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These resource materials were produced with financial assistance from the United Nations Development Project.

PACIFIC ISLAND QUALIFIED FISHING DECKHAND

MODULE 6:

FIBRE ROPES,WIRE ROPES,

CHAIN AND ATTACHMENTS

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

On completion of this module the students should be able to

• List the main construction methods used in making marine fibre ropes.

• Identify the types of fibre used in the construction of marine fibre ropes.

• Measure the size of a wire or fibre rope by diameter.

• Identify the main fibre rope materials used on fishing vessels, including Manila, Nylon, Polyester, Polypropelene and Polyethylene ropes, stating their properties and uses.

• State the dangers associated with the use of nylon ropes.

• Make a price comparison of synthetic rope types.

• List the causes of deterioration of synthetic fibre ropes and describe ways of reducing these.

• Identify signs of deterioration in synthetic fibre ropes.

• Take fibre rope from the coil, large or small, so as to reduce kinking.

• Coil all types of fibre ropes in a manner appropriate to their lay and construction so as to reduce kinking.

• Coil a fibre rope for running.

• Throughfoot a fibre rope to get rid of kinks.

• Hand coil a fibre rope.

• Fake a rope for running.

• Describe how a wire rope is constructed.

• List the steps taken which will increase the working life of a wire rope.

• Inspect wire for deterioration.

• List the safe practices which should be observed when using wire rope.

• Chain etc

MODULE 6 : FIBRE ROPES, WIRE ROPES, CHAIN AND ATTACHMENT ___________________________PAGE 1


CONTENT OUTLINE:

Lesson 6.1

How Fibre Ropes Are Made and What They Are Made Of

Fibre Rope ConstructionLaid-Rope Construction Hard and Soft Laid Rope

Types of Laid RopeBraided Rope Plaited Rope

Fibre TypesStaple FibreMulti (or Continuous) Filament MonofilamentFilm Construction (Split Filament or Fibrillated Tape) Measuring Ropes

Rope MaterialsManilaPolyamide (PA) Commonly called Nylon.Polyester (PS) Commonly called Terylene etc.

Polypropylene (PP)Polyethylene (PE)Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) Commonly called Kuralon

Co-Polymers and Parallel-Filament Ropes

Identifying Rope on Board

Price Comparison of Ropes

PAGE 2 MODULE 6 : FIBRE ROPES, WIRE ROPES, CHAIN AND ATTACHMENTS


Lesson 6.2

How to Handle and Care for Ropes

Causes of Deterioration and Care of RopesOver-Stressing the RopeLight, Temperature, Chemicals and Water

Chafe and KinksAgeing

Various

Inspection of Fibre Rope

Handling Fibre RopeCoiling DownTo Coil a Rope for Running To Coil a Smaller Line in the Hand

To Throughfoot a Laid Rope To Fake Out a Rope

Lesson 6,3

Wire Ropes Chains and Attachments

Construction of Wire Ropes

Care of Wire Ropes

Inspection of Wire Ropes

Safety When Handling Wire Rope

Chain and Chain HardwareChain

Chain Attachments and Hardware

MODULE 6 : FIBRE ROPES, WIRE ROPES, CHAIN AND ATTACHMENT .PAGE 3


Lesson 6.1How Fibre Ropes ore Made and What They are Made of

FIBRE ROPE CONSTRUCTION

Fibre ropes may be made of natural fibre such as hemp, sisal, maniia, coir, cotton etc., or synthetic (man-made) fibre such as nylon, polyester, polypropelene, polyethylene etc.

Ropes are made of a series of fibre twisted together. There are three main construction types of rope:

Laid rope: where fibre, yarns and strands are consecutively twisted inopposing directions to form a rope.

Braided rope: where a tightly braided outer sleeve covers an inner corewhich can be plaited or laid.

Plaited rope: (Multiplait), this is a type of braided rope which does nothave an outside cover and where the fibre and yarns are twisted as before and the strands (most commonly eight) are then plaited into the rope.

Laid Rope Construction

Laid ropes continue to be the most common construction for fibre ropes in use on fishing boats. The formation of laid ropes depends on ‘tw ist’. Single fibres are twisted up into yams which are then twisted into strands. These in turn are twisted or, “ laid", to form the complete rope.

Fibre ------ Yam s-------- Strands ------ Rope.

If all of these were twisted in the same direction the rope would tend to unlay when it was pulled tight. To stop this happening and give the rope stability each step in the above process is twisted in the opposite direction to the last step. Friction and the inclination of each part to uniay in different directions holds the others in place.

