwothinpiecesoftitaniumsheet.Withoneineachhand,Iputmyeyestothebinocularviewfinderandbringthemtogether,tryingtofocusontheangletheymakeunderthecrosshairsights.Withtrepidation,Igentlydepressafootpedaltooperatethelaser.Ifeela

preparatorywhooshofargonacrossmyfingers,sweepingawaytheoxygennearthemetalthatwouldcauseittoburnawayunderthelaser’sheat.Then,withasharpclick-click-click,theregularpulsesofthelaser.Anintensewhiteflash–tingedwithgreenunlessmyeyesaretrickedbythebrightlight–burstsfromthemetalwitheachpulse.Imovethemetalpiecesalong,endeavouringtoholdtheanglewheretheymeetinthecrosshairstocreateareasonablytidyweldline.Thetemperaturemustreachatleast1,660degreesCelsiustomeltthemetal,yetthebeamissotightlyfocusedthatIcanholdthetitaniumpieceswithmyunprotectedfingersjustmillimetresaway.

Theelementswithwhichwehavetheclosestrelationshipnaturallytendtobethosewe’veknownthelongest.Throughcenturiesofsmeltingandpouring,hammeringandbeating,theancientmetalshaveacquiredmoreorlesssettledculturalassociations.Goldistheuniversalpreciousmetal,signifyingwealth,regalityandimmortality.Ironistheelementofmanhood,strengthandwar.Whitesilveristhebadgeofvirginalpurityandthefeminine.Lead,tinandcopper,theothermetalsknowntotheancients,havetheirparticularsignificancestoo.Thesemeaningsarenottheproductofidealknowledge,norofmerelongacquaintance,butofman’sintimatephysicalassociationovercenturiesofbendingthemtohisownends.

Thatitistheintimacyoftherelationshipthatmattersandnotitsdurationis

provenbythemetallicelementsthathavebeenrevealedbymodernscience.Forthoseofthemthathaveproventobeofthegreatestutility,likezincandaluminium,havepickeduptheirowndistinctiveculturalbaggageevenintherelativelyshorttimewehaveknownthem.Materialsare‘culturallyconsequent’,asthesociologistRichardSennetthasrecentlypointedout:‘Theattributionofethicalhumanqualities–honesty,modesty,virtue–intomaterialsdoesnotaimatexplanation;itspurposeistoheightenourconsciousnessofthematerialsthemselvesandinthiswaytothinkabouttheirvalue.’Howeverabstractthehumanqualitiesattributedtovariousmaterials–gravelead,honesttin,virtuoussilver–theymayalwaysbetracedbacktotheintrinsicphysicalandchemicalpropertieswhichthecraftsmanhassomuchtimetocontemplateashestrugglestoshapethemtohiswill.

Whatthenoftitanium?Despiteitsfuturisticaura,themetalhasinfactbeenreadilyavailabletocraftworkersforfiftyyears.Isitconsolidatingitsmeaning?‘Titaniumofferslotsofopportunities,butpeoplearenotbeingquicktofindthem,’Davidtellsme.Itsbehaviouriswellunderstoodwithinheavymanufacturingindustry.HedescribeshowatAérospatialetheyweldupAirbusframesinanargon-filledhangar,thetechniciansgoingabouttheirworkwearingfullbreathingapparatus.Thiswherewithalisbeyondanyartist’sstudio,ofcourse.Butmoreimportantly,thespecialistexpertisedevelopedinthesecommercialenvironmentshasnotbeenpassedoninanykindofprimerforgeneraluse.Thesecretsoftheaerospacetitaniumweldersareineffectassafeasthoseofthemedievalguildswhichonceguardedthegoldsmith’scraft.

SopeoplelikeDavidmustrelyonimaginationandpracticaltrialanderror.‘It’sempirical,andthat’salotofthefun,’hesaysgamely.Laseraside,Davidalsousesthemoretraditionalmetalworkers’tools.HehasanassortmentofanvilsandakindofsteelforearmthatrisesfromoneworkbenchliketheLadyoftheLake,whichheusesasaformertohammerbraceletsintoshape.Repeatedheatingandcoolinggiveshisfinishedtitaniumpiecesaninstantpatina,amottledoxidecoatingthatvariesincolourfromdriedbloodtoslateandsea-green.Rigidbraceletsandnecklaces,theiringeniousfasteningsdisguisedwithinsimpleoverallshapes,suddenlylooklikearchaeologicalfinds.Yettheyarelight–aringfeelsalmostweightless–andmakeaclatterwhenputdownonthetable,aremindertheyaremadeofahardnewmetal.

Titaniumisanelementintransit.Itisneithersolongknownandsoestablishedinitsvariouspatternsofusethattherehasgrownuparounditareactionarycultureoflimitedexpectation,norisitsonovel,scarceorotherwiseesotericthat

onlyspecialistsinlaboratoriesandengineeringworkshopshaveanyideawhattodowithit.Thoughitsorewasdiscoveredin1791,puretitaniummetalwasnotobtaineduntil1910andnotmadeincommercialquantitiesuntilthe1950s,itspotentialasastrong,lightweightandcorrosion-resistantmetalhavingbeendemonstratedduringtheSecondWorldWar.

Titaniumwasalreadypartofourlives–themetalusedinreplacementhipjointsandbicycles,aeroplanesandcars,itswhiteoxideubiquitousinhouseholdwhitepaint–whentheCanadianarchitectFrankGehrybeganworkonthedesignoftheGuggenheimMuseuminBilbao.Gehryexploredthepossibilitiesofthecommissioninhisusualfashion,bymakingtinymodelsfromwoodandtwistsofpaperinordertogainaquickimpressionofthesculpturalsurfaceshemightuseforthewatersidebuilding.BilbaoprosperedduringthenineteenthcenturythroughshipbuildingandsteelmakingthankstotheironoreinthesurroundingBasquecountry,sotheportcityhasafolkmemoryofhugeshipsblockingthevistasalongitsstreetswithwallsofmetal.Wishingtorecapturethatspiritoftheplace,GehryenvisionedtheswoopingwallsoftheGuggenheimcoveredinsteelpanels.

Gehry’sassistantsworkeduphisschemeusingdesignsoftwarethathadbeendevelopedforuseintheaerospaceindustry.Thiscomputerpowerallowedthemtoreconcilethewhipped-creamshapesofthebuilding’sexteriorwithpracticalitiessuchasthecostofthematerialsandtheneedforasoundstructure.Asthisworkprogressed,somebodyintheofficenoticedsomethingunprecedentedhappeningontheworld’smetalmarkets.Thepriceoftitaniumdipped.Suddenly,itmightbelessexpensivetocladthebuildingintheexoticnewmetalthaninconventionalstainlesssteel.Gehry’sworkhasalwaysbeennotableforhisfondnessforunusualmaterials,andhehadlongadmiredthe‘soft,butterylook’oftitanium.Heseizedhisopportunity.Thecompletedmuseum,openedtorapturousacclaimin1997,iscoveredin33,000half-millimetre-thicktitaniumpanels–enoughtocladagood-sizedbattleship–eachoneindividuallycuttofollowthecurvedframeofthebuilding.Thepolishedsurfacehasatawnyglowcomparedwiththeclinicalcoldnessofsteel.Whensteelreflectstheskyitpicksupitsbluesandgreys,buttitaniumseemstofindthewarmthofthesun.TheBilbaoGuggenheimhasbeenlikenedtoChartresCathedral,andcertainlystandscomparisonwiththeSydneyOperaHouseandFrankLloydWright’soriginalGuggenheimMuseuminNewYork,itsobvioustwentieth-centuryprecursors.Ithasreceivedovertenmillionvisitors,morethandeliveringtheboosttotheregionaleconomythatwashopedfor,andjoltingprovincialmayorsaroundtheworldintosimilarefforts.ThebuildingmayyetprovetobeGehry’smasterpiece.

Howsignificanttothemuseum’ssuccess–andthecity’srenewal–isthemetalthatisresponsibleforeverybody’sfirstimpressionofthebuilding?Itsnovelty,dutifullynotedbyeverypressreporter,impliesboldinnovation,onthepartofthearchitectcertainly,butalsoonthepartofthosewhocommissionedthework.Thematerialisfuturistic,andsothebuildingbecomesamonumentalstatementofoptimismforthatfuture.YettheformsintowhichitisshapedsimultaneouslyevoketheshipbuildingheritageofBilbao,andsoappearrespectfulofthepast.Material,formandsiteconvergetodemonstratethatuncompromisingmodernarchitecturecanneverthelessbelong.

Alessgenerousinterpretationispossible,however.Maroonedacoupleofblocksfromthelifeofthecity,theGuggenheimMuseumseemstoholditselfaloof,itsalienpresenceheightenedbythewantonexoticismofitsshapesandmaterials.Itisanairdroppedpackageofculturalimperialism,itsmetalnomorethanaflashyfaçadethatfailstodisguisetheshortageofgreatartwithin,agratuitousflashingofaforeigner’swadofcash.Thebuilding’sglitteringtitaniumplateshavebeencomparedtofishscales,arecurrentGehrymotif.Buttoonecritic,‘theylookmorelikemoney,silvercoinagepressedintothebuildingmaterial’.

TheWaltDisneyConcertHallinLosAngelesprovidesaninformativecomparison.This,ifanything,shouldhavebeenthemoresignificantbuildingforGehry.TheprojectpredatestheGuggenheimcommission–DisneymoneywasdonatedandGehry’sdesigncompletedby1991,butlaterdelaysinfund-raisingandconstructionmeantitwasnotfinisheduntil2003.ItwasalsothefirstmajorcommissionGehryreceivedfromthecitywherehehaslonglivedandworked;itmighthavebeenexpectedtorepresentanimportantmilestoneinthecareerofanarchitectthenenteringhiseighthdecade.Gehryhadfirstproposedtobuildinstone,buttheexperienceoftheGuggenheimpromptedhimtochangetometalcladding.Notitaniumhere,however.TheWaltDisneyConcertHalliscoveredinstainlesssteelthatwasfounduponcompletionoftheprojecttobesoshinythatithadtobesandeddowninordertodispersethesunbeamsitwassendingintonearbyapartments.Criticsseeitasthesuperiorwork.‘ThefaçadeofDisneyHallismorerefinedthanthatoftheGuggenheim,andmoresumptuous,eventhoughitismadeofstainlesssteel,acheapermaterialthantitanium,’wrotePaulGoldbergerintheNewYorker.ButithasnotliveduptothehypethatitwouldsurpasstheGuggenheiminitsglobalimpact.There’sbeennoCalifornianversionofthe‘Bilbaoeffect’.Whetherit’stheglowoftechnologicaloptimism,orjustthegoldentingeoflucre,titaniumclearlyhassomethingthatsteeldoesnot.

TheMarchoftheElements

Arethereelementsthatweconsiderpreciousorexotictoday,asParisiansconsideredaluminiumthroughoutmostofthenineteenthcentury,butwhichwillonedaylosetheircachet?Istitanium,forexample,nowontheroadtobanalization?Andifso,whatwillcomeafterit?

Itseemstoosoontotellwheretitaniumwillfinditsplace.Fornow,itleavestoomanyquestionsunanswered.What,forinstance,istitanium’sgender?Thisquestionseemsodd,butitsanswerisimportantifwearetoknowwhattouseitfor.Inculture,ithaslongbeendeterminedthatgoldandironaremasculineandsilverisfeminine.Titanium-brandedsportsgearisclearlypitchedatmen,butcolourfulanodizedcoatingshavemadethemetalpopularinjewelleryforwomen.Atthismomentinitshistoryatleast,titaniummaybemasculineorfeminine,bothorneither.‘Itliberatesonefromthoseclassifications,’saysDavidPoston.

AttheEdinburghCollegeofArt,AnnMarieShillitohasalsobeenusingtitaniumformakingjewellery,usingitslightnessandthecoloursitproducesthroughanodizingtostakeoutanaestheticterritorysomedistanceawayfromtheheavierpreciousmetals.Themetal’slowdensity(onlyaluminiumandmagnesiumarelighteramongthepracticalmetals)allowshertomakeitemssuchasearringslargerthantheymightotherwisebe.Yetthefactthattitaniumwork-hardensfasterthanothermetalsmakesitverystrong,too.Amisplacedbendinthemetalcannotsimplybeunbent,whichmakesitademandingmaterialtoworkwith.Shillitohasbeenaskedtomakemen’sweddingringsintitaniumaswellasearringsforwomen.Butothersareputoffbythemetal’sspace-agelightness,unabletoforgettheculturalconditioningthatassociatesgreatervaluewithgreaterweight.

ThisconundrumhaspromptedShillitotolookagainattheperiodictable.‘That’swhenIswitchedtoniobium,’shesays.Intheperiodictable,niobiumsitsintherowbelowtitanium,whichmeansthatitisdenser.Shillitoalsoworkswithtantalum,intherowbelowthat,therowcontainingtherealheavyweights,tungstenandgold.

Niobiumandtantalumoftenoccurtogetherinminerals,andtheirdiscoverieswereconsequentlyamatterofsomeconfusionandfrustration,onereasonwhythetwoelementswereeventuallynamedforTantalus,condemnedbyZeustostandunderatreewhosefruitalwaysremainedoutofreach,andhisdaughterNiobe,thegoddessoftears.‘Niobiumistwicethedensityoftitaniumandhalfthatoftantalum.Itisclosetosilverinthisrespectandfeelsmorepreciousthantitanium,’AnnMarieexplains.Whenmass-producedtitaniumjewellerymadeit

hardforhertosellhermoreexpensive,individuallymadepiecesinthatmetal,shestartedworkingwhollyinniobium,whichcommandedahigherpricebecausepeoplefeltitmustbemorevaluable.Butthedifferentmaterialalsodemandedadifferentwayofworking.Niobiumismoreforgivingthantitanium,allowingShillitotomanipulateitinribbonsandsheets.Herdesignsinniobiumappearspontaneousandfreeinawaythatwasimpossibleintitanium.Theheaviermetalalsobehavesmorecontrollablyduringanodizing.Withtitanium,theartistcannotbesurewhatcolourswillbeproduced–AnnMarieenjoyedtheelementofchancethatcreptinaftertheexactitudethematerialdemandedofherwhileshewasshapingit.Butwithniobiumandtantalumitispossibletotunetheanodizingvoltagetoproduceadesiredcolourwithsuchaccuracythatjewellerycanbemadetomatchacustomer’swardrobe.

AnnMarieshowsmesometitaniumpiecesshehasinlaidwithniobiumandtantalum.Likeotherpreciousmetals,theheaviermaterialsarerelativelysoftandcan,usingalaser,beworkedlikeplasticinetoproducedecorativetexturedsurfaces,albeitfusedtoatoughtitaniumbase.Theanodizingvoltageproducesdifferentcoloursinthethreemetals.Intoabroochmadeofasheetoftitanium–brushedmatt,midgreywithahintofgreen–shehashammeredsmall,brightlozengesofniobiumanodizedinbrightcolours.Manypeopleassumethecoloursareaddedoninsomewaylikeenamel,shesays.Theydonotrealizethattheyareintrinsictothemetalanditsthinoxidecoating–asinbutterflies’wings,itisaninterferenceeffectofthelightreflectedfromthesurfacethatcausesthecolourratherthananypigmentordye.Intime,perhaps,theserainbowshimmerswillbeseenascharacteristicoftheseelements,justasverdigrisistocopperandtarnishistosilver.

Thisisthemarchoftheelementsintoourlives.TothePhoeniciansandRomans,tinandleadweretheprizednewmaterialsoftheday,acquiredwithdifficultyanddangerfromtheremotestsources,unattendedatfirstbyanymystiqueormythology,butloadedinsteadwiththemiraculousnoveltyofnature.Nowtitaniumhasfounditswayfromtheminesintothelaboratory,andfromthelaboratoryintotheworkshopandfactory,andisfindingitswayintoourculture.Forniobiumandtantalum,thatjourneyisjustbeginning.

PartFour:Beauty

ChromaticRevolution

Clearingoutsomeoldboxes,Ifindmyfather’soldWinsor&Newtonartists’paints,whichheusedduringhisteenageyearsinthe1940s.Theblackmetalboxopenstorevealasceneofcarnage.Thelittletintubesofpaintlietwistedlikecorpsesintheirnarrowcompartments,frequentlystuckdownwithlinseedoilthathassplitfromthepigment,andoccasionallycakedwithcolourthathasbledfromtherupturedtubes.Iturnthemandreadthelabels:ChromeYellow,ChromeGreen,ZincWhite;TerreVert,madefromironsilicate;Viridian,anotherchromiumcolour;andotherstoocrustedorrottentodecipher.Somecoloursareallbutbannedthesedays,replacedbyinnocuoussyntheticpigmentsnotquitetheirequal,butinthissetIfindevenmoreoutrépigmentssuchasVermilion,thebrilliantflameredbasedonpurepowderofthepoisonousmercuricsulphide,andgreensrichinarsenic.

Itwasonefurtherelement,however,thatprovidedmoreandbrighterartists’pigmentsthananyother.FriedrichStromeyer’sdiscoveryofcadmiumwastounleashtheloudestriotofcolourarthadeverseen,andheknewitfromthefirst.

In1817,StromeyerwasaprofessorofchemistryandpharmacyattheUniversityofGöttingenandalsoheldanofficialpositionasinspectorofapothecariesinthestateofHanover.Oneofhisinspectionsrevealedthatapreparationofmedicinalzincoxidewasclearlynotwhatitpurportedtobe.Whenheheatedthesubstance,Stromeyerfoundthatitturnedyellowandthenorange.Thiswouldnormallyindicatethepresenceoflead–andtheneedforenquiriesintowhowasmakingupfalseremedies.Butfurthercheckswerenegativeforlead.Stromeyerpursuedhisinvestigationtothechemicalfactorythathadsuppliedthepharmacyandtookasampleofthesuspectmaterialawaywithhimforfurtherexaminationathisownlaboratory.Here,hedeftlyidentifiedthecauseoftheanomalybyusingaseriesofchemicalprocedurestoremovetheknownzinc.Whenthiswasdone,hewasleftwithapea-sizedlumpofabluish-greymetal,ratherlikezincinappearance,butshinier.Thiswastheworld’sfirstglimpseofanewmetal,whichwasdulycalledcadmiumaftertheGreekforthezincorecalamine,withwhich,itsoonemerged,itwasoftenfound.

Stromeyerpreparedsulphideofcadmiumandreportedthatitgaveabeautifulyellowcolour,rich,opaqueandpermanent;hecommendedittoartistsespeciallyforitsabilitytomixwellwithblues.Cadmiumwasnowhereabundant,butitwasreliablyfoundinsmallquantitiesinmanyzincworkings,whichwerethengrowingrapidlyinnumbertomeetthedemandforbrassware.Thesulphidesoonbecameacommercialpigment.Itsattractionwasnotmerelyconvenienceofsupply,buttherangeofcoloursitproduced–morethananyothersingleelement.Accordingtothelevelofvariousimpurities,cadmiumsulphidepigmentsrunfromaslightlymuddiedspringgreenthroughyellowandorangetoanabsurdlyvividred,variousdeeperredsandadarkmaroon–practicallytheentirerainbowexceptforblue.

Thesesuperiorcoloursmadethemselvesindispensabletopainters.Afewhadquibblesabouttheirsupposedartificiality–WilliamHolmanHuntcomplainedthatcadmiumyellow‘atthebestisverycapricious’–butmostsawthebright,purecoloursforwhattheywere.TheImpressionists,Post-ImpressionistsandabovealltheFauvistsmadegooduseofcadmium–or,itwouldbemoreaccuratetosay,cadmiummadepossiblethesesuccessivewavesofartisticrevolution.Aseachnewtintbecameavailable,itpoweredinturntheyellowsunsetsofMonet,theorange-soakedArlesinteriorsofvanGoghandMatisse’sRedStudio.PeoplehaveromanticallysupposedthatvanGoghwastooharduptobuythenewpigments,whileothersbelievetheartist’smentalstatemayhavebeenaffectedbyhisuseofcadmium(althoughhewascertainlyalsousingmorenoxiouspigments).Whatissureisthatheandhispeerssuddenlyhadaccesstoapaletteofcoloursofanintensityneverseenbefore.

In1989,theUnitedStatesRepublicansenatorforRhodeIsland,JohnChafee,laterchairmanoftheSenateenvironmentcommittee,soughttobanthe

useofcadmiuminpigmentsaspartofaseriesofmeasuresdesignedtoreducetheriskoftoxinsfromlandfillwastesitesleachingintogroundwatersupplies.SensitivesoulsacrossAmericafoundthemselvestornbetweentheinterestsoftheenvironmentontheonehandandartisticfreedomontheother.Althoughthedangersofvariousmetallicelementsusedinpigmentswerewellknown,theprospectivelegislationseemedtosingleoutcadmiumforthestrongestdisapprobation.Onepainterspokeof‘chemicalcensorship’,andsaidthathavingtoforgocadmiumcolourswouldbelikecookingwithoutgarlic.

Thevocalproteststendedtoobscurethefactthatartists’paintsaccountforonlyaverysmallfractionofcadmiumpigmentuse.Itemssuchascolourfulplasticwashingbowlsposedafargreaterriskiftheyweredisposedofthoughtlessly,andfortheseundemandingusesitwasrelativelyeasytofindsaferpigments.Butmanypaintersfeltthataestheticallytherewassimplynosubstituteforcadmium.ThesadtruthofthematterwasthatthewishesofartistsnolongerdrovethepigmentindustryasperhapstheydidduringtheRenaissance,anditnowseemedthatcadmium’sbriefreignasthepainter’sfavouritepigmentwasabouttobeended.

Afteralengthycampaign,though,America’sartistswonareprieve,andothercountriesthathadbeenseekingtointroducegreaterrestrictionsoncadmiumsoonfollowedsuit.TodaypaintersarefreetousetheircadmiumyellowandorangeandredwiththesameabandonasJacksonPollockandvanGogh.Thecolours–itislegallysignificantfortheirsurvivalthattheyarereferredtoascolours,notaspaints–thecoloursalreadyborelabelsintheUnitedStatesadvisingoftheirchemicalcontents.NowtheybearsimilarlabelsinEuropeancountriesaswell–animprovementonthesituationbeforewhensomecarriedtheconfusingmessage:‘healthlabel:Nohealthlabellingrequired’.

Thereisareasonwhyartistswereprovokedtosucheffectiveoutrage,andithasnothingtodowiththeaestheticmeritsofcadmiumcolour.Foritisonlywhenapaintingisdestroyedthatthecadmiumonitscanvascanbegintofinditswaybackintotheenvironment.Artistsclaimtheirexemptionfromthegeneralbannowinforceontheuseofcadmiuminplasticsandbatteriesandothermundaneitemsbasedontheexpectationthattheirpaintingswillnotsufferthisignominiousfate.Canvasissufficientlyexpensivethatartiststendtooverpaintratherthanthrowoutinferiorwork,andonceapaintingleavesthestudioittendstogaininvalue,whichhelpstoensureitssurvival.WhathadreallyrousedAmerica’sartists,then,wasnotthedangertotheenvironmentposedbycadmiumpigments,northethreatthattheywouldloseafavouritecolour,butthehurtfulthoughtthattheirworkmightnotinfactbetreasuredforever.

Itseemsbeyondsad–almostamoralisticaffronttoourcapacityforsensuousdelight–thatsomanyofthehighlycolouredchemicalsshouldalsobepoisonous.Thisistruenotonlyofthesaltsofcadmiumbutalsoofmanylong-knownpigmentssuchasyellowleadchromateandthevermilionofmercuricsulphide.Poisonsinfairytalesoftencomeincolouredbottles,orarecolouredthemselves.ChristianDior’scounter-intuitivelymarketedperfumePoisonexploitsthismythologyinapurpleglassbottleshapedlikeanapple.

Thebasisforthisassociationliesdeepinevolutionarypsychologyandbiochemistry.Humansandmanyspecieshaveevolvedtobeattractedto,yetalsowaryof,brightcoloursinnature.Thecoloursmayadvertiseripefruitandfreshmeatorwarnofpoisonousberriesandvenomouscreatures.Theirchemicaloriginisgenerallyquitedifferentfromthatofmanmadepigmentsbasedonheavymetals.Thecoloursoffruit,forexample,arebasedonyellowxanthophyll,theorangecarotenesandpurpleanthocyanins,whichareallorganiccompoundsthatcontainnometallicelements.Thesamepigmentsgiveawaythepresenceofsuchfairy-taledangersashollyberriesandthespottedredflyagarictoadstool(althoughthepoisonstheycontainarenotthesepigmentsbutdifferentcompoundsagain).

How,then,dothemetal-basedpigmentsoftheartistcometobepoisonous?Therearevariousmechanisms.Somesalts,suchasthechromates,arepowerfuloxidants,whichreleasecarcinogenicoxygenradicalsintothebody.Othersmesswithbiochemicalpathwayswherevitalmetalssuchasironandzincareimportant:forexample,cadmiumcandeprivethebodyofzincbybindingwithcertainproteinsinitsplace;inthesameway,chromium,cobaltandmanganesecanalldisplaceironfromthebloodplasma.Thedetailsofthisbiochemistryarenotyetfullyunderstood,butthereisexcitementthathumankindmightonedayturnthissystemtoitsownandnature’sadvantage.Byharnessingcertainproteins,wemaybeableselectivelytorecovervaluableheavymetalswithwhichwehavepollutedourenvironment,includingnotonlypigmentelementssuchascadmiumandchromiumbutalsoradioactiveuraniumandplutonium.

Stromeyerperformedhispublicdutieswellwhenhesavedpurchasersoftheapothecary’scontaminatedzincoxidepreparationfromunnecessaryexposuretocadmium.Elsewhere,thedangerhasbeenrevealedtoolate.Cadmiumyellow,orangeandredmaybeonething,but‘cadmiumblues’isquiteanother.Thisisthetermthathascometodescribethefirstcold-feversymptomsofthoseexposedtochronichighlevelsofthemetal,eitherfromsolublesaltsorfromtheinhalationofcadmiumvapour.Industrialexposureposesthegreatestrisk.

WeldersworkingtodismantleatemporarymetalstructureintheunventilatedspaceinsideoneofthetowersoftheSevernBridgeprovideagrimillustrationofthis.Themenusedoxyacetylenetorchestocutthroughboltsthatwereplatedwithcadmium.Thenextdaytheyfounddifficultyinbreathingandweretakentohospital,whereoneofthemlaterdiedfrompoisoningduetoinhalationofthemetalvapour.InFuchu,onthenortherncoastofJapan,hundredsofpeoplesuccumbedtoabone-softeningillnesstheycalleditai-itai(itaiisJapanesefor‘ouch’),whichturnedouttobetheresultofhighlevelsofcadmiuminricethathadbeengrowndownstreamofalargezincandsilvermine.Relativetotheserisks,theriskthatcadmiumposestoartistsisnotgreat:thepigmentsusedinpaintsarenotverysoluble,andsoarenotveryefficientlyabsorbedbythebodyeveniftheyareingested.

Theartist’sstudioisnottheonlyarenawherecadmium’scombinationofcolourandtoxicityhaveprovokedcontroversy.Foryears,IhadbeenawareofarumourthatmylocalcityofNorwichhadreceivedanunwelcomechemicalvisitinthenight.

Wenowknowthisiswhathappened.Thursday28March1963hadbeenafineday,andtherewasalmostnocloudthateveningwhenaDevonlightaircraftsetoutonapaththatwouldtakeitfromAldeburghontheSuffolkcoastonawest-northwesterlypathoverthecountyofNorfolk.Theplanewasloadedwith150poundsofaspeciallypreparedzinccadmiumsulphidepigment,whichwasreleasedatanaltitudeof500feetatthepointwhentheplanewasjudgedtobepassingupwindofNorwich.Alightsouthwesterlybreezedispersedthefluorescentorangeparticlesintoaninvisiblehaze.Ontheground,atfortysitesinandaroundthecity,mysteriousofficials–theywerefromtheChemicalDefenceExperimentalEstablishmentatPortonDowninWiltshire,althoughtheyborenosuchinsigniaontheirprotectiveclothing–tookuppositions,readywithcollectorsthatwouldallowthemtocountthefallingparticles.Fromdeclassifiedgovernmentpapers,itappearstheaimoftheexercisewastotestthelikelyefficacyofmethodsofbiologicalwarfare.Thefluorescentcadmiumpigmentwasmerelyaconvenientandsupposedlyinnocuoustracermadeupinaparticulateformtoresembleapotentialbiologicalagent.TheMinistryofDefenceranmanysuchtestsfromthemid1950s–often,soasnottoarouseundueattention,overthedefenceestablishmentsthemselves.Butsometimestheofficialsdeemeditnecessarytoselectamorerealistictarget.ThiswasthecaseatNorwich,wheretheideawastoseewhethertheparticleswouldfalltogroundinanurbanenvironmentagainstthecurrentofwarmedairrisingfromthe

denselyclusteredhouses.OnthatThursdayevening,onlylowishlevelsofthepigmentreachedthecollectorsites.Theaerialtrialswererepeatedfourtimesinthecoldearlymonthsof1964.

Therethematterresteduntilnewsofthetestswasreleasedthirtyyearslater,promptingfearsthatrealdangershadbeencoveredup.Anindependentreportpublishedin2002suggestedthattherisktothepublicfromexposuretothecadmiumpigmentwasequivalenttowhatonemightinhaleinanycityinthespaceofafewweeksor,lessreassuringly,tosmokingahundredcigarettes,and‘shouldnothaveresultedinadversehealtheffectsintheUnitedKingdompopulation’.Afewyearslater,aNorwichsurgeonreawakenedpublicanxietybysuggestingthattheabove-averagelevelsofoesophagalcancerthathehadobservedintheareamightbeattributabletocadmium.AMinistryofDefencespokeswomanwasreportedintheNorwichEveningNewsdeclaringinresponsethatthetrialmaterialswere‘harmlessstimulants’(animaginativeoxymoron–shepresumablysaid,orshouldhavesaid,‘simulants’).Thecancerincidencewassubsequentlyshowntobeinlinewithwhatwouldbeexpectedwhentheageandgeneralhealthofthepopulationweretakenintoaccount.Intheend,thegreatestactualriskmayhavebeentotheofficialmonitorsofthetestsfromtheultravioletlightunderwhichtheyworkedinordertocountthefluorescentparticles.

Wanderingthenarrowlanesofthistranquilcity,withitsshopsdevotedtomusicandalternativeremedies,itishardtoseewhyitshouldbesingledoutforsuchanodiousexercise.Infact,theministryhadfirstchosenSalisburytohostthetrials,butithadbeenfoundtoosmallandtoohillytoproducetherequiredthermaleffectinthecityair.InNorwich,Istopoutsideoneofthenumerousartists’suppliers.There,flauntingtheirsunflowerbrillianceforalltosee,aretubesofcadmiumsulphidepaintforanyonetobuy,andindosesfargreaterthanwereeverdroppedfromanyplaneuponanunsuspectingpopulace.Allyouhavetodoistogoinandask.

Seeingthesevividcadmiumpaintsforcesmetoconsiderhowharditistodescribecoloursatall.Ourvocabularyofcolourisseverelylimited.Red,orange,yellow,green,blue,indigo,violetdoesn’tbegintocoveritwhentheaverageeyecandiscriminateseveralmilliontones.(Scientistsuseaparticularlydodgy-soundingunit,the‘justnoticeabledifference’,asameasureofthismagnificenthumancapacity.)Thesesevencoloursoftherainbowtelluslessaboutcolourthantheydoaboutourlazinesswhenitcomestonamingit.

GlobalbrandslikeBPandCoca-Colaclingtotheseprimariesbecauseitiseasiertodefend‘ownership’ofthemthansubtle,in-betweenshadesforwhich

thereisnoagreedword.Beyondthisthereisnolanguageofpurecolour.Allwecandoisadoptqualifiers–light,dark,dull,greenishandsoon–orseeklikenessesinthingsthatcharacteristicallyhavethecolourwearetryingtodescribe.Thesemaycomefromnature–primrose,say,orkingfisherblue–andsometimestheycomedirectlyfromtheelementsthemselves,aswithchromeyelloworcobaltblue.Butcorrectinterpretationdependsonsharedculturalground.‘Pillar-boxred’isonlythatparticularshadeofred,orforthatmatterredatall,ifyoulivewherethepillarboxesactuallyarered,andwhere,furthermore,everybodyisfamiliarwiththem.Moreoften,thetermsarehopelesslyvague–skyblue,let’ssay–orifnot,esotericallyprecise,suchastheartists’paintcalledMummyBrown,whichfellrapidlyoutoffashionwhenpeoplerealizedthatittrulywasmadefromground-upEgyptianmummies.

Ifindmyselfgrowingmoreattunedtothesenuancesofsemanticsandvisualperceptiononatouroftheartists’paintmanufacturer(or‘colourmen’,astheyareknowninthetrade)Winsor&Newton.PeterWaldron,thecompany’schiefchemist,tellsmehowkhakicameupinconversationonedayamongthemanynationalitieswhoworkatthecompany’sHarrowfactory.TheBritishstaffthoughttheyknewexactlywhatitmeantsincekhakiisfamouslythecolourofBritisharmyuniforms.IthoughtIdidtoo,untilIlookedituplaterinmydictionaryandfounditdescribedas‘alightyellowishbrown’–Ihaditdownmoreasamuddygrey-green.TheIndianworkersweresureoftheiranswertoo,sincekhakiisaHindiwordmeaningdust-coloured.ButtheFrenchandChineseemployeeswereunderstandablymoreperplexed.

Suchdifficultiesarecompoundedwhenitcomestotheinventionofnewcolours,whichisanimportantaspectofWinsor&Newton’swork.WilliamWinsorandHenryNewtonfoundedthebusinessin1832withaninnovativerangeofmoistwatercolourpigmentsthatwereeasierforartiststouse.ThecompanyhassuppliedJohnConstableandmostBritishartistseversince.Thesedays,artists’paintsareatinypartofthemarketforpigments,andresearchislimitedtoharnessingtechnologyfromotherfields.‘Weborrowfromeverycolour-usingindustry–ceramics,printinks,industrialpaints,food,buildingmaterials,’Petertellsme.Themajoreffortistoreplacepigmentsnowknowntobedangerouslypoisonous,suchasthosebasedonleadandarsenicandtosomeextentcadmiumandchromium,withsaferequivalentsthatartistsfindequalorsuperiortohandle.‘Thechallengehasbeentoproducearangeofmoderncoloursthatcanreproduceanythingpeoplehavedoneinthepast.’

Butartistsarealsointerestedincompletelynewcolours.Metallicpaintsofthekindthathavelongbeenpopularoncarsareonefascination.Anotherwishisforultra-brightcoloursthatarelightfast,sincemostfluorescentpigmentsare

inherentlyfugitive.ForWinsor&Newton,it’samatterofwatchingthebigboysandwaitingfortherightmoment.Thereissomeadvantageinbeinglowdownthepeckingorderasthecolourmencanatleastavoidothers’expensivemistakes.Petertellsmewithsomeamusementofabrightyellowbismuthpigmententhusiasticallytakenupbythecarindustry.Atfirst,itwasnotnoticedhowmuchthecolourfadedwhenexposedtothelightbecauseitfadedevenlyandreturnedtoitsformerbrightnesswhenthelightdimmed.Theproblemwasonlyexposedwhenthetestcarwasparkedunderatree.Bythetimethedriverreturned,thefinishcouldonlybedescribedasdappled.