PAGE 4 _________________________ MODULE 6 : FIBRE ROPES, WIRE ROPES, CHAIN AND ATTACHMENTS


Figure 6.1 shows the type of laid rope in most common usage. This is three- strand, right-hand lay. From the diagram you will observe that the strands go round each other to the right. The individual strands of this rope are twisted in the opposite direction, being made up of yarns turning over to the left. Finally the yams are made up of fibres which are twisted to the right. Thus the stability of the rope is maintained.

To determine the direction of twist, look along the length of the rope (strand or yarn) and it will be apparent that the strand yarn or fibre will be turning either to the left (left-hand or 2-twist) or to the right (right-hand or s-twist).

Although right-hand laid rope is most common it is possible to have rope made up left-handed.

MODULE 6 : FIBRE ROPES, WIRE ROPES, CHAIN AND ATTACHMENT___________________________ PAGE 6

Figure 6.1 Construction of a Three-Stranded, Right-Hand Laid Rope


Figure 6.2 Right-Hand (Z-Twist) and Left-Hand (S-Twist) Laid Rope

Hard and Soft Laid Rope

If rope is twisted up very tightly it is said to have a “hard” or “short” lay. On the other hand if it is loosely twisted up it is said to have a “soft” or “ long" lay. Hard laid rope will not be as pliable as soft laid rope and its breaking strain will be reduced for its weight but it will be more inclined to keep its shape and is not so liable as soft laid rope to absorb water.

The lay can be measured by comparing the distance along the rope between two recurring points on the same strand. This distance is called the jaw.

Figure 6.3 Measuring the “Jaw”

When the rope has just enough twist to combine pliability, strength and ability to withstand hard working conditions it is said to be of standard or plain lay and this is the most common form of lay in use.



TYPES OF LAID ROPE

The most common rope in usage is 3-strand right-hand lay and the general name for this is “Hawser laid” rope* Variations on this configuration are named as follows:-

Shroud Laid Rope has four strands laid up right-handed.

Cable Laid Rope has three hawser laid ropes laid up right handed forming a total of nine strands. This is sometimes called “Water Laid”.

Warp Laid Rope is cable laid rope where the first and final lays are veryhard.

Unkinkable lay is rope which is specially made for lifeboat falls. Theyarns are twisted in the same direction as the strands. This stops spiralling of the rope when the weight comes off as the lifeboat hits the water.

Braided Rope

Braided rope is rope where the strands are not twisted together but cross and re-cross each other in a diagonal and close pattern. This method gives a round tube of rope which has a hole in the middle. Less expensive ropes may have only this outside cover while most others will have the centre filled by a core of untwisted or slightly twisted or plaited yarns.

Figure 6.4 Braided Rope



There are two types of braid construction:

Tubular or Round Braid and

Solid or American Braid.

It is difficult to tell these braids apart. Solid braids are used for smaller sizes only. Braided ropes are generally high-quality ropes and are expensive in comparison with laid ropes of the same size. Except for specialist uses such as codend ropes or zippers, they are not in common use on fishing boats. They are commonly used on yachts. Plaited ropes are hard wearing, do not kink and are soft on the hands.

Plaited Ropes

Plaited rope, or multiplait as it is often called, is a type of braided rope where the strands are thicker leaving little space in the middle of the rope. The rope has a plaited rather than a braided appearance. The most common plaited rope has eight strands. These are plaited together two-over-two and two-under-two in pairs with two sets of pairs being Z-twist and the other two sets of pairs being S-twist.

Eight-strand multiplait rope is usually only made in larger sizes over 18mm diameter. Compared with similar size laid rope multipiait rope has the advantages of being very flexible, not twisting under load, being easy to splice and of not losing its shape even if two strands break. Because it is more difficult to make it is more expensive than laid rope. Although it is difficult to measure the diameter of this type of rope its breaking strength is the same as laid rope weight-for-weight.

Plaited ropes can also be made in 12,24 and 36 strands and these are often used as mooring ropes for deep-water Fish-Aggregating Device (FAD) moorings.

PAGE 8 __________________________ _ MODULE 6 : FIBRE ROPES, WIRE ROPES, CHAIN AND ATTACHMENTS


FIBRE TYPES

Staple Fibre

Before the development of synthetic fibres in the 1950’s all fibres were made from plant materials (natural fibre). The lengths of fibre were relatively short depending on the plant from which it came. Twisting the fibre into yams would mean that the ends of the fibre would stick out from the rope giving It a rough or hairy appearance. How rough or hairy would depend on the softness and length of the fibres being used. This type of fibre is called discontinuous or “staple” fibre. AN natural fibre ropes are made of staple fibre. Occasionally where a synthetic rope requires flexibility or needs to have a non- slippery finish fibres are cut into short lengths and made up in a staple construction (e.g staple nyion used in siinging nets).

Multi (or Continuous) FilamentWith the advent of a synthetic process for making rope it became possible to make fibres which are continuous for the length of the rope. Spinning these fibres together will give a multifilament (continuous filament rope). The filaments in multifilament ropes are very fine, for example a 32 mm nylon rope will be made up of around 600,000 individual continuous filaments. The more filaments the more flexible is the rope. Multifilament ropes are also soft and smooth to the touch.

Monofilament

The classic monofilament is a single strand of clear nyion as used in fishing lines and longlines. However the term also applies to continuous fibres of a larger diameter than those termed multifilament fibre (e.g .1mm and over). Monofilament fibres have a stiff and wiry character and because of this are often called monofilament wires. Ropes made from monofilament wires will not be as flexible as those made from the finer multifilaments nor will they have the same number of filaments.

Film Construction (Split Filament or Fibrillated Tape)It is possible to extrude the synthetic material as a flat tape which when twisted will split along its length into flat fibre. This is obviously an easy and economical way of making rope. The most common material used in film construction is polypropylene.

Measuring RopesThe size of ropes is measured by their diameter in millimetres. This can be done by using a rope gauge or by laying the rope across a rule. With plaited rope it is difficult to get an exact and consistent measure.

.PAGE 9MODULE 6 : FIBRE ROPES, WIRE ROPES, CHAIN AND ATTACHMENT


ROPE MATERIALS

Marine ropes made from natural fibre are now rarely used on board modern fishing vessels and are not covered in this item. Some natural fibres are Manila, Sisal, Coir, Hemp and Cotton.

Synthetic-fibre ropes are firmly established in the fishing industry. Their strength, immunity from rot, mildew, and marine decay combined with low water-absorption and ease of handling when wet or dry have given them huge advantages over natural- fibre ropes.

It is very important a fisherman “knows his ropes” . There are many types of modern ropes each having different characteristics which suit them to different tasks. In orderto choose the best rope forthe job fishermen should have a good understanding of the properties of each of the main types of ropes. For example it would be inconvenient to choose a rope that floats for a job where a sinking rope is required or it would be uneconomic to choose an expensive rope to do a job which can be done equally well by a rope made of cheaper material.

Manila

This is the best of ail natural-fibre ropes, being the least affected by water of all natural-fibre ropes. Its colour is a honey brown, it has a glossy and relatively smooth appearance, but not as smooth as the synthetics. It has 20% stretch before breaking, it is 35% as strong as nylon and sinks in the water.

Polyamide (PA) Commonly called Nylon.

Other trade names are Amilan, Perlon, Anzalon etc.. Its specific gravity (S.G) is 1.14 (sinks). Note the specific gravity of salt water is 1.025 and any rope with a SG above this will be heavier than water and sink. Correspondingly a rope with an SG below this will be lighter than water and will float. Its melting point is 235°. it has 46% stretch before breaking. Nylon was the first man-made fibre to be used for ropes and remains the strongest of the synthetics.

Nylon stretches more than other synthetics which causes internal abrasion as the fibres scissor over each other as it stretches and contracts during hard use.

Nylon multifilament rope has a shiny white appearance and, when new, an oily feel. Monofilament line used for fishing is usually nylon. Nylon is more resistant to external abrasion than polypropylene or polyethylene.



USES * Ocean-going tugs’ tow lines* Anchor warp and light towing warp* Staple nylon for net slinging* Mooring ropes* Braided nylon for jobs where stretch is less im portant than

strength.

DANGERS OF USING NYLONBecause nylon will stretch to almost half its length again before breaking it can cause great harm if it breaks under load. The end will spring back like an elastic band and many people have been injured or killed by nylon rope in these circumstances. Because of its great strength it is often the cleat or the part of the boat to which it is tied which gives way first, again causing damage as it is propelled by the rope.

Polyester (PS) Commonly called Teryiene etc.Other trade names are Teryiene, Dacron, Tetoron, Tergal etc.

Specific Gravity 1.38 (sinks), melting point 265°, 25% stretch before breaking. Polyester was developed after Nylon. It is the second strongest of the synthetic ropes, being around 75 % the strength of Nylon.

Polyester is an excellent all-purpose rope where low stretch and high abrasion- resistance is required. It is durable to sunlight and unaffected by long immersion in the water.