‘Lonely-chromeAmerica’

In1951,theMuseumofModernArtinNewYorkputonanexhibitioncalled‘EightAutomobiles’.Reflectingthemuseum’schronicfondnessforEuropeanstyleandart,fiveoftheeightwereEuropeandesignsofimpeccablecoachbuildingpedigree,supportingthecurators’thesisthatcarswere–orshouldbe–‘rollingsculpture’.TheremainingthreeprovidedarepresentativetableauofwhereAmericandesignthenfounditself:avoluptuous1941LincolnContinental,thecontinentinquestionbeingnotAmericabuttheverysameEurope,wherethecompanypresidenthadrecentlyspentaneye-openingvacation;a1937Cord812Sedan,whichmadeupwithchromiumcrustingwhatitlackedinfinelines;andanarmyJeepasafunctionalalternativeforthoseimmunetothesirencallofcurvesandglitter.

Preparationfortheexhibitionhadbegunthepreviousyearwithaconferenceonautomobiledesignatwhichoneofthecurators,thearchitectPhilipJohnson,announced–guiltily,youimagine,asifatameetingofAlcoholicsAnonymous–thatheownedabrand-newBuick.BuickwasthebrashestofthemodellinesmanufacturedbyGeneralMotors,whichalsocontrolledtheCadillacandChevroletbrands:‘lookslikeaJetPlane,travelsthesameway’,promisedoneadvertisementatthetime.Johnson’scarranwellenough,heconfessed,buthewasembarrassedbythegaudylookofthething,especiallywhenhewaswithhisEurophilefriends,whodrovecarsliketheBritishMG.Soinordernottooffendtheirsensibilitiesorhisown,hehadinstructedthatthedecorativechromecomponentsbestrippedfromit.

Howcanonemetalinducesuchraptureandsuchdistaste?Thoughdiscoveredasearlyas1798byNicolas-LouisVauquelin,chromiumonlybecamepopularduringthe1920s,whenelectroplatingbecamewidespread.Untilthen,nickelhadbeenfavouredforthisfinishingtreatment.Asurfacelayerofnickelhasagentleyellowglow,butpolishedchromiumproducesachillblue-white

colourandapiercingshine.Chrome-platedobjectssuchaslampsandfurniturewereastrikingfeatureattheinfluential1925ParisExpositionInternationaledesArtsDécoratifsetIndustrielsModernes,andthemetalthereafterbecamepartofthevisualgrammaroftheArtDecomovement.Itwastheperfectglossforbrittletimes.InAHandfulofDust,EvelynWaugh’smasterpieceofinterwarmanners,MrsBeaver’sincessanturgetoredecorateotherpeople’shomesinvariablyinvolvesaliberalapplicationofchromium.

Theglamorousnewmetallentitselfequallywelltoluxuriousinteriorsandpracticalhouseholdobjects.ItprovidedthekeysignatureofArtDecoextravaganzasliketheStrandPalaceHotelinLondon.Butmodernistdesignerstoomadeabundantuseofchrome,gainsayingthepuritanismsooftenascribedtothem.AttheBauhausinWeimar,theartistLászlóMoholy-Nagybroughtrevolutiontothemetalworkshop,forcingitssmithstoshift‘fromwinejugstolightingfixtures’,abandoningcraftworkinsilverandgoldtoembracesteel,nickelandchrome-plateindesignsformassproduction.TheskinnycruciformcolumnsofLudwigMiesvanderRohe’sBarcelonaPavilionof1929–themostopulentandsensualofalltemporaryexhibitionstructures–werechrome-plated,aswasmuchofthefurniturethathedesigned.

Theunattainableglamourofthesedesigns,signifiedbytheirabundanceofshiningsurfaces,merelywhettedtheappetiteofconsumers.WhenParisianartdecocrossedtheAtlantic,tobeeffortlesslyco-optedintothemoreegalitarianspiritofwhatAmericaknewastheMachineAge,chrometravelledtoo(instyle,aboardoceanlinersliketheNormandie),andwasusedtoadornluxuryhomeappliancesandotherbig-ticketitems.ItwasnotuntilaftertheSecondWorldWarthattheabilitytoproduceplatewithadurableandappealingfinishledtotheextravagantuseofchromeinmanymoreproducts.

Chromequicklybecamethemetallicelementmostcloselyidentifiedwiththeboomingconsumersociety.Itradiatedmodernity,glamour,excitementandspeed.Butithadsomethingelsetoo.Unlikealuminium,anothermaterialinfashionatthistime,whichsharessomeoftheseassociationsbecauseofitslightness,chromiumwasseenalmostalwaysintheformofplate,andsobeganalsotoconnotesuperficiality.Forawhile,though,itsbrightshinewasenoughtoobliterateanydoubtpeoplemighthavehadandgivethemwhattheycravedintheirlivesaftertheDepressionandthewar–alittleaffordablelustre.

Nowherewastheconsumptionofchromiummoreconspicuousthanintheautomobileindustry.Althoughthetrendwasglobalduringthe1950sand1960s,itwasAmericancarsaboveallthatbecamethebejewelledemblemsoftheperiod.ThemanchieflyresponsibleforthegrinninggrillesandbulgingbumpersandthetailfinsthatgrewhigheryearbyyearwasHarleyEarl,the‘daVinciof

Detroit’.BroughtintoGeneralMotorstoheadthecorporation’snewlycreatedArtandColorSection,EarlinjectedHollywoodintoMotownandbecametheacknowledgedpioneerofautomobilestyling,exertinghugeinfluenceoverGeneralMotors’entirerangeofBuick,Cadillac,PontiacandChevroletmodels.HecountedCecilB.DeMilleamonghisacquaintances,anditsoonbegantoshow,asheintroducedtheconceptofthe‘newmodelyear’,whichguaranteedhisdesignteampermanentworkwithitsirresistibleformulaofchangeforchange’ssakeleadingtoaspectacularunveilingeachfall.Aswiththeevolutionofthepeacock,theonlypathafterawhilewastowardsgreaterandgreaterexcess,whichmeantmoreandmorechrome.Iconoclasticgesturesbypuritanicalmuseumcuratorswerenevergoingtobeabletocallahalt.

ChromiumbecametheinternationalcallingcardofAmericanplenty.IntheshowstopperfromLeonardBernstein’sandStephenSondheim’sWestSideStory,thePuertoRicangirlssing:

AutomobileinAmericaChromiumsteelinAmericaWire-spokewheelinAmericaVerybigdealinAmerica!

Oneofthegirls,Rosalia,lovesAmericanthingsasmuchastherestbutpinesforhome,anddreams:

I’lldriveaBuickthroughSanJuan.

Halfaworldaway,theflashofchromiumoncarsisanindexofthegrowingAmericanpresenceinpre-warShanghaiinJ.G.Ballard’sEmpireoftheSun.China’salliancewithAmericaisindicatedbytheKuomintangpennantflyingfromthechromiummastofaChryslerlimousine.Andwhenamysterious‘Eurasian’appearsneartheendofthebooktoreleaseJim,theboywhoistheautobiographicalcentralcharacter,fromthestadiumwherehehasbeenheldwithhundredsofprisonersofwar,itisnotedthat‘HespokewithastrongbutrecentlyacquiredAmericanaccent,whichJimassumedhehadlearnedwhileinterrogatingcapturedAmericanaircrews.Heworeachromiumwristwatch…’TheAmericanimpersonationisasdisposableasthetrophywatch.

Themeaningsofchromiumhavegrownmorenumerousandambiguousovertime.Butdesignersconsciouslyemployedthemetalabovealltoconveyasenseofspeed–evensometimesonthingsthatneverwentanywhere,likemechanical

pencilsharpeners.HarleyEarl’sstylistsstreakedtheirBuicksandCadillacswithfulgentfairingsandelaboratehorizontalcorrugationsguaranteedtocatchthelightandbeamitintotheeyesofadmiringobservers.Themissile-shapedheadlightmountingsandstabbingaileronswerechromedtoo,theirlinesplainlyintendedtosuggestnotonlyspeedbutalsoanaggressivevirility.Theseweredefinitelycars‘ForthemanofSuccess’inthewordsofoneBuickadvertisementofthe1950s.(Themalecharacteristicsformedinchromefindtheirfemalecounterpartinthepaintedcurvesofthebodywork,makingthesedesignsintofullyconceivedhermaphroditicsexmachines.)

Thelinkbetweenshinymetalandspeedisapparentlyapermanentone.InthestoryofPhaëthon’schariotinOvid’sMetamorphoses,Phaëthonbegstoborrowhisfather’scarwhichhepromptlycrashesinflames.Its

axleandpolewereconstructedofgold,andgoldentoowastherimencirclingthewheels,whichwerefittedwithspokesofsilver.

Inaptlyenough,oneofthe1937Cordswasnamedthe‘Super-chargedPhaeton’.ThistendencyreachesanexplosiveapotheosisinCrash,J.G.Ballard’s

disturbingnovelinwhichcarcrashes–imaginedandstaged–areexploredasafetishtoproducesexualarousal.Chromiumservesasastimulusthroughout,providingfirsttheprismthroughwhicheroticvisionsareglimpsed–‘InthechromiumashtrayIsawthegirl’sleftbreastanderectnipple…Hersharpbreastsflashedwithinthechromiumandglasscageofthespeedingcar’–andthentheweaponinscenesofincreasinglyappallingviolencewherethehardmetalpartsstrikeandpenetratefleshtogeneratesensationsofsexualintensity.Theharshgleamofthemetaliskey.Ballardimagines‘flashinglances’ofafternoonlightreflectedfromchromiumpanelstearingattheskin,beforemovingonto‘thepartialmammoplastiesofelderlyhousewives…carriedoutbythechromiumlouvresofwindshieldassemblies’and‘thecheekofhandsomeyouthstornonthechromiumlatchesofquarter-lights’.

Inthiscritiqueofourunreasoningloveofdangeroustechnology,chromeismerelythesurfacethatfirstexcitesourlust.Crashwaspublishedin1973,whenthefirstoilcrisisstruckandthepublicpassionforchromeoncarswasalreadycooling.ButbythistimethemetalhadspreaditsinfluencewellbeyondParis,WeimarandDetroittobecomeapowerfulcipherforconsumerismingeneral.

AyearortwoafterPhilipJohnsonstrippedthechromefromhisBuick,agroupofartistsandwritersmetattheInstituteofContemporaryArtinMayfairandresolvedtotakeanunashamedlookatthekindofthingthatsooffended

him.TheIndependentGroup,asitbecameknown,countedamongitsfounderstheartistsRichardHamiltonandEduardoPaolozziandthecriticReynerBanham.Theytookamoreforgivingviewoftechnologyandthegrowingcultureofconsumerism,andcelebratedthepulpfiction,film,advertisingandmass-manufacturedproductsthattheartisticestablishmentchosetoignore.Theysoughtoutitemspossessingwhattheycalled‘symboliccontent’withtheideathatthis,ratherthanpatriciangoodtaste,wasthekeytomakingthingspeoplewouldactuallylike.Atonemeeting,BanhamexplicitlypraisedthestylingcomingoutofDetroit.Later,hemovedtoLosAngeles,wherehewasfinallyobligedtolearntodriveacar,anexperiencehelikenedtoacquiringItalianinordertoreadDanteintheoriginal.

RichardHamilton,oneoftheprogenitorsofPopArt,periodicallyunveilednewpaintingstofellowmembersofthegroup.Thesecollage-likecompositionsbegantoincorporatetheshapesofsomeoftheseshinyconsumergoods.AmericancarswereexplicitlyrepresentedinworkssuchasHommageàChryslerCorp.of1957,whosepinkandchromemélangeofsexualandmachinepartssimplyaccentuatedthesymbolismthatwasreadilyapparentincontemporarycaradvertisements.Byreplicatingthelustreofthechromeinoilpaint,Hamiltongroupedhimselfwithartiststhroughouttheageswhohaveplacedmetalobjectsintheirstilllifesinordertodemonstratetheirmasteryofopticsandcolour.ButforHamiltontherewasaparadox,forthegreatertherealism,themorethecarefulpainttoneswouldimplyadepthandsoliditytotheobject.Soinworkswhereitwasmoreimportanttoremindthevieweroftheessentialsuperficialityofchromeplate,hemadehisownfinishingtouchsuperficialtoo,bypastingonpiecesofmetalfoil.

Withtheirparallelsbetweenthecontoursofthefemalebodyandthecurvesofdomesticobjectsliketoasters,thesepaintingsmightbethoughttooffersomekindofcrypto-feministattackontheaffluentsociety.ButHamiltonseemstobeofferingamoreambivalentcommentary.Chrome,especiallyinitsautomotiveguise,hadacquiredamachoappealthatpersiststodayespeciallyonAmericantrucksandmotorbikes.Yet,asHamilton’snextmajorpaintingwastoobserve,chromewasalsofounddesirablebywomen.Theworkiscalled$heandshowsinsemi-abstractformpartofawoman’storso,anapron,apinkfridgedoorhangingopen,and,intheforeground,amutantchromeappliancethatappearstobepart-toaster,part-vacuumcleaner.‘Thisrelationshipofwomanandappliancesisafundamentalthemeofourculture,’Hamiltonsaidofthework,‘asobsessiveandarchetypalastheWesternmoviegunduel.’Whatevertheythoughtofsuchpaintings,womenwerenotslowtoappreciatethatchromium’spristinewhiteshinerepresentedasharpimprovementonthemetalsformerlyusedfor

housewares,copperandpewter,whichneededfrequentpolishing.‘Nometal,itseemstome,isquitesocompleteananswertothehousewife’sprayeraschromium,’wrotethepre-eminentAmericansocialcommentatorEmilyPost,whofoundit‘appealingnotonlytotheeye,buttopracticalrequirements’.

Veryquickly,however,chromeseemedtochangefromamaterialpromisingakindofuniversalglamourtoonethatwasflashandeventawdry.Writerswerefirsttoseepasttheglitter.Oneculturalcriticobserved:‘thereislittlewrongwiththeAmericancarthatisnotwrongwiththeAmericanpublic’,neatlyinvertingthenostrumoftheGeneralMotorspresidentthat‘whatwasgoodforthecountrywasgoodforGeneralMotorsandviceversa’.VladimirNabokovdescribesLolita’smother’s‘depressinglybrightkitchen,withitschromeglitterandHardwareandCo.Calendarandcutebreakfastnook’–oneofmanywriters’imagesoftheterritorythatDonDeLilloidentifiesinhismassivenovelUnderworldas‘lonely-chromeAmerica’.

Chromiumhadlostitsgripontheimaginationofthesociallyaspirant,andthemetal’sreputationnowfellfromthecliffedgewhereitwasperched.Thefetishisticqualityofpolishedchromewasexploitedineroticart,wherethenakedfemalebodywasdisplayedasgleamingmachine.Chrome(‘herprettychildfacesmoothassteel’)isthenameofaprostituteinWilliamGibson’sshortstoryofthatname,writtenin1982.Post-modernistartistslikeJeffKoonsgavechromeanothershoveonitsway,recreatingthekindofworthlessbaublenormallyfounddanglingfromarear-viewmirroronamonumentalscaleinpolishedchromiumstainlesssteel,andrelishingtheironyofhissuper-sizeshinytokensofextremebadtaste–withnameslikeRabbit,CandyHeartandBalloonDog–sellingatauctionformillionsofdollars.Atthesametime,‘chrome’surfacesthemselveshavegrownmorefakethaneverasithasbecomepossibletocoatevenplasticswithglossymetallicfinishes.

Atanotherremovefrommaterialtruth,thevisualsimulationofchrome–hardtoachievebecausetheeyeisacutelysensitivetoirregularitiesinthepolishedsurface–becameabenchmarkforrealismincomputergraphics,recordedincultfilmssuchasLawnmowerManandTerminator2.Yeteventhecomputergraphicswizardshavebeguntoseepastthesurface,for,sincethosefilmsweremade,intheearly1990s,theyhavestartedtouse‘chrome’asatermofabuseforworkthatstrivestoomuchforeffect.

AbbéSuger’sSheetSapphire

TheapproachtotheabbeychurchofStDenisoutsideParisislessthanpromising,andthefirstsightofitacrossbleakurbanplazasislittlebetter.The

buildingissquat,lopsidedandsomewhatdishevelled.ButIhavecomeforwhatisinside,andassoonasIhaveadjustedtothedimnessIrealizeIamnottobedisappointed.Myfirstimpressionisofasoaringverticality,createdbyranksofcolumnsrisingcleanlytotheroof.Despitethecharmlessgreystone,theinteriorislightbymedievalstandardsbecauseofthegreatnumberofstained-glasswindowsandtheslendernessofthepiersbetweenthem.Towardsthealtar,adeepbluelightpreponderates,seemingalmosttomagnifythesunlightevenasittransformsitscolour.Othercoloursinthestainedglasscastjewelledstrandsoflightacrossthefloor.Theblueradiance,ontheotherhand,seemsnotsomuchtostrikeinoneplaceastooozearoundandslowlyengulfme.Theeffectissubmarine.

StDenisistheprototypeoftheGothiccathedral,themagnificentcreationofthefamousAbbotSuger.WetendtothinkofGothicarchitectureasheavyandspooky,butthisisnotthecasehere.Theblueglass,oneofmanybeautifulandnovelmaterialsthatSugeremployed,isconcentratedformaximumeffectinthewindowsattheeastendofthecathedral,wheretheexpectantgazeofworshippersisansweredbythemorningsun.Sugersaidthechurch‘shonewithamarvellous,uninterruptedlight’.

Wheresomeofthewindowswererestoredinthenineteenthcentury,thecoloursarebrighterinthereplacedpanes,andthedetailissharperwheretheyhavebeenetched.ButtheauthenticGothicblueremainsquiteasintenseasthenew.Itisclearfromthenativitywindowthatitsmedievalcraftsmenknewthecolourwasspecial:Christhimselfisswaddledintherichblue,andMary,too,isdrapedinit.

Bluehasalwaysbeenoneofthehardestcolourstoextractfromnature,oftenseemingasintangibleastheskyitself.ButSugerwasabletotakeadvantageofnewfoundsourcesoftop-qualityblue,whichwasobtainedfromoresoftheasyetunknownmetalcobalt.Cobaltcompoundscanattainanintensityofcolourfivetimesthatofanyothercolorantofglass,andtheavailabilityoftheseexceptionalmineralssparkedaremarkablefashionforblueinthetwelfthcentury.FollowingtheexampleofStDenis,firstChartres,thenLeMansandothergreatchurchesoftheperiodflaunted‘precioussheetsofsapphire’intheirwindows.Inspiredbytheglass-makers,othercraftsbegantomakemorefrequentuseofblueinenamelwork,painting,clothingandheraldry.ThecolourcametobefavouredfortheVirginMary’sdress,andthroughthisholyassociationwasalsoadoptedbytheFrenchmonarchy.IrealizeasIleaveStDenisandmakemywaybackintoParisthatthisblueisalloverthecity:onthetraditionalblue-and-whiteenamelstreetnamesandonthesignsintheMétro.

Bytheendofthecentury,demandforblueglasswassogreatthatother

blues,derivedfromcopperandmanganese,hadtobeemployedtomeetecclesiasticaldemand.Butwhiletheselessstabletoneshavedeterioratedoverthecenturies,thecobaltblueatStDenisandwhereverelseithasbeenusedhasremainedastrueandintenseasinSuger’sday,its‘luminousdarkness’consideredbysometobetheperfectrepresentationof‘Divinepresence’.

Byanalysingitscharacteristicimpurities,itispossibleinprincipletotraceanymineralbacktoitssource,likeadetectiveanalysingsoilfromashoe.Inpractice,though,theworkofmatchingtheelementsfoundinfinishedartefactswiththecompositionofspecificmineoreshashardlybegun.Itseemslikely,however,thatSuger’sbluecameonewayoranotherfromminesinPersia.Tradersmayhavecarriedrawsmaltiteore–ortheglassyderivativeofitknownassmalt–directlytoFrance,butitisimpossibletobesureofthisasmedievalglasswasoftenmadefromrecycledRomanglassandByzantinemosaictiles,whoserawmaterialswouldhavecomefromthesamePersiansources.

Smaltiteisashinygreymineralthatofferslittlecluetotheintensecolourthatlieshiddenwithinit.Thecobaltoxidethatisobtainedbyroastingitinairisalsodullinappearance.Onlywhenthismaterialisfusedtogetherwithquartzorpotashdoesitformthebrightbluesmalt.Asaglassymaterialitself,smaltisperfectforfusingintoglassandceramics,butdespiteitsintensecolouritislesssuitableasapigmentinpaint.Ifgroundtoofine,itbeginstoscatteralllightratherthanjustreflectingtheblue,andthismakesitappearpale.Buttoocoarse-ground,itleadstoastreakyfinishinoilpaint.Nevertheless,smaltpigmentswereusedbysixteenth-centuryartistsoftenasabaseorthinlydispersedinpaintedskies.PainterssuchasTitian,whoconspicuouslyincludedmanybluegarmentsintheirpaintingsandwhodidusesmalt,stillpreferredtouseultramarine,madefromlapislazuli,forthefinish.

Ibuyasmallpotofsmaltfromanartists’supplier.Itisnotapowderlikeotherpigments,butgrainytothetouchlikeaveryfinesand.Underabrightlight,Icanseethattheintenseblueissubtlymodulated:thecolourofthematerialitselfisdarkerthanIfirstperceivedbutislightenedbythesparklefromitscrystalgrains.Imixsomewithlinseedoil,workingliketheartistsoftheRenaissance.Themixturecrunchesgentlyundermyspatulaanddarkensalmosttoblackastheliquidspreadsthroughthepigment.ColourreturnsasIspreadthemixedpaintoncanvas,butnomatterhowthinlyIdothisIcannotproduceapaleblue,onlyeverscratchierflecksandstreaksoftheintenseoriginalcolour.

Anew,European,sourceadvancedthepopularityofblueinthesixteenthcentury,whenitwasfoundthatthelong-establishedsilverminesinthemountainsbetweenSaxonyandBohemiawerealsorichinsmaltite.TheSaxonoreminers,traditionallyregardedasthebestinEurope,hatedthetoilof

extractingthenewmineral,however.Thelabourwashardandinvolvedexposuretoharmfulfumes,releasedwhentheore’sothermainingredient,arsenic,wasroastedoff.TheminersblamedtheirwoesonalittleearthdemonnamedKobold.

WhenGoethe’sFaustfirstsummonsthefigureofMephistopheles,heinvokes‘theelementalfour’offire,air,waterandearthinturn,withearthpersonifiedbythisevilspirit:

First,toconfrontthisthingofhell,Imustrepeatthefour-foldspell:Salamanderbrightshallburn,Sylphinvisibleshallturn,Undineflowwithinherwave,Koboldshallslave.

TheNorwegiancomposerEdvardGriegtitledagrowling,aggressivelittlepianoscherzoofhis‘Smatrold’(meaning‘littletroll’);theGermanscallthesamepiece‘Kobold’,butthechosenEnglishtranslation,‘Puck’,failstocapturetherealnastinessofthecharacter.

Ofcourse,thefactthatitschemicalconstitutionwasn’tproperlyknownandthattheelementbehinditlackedanameofitsowndidnothingtopreventthebluepigmentfrombecomingahighlymarketablecommodity.Cobaltprosperedanonymouslyforcenturiesbeforeitwaseventuallydiscovered,inaround1735,whenthechemistandcontrolleroftheSwedishmintGeorgBrandtdivinedthatsmaltitewasnotmerelythecompoundofknownmetalsandarsenicthathadbeenassumed.Henamedthenewmetalcobaltafterthisincubusoftheundergroundintributetothoseunluckyminers–andperhapsalsoasawayofwrestingthisnamefromitspaganassociationsandfasteningitinsteadtotheshieldofEnlightenmentscience.

Smaltwashighlycompatiblenotonlywithglass-makingbutalsowiththematerialsandprocessesofpottery.Itwasoneofthefewsubstancesthatkeptitscolourwhenthepotterywasfired.Indeed,heatintensifiedtheblue.Othercolourscouldalwaysbepaintedonafterwards,buttheopportunitytosealinthecolourbeneaththeglazeguaranteeditsdominance.TheearliestEuropeanwarestousethisblueintheirdesigns,suchasmajolicaandfaience,reliedoncobaltfromPersia,asdidtheglass-makersofVenice.Thoughcompositionsvary,theblueglassesandceramicsusedinIslamicandChristiandecorativeartsofthemedievalperiodalsocontaincobaltfromthisfruitfulsource.Thejewelof

PersiancivilizationisthepublicmosquethatShahAbbasIbuiltatthebeginningoftheseventeenthcenturyinIsfahan,itsfaçadeablazeofgoldenArabicscriptsetagainstthissameblueglaze.TheChinese,whohadbeencreatingbluedesignsintheirceramicssincetheninthcentury,alsoreliedonPersiansuppliesof‘Mohammedanblue’,transportedalongtheSilkRoad.ThisartreacheditsapogeeduringtheMingDynasty.Thecraftsmenofthisperiodoftenrestrictedtheirpalettetothissinglecolour,preferringitsstylizedcontrastwiththeicywhiteoftheporcelaintomorenaturallycolouredscenes.

Inmymind’seyeIhaveanimageofdustybluetracksradiatingeastandwestfromtheminesofPersiaandSaxonytothegreatartisticcentresoftheworld,likethestarburstsonanairlineroutemap.Thelineskeptonspreading.Europeanpotters,inspiredbytheMingporcelainfirstintroducedtoPortugalbyreturningexplorersandthenimportedingreaterquantitiesbytheDutchEastIndiaCompany,soughttoemulatetheChineseartistryusingthelocalsmaltfromSaxony.Delftbecamethecentreofthisactivity,andthecity’snamehasbecomesynonymouswiththeblue-and-whitepotterythatwascreatedthroughouttheNetherlandsatthistime.In1708,anewmixofclaysandhotterkilnsfinallyenabledEuropetorivalChineseporcelain.RoyalSaxonporcelainproducedatMeissen,closetosourcesofsmaltaswellasthenewclays,sooncameinmanypatterns,butoneofthemostenduringisBlueOnion,afloraldesignlooselybasedonaChineseoriginal.OtherporcelainfactoriesquicklysprangupthroughoutEurope.Despitetheadventofpigmentsinothercolours,thebluedesignsthatmanyofthemhaveproducedfromtheoutsetremainsomeoftheirmostpopular.

InBritain,too,Chinese-inspiredbluedesignswereanearlysuccessfortheeighteenth-centuryporcelainfactoriesofRoyalWorcesterandSpode,whichfoundwaystoindustrializetheproductionoftableware.Oneofthesedesigns,WillowPattern,isstillsoldtoday.ThefirstEnglishmakeroffineporcelainwasWilliamCookworthy,aPlymouthpharmacistwhofoundedhisownworksinordertoexploitthechinaclaydepositshehaddiscoveredinCornwall.HewasalsotobethekeytothesmalttradeinBritain.Cookworthy’stradeandlocationwereessentialtohisachievement.Inthebusynavalport,hehadthepickofexoticrawmaterialsfromBritain’soverseascoloniesandforeignlands.HeboughtpotteryclayfromVirginiaandchemicalstomakeupthemedicinesthathethensuppliedtothenavyandotheroutboundshipping.HerecognizedthesuperiorityofSaxonysmaltandmovedtogainamonopolyofthematerialimportedtoBritain.WhenCookworthylatershiftedhisownchinaproductiontoBristol,hewasinagoodpositiontocontrolthesupplyofimportedsmalttakenuptheRiverSevernintotheheartofthePotteries,where,in1784,the

manufacturerSpodebegantransfer-printingimagesusingacobaltunderglazetocreatethemostdistinctiveofallEnglishbluetableware.

Cookworthy’ssmaltsoonfoundfavourwiththecity’sglassindustry,too.Bristolwasoneoftheverticesinthe‘triangulartrade’linkingBritainwithAfricaandtheCaribbeanviatheslavetrade.ThesugararrivingatBristolfromplantationsinBritain’sCaribbeancoloniesprovidedanincentivetosetuplocaldistilleries,andtheseinturngeneratedademandforbottles.BottleswereoneofthemanymanufacturedgoodsthenexportedtoAfricaandelsewhere,completingtheinfamoustriangle.

Althoughcolouredglassandclearglassaresimilarinchemicalcompositionandbasicproperties,colouredglassattractedalowerexcisedutythanclearglass,whichwasusuallydestinedforthetable,orforwindowsandchandeliers.Inordertoavoidthehigherduty,bottle-glass-makersmadesuretocolourtheirglass.BythesecondhalfoftheeighteenthcenturyBristolwasfamedforitscolouredglasses:aswellasgreensandbrownsduetoironimpurities,theydevelopedadeepblueglassfromCookworthy’ssmalt.Mostbottleglassesdidn’tmeritasecondglance,buttheblueglass,whichwasnovelandunquestionablybeautiful,quicklyfoundamarket.ThisglasswasmadeintodecantersandstemwareintheheightofGeorgianstyle,appealingtotheprosperousmerchantsofthecityandthenouveauxrichesofnearbyBathandbeyond.Theboomwasshort-lived,however.ThelossoftheAmericancoloniesaftertheWarofIndependenceprecipitatedthecollapseoftheentireindustry,leavingbehindlittlemorethanthephraseBristolBlue.

In1996,Harvey’s,asherryimporterlongbasedinthecity(nowswallowedupbysomeplacelessinternationalconglomerate),decidedtocommemorateitscentenarybyputtingitsmostpopularBristolCreamsherryinbluebottles.Themarketingideawasagreatsuccess,andthesherrycomesarrayedinBristolBluetothisday.

Iboughtmysmaltfromafamousoldartists’materialsshop,J.CornelissenandSoninBloomsbury.TheplacelooksmuchasitmusthavedonewhenMonetandPissarroboughtsuppliesfortheirLondontownscapesandAndréDerainselectedtheflamboyantnewcadmiumcoloursforhispsychedelicvision,ThePoolofLondon.Blackwoodenshelvesriseonallsidesfromtheplainboardfloorrighttotheceiling.Tubesofpaintaresetoutinracksateyeheight,butthemoststrikingfeatureistherowsofhugeglass-stopperedbottlesabovethem,containingviolentshadesofpowderedpigment.Thisiscolouraspureasitcomes.Thecobaltbluewasbrighterandpalerthanmysandysmalt,witha

distincthintofred.Alongsideitwasmanganeseblue,afabulouslybright,green-taintedbluebasedonbariummanganate,aswellaschromeyellowsandgreens,awiderangeofbrilliantcadmiumsandcobaltviolet,aconfectioneryshadesoimprobablethatitcouldhardlybeimaginedtohaveanaturalorigin.

LaterIpayavisittoCornelissen’swarehousetoseethepigmentbuyer.Acuriousaffinitymusthavedrawnhimtoworkhere,forhisnameisOleCorneliussen.Danishbybirth,heinsistsheisunrelatedtotheBelgianwhoestablishedthebusinessin1855,andhespellshisnamedifferently.Iammildlydisappointedtolearnthathisjobdoesnotinvolvetouringmineraldepositsinfar-offlands.‘Idon’tknowifyou’veseenthespicemarketinIstanbul,’Oleventuresalittleruefully.Inod.‘It’snotlikethat.’Instead,samplesarerequestedfromthemanufacturerandsentinforapproval;wherethepigmentwasextractedorrefinedseldomfiguresinthebuyingdecision.SiennasmaystillcomefromnearSienaandcoppercolourssuchTerreVertfromCyprus,butmaterialqualityalwaysoverridessentimentalhistory.

Alltheoldpigmentsarestillobtainable,evenorpimentandrealgar,theancientyellowsandredsbasedondeeplyunpleasantsulphidesofarsenic,whichareboughtbyspecialistsrestoringoldartworks.Oftenthecoloursarenotquiteastheyfirstappeartobe.Evenblackandwhitearenotblack-and-white.Ordinarylampblack,thecarbonpowdertraditionallymadebyburningoillamps,Isee,isnotreallyblackbutaverydeepblue-grey;spinelblack,basedonmanganeseandcopperoxides,isfarblacker.OleshowsmesomeofthelastFlakeWhitehewillbeabletosellbeforenewEuropeanhealthandsafetyregulationscomeintoforce,afterwhichartistswillhavetomakedowith

titaniumwhite.Theyarenotallhappyattheprospect.‘Titaniumisverystickywhenyougrindit,whereasFlakeWhitehasthiselasticfeelyougetfromthelead,’heexplains.FlakeWhiteisleadcarbonatemadefromamille-feuilleofsheetleadandchalklayers–hence‘flake’.Themixedpaintfeelsheavyonthebrushbecauseitissodense,andhandlesanddriesinawaythatartistslove.

OleCorneliussenhimselfdoesn’tpaint,sohisappreciationispurelyforthepigments–‘mainlyforthecolour,butit’snotalwaysveryeasytodescribe’–andfortheoccasionalthrilloftrackingdownsomerareoddity.OneofhisfavouritesisthesugarycobaltvioletIhadnoticedintheshop.Itisbothbrightandintense,‘oneofveryfewcolourstohavethatquality,it’saverydeepvioleteventhoughitislightintone–veryhardtodescribewithoutusingthewordfluorescent’.

IleavehimtoattendtoanorderfromtheartistAnishKapoorforatonneofcalciumcarbonatewhiting–‘Goodnessknowswhathe’smaking.’

InheritancePowder

Arsenic,wroteGustaveFlaubertinhisDictionaryofReceivedIdeas,‘Canbefoundanywhere(rememberMmeLafarge).Therearecertainpopulationsthateatitregularly!’

Asusual,Flaubert,thesurgeon’sson,issharponscientificmatters.Arseniciswidespreadandabundant–somuchsothatitisneverminedforitselfbutisobtainedinplentyfromthewasteofotherminingactivity–andforallitsdeservedreputationasapoisonitisessentialtohumanbiology.Itisnotonlyeaten,particularlyinshellfish,buthasalonganddistinguishedhistoryasamedicinethatcontinuestothisday.Bythenineteenthcentury,arseniccompoundswereemployedaspigmentsanddyes,inmanymedicinalpreparations,alloyedwithleadinshot,andinglass-makingandfireworks.

Butitisastheclassicpoisonagentthatarsenicisbestknown,andofthemanytalesofpoisoningbyarsenic,bothimaginedandtrue,thatwhichsurroundsthedeathofNapoleonontheremoteSouthAtlanticislandofStHelenaissurelythemostcontentious.Thestoryshowsonceagainhowcolourandtoxicityareboundtogetherinnature.WhenthedeposedemperordiedinMay1821,theautopsyconductedbyhispersonalphysician,oneoftheretinuewhohadaccompaniedhimintoexileandafellowCorsican,foundastomachulcerandgavethecauseofdeathasstomachcancer.Itwasnotuntilthediaryoftheemperor’svaletwaspublishedmuchlater,in1955,thatdoubtsbegantoberaised.ToBenWeider,aCanadianNapoleonenthusiast,thedescriptionsitgaveoftheemperor’sdeterioratingconditionintheearlymonthsof1821seemedremarkablylikethesymptomsofpoisoning.In1961,StenForshufvud,a

Swedishtoxicologist,performedanalyticaltestsonsamplesofhair–manyofNapoleon’sloyalservantshadbeenprescientenoughtosnipoffanimperiallock–andfoundtheydidindeedcontainhighlevelsofarsenic.ThetwomeneventuallyteamedupandconductedfurthertestsinpursuitofthetheorythatNapoleonhadbeenavictimofdeliberatepoisoning,and,throughatortuousseriesofmurder-mysterydeductions,cametoadefiniteconclusionastowhodunit.Neglectingtoaskthemselvestoomanymorequestions,WeiderandForshufvudamplifiedtheirtheoryinaseriesofbooks.

TheensuingpublicityledthechemistDavidJones–theauthoroftheDaedaluscolumnofconceivablescientificfanciesinNewScientist–towonderwhetherinfactthewallpaperatLongwoodHouse,whereNapoleonhadbeenkeptprisoneronStHelena,mightnotbeamoreplausiblesourceofthepoisonousarsenicthananassassin.Greenshadesinwallpaperofthetimewerefrequentlymadebyusingcompoundsofarsenic,followingthediscoverybyCarlScheeleofcopperarsenite,acolourthatbecameknownasScheele’sGreen.BythetimeofNapoleon’sexile,abrightnewgreenwasalsoavailable,basedontheaceto-arseniteofcopper–theluckyproductofcolourmen’snaturalurgetoseewhatwouldhappenifyoucombinedcopperacetate,thelong-usedpigmentknownasverdigris,withScheele’smurkiertone.

ThiscolourissostrikingthatitwasmarketedunderthenameEmeraldGreen.Becauseofitspoisonousproperties,itisnolongersold,butIfindasmalltubeofitamongmyfather’spaints,itslabeltranslucentfromsixtyyears’absorptionoflinseedoil.Tomysurprise,theknurledmetalcapyieldsimmediatelyandthepaintinsideglistenswillingly.Thecolourisluridandhasabluishgreyundertone,whichmarksitoutasquitealienfromanyshadeinnature.Thiseye-aching,sicklygreenmakesmewonderif,whenwerefertoa‘poisonousshade’,itisnotthesearsenicpigmentsthatareresponsibleforthephrase.

Jonesknewthatundertherightconditionsthearsenicinsuchmaterialscan

bechemicallyconvertedintogaseousformssuchasthehydridearsine.Speakingbychanceonaradioprogrammeaboutthisphenomenon,andhowitmightaccountformanymysteriousillnessesanddeathsthroughoutthenineteenthcentury,hespeculatedthatperhapsNapoleon’sdeathonhishumidprisonislandwasalsohastenedinthisway.IfonlythecolouroftheLongwoodwallpaperwereknown,itwouldhelptoestablishthefacts.ToJones’sgreatsurprise,hereceivedaletterinresponsetothebroadcastfromawomanwhonotonlyknewthecolourofthepaper,buthadasampleofitinascrapbookrecordingthetravelsofafamilyancestor.InthescrapbookwasapageofsouvenirsfromavisittoStHelenain1823,amongthem‘apieceofpapertakenofftheroominwhichthespiritofNapoleonreturnedtoGodwhogaveit’.Jonespublishedtheresultsofachemicalanalysisofthegreen-and-goldstar-patternedpaperin1982inNature,confirmingthepresenceofarsenic–anotunexpectedresultgiventhepopularityofthecolouratthetime.Atthesametime,doubtswerethrownontoForshufvud’soriginalanalysis.Newtestsontheemperor’shairusingmoresophisticatedequipmentshowedhighlevelsofantimonyandotherpotentiallyharmfulelementsaswellasarsenic.TheantimonyprobablycamefromastandardemeticadministeredtoNapoleon,anditisquitelikelythatthemedicinedidhimmoreharmthangood.

Nearly200yearslater,itisimpossibletoestablishcauseandeffectwithanycertainty,andeventhebasicprecautionofaDNAtesttoauthenticatethesampledhairremainstobedone.Nevertheless,recentbiographiesofNapoleonconcedethathissymptomswereconsistentwitharsenicpoisoning,andthatarsenicfromwhateversourcemayhavebeenonefactorintheformeremperor’sdeath.TheconsensusisthatthereprobablywassomeattemptonthepartofhisBritishcustodianstodisguisetherealcauseofdeathaspartofawidercover-up–theirmismanagementoftheislandhadalloweddysenterytorunrife–butthatthereisnoneedforwildassassinationtheories.

Themostrecentre-examinationoftheevidencein2008foundthatNapoleon’shairfromperiodsofhislifepredatinghisexile,aswellasthehairofhiswife,Josephine,andotherfamilymembers,allhadlevelsofarsenicthatwouldberegardedaselevatedbytoday’sstandards.Therewasnoevidenceofasuddenriseinthearsenicconcentrationfollowinghisincarceration,aswouldhavebeenproducedbydeliberatepoisoning.However,ratherthanputtingthemselvestothetroubleofroundingupNapoleon’slocksforanalysis,theauthorsofthislateststudymightsimplyhavesurveyedthetoxicologicalliterature.Theywouldhavefoundthathumanremainsofthisperiodingeneralcanexhibitlevelsofarsenicthatwouldbeclassifiedasdangerousbytoday’sstandards,reflectingnothingmorethanthefactthattheelementthenwasindeed

‘foundanywhere’.

ArsenicmayormaynothavecontributedtothedeathofNapoleon,butithascertainlybeenthechemicalagentresponsibleformanyothercasesofpoisoning,bothdeliberateandaccidental.TheonethatmostcloselyfollowstheLongwoodwallpaperscenarioconcernsClareBootheLuce,theUnitedStatesambassadortoItalyinthe1950s,whowasslowlypoisoned–accidentally,itwaslaterestablished–byflakesofpaintfallingfromtheornateceilingsoftheambassadorialresidence.Sheretiredduetoillnessandmadearecoverylater.Lucewasanunluckylatterdayvictimofawidespreaddanger.Greenpaint,colourprintingandcolouredpapers,greeninwallpaper,greendyedfurnishingsandclothes,andespeciallythegreencolouringusedforthefoliageinartificialflowersallcontainedcompoundsofarsenicandprobablyaccountedformanymysteriousdeathsindampbedroomsandnurseries.TherewererisingsuspicionsduringtheVictorianperiodthatthesematerialsweretoblame.TheLancetandtheBritishMedicalJournalsoundedthealarmandcampaignedvigorouslyagainstarsenic,butwhileafewcompaniesbegantoadvertisearsenic-freepapers,thedecoratingindustryforthemostpartdecriedtheideathattheirproductscouldreleaseanyharmfulsubstanceatordinaryroomtemperatures.Itwasnotuntil1893thatitwasshownthatarsinegascouldbegeneratedbythereactionofmouldfromwallpaperpastewiththegreencolorant.Inanessayontheartofdyeinginthatyear,thedesignerWilliamMorrisrailedagainstsyntheticdyes–amongwhichwerethearsenicgreens–for‘doinggreatservicetocapitalistsintheirhuntafterprofits’butleavingthedomesticcraft‘terriblyinjured’and‘nearlydestroyed’.Morrisfoughtnoisilyforthesurvivaloftraditionalvegetabledyesinwallpapersandtextiles.Odd,then,tofindthatrecentX-rayanalysisofMorris’sownwallpaperdesignshasrevealedthathisgreencamefromcopperarsenite,whilearedroseinthepatternwasthevermilionofmercuricsulphide–‘averydangerouspieceofart!’

Otherstookarsenicknowingfullwellwhattheyweredoing.Romanticbeforehistime,theteenagepoetThomasChattertonusedarsenictocommitsuicidein1770.AtTulleintheLimousinregionofFrance,MarieLafargewastriedandfoundguiltyofpoisoningherhusbandwitharsenicin1840.ThecasewassuchacausecélèbrethatFlaubertcouldsafelyincludeitinhisdictionarymorethanthirtyyearslater,knowingthathisreaderswouldremembertheepisode.Theauthorhadmorethanapassinginterestindesperatehousewives,ofcourse:hisowncreation,EmmaBovary,alsousesarsenictocommitsuicide.MadameLafargewasconvictedwhentheevidenceofthebrillianttoxicologist

MathieuOrfila,calledbythelawyerinherdefence,showedtheretobearsenicinherhusband’sexhumedbodyandinfoodresidues.Itwasthefirstcaseinwhichforensicchemistrywasusedtosecureaverdict.

Bothinfactandinfiction,whereitbecameastapleofdetectivestories,arsenicwasgenerallyobtainedfrompharmacies,whereitwaswidelysoldaseverythingfrommedicinetoratpoison.Theformoftheelementusedinthesecasesislikelytohavebeenthesugar-likeoxideknownaswhitearsenic,acolourlesssubstanceofnointeresttothedecorativearts.Thisbecamesowellknownforitsuseinfamilymurdercasesthatitsoonacquiredthenickname‘inheritancepowder’.AsforEmeraldGreen,Winsor&Newtonstoppedmanufacturingthecolouraround1970afterapatientatBroadmoorhigh-securitypsychiatrichospitalamassedenoughofitinprisonartclassestokillhimself.

Whilesearchingfordeathsattributedtoarsenicpoisoning,IwasstartledtocomeacrossthestoryofMaryStannardofNewHaven,Connecticut.In1878,shewasmurderedinhertwenty-secondyearbyherlover,theReverendHerbertHayden,whenitappearedshemightbepregnant.Headministeredalargedoseofwhatshetooktobeatreatmenttoinduceanabortionbutwasinfactarsenic.Hethenbludgeonedhertodeathandslitherthroat.Thisgorytalewasnotwhatbroughtmetoahalt,though.No,whatstoppedmewasthatMaryandStannardarethetwoforenamesofmyownmother,Connecticut-bornin1930.Wasthisabranchofmyownfamilytreethathadbeensobrutallysevered?

Beforethetwentiethcentury,publicaccesstoarsenicwaslargelyunrestricted.Today,whitearsenicismorecloselyguarded,butstillwidelyusedinmedicine:theUnitedStatesFoodandDrugAdministrationrecentlyapproveditforuseintreatingpatientswithleukaemia.Arsenicinnatureislessreadilycorralled,andhereitscompoundsquietlydogreatharm.Thedrinkingwaterof

upto100millionpeoplearoundtheworldmaybetaintedwithit.Surveysofthewater,soilsandricegrainofBangladeshhaveshownlevelsoftheelementfarabovethelimitsjudgedsafeintheWest,themselvesratherarbitrarilysetinresponsetopublicoutrageatthewallpaperdeaths.Thephenomenonisrecentandhasbeentracedtothechangeoverfromdeep-waterwellstoso-calledtubewellsdrivenintoshallowriversediments.Theseproducepotablewaterformillionsofpeople,butthewatercontainsarsenicwashedoutofnaturaldepositsupstream.Somescientistsbelievethatacancerepidemicisnowinevitableasaresult.ItisnotwhatFlauberthadinmind,butitisunfortunatelytrue,andonafarlargerscalethanheimagined,thattherearepopulationswhoeatitregularly.

RainbowsintheBlood

SlippedinamongLeeChong’sgroceryandthePalaceFlop-house,oneofthevariedemporiaofMontereythatJohnSteinbeckdescribesinCanneryRowisthelaboratoryofWesternBiological,whereyoucouldbuy‘thelovelyanimalsofthesea,thesponges,tunicates,anemones,thestarsandbuttlestars,andsunstars,thebivalves,barnacles,thewormsandshells,thefabulousandmultiformlittlebrothers,thelivingmovingflowersofthesea’,andmuchmore.

Specimencollectorshavealwaysmarvelledatformsoflifefromunderthesea,whicharesooftenbeautifulandpuzzling,uncertainlypoisedatthejunctionoftheanimal,vegetableandmineralworlds,andonlydeliveredupfromthedepthsatirregularintervalsbystrandingstorms.ThemostmysteriousitemsonSteinbeck’slistarethetunicates,aclassofanimalthatincludestheseasquirts,whichnormallyliveontheseabedincolourfulclustersofbag-likeorganisms.IoncearrangedtoborrowatunicatespecimenfromtheNaturalHistoryMuseumforanexhibition.ItcameinasquarishtankofthickglassfilledwithpreservingliquorlikethespecimensatWesternBiological.Thecreature,orcreatures,orgrowth–scientistsstillaren’treallysurehowtoclassifythethings–wasachaoticeruptionofshapesandcolourslikesomeabsurddinner-tablecentrepiece.Each‘bag’wearsitsowntransparenttuniclikeaplasticmacasitpuffsgentlyinandout,pumpingseawaterinordertoextractnutrients.Theorganismsaredependentforsomebiologicalfunctionsontheclusterasawhole,butmanageneverthelesstoexpresstheirindividualityinblue,green,purple,pink,yellowandwhite.

In1911,aGermanphysiologistnamedMartinHenze,whowascurioustolearnwhytheyadopttheseseeminglyindiscriminatehues,drewsometunicatesfromtheBayofNaplesandwassurprisedtodiscoverextraordinaryquantitiesoftheelementvanadiumintheirblood.Positionedoneplacebeforechromiumintheperiodictable,vanadium,likechromium,formscompoundsthatexhibitawiderangeofcolours.Vanadiuminthesecreaturescanbeahundredtimesmoreconcentratedthanintheseawaterfromwhichtheysucktheirfood,and,accordingtoscientistsattheUniversityofHiroshima,tunicatesmaypossessthehighestconcentratingabilityforanymetalofanyanimal.Itseemsreasonabletoassumethevanadiumisharvestedforsomepurpose,butdespitepinpointingthegreencells,knownasvanadocytes,wheretheelementcollectsinthebloodandidentifyingvariousproteinsthatbindtoit,thescientistsarestillunsurewhatthatpurposeis.Atfirstitwasthoughtthatthevanadiummighthaveafunctionanalogoustotheironinourownblood,butthisnotionhasbeendiscounted;itispossiblethattheelementplaysapartintheanimals’immunesystem.

ThisbizarreanomalyofnaturecametotheattentionofmilitaryofficialsduringtheSecondWorldWar.Vanadiumproducesamuchtoughersteelthanothermetalsandwasthereforeindemandforuseinsoldiers’helmetsandarmourplatingaswellasinmachinery.TheUnitedStatesWarDepartmentapproachedDonaldAbbottofHopkinsMarineStation–theresearchoutpostofStanfordUniversityatMontereythatSteinbeckusedasthemodelforWesternBiological–wantingtoknowwhethertunicatesmightbegatheredorevenfarmedfortheexoticmetal.Thegovernmentmenflatteredthescientistthatthevanadiumwasneedednotforconventionalarmour,butforthetop-secretatomicbombproject.Abbottpresumablysettoworkontheproblem,butnothingmorewassaidaboutit.Askedabouttheepisodemanyyearslater,Abbott’swidow,Isabella,alsoascientistatthestation,confirmedintheobscuretechnicalbulletinAscidianNews:‘SucharequestwasmadeofDon,butheshowedthemhow

muchvanadiumwasinthetunicatesthattookitup,anditwasjusttoosmalltobotherwith,andasIrememberthatwastheendofit.’Butperhapsvanadiumwasnottherealgoal.Duringthewar,‘vanadiummining’wasthecodetermusedtodescribethesearchforuraniumoresneededfortheatomicbomb.(Thetwoelementsoccurtogetherinsomeminerals,afactnotedinthenameofUravaninwesternColorado,oneoftheminingsiteswherethissubterfugewasinoperation.)ItmaybethattheWarDepartmentwonderedwhetherthetunicatesmightbeusedtoconcentrateuraniumtoo.

Vanadiumwasdiscoveredtwiceandwasnamedonbothoccasionsinhomagetoitscolourfulchemistry.In1801,onlythreeyearsafterNicolas-LouisVauquelinhaddiscoveredchromiuminParis,AndrésManueldelRío,aSpanish-bornmineralogistattheSchoolofMinesinMexicoCity,identifiedthenewelementinoneofthemanyunfamiliarmineralsthatcameintohislaboratory.Delightedbythemanycoloursofitssalts,henameditpanchromium.Acoupleofyearslater,theexplorerandnaturalistAlexandervonHumboldtvisitedMexicoandtookbacksamplesofthemineraltobetestedinParis.OneofVauquelin’scolleaguesanalysedthesubstanceanddeclaredthatitwasnothingmorethanchromium.DelRíobowedtothisjudgement,unawareformanyyearsafterwardsthattheFrenchsciencewasflawed,andthatdocumentshehadsentseparately,whichwouldhaveprovidedstrongersupportforhisclaimtodiscovery,hadbeenlostinashipwreck.

Itwasnotuntil1831thattheelementwasrediscoveredhalfaworldawayinaquitedifferentkindofmineralbytheSwedeNilsSefströmandgiventhenamebywhichweknowittoday.SefströmwasthedirectorofminesatFalun,200kilometresnorth-westofStockholm.HehadformerlyworkedasanassistanttoJönsJacobBerzelius,oneofthegreatestfiguresinthehistoryofscience,who,asweshallseelater,playedhisowndisproportionateroleinthediscoveryoftheelements.ItwasBerzeliuswhochosethenamevanadium,afterVanadis,analternativenameforthegoddessFreyja,whoappearsinsomeoftheNorseeddas.Vanadis(thedisoftheVanir,or‘ladyofthebeautifulpeople’)isthegoddessoflove,beautyandfertility.Exceptwhenengagedinsomenakedseduction,whichisoften,sheappearsrobedincolourandglitteringwithjewels.HerprizepossessionisBrisingamen,thenecklaceoftheBrisings,whichisrepresentedwiththemostelaborategoldcraftsmanshipandfrequentlystuddedwithflaminggemstones.Whensheweeps,hertearsareofredgoldiftheyfallonsolidgroundandamberiftheyfallatsea.

Thevanadiummineral–anorewithanunpredictableyieldofironthat

sometimesprovedstrongbutsometimesbrittle–hadbeenapuzzletoBerzeliusforsometime.In1823,itwasexaminedbytheGermanFriedrichWöhler,themostfamousofthemanychemistswhobeatapathtoBerzelius’slaboratory.Wöhlerlaterbecamethefirstpersontosynthesizeasubstancefoundinlivingorganisms(urea,asimpleendproductofproteindecomposition)fromexclusivelymineralprecursors,therebyprovingthatchemistrywasuniversalacrosstheanimateandinanimaterealms.Butonthisoccasiontherewasnorevelation.WhenSefströmdulymadehisbreakthrough,BerzeliuswrotetoWöhlerwithhisownlittleproseedda:

LongagotherelivedinthefarNorththegoddessVanadis,beautifulandalluring.Onedaytherecameaknockatherdoor.Thegoddesssatquietlyandthought,‘Iwilllethimknockoncemore’,butthesecondknockfailedtocome,andthemanwhohadknockedmerelywalkedaway.Thegoddesswascurioustoknowwhowassoindifferenttobeingadmitted,andshesprangtothewindowtoviewthedepartingguest.‘Ah-ha!’,shesaidtoherself,‘it’sthatrogueWöhler.Itserveshimright;hadhebeenalittlemorepersistentIwouldhavelethimin.Buthedoesn’tevenlookupatthewindowinpassing.’Afewdayslatertherewasanotherknockatthedoor.Sefströmsteppedin,andfromthismeetingVanadiumwasborn.

Thenameofanelementcanconferakindofimmortality.Forastart,theunfortunateDelRíomightbebetterknowntodayifarivalproposaltonamehisdiscoveryrioniumhadwonmoresupport.Butevendeitiesstandtogainbychemicalassociation.‘InhisnamingoftheelementsBerzeliusgavenewlifetothefiguresofScandinavianmythology,’accordingtooneofhisbiographers.‘ThoriumandvanadiumwillremainintheperiodictablelongafterThorandVanadisandtheothergodsandgoddessesoftheVikingshavebeenforgotten.’

PreservedinthecollectionoftheBerzeliusMuseuminStockholmaresomethreedozentesttubesfilledwiththevariousvanadiumsaltsthattheSwedehadbeenabletomake.Thecoloursincludebrightturquoiseandpaleskyblue,orange,maroon,chestnutandtan,variousochres,asludgygreenandblack–manyoftheshadesfoundinthetunicates.

CrushingEmeralds

Beautycomesoutofnecessity.Forthoughwemaydressupthetruthwithfancy

aesthetictheories,wearebiologicallyprogrammedtoappreciatecolourandthereflectedglareofthesunforoursurvival.Thesethingsaresignalsofripefruitinthetreesandthesparkleoffreshwater.NowonderthatVanadisnamedherdaughters–withwince-makingnew-agetrendiness,itseemstousnow–Hnoss(Jewel)andGersemi(Treasure),reflectingthesetwopropertiessocovetedinthedull,darknorth:thecolourfulandthegleaming.

Prizedaboveallarefindsorartefactsthatunitethetwoqualities,suchaspolishedgemstonesandofcoursetheshiningyellowmetalgold.Theseconjointdesiresarereflectedinourlanguage.ThewordgleamstemsfromanIndo-Europeanroot,ghlei-,ghlo-orghel-,meaning‘toshine,glitterorglow’,whichisalsotheoriginofthewordyellow.Anastonishingnumberofwordsthatdescribelightcominginbrightflashessharethisroot(glint,glitter,glimmer,glisten,glitz,glanceandglossamongthem,aswellascognatessuchasgladandgloat,whichrevealouremotionalinvestmentinobjectspossessingthisproperty).GlassaswellasglarecomesfromtheAnglo-Saxonglær,meaningamber,anothershiningyellowsubstancefoundinnatureandoneofthecustomaryornamentsofthegoddessVanadis.

TheVikinggoldsmithunitesmetallicgleamandcrystalcolourwhenhesetsastone–Brisingamenisdescribedas‘gem-figuredfiligree’inBeowulf.Butwhatthesmithcannotknowisthatbothmetalandjewelmayhavethesameelementalorigin.VauquelinhaddiscoveredbrightchromiumbyaccidentinahumbleifrarespecimenofredleadcarbonatefromSiberia.Alongwithotherscientistsoftheagehewasgreatlypreoccupiedwiththequestionofwhatgavepreciousstonestheirsignalcolours.InthevastchemicalencyclopediathatheproducedwithhismentorAntoine-FrançoisdeFourcroybetween1786and1815,Vauquelinagreedthattherubywas‘themostesteemedofpreciousstones’,andnotedthattheberyls,aclassofgem-stonethatherecognizedtoincludeemeralds,cameincoloursrangingallthewayfromblue-greentothe‘russetyellowofhoney’‘thebestemeraldscomefromPeru,’headded.

Shortlyafterhisdiscoveryofchromium,Vauquelin,newlypromotedasanofficialassayerofpreciousmetals,wastobefoundpoundingaPeruvianemeraldinapestleandmortaranddissolvingitspowderinnitricacidinanattempttounweavetherainbowofthejewelbox.HewasabletoconverttheresidueintothesamesubstancehehadobtainedfromtheSiberianore,therebyprovingthatthecolouringagentinemeraldwaschromium.Hewentontoshowthattheredofrubywasalsoduetochromium.Morecomprehensiveanalysisonlypossiblemorethanacenturylaterfinallyexplainedwhythesegemshavebeenprizedforsolong.Thedeepredofrubiesandlimpidgreenofemeraldsisonlythehalfofit:thechromiuminbothstonesalsofluoresceswithredlight,sothatthestones

appeartoflickerwithinnerfire.

Ifthesamecontaminatingmetal,chromium,couldberesponsiblefortwosuchbrilliantlycontrastingcolours,itsuggestedthattherewassomethingworthinvestigatingaboutthebasicmatrixoftherubyandberylcrystalsintowhichthechromiumwaslockedwhichmightexplainthisdramaticdifference.Vauquelinreturnedtoanalysetheberylsinmoredetail,discoveringthattheywerecomprisedofanumberofbasicores.Themainconstituentwassilica,orsilicondioxide,asinsand,quartzandamethyst.Aluminamadeupmuchoftheremainder.Thiscrystallineformofaluminiumoxideistheprincipalingredientofcorundum,ofwhichrubiesandsapphiresaremade.Buttherewasalso,Vauquelinnowrealized,anewoxidewhichhadescapeddetectionearlierbecauseofitsunremarkablesimilaritytotheothers.Isolatedandpurified,however,thisoxidedidpossessoneexceptionalproperty.Itwassweettothetaste,andforthisreasonVauquelinnamedit‘glucina’.Thenewmetallicelementthatheknewitmustcontainhecalled‘glucinum’,althoughnobodywouldbeabletoproduceitforanotherthirtyyears.(Zirconium,anothernewelement,discoveredinrathersimilarfashioninstonesofjargon,orzircon,byVauquelin’sGermanfriendMartinKlaprothin1789,alsowentthroughalongpurdah,onlybeingisolatedbyBerzeliusin1824.)Later,itemergedthatglucinawasnottheonlysweet-tastingmetalcompound,anditwasrenamedberylliaanditsassociatedelement,beryllium.

Forthoseseekingriches,newsoftheseexperimentsmusthavecomeasadisappointment.Eventhemostpreciousgemstoneswereshowntocontainnopreciousessence,asthemorealchemicallymindedinvestigatorshadsurelyhopedtheywould.Unlikethedirtyores,fromwhichgleamingmetalcouldbeextracted,thesecrystalslostalltheirvaluewhentheywereprocessedinthelaboratory.JusttwoyearsbeforeVauquelin’sexperimentswithemeraldandruby,theEnglishchemistSmithsonTennantevenburntadiamondawaytonothing,provingthatitwasmadeofnothingmoreexoticthancarbon.

Themodernchemistshadtheirrewardthough–Vauquelinhadhischromiumandberyllium,SefströmandBerzeliustheirvanadium,Klaprothhiszirconium.Theirworkclearedawaymuchconfusioninthejeweltrade.Talesofpreciousartefactsseenbyexcitableexplorersinremotelandscouldnowbesubjectedtomorescepticalexamination.Itbecameobvious,forexample,thatmanystonesclaimedtobeemeraldsweretoolargetobetruegems,andthatthetermwasbeingemployedsimplyasanadmiringsimileforallmannerofgreenobjectsthatwereactuallymadeofjadeorevenglass.Today,whenmuchprogresshas

beenmadeinthemanufactureofartificialstones,theword‘gem’isgenerallyreservedfornaturalspecimens.Classificationaccordingtocolourismoreofaproblem.Becausethecolourofgemstonesarisesfromimpuritiesinthem,thereisnorigorousdefinitionofwhatmakesanemeraldoraruby.Aberylisthereforesimplyastonetoopaletobecalledanemeraldonanarbitraryscaleofgreenness.

Increasingcolonialtradewithcountriesrichintheseminerals,suchasBurmaandColombia,togetherwithmachinecuttingtechniques,sawtoitthatcolouredjewelsgrewinpopularitythroughthenineteenthcentury.Jewelswerefascinatinglyambivalentinanagewhenstrictnessofmoralswasmatchedbysumptuousnessofornament.Onlyvirtuouswomenandwisdomarerarerthanrubies,accordingtotheBible.Wearingjewellerywasanindicationofvirtue,yetalsoanenticement.Thestonesthemselvesarenaturallybeautiful,butthereisdevilmentintheartwithwhichtheyarecut,anditisnogreatsurprisetofindMephistophelesgivingMargaretaatemptingcasketofjewelsinGoethe’sFaust.Thefamous‘jewelsong’ofGounod’soperaversionofthestoryamplifiesthistransactionasthechasteheroinelaughinglyimaginesherselftransformedintoaworldlyprincess–inBernstein’swickedparodyoftheariainCandide,Cunégondemordantlyreflectsthatifshe’snotpure,atleastherjewelsare.

TheimputationofpurityisdoubtlessonereasonwhyRubyandBerylbecamepopularChristiannamesinVictoriantimes,onlyfallingfromfavourinthe1930s.Today,Rubymaybeundergoingarevival,butyouhavetosearchalittleharderforothernamesinspiredbygemstones:Esmeraldaisnowfashionableforgirls,Jasperforboys.

Thespreadofpreciousstonesasluxuryconsumergoodshaspromptedmoreknowledgeableallusionsinliterature.TheemeraldsEdmundSpenserreferstoinTheFaerieQueeneorthoseinMilton’sParadiseLostmightbeanygreengem,theirprecisehuelessimportantthantheirgeneralrarity.ButweimaginethattheEmeraldCityinL.FrankBaum’s1900fableTheWonderfulWizardofOzistrulybuiltofthatstone.Andherethecolourmaybesignificant.EasilydistractedacademiceconomistshaveinterpretedthestoryasanallegoryofUnitedStatesmonetarypolicyattheendofthenineteenthcentury:theyellowbrickroadrepresentsthegoldstandardleadingthewaytotheEmeraldCity,thecolourofthegreenbackdollar,governedbytheineffectualwizard,whoisPresidentGroverCleveland.TheallegorydependsforitsmessageonthefactthatDorothywearssilverslippers,whichbecomethesymbolofthepopulist‘freesilver’movementthatwaspressingtheUnitedStatesminttomakesilvertradeableforcoin(inthesamewaythatgoldwasalready)followingthediscoveryofnewdepositsintheAmericanWest.Havingescapednoticewhenthebookwasfirst

publishedandtheissuewastopical,thisamusingundercurrentwasthencompletelyburiedinthelegendaryfilmversionofthestorymadein1939.Bythistime,thesubtextwastechnologicalratherthaneconomic:DorothywasfamouslygivenrubyslipperstocelebratetheTechnicolorprocessinwhichthepartofthefilmisshot.The‘silverscreen’wasdead.

TheCrimsonLightofNeon

Imaginefindingtheproverbialpaintingintheattic.Youtakeittobeexaminedandareassuredthatitisanoriginal,indeedamasterpiece,and,what’smore,thatit’sbyapaintercompletelyunknowntotheartworld.Naturally,youreturntotheattictoseewhatelseyoucanfind.Andinthedust,youuncoveranotherpainting,andthenseveralmore–acompleteoeuvre,infact,ofagreatmasterwhomnobodyknewexisted.

ThisiswhathappenedtoWilliamRamsay,theprofessorofchemistryatUniversityCollegeLondon,whodiscoveredfivenewchemicalelementsduringthe1890s.Thesenewelementsbearastrongfamilyresemblance:allaregases,allcolourlessandodourless,allremarkablyunreactive.Theyearnedthenameoftheinertornoblegases,andmostchemistsfoundthemboring.Today,however,itistheirlazinessthatmakesthemusefultous,primarilyforlighting:whensubjectedtoelectricalexcitationtheyglowbrightlywhileremainingchemicallyunchanged.

Ramsaymadethefirstofthesediscoveriesin1894,workingwithLordRayleighattheCavendishLaboratoryinCambridge.Rayleighhadfoundthatnitrogenobtainedfrommineralsbychemicalmeanswasmysteriouslylighterthannitrogenthatremainedintheairafterburningalltheoxygen.Ramsaysolvedthepuzzlebyburningshavingsofmagnesiuminatmosphericnitrogen.Mostofthegascombinedwiththereactivemetal.Butalittlewasleftover,anditsspectrallightwhenexcitedtoaglowdidnotcorrespondtoanyknownsubstance.RayleighandRamsayannouncedtheirdiscoveryofanewelementwhichtheynamedargon;‘amostastonishinglyindifferentbody’,theywrote.Becauseargonisheavierthannitrogen,itsonepercentpresenceinairhadmadetheatmosphericnitrogenseemafractionheavierthanthechemicallymadenitrogen.Atacollegedinner,thepoetA.E.Housmanproposedthetoast‘argon’andcalledonthoseassembledto‘Drinktothegas.’

Ramsaybecameexcitedthatargonmightbethefirstofagroupofelementsthatwouldformanewcolumnintheperiodictable.In1895,anAmericangeochemistwrotetoRamsaywithnewsthathehadobtainedaninertgasbyheatingamineralsample.Ramsaywantedtoseewhetherthiswasargon,too.He

scrabbledaroundforcomparablesamples,evenbeggingspecimensofalikely-lookinguraniummineralfromtheBritishMuseum(hewasrebuffed).SoonRamsayhadrepeatedtheAmerican’sexperimentandexaminedthespectrumofthegasthatcameoff.Butthespectrallinesdidnotcorrespondtoargon.Theyindicatedsomethingstillmoreunexpected,matchinglinespreviouslyobservedinthelightofthesun.Thistime,Ramsayhadconfirmedtheterrestrialexistenceofthegaseouselementhelium.

Ramsayspentthenextthreeyearstryingtoobtainfurthergaseouselementsfromminerals.Thedaywhenthenewelementmightturnupbecamealaboratoryjoke,butthedaynevercame.InMay1898,heandhisassistant,MorrisTravers,triedanewtack,takingadvantageofnewtechnologicaldevelopmentsthatenabledgasestobeliquefiedinlargequantities.Sinceargonisrelativelyabundantintheair,theyreasonedthatotherequallyunreactivegasesmightbeallaroundustoo.Theyobtainedagallonofliquefiedairandcarefullyboileditoffuntiljustasmallresidueremained.Analysisofthisresidueonceagainrevealednewspectrallines.TheyturnedouttobeduetoadensegasthatRamsayandTraverscalledkrypton,anametheyhadfirstconsideredforargon.(Kryptonmeans‘hidden’,argonmeans‘lazy’,soasfarasthegases’chemistrygoesthenamesaremuchofamuchness,butsincekryptonisrarerthanargonitwasagoodcall.)Ramsaytelegraphedhiswife,whowasinScotland,withnewsofthediscovery.‘YougetanewelementeverytimeIcomeaway,’shewroteback,herfaithinherhusband’sabilitiesclearlyrathergreaterthanhiscolleagues’.

Theirbasichunchconfirmed,RamsayandTraversscaledupthesameexperimentbyafactorofathousand,startingnotwithliquefiedairbutwithliquidargon.Despitethejibesofrivalsandsceptics,Ramsaywasconfidentofsuccess.Anybodywhowantedtoovertakethemwouldfirsthavetomakeseveralbucketfulsofargon,whichinitselfwasnosmallmatter.Inaseriesofcarefulevaporations,thementhistimedetectedalightgaswhichboiledoffaheadoftheargon.InJune,Ramsayannouncedthislatestdiscovery.Ramsay’sthirteen-year-oldsonWillie,astutelysuggestedthenamenovumforthenewelement,anideathathisfatherimmediatelyaccepted,atleastinessence:‘neon’merelyreflectstheconventionofusingGreekratherthanLatinrootswhennamingelements.

Onceagain,RamsayandTraversconfirmedtheirfindusingaspectrometer.Placinganelectricalpotentialacrossavolumeofthegas,theyweredelightedtoseeadistinctivenewglow.Traverswasnotonlyanablelaboratoryhand;healsobecameRamsay’sbiographer,andwasnottoomodesttoincludehimselfasathird-personcharacterinthenarrative.Hisaccountofthedaysurelyranksasone

ofthebestaccountsofthedramaticmomentofdiscovery:

AsRamsaypresseddownthecommutatoroftheinductioncoilheandTraverseachpickeduponeofthedirect-visionprisms,whichalwayslayathandonthebench,hopingtoseeinthespectrumofthegasinthetubesomeverydistinctivelines,orgroupsoflines.Buttheydidnotneedtouseprisms,fortheblazeofcrimsonlightfromthetube,quiteunexpected,heldthemforsomemomentsspell-bound.