Polyester rope is almost exclusively made from multifilament fibre. It is generally white in colour but can be dyed where different uses are needed e.g. yacht sheets etc.

USES * Lifting Gear and general purpose jobs such as guy ropes on derricks.

* Mooring lines (low abrasion)* Extensively on yachts as halyards and sheets where low stretch

is required* Deep-sea hand fishing lines (e.g. the brand “Super to to ” is a low-

stretch braided polyester line).* Heavy towing.



Polypropylene (PP)Polypropylene has many trade or brand names such as Superfilm, Proplon, Meraklon, Maniine, Polypro, Danafiex etc..

Specific Gravity 0.91 (floats), melting point 165°, 35% stretch before breaking. Polypropylene was developed after Nylon and Polyester as a floating rope was needed, its breaking strength is around 65 % the strength of Nylon.

Polypropylene ropes are widely used as general-purpose ropes on fishing boats. They are inexpensive, and relatively strong. They have moderate abrasion but are adversely affected by sunlight and care must be taken to keep them covered when not in use, especially in tropical conditions. Being the lightest of all the ropes they are very buoyant and because of this make good floating ropes for a wide variety of fishing uses.

Film construction (split filament) of polypropylene fibre is w idely used in Polypropylene ropes (e.g Superfilm). As the tapes when twisted split into irregular fibres this method is much less expensive than multifilament rope construction. Multifilament construction can be used with polypropylene to give a smooth and flexible rope but the cost of this method gives it few advantages (other than floating) over nylon or polyester. Polypropylene monofilament rope is now commonly manufactured. It is less expensive than multifilament but not as cheap as split filament. An example is “ Manline” which is made from embossed polypropylene monofilament fibre. Manline has greater abrasion resistance and strength than film -cons truc tion ropes but is s ligh tly more expensive. Polypropylene fibres are easy to dye and they come in a wide range of colours which have little significance other than the darker colours being less affected by sunlight.

USES * Belly tines in Trawls

* Mooring ropes (plaited)

* Crayfish pot lines

* Dahnlines.



Polyethylene (PE)

Trade names, Courlene, Drylene, Polythene, Nymplex, Etelon etc..

Specific Gravity 0.95 (floats), melting point 120°, 35% stretch before breaking. Polyethylene rope is another floating rope similar to polypropylene. Its strength is close too but not quite as strong as polypropylene. It is made exclusively in monofilament wires and it is slippery and oily to the touch.

Although it has better abrasion qualities than polypropylene it suffers from some disadvantages which limits its use as a general purpose rope. Because of its very low melting point it cannot be used on a surge drum or rope hauler. Friction from those cause heat in the rope causing it quickly to stretch, reduce its breaking strength, melt and break. Polyethylene also suffers from “creep” . This happens when the fibres do not recover their original length after a load is removed. Creep also occurs to a lesser degree with polypropylene. A final disadvantage of polyethylene is its hard and slippery texture making it difficult to splice and tie knots which do not slip,

Polyethylene is inexpensive and has its uses in the fishing industry. In New Zealand it has been used as a staple fibre to make crayfish-pot ropes. For this purpose the fibres are cut into 1.8 to 2 metre lengths and made up as a 3-strand RH lay staple rope. This reduces the shiny effect, gives the rope a hairy feel and makes it more flexible. It also, however, reduces its breaking strength.

Polyethylene is used extensive ly fo r traw l netting, where its s lippe ry characteristics are advantageous and where its buoyancy reduces drag.

USES * Trawl nets and twine

* Water ski ropes

* Small ropes for light work.

Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) Commonly called KuralonOther trade names, Vinylon, Cremona, Manryo, Mevion etc.

Specific Gravity 1.30 (sinks), melting point 225°, low stretch before breaking.

Kuralon is only made in Japan, it has largely been succeeded by the other synthetic ropes. Originally used as a longline rope this use has largely been taken over by monofilament nylon. For general uses polypropylene split fibre and monofilaments are cheaper and better as general-purpose ropes. Kuralon is still occasionally used as a small rope or twine for lashings in combination with polyethylene, eg Trawltex twine.



Co Polymers and Parallel-Filament RopesAdvances in rope construction have resulted in the development of ways of making ropes stronger and more effective while still using the same basic materials.

In parallel-filament ropes the twist is reduced allowing the fibre to be more straight. This gives a greater breaking strength and less stretch. The continuous straight filaments are arranged parallel to each other, compressed into a cylindrical bundle and covered with a plastic jacket which is extruded over the core.