Beginningagainwithliquidneonandkrypton,theyfoundonefurthernoblegas,xenon,‘thestranger’.Withevidenceoftheseelements’uniquenessrestingsolelyontheirspectra–therewerenomeasuredphysicalpropertiesandnoobservedchemicalreactions–itisunsurprisingthatRamsayhadhisdetractors,especiallyashehadgotintothehabitofoccasionallyannouncinghisdiscoveriesbeforeactuallymakingthem.NotleastamongthedoubterswasDmitriiMendeleev,whohaddeclaredin1895thatargondidnotfitinhisperiodictable,andsomustbeaheavyformofnitrogen.TheBritishscientistsspentthenexttwoyearspurifyingsamplesoftheirnewelementsinordertoprovetheirexistenceonceandforall.In1900,thescepticswerefinallypersuaded.Towardstheendofthatyear,Ramsaygaveamajorlecturesummarizinghisexperiments,whichwasthenpublishedinthePhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietywithaquotationfromSirThomasBrowne’sReligioMediciatitshead:‘Naturanihilagitfrustra,istheonlyindisputedAxiomeinPhilosophy.TherearenoGrotesquesinNature;notanythingframedtofilluptheemptyCanons,andunnecessarySpaces.’Ramsayhadfilledupfivespacesintheperiodictable,andafewyearslaterwasawardedtheNobelPrizeforChemistry,bywhichtimeothershaddiscoveredtheradioactivegasradonthatcompletedthetallyofthenoblegases.

Ramsay’slaboratoryatUniversityCollegenolongerexists,butmanyofthegasdischargetubesheusedtodemonstratetheircolourfulradiancehavebeenkept.AlwynDavies,anorganicchemistwhohasneverthelessdevelopedanenthusiasmforRamsay’swork,leadsmetoanunpromisingbreeze-blockcorridorandpullsopensomedrawers.Insidearethedumbbell-shapedglasstubesofvariouslengths,blownbyRamsayhimselfandlabelledaccordingtothegasestheycontain.Ontheinsideoftheglassaresmokydepositsfromthevapouroftheplatinumelectrodes,theonlysignofwear.Someofthetubes,heassuresme,stillwork.

Everyelementisnewatthemomentofitsdiscovery,andsomightdeservethenameneon.YetTravers’s‘crimsonlight’wouldfulfilitsdestinymorecompletelythananybodycouldhavepredictedasthecenturyturned.

Asearlyas1902,theFrenchinventorGeorgesClaudebeganexperimentingwithelectricaldischargeswithinsealedtubesofneon.On11December1910hedemonstratedthefirstcommercialneonlamptovisitorsattheParismotorshow.Claude’sinnovationwastoensurethatthechemicallyinertneoninsidethetuberemainedpure,uncontaminatedbymorereactivegasessuchasnitrogenthatcouldcorrodetheelectrodesandreducethebrightnessofthedischarge.Thebrightredlightwasarresting,butwasjudgedtohavelimitedappealfordomesticillumination,andwascertainlyruledoutforuseinautomobilesbecauseofthehigh-voltageequipmentneededtogenerateit.However,itwasperfectforadvertising–theactivitywithwhichithasbeenindeliblyassociatedeversince.Neonlightshonebrightlyevenonsunnydaysandcouldpenetratethecitysmoke,makingsignsvisiblefromfaraway.Withnoapparentsourceofthelight–noburningmaterial,noincandescentfilament,merelyahoveringglowof

vapour–neonpossessedamagicalquality.Itbecameknownas‘liquidfire’.Claudewasabletomakehisneontubeslargerandbrighterbyadding

substancessuchascarbondioxideandusingconstantpumpingtomaintainthecorrectvapourpressure.Furthermore,thetubeswereessentiallypermanent;theycouldbemanufacturedremotely,filledwithgasandthentransportedtoabuildingwheretheycouldsimplybeaffixed,wireduptoanelectricitysupply,andlefttorun.Theworld’sfirstneonadvertisingmessagebeganbeamingthewordcinzanotopromenadersontheChampsElyséesin1913,thesameyearthatStravinsky’sRiteofSpringreceiveditsriotouspremierenearby,andthatmusicalchronicleroftechnologicalprogressErikSatiepennedalittlepianopiece,‘SuruneLanterne’,whoseoptionallyricsbeggedthenewcitylights:‘N’allumezpasencore.Vousavezletemps…’(‘Don’tlightyet.Youhavetime…’)

Butmodernitybeckoned,andthelightswentonwithoutdelay.Claudeprospered,takingoutforeignpatentsandgainingavirtualmonopolyinneontubes.NeonadvertisingarrivedintheUnitedStatesin1923,whenthemediamogulandentrepreneurEarleC.AnthonyboughtfromtheClaudeNeoncompanyofFranceforthereportedsumof$2,400apairof‘Packard’signsforhisLosAngelescardealership.

Namedattheoutsetforitsownnovelty,neonbecamethesignofthenew.Thecoolredheatofpureneonwasquicklycomplementedbyothercoloursproducedbydifferentmixturesofgas.Argon-filledtubesshoneapaleblue.Addingalittlemercurygaveabrightwhitelight.Usingtubesmadeofcolouredglasscompletedtheelectricrainbow.‘Neon’inallitshueswascuriouslyinharmonywiththetimes.ParisandNewYorkwereperhapsthetwocitieswiththegreatestclaimontheworld’sattentioninthefirstpartofthetwentiethcentury,andbothmademuchofthenewmaterial.TheartistFernandLéger,whowasworkinginPariswhenClaude’sfirstsignwentupthere,waslaterexcitedbytheever-changingreflectionsofprimarycoloursonNewYorkers’facesproducedbythesignsonBroadway.TheriseofArtDeco,launchedattheParisExpositionof1925,coincidedwithaproliferationofautomobilesandtheexpansionofcitiesandtheirnewsuburbs,eachofwhichdevelopedtheirownformsofnightlife.Itwasnotsimplytheshinynewstyle’semphasisonsuperficialglossthatmadeitagoodfitwiththisnewtechnology.Witharisingtideofconsumersinpursuitofamusementafterdark,itwasinevitablethatneonbecameacharacteristicfeaturenotonlyoftheentertainmentdistrictsofthemajorcities,butalsoofresortsfromMiamitoLeTouquet,whosenewrestaurants,barsandapartmentssproutedneonsignsandweresometimesevenoutlinedinneontoemphasizethemodernarchitecture.

WhatexcitedLéger,however,droveotherstodistraction.InJohnP.Marquand’sBostoniandiaryofanobody,TheLateGeorgeApley,theeponymousBostonBrahmin,amannonplussedbyallthingsmodern,isappalledbyavisittoBroadway,whereheseesnewelectricsignsmoving‘innervouspatterns’.SuchhorrorsareonlytobeexpectedofManhattan.ButwhenasimilarilluminatedadvertisementappearsinBoston,helaunchesaquixoticallyineffectualcampaignagainstit:‘norwasitduetoApley’sindifferencethatalargeelectricsign,advertisingacertaininexpensivevarietyofmotorcar,stillflauntsitselfinsolentlyoverBostonCommon.Hejustlycalledthissign,totheendofhisdays,“OurBadgeofShame.”’Marquandismakingaconnectionherewithmoreliteralbadgesofshame,specificallytheearlyNewEnglandcustomofmarkingadultererswitharedletterA,the‘scarletletter’ofNathanielHawthorne’snovel.Redneonlightssuggestthatthecityisprostitutingitselftocommercialinterests–andworse.TheyadvertisetheglobalizedbazaarsofPiccadillyCircusandTimesSquare,butalsothemoredecadentpleasuresofthePigalleandtheReeperbahn.Though‘red-lightdistricts’infactantedateneonlightingbyafewyears,thecolourassociationisunfortunateneverthelessforneonandmaybeanadditionalreasonwhyitslightwasconsideredunsuitableinthedomesticenvironment.Forthosewhowanttoreadit,neonprovidestheluminouswritingonthewallofourelectricBabylon.

Itwasnotonlyintheworldlycitiesthatneonfounditsrole.WiththepavingandnumberingofAmerica’snationalhighwaysfromthe1920s,waysidegasstations,motelsanddinersgainedvitalprominencefromneon.Brighterthanotherlights,neonsignswerevisibleatgreaterdistances,especiallyintheopenexpansesoftheWestandinthecleardesertnight.Andifthelightwasvisibleatgreaterdistances,thentheletteringalsohadtobelargersothatthemessagewouldbelegiblefromafar.Roadsidesignsweredesignedtobeseenamileaway–thenperhapsdrivenpastatsixty.

Butinruralcommunitiesasinthecities,thenewfangledglareofneoncouldbeasignalofcorruption.InTheNeonBiblebyJohnKennedyToole,thechurchsigndepictingtheBible‘withitsyellowpagesandredlettersandbigbluecrossinthecenter’castsasearinglightthatsymbolizestheoppressivepoweroftheMississippipreacherwhohoundstheboynarrator’sfamilyof‘fallen-awayChristians’todeathandexile.

Thehoveringtranscendenceofneonlighthastemptedartiststomaketheirownluminousglyphs.Theseoftentwistthefamiliarformofadvertisingsignstospelloutmoreellipticalmessages.Thefunisinadaptingamediumthatisallaboutinstantgratificationtosaysomethingslowormysterious.Formost,theactualcraftofmakingthesignsisanirrelevance.ButFionaBannermakesherownglassware,amanualprocedurethatconnectsherwiththefirstsuchtubesevermade,thoseinRamsay’slaboratory.‘Neonbestsellsthingsfor“now”,’sheexplainstome.‘Immediatedesires–sex,kebabs,movies.’Butthedisembodiedqualityofthelightalsocarriestimelessmemoriesofstainedglassandtheskyitself,makingitboth‘aretinalandculturalcome-hither.Whenlit,it(itsphysicality)ishiddeninitsownlight,theobjectdisappearsinordertobelegible.Itisawayofbeingabletosaysomething(aword)withoutanyvoice.’Banner’srecentworkpicksapartthislanguage.EveryWordUnmadeisasetoftwenty-sixseparateneonsigns,oneforeachsingleletterofthealphabet,theessentialingredientsofurgentmessagesasyetuncomposed.AworkcalledBones,meanwhile,giveslifetothepunctuationmarksthatarealwaysleftoutofcommercialneonsigns.ForBanner,theglowingmarks,withshapeslikeprimitiveweaponsfoundonanarchaeologicaldig,accruedeepnewmeanings.

Nowheremarriesneon’swildernessentreatyanditscarelessurbanglamourmoreeffectivelythanLasVegas.Incorporatedasacityonlyin1911whenithadapopulationofjust800,LasVegasreallybegantoboomin1931,whenconstructionbeganonthenearbyHooverDam;gamblingwasmadelegalthatsameyear.Thepopulationhasmorethandoubledineachdecadeeversinceandstandsclosetotwomilliontoday.Theplacehadagarishcharacterfromearlyon.Thefirstneonbeaconinthedesertwentupin1929onwhatwasthenstillappropriatelynamedtheOasisCaféandwasfollowedbytheartdecotowerof

theLasVegasClubin1930,andthenbyacavalcadeofhotels,clubsandcasinos.Itwasthesigns(‘CaesarsPalace’,‘GoldenNugget’,‘Stardust’,‘Flamingo’)thatdefinedthemaincommercialavenueofthecityknownastheStrip.Withlandcheapandvistaslong,thesignswereoftentallerthanthesprawlingbuildingstheyadvertised.Butsizewasnevergoingtobeenoughinsuchacompetitiveenvironment.Increasinglyimaginativedesignswerecommissioned,withflashingcoloursandanimatedgraphicsof,say,winepouringintoaglassorbeerfrothinginastein–thoughseldomofcashtumblingintoeagerhands.Thedinosaursdriventoextinctioninthisceaselessparadeofnaturalselectionmeanwhilearepreservedinthecity’s‘neonboneyard’.

TherestlesslightisalltoomuchforRaoulDukeandhisattorneyinHunterS.Thompson’sFearandLoathinginLasVegas.Whentheycheckintoahotel,theyfinddirectlyoutsidetheirwindow‘somekindofelectricsnake…comingrightatus.

‘“Shootit,”saidmyattorney.‘“Notyet”Isaid.“Iwanttostudyitshabits.”’ButDuke’sattorneywiselydrawsthecurtains.TwowhodidstudyitshabitswerethearchitecturaltheoristsRobertVenturi

andDeniseScottBrown.FollowingEdRuschaandthePopartists,whowerefirsttoreappraisetheaestheticsofthecommercialstrip,theydecidedtomakeVegas‘ourFlorence’.(TomWolfehadalreadycomparedittoVersailles.)VenturiandScottBrownnotedthatinmanycasesthelightwasthearchitecture.Thebuildingsarenotlittastefullylikehistoriclandmarks;theyarethemselveslight.Theyaregivenluminousoutlines,andeverysurfacebecomesanilluminatedsignforsomething,whethertheyarecasinosor‘marriagechapelsconvertedfrombungalowswithaddedneon-linedsteeples’.IntheirenthusiasticembraceofeverythingvernacularinVegas,theonlythingthearchitectsdidn’tlikeabouttheilluminationswastheirtendencytoproduce‘bigproblemswith

bugs’.Theirrevulsionmayhavebeenmorethanjustphysical:perhapstheysawtheinsectsdrawntothelightasametaphorforourownhelplessattractiontoneontemptations.

ButanuisancetosomeisanopportunitytoaseriouslepidopteristsuchastheyoungVladimirNabokov,whoonce‘caughtsomeverygoodmothsattheneonlightsofagasstationbetweenDallasandFortWorth’.Nabokov’swasmuchmorethanachildhoodhobby,andonthissametranscontinentalcarjourneyhealsodiscoveredanewspeciesofbutterfly,whichhenamedNeonymphadorotheaafterthestudentwhowasdoingthedriving.Nabokov,thatmasterofwordplay,musthaveloveditthattheLinnaeannomenclatureofhisfindwasalsoabletoincorporatethenameofthelightbywhichitwasfound.

TheimageofinsectsswarmingaroundaneonsignwasonetheauthoremployedmuchlaterinLolita,hisnotoriousnovelaboutaParisianémigréwriterHumbertHumbert’ssexualpursuitofatwelve-year-oldnymphet.ThelaterstagesofthebookdescribearoadtriparoundtheUnitedStates,punctuatedbymotorcourts,gasstationsandcandybars.OnonelevelthestoryclearlytellsofoldEurope’s(Humbert’s)infatuationwiththenewAmerica(Lolita),butit’saneon-lit1950sAmericathatturnsouttobemuchlessinnocentthanitappears–forHumbertissurprisedtolearnastheirjourneytogetherbeginsthathiscaptiveLolitahasalreadybeencorrupted.Finally,HumbertbringshimselftofreeLolitatomakeherownlife,consolinghimselfwiththeslaughterofoneofherotherseducers.Hedrivesawayfromthemurderscenetotheaccompanimentof‘sherry-redlettersoflight’andarestaurantsignintheshapeofacoffee-potrepeatedlyburstinginto‘emeraldlife’.

Jezebel’sEyes

TheOldTestamentheaveswithpaintedladies.‘Thoughyouenlargeyoureyeswithpaint,Invainyouwillmakeyourselffair,’theLordwarnsthedaughtersofZion(Jeremiah4:30).ThesistersOholahandOholibaharejudgedfortheirlewdnessintakingtotheirbeds‘desirableyoungmen’fromAssyria,EgyptandBabylon.Themencouldn’thelpthemselvesofcourse:‘theywentintoher,asmengointoawomanwhoplaystheharlot’,luredbycome-hitherlooks,jewellery,andthefactthattheyhadgonetothetroubleofwashingthemselvesandthenpaintingtheireyes(Ezekiel23:40).

ThedeedsofJezebel,thewifeofAhab,thekingofIsraelintheninthcenturyBCE,aresounwholesomethatsheisdraggedbacktomakeaguestappearanceinRevelationastheveryembodimentofunrepentantsexualdepravity.Hernamehasbeenabywordforshamelesswomanhoodeversince.It

iseasytotellshe’snogoodforshetoo‘putpainttohereyes’(2Kings9:30).StJerome’sVulgateLatintranslationidentifiesthesubstancesheusedasstibio–antimony.

TheBiblemakesothermentionsofantimony,asthesoftsettingforpreciousstonesforexample,whichcouldbereferringtoanylustrousmetallicalloy,butidentifyingthecosmeticasantimonyisasaferbet(althoughtheblackpowderthatwasinlong-establishedusagefordarkeningaroundtheeyeswasinfactantimonysulphide,theelementanditscompoundsbeinghardtodisentangleatatimewhenthebasicrulesofchemicalcombinationwerestillunknown).TheHebrewandArabictermforthissubstanceiskuhl,fromwhichthemoderneye-shadowkohlisnamed.

Despitethedramaticpictorialevidenceofwallpaintingsthatblackeyemake-upwasafeatureofdailylifelongeragoinancientEgypt,itisnotclearwhetheritwasantimonythatwasbeingused.Certainly,therewereotherblackpowdersavailable,thehandiestbeingcarbonintheformoflampblackorthedarkerboneblack,whichwasoftenusedtocoattheeyelashes.(This‘mascara’cametobejustasdamnableastheblackantimonyeye-shadow,itseems:thewordstemsfromtheItalianfor‘witch’.)Butantimonywasregardedasthesuperiorproductand,asidefromappearingtomaketheeyesbrighter,wasclaimedtoproduceavarietyofbenefitsfromsoothingthebrowtodilatingthepupils,aneffectdueperhapstotheelement’sbeinganeyeirritant.

Antimonyisoneofmanyoftenhazardoussubstancesthathavebeenenlistedoverthecenturiesinthecauseofmakingusmorebeautiful.AtechnicalcompendiumcalledHarry’sCosmeticologyrunsanalarminggamutfromaluminium(powderforglitteryeyes)tozirconium(saltstostrengthenthefingernails).Thelistingincludesarsenicalpyritesasadepilatory,bismuthoxychlorideasapearlescentadditiontolipsticks,andcadmiumsulphideforfightingdandruff,inanindexthatcountsmorethanfortyoftheelementsinall.

Irushtomywife’sdressingtabletoseewhatlurksamongthesweetlyperfumed,innocuous-lookingwhitecreams,butamsurprised–andalarmed–tofindthat,unlikefoods,thepackagescarrynoexplanatorylabels.Hasabusinesswithaninfamousrecordofusingdangerouschemicalssocleanedupitsactthatnoaccountingisnecessary?Oristheriskjudgedacceptableinthenameofbeauty?Althoughchemistshavedevisednewmaterialsthatoffermarvellouscolours,thecosmeticsindustryfindsitprudenttoconfineitselftoarelativelysmallrepertoireofdyesapprovedbybodiessuchastheUnitedStatesFoodandDrugAdministration.So-calledinterferencepigmentsthentweakthefewbasiccoloursinordertoproducethegreaterrangeofshadesthatthemarketdemands.Today,manylipsticksuseintenselycolouredorganicdyessuchasfluorescein

dispersedinamediumofwhitetitaniumdioxidepowderratherthanheavymetalpigments.Oddplastickyadditionssupplyotherdesirableeffects,suchasmicroscopicballsofPerspexusedtogiveapearlescentgloss.

SamuelJohnsonpossessed‘anapparatusforchymicalexperiments’andcalledchemistryhis‘dailyamusement’.Hisfamiliaritywiththescienceisreflectedinhisfamousdictionary,whichincludesentriesformostoftheelementsknowntosciencebythemideighteenthcentury,includingthenewlyisolatedcobalt.Hisentryforantimonyisespeciallyentertaining.‘Thereasonofitsmoderndenomination,’hesuggests,asopposedtotheLatinstibium,

isreferredtoBasilValentine,aGermanmonk;who,asthetraditionrelates,havingthrownsomeofittothehogs,observed,that,afterithadpurgedthemheartily,theyimmediatelyfattened;andtherefore,heimagined,hisfellowmonkswouldbethebetterforalikedose.Theexperiment,however,succeededsoill,thattheyalldiedofit;andthemedicinewashenceforthcalledantimoine;antimonk.

ItwasnaturalthatJohnsonshouldthinktoincludeantimony.Whattodayseemstousarathermarginalelementwasthenheldinhighesteem,havingbeenregardedascentrallyimportantbythealchemists.Thoughthedarkartsofalchemyhadbeguntoyieldtoamoresystematicchemistry,thealchemists’textswerestillnecessaryreferences,eveniftheywerenotalwaysquitewhattheypurportedtobe.AmysterioustomecalledTheTriumphalChariotofAntimonyspeaksofantimony’sabilitytocureleprosyandtheFrenchpox,butalsocontainssomesolidscience,accuratelynotingtheelement’stwocontrastingforms–abrittlesilverymetalandagreypowder.Alchemistsregardedthisdualityassignificant,foritbroughtantimonyclosetobothmercuryandsulphur,motherandfatherofallthemetals.

Thefactthatantimonycantakethesetwoformswasasourceofmuchhermeneuticalhead-scratching.Tocomplicatematters,theelementoccursinnaturemostoftenasthesulphidestibnite.Preparedincertainwaysthisblackpowder,Jezebel’skohl,changesagain,turningorange,withnohotfurnaceorspecialapparatusrequiredtoshiftbetweentheseconfusingforms.Johnsonwashavingalittlefunwithhisetymology:thewordantimonyisderivedinfactfromantimonos,meaningagainstsingleness,astraightforwardreferencetotheseshiftingproperties,andnothingtodowiththeelement’silleffectsonthebrothersofthechurch(thoughthewordmonkcomesfrommonostoo).

ThesupposedauthorofTheTriumphalChariot,BasilValentine,andhisfellowalchemistsregardedtheamorphousgreyphaseofantimony–‘thesage’smatter’andthe‘greywolfofthephilosophers’–asthetantalizinglaststagebeforetherealizationofthephilosophers’stonebecauseofitsambivalentcapacitytoproduceeitherthelustreorthehueofgold,butneveryetthetwotogether.

Morealluringstillisthemetallicformofantimony,whichhasbeencelebratedsinceantiquityforitsabilitytosolidifyinalargecrystallinemassthatcombinesthegleamofpreciousmetalwiththefacetedsymmetriesofgemstones.Thephenomenonwasundoubtedlynoticedwhenthepureelement,orregulus,wasfirstmade.Thediscofcrustthatformedontopofthemeltbecameknownas‘starantimony’afterthecharacteristicradiatingpatternproducedastheantimonycrystallizedinthecoolingvessel.

IsaacNewton,analchemistasmuchasamathematicianandphysicist,readValentineandfollowedhisrecipeformakingtheregulusofantimony,thinkinghemightbeabletouseitsgleamingsurfaceintelescopes.Onebiographerinvitesustobelievethatthestellatepatternheproducedmayhavehelpedhimtovisualizethelinesofforcethatledhimtodevelopthetheoryofgravity.Thisseemsfancifultome.Icanseehowthepatternsmightinspireideasaboutoptics,whichNewtonwasalsoinvestigatingatthetimeofhisexperimentswithantimony,butnotgravity.Idecidetogoinsearchofantimonystars.

Forsuchbeautifulartefactsofnature,theyaresurprisinglyhardtofind.IamquicklydisabusedoftheideathateveryVictoriancollectorwouldhaveownedoneandthattheywouldtodaybelitteringthestore-roomsofprovincialmuseums.However,photographsandillustrationsshowcrystalpatternsthatarenotacicular,whichistosaylikethechrome-spokedwheelsofasportscar,convergingononecentralpoint,aswouldhavetobethecaseforadiagramofgravitationalforce.Instead,thesolidrinkofantimonytendstobedividedupintopolygonaldomains,smootherandlargernearthecentreofthediscanddisintegratingintoextravagantlyfoliateintaglio,likefrostonawindow,towardstheouteredgesaccordingtoitsrateofcooling.Theoveralldesignisindeedstar-like,notintheastronomicalsenseofapointsourcefromwhichalllightradiates,butinthemannerofachild’stypicaldrawingofastarwithanumberoftriangularpointsor,moreparticularlyperhaps,likeRenaissanceemblemsoftheflamingsun.

Perhapsthisresemblanceinspiredanotherfamousexperimentwithantimony.In1650,oneNicolasleFebrewasdemonstratorinchemistryattheJardinduRoiinParis,where,fortheedificationoftheyoungKingLouisXIV,thenathoughtfuleleven-year-oldboy,heembarkedupon‘theSolarCalcinationofAntimony’bymeansof‘MagicalandCelestialFire,drawnfromtheRayesoftheSunbythehelpofarefractingorburningGlass’.LeFebrefocusedsunlightonto‘theStellatorstarryRegulus’andshowedthattheproductofthereactionweighedmorethantheantimonyhehadstartedwith.PerhapstheantimonystargavetheyoungLouistheideaforthesymbolthatwouldshineoverhislongreignastheSunKing.Whetheritdidornot,theexperimentwasamilestoneinmodernchemistryfordemonstratingpropermethodinplaceofalchemicalobscurantism,andshowingthefirstglimmeringsoftheunderstandingthattheairitselfcontainschemicalelements.

PartFive:Earth

SwedishRock

Atthebeginningofmychemicalodyssey,Ihadtracedamapoftheworldandplacedadotonitwhereveroneoftheelementshadbeendiscovered.Averycuriousmapitturnedouttobe.Asidefromzincandplatinum,whichwerefoundwithouttheassistanceofWesternscienceinIndiaandtheAmericasrespectively,allthedotsrelatingtothenaturallyoccurringelementsfellinEurope.AclusterofdotsinBerkeley,California,accountedformostoftheelementsheavierthanuraniumthathavebeenmadeartificiallyfollowingthediscoveryofnuclearfission.AnotherclusteratDubna,northofMoscow,showedwheresomemorerecentradioactiveelementshavebeensynthesized.

Europeshowedfourmajorhotspotsofearlierdate–London,boostedbythemultiplesuccessesofDavyandRamsay,andPariscouldclaimjustoveradozenelementsapiece.Berlin,GenevaandEdinburghalsomadetheirmark.ButthetwolargestclustersofdotsafterParisandLondonwerebothinSweden,oneattheolduniversitycityofUppsala,andtheotherinthecapital,Stockholm.Swedishsciencecouldclaimthediscoveryofatleastnineteenelements,morethanafifthofthenaturallyoccurringtotal.Manyofthem,indeed,celebratetheplaceswheretheywerefound(yttrium,erbium,terbiumandytterbiumnamedaftertheoremineatYtterby;holmiumnamedafterStockholmitself)oraftermoreorlessromanticideasofScandinavia(scandium,thulium).

(InoldEurope,itisquiteoftenthecasethattheelementsarenamedforplacesassociatedwiththeirdiscovery.Forinstance,strontiumhappenstobetheonlyelementnamedafteraplaceintheBritishIsles,StrontianinScotland.It’smoreoftentheotherwayroundintheUnitedStates,wherechemicalknowledgehelpfullyprecededwestwardexpansionandtherushtouncovertherichesofthewilderness.America’sGoldenHillsandSilverLakeswerenoidlepoeticallusion;theyexpressedadirectconnectiontotheearthintowhichadventurershammeredtheirtentpegs,andthehope,whetherfulfilledorultimatelydashed,thatthesepreciousmetalsweretobefoundthere.Asidefromgoldandsilver,adozenelementsappearnakedlyintownnames,fromtheexpectedIrons,inMissouriandUtah,LeadvilleinColorado,andCopperCenter,Alaska,tothefranklysurprisingSulphur,Oklahoma,Cobalt,Idaho,Antimony,Utahand

Boron,California.)WhatmadeSwedenfiguresolargelyinthestoryoftheelements?Ihave

beenconcernedthroughoutthisbooktosuggestthatwearefamiliarwithmanyoftheelementsinaculturalway,thatistosaywithouteversteppingintoalaboratory.Weknowneonandsodiumforthelighttheycast,iodineforitsbrownbalm,chromiumforitscheapshine.Others,suchassulphur,arsenicandplutonium,wetendtoknowmorebyreputation.TheSwedishfindsaremostlyobscurebythesemeasures–theyincludemetalssuchasmanganeseandmolybdenum,andagoodhandfuloftheelementsknowncollectivelyastherareearths,agroupthatincludesallofthoseelementsdirectlynamedafterSwedishlocations.Theyhavenotmadeamarkinthesensethattheyhavebecomeabywordforsomehumanhorrorordelight.Yettheseelementstoohaveaculturalconnection,and,astheirtoponymyimplies,itisaconnectionthatrunsdeep.ParisandLondonrevealednewelementstotheworldbecausetheyweremajorcentresofintellectuallife.BerkeleyandDubnahappenedtobethesiteschosenforthespecialistmachinesneededtomanufacturetheheavierelementsbeyonduraniumintheperiodictable.ButinSweden’scase,thelogicisunshiftable:herelementssprangfromtheverygroundofthecountry.

Inordertolearnmoreaboutthisfertilewomboftheelements,andhowitwasthatthereweremenofsciencereadytheretoactasmidwives,IdecidedtovisitSwedenmyselfinordertofindouthowitwasthattwocitiesonthemarginsofEurope–onescarcelymorethanasmalltown–sustainedanadvantageoveraperiodofacenturyandahalfthatenabledthemtooutstripLondonandParisinthisraceofdiscovery.Duringthefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcentury,SwedenbrieflybecamethenewsuperpowerofnorthernEurope,overrunningNorway,FinlandandpartsofRussia,northernGermanyandtheareanowoccupiedbytheBalticstates.UnderwritingtheexpansionwereSweden’svastreservesofironandcopperore,whichprovidedthenecessarymilitaryandeconomicmight.Intime,theseimperialambitionsweresupersededbyanewandmoreattractiveidea,thatofScandinavia.Buttheminingcontinued,anditwasfromthesemines,duringtheyearsofSweden’sgentledecline,thatthisonenationmadeitslavishcontributiontotheperiodictable.ImuseonthishistoryandhowitisreflectedintheSwedishelements,whosenamesbecamegraduallylesslocalizedwitheachsuccessivediscovery,fromyttriumin1794toscandiumin1879,asmyplanefliesoverlakesandforeststowardsStockholm.

InStockholm,ImeetHjalmarFors,ayounghistorianofchemistrywithawispyblondbeard,whohasagreedtoleadmeonawalkingtourofthescientificsights.

WestartintheStortorget.Itmeansbig‘square’,althoughitisalittlesquareonthelittleislandofStadsholmen,Stockholm’soldtown.Commandingoneshortsideofthesquareisared-washedmerchant’shousewithbaroquegablesandapsalminscribedonatabletabovethedoor;itiswhereCarlScheele,thenearlymanofoxygenandchlorine,workedasapharmacistaround1768.Ournextstopisthenationalmint,whichstandsonthewatersidehardbytheRoyalPalace.Here,in1735,GeorgBrandt,theGuardianoftheMint,speculatedthatthebluecolourofthesmaltoreobtainedasaby-productfromtheroyalcopperminesmightbethecluetoanewelement.TheBoardofMinesbasedatthemintwasresponsiblefortheanalysisofmineralsandmaintainedthefirstchemicallaboratoryinSwedenlongbeforetherewasoneattheuniversityinUppsalaoranywhereelse.ThislaboratoryhadbeenaroundforlongenoughtohavefallenintosomedecaywhenBrandtcameonthesceneandsetaboutmodernizingit.ItseemsthatBrandtmaynothavebeenthankedforthislabour,however.Brandtwasarationalist,buthismasterswereRosicruciansdisinclinedtoletgooftheirmysticalbeliefs.Intime,however,Brandtgainedgreatercontroloveroperationsandwasabletoexertamoreenlightenedinfluence.Duringthelaterpartofhiscareerhecontinuedtodevotemuchenergytodisprovingcharlatans’claimstohavetransmutedsilverandothermetalsintogold.Ittookhimsevenyearstoobtainthefirstspecimenofcobaltmetal.Itwas,Hjalmartellsme,thefirsttrulymoderndiscoveryofachemicalelement,thatistosaythefirsttobesupportedbyasolidnotionofchemicaltheory,notmerelyalchemicalhocuspocus.

Wemoveon,crossingoverthewatertoKarlXIISquare.Amongthegrandbuildingsoverlookingthegreeneryisasubstantialnineteenth-centuryyellow-ochreedificethatwastheheadquartersoftheironmineswhenSwedenwastheworld’sgreatestexporterofthemetal.Anextendedbas-relieffriezerunsaroundthetopofthebuilding.Itshowsheroicfiguresengagedineverystageoftheiron-makingprocess,fromextractingtheore,tosmeltinginthefurnace,tocastingthepigs.Lowerdown,thefaçadeispunctuatedbyplastermedallionsofScheele,BerzeliusandothergreatSwedishchemists.‘Iratherlikethis,’saysHjalmarwithaglintinhiseye.‘Nobodyreallyknowswhotheseguysarenow.Buttheretheystillareuponthewall.’

Iambeginningtosensethevitalconnectionnotonlybetweennationalprosperityandmining,butalsobetweenminingandchemicalscience.Sweden’sfirsttruechemistswerekeptinemploymentonewayoranotherbymininginterests.UnliketheirpeersinBritainandFrance,theytendedtobehighlytrainedintheanalysisofminerals.TheyworkedattheRoyalMintortheBoardofMinesorindirectcollaborationwithmineowners.Theyobtainedtheirspecimensfromtheminesandwerefrequentvisitorsthemselvestotheminesat

FalunandVästmanland,adayortwo’sridefromStockholmorUppsala.Heretheyweredoubtlesstobeseenscrabblingthroughthetailingsforexceptionalstonesorsearchingtheexposedveinsforglimmersofunusualcolour,oftenperformingtheirpreliminaryanalysesinmakeshiftlaboratoriessetuponsite.Thesewerenoaristocratsamusingthemselvesinplushhomelaboratories,butrealistsawarethatwealthcamebyvirtueofhardlabouroutofthecoldearth,andthatanyscientificknowledgegainedinadditiontothatwouldbethemoremeritoriousifitledtoanincreaseinthatwealth.Andthesemenwerejustlyrewardedfortheirrealismbythebusinesscommunitywhomtheyserved:nomedallionsofLavoisierorCavendisharetobefoundonthecommodityexchangesofParisandLondon.

WestopforabeeratacaféintheRoyalHopGardenpublicpark,withScheele’sunreliablestatuegazingdownonus.Hjalmartellsmeofhispipe-dreamtorewritethehistoryofsciencebyshiftingthecentreofgravityeastwardtofocusontheintellectualtrafficacrosstheBaltic,betweentheScandinavian,GermanandRussianpowers,ignoringforachangethebickeringrivalryoftheEnglishandtheFrench.ItisaprojectthatcouldrestoretotheirrightfulplaceinthechemicalpantheontheshrinkingvioletsofSweden’smininglaboratories,menwhosecongenitalmodestyledthemfatallytodelaypublicationoftheirdiscoveriesoreventoshunitaltogether,sohelpingtoensuretheyneverreceivedtheirdueontheworldstage–JohanGahn,thediscovererofmanganese;TorbernBergman,theéminencegrisebehindmanyofthemetalsfirstisolatedfromSwedishsources,butthedirectdiscovererofnone;andScheele,who,havingmovedonfromStockholm,foundevenUppsalatooexciting,andspenttheyears

whenhemighthavebeenfamousholedupinthelittleVästmanlandtownofKöping,battingawayoffersofemploymentfromwealthyEnglishandGermanpatrons.

ThenextdayItakethetraintoUppsala.Stockholmwasthecommercialandfinancialcentrewherethemetalsfromup-countrywereassayed,tradedandmadeintocoin.WhatwasUppsala’srole?UppsalahastheoldestuniversityinScandinavia,establishedin1477,butitwearsitshistorylightly.Theplacehardlyseemslikeanintellectualhothouse.Thereislifeonitsfewshoppingstreetsbutnorealbustle.Pedestriansandbikesweavehappilyaroundeachother,andcarsarefew:itiseasytopicturethecityasitmusthavebeentwoorthreecenturiesago.Afast-flowingriverinagranitechanneldividestownfromgown,butstudentsareasthinonthegroundastheshoppers.