The covering material can be different from the core thus the name co polymer, e.g a core of polyester covered with a sheath of polyethylene combining the low stretch of the core with the cheapness and low abrasion of the sheath. There are several combinations on the market which give different properties and their manufacturers’ specifications should be read before deciding if the rope is suitable for a specific purpose. Initially parallel-fibre ropes were very expensive but more efficient production methods have reduced their cost.

IDENTIFYING ROPE ON BOARD

With experience it becomes possible to identify many kinds of rope from inspection. However, some ropes are very similar in appearance and are more difficult to identify.

We will not be identifying natural fibre individually in this module but as natural fibre is only one third as strong as nylon and can also be seriously weakened by bad care, such as being put away wet, it is important a deckhand can identify it and knows it should not be used for heavy lifting. All natural fibre ropes are of staple construction and thus will have a hairy appearance or feel. Fibre from natural-fibre rope when burnt wiil not melt like synthetics but will char like wood. Natural-fibre ropes are thus easy to identify as a group.

Synthetic-fibre ropes are best identified by separating them firstly into those which float and those which sink. Place some fibre from the rope in water and squeeze them until you are sure all air is removed. If they sink they are either nylon or polyester (they could be Kuralon but as this is less common we will not examine it here). It then is difficult (apart from monofilament which is always nylon) to decide whether they are nylon or polyester because both are usually white in colour and made of fine multifilament fibre. The only way to be certain is to take some filaments and subject them to a burn test. Nylon and polyester both have a high melting point so will burn very hot. When burning, not before, nylon will bum with a white or colourless smoke and have an unpleasant fishy smell. When polyester is alight it will bum with a sooty black smoke and have a perfumed smell. Be careful, the molten fibre will have a temperature of over 200°C and will inflict a nasty burn if touched.



If the fibres float they will be either polypropylene or polyethylene. With practice it is not difficult to teli these apart. Polyethylene is always made up of coarse monofilament wires. It is hard, shiny and has an oily feel. Polypropylene is more flexible and not particularly shiny. If it is a film construction it will be polypropylene.

PRICE COMPARISON OF ROPES

Some materials are more expensive than others and some construction methods more complicated and thus more expensive than others. The table below gives an indication of relative costs only, as costs will vary from country to country. These comparisons reflect the costs for similar lengths of rope having the same breaking strain. (Not similar weights or sizes). They do not reflect the wearing qualities or longevity of particular ropes or constructions.

Table 6.1

Type of Rope. Price

Nylon Laid Rope 100%

Polyester Laid Rope 148%

Polyester Tubular Braid 164%

Polypropylene Laid Rope 31%

Polyethylene Laid Rope 38%

From the above table it can be seen that braided or plaited ropes will be around 12% more in price than laid ropes of the same material and equivalent breaking strain.



Lesson 6.2 How To Handle and

Care for Ropes

CAUSES OF DETERIORATION AND CARE OF ROPES

Unlike natural fibres which rot and are affected by chemical and marine parasites, the use and storage of synthetic-fibre ropes does not present much of a problem. Care should, however, be taken to avoid the following:-

Over-Stressing the Rope

A rope should not be worked continuously above its Safe Working Load (SWL) or be subject to loads dose to its Breaking Strain (BS). When a rope has a load applied it extends its length (stretches). With normal loads it will return to its same length when the weight comes off but where it is continuously overloaded or taken towards its BS it will not return to the same length (creep). It will be longer in length and smaller in diameter so that its SWL will be reduced as will its life expectancy.

Light, Temperature, Chemicals and Water

Sunlight affects all synthetic ropes making the outside fibre brittle. This is particularly significant in smaller diameter ropes where many of the fibres come to the surface. Synthetic-fibre ropes should be kept out of the sunlight where possible. The material most affected is polypropylene. Lighter-coloured ropes are also more affected than darker-coioured ropes.

Ropes melt at varying temperatures and thus should be kept away from excessive heat, if continually surging a synthetic rope on a surge drum it may be necessary to keep it cool by the application of water. Polyethylene ropes should not be subject to heating over 50° and other ropes over 70° C.

Different types of synthetic materials react differently to different types of chemicals (Refer to table 6.2). It is often the practice to tar synthetic ropes either to make them stiffer for a particular job or to protect them from the sunlight. As tars contain phenol and this affects nyion this should be kept in mind if considering tarring nylon.

Water does not affect synthetic ropes nor do marine organisms. These may grow on the rope but can be scrubbed off.

PAGE 16 _________________________ MODULE 6 : FIBRE ROPES, WIRE ROPES, CHAIN AND ATTACHMENTS


Chafe and Kinks

Chafe or abrasion is a major cause of deterioration in ropes. Care should be taken to make sure rope is not unnecessarily dragged over rough surfaces or round sharp, rough bends. In areas where ropes are under constant chafe they should be parcelled with leather or plastic covers or by rope thimbles.

Make sure pulleys or blocks are of adequate size to support the rope. Too small a sheave can cause a laid rope to build up “turn” or spiralling which will cause kinks in laid rope. Kinks, or hockles, developed when the rope is pulled tight, will distort and squeeze the fibre causing a significant loss in breaking strain at that part of the rope. Kinking can also be created by turning a rope around a winch-barrel always in the same direction or by sudden release from heavy loads. Kinking is not a problem with braided or plaited ropes.

Ageing

Despite proper care synthetic fibre will age by a very small amount due to chemical deterioration over a long period (about 9% in 16 years in some ropes).

Various

Other working causes of deterioration include:

- internal abrasion due to sand, glass or sharp materials in lay cutting fibre, Do not drag across sand or coral.

- loose thimbles.

- opening up of rope ends. Good whippings needed.

INSPECTION OF FIBRE ROPE

Ropes, especially those which are under load or have safety aspects (lifting ropes) should be inspected regularly. This means looking for:-

- Elongation of the rope. This will be combined with a reduced rope diameter, the lay being stretched out and the rope losing its springiness.

- Broken fibres.

- Loosening up or slippage of splices.



- Loose thimbles

- Open rope ends

- Crushed spots

- Cuts on the surface

- The rope having a fluffy or cotton wool-like surface due to roughening of the surface (specially prevalent on nylon ropes)

- A powdery substance or broken fibres inside the lay of the rope due to internal chafing (nylon ropes)

- brown or other conspicuous spots due to rust drips or chemical damage.

HANDLING FIBRE ROPE

Rope comes in spools or coils. To prevent the ropes getting inbuilt kinks or spirals care should be taken when first uncoiling the rope. The most common length of a coil of rope is 220 meters. Smaller ropes up to 114 mm can be fitted onto cardboard spools where uncoiling can be easily achieved by fitting a pole or broom handle through the center of the spool and pulling the rope off with the spool spinning around the pole.

Larger size ropes, not on spools, should be placed on a turn table and carefully unwound from the outside. Refer Figure 6.6



Intermediate-size ropes or ropes where short pieces will be removed and the coil re- tied should also use a turntable or they can be unwound from the inside. The procedure for a right-hand laid rope is to lay the rope flat with the inner end at the bottom. Carefully cut the lashings, leaving them in place if you wish to use only part of the coil and then relash it. Put your hand down through the centre of the coil and pull the end of the inner rope through towards you. The rope will then leave the coil in the correct counter-clockwise direction reducing the chance of kinks. Do this wrong and there will be a built-in twist each time a turn is pulled out giving you plenty of problems when trying to coil and use the rope.

Coiling Down

Cordage is very resilient and will absorb a number of turns in its length without becoming snarled if the length of the rope is sufficient and the turns correspond to the lay of the rope. If the turns are put into the rope against the lay it will quickly become snarled, get kinks and become difficult to use. For this reason right-hand lay rope is coiled down in a clockwise direction and left hand lay in an anti-clockwise direction. Coiling down should be done in a way that enables turns to move along the rope towards the end and out. Refer Figure 6.7

Plaited or braided rope having no lay should be coiled in a figure of eight pattern which puts a turn in one way and takes it out the other.



To Coil a Rope for Running

Lay the rope as straight as possible on the deck. Begin coiling it down close to where the standing part is made fast and lay each loop flat on the one below until the bare end is reached. The size of the loops should be as large as the space permits.

Figure 6.8 Coiling a Rope for Running

The running part is now underneath so it will be necessary to carefully turn the coil over so this is now on the top and the bare end is underneath.

To Coil a Smaller Line in the Hand

To hand coil a small line, right-hand lay ropes should be held in the left hand with the thumb towards the bight. The rope should then be collected in small loops in the left hand in clockwise loops. These loops should be relatively small as too-large loops will get twists.



To Throughfoot a Laid Rope

Sometimes a rope develops a large number of turns and becomes difficult to handle and coil. While it is sometimes desirable to play the rope over the side while steaming and work the turns out to the end, it is also possible to get rid of the twists by throughfooting the rope. First determine whether the turns in the rope are right or left- handed. To remove left-hand turns, coil the rope left- handed, dip the end through the centre of the coil and pull the rope through laying down straight on deck. To remove right-hand turns, coil right-handed and proceed as before. If the rope is badly snarled through foot the end after only a few coils, repeating for as many times as is required to remove the turns.