ImeetAndersLundgren,alecturerinthehistoryofscienceattheuniversity,whosportsatangleofgreybeardonascalethatHjalmarForscanonlyaspireto.Aswestrollalong,IobserveidlywhatanextraordinarilygenialplaceUppsalaseemstobe.‘Yesitis,’Andersagrees.‘Now.Butnotinthewinter.’ItisearlyJune.HepointsoutawhitedormeredbuildingwhereinthemideighteenthcenturyUppsala’sfirstprofessorsofchemistry,JohanWalleriusandTorbernBergman,madetheirlaboratories.ItwasinthisbuildinganditssuccessorsthatmostofSweden’selementdiscovererseitherlearnttheirartorpasseditonasprofessorstothenextgeneration.ThiswasthecasewhethertheycamefromStockholm,likeAndersEkeberg(tantalum)andPerCleve(holmiumandthulium),orfromtheminingcountry,likeBrandt(cobalt),orevenfromtheFinnishterritorieslikeJohanGadolin(yttrium):theyallspenttimeinUppsala.PeterHjelm(molybdenum)andLarsNilson(scandium)weretwomoreUppsalagraduates.Scheele,meanwhile,ranthepharmacyinthetownsquarewherehemadethefirstchlorineandoxygen,althoughheplayednoofficialpartinacademiclife.Uppsalahasasplendiduniversitymuseum,theonion-domedGustavianum,but,inwhatIamcomingtoacceptastheinevitableSwedishfashion,itomitstocelebrateevenoneofthesemen.

EquidistantfromStockholmandthemines,Uppsalawasthethirdpointofatriangle–thethinkingbraintothelabouringhandandthepumpingheartoftheSwedishbodypolitic.Itwasnotastraightforwardrelationship,however.Thecrownneededtheminestofunditsimperialambitions,andthemineownersnodoubtenjoyedtheroyalpatronage.Butitisnotimmediatelyclearwhyeitherofthemneededthescientists.AndersLundgrenhasstudiedthewaymininginfluencedthedevelopmentofscienceinSweden.‘Chemistrycouldneverpay

backtomining,’heexplains.Theminershadnoneedofchemiststopointoutthevaluableorestothem,andmaywellhaveresentedthesesecularintruderswiththeirblitheunconcernfortheminers’obscuretraditions.Andifthechemistswereluckyenoughtodiscovernewelements,thenthesewereofnointeresteither.Theymightfilloddgapsintheoreticalunderstanding.‘Buttheoriesofchemicalaffinitywerenouseinablastfurnace.’

YetthechemistsdidgainsupportsuchthatforalongtimeinSwedenchemistrywasprobablytheonlysciencetooffertheprospectofadecentcareer.ThecrowngainedintellectualprestigefromsupportingthelaboratoryattheBoardofMines,andmineownersemulatedthislargesseontheirownmodestscale.Somemineownersindeed,suchasBerzelius’spatronandcollaboratorWilhelmHisinger,werescholarsintheirownright.Thenational‘minerography’thatHisingerproducedattheageoftwenty-four,forexample–akindofatlasofmineralresources–waslessthestake-claimingprojectofanavariciousprospector,farmoreaproductofhumanisticpleasureinknowledgeforitsownsake.

Thoughitmaydolittletocommemoratethem,theGustavianumdidcontainonefurthercluetotheextraordinarysuccessofSweden’schemists.Ihaveindicatedelsewherethatthediscoveryofelementsoftenreliesonthepossessionofsomespecialtechnology,andthatgiventhisdeviceorthattechnique,thediscoveriesthenoftencomeinarush.ItiseasytobelievethatintheeighteenthcenturytherewasnosuchtechnologyinplacetoassistinprisingtherareearthsandotherelementsfromthegrudgingSwedishrock.Thisissointhesensethatnohigh-poweredgadgetsuddenlyunlockedthefloodgates,andthediscoveriescameinsteadinpainfulfitsandstartsoveralongperiod.Yetduringallthistimetherewasonetoolwhichnoself-respectingSwedishchemistwaseverwithout:hisblow-pipe.Thespecimeninthemuseumisperhapstwentycentimetresinlengthandappearstobemadeofiron.Itisessentiallyathin,elegantlytaperedtubenotunlikeacigarette-holder.Atoneenditisslightlyflaredsoastoproduceagoodsealwiththeuser’smouth.Attheother,theairwayisbentthroughninetydegreesandforcedthroughasmallhole,whileaseparateoutletdrainsoffspittleasinamusicalwindinstrument.

Thissimplestofequipmentwasthekeytotheanalysisofunfamiliarminerals.Ithadthegreatadvantagethatitcouldbeusedinthefield.AccordingtoaguidepublishedbyonedistinguishedSwedishmineralogist,itamountedtonothinglessthana‘pocketlaboratory’.EvenGoethe,akeenscientificamateur,hadBerzeliusinstructhiminitsuse.Theblow-pipewaseventuallysupersededbythespectroscope,butitremainedafeatureofanalyticalchemistryteachinguntilthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury;AndersLundgrenrememberstrying

oneoutatschool,anddescribestomehowitworks.Thoughsimpleenough,itdemandspowerfullungsandfiendishskillifitistodelivergoodresults.Itsgreatversatilityliesinthefactthatitmaybeusedtoblowajetofairthroughdifferentregionsofaflame,therebyproducingahigh-temperaturezonethatisableeithertooxidizeortoreduce(thereversechemicalprocess)amineralsamplepositionedintheway.

Ifallthesensesarealert,avastrangeofdiagnosticinformationmayfollowfromthisapparentlycrudeprocess.Iftheuserhasthebreathtosustaintheflowofairfortenorfifteenminutestoallowthesampledmineraltocometoredheat,thecolouroftheflamemaychangerepeatedlyasdifferentmetallicelementsarevaporizedfromit(thereasonwhytheairwayisbentissothattheusergetsaclearviewofthepointwheretheflamestrikesthemineral).Thesmellofthevapourscanconfirmthepresenceofnon-metalingredientssuchassulphur,seleniumandtellurium.Eventhesoundthemineralmakesmaybesignificant,withacracklingnoise,forexample,beingcharacteristicofchemicallyboundwaterbeingfreedfromthesample.

Theblow-pipeseemstometoexpresstheessenceofwhatAndersdescribestomeasSweden’scharacteristically‘boringgoodchemistry’.Eventhescientistsmayhavebeenboredattimes,sweatingandpuffinginfrustrationoverunreadableminerals,dissolvingthemuptoproduceanendlesssuccessionofalmostindistinguishablesalts.Itisaworldthatseemsfarfromthemiraculousgoldandcopper,amberandjewels,thatscintillatethroughthemythologyofthisland.Iwonderwhatcolourfulflamesofhopemusthavedancedatthebackoftheirmindsasthesemenperformedtheirinexorableexperiments.Thiswas

scienceofthegreen-fingeredkindthatreliesoncrafts-manlikeskill,immensepatienceandintimatefamiliaritywithitsrawmaterials.Itwasthesequalities,morethanmercurialbrillianceorextravagantequipment,thatexplainedthediscoveryofsomanyoftheelementsinthisnorth-easternextremityoftheEuropeancontinent.Thesequalities,andofcoursetheprodigalabundanceofthesoil.

EuropiumUnion

Therareearthsarenotrare,buttheyareunsung.ThisgroupofelementstowhichsomanyoftheSwedishdiscoveriesbelongpopulatesarowoftheperiodictablewhichisusuallyshowndanglingbelowtherestofthetablelikea‘vacancies’noticeslungbelowamotelsign.Itsmembersare:scandium,yttrium,lanthanum,cerium,praseodymium,neodymium,promethium,samarium,europium,gadolinium,terbium,dysprosium,holmium,erbium,thulium,ytterbiumandlutetium.And,rarethoughtheyarenot,youcanbeeasilyforgivenforneverhavingheardofasingleoneofthem.

Noraretheyreallygritty‘earths’:allaremiddleweightmetals.Itisonlybecausetheyforsolongresistedextractionfromtheiroxideoresthattheyearntthisgenerallabel.Recalcitrancemaybetherareearths’mainunifyingcharacteristic.Inotherrespects,theirpropertiesarefinelydifferentiated;indeeditisamatterofchemicalsemanticsastowhethersomeofthem–scandiumandyttriumatthebeginningofthesequence,andlutetiumattheend–evenbelongonthelistatall.

Inalmosteverycase,theisolationoftherareearths–fromyttriumin1794topromethiumin1945–wasapunishinggrind.Thesediscoveriesdohavethedistinction,however,thattheyweremade(apartfromtheanomalousradioactivepromethium)bythoroughgoingchemists.Theywerenotdependentuponsomeuniquetechnologyclosertophysicsaswasthecasewithsomeothergroupsofelements–thealkalimetalsdiscoveredelectrolyticallybyDavy,Ramsay’sinertgasesglowingintheirdischargetubes,thetransuraniumelementsthrowntogetherintheBerkeleyparticleaccelerator.Theseparationoftherareearthswaschemistryalltheway.Thetypicalprocedurewastodissolveanoreinacidtoformasolutioncontainingamixtureofsalts.Thiswasthenslowlyevaporatedsothatthesaltofeachelementcrystallizedoutinturn,whiletheoverlyingliquidretainedothersinsolution.Carefulrepetitionofthisprocess–sometimesthousandsoftimes–enabledchemistseventuallytoseparatetheseverysimilarsubstancesonefromanother,andfromthemthentoisolatethenewelementsattheirheart.Itwas,asonechemicalhistoriandrilyremarks,‘anenormous

undertakingwhichwouldhavedifficultyattractinggrantsupporttoday’.Monotonousasitundoubtedlywas,thislong-runningprojectwasheavento

aparticulartypeofexperimentalmind.TheSwedeCarlMosanderboastedofhisignoranceofchemicaltheory,andshowedexactlyhowunimportantitwasbydiscoveringmorerareearthsthananybodyelsebydintofsheerhoursspentatthelaboratorybench.Thereisadefiniterustleoftheanorakabouttheseelements.Withthehindsightofestablishedscientificknowledge,itmightbeeasiertocrystallizetheirstoriesinwordsthanitwastocrystallizetheelementsthemselves,butitwouldquiteprobablybejustastediousastheoriginalexercise.SoIshallnotspendtimeonallofthem,butrathersingleoutoneortwoasrepresentativeoftheset.Thedifferencesbetweenthemareslightinanycase.Theybehaveingenerallysimilarwaysanddosimilarthings.Someofthesethingsareuseful–rareearthsarewidelyifsparinglyemployedinceramicglazes,fluorescentlamps,televisionscreens,lasers,alloysandrefractorymaterials–butthematterofchoosingwhichoneofthemtouseinmanyoftheseapplicationsis,ifnotentirelyinconsequential,thenatleastsomewhatarbitrary.Notalways,however.Occasionally,oneoftheserareearthelementsrecommendsitselfforthejobabovealltheothers.

Ifyoutakea€5noteandholditunderanultravioletlight,thedullyellowstarsthatslicethroughtheClassicalarchonthefrontfaceofthenotesuddenlyglowanintensered.Onthereverse,athree-tieredRomanbridgeappearstofloatinaghostlygreenishlightaboveariverofindigo.Thislightcomesfromspecialinksincorporatedintothenotesinordertomakethemdifficulttocounterfeit,whichareexcitedtoluminescencebythepowerfulultravioletirradiation.

TheexactnatureofthechemicalcompoundsusedisofcoursekeptsecretbytheEuropeanbanks.However,in2002,justmonthsaftertheeurowentintocirculation,apairofDutchchemistsdecidedtoamusethemselvesbyperforminganunusualspectroscopicanalysis.FreekSuijverandAndriesMeijerinkattheUniversityofUtrechtshoneultravioletlightontoeuronotesandrecordedtheexactcolourtonesofvisiblelighttheyemittedasaresult.Fromthistheywereabletodeclarethattheredlightwasduetoionsoftherareearthelementeuropiumboundinacomplexwithtwoacetone-likemolecules.Theywerelesssureabouttheothercolours,butspeculatedthatthegreenmightbeduetoevenmoreelaborateionsinvolvingeuropiumcombinedwithstrontium,galliumandsulphur,andthebluetoaeuropiumcomplexwithbariumandaluminiumoxides.Theysuspendedtheirenquiriesatthispoint,warningotherswhomightbetemptedtofollowthemthat‘anyfurtherinvestigationintowhatcausesthe

luminescenceofeuronoteswouldconstituteaviolationofthelaw’.Buttheunravellingofthislittlesecrethardlygetstothenubofthematter.

Whatwewouldreallyliketoknowishowitcametobedecidedthat,ofallthemanyinksthatperformthistrick,itshouldbeinksbasedoneuropiumthatwerechosen.Itwas,afterall,apoliticaldecisionintheendthatabanknoteissuedinthenameofEuropeanunityshouldhaveitsmissionslylyreinforcedbyimpregnationwithachemicalelementnamedincelebrationoftheverysameidea.

Europiummetalisassoftasleadandmustbestoredunderoiltostopitburstingintoflameinair.Itisthemostreactiveoftherareearths,andbecauseofitsurgetobindstronglytootherelementsitwasamongthelastofthemtobediscovered.

InArtNouveauParis,Eugène-AnatoleDemarçaybegantosuspectthatsampleshehadacquiredofsamariumandgadolinium–thefutureeuropium’snext-doorneighboursintheperiodictable,discoveredadecadeorsobefore–mightnotbepure.Demarçaywasagaunt,severe-lookingmanwhosechiefglorywashisfloridmoustache.HespenthisearlycareerworkinginthelaboratoryofanotedParisperfumer,butsoonwentfreelanceandacquiredrenownasaspectroscopist–hecouldreadthespectrumofasubstancelike‘thescoreofanopera’,accordingtoacontemporary.(TheCurieswouldsooncometohimtoconfirmtheirdiscoveryoftheelementspoloniumandradium.)Beginningin1896,Demarçaypreparedsaltsfromhissamariumandgadoliniumsamplesand,throughtheexhaustiveprocessofseparationbycrystallization,wasabletoisolateanewsaltthatwasprogressivelyricherinanunidentifiedsubstance.By1901,hehadamassedsufficientevidencetoconfirmhissuspicionthatthiswasanewelement.

DemarçaynamedhiselementfortheentirecontinentofEurope,butheseemstohaveleftnoaccountofwhyhedidso.Hischoiceranconspicuouslyagainstthecontemporarytrendofnamingnewelementsafternationstates.Notlongbefore,MosanderinStockholmandvariousothersattheUniversityofUppsalahadseentoitthataclutchofnewelementsweregivennamesafterplacesinSweden.GalliumwasnamedforFrancein1875;germaniumforGermanyin1886.FreshestofallinthememoryforDemarçaywastheCuries’discoveryofpoloniumin1898,inwhichhehadassisted.Perhapsallthisnationalisticfervourwasreasonenoughtocastanopposingvote.

IntheEuropeof1901,prescientsoulshadlongsincebeguntosuspectthatnationstatesmightnotbeeverlasting,withFrenchmentakingtheboldestline.

VictorHugowasthefirsttospeakofa‘UnitedStatesofEurope’,in1848.TheBretonphilosopherErnestRenandaredtoaskinafamouslecturegivenin1882attheSorbonne‘Whatisanation?’andtoimaginethat‘Theywillbereplaced,inallprobability,byaEuropeanconfederation.’ThiscosmopolitanspiritwasevidentattheParisUniversalExpositionof1900,wheremorethanfiftymillionpeoplecametoseefortynationsdrawnfromallthecontinentsexhibitingtheirwares–includingspecimensofthenewlydiscoveredrareearths.

MostEuropeancitizens,ithastobesaid,showednosignofsuchideals,andnationalism,havingsuccessfullydeliveredtheunifiednewstatesofItalyandGermany,setoffonadownwardspiralbasedlessonliberalhighmindednessandmoreonethnicandlinguistictribalism.Beforelong,itseemedthatanygroupofself-assertingRuritanians,tousethehistorianEricHobsbawm’sterm,mightsuddenlydecidetocallthemselvesanation.ForDemarçay,awell-travelledautodidactaccustomedtoforminghisownideas,itmusthavebeeneasytoresisttheprevailingdriftofnationalismandnailhiscolourstothemastthroughhischemicaldiscovery.HewouldhavesurelywelcomedtheadventoftheEuropeanUnionandrejoicedtoseehismetalbecomepartofitseconomicfabric.

TheEuropeanCentralBankseemsincapableofspreadingthisjoy,however.Itwilfullymisunderstandsmyrequesttoknowwhofoughtforeuropiumanddrearilyasksformy‘understandingthat,forsecurityreasons,wecannotcommentonthechemicalcomponentsoftheeurobanknotesecurityfeatures’.Iknowwhatthechemicalcomponentsare;whatIwanttoknownowiswhowasthewagintheBrusselsbureaucracywhomadesureitwaseuropiumthatwasused.Thebankrequiresitsmoneytoincorporatethesesecurityfeatures,includingraisedprint,metallicstrips,watermarksandholograms,butdoesnotactuallyprintthestuffitself,andthereforedoesnotspecifythateuropiumoranyotherparticularmaterialmustbeusedfortheluminescentdyes.Soothersmayhavebeenresponsibleinanycase.However,theleadingprintersofeurobanknoteswilltellmenothingeither.

IrereadSuijverandMeijerink’spaperandseethatitcontainsaclue.Seekingconfirmationoftheireuropiumrevelation,theycontactedtheDutchNationalBank,andwereeventuallyputintouchwitharesearcherthere.Duringthecourseoftheirconversation,thebankemployeeaccidentallyletslipsomethingthatjoggedamemoryintheUtrechtchemists.‘Afewyearsearlierheandacolleaguevisitedourlaboratory,’Meijerinkremembers.‘Duringhisvisitwewereabletosupplyhimwithagreatdealofinformationaboutluminescentmaterials.Notsurprisingly,hecouldnotgiveusmuchinformation.’SoweretheUtrechtchemistsactuallyresponsibleforplantingtheideaofusingeuropiuminthefirstplace?Didtheysimplystagetheiranalytical‘discovery’inordertolaya

falsescent,ordidtheydoitbecausetheycouldn’tresistclaimingtheirownpaternity,asitwere,oftheeuropiumdyesintheeuro?Or,alternatively,wasitthemysteriousvisitingbankerswhohadthebrainwave,bowingtofatewhentheyheardthatanelementcalledeuropiumwasoneofthosethatwouldbesuitableforthejob?Fornow,nobodyseemstowanttoclaimthisinspireddecisionastheirown.

Auerlicht

Thegirlisnakedfromthewaistup;andfromtheredownsheisdrapedonlyinthelightestgauze.Sheiskneeling,withherheadcockedtooneside,andsmilesnaughtilyoutfrombeneathherbrunettecurls.Inherrighthandsheappearstoholdadazzlinghaloofwhitelight,atthecentreofwhichanevenbrighterlightshinesout–‘appears’becausethelighthasnoobvioussourceorconnection;itispureillumination.Shegripsthestemofalargesunflowerforsupportandisframedbyvigoroustendrilsofothergrowth.Settoonesideinfrontoftheplaneofthepicture–itwouldbeanachronisticwithinit–isastandardgasstreetlamp.Themessagebecomesclear.Thisvestalvirginisholdingforththepromiseofanewlight,likethelightofthesun,thatwillbrightentheworld.

GiovanniMataloni’s1895posteradvertisedtheimprovedgaslightingoftheBrevettoAuercompanyofRome(‘guardarsidallicontraffazioni’–bewareofimitations).ItwasoneofhundredsofsimilarimagesthatappearedincitiesacrossEuropeandAmericaaroundtheturnofthecentury.Full-colourillustratedposterswerethelatestfashioninadvertising,andnofieldofcommercewasmoreassiduousinseekingthepublic’sfavourthanthefast-expandingdomesticlightingindustry,wheregasandelectricityviedceaselesslywithrivalinnovations.

ThebreakthroughthatenabledgastomaintainitsadvantageoverthenewfangledelectriclightingforalittlelongerduringtheclosingyearsofthenineteenthcenturywasmadebyCarlAuer,latertheBaronvonWelsbach,aViennesewhohadcompletedhisstudiesinHeidelbergwithRobertBunsen,longtheguruofEuropeanchemists.OnhisarrivalinHeidelbergin1880,Auershowedthegreatmanamodestcollectionofrareearthmineralspecimensthathehadamassed,andBunsensethimtoworkanalysingthem,laughingoffAuer’sproteststhatthequantitieswereinsufficient.Thisprojectsetthecourseofhiscareer;andtherareearthswouldmakehisfortune.Auer’sannusmirabiliscamein1885backinVienna,whenhesucceededinseparatingthesupposedelementdidymiumintotwotrueelements,whichweredulynamedpraseodymiumandneodymium.Theirgreenandpinkcompoundsmakethemattractiveforuseinceramicwaresandintintedglassforprotectiveeyewear.

Auerwasnotcontentmerelytoaddtothenumberoftherareearths.InhisHeidelbergdays,hehadmarvelledatBunsen’salreadyfamousburner,withitstunableflamethatcouldbeadjustedtosimmerorroast.Hehadnoticedhow,whenturneduphigh,thebunsenburnerflamewouldcausehisrareearthorestoglowbrightlywiththeirownlight.Hebegantoexplorethisphenomenonwithdifferentcombinationsofmetaloxides.Itwaswellknownthataflamesetagainstapieceoflime(calciumoxide)willproducetheincandescenceknownaslimelight.Auer’sinvestigationincludedtheoxidesofmagnesiumandberyllium,bothcloselyrelatedtolime,aswellasthoseofhisrareearthsandotherelements.

Gaslightingwaswellestablishedinstreetsandhomesbythemidnineteenthcentury,butthelightitshedwaslimitedbytheluminosityoftheflameitproduced,whichdependedinturnonthemixtureofhydrocarbonsbeingburnt.Candlesandoillampsgaveabrighterlightthangas,butonlygascouldbesuppliedcontinuously.Auerbelievedthatalampdesigninwhichhisrareearthoxideswerepositionedclosetothegasflamemightyieldabrighterlight.Overaperiodofseveralyears,hesoakedsleevesofcottonmeshindifferentmixturesofrareearthandothersalts.Oncedried,thesesleevesormantles,nowstiffwith

encrustedoxide,wereplacedaroundtheflame,whichburntawaythefabrictoleaveabrittlelaceoftherefractoryoxide.Thiswouldthenglowbrightlyintheheatoftheflame.

Littlewasknownaboutthepropertiesofmanyoftheoxides,andstilllessabouthowtheybehavedincombination,sotherewasnowayofpredictingwhichcompositionwouldproduceawhiteincandescence.Auerfirstpatentedagaslightwithamantlemadeofamixtureofmagnesium,lanthanumandyttriumoxidesin1885,butitsfragilityandsicklygreenlightmeantthatitremainedunpopular.However,by1891,hefoundthatthoriumandceriumoxidesmixedintheproportionsofninety-ninetoonegaveasatisfactorywhitelight(thoriumisnotarareearthbutistheheavier–and,unknownthen,radioactive–cousinofcerium).Mantlesmadeofthismaterialweremoresturdyandquicklycaughton.Unusuallyforascientist,Auerwasanastutebusinessman,andhisnamesoonbecamemorewidelyknowneventhanBunsen’s.Forwhilethebunsenburnerhaditsplaceinthelaboratory,thebrightnewAuerlicht,asitwasknown,wasofutilitytoall,andwasrapidlydistributedacrossagratefulcontinentbyvariousAuercompanies.Some90,000AuermantlesweresoldinViennaandBudapestalonein1892;twentyyearslater,annualproductionstoodat300millionunits.

Itcanhavedonenoharmtotheinventor’sprospectsthatAuer,avariantoftheprefixUr-,isanarchaicGermanwordforthedawn.AttheexactmomentwhenthefirstofAuer’sbrightgaslampswaslitoutsidetheOpernCaféinViennaon4November1891,Auer’scountrymanGustavMahler,nostrangertotheplace,wascomposingasongthatwouldbeincorporatedintohissecondsymphony,called‘Urlicht’–primordiallight.

Auerclearlyacquiredatasteforappendinghisnametohisinventions.Hefollowedupthesuccessofthegasmantlewithanosmiumelectricfilament,theAuer-Oslight–evenasheperfectedhisgasmantle,Auerwashedginghistechnologicalbetsbyexperimentingwithmaterialsfortheelectriclampsthathealreadysuspectedmightonedayreplacethem.In1903,hepatentedanalloyofceriumandiron–hecalleditAuermetallNo.1–thatproducedsparkswhenstruck.‘Flints’ofthismaterialarestillusedincigarettelighterstoday.EverythingAuertouchedseemedtoturntolight.Nowonderthatontheoccasionofhisennoblementhechoseforhiscoatofarmsthemotto‘PlusLucis’–morelight.

Ceriumisthemostabundantoftherareearths,andismoreplentifulthanmanyfamiliarelementssuchascopper.Itseemsdestinedtoremainwidespreadiflargelyunappreciatedinourlives.Themetalisusedtoimprovetheperformanceofcastirons,steelsandaluminiumalloys.Knownasjeweller’srouge,itspowderedoxideisafineabrasiveusedtopolishgemstonesandglass.

Inthenineteenthcentury,itwasrecognizedthatceriumsaltswereanti-emetic,andtheywerealsoincorporatedintocoughtinctures,anti-bacterialtreatmentsagainstburnsandtuberculosis–convenientlyformedicinesthesesaltsalsopossessacharacteristicsweettaste.Morerecently,therehasbeenexcitementatthediscoverythatceriumoxideaddedtodieselfuelgreatlyimprovesitscombustionefficiency.Anditisstillusedinilluminationtobrightenthepowerfullightsusedonfilmsets.

CeriumwasthediscoveryofthegreatestSwedishchemistofthemall,JönsJacobBerzelius.Unlikesomeofhismorebashfulcompatriots,hedidpublishhisresultsinatimelyfashion,aswellasmaintaininglivelycorrespondencewithhisinternationalpeersandreceivingchemicalpilgrimsathislaboratory.Ifhehasbeenwrittenoutofthepopularhistoryofscience,thentheblameforitliessquarelywithprejudicestotheWest.

ThemineralworldwasnotBerzelius’sfirstlove.Bornin1779,hecameofageatatimewhenitwasalreadythoughttheglorydaysofSwedishsciencewereover.ThetalentedapothecaryScheelewasdeadalongwiththemineralchemistsBrandtandGahn,whohadidentifiednewiron-likemetalsintheoresoftheroyalmines.Sotoowastheworld-renownedbotanistCarlLinnaeus,whohaddaredtothinkthatmanmightclassifyallofnatureandhadmadeagoodstartonthejobwithhisbinomialnomenclatureforplantsandanimals.

Trainedasaphysician,andintrigued,likemanyscientistsofthetime,bytheeffectofelectriccurrentsonlivingorganisms,Berzeliuswantedtoknowthesecretoflife.Inordertolearnthis,hewouldfirsthavetodiscreditfashionabletheoriesofvitalismandofferamorerationalexplanationforanimalandhumanphysiology.Onehelpfulstepforwardwastocallthefield‘animalchemistry’.Forabriefperiodatthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,thisbecameahottopicinscience.An‘AnimalChemistryClub’formedasaspecialinterestgroupoftheRoyalSocietyinLondoncountedDavyamongitsregulars,withBerzeliusbeinganactivecorrespondingmember.Butthescientificproblemsprovedlargelyintractable.ThechallengesposedbythechemistryoflifenonethelesshonedBerzelius’sskillsasananalyticalchemist,andheattractedthesupportoftheprosperousmineownerWilhelmHisinger.Despitehisavoweddistasteforinorganicchemistry,Berzeliushadlittlechoicebuttorespond,likesomanySwedishscientistsbeforehim,tothecalloftheearth.

Berzeliuswasresponsiblefortheintroductionofnowfamiliaritemsoflaboratoryequipmentsuchasrubbertubingandfilterpaperbut,unlikeBunsenwithhisburnerorDavywithhisminer’ssafetylamp,hefailedtopinhisname

tothem.Heintroducedconceptsandwordswhichhavesinceprovedtoousefultorestricttothescientificlexicon:‘catalysis’and‘protein’arehisneologisms.Hedidinvaluableworkontheproportionsinwhichelementsandtheircompoundscombinewithoneanother,whichunderpinnedthetheoryofatomsadvancedbytheEnglishQuakerJohnDalton,andforthefirsttimegavechemistryasolidquantitativefoundation.ItwasBerzeliustoowhosawtheneedforanabbreviatednotationfortheelementsandinventedmodernchemicalsymbols.Hissystemofaone-ortwo-lettercode,oftenbasedontheelement’snameinLatin,hassincebecomeiconicfarbeyondthedisciplineofchemistry.Puttingtogethertheselasttwoideas–thesymbolforeachelement,andtheunderstandingthattheycombinewithoneanotherinfixedproportions–ledinevitablytothefirstchemicalformulae,thoseconcatenationsoflettersandnumbersthatmeaneverythingtochemistsandsimplyappearrandomtotherestofus.(‘Ah,H2SO4,professor!’isFlandersandSwann’simpressionofhowscientistsgreetoneanotherintheirsatiricaltreatmentofC.P.Snow’spolemicconcerningthe‘twocultures’oftheartsandsciences.)

Thissystemofnotationappearstousnowbothfamiliarandalienating.Itsadventin1811,however,wasagraphicrevelation.Theconsequencesforthescientificcomprehensionofmatterwerefar-reaching.Intheirmodernlaboratories,thealchemicalquestnowleftfirmlybehind,Enlightenmentscientistshadbeguntoshowthattheycouldsynthesizesimplecompoundsfoundinnature–Lavoisierhadcombinedthegaseshydrogenandoxygentoproduceonlywater;theexoticflammablemetalsthatDavyhadisolatedcouldbeburnttorecreatetheoxidesfoundinnaturallyoccurringminerals.Berzelius’ssystemfinallyerasedanylingeringdistinctionbetweentheessenceofamaterialobtainedfromnaturalsourcesandthesamematerialproducedinthelaboratory.Onceasubstancesuchasammonia,say,isidentifiedasNH3ratherthan‘spiritofhartshorn’,itissuddenlyclearthatitnolongermatterswhereithascomefrominorderforittobewhatitis.

Thiswouldbeenoughtosecureanychemicalreputation,andyetthereismore.ForBerzeliuswasalsothediscoverernotonlyofceriumbutofthreemorechemicalelements–thorium,seleniumandsilicon,allelementsbytheirnaturetightlyearthbound.Allofthesediscoveriesreliedonhisintimateinvolvementwithminingandindustry.ThesilicatemineralsfromwhichheeventuallyextractedpuresiliconprovideSweden’sbedrock.Hefoundselenium,anelementrelatedtosulphur,inthesedimentofasulphuricacidplantinwhichhehadaninvestment.Thoriumandceriumheisolatedfromunusualmineralspecimenssenttohimforexamination.Inthecaseofcerium,inparticular,Berzelius

workedcloselywithhispatronHisingerinStockholm,aswellasatHisinger’scountryestate,andattheminesthemselves,systematicallyelectrolysingvarioussaltsderivedfromthespecimens,whichhadbeenobtainedatoneofHisinger’sabandonedmines.Berzeliuschosethenamecerium,inspiredbytherecentdiscoveryofthedwarfplanetCeres,andfollowingtheprecedentestablishedwithuraniumandUranusafewyearsbefore.

AlthoughtheSwedeswerethefirsttouseelectrolysisintheefforttoobtainnewelements,theystruggledtogainrightfulrecognitionoftheirpriorityinthisoverDavy.WhentheFrenchchemistVauquelinlearntofthiswork,hecommentedthat,iftheInstitutdeFrancehadknownofitintime,BerzeliuswouldhavesharedtheNapoleonmedalthatitawardedtoDavy.

BerzeliusmayhavesufferedfromtheairbrushingofchemicalhistoryduetothelaterachievementsoftheGermans,FrenchandBritish,butIfeltthatSwedishreservewasnothelpinghiscase.IhadcometoStockholmpartlyinthehopethatImightgetaglimpseofthechemicalsBerzeliushadcollectedandlabelledwithhiscompellingnewnotation.Ihadseentheseinacolourplateinanoldbiography–smallvialswithchunkyglassstoppersorcorksfilledwithdustsinpastelshadesofblue,yellow,greyandsoapygreen,eachwithitsidentifyingformulainBerzelius’sownhandwriting.Onecontainerofcandypinkstoodoutpuzzlinglyfromtherest–fewsaltsarereallypink.ThecaptionimpliedthatthesetreasureswereondisplayattheBerzeliusMuseum.Butthemuseumnolongerstands,anditscontents,Iamtold,areheldinstoragecratesattheRoyalSwedishAcademyofSciencesawaitingthedaywhenhissuccessorsseefitonceagaintohonourhismightycontributiontotheinventory,theoryandlanguageofchemistry.

GadolinandSamarsky,EverymenoftheElements

In1788,CarlAxelArrhenius,aSwedisharmylieutenantandmineralogist(thelatterinterestacquiredwhilelearninghowtotestgunpowderinthelaboratoryoftheRoyalMint),discoveredablack,asphalt-likeoreaggregatedintheflesh-pinkfeldsparoftheYtterbymine.Arrheniuswasexcitedbythethoughtthatitmightbeasourceofthedensemetaltungsten,discoveredafewyearsbefore.HepromptlysentaspecimenofitforanalysistohisfriendJohanGadolin,theprofessorofchemistryattheuniversityinÅbo(nowTurkuinFinland,thenpartoftheSwedishempire).Afteralongdelay,Gadolinrespondedwithmoreinterestingnews:thelieutenanthaddiscoveredtheoreofanewrareearthelement.GadolinnamedtheoreyttriaaftertheYtterbymine,andworriedwhatthislatestfindmightmeanforchemistryasawhole.‘ItisnotwithoutgreattrepidationIdarespeakofanewearthbecausetheyarerightnowbecomingfartoonumerous,’hewrote,‘foritseemstomeratherfatalifeachofthenewearthsshouldonlybefoundatonesiteorinonemineral’.

Gadolin’sfearsthattherareearthswouldproliferateturnedouttobewellfounded.ThisoneYtterbymineralwouldintheendrevealnotonerareearthelement,butfour,andtheirapparentlyexclusiveassociationwiththelocationoftheirdiscoverymadeitseemrighttonameeachofthemafterit:yttrium,erbium,terbiumandytterbium.Later,PerCleveseparatedtheoxidesoftwomorenewmetalsfromthesameore,andnamedthem,morebroadly,holmiumafterStockholm,andthuliumaftertheoldnameforScandinavia,Thule.Meanwhile,inadifferentYtterbymineral,AndersEkebergdiscoveredanothernewelement–ametal,butthistimenotarareearth–tantalum.By1879,theYtterbyminewasfinallythesourceofsevenchemicalelementsinalistthatthentotalledseventyinall.

ThemineralfromwhichGadolinobtainedhisyttria,calledytterbitetobeginwith,wassoonrenamedgadoliniteinhishonour.However,thiswasnottobehisonlyorhisgreatestclaimtoscientificimmortality.Forlater,theelementgadoliniumwas,withsamarium,thefirsttobenamed,notafterafigureinmythology,noraftersomeGreekneologismbasedonitschemicalbehaviour,norevenaftertheplacewhereitwasfound,butafterarealperson.Samariumwasdiscoveredin1879,andnamedforaRussianminingengineer,VasiliSamarsky.Gadoliniumwasidentifiedthefollowingyear.

Itwasnotuntil1944thatanewelementwasagainnamedafteraperson.Thatwascurium.Othernewarrivalsfollowedthishonorificconventionduringthe1950s,includingeinsteinium,fermium,mendeleviumandnobelium.All

theseelementsesteemscientificfiguresalreadymuchesteemedfortheirachievements.Youmightthinktheseelementsareallratherremotefromdailyexperience.Atanyrate,theyseemmuchlessfamiliarthanthefiguresforwhomtheyarenamed.Withgadoliniumandsamarium,it’ssurelytheotherwayaround:theirdiscoverersareevenmoreobscurethantheyare.Althoughyoumaynothaveheardofthesetwometals,theyarebothmoreabundantthantinandarefoundineverymodernhome.Gadoliniumisusedinmagneticrecordingdiscsandtape,whiletheminiaturizedloudspeakersofpersonalstereosdependonhighlymagneticalloysofsamarium.Who,then,wereGadolinandSamarsky,thispairwhosoundlikeaMilwaukeefirmofattorneys?Andwhowasitthatwishedtopraisethembyrenderingtributeinthisuniquelyenduringform?

JohanGadolinwasborninÅboin1760intoafamilythatincludedtwobishopsofthecity.Deviatingslightlyfromthecustomamongclericalfamiliesofgentrifyingone’snameintoaLatinform(likeLinnaeus),Johan’sgrandfatherhadtakenthenameGadolin,meaninggreat,fromtheHebrew.GadoliniumwouldthusbecometheonlyelementwithitsetymologicalrootinHebrew.HisinvestigationoftheblackmineralsentbyArrheniuswasthenearestGadolincametodiscoveringanelement.In1827,hiscollectionofmineralswaslostwhenfiredestroyedÅboanditsuniversity;yttriummetalwasfinallyisolatedbyothersthefollowingyear.Gadolinlivedintohisninety-thirdyear,longenoughtosavourthehonourofhavingthemineralgadolinitenamedafterhimthoughnotlongenoughtoseethearrivalofgadolinium.

VasiliEvgrafovichSamarsky-BykhovetsrosetotherankofcolonelintheRussianCorpsofMiningEngineers.StationedinthesouthernUralmountainsin1847,henoticedanunfamiliarfriablemineralthecolourofburntcaramel,whichhewascuriousenoughtohavesenttoBerlinforexpertassessment,whereaGermanmineralogistconfirmeditsnoveltyandrecommendedthenamesamarskite,followingtheconventioninthefield;samariumdulyfollowed.LittlemoreseemstobeknownaboutSamarsky,whomadenofurthercontributiontoscience.

ComparedwiththeCuries,orwithpioneerssuchasBerzeliusorLavoisierorDavy,seeminglydestinednevertofeatureintheperiodictable,Gadolin’sandSamarsky’scontributionsseemminimal.Whywerethesetwosofavoured?Iftheirachievementsarenotrecommendationenough,wemustturnforouranswertothelaterinvestigatorsoftheelementsthatcametobecalledsamariumandgadolinium.

In1879,Paul-EmileLecoqdeBoisbaudran,thewealthysonofaCognacdistilleryowner,extractedcertainsaltsofarareearthelementthoughttobedidymiumfromasampleofUralssamarskite.Whenhecombinedthesalt

solutionwithanotherreagent,hefoundthatitdidnotproducethesingleprecipitateheexpected,butformedasedimentwithtwodistinctphases.‘Didymium’wasnotanelementatall,butacomplicatedmixtureofunknownrareearths.Separatingthetworesidues,hewasabletoshowthatoneofthemwasacompoundofanewelement,whichhenamedsamarium.ThefollowingyearJeanCharlesGalissarddeMarignacinGeneva,workingwithadifferentspecimenofthe‘didymium’mineral,isolatedanothernewrareearthoxide.LecoqconfirmeddeMarignac’sdiscoveryandsuggestedthenamegadoliniumforthisnewelement.(Then,fiveyearslater,CarlAuerfinished‘didymium’offforgoodbyshowingthatitcontainedtwofurthertrueelements,neodymiumandpraseodymium.)

SoitwasLecoqwhowasresponsibleforshootingtheserelativenonentitiestostardomintheperiodictable.Whatwashismotive?Aswehaveseen,thelastquarterofthenineteenthcenturywasthezenithofEuropeannationalism.ShouldhenothavenamedsamariuminsteadafterFranceorParis,whereheworked,andgadoliniumafterGenevaorSwitzerland,wherehisfriendMarignacwasbased?Infact,hewasprobablywisenottotry,forhehadalreadyshothisboltinthisdirection,anddonesoinspectacularlycontroversialfashion.

Lecoqhadmadehisfirstcontributiontotheperiodictablein1875whenheisolatedanewelementfromzincore.HepresentedaspecimenofittotheFrenchAcademyofSciencesandnameditgalliuminhonourofFrance.Thetroublebeganacoupleofyearslaterwhensuspicionswereraisedthatthenamingwasnotquitethepatrioticgestureitseemed,butwasinfactLecoq’sslywayofnaminghisdiscoveryafterhimself–thoughtheLatinforFrancemightbeGallia,theLatinforcoqwasalsogallus.ThecontroversywassuchthatLecoqwasobligedtodenythathehadchosenthenameinself-homage.Theepisodewouldhavebeenpainfullyfreshinhismindasheworkedonthedidymiumminerals.

Aftertheembarrassmentofgallium,itispossiblethatLecoqsimplywishedtoplayitsafe.Andnothingwassaferthanfollowingtheacceptednamingofthesourcemineralsascloselyashecould,replacingthe-itesuffixofthegeologistwiththe-iumofthechemist.Itseemsthathechosesamariumbecauseitwasobtainedfromsamarskiteandgadoliniumbecauseitwasobtainedfromgadolinitewithnomoreado.Ifso,itischemistry’sloss.Manymoremineralsarenamedaftergeologiststhanelementsafterchemists,andnotonlybecausethelistofmineralsislongcomparedwiththelistofchemicalelements.Mineralogistshavealongandfinetraditionofnamingmineralsafterpioneersintheirfield,apracticewhichself-deprecatingchemistshavebyandlargebeenloathtoemulate.Asaconsequence,manychemistswhonevergottheirname

attachedtoanelementneverthelesshaveamineralnamedintheirhonour.Amongthese,cleveite,tennantiteandwollastonitehonourchemistswhodiscoveredelements.Gadoliniumandsamariumaretworareexamplesofthefavourbeingreturned.Gadoliniummuststandasthememorialforallthechemistswhohavestruggledtofreeanewelementfromitsmineralsource,andsamariumforallthemineralogistswhospottedthatunusualmineralinthefirstplace,chippeditfromthenativerockandbroughtittotheattentionoftheworld.NeitherGadolinnorSamarskyarethegreatestrepresentativesthatmighthavebeenchosenforthisduty:theyaretheeverymenoftheelements.

YtterbyGruva

Hearingthestoriesoftherareearths,IfeltIwasbeginningtounderstandmoredeeplywheretheelementscamefrom.Ofcourse,Iknewthatintheirtotalitytheycamefromtheearth,theseaandthesky.Iwantedtopenetratebeyondthisobvioussyllogism–everythingismadeofelements,sotheelementsarefoundeverywhere–andidentifyakindoflocusclassicusforthesefundamentalingredientsofallmatter.Afterall,theyareuniversalonlyinasense.True,everythingismadeofelements,yetthepureelementsthemselvesseemoddlyelusive,almostalwayslockedawayininscrutablemineralsandcompounds.Searchingfortheelementsinnaturewaslikeraidingabakeryandfindingplentyofcakesandbunsbutnosignoftheflourandsugarfromwhichtheyweremade.Youdonotfindnuggetsofaluminiumorriversofmercurywhenyougoforawalkinthecountry.Still,Ithought,theremustbeplaceswheretheauraoftheelementscouldbefelt.

Itwastimetovisitamine.IdidnotwanttogototheGreatCopperMountainatFalun,thevastminingcentrecelebratedbyE.T.A.Hoffmann,foundedinthethirteenthcenturyandstillincommercialoperationasrecentlyas1992.NordidIwanttogotoHisinger’sminesinnearbyVästmanland.BerzeliusandHisingerhaddiscoveredceriumfromoresdugthere,buttheyhadbeensearchingforGadolin’syttria,theorethattookitsnamefromthevillageofYtterby,whoselittleminegavetheworldnotonlyyttriumbutsixotherelementsbesides.Iwantedtogotothismostprolificsourceoftheelements.

YtterbyisthesiteofwhatissaidtobetheoldestfeldsparandquartzmineinSweden.ItliesontheislandofResarö,oneofaninfinityofrockyislandseastofStockholmwhereSwedendisintegratesintotheBalticSea.Intheearlyeighteenthcentury,thefeldsparquarriedherewentformakingporcelaininSwedishPomerania,whiletheunusuallypurequartzwassenttoBritainformakingglass.Buttotheelementcollector,itwasonlywhenmenexaminedthe

impuritiesthatimpededtheseoperationsthattheminerevealeditsrealtreasure.IfYtterbyisaplaceofpilgrimage,whoareitspilgrims?Themineclosedin

1933.Butchemistsandmineralogistshavecontinuedtoseekitout.In1940,BrianMasonoftheSmithsonianInstitutioninWashingtonDCfoundtheminepartlyflooded,althoughtherewerestilllargeblocksofpegmatite,thefeldsparquartzthatbearstheblack,triangular-facedcrystalsofgadolinite,lyingaround.Afewyearslater,hewentbackandwasdisappointedtofindthesitehadbeentakenoverandfencedoffforuseasanoildepotandtherewasnolongeranypublicaccess.Inhisaccountofhisvisits,heliststwenty-fiveminerals,whichbetweenthemcontainedquantitiesofyttrium,tantalum,niobium,beryllium,manganese,molybdenumandzirconiumaswellasmorecommonmineralelementssuchasaluminiumandpotassium.

MikeMorelle,theschoolmasterresponsibleforinculcatingmyownfascinationwiththeelements,cameacrosstheminebychancein1960,whenhewasinvitedtostayatabusinesscolleague’sholidayhomeinYtterby.Walkinginthewoodsnearby,hefoundhimselfinarockypitthatremindedhimoftheV2rocketcraterthathadappearedoutsidehisbedroomwindowonemorningin1945.Theslopeswereovergrown,andtherewasnoobviousmineentrance,buthenoticedafewsignsofformerquarryingactivity.Onlylaterdidhelearnfromhishostofthechemicalsignificanceofthesite.

JimMarshallattheUniversityofNorthTexasandhiswife,Jenny,havetouredtheworldseekingoutthesitesassociatedwiththediscoveryofeachelementinavacationprojectthathasturnedintoaten-yearobsession.Theirobjectiveistovisiteveryrelevantmine,laboratoryandchemist’shome.TheideatookrootwhentheMarshallsreachedtheendofthelineinagenealogicalinvestigationthathadgiventhematasteforpurposedEuropeantravel.WhatbetterwaytocontinueinthesameveinthantocontriveaprojectthatwouldobligethemtovisitsomeofEurope’smostpleasantcitiesandasmatteringofruggedout-of-the-waylocations,witheachsite’sinclusionalwaysjustifiedbyitsconnectionwiththeoverallmission?Theitinerarywouldbelongenoughtobedaunting,butsufficientlycontainedtobeachievableintheend.Naturally,theyhavevisitedthegreatcitiessuchasParis,Berlin,London,EdinburghandCopenhagen,andalsoobscurespotssuchasStrontianandthegloomyTransylvanianminewheretelluriumwasfirstfound.TheMarshalls’‘walkingtouroftheelements’seemstooffertheperfecttouristicmarriageoftheurbaneandthesublime,sothat,onthegalliumtrail,forexample,theyfindthemselvesbothinLecoqdeBoisbaudran’sCognacandinthemistyPyreneanmountainswhereheobtainedthezincblendefromwhichheextractedtheelement.Sadly,though,astheirwrittenandphotographicrecordsofthesetripsattest,theyoften

findthesesitesunmarked,neglectedorbuiltover.JimandJennyfinallyreachedYtterbyin2007.

Onmyownjourney,IhavebeenaskingthechemistsandthehistoriansofscienceImeetwhethertheytoohavebeentoYtterby.Fewhave.AndreaSellawastakenonaferrycruiseacrosstheGulfofBothniatoSwedenwhileattendingaconferenceinGadolin’scityofTurku,buthebunkedofftheprofferedsidetriptoYtterbyinfavourofaday’ssightseeinginStockholm.Evenmylocalguides,HjalmarForsandAndersLundgren,havenotmadetheexcursiontothebirthplaceofsomanyelements.

Inartandliterature,thestudioandthewriter’sdeskretainacertainfascination.ButitdoesnotmatterwhereNewtonandEinsteinwerewhentheyrevolutionizedthelawsofphysics;itmerelymattersthattheydidso.YoucanvisitthefamilyhomeinLincolnshiretowhichNewtonretreatedwhentheplaguesweptthroughCambridgewherehemadehismostimportantdiscoveries.Inthegardenisanappletreewhich,itistentativelyclaimed,isgraftedfromtheonethatfamouslydroppeditsfruitontothegreatman’shead.ButitoffersnoinsightintoNewton’srevelationconcerningthelawofgravity;itisjustanappletree.IhopedYtterbywouldbedifferent.Here,afterall,itwasnotthechancepresenceofsomehumangeniusthatmadeitsignificant.ThiswasnotStratford-upon-AvonorDoveCottage.Themeaninghadtolieintheplace,intheuniquematerialconstitutionofonepatchofgeography.

TheskyisapalegreyandthetreesaredrippingfromrecentdrizzleasmybussnakesitswaythroughtheStockholmsuburbsalongsliproadscutintopinkandgreyrock.Sooneverythingmanmadeseemstoarisefromthisgeology–theaggregatethatsurfacestheroad,thesteelbarriersalongitsedge,themetalsidingoftheindustrialestates,therough-hewnstoneandochrestuccoofthemoreimposingbuildings,theredclapboardofthehouses(calledFalurödaftertheFalunmines,whosecuprousoresareusedtomakethepigment).Everywhere,roundedbouldersthrusttheirwaythroughthelatespringvegetation,asifitistheythatarealiveandburgeoningandwillsoonoverwhelmthegrassandbushes,andnottheotherwayaround.

Asthebussurgeson,Ithinkabouthowchemistryseemstohavebecomeanalmostclandestineactivity.Thealchemistsarediscreditedandcoldintheirgraves,yetthescienceoftheelementsseemstohavegainedlittlerespectorrespectability.Chemistry’sheroesandheroinesareneglected.Thesubjectisincreasinglytaughthypotheticallyinschools,withexperimentsoftennolongerperformedeitherbypupilorbyteacher,butmerelydescribedorseenonaDVD.

Chemicalsarethingstobefeared,thenecessaryoneskeptintheirplaceunderthekitchensink(anddesignated‘chemicals’,asifthesinkitselfanditscontentsarenotchemicalstoo).I’dstruggledtogetholdofthesimplesubstancesandapparatusIneededformyownmodestexperiments;I’dvisitedafireworksfactoryhiddenbehindahedgeinalaybywithnocompanysigntoadvertiseit;I’dheardfromacademicsdrivenoutoftheirurbanlaboratoriestoremotewastelandinordertodotheirexperiments.Itseemedanoddwaytoincreasescientificknowledgeandspreadunderstanding.Theelements–manyofthem–areobtainableifyouknowwheretolook,butthisknowledgeitselfismadetoseemdangerous,asifitisonlytobegainedatthepriceofknowingsomesecretcode:sulphuristobefoundatthegardenshop;magnesiumattheship’schandler;antimonyattheartists’supplier.Surelytheuniversalelementsshouldbelongtoallhumanity.

Thebuscrossesacoupleofinletsanddropsmeoff.Iamtheonlyonetodisembark.Thedrizzlestartsagain,andInowunderstandwhythewalkingmapIhaveboughtinpreparationforthefinalstageofmyjourneycomesinaplasticsleeve.Ihadhopedforajourneyofepicdimensions,andamalittledismayedtofindthatResaröisthesedayscomfortablywithincommutingdistanceofStockholm.ThemapshowsthesettlementofYtterbyandanangularGfor‘gruva’–mine–atthetipoftheisland.Itrudgealongforamileorsoagainsttherain.Thefield-faresaremakingexcitedratchetingnoisesinthetrees.Wildgeraniumsgrowintheverge.Soon,rock-strewnmeadowsgivewaytoanidyllicsuburbia,andtheraineases.Thesoundofchildrenplayingfillstheair.Housesandgardensappearwithlittlevegetablepatchesdottedwithblueberrybushesandonionflowers.Blue-and-yellowpennantsskipmerrilyinthebreezefromtallpolesinmanyofthegardens.

IfollowsignstoacaféwhichIfindinaboatyard.Thecaféisnomorethananopen-sidedhutwithahandkerchiefofdeckinglookingoutoverthewater.Thepapernapkinsareweigheddownwithapieceofthepinkstone.IasktheownerifheknowsoftheYtterbymineanditshoardofelements.Hedoes,buthasn’tbeentherehimself.‘I’veonlylivedonResaröforfiveyears.I’mnottheexplorertype.’

IwalkonpastastreetcalledYttriumvägenandknowImustbegettingclose.Alittlefurtheron,twobouldersofthepinkrockhavebeenplacedatthesideoftheroad.Ascreepathleadssteeplyupbetweenthemthroughbirchesandpines.Toonesideofthepathstandthemetalpostsofasignthathasbeenremoved,butasmallplasticbadgestapledtoanadjacenttreeannouncesthatIhavearrivedata‘Naturminne’.Thepathispurewhiteandrosequartzasifinafairytale.Iscrambleup.Atthetop,Ifindalumpyverticalexpanseofrockas

bigasthefrontofahouse.Ytterbygruva.Therockisgreyandpinkandwhiteandblack.Atthefootofthislittleclifftheremainsofsomebody’scampfirehavebeensafelyringedbystonesofthevariouscolours.

Thesitescarcelyresemblesamineofanysort.Therearenoworkings,nospoilheaps,notevenanydetectableopeningintotheearth.Itistoocompacttobecalleddesolate.Thelandscapeispicturesqueratherthanravagedorscarred.Wildstrawberriesclingtothecrevicesintherock.Iwonderifthiscanreallybethewombthatgavebirthtosomanyelements–foryes,intheloreoftheminerswhooncelabouredhereandeverywhere,theearthisindeedthemother,andtheoresembryosgrowinginherbellythattheymusthelptobringintotheworld.

Lookingmoreclosely,Ibegintonoticesignsofhumaninterference–alineofholesdrilledintotherockbyminerswhonevercamebacktopriseawaythenextblock,andhereandthereironspikesandeyesdrivenintothecliffsidethatoncesupportedthegantriesusedtotransportthestonedownthehillside.Yetthereseemtobejustthesefewmetresofworkedrockwall.Theroundedboulderslyingnearbyarecompletelyundisturbed,withthesameglaciatedpolishtheyacquiredthousandsofyearsago.Climbinguponone,Igazeoutoverthetreetopsatavistaofsmallislandsrecedingendlesslyintothesea.Nowsomethinglikeexaltationstealsuponme.Ifeeltheroundnessoftheworldandallitssubstancebeneathmyfeet.

Timetostarthammering.Ihavebroughtwithmeamagnifyingglassanda

smallbutpowerfulmagnettotestanyspecimensIfind.ButIamill-equippedtoattacktheexposedrock.Mypathetictappingonthequartzcliff–‘hard,rebelliousquartz’,MarkTwainhadcalledit–givesmeanimmediatesenseofthehugelabourinvolvedinthisbranchofmining.Itisfarharderthancoal,andentirelyunrelievedbysoftermaterial.Aswellashammersandchisels–andlaterAlfredNobel’sdynamite–theminersusedfireandicetocrackthestone,pilingupgreattimberbonfiresagainsttherockfaceandthendashingitwithfreezingwater.Iscanthegroundforfragmentsbrokenoffbywinterfroststoaddtomyhaul.Ipickupacleanpieceofwhitequartzandapieceeachofthepink,greyandblackrock.ThenmyeyeiscaughtbyaglitteringtrailofwhatItakeatfirsttobesnailslime(theslugsareoutinforceonthisdampday),butturnsouttobetinyshardsofanothermineral.Ilocatethefissurefromwhichthepiecesarefalling,andfinditstuffedwithfragilethinplateslikefilopastrywhichbreakoffatthesameanglelikeartblades.Thesurfaceofeachlayerhasabright,tinnyshine.Ihaveneverbeforeseenanythingsoobviouslymetalliferouscomingstraightoutoftheground.

Afteracoupleofhoursrummagingabout,IhaveamassedwhatIconsidertobearepresentativeselectionofminerals,includingquartz,feldspar,agreysulphurous-smellingrockandapromisingblackishstonenoticeablydenserthantherest,whichisiridescentlikeanthracite,butisclearlymetal-bearing.

OntheshoreneartheminethereisalittlejettyfromwherethemineralswereshippedaroundtheBalticSeaandbeyond,andwhere,doubtless,curiousspecimenhunterslandedinthedaysbeforecommuterbuses.ThelocalrotaryclubhaserectedasigncommemoratingtheobservantlieutenantArrheniuswhostartedthescientificgoldrushthatledtothenamingofsixelementsafterthisplace.Theareaisnowhemmedinbysmartholidayhomes,nonemorethan100yearsold,mostrathernewer.ItrytoimagineitinArrhenius’sday,withthenoiseofquarryingringingthroughthepines,competingwiththesquealofthegulls.Despitetherocksandtheundergrowth,itcannothavebeenwildeventhen.Itwasaneasylandingbyboat,andtheminewasaquickscrambleupthehill.IpaidmyvisitonacooldayinJune.WhatwastheplacelikeinFebruarywhentheeasterliesblewinacrosstheseafromRussia?Perhapsitwasbitter.Orperhapstherewascomfortinthecamaraderieofthemineandsomeshelterfromthewind,evenalittlewarmthtobegleanedwhenthefireswerelitagainsttherocks.Whatmakesthisplacespecialisnotsublimelandscapeortheadventureofgettinghere.Itissomethingimmediateandcorporeal.Itisthesubstanceofthesoil,therockrevealedinitsnakedvariety,andtheknowledgethatsomanyoftheelementsarenativerighthere–uniquelyasitwasoncethoughtandasGadolinfeared,althoughnowonlyemblematicallyso.Thisearth,forme,isthe

sourceofalltheelementsandofourunderstandingofthem,thefonsetorigoofallthevarietiesofmatter.

IleaveResaröwithmymineralhaulandwalkontotheadjoiningislandofVaxholm,agenteelresortdominatedbythesixteenth-centuryfortthatsquatsonanisletacrossanarrowchannelfromthetown.ThefortcontainsasmalldisplayabouttheYtterbymine,withhistoricphotographsand,Iampleasedtosee,specimensofyttrium,erbium,terbiumandytterbiumsuppliedbyMaxWhitby’selementsclearinghouse.Clusteredproudlyroundthelittleglassbottlesofthemetals,likeparentsroundtheirchildren,aretheirsourceminerals–pyrrhotite,biotite,anderbergite,allanite,chalcopyrite,molybdenitesosoftitcanbeusedasapencil,anduranium-richfergusonite,thescarsmadebyitsradioactiveemanationsvisibleonthesurroundingfeldsparliketinysunraysscratchedintothemineralsurface.IworrythatnoneofthesespecimenslooksmuchlikethelittlestonesIhavescavenged,andalsothatImightnowbecarryingdangerouslyradioactivematerial.Thedisplayincludesaglossyblacklumpofthefamousgadolinite,whichcertainlydoesn’tlooklikeanythingIfoundatthemine.Thephotographsweretakenin1893duringthemine’sheyday,andshowquiteamajoroperation,withtunnels,timberbuildingsandrailslaidfororewagons.Ihadseenlittlesurvivingevidenceofthisindustry.Ilearnthatthesite,onceownedbythecelebratedRörstrandporcelaincompany,isnowprotectedbythestateasa‘geologicaltreasure’.Toolate,Ireadthatitisforbiddentocollecttheminerals.

IameagertolearnmoreaboutmytrophieswhenIreturntoLondon.Somewhere,Ifancy,mustbeamineralogistwhocantakeoneglanceatmyhandfulofstonesandtellmeallaboutthem,likethewinetasterwhoisabletonamenotmerelytheregionandtheyearofawine,butthevineyardandeventheslopewherethegrapesweregrown.

ItakethemfirsttoZoeLaughlin,thefriendwhoopenedmyearstothesoniccharacteristicsoftheelementswithhertuning-forkexperiment,whorunsamaterialslibraryatKing’sCollegeLondon.InthefewdayssincemyreturnfromSweden,someofthespecimensappeartohavechanged.Thesulphurousaromahasdissipatedfromthegreystone,andtheflakymineralwiththetinnyshinenowlooksmoretransparent,likesheetsofcellophane.Zoetellsmeitismica(theSwedishwordforitisglimmer).ShepassesaGeigercounteroverthespecimensinturn;tomyrelief,theyraisebarelyacrackle.Nordotheyrevealanyfluorescentingredientswhenviewedunderultravioletlight.Thisrulesouturaniumintheore,whichwouldglowbrightlyunderthisillumination.The

preliminarysurmiseisthatIamunlikelytohavebaggedanygadoliniteorothermineralsrichinrareearths.

NowIneedamineralogist’sopinion.TheNaturalHistoryMuseumrunsaservice–miraculousinthesedayswheneverythingmustturnaprofit–whichpermitsanymemberofthepublictowalkinandrequestananalysisofunusualmineralstheyhavefound.MineralscuratorPeterTandyhoickshisspectaclesontohisheadandbeginstoexaminemystones.Mostofhiscustomers,hetellsme,arepeoplewhobelievetheyhavefoundameteorite(theyarealmostalwayswrong).Onetime,hefoundhimselfgenuinelypuzzledbyasilverylumpofmetalthatsomebodyhadbroughtinwithjustthishope,untilacolleaguetookonequicklookatitandrecognizeditastheremainsofawartimeItalianhandgrenadeandcalledthebombsquad.Heidentifiesmostofmyspecimensataglance,andtakesthemawayforanalysisbyX-raydiffraction,whichwillidentifywhichmineralspeciestheyarefromthecrystalstructure.Afewweekslater,Peterhasdisappointingnewsforme.I’venotbroughtbackanythingnoteworthyatall.

Iamsorry,ofcourse,thatIhavenotcomeawayfromYtterbyweigheddownwithyttriumandthehalf-dozenotherelementsfirstidentifiedinitsrocks.Butthen,asIsay,Iamnotanaturalcollector.Myaiminthisbookhasbeentoshowthattheelementsareallaroundus,bothinthematerialsensethattheyareintheobjectswetreasureandunderourkitchensinks,butalsoaroundusmorepowerfullyinafigurativesense,inourartandliteratureandlanguage,inourhistoryandgeography,andthatthecharacteroftheseparallellivesarisesultimatelyfromeachelement’suniversalandunvaryingproperties.Itisthroughthisculturalliferatherthanthroughexperimentalencounterinalaboratorythatwereallycometoknowtheelementsindividually,anditisacauseforsadnessthatmostchemistryteachingdoessolittletoacknowledgethisrichexistence.

Weshouldcherishandcelebrateournecessaryinvolvementwiththeelements.Wemaynotwishtostartourownperiodictable,butweshouldatleasttrytobehappierabouttheunavoidablefactthatwedependinonewayoranotheruponalmostallofthem.ThescientistandenvironmentalactivistJamesLovelockoncesaidhewouldbewillingtostoreallthehigh-levelwastefromanuclearpowerstationinaconcretebunkeronhisland.Butperhapsweshouldspreaditaround:weshouldallhavealittlepieceofspenturaniumtokeepinthegardenasamementoofourrelianceuponitforourenergy.

Toomuch?Maybe.Butwhatofalltheotherelements?Thecopperthatinvisiblybringstheelectricitygeneratedbythenuclearreactionofthaturanium

intoourhomes?Therareearthsinthephosphorscreensofthedevicesbroughttolifebythiselectricity?Whatofthecarbonandcalciumthatengraveallhumanhistorywiththeirblackandwhite?Andwhatoftheotherelementsthatcolourourworld?Firstandlast,ourdependenceontheelementsisbiological,asweareremindedwhenwereviewthesodiumsaltcontentofaTVdinnerorpopasupplementpillcontainingselenium–thelatest,bytheway,inalonglineofelementstobesingledoutasafashionablenutrient.Weeatthemoravoidthem,digthemuporburythem,butwerarelystoptoappreciatetheelementsforwhattheyare.

Inthelast,unfinishedbookthathehadhopedwouldbehismasterpiece,GustaveFlaubertinventstwobumblingauto-didacts,BouvardandPécuchet,whodecidetotrytheirhandateveryintellectualspecialitythemodernworldhastooffer.Theyinvestigatechemistryfirstintheirunsatisfyingsamplingofthemodernsciences,andaredismayedwhentheyrealizethattheythemselvesareconstitutedofthesameuniversalelementsasallmatter:‘theyfeltakindofhumiliationatthethoughtthattheirpersonscontainedphosphoruslikematches,albumenlikeeggwhites,andhydrogengaslikestreetlamps’.

Theyhavecharacteristicallygotitcompletelywrong.Itisthematchesthatcontainourphosphorusandthestreetlampsourhydrogen,nottheotherwayround,andweshouldfeelakindofthrill.

Epilogue

In1959,TomLehrerprovisionallyconcludedhiscatalogueariaoftheelements(then102innumber):‘ThesearetheonlyonesofwhichthenewshascometoHa’vard/Andtheremaybemanyothers,buttheyhaven’tbeendiscarvard.’Tenmorehavejoinedthelistsincethen.Itisunlikelythattheywillgaintheculturaltractionoftheirforebears.Theyaresuperheavy,radioactiveandshort-lived,andwillneverfindordinaryapplications.Theymustbemadeinsuchtinyquantitiesthattherecanbenoquestionofcharacteristiccoloursandsmells.But,likealltheelementsbeforethem,theyareuniversal,theyareours;theybelongtousasmuchastheoxygenwebreathe.Theybelongintheperiodictabletoo,atleastinsofarastheyaddtothesequencedenotedbyatomicnumbers.Andyet,synthesizedratherthandiscovered,maderatherthanfound,theyseemtocountratherdifferently.

Iwonderedwhatitfeltliketobringoneofthesestrangeentitiesintotheworld.Often,I’venowcometorealize,somethingrevealedatthemomentofitsdiscoverywillsetthecourseofanelement’scareerinourculture.Chlorine’sbleachingpowerwasappreciatedattheoutset;soweretherainbowcoloursofcadmium.Butthesenewelements,sofrangibleandfleetingintheirexistence,couldneverhopetowormtheirwayintoliveslikethis.Inmanyways,theymustremainunreal,eventothosewhofirstmakethem.CouldtheexhilarationfeltbythesediscoverersbeanythinglikethatfeltbyWilliamRamsayandMorrisTraverswhentheystood‘forsomemomentsspell-bound’andwatchedneonfirstgiveforthits‘blazeofcrimsonlight’orbyDavyashedancedroundthelaboratoryinecstasyatthefierysputteringofpotassium?Didtoday’sscientistsbelievetheirelementswereequaltothesecolourfulperformers?Unfortunately,theyhavefailedtoleavethecompellingaccountsoftheirpredecessors:inordertogetananswertomyquestionIwouldhavetoaskitdirectly.

Iwantedtoknow,too,howfartheperiodictablecouldgo.Ifitwereonmybedroomwallnow,shouldImakeallowancewithrowsofemptyspacestoaccommodatefutureelements?Ifso,howmany?Oneortwo?Adozen?Hundreds?Notlongbeforehediedin1999,GlennSeaborg,whofirstfoundplutoniumandthestringofradioactiveelementsthatfollowit,gavealectureinwhichheshowedatablerunninguptoanunnamedelementnumber168–halfasfaragainassciencehasmanagedtopushtheinventoryin300years.Wasthis

justfancy,anoldman’shopelessdream?Seaborgseemedtodisowntheprospectevenashespoke:‘We’lldowelltojustgoonupanotherhalf-dozenelementsorso,’hesaid.Butthenwhyshowtheimage?Perhapsitwashiswayofremindingtheaudiencethatscientificdiscoveryhasahabitofchangingtherulesasitgoesalong.Whenthefirst‘true’chemicalelementswereidentified,therewasnowaytheycouldbeconstruedasnumbersfiveandsixtocomplementAristotle’slong-establishedfoursome,earth,air,fireandwater.Theyoverturnedthatsystemcompletelyanddemandedanewone.Whenhedrewuphislistofthirty-threeelementsin1789,Lavoisierlikewisehadnomeansofknowinghowmanyothersstilllayundiscoveredintheirores.Inthemidnineteenthcentury,whentherateofdiscoverydroppedawayforawhilealmosttozero,somechemistsmayhavebeguntoassumetheynowknewalltheelementsthereweretoknow–butthentheadventurewassetinmotionagainbytheinventionofthespectroscope,whichallowedmanymoretobeidentifiedbytheircharacteristicflames.DmitriiMendeleev,despitemakingallowancefornewarrivals,wasstillshockedtolearnabouttheexistenceoftheinertgasesandthefirstradioactiveelements.Theyslippedintohisperiodictableeasilyenough,eventhoughhefoughtagainsttheirinclusionatfirst.WillMendeleev’sdesigncontinuetobesoaccommodating?Orwillsomenewelementonedaybefoundthatexhibitssuchoutlandishbehaviourthatthewholetablemustbebrokenupandremade?

Whocantellmewhatitfeelsliketodiscoveranelementtoday,andhowmanymoresuchdiscoveriestherearelikelytobe?Forthis,Ineedtotrackdownthesurvivingdiscoverersofthenewerelementsandtheirsuccessorswhoarestilltryingtofindyetmore,forbuildingtheperiodictableisacontinuingproject.AlthoughItrainedasachemist,IammildlyshockedtofindIdonotknowtheirnames.Cosmologistsandgeneticistsfamiliarfromover-exposureinthemedia,yes.Butthesechemicalpioneers,no.Onereasonisthattheyaresothinontheground.Thisisnotsimplyduetotheattenuatedrateofdiscovery–downfromanelementeveryyearortwothroughmostofthenineteenthcenturytooneeverythreeyearsinthetwentieth–butalsotothefactthatelementsnowtendtobediscoveredinbatchesbyafewgroupsofresearchers.Thisleavesfewerwinnerstoclaimthegloryeveniftheyaresoinclined.

Seaborg’scolleagueandsuccessor,andtheonlyindividualwhocanrivalhisrecord,isAlbertGhiorso.HejoinedSeaborg’steamatitswartimebaseinIllinoisaspartoftheManhattanProjectin1944andby1971couldclaimtobetheco-discovereroftheelementsnumbered95to105,includinglawrencium,rutherfordiumanddubnium.Whenitcametoelementnumber106,Ghiorsowasmovedtoaskhismentorwhathethoughtofthename‘seaborgium’.Seaborg–whocanhardlyhavethoughtthedaywouldnevercome–pronouncedhimself

‘incrediblytouched.Thishonorwouldbemuchgreaterthananyprizeorawardbecauseitwasforever;itwouldlastaslongasthereareperiodictables.Therearejustoverahundredknownelementsintheuniverse,andonlyahandfulofthesearenamedafterpeople.’GhiorsostillhasadeskattheLawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratoryattheageofninety-three.Iwritetohimwithmyquestions.Buthedoesnotrespond.