To Fake Out a Rope

A rope which has to be paid out quickly may be faked down rather than coiled down as this will reduce the chance of tangles when running out quickly. Ropes should be arranged in as long fakes as space allows. Start from the bight and work to the end which will go out first. This means that the parts going out first lie on top of the other bights.



Lesson 6.3.Wire Ropes, Chains and Attachments

CONSTRUCTION OF WIRE ROPES

Wire ropes are generally six-stranded with an additional middle strand of greasy rope which lubricates the inner wires and assists in maintaining the rope’s shape. The flexibility of the rope is governed by the number of wires in each strand. The more individual wires exist the more flexible the wire will be.

The most usual configuration of marine wire used on cargo runners and traw! warps is six-by-nineteen wire rope. This is a wire rope which has has six main strands (plus a central rope core) with each strand having nineteen wires in it.

A very flexible wire rope would be six by thirty six. Such a rope would be used for cranes or lift wires.

Wire ropes for ships’ rigging might be seven by twelve. This wire would have a wire not a rope central core and each strand would have only twelve wires in it. Being rigging wire and not subject to wear it will possibly also be galvanised. Other rigging wire, like that used on yacht rigging and for telephone poles is one by nineteen, i.e one single strand made up of nineteen fairly thick strands.

6x19 6x24 6x29Rope core shown in black.

1x19

Figure 6.11 Wire Rope Configuration



CARE OF WIRE ROPES

- Never allow wire rope to get a kink in it. If the wire gets kinked this will severely reduce the breaking strain of the wire.

- Do not allow the wire to chafe against any part of the vessel when paying out or hauling in. Chafe quickly reduces the working life of the wire.

- If using any blocks in conjunction with wire make sure they are the correct size both in the diameter of the sheave and in the size of the groove of the sheave. If the diameter of the sheave is too small the bending of the wire at a sharp angle will reduce the life of the wire. If the groove on the sheave is too small it will chafe the sides of the wire and if it is too large it will not support the wire and the wire will flatten out.

- Do not allow the wire to go round a sharp turn, especially when under load.

- If using a wire on a drum do not allow the wire to be flattened by the turns of wire on top of it or allow loose turns of wire to be distorted by turns on top of them. Good guiding on equipment or procedures will help to reduce this.

- Periodically swap the wire end for end as one end will get more wear than the other.

- Periodically oil the wire with fish oil.

- Wire on a drum which is not being used for some time should be oiled with fish oil and covered with a canvas cover.

- Do not overload the wire rope.

INSPECTION OF WIRE ROPES

The entire length of rope should be inspected regularly and special attention should be give to those areas which are subject to maximum deterioration. It is wise to start with a rope which is longer than needed . Shortening the length of the rope will reposition the places of maximum wear such as under a pulley or at splices or the first few metres of a trawl warp.

When inspecting the wire rope note the following:-

- Open wire up with a spike and inspect for dry core or internal damage

- look for broken strands (allow no more broken strands than 5% of the total number of strands over 10 times the diameter of the rope)

- look for distortion of shape caused by kinking



- look for flattened wire

- look for wear along wires where they may have been chafed or pinched in a block

- points of greater wear are at splices and where the wire is constantly, at the same place, over a block when it is under a load, e.g. the part of the wire over the lifting block on a bull wire. Check these regularly. If wear is apparent cut and respiice or cut a length from the end of the wire to vary the position of the loaded part

- Remember wire rope is not flexible like fibre rope. Wire rope becomes fatigued by constant use.

SAFETY WHEN HANDLING WIRE ROPE- Never stand in the bight of any rope.

- Never stand under or near a load when it is being lifted.

- When the strain is coming on a wire do not stand in a position where you could be hit by the wire if it breaks.

- Never stand astride a slack wire.

- Watch for wire sprags when handling wire, these can give a nasty cut.

- Do not wear loose clothing when working near wire, this can get caught on the wire and you can be dragged into the drum,

- Do not guide wire onto the drum by hand, if no guiding-on equipment fitted use a bar. Always have a winchman at the controls when guiding on.

- If using snatch blocks with wire make sure they are closed and the pin in.