Afterseaborgium,thelaurelsforthediscoveryofthefollowingsixelementsgototheInstituteforHeavyIonResearchatDarmstadtinGermany.Theseniorscientistatthecentreduringthe1980sand1990swhenthesediscoverieswerebeingmadewasPeterArmbruster.Thistime,Iaminluck.WhenIspeaktoArmbruster,however,heshrugsoffanyglory.‘Ididn’tdiscoverthem.Ialwaysworkedwithagroup.’Buthesurprisesmebyrevealingthatdiscoverycanstillbepinneddowntothatprimalmomentwhensomethingnewirruptsintothesenses.In1981,heandhisteamofnuclearphysicistsweretryingtomakeelementnumber107.Thelaboratorywasstillusingnoisyprintersratherthansilentcomputerscreenstodisplayresults.Astheequipmentrecordedthedisintegrationoftheshort-livedatom,‘weheardaburstofclicks’.Werethoseclicksanylessmarvellousthannewlightinaspectroscope?

Thesynthesisofthesesuperheavyelementsisinprincipleamatterofsimpleaddition.Uraniumistheheaviestnaturallyoccurringelementintheperiodictable.SeaborgandGhiorsohadmadethenextelementsinthesequencebybombardingtargetsofuranium–andthenplutonium,americiumandsoon–withmuchlighterparticlesinthehopethatsomeofthemwouldstickandsoformastillheaviernewelement.Thedifficultywiththis–anditgrewallthetime–wasthatthetargetsthemselveswerealreadyunstable.Thisincreasedthechancethatthebombardmentwouldsimplyproduceashrapnelofsmallhigh-energyfragmentsandnoheavyatomsatall.Armbruster’sbreakthroughwastoseethatifheusedatomsofcertainmiddleweightelementsashismissiles,hecouldgobacktousingstabletargets.Elementnumber107,bohrium,wasmadebyfiringchromiumatomsatatargetofbismuth;112byforcingtogetheratomsofleadandzinc.Becausethenewelementsurvivesforafewsecondsatmostbeforedecaying,itmustbedetectednotbydirectobservation,butbymeasuringtheenergyofitsdecayparticlesanddeterminingthecompositionofthestablenucleusleftbehind.Fromthisinformation,itispossibletocalculatetheatomicnumberofthenewelementthatmusthaveexistedduringthebriefmomentbeforethedecay.Discoveryinthesecasesisnotamatterofeurekamomentsandapplesdroppingonheads.Thepleasureismorelikethatfeltbythearchaeologistwhoisabletoworkoutfromafewshardswhatanancientpotmusthavelookedlike.

Thoughtheexplorersofthisfarregionoftheperiodictablearephysicists,theysharethechemists’urgetodescribetheirnewelementsandtomakecompoundsfromthem.Theyaremotivatedinthisnotbysomesoft-headednostalgicwishtofollowinthefootstepsofearlierelementdiscoverers,butbysoundscientificprinciples.Armbruster’sgrouphassucceededinmakingcompoundssuchasbohriumsulphateandhassiumtetroxide,workingwithjustafewatomsoftheseelements.This,however,hasbeenenoughtoprovetheirchemicalanalogywiththeelementsdirectlyabovetheminthetable,therebydemonstratingthecontinuedvalidityintheseunchartedwatersofMendeleev’sorganizationoftheelements.‘TherewerespeculationsthatMendeleev’stablemightbreakdownwithheavierelements,’Armbrusterexplains.‘Theeffectofrelativityoninner-shellelectronsmovingatclosetothevelocityoflightwouldmeanthatordinaryquantummechanicswouldnolongerapply.Butwefoundthathassiumreallybehaveslikeironandthatelement112islikemercury.’

IaskArmbrusteraboutnames.Thenamingofelementsisachemists’preoccupation,thenuclearphysicistpointsout.Addingaprotontoanatomicnucleustransmutesitintoadifferentchemicalelementoneunitheavier;addinganeutronmerelyconvertsitintoaheavierisotopeofthesameelement.Tothephysicist,itseemsunfairthatitisonlytheformerthatwarrantsanewname.Notwithstandingthis,Armbrusterhasbeeninvolvedinmanynamingdecisions.Until1992,hetellsme,itwasthediscoverer’srighttochooseaname,butthishaschangedinresponsetotheprioritydisputesoftheColdWarsothatclaimantsarenowonlypermittedtoputforwardnamesassuggestions.IdetectaslightlyshamefacedtonewhenArmbrusterexcuseshisteam’snamingofelements108hassium(afterthefederalstateofHesse)and110darmstadtium.Theofficialjustificationisthatitcompletedanestinggeographicsetalongwitheuropiumandgermanium(Darmstadt,Hesse,Germany,Europe),andwasafittingresponsetoSeaborgandGhiorso’searliernamingofamericium,californiumandberkelium(aneventwhichpromptedtheNewYorkertoquipthatifonlytheresearcherscouldnowfinduniversitiumandofiumtheirworkwouldbecomplete).‘ThisbadtraditionwasestablishedbyBerkeley.WewantedtodoitforEurope,’saysArmbruster.Itseemsthatnationalismbegetsnationalism.Butthereisamoresubtlepatrioticsubtextheretoo–anhistoricalreassertionofGermanicstrengthinnuclearphysics.ForArmbruster’sfavouriteofthesixelementshehashelpedtonameisnumber109,meitnerium,namedafterthepartlyJewishAustrianphysicistLiseMeitner.WorkinginBerlin,andtheninStockholmandCopenhageninexilefromtheNaziregimeafter1938,Meitnerwasoneofthediscoverersofnuclearfission,theprocesswherebyatomicnucleisplittoreleasemassiveamountsofenergy.(Herworkalso

demonstratedwhytheelementsheavierthanuraniumcouldnotbestable.)MeitnerachievedthisinthefaceofNazipersecutionanddiscriminationagainstwomenwherevershewent.‘Iwasconvincedthatshewasaveryimportantpartofnuclearphysicsinthetwentiethcentury,’saysArmbruster.‘Andshehadallthedisadvantagesyoucanhave.’

Bychance,IspeaktoArmbrusterafewdaysafterhehassubmittedhisproposalforthenameofelementnumber112totheInternationalUnionofPureandAppliedChemistry,theorganizationinchargeofratifyingchemicalnomenclature.IUPACrequireseachnewelementtohaveanamethatiseasilypronouncedandamemorablechemicalsymbol.Thechoicefor112hasapparentlybeennarroweddownfromthirtysuggestions,someGermanic,someRussian,reflectingthemake-upoftheteamthatdidtheresearch.Theirpreviousdiscovery,elementnumber111,wasnamedroentgeniumaftertheGermandiscovererofX-rays,WilhelmRöntgen.Armbrusterwon’tbedrawnonwhathehasrecommendedthistime,butindicatesthatpatriotismisnottheinspiration.‘IdideverythingtoensurethatwedonotcontinuewithGermanscientistsandGermantowns,’hetellsme.*

ThesceneofthemostrecentelementstrikeshasshiftedtoRussia.AttheJointInstituteforNuclearResearchinDubna,YuriOganessianleadstheteamthathassynthesizedelementsnumbers114and116(odd-numberedelementsarehardertoobtain,forreasonstodowithnuclearstability).Heoffersamorepersonalinsightintothequest.‘Theworkisverydifficult,sincetheprobabilityofanewelementnucleusformationisexceedinglysmall.Veryoftenwegetnothing.Itmaytakeyears,’hesays.‘Itisnotdifficulttounderstandtheemotionsoftheresearcher.’

Iaskaboutthedistinctionbetween‘finding’and‘making’elements.ThisexcitesOganessian:‘I’dputthequestionmorerudely:whyingeneraldowediscoverelements?’What,asheputsit,istheneed,havingsynthesizeddarmstadtium,say,thenineteenthelementfollowinguranium,tosynthesizeatwentieth?Whygoon?Hisanswergoestotheheartofwhatscienceisabout.Thediscoveriesareimportantlessastrophiesandmoreforwhattheytellusaboutthewiderworld.InSeaborg’sheyday,thetheoreticalmodeloftheatomicnucleussuggestedthatthecatalogueofelementswasessentiallyfinite,andthatbeyondacertainthresholdofinstabilityitwouldactuallybeimpossibletosynthesizenewcomers.However,advancesintheoreticalphysicsduringthe1960sthenindicatedthattheremightinfactbe‘islandsofstability’clusteredaroundcertainatomicnumbershigherupthetable.Thisnewunderstandinghasstimulatedthehuntforelementsthatitwouldhavebeenmadnesstogoafter

before–andispresumablywhatencouragedSeaborgtospeculateonaperiodictableuptoatomicnumber168.‘Onlyatthebeginningofthepresentcenturyhavewemanagedtochangethemethodofsynthesisandproduceelementswithatomicnumbersfrom112to118,andprovethatthetheoreticalhypothesisisareality,’saysOganessiantriumphantly.

Soarerecentdiscoveriesanydifferentfromthosethathavegonebefore?Oganessiandeniesit.Eachoneisaprizeinitself,butitalsosayssomethingabouthowmuchfurthertheprojectcango,perhapsappearingtosetanewlimitonthenumberofelementsthatcanexist,oralternativelythrowingopennewdoorsofpossibility.Itsgreatersignificanceliesinthecontributionitmakestothebroadermissionofscience–theincreaseofhumanknowledge.‘Synthesisofanewelementisnottheendinitself.Theeffortsofresearchershavealwaysbeendirectedtothesearchforsomethingmoreimportantthanjustfillinginthesquaresoftheperiodictable.Iwanttobelievethatsuchamotivationdoesn’thaveanyexceptions.’

Oganessianandhiscolleagueshavenowsettheirsightsonthedifficultelementnumber117.Ifitturnsouttohavethepropertiesofahalogen,itwillbefurtherproofofthegeniusofOganessian’scompatriot,Mendeleev.Ifitdoesn’t,thenitwillsetchemistswonderinganew.‘Itlooksasifitisgoingtobeoneofthemostdifficultexperimentsevercarriedout.’

Notes

Thepaginationofthiselectroniceditiondoesnotmatchtheeditionfromwhichitwascreated.Tolocateaspecificpassage,pleaseusethesearchfeatureofyoure-bookreader.

PartOne:Power

16‘highdegreeofsensuous’:Veblen,129.16‘itistheonly’:Pliny,295.16‘longenoughtoencircle’:QuotedinChevalierandGheerbrant,441.17‘couldbecompletely’:Pliny,287.17‘Thefirstperson’:Pliny,287.17‘Thesecondcrime’:Pliny,292.17‘symbolofperversion’:QuotedinChevalierandGheerbrant,442.22‘hard,rebelliousquartz’:Clemens,233.26‘inanentirelyuncommercial’:Shaw,8.26‘thecostofextraction’:Herrington,8.27‘withproductioninthebest’:Herrington,58.28‘Thatgoldinwardlytaken’:Wilkin,338.28‘GoldofalltheMetals’:Geoffroy,281.29‘Anyfoolwouldknow’:QuotedinWilson,221.33‘Threemonthslater’:WeeksandLeicester,397.38‘asshamefullyannounced’:QuotedinMcDonaldandHunt,156.54‘ochreousstain’:Ruskin,189.70‘thegreatburningglass’:Knight,101.70‘Acandlewillburn’:Faraday,106.Faradayappearstohavemadeanerrorinhisestimateoftheamountofcarbonicacid,as548tonsisequivalenttoroughly1,200,000pounds.72‘Atsomepoint’:Seaborg,52.74‘honest-to-God’:Seaborg,72.74‘Ourmicrochemistsisolated’:Seaborg,99.74‘Webrieflyconsidered’:Seaborg,72.74‘entirelycoincidental’:Seaborg,72.74‘Eachelementhas’:Seaborg,72.

75‘Wethoughtourlittle’:Seaborg,72.75‘theUPPUclub’:Bernstein,122.75‘Whenthehusbands’:Seaborg,94.76‘Plutoniumissounusual’:QuotedinBernstein,105.79‘Thiswouldbesuper’:Bernstein,158.85‘reinforcers’:QuotedinGillispie.87‘knowseverythingthathappens’:QuotedinGordin,245.88‘Symbolicaction’:QuotedinGordin,245.90‘Wethoughtitfitting’:Seaborg,155.92‘Inmercurythehands’:CocteauinaconversationrecordedwithAndréFraigneau,trs.VeraTraill(London,n.d.[?1952]).94‘TheChinesehaveprobably’:Needham,vol.13,143.100‘Asnatureproducesmetals’:Roberts,34.

PartTwo:Fire

118‘TakeaQuantity’:QuotedinDerham,187.119‘Thenevaporateall’:QuotedinDerham,187.124‘curiousfailure’:Vertesi,Janet,‘LightandEnlightenmentinJosephWrightofDerby’s“TheAlchymist”’,RomanticismandtheMidlandsEnlightenmentConference,Birmingham,UK,3July2004.125‘averynoble’:quotedinWilliamBray,244.127‘Thecombination’:Friedrich,96.128‘Droppingphosphorus’:Emsley(2000),158.131‘theembodimentoftheromantic’:Haber,2.138‘inscience,medicine’:ChangandJackson.144‘throughtheinstrumentality’:QuotedinKnight,97.155‘idealofbalance’:Bensaude-Vincent,227.155‘theexcessivedomination’:Bensaude-Vincent,385.159‘thatinsinuatingvamp’:Harn,18.160‘thesinglemost’:Lane,342.163‘ournewmetals’:QuotedinQuinn,157.163‘newemotion’:Quinn,157.166‘heatsthesoil’:Harvie,13.169‘livingwithasole’:QuotedinQuinn,156.176‘thetrueelements’:Hartley,54.177‘dancedabouttheroom’:QuotedinKnight,65.177‘amostintenselight’:QuotedinKnight,66.177‘theglobulesoften’:QuotedinKnight,66.

178‘theyoungchemist’:QuotedinHartley,22.179‘Doyouknowwhere’:QuotedinNechaev,79.182‘pitifulandillconducted’:QuotedinAlanBrock,51.187‘Haveyouevernoticed’:QuotedinJames.189‘thesymptomsofthallium’:SandersandLovallo,312–13.191‘thedayoftheeclipse’:Janssen.192‘thegloriousyellow’:QuotedinWeeksandLeicester,760.194‘amoleculeofgold’:BesantandLeadbeater,1.194‘arrangedonadefinite’:BesantandLeadbeater,3.194‘wasseentoconsist’:BesantandLeadbeater,9.195‘solight,andsosimple’:BesantandLeadbeater,41.196‘observed’:http://www.chem.yale.edu/~chem125/125/history99/8Occult/OccultAtoms.html,accessedAugust2010.197‘Manganeseoffersus’:BesantandLeadbeater,100.197‘theirworkwouldbe’:QuotedinNethercot,52.

PartThree:Craft

200‘Oftheextremetracts’:Herodotus,Histories,III.115.200‘Lusitania’:Pliny,NaturalHistory,XXXIV;‘broughtfromtheislands’:Pliny,NaturalHistory,IV;‘tothenorth’:Strabo,Geographica,III.5.11.200‘howmanyhistorians’:Rickard,339–40.204‘therespectablematerial’:Levi,185.209‘neverseenorheard’:Levi,185.216‘Inthisway’:Freud,119.219‘amaterialforideas’:QuotedinArasse,239.221‘potentialtoachieve’:Auping,37.222‘Itis,ofcourse’:Auping,39.228‘foritemsofluxury’:Blair,213.237‘thecoppercovering’:QuotedinJardine,411.237‘unashamedlycontinental’:Jardine,411.237‘ABallofCopper’:QuotedinJardine,317.238‘largeBallofmetallgilt’:QuotedinJardine,316.243‘Itisthemost’:QuotedinThompson,336.257‘dependsclosely’:Veblen,126.258‘nearlyputashiny’:Bryson,309.258‘becauseofitswhiteness’:Binczewski.259‘aprocessofbanalization’:Hachez-Leroy,19.

260‘Howaluminium’:Mencken,415.262‘lackingonlyathatched’:Heskett,171.263‘turnedintoSpitfires’:Clement,7.263‘Spitfirestosaucepans’:Sparke,138.268‘themanwhoshould’:Huxley.273‘onecriesout’:Vasari,345.274‘Whitewasthecolour’:Festing,125.276‘Cleopatranodoubt’:Pliny,137n2.279‘culturallyconsequent’:Sennett,144;‘Theattributionofethical’:Sennett,137.281‘soft,butterylook’:QuotedinAmericanScientist,July–August1998.282‘theylookmorelike’:Storrie,166.

PartFour:Beauty

289‘atthebestis’:QuotedinFeller,vol.1,71.294‘shouldnothave’:Elliottetal.297‘rollingsculpture’:Drexler,foreword.298‘fromwinejugs’:Bayer,GropiusandGropius,134.304‘Thisrelationshipofwoman’:QuotedontheTatewebsite:www.tate.org.uk.304‘nometal,itseems’:Quotedinadvertisementcopy,NewYorker,28October1933,36.304‘thereislittlewrong’:Keats.306‘precioussheetsofsapphire’:QuotedinGage,72.307‘luminousdarkness’:Gage,71.319‘doinggreatservice’:MacCarthy,351.319‘averydangerouspiece’:Meharg,688;‘KillerWallpaper’,SpectroscopyEurope,16(5)(2004),16–19.324‘Sucharequest’:‘MuchAdoaboutVanadium’,AscidianNews,51June2002),athttp://depts.washington.edu/ascidian/AN51.html.325‘Longagotherelived’:QuotedinJorpes,74.326‘Inhisnaming’:Jorpes,75.327‘themostesteemed’:GuytondeMorveauetal.,vol.6,64;vol.4,231.332‘amostastonishingly’:RamsayandRayleigh,187.332‘Drinktothegas’:QuotedinTravers(1956),141.333‘Yougetanewelement’:QuotedinTravers(1956),174.334‘AsRamsaypressed’:Travers(1956),178.341‘marriagechapels’:Venturi,ScottBrownandIzenour,20.342‘caughtsomeverygood’:Boyd,157.

344‘anapparatusforchymical’:Read,130.348‘theSolarCalcination’:Read,101–7.

PartFive:Earth

360‘anenormousundertaking’:C.H.Evans,xviii.361‘anyfurtherinvestigation’:SuyverandMeijerink.374‘Itisnotwithoutgreat’:QuotedinC.H.Evans,8.

Epilogue

391‘forsomemoments’:Travers(1956),178.393‘incrediblytouched’:Seaborg,254.

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Theelementsofthemodernperiodictableareindicatedinbold.

AbbasI(Persia)309Abbott,Donald323–4Abbott,Isabella323Abdal-RahmanIII95ÅboseealsoTurku(Finland)373,375Afghanistan56Agamemnon(ship)243–4AgeofIron(Coetzee)173Agricola(GeorgBauer)25,165alchemy/alchemists

andantimony345–6,348andgold28,190,221–2andmercury–sulphurreaction97–100andothermetals50,51,219,221–2,227–8andthefour‘elements’andprinciples148ChineseandWesterntheoriesof47symbols227–8

TheAlchymist(Wright)117,123–4Aldeburgh(Suffolk)186,293Aldersey-Williams,Hugh

elementscollectionof4–6,9,55,61family147,186,214,253,287,316,321,344performsexperiments12,61–5,113,115–23,145–7,205,214–15,227,265schoolandchildhoodrecollections1,3–4,6–7,9,153,176,205workswithplutonium76–8,80

AlexanderII(Russia)214,261Alexandria(Egypt)276

alkalimetals83,86,179–80,360seealsonamedelementsalkalineearths178seealsonamedelementsalloys17,20–21,45,46,51,60,184,207,211,219,222,233,247,264–5,315,

343,361,368,369,375seealsobrass,bronze,etc.Almadén(Spain)95–7AlumBay(IsleofWight)267alumina260,328aluminium4,84,89,97,140,184,227,253–65,279,299,328,244,361,369,

378,379alternativespellingof260andmodernity255lightweight220,255,284regardedasprecious256,259,283

aluminumseealuminiumAlvarez,Santiago226amalgams23,38,96,99,178Amazonregion19,65amber28,199–200,325,327,358TheAmericanLanguage(Mencken)260AmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory(NewYork)44–5Americas,pre-Columbian21,32,95,224,349americium70,78,394,396amethyst328Ampère,André-Marie135,144Amrani,Marité169–70Andersen,HansChristian206AngeloftheNorth(Gormley)54,222AnnaKarenina(Tolstoy)87Anthony,EarleC.337antimony154,181,207,219,317,343–8,382

differentformsof345–6regulusorstar346–8

Antimony(Utah)350Apollo46Aquinas,Thomas99Aranda,Marquisof33Aranjuez(Spain)241AreYouaBromide?(Burgess)141Argentina225

argon60,277,279,337discoveryof85–6,332–4

Aristotle148,392Arkwright,Richard124Armbruster,Peter394–7Arrhenius,CarlAxel373,375,385Arrhenius,Svante25,26arsenic130,309,313,314–21

abundantintheenvironment314,321aspigment287,296,316,318–19aspoison315–21,350occurringwithotherores202,203,207,308

Artemis46,225astatine71Atahualpa19Athens35,232,171AtlanticOcean19,21,26,200,212,242–5,299Auer,Carl366–8,376Australia16,22,245Austria68,144,208,296Aztecs18,20,45,239

Bacon,Francis53,148BadSuderode(Germany)166Ballard,J.G.173,300–302BalloonDog(Koons)305Baltimore(Maryland)142Bangladesh321Banham,Reyner302–3Banks,Joseph40Banner,Fiona339–40Barcelona95BarcelonaPavilion299BarcelonaUniversity226Barclay,Fiona56–60barium72,162,164,178,182,184,361Barthes,Roland235baryta178

Bath131,166,312Bauhaus(Germany)298Baum,L.Frank207,330LesBaux(France)255bauxite255,263Beagle(ship)107Beaverbrook,Lord263Becquerel,Henri163Bedouinpeople45Beijing158Belcher,Edward108–11bellmetal211–12Benjamin,Walter223,249Beowulf327Bergman,Torbern354,355Berkeley(California)71,73,90,349–50,360,396berkelium70,396Berlin26,72,130,173,220,246,248,349,375,380Bernini,GianLorenzo274Bernstein,Jeremy79Bernstein,Leonard300,330Berthollet,Claude-Louis136–7beryl327–30beryllia329beryllium2,329,367,379Berzelius,JönsJacob71,325–6,329,353,356,358,369–73,376,378Besant,Annie193–7Betjeman,John173Bettle,Jim61–5Beuys,Joseph250TheBible5,103,127,265,330,338,342–3seealsoRevelationBigBen212TheBigMoney(DosPassos)30,158Bilbao280–83bismuth162,185,207,297,395Black,Joseph178Blake,William53,225BlandfordForum(Dorset)63BleakHouse(Dickens)114

Bleigiessen214,127Blok,Alexander87–8blow-pipe357–8Bohr,Niels27,82bohrium394Bolívar,Simón34Bones(Banner)339TheBookofDave(Self)174boron2Boron(California)350Boston337–8‘TheBotanicGarden’(ErasmusDarwin)158BouvardandPécuchet(Flaubert)389Bovingdon(Hertfordshire)189Boyle,Robert123Brand,Hennig112–15,117,122,123,125,127Brandt,Georg309,352,355,369brass21,51,210,247,258Brazil65Brecht,Bertolt251,269Brett,Jacob242Brett,JohnWatkins242brimstone103–6,112seealsosulphurBrisingamen325,327Bristol176,311–12Britannia(ship)245BritishMuseum(London)13,243Broadmoorhospital190,320bromide139,141bromine1,56,142–3Bromo-Seltzer139,142bronze11,32,35,36,48,51,204–5,206,211–12,219,222,237,247,255,258Brown,DeniseScott341Browne,Thomas28,29,334Brunel,IsambardKingdom54,245Bryson,Bill258Budapest368Buddha16Bunsen,Robert179,187,366–8,370

Burgess,Anthony173Burgess,Gelett141‘BurialoftheAgitatorinaZincCoffin’(Brecht)251Burma329Buxton(Derbyshire)166Byron,Lord68

Cabot,John239cadmium

asartists’colour287,288–93,312,391aspoisonous292,296discovery287–8droppedoverNorwich293–5environmentalpollutionby183,289,292

caesium179,180,187calamine247,288calcium85,121,166,178

inlivingorganisms268–9,275insculpture271–4whitemineralsof10,266–70

Calder,Alexander94–6California,Universityof71californium70,396Cambridge(UnitedKingdom)39,131,332,381Canada34Candide(Bernstein)330Candide(Voltaire)19–20CandyHeart(Koons)305CanneryRow(Steinbeck)321Canova,Antonio274Canton(China)111Capra,Frank30carbon5,8,12,58,69–70,135,154,159,329,389

ascharcoal62,64,66ascoal8,11,52,62,66aslampblack269,313,343insteel-making48,52seealsodiamond

Carbonarimovement61–9‘Cargoes’(Masefield)8,18Carrara(Italy)271–2,274Carthage17,200Cartier,Louis35Casanova,Giacomo33ACaseforanAngel(Gormley)222Casey,Thomas258Cassiterides199–203cassiterite199,204Catch-22(Heller)22CaucasianChalkCircle(Brecht)269Cavendish,Henry152,354Ceres(planet)40,372cerium56,168,359,368–9,371–2,278CerneAbbasgiant267CFCs(chlorofluorocarbons)136Chabaneau,Pierre-François32–3,38–9charcoalseecarbonCharlemagne165CharlesII(England)125CharlesIII(Spain)32Chartrescathedral281,306Chatterton,Thomas319chemicalformulae59,147,370chemicalsymbols74,156,370,397Chevenix,Richard38,41,43Chicago73,261China92–4,108,109,111,247,300chlorine83,138,147,159,185,352,355

asbleachingagent128,134,391asdisinfectant136–7compoundsintheenvironment135–6ingaswarfare128–34

Christie,Agatha2,186–90Christofle256,259chromium2,9,61,259,292,323,324,327–8,329,394

andconsumerism297–304,350pejorativelytermed‘chrome’9,304–5,347

pigments287,295,296,312Churchill,Winston47,126cinnabar93,95,98,100–102seealsomercuryClark,Harry61Clarke,David229–30Claude,Georges335–7Clemens,Samuel22Cleopatra(Egypt)275–6Cleve,Per355,374Cleveland,Grover330coalseecarbonCoalbrookdale(Shropshire)52,53cobalt165,292,306–12

blue10,295violet314

Cobalt(Idaho)350Cocteau,Jean90–92,96Coetzee,J.M.173Cognac(France)376,380Cohen,Leonard140coinmetals4,17,22,34,51,165,207,232,240,331,355ColdWar90,223,396Coleridge,SamuelTaylor156Colombia19,21,109,329colour

innature291vocabularyof295–6

Colt,Samuel231Columbus,Christopher18,20combustion68–70,105,106,113,114,125,153–4,158Conrad,Joseph172Conreen,Martin205,209Constable,John296Constantinople237Cooke,WilliamFothergill241Cookworthy,William310–11Coolidge,Calvin137Copenhagen27,45,55,380,396copernicium397

Copernicus,Nicolaus397copper2,4,7,20–21,31,48,74,89,151,201,203,204–5,206,207,210,211,

228,229,232,233,247,259,262,265,286,304,307,358,368,389asoneoftheancientmetals31,103,227,250,278minesanddeposits49,202,351–2,378usedinbatteries155,176usedinfireworks180,182,184–5usedinroofing237–9,258usedintelegraphy240–46

CopperCenter(Alaska)350Corneliussen,Ole313,314Cornwall200–202,311coronium192,195Cortés,Hernando18–20,239Cortés,Hernandocosmetics96,168,226,342–3,344Cotton,Elmer133Courtois,Bernard143–6craftandcraftspeople11,19,26,33,34,48,207–8,229,256,264,270,276–7,

279,306,310CranePark(London)217Crash(Ballard)301–2Crete199CrippleCreek(Colorado)23–4Croesus17Cromer(Norfolk)268Crookes,William187–8,195,197Cuba18,20CurieMuseum(Paris)169–70seealsoRadiumInstitute(Paris)Curie,Marie2,7,82,86,161–5,167–70,362,363,376Curie,Pierre7,86,161–3,362,363,376curium70,82,171,374Cyprus201,313

Daguerre,Louis235Dalton,John370DanteAlighieri212,303Darmstadt394,396darmstadtium396,397

Darwin,Charles107Darwin,Erasmus123,158David(Michelangelo)272David,Jacques-Louis116Davies,Alwyn335Davy,Edmund177Davy,Humphry70,71,150,156,188,236,349,376

andaluminium260andBerzelius370–72andchlorine134–5andsodiumandpotassium176–9,266,360,391poetryof178–9travelstotheContinent144–5

Davy,Jane144DDT135DeReMetallica(Agricola)165Debierne,André-Louis169Deedes,William250Defoe,Daniel237Delft310DeLillo,Don304Demarçay,Eugène-Anatole362–3DeMille,CecilB.300DepartmentalDitties(Kipling)208Derain,André312Derby117,123Detroit(Michigan)299,302,303Deville,HenriSainte-Claire256diamond22,35,39,70,151,329seealsocarbonDickens,Charles106,114,182,231DictionaryofReceivedIdeas(Flaubert)314didymium366,376–7Dmitriev,Igor89TheDoctor’sDilemma(Shaw)164Dogonpeople239DonJuan(Byron)68Donny,Jacqueline168DosPassos,John30,158Dover242

WhiteCliffsof,267Dr.Strangelove(film)138Drebbel,Cornelis120Dubna(Russia)349,350,397dubnium393Dulong,Pierre-Louis135Dürer,Albrecht222,271dysprosium359

Enumbers29,49Eames,Charles255Earl,Harley299–301Ecuador19,32Edinburgh178,349,380EdinburghCollegeofArt349EdwardI(England)213EdwardVIII(GreatBritain)29Egypt,ancient13,18,45,240,276,295,343Einstein,Albert131,381einsteinium82,374Eisler,Hanns251Ekeberg,Anders355,374ElDorado18–20electrolysis177,178,245,259–60,263,266,360,372electrum17elementcollections

HughAldersey-Williams4–6,9,55,61TheodoreGray56MaxWhitby56

elementsasfundamentalbuildingblocksofmatter6associationwiththesolarsystem51,250falsediscoveriesof71,190,192,195,366,376feelingsondiscoveryof391–4fourAristotelian148,228,392namingof7,82,260,362–3,376–7,396–7seealsonamedelements

‘TheElements’(Lehrer)10,391

Elhuyar,Fausto32Elhuyar,JuanJosé32Eliot,T.S.7Elizabeth,Queen(wifeofGeorgeVI)35EmblemsDivineandMoral(Quarles)112emerald327–30EmeraldGreen316,320Emerson,Isaac142EmpireoftheSun(Ballard)300Emsley,John127TheEnlightenment7,124–5,309,371erbium349,359,374,386europium8,182,359,361–2,364,396Evard,Jacques190Evelyn,John66,125EveryWordUnmade(Banner)339AnExperimentuponaBirdintheAirPump(Wright)123,124experiments

performedbyHughAldersey-Williams12,61–5,113,115–23,145–7,205,214–15,227,265

restrictionson,5,100,121,382expositions,international

Chicago1933261London1862187–8Paris1855256Paris1900363Paris1925(ArtsDécoratifs)298,337Paris193794,251,261

EyelessinGaza(Huxley)53,139

Façade(Walton)253TheFaerieQueene(Spenser)330Falunmine(Sweden)49,324,353,378,381Faraday,Michael241

accompaniesDavytotheContinent70,144oncarbon69–70

Faust(Goethe)308,330Fawkes,Guy231

FearandLoathinginLasVegas(Thompson)340Febre,Nicolasle348feldspar373,379,385,386Fergusson,Vivian134fermium82,374Fields,W.C.142Finland351,373fireworks181–6,238fission,nuclear72,76,349,385,396Fitzgerald,F.Scott224FitzWarin,Fulk67FlakeWhite314Flanders,Michael317Flaubert,Gustave154,314,320,321,389Florence70,341fluoridation140–41fluorine139,140,142Ford,Henry208Ford,Richard52Fors,Hjalmar351–4,355,380Forshufvud,Sten315,317TheForsyteSaga(Galsworthy)224Fourcroy,Antoine-Françoisde327France66,133,144,150,168,177,185,260,263,307,353,363,376–7francium71,170–71Franck,James27Franco,Francisco95Frankenstein(MaryShelley)156Frankland,Edward192Franklin,Benjamin149,239FrederickWilliamIII(Prussia)246Freiberg(Germany)85FrenchAcademyofSciences(Paris)46,144,151,171,257,377Freud,Sigmund216FreyjaseeVanadisFuchu(Japan)292Fuller,RichardBuckminster262–3

Gadolin,Johan355,373–8,380,386gadolinite374,375,377,379,387gadolinium82,359,362,374–7Gahn,Johan125,354,369gallium84–5,361,363,377,380Galsworthy,John224Galveston(Texas)105,107Gama,Vascoda18Gassed(Sargent)132–3GatesofHell(Rodin)212Gay-Lussac,Joseph-Louis143,144GazaCity128GeberseeJabirGeevormine(Cornwall)202–4Gehry,Frank280–82genderoftheelements46–7,49,224–5,228,234,278,283Geneva349,376Geoffroy,Etienne-François28GeorgeII(GreatBritain)181GeorgeVI(GreatBritain)35GermanSymphony(Eisler)251germanium7,85,363,396Germany25,27,32,82,127,129–31,144,166,246,247–51,351,354,363,

394,396–7Germinal(Zola)66Ghiorso,Albert393–4,396Gibson,William304Giphantie(delaRoche)235glucinaseeberylliaglucinumseeberylliumGoethe,JohannWolfgangvon147,308,330,358gold4,13–29,42,45,51,89,103,165,202,206,210,213,239,240,242,256,

299,301,325,327,350,358andalchemy98–9,114–15,190,221,346,352andimmortality16,28,227–8andimperialpower11,43,53asmedicine28–9asoneoftheancientmetals31,103,227,278corruptingeffectof17,26

inseawater25–6,129platinumcomparedto30–37,38,39rushes22,26silvercomparedto224–5,227–8,231–3standard76,330–31symbolism7,9,46,215–16,278,283

TheGoldCoast(Robinson)174Goldberger,Paul283GoldenFleece24,221GoldsmithsCollege(London)205Gormley,Antony54,219,221–2GöttingenUniversity287Gounod,Charles330GrandRapids(Michigan)140graphiteseecarbonGray,Theodore56GreatEastern(ship)54,245TheGreatGatsby(Fitzgerald)224Greece,ancient35,220,224,271Greeks17,199–200Greekmythology46,48,50,221,225Grieg,Edvard309TheGroup(McCarthy)262guanínalloy20–21Guernica(Picasso)94GuggenheimMuseum(Bilbao)280–83Guntur(India)191Gustavianum(Uppsala)355,356Gutenberg,Johannes218–19

Haarlem137Haber,Clara130Haber,EvaCharlotte131Haber,Fritz

andchlorineaspoisongas129–31,135searchesforgold25–6

Haber,Lutz130–31Haeckel,Ernst194

hafnium27,58Hahn,Otto72Haldane,JohnScott157Hall,CharlesMartin259–61halogens83,86,139,143,147,174,398seealsonamedelementsHamburg112,114,126–7Hamilton,Richard302–4Hancock,Thomas111Handel,GeorgFrederic181,185AHandfulofDust(Waugh)298Hardy,Thomas61–2Harlow,Jean30Harris,Arthur126–7Harrogate(NorthYorkshire)197Harwell(Oxfordshire)76,78,80hassium395,396Hawthorne,Nathaniel338Hayden.Herbert320healthandsafety5,90,96,97,183,217,290,314Heart(Gormley)221Heidelberg179,366Heisenberg,Werner76helium86,192–3,195,197,332Helmholtz,Hermannvon243Hemingway,Ernest139,252HenryII(England)67HenryVIII(England)240Henze,Martin323Hephaestus48Hepworth,Barbara274–5Herodotus199,200Héroult,Paul259,261Herrington,Richard21,26,201Herschel,John236Hevesy,Georgede27Hinds,RichardBrinsley108,110,111HiroshimaUniversity323Hisinger,Wilhelm356,370–72,378Hispaniola18,20,21

Histories(Herodotus)199Hitler,Adolf49,248Hjelm,Peter355Hobsbawm,Eric363Hoffmann,E.T.A.49,378Hofmannstal,Hugovon225holmium349,355,359,374HommageàChryslerCorp.(Hamilton)303HongKong111Hooke,Robert118,119,237Hoover,Herbert165Hoover,LouHenry165Hope,Charles178Housman,A.E.332Hubble,Edwin180Hughes,Ellis44Hughes,Howard30Hugo,Victor363Humboldt,Alexandervon324Hungary214Hunt,WilliamHolman289Huxley,Aldous53,139Huxley,Thomas268–9hydrogen72,135,147,149,152–3,154,156,191–2,194–5,197,371,389

Ilmarinen43,48‘InMemoriam’(Tennyson)113Incas18–20,46India247,349indium10TheIndustrialRevolution53–4,137,247,257inertgases59,71,85–6,197,332,360,393seealsonamedelementsInuitpeople45iodine5,71–2,83,139,142–7,166,236,350‘Iodine’(Cohen)140iridium9,33,40,42iron8,11,31,32,33,61,66,67,103,180,181,186,192,222,227,239,246,

250,259,262,277,292,311,325,351,352,368,369,395

andblood49–50,323andmeteorites43–5andrust54–5,151,159andtheIndustrialRevolution52–4,257andweaponsofwar45–6,47–9asoneoftheancientmetals31,103,227,250associationwithMars50–52associationwithmasculinity46–7,49,278,283

IronCross246Iron(Missouri)350Iron(Utah)350Isfahan309Ishpeming(Michigan)71Istanbul313seealsoConstantinopleItaly68,144,184,199,236,242,318,363

JabiribnHayyan98–9Jackson,Michael160Janssen,Pierre191–2Japan48,292jargonseezirconJason(Kiefer)220–21,223‘Jerusalem’(Blake)53jewellery17,20,29,32,35,206,208,239,256,283–5,325,327–30,343,358JewishMuseum(Berlin)248Jinarajadasa,Curuppumullage193Joachimstal(Jáchymov)(CzechRepublic)165JoanMiróFoundation(Barcelona)95John(England)69Johnson,Philip297–8,302Johnson,Samuel344–5Joliot-Curie,Frédéric169Joliot-Curie,Irène166Jones,David315Josephine(France)144,318JuliusII(Pope)272

Kapoor,Anish314

Keats,John113,125Kelvin,LordseeThomson,WilliamKhokhlov,Nikolai189Kiefer,Anselm219–23KingRichardII(Shakespeare)234King’sCollegeLondon210,387Kipling,Rudyard208Kirchhoff,Gustav179,187Klaproth,Martin328,329Klondike(Yukon)26Kobold308–9Koons,Jeff304Köping(Sweden)354Korea219krypton86,333,334Kubrick,Stanley138KunstformenderNatur(Haeckel)194

LadyChatterley’sLover(Lawrence)66Lafarge,Marie314,320Lambert,Constant255Lambert,Maurice254,255‘Lamia’(Keats)113,125lampblack269,313,343Lamy,Claude-Auguste187Lancaster,Ron182–6,187lanthanum359,367LasCasas,Bartoloméde20LasVegas340–41TheLateGeorgeApley(Marquand)337–8Laue,Maxvon27Laughlin,Zoe210,211,387Laurionmine(Greece)232Lavoisier,Antoine116,136,159,354,376

analysesofwaters150andchlorine134andoxygen152–4,371andPriestley151

listofsimplesubstances154–5,178,266,392LawnmowerMan(film)305Lawrence,D.H.66lawrencium393lead7,8,9,12,75,78,91,165,170,207,209,211,229,238–9,252,288,296,

314,362,395andalchemy98,221andfortune-telling213–17,219andgravity11,212–13,279asoneoftheancientmetals31,51,103,227,246,250,278,286dullappearance205,213,223printers’type217,218–19shot217–18,315

Leadbeater,Charles193–7Leadville(Colorado)350Lebanon199LecoqdeBoisbaudran,Paul-Emile84,85,376–7,380Leeds149Léger,Fernand337Lehrer,Tom10,391Leibniz,Gottfried115Levantmine(Cornwall)203Levi,Primo204,209,212Lewes,GeorgeHenry114LibertyBell212Libeskind,Daniel240,250,251lighting

gas172,366,389–90gasdischarge331sodium11,173–6

‘LiliMarleen’(song)172LilleUniversity187Lincoln,Abraham244Lindbergh,Charles262Linnaeus,Carl342,369,375lithium179,180,187Litvinenko,Alexander189Liverpool,Lord145Lockyer,Norman192–3,197

Locock,Charles141Loewy,Raymond255Loireriver200Lolita(Nabokov)304,342London37,47,56,60,61,66,70,149,150,152,164,181,187,189,236,241,

242,312,349,350,351,354,380LondonUniversity193seealsoUniversityCollegeLondonLongwoodHouse(StHelena)316–18LosAlamos(NewMexico)75LosAngeles174,282,303,337LouisXIV(France)348LouisXVI(France)115LouisianaMuseum(Denmark)55,220LouvreMuseum(Paris)144,257Lovelock,James389Luce,ClareBoothe318LunarSociety123,125,128Lundgren,Anders355–6,358,380lutetium359Lynn,Vera267

Maastricht173MadameBovary(Flaubert)154,320Madrid33,95,241Magdeburg235MagnaCarta67magnalium184,264–5magnesia178magnesium57,58,59,166,178,180,184,264,265,284,332,367,382Mahler,Gustav368Malaypeninsula199manganese159,292,307,312,314,350,354,379ManhattanProject73,75,82,171,393MarcusAntonius275–6Marienbad(CzechRepublic)166Marignac,JeanCharlesGalissardde376Marquand,JohnP.337–8Mars(planet)44,50–52,55

Marshall,Jenny380Marshall,Jim380Martinón-Torres,Marcos100Masefield,John8,11,18Mason,Brian379Mataloni,Giovanni366Matisse,Henri8,289McBride,Michael196McCarthy,Mary262McGough,Roger156McLean,Don226McMillan,Ed73,74MedinaAzahara(Spain)95Meijerink,Andries361,364Meissen310Meitner,Lise72,396meitnerium396Melancholia(Kiefer)221MelencoliaI(Dürer)222Melville,Herman269,271MenaiStraitsuspensionbridge53Mencken,H.L.260Mendeleev,Dmitrii81–2,87–90

andtheperiodictable3,71,82–6,89,192,334,392–3,395,398Mendeleeva,Liubov’Dmitrievna87mendelevium90,374Menghini,Vincenzo49–50TheMerchantofVenice(Shakespeare)6,215mercury5,85,89,90–98,151,174,177,178,183,211,337,378,395

asoneoftheancientmetals31,51,227andalchemy46,98–100andsulphur98–102,345

Mercury(planet)51MercuryFountain(Calder)94–6Mesopotamia46Metamorphoses(Ovid)301Mexico18,232,324MexicoCity324Michelangelo271–4

Midas24,28MiesvanderRohe,Ludwig299Milton,John28,104,330minesandmining23,66–7,203,353,356,378–81,384–6seealsonamedmines‘TheMinesofFalun’(Hoffmann)49MinterneMagna(Dorset)62Moby-Dick(Melville)269Moholy-Nagy,László298molybdenum60–61,202,260,350,379Monet,Claude289,312monetarystandards17,76,330–31Montand,Yves252Monterey(California)321,323MontezumaII18Montgolfierbrothers153More,Thomas17,148Morelle,Mike379Morgan,John81Morris,William319Morse,Samuel242,244Mosander,Carl360,363Moscow87,349Moses(Michelangelo)273Moss,Kate13–15,26Muiscapeople19Mullineaux,Alison134MuseumofModernArt(NewYork)297MusicfortheRoyalFireworks(Handel)181

Nabokov,Vladimir12,304,342Naples68,323NapoleonI(France)34,68,144,177,246,372

possiblearsenicpoisoningof315–18NapoleonIII(France)256–7,259,263NationalPortraitGallery(London)254nationalisminelementnaming2,7,162,363,376–7,396–7NaturalHistory(PlinytheElder)200,275NaturalHistoryMuseum(London)201,322,387

NaturalSelection(Gormley)222Nausea(Sartre)173Naxos220nebulium192,195Nectoux,Thierry252–3Needham,Joseph94TheNeedles(IsleofWight)267Nefertiti276Nelson,Horatio231neodymium359,366,376neon9,86,174,176,259

discovery333–4usedforlighting335–42

TheNeonBible(Toole)338Neptune(planet)73neptunium73Netherland(O’Neill)174TheNetherlands173,310NewAtlantis(Bacon)148NewGranada34,39NewGranadaseealsoSpanishNewWorldNewHaven(Connecticut)320NewYorkCity174,211,255,259,262,287,337–8NewZealand16,245Newton,Henry296Newton,Isaac6,53,346,381Niagara(ship)243–4NicholasI(Russia)85NicholasNickleby(Dickens)106Nicholson,Ben274nickel4,44,46,298–9Niépce,JosephNicéphore235Nilson,Lars7,85,355Niobe284niobium7,284–6,379nitrogen25,86,129,135,154,195,269,332,334,336NobelInstitute(Stockholm)25NobelPrize25,27–8,81,86,129,161,163,164,170,334Nobel,Alfred385

nobelium374noblegasesseeinertgasesNormandie(ship)299NorthTexasUniversity380Norway96,351Norwich268,293–4nuclearwaste76,79nuclearweapons11,76,79,138,168,174,222

OakRidgeNationalLaboratory(Tennessee)79OccultChemistry(BesantandLeadbeater)193occultum193,195–6Odysseus106,137offerings,sacredandvotive13,18,19,20,92,223Oganessian,Yuri397–8‘TheOldLie’(Owen)131–2Olentzero68OlympicGames35O’Neill,Joseph174Ophir18Orfila,Mathieu320Orphée(film)90–92Orpheus1,90–92,221Orvieto271Orwell,George66osmium2,9,33,40,42,59–60,368Ovid301Owen,Wilfred131–3oxidation106,159–60,222,292seealsocombustionoxygen1,61,64,86,106,120

andanti-oxidants154,158andoxidation159–60andphlogiston153–4componentofacids134–5,150,152componentofwater147–9,153effectofonplantsandanimals123necessaryforlife155–8therapy156–7

‘Oxygen’(McGough)156ozone86,158seealsooxygenozonelayer136,147

ThePaleHorse(Christie)186–9palladium7,37,4–43,59Panama109,110Pantheon(Rome)237,271Panthéon-SorbonneUniversity(Paris)101Paolozzi,Eduardo302Paracelsus247ParadiseLost(Milton)28,104,330Paris96,101,137,143–4,151,161–2,164,167,170,171,212,251–2,256,

262,302,305,307,324,337,349,350,351,354,362,376,380ParisGreen185Parker,Cornelia12,230–31TheParthenon(Athens)271Pasadena(California)180Pathfinder(spacecraft)51Patterson,Simon1Paxton,Joseph54Peary,Robert45Pendennis(Thackeray)182Pepys,Samuel125Perey,Marguerite170–71ThePerfectWagnerite(Shaw)26periodictable1–3,8–11,55–6,59,71,78,81,171,197,222,227,284,323,

326,332,351,359,362,376–7andMendeleev81–6,88–9,192,334recentadditionsto392–5,398

Perriand,Charlotte255Persia51,232,307,309–10Peru18–19,327PetertheGreat(Russia)88pewter207,255,262,304seealsotinPhidias271,274Philadelphia212Philippines18

phlogiston153–4seealsooxygenPhoenicians199–201,270,286phosphorus136,151,154,389–90

and‘phosphorescence’113andhumanspontaneouscombustion114andincendiaryweapons126–8isolationfromurine115–23,124

Phosphorus(morning‘star’)112Picasso,Pablo94,267pigments8,93,96,185,270,286–97,307–16,344,381seealsonamed

pigmentsPikesPeak(Colorado)157Pissarro,Camille312pitchblende161–3,169–70Pizarro,Francisco18–19Pizarro,Gonzalo19platina32,34,39,41,42platinum59,258,260,349

asmorevaluedthangold29–30,34–7‘theeighthmetal’31inproductbrands9jewellery29malleableform32–4,38–43

PlatinumBlonde(film)30PlinytheElder16,17,25,200,201,275Pluto(planet)74plutonium8,160,394

andnuclearwaste77–8,292demonizationof76,350homoeopathic79–81synthesis70,73–6,392usedinnuclearweapons11,79,221

Plymouth(Devon)107,144,310Poland2,161,208,397Polk,James22Pollock,Jackson290polonium2,7,162,163,169,189,362,363ThePoolofLondon(Derain)312PortonDown(Wiltshire)293

Post,Emily304Poston,David276–7,279,283potassium2,135,177,179,180,266,379,392praseodymium359,366,376Prévert,Jacques252Priestley,Joseph123,149–52,153,155,158,160promethium59,71,359–60Prouvé,Jean263PuertoRico20,300

QinShiHuang(China)92–3Quarles,Francis112quartz21,22,3–7,328,379,384–5Quinn,Marc14–15TheQur’an43Rabbit(Koons)305radiationsickness81,164,168RadioCityMusicHall(NewYork)261radioactivityandradioactiveelements2,3,59,71,72,76,78,80,86,160–62,

164–5,167,170–71,189,192,221,292,334,349,360,368,386–7,391–3radium59,362

dangersof168–9inproductbrands9,160,166–8,170,171isolation162–3usedincancertreatment164–5

Radium(USA)165RadiumInstitute(Paris)167,169RadiumResearchInstitute(Vienna)167RadiumSprings(USA)165Radiumbad(Germany)165radon165–6,167,334Raedwald47Rain,Steam,andSpeed(Turner)54Ralegh,Walter19Ramsay,William71,85–6,164,192,195,197,331–5,339,349,360,391Randall,James134rareearths350,357,359–62,363,367–8,373–4,376,378,387,389seealso

namedelements

Ravenna68Rayleigh,Lord332Reagan,Ronald174RedStudio(Matisse)289reduction106,159seealsooxidationRenan,Ernest363RenishawHall(Derbyshire)254Revelation103,112,343Revere,Paul240DasRheingold(Wagner)25–6,49,211rhenium2Rhineriver25–6,27,150rhodium41–2,59TheRingCycleseeDasRheingold(Wagner)TheRingsofSaturn(Sebald)113Rio,AndrésManueldel324,326TheRiteofSpring(Stravinsky)336TheRoadHome(Tremain)208–9TheRoadtoWiganPier(Orwell)66RoberttheBruce(Scotland)213Roberts,Edward61RobinHood67–8Robinson,KimStanley174–5Roche,CharlesFrançoisdela235Rodin,Auguste212roentgenium397RomanEmpireandRomans11,17,52,53,165,166,205,220,232,234,266,

271,275–6,286,307,361Romanmythology50,74,222Rome236,237,272,366Röntgen,Wilhelm397DerRosenkavalier(Strauss)223–4,226Ross,John45RoughingIt(Clemens)22RoyalCollegeofChemistry(London)187RoyalInstitution(London)69,176RoyalSociety(London)38,40,42,66,118,125,144,177,187,188,244,334,

370rubidium179–80

ruby327–9Ruggieri,Claude-Fortuné185Ruscha,Ed341Ruskin,John54–5,135,159Russia34,86,351,386,397seealsoSovietUnionrust54–5,151,159,207seealsoironruthenium59Rutherford,Ernest82rutherfordium393

SaintAugustine113StDenis(nearParis)305–7StHelena315–17StMichael’sMount(Cornwall)204StMichaelis(Hamburg)114,127StPaul’s(London)236–9,246StPetersburg82,88StPetersburg(Russian)AcademyofSciences81,85,87Sala,Angelo235Salisbury(Wiltshire)294Salva,Francisco241samarium359,362,373–7Samarsky,Vasili373,374,375–6,378SandwichIslands(Hawaii)110SantaClaus68sapphire306,328Sardisriver24Sargent,JohnSinger132Sartre,Jean-Paul12,173Satie,Erik336Saxony85,165,179,308,310,311Scandinavia349,351,355,374scandium7,85,349,351,355,359Scheele,Carl125,134,136,151–2,159,316,352,353,354,355,369Scheele’sgreen316Schinkel,KarlFriedrich246,247–8,250Schönberg,Arnold249,251Schulze,JohannHeinrich235

Schweppe,Jacob150ScienceMuseum(London)3,4Scilly,Islesof201,202,204Scoop(Waugh)250‘TheScythians’(Blok)87Seaborg,Glenn70–76,78,89–90,392,393–4,396,398seaborgium393–4Sebald,W.G.113TheSecretAgent(Conrad)172Seelig,Moritz247–8Sefström,Nils324–6,329selenium358,371,389Self,Will174Sella,Andrea211,250,380Selters(Seltz)(France)150Sendivogius,Michael120Sennett,Richard279Serra,Richard55Severnriver53,311Shakespeare,William7,9,156,209,215,232,234,268Shanghai300Shaw,GeorgeBernard26,164$he(Hamilton)303Shelley,Mary155Shelley,Percy156Shillito,AnnMarie283–5Shiva47AShortHistoryofNearlyEverything(Bryson)258Siena271,313silicon8,53,66,85,371silver2,4,9,29,38,51,89,98,203,205

andphotography234–6andsocialclass223–4andtarnish228–31ascoin7,17,165,231–3asoneoftheancientmetals31,103,227,250,278associationwithfemininity11,46,224–6highreflectivityof227inChristianliturgy206,233–4

inrelationtogoldandplatinum18–19,20,23,31–3,35–6,215–16SimaQian92–3Simpson,Wallis29,35,37TheSimpsons(televisionseries)78Siren(Quinn)13–15Sitwell,Edith253–5Sitwell,Osbert254SketchesbyBoz(Dickens)182Sklodowska,Marie161seealsoCurie,Mariesmaltandsmaltite307–12,352‘Smatrold’(Grieg)309smithsandsmithery26,32,46,48–9,206,207,208,211,218,228–9,233,256,

279,298,327SmithsonianInstitution(Washington,DC)379Snow,C.P.371TheSnowsofKilimanjaro(Hemingway)139sodium2,7,11,146,256,259,266,

isolationof176–8,179monochromaticspectrumof121,180,187,191streetlighting172–6,208,350usedinfireworks180,182,184

Sondheim,Stephen300Sontag,Susan235SorbonneUniversity(Paris)101,161,363SouthAfrica173Southey,Robert178SovietUnion138spawaters54,150,165–6Spain18–21,32–4,38,94–5,145,183–4,199,200,201,211,232SpanishNewWorld18,20,32–4,38,39,232,239spectraandspectroscopy7,51,84,179–80,187,190–93,197,332–4,358,361,

362,392,394Spenser,Edmund330SpiritofStLouis(aeroplane)262Stalin,Josef47StanfordUniversity323Stannard,Mary320‘TheSteadfastTinSoldier’(Andersen)206steel45–8,52–5,60,208,210,222,227,255,261,280–83,299,300,305,323,

369seealsoiron

Stein,Gertrude252Steinbeck,John29,321–2,323Stephenson,Robert53Stockholm25,71,151,325,326,349,351–4,355,363,371,372,374,379,380,

381,382,396StolenThunder(Parker)230–31Strabo18,200,201Strasbourg218Stratton,Winfield23Strauss,Richard223,225Stravinsky,Igor274,336AStreetcarNamedDesire(Williams)139Stromeyer,Friedrich287–8,292strontia178,179Strontian(Argyllshire)202,350,380strontium178,182,184,202,350,361Suger,Abbot306–7Suijver,Freek361,364sulphur4,37,48,62,110–12,125,130,136,151,154,186,228,358,361,371,

382andbacteria107,110andmercuryreaction97–100,102asdisinfectant105–6,137associationwiththeDevil76,103–5,350inalchemy47,345infoods106–7

Sulphur(ship)107–11Sulphur(Oklahoma)350‘SuruneLanterne’(Satie)336SuttersFort(California)22SuttonHoo(Suffolk)47–8Swann,Donald371Sweden11,49,72,151,242,349–59,363,371,379,380,387seealso

Stockholm,Uppsala,YtterbySwedishAcademyofSciences(Stockholm)27,151,373‘Sylva’(Evelyn)66Syria199Szydlo,Andrew120–23

Taínopeople20Talbot,WilliamFox236Tandy,Peter388tantalum260,284–6,355,374,379Tantalus284Tawell,John241technetium71Telford,Thomas53tellurium71–2,187,358,380TheTempest(Shakespeare)268Tenerife109Tennant,Smithson39–42,329Tennyson,Alfred113Tenochtitlan(Mexico)18Tepitapa(Nicaragua)110terbium349,359,374,386Terminator2(film)305TerreVert287,313Thackeray,William182,185thallium186–90,195Thamesriver120,148Thatcher,Margaret47,156TheTheoryoftheLeisureClass(Veblen)16,257TheThinker(Rodin)212Thomas,Nicolas101Thompson,Francis156Thompson,HunterS.340Thomson,James53Thomson,William243–5Thor326thorium168,326,367–8,371TheThreeCaliforniasseeGoldCoast(Robinson)Thule374thulium349,355,359,374tin51,85,98,219,227,252–3,279,286,375

andbronze204–5andpewter207

asoneoftheancientmetals31,103,227,246,250,278ascheap11,207–9,263casting4,205–6mines201–4Phoeniciansourcesof199–201soundworldof209–12

TinMen(film)263titanium7,60,85,184,280–83,286

asproductbrand9usedincraft276–85

Titian307Tokyo158Tonbridge(Kent)61Toole,JohnKennedy338Topolino272ATourthoughEnglandandWales(Defoe)237transuraniumelements90,351,360seealsonamedelementsTravers,Morris332–4,335,391Tremain,Rose208TheTriumphalChariotofAntimony(Valentine)345–6TunbridgeWells(Kent)54,79,81tungsten4,32,57,58,60,174,202,284,373Turgenev,Ivan82Turkey199Turku(Finland)373,378Turner,J.M.W.54Turnworth(Dorset)62Tutenkhamun13,276Twain,Mark22–3,385seealsoClemens,Samueltypemetal217–19seealsolead

Uffingtonwhitehorse267Ulysses(Joyce)253Underworld(DeLillo)304UnitedStatesofAmerica71,78,184,225,242,247,260,290,330–31,336,

342,350UniversityCollegeLondon100,138,211,311,335UntoThisLast(Ruskin)135

Uppsala349,352–5,363UppsalaUniversity355,363uranium7,56,71,78,161–2,163,292,324,349,372,386,387,389

andtheatomicbomb11,76,221andnuclearreactions72–3,394,396,397andglass12,78,165

Uranus(planet)372Uravan(Colorado)324UrbanVIII(Pope)237Utopia(More)17,148UtrechtUniversity56,361,364

Valentia(Ireland)244–5Valentine,Basil345,346vanderKrogt,Peter56vanGogh,Vincent226,289,290vanRuisdael,Jacob137Vanadis325–7vanadium323–6,329Vancouver97,245Vasari,Giorgio273–4Västmanland(Sweden)353–4,378Vauquelin,Nicolas-Louis298,324,327–9,372Vaxholm(Sweden)386Veblen,Thorstein15–16,21,257Venel,Gabriel150Venezuela19Venice309Venturi,Robert341Venus(planet)112verdigris151,180,286,316Vergara(Spain)32Vermilion93,100,287,291,319seealsomercuryVerrazzano,Giovannida239Vertesi,Janet124Victoria(UnitedKingdom)141,182,242,245VictoriaandAlbertMuseum(London)228Vienna167,366,368

Viking(spacecraft)51‘Vincent’(song)226VirginiaCity(Nevada)23Viridian287Volta,Alessandro155,240Voltaire19,21vulcanization112

Wagner,Richard25–6,49,211Waldron,Peter296Wallerius,Johan355Walpole,Horace181WaltDisneyConcertHall(LosAngeles)282Walton,William253,255Warsaw130,161Washington,DC258,265,279Washington,George258–9TheWasteLand(Eliot)7,253Watt,James123,137Waugh,Evelyn250,298WaylandseeWielandWedgwood,Josiah124Weider,Ben315Weimar298,302Wellington,Lord,the‘IronDuke’47Wells,H.G.73Welsbach,BaronvonseeAuer,CarlWestSideStory(Bernstein)300WestminsterAbbey213,242Wheatstone,Charles241–2Whitby,Max56–61,386TheWhiteHouse(Washington,DC)265,267Wichita(Kansas)262Wickens,Obadiah61WielandtheBlacksmith48,49Willamettemeteorite44–5Williams,Tennessee139Windsor,DuchessofseeSimpson,Wallis

Winkler,Clemens7,85Winsor&Newton287,296–7,320Winsor,William296TheWizardofOz(film)331Wöhler,Friedrich325–6Wolfe,Tom341Wollaston,WilliamHyde38–43Womack,Robert23TheWonderfulWizardofOz(Baum)206,330TheWoodlanders(Hardy)61–2TheWorldSetFree(Wells)73Wren,Christopher236–8,246,247Wright,David204Wright,FrankLloyd281Wright,Joseph117,123–4Wright,Russel262

xenon86,174,334Xi’an(China)92X-rayanalysis27,212,319,388X-rays161,193,397

YaleUniversity196Yangtzeriver93Young,Graham189–90Ypres(Belgium)129–30,133–4ytterbiteseegadoliniteytterbium359,374,386Ytterbymine349,373–4,378–86,388yttria373–4yttrium351,359,374,375,378,379,386,388

Zeus284Zimbabwe18zinc10,37,154,182,185,209,279,288,292,349,395

andstatuary246–8bars252–3usedinbatteries5,155,176,240,245

usedinbuilding248–50usedincoffins251

zircon328zirconium329,344,379Zola,Emile66

Acknowledgements

ItmusthavebeenAndreaSellawhoprovidedthesparkthatlitthefuseforthisbookafewyearsagowhenhedrewmyattentiontothecuriousfactthateurobanknotesrelyupontheelementeuropiumfortheirsecuritymarkings.Thefusewaslaidlongago,however,atatimewhenitwashardlyconsidereddecenttoexploreconnectionsbetweenthesciencesandthearts.Ithankmyteachers,andespeciallyMikeMorelleandAndrewSzydlo,forencouragingthetransgressionthathasledtothispresentexplosion.MybrotherJohnsharpenedmemoriesoftheseschooltimes.

GreatthanksgotomyliteraryagentAntonyToppingatGreene&Heaton,whosawthattherewasadifferentbooktobewrittenabouttheelementsandbelievedthatIcouldwriteit.IamimmenselygratefultoVenetiaButterfieldatVikingPenguinforcommissioningsuchaself-indulgentproject,andtohercolleagueswhopitchedinwiththeirownexamplesoftheelementsinliterature,andtoSaraGrangeratPenguinandAndrewCochraneatClays,theprinterofthisbook,whoevenlookedintotheoriginsofnew-booksmellforme.GrantGibson,theeditorofCraftsmagazine,commissionedanarticlethatenabledmetorehearsesomeofthethemesIexplorehere.MyeditorWillHammondintroducedme–toolate,obviously–totheterm‘inkhorn’,andthentookthetimetoseethatIdidn’tcomeacrossasone.MycopyeditorDavidWatsonskilfullysparedmeotherblushes.

Iwouldalsoliketothankthosewriters,artists,craftspeople,curators,scientists,historiansofscienceandotherswhosharedsomeaspectofmyfascinationwiththeelements:SantiagoAlvarez,MaritéAmrani,PaolaAntonelli,PeterArmbruster,KenArnoldandJamesPetoandLisaJamiesonattheWellcomeCollection,London,PeterAtkins,FionaBanner,PaolaBarbarino,FionaBarclay,GeoffreyBatchen,BernadetteBensaude-Vincent,JimBettle,MichaelBierut,LaurenBloemsmaoftheTellurideHistoricalMuseum,HasokChang,DavidClarke,OleCorneliussenandYankoTihovandthosebehindthecounteratCornelissen’sartists’supplier,AmeliaCourtauld,MalcolmCrowe,AlwynDavies,IgorDmitriev,JohnDonaldson,DarbyDyar,whodescribedthespectroscopicinspectionofthesurfaceofMars,MatthewEaglesandSimonCornwell,enthusiastsforsodiumstreetlamps,MichelleElligott,RichardEmmanuel-Eastes,MarthaFleming,HjalmarFors,KatieGeorge,IreneGil

Catalina,VictoriaGlendinning,LishaGlinsman,whodiscoveredthatitwasleadthatgaveRodin’sThinkerhisbottom,AntonyGormley,ClareGrafikatthePhotographers’Gallery,KarlGrandinandAnnedeMallerayattheRoyalSwedishAcademyofSciences,CarolGrissom,DomingoGutierrez,themayorofBoron,California,EvaCharlotteandLutzHaber,HansdeHeij,JulianHenderson,RichardHerrington,KateHodgson,ErikaIngham,FrankJamesattheRoyalInstitutionofGreatBritain,DavidJollieandKeithWhiteatJohnsonMatthey,GraemeJones,JohnJostoftheInternationalUnionofPureandAppliedChemistry,ChrisKnight,SusanneKuechler,PeterLachmann,CharlesLambert,RonLancaster,PetraLange-Berndt,AndersLundgren,ClareMaddisonofContemporaryAppliedArts,JimMarshall,MarcosMartinón-Torres,PaulineMeakins,AndrewMeharg,AndriesMeijerink,AnneMellowsattheMuseumofBrands,London,JacquelineMina,MarkMiodownik,ZoeLaughlinandMartinConreen,keepersofthematerialslibraryatKing’sCollegeLondon,JohnMorgan,AndrewMotion,TessaMurdoch,ThierryNectoux,MargaretNewmanattheRoyalNavalMuseum,whotoldmeaboutthevariousshipsSulphur,WilliamNewman,PatiNúñez,PeterOakley,YuriOganessian,CorneliaParker,TimParks,SimonPatterson,DavidPoston,PekkaPyykko,RennyRamakers,JeffreyRiegel,CharlotteSchepke,AnnMarieShillito,thelateSirReresbySitwell,HansStofer,FreekSuijver,CamillaSundvall,GrainneSweeneyandAlexEvansattheNationalGlassCentre,Sunderland,PeterTandy,NicolasThomas,JanTrofast,JanetVertesi,LubaVikhanski,PeterWaldronandPaulRobinsonandthestaffofWinsor&Newton,JoWarburton,MartijnWerts,Gull-BrittWesslund,MaxWhitby,GavinWhittaker,DavidWright.

MythanksarealsoduetothestaffoftheCambridgeUniversityLibrary,theverydesignofwhichdoessomuchtofacilitatethekindofboundary-crossingexplorationIhaveattempted.JohnEmsley’smagisterialNature’sBuildingBlockswasneverfarfrommyside,andanumberofwebsites,notablythosemaintainedbyPetervanderKrogtandTheodoreGray,furnishedmewithadditionalbackground.

Aboveall,IthankmywifeMoiraandsonSam,whoofferedencouragementandshowedthegreatestenthusiasmforthisoddandwonderfulproject.

HughAldersey-WilliamsNorfolk,June2010

AbouttheAuthor

HUGHALDERSEY-WILLIAMSistheauthorofnumerousbooksonarchitecture,design,andscience,includingPanicologyandTheMostBeautifulMolecule,whichwasafinalistfortheLosAngelesTimesBookPrize.HelivesinNorfolk,England.

Visitwww.AuthorTracker.comforexclusiveupdatesaboutyourfavoriteauthors.

OtherBooksbyHughAldersey-Williams

BritishDesignPanicology(withSimonBriscoe)

Zoomorphic

Findings

TheMostBeautifulMoleculeWorldDesign

NewAmericanDesign

Credits

JacketdesignbyAlisonFornerJacketillustrationCourtesyofMaryEvansPictureLibrary

Copyright

PERIODICTALES.Copyright©2011byHughAldersey-Williams.AllrightsreservedunderInternationalandPan-AmericanCopyrightConventions.Bypaymentoftherequiredfees,youhavebeengrantedthenon-exclusive,non-transferablerighttoaccessandreadthetextofthise-bookon-screen.Nopartofthistextmaybereproduced,transmitted,down-loaded,decompiled,reverseengineered,orstoredinorintroducedintoanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,inanyformorbyanymeans,whetherelectronicormechanical,nowknownorhereinafterinvented,withouttheexpresswrittenpermissionofHarperCollinse-books.

Firstpublishedin2011byViking,animprintofPenguinBooksLtd,London.

FIRSTU.S.EDITION

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDatahasbeenappliedfor.

EPubEdition©FEBRUARY2011ISBN:978-0-06-207881-0

1112131415

AboutthePublisher

AustraliaHarperCollinsPublishers(Australia)Pty.Ltd.25RydeRoad(P.O.Box321)Pymble,NSW2073,Australiahttp://www.harpercollinsebooks.com.au

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UnitedKingdomHarperCollinsPublishersLtd.77-85FulhamPalaceRoadLondon,W68JB,UKhttp://www.harpercollinsebooks.co.uk

UnitedStatesHarperCollinsPublishersInc.10East53rdStreetNewYork,NY10022http://www.harpercollins.com

*Theanswerisindium.

*Almostcertainly.Ilearnfromtheprintersofthisbookthatchlorinewillprobablynothavebeenusedforbleachingthepaper,andthatevenifitwas,therewouldbenoresidualodouronthepages.Curiously,though,youmaystillbeabletocatchawhiffofthebattlefieldhere:recentFinnishresearchhassuggestedthatthedistinctive‘newbook’smellmayarisefromhexanal,anorganicby-productofthepaper-makingprocess,which,likephosgene,smellsofnew-mowngrass.

*DeReMetallicawasn’tsuccessfullytranslatedintoEnglishuntil1912,thejobfinallydonebytheminingengineerandfutureAmericanpresidentHerbertHooverandhiswife,LouHenry,aLatinscholar.Itseemsfittingtobeabletoreportthatin2014theUSMintwillissueaHerbertHooverdollarcoin.

*Sincewritingthis,Ihavebeeninformedthatthebellwillnotnowfulfilitsdestiny,havingmetanignominiousendwhenitmeltedduringapowercut.

*InFebruary2010,IUPACapprovedthenamecoperniciumaftertheastronomerNicolausCopernicus,whowasbornin1473innorthernPoland,whichwasthenpartofthePrussianConfederation.

Periodic Tales - Web Education

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