CHAIN AND CHAIN HARDWARE

Chain

Chain is made of wrought iron or mild steel. The size of chain is given as the diameter of the bar forming the links. Where chain is being used regularly it will work fatigue and where this affects the safety of the crew it should be annealed at regular intervals to re-harden it. Chain will be supplied with a test certificate when purchased from the owners. Most chain is “open-link" with no stud in between, the length of the link determining whether it is called “ long- link” or “ short-link” chain. Extra strength can be obtained by using “high- tensile” steel and where a stronger chain is required this would incorporate a stud within the individual links (e.g. anchor chain, refer module 10). Table 6.3 shows the breaking strain of several sizes and types of chain.



If no test certificates are available the quality of the chain can be assessed by inspection. Poor quality chain will have small cracks on the iron, the welds holding the links together will be rough, incomplete and show holes or cracks.

Chain Attachments and Hardware

Different types of fishing require different gear set-ups and specialist hardware and it is not the purpose of this module to go into this in great detail. Listed below are the main types of hardware in common usage on fishing vessels.

Bulldog Grip Wire Grip

Turnbuckle



Chain Attachments and Hardware (continued)



TEACHING NOTES

Teaching Aids

To teach this module you will need:-

- Fibre-rope specimens of the following rope and fibre construction:

Laid rope

Plaited Rope

Braided Rope

Multifilament fibre

Monofilament fibre

Staple fibre

Film fibre.

- Specimens of different types of fibre rope, including

Manila (or other natural-fibre rope)

Nylon

Polyester

Polypropylene

Pofyethylene

Kuralon

Parallel-fibre or copolymer rope.

- Wire Rope specimen, 6 by 19 construction but any other will do.

- Specimens of all hardware listed or if not available use OHPs.

- OHPs as listed at end of this module.



Lesson Plans

It will not be possible to complete this module in one lesson. Two, or three, two-hour lessons will be necessary in order to complete lectures and assignments.

LESSON 6.1

Using the Student Notes as a guide:

- Explain how laid ropes are constructed. Illustrate this with actual rope and OHPs.

- Explain the different types of laid rope and illustrate with OHPs.

- Explain how braided and plaited ropes are constructed. Illustrate this with rope samples and OHPs.

- Explain the different types of fibre used in the construction of fibre ropes. Illustrate this with actual fibres, passing these around the class so that students may see and touch each type.

- Using actual samples, explain the properties of all of the main types of marine fibre ropes. As you progress display samples and have the students make up their own table similar to Table 6.3.

- End this lesson by showing students how they can distinguish between different types of rope.

LESSON 6.2

Start this lesson by reinforcing the previous lesson. This can be done by splitting the students into small groups. Give each group 10 numbered samples of differing types of rope. Also supply each group with a bucket of water and a lighter (necessary to work out whether the rope sinks or floats and to do a burn test).

Tell them they shall classify them as follows

- Type of construction

- Type of Fibre

- Material

- Size

- Colour,

PAGE 28 __________________________ _ MODULE 6 : FIBRE ROPES, WIRE ROPES, CHAIN AND ATTACHMENTS


The preceeding exercise will take an hour.

Follow this by using the notes to explain:-

- How to handle and care for fibre ropes

- Cause of rope deterioration

- How to inspect for damage

- How to take rope from a new coil, use OHP for this

- Use a length of rope to demonstrate:-

• coiling down

• hand coiling

• throughfooting

• faking

If time permits have students practise these skills.

Have students complete Assignment 6.2,

LESSON 6.3

Using the student notes, OHPs and actual wire or hardware explain:-

- How wire is put together, show students an example of wire showing wires, strands and core

- The main types of wire and what they are used for

- Care of wire

- How to inspect wire for deterioration

- How to stay safe when using wire

- How chain is constructed, measured and used on fishing vessels

- Use actual items or OHPs to show the students the hardware used with wire and chain explaining how they are used

- Have students complete Assignment 6.2/3.

MODULE 6 : FIBRE ROPES, WIRE ROPES, CHAIN AND ATTACHMENT__________________________ PAGE 29


Student Assignments

ASSIGNMENT 6.1

1. What are the three main construction methods used in making fibre ropes

2. List the four fibre types used in the construction .of fibre ropes

3. What is the difference between a hard laid and a soft laid rope ?

4. What is the make up of the following ropes ?:-

- Hawser laid

- Shroud laid

- Cable laid

- Warp laid

5. Explain how fibres, yarns and strands are laid up in a three-strand right-hand laid rope.

6. For each of rope materials listed in (A) give the information listed in (B) :~

(A) Nylon, polyester, polypropylene, polyethylene, kuralon, manila.

(B) Sinks or floats, stretch, strength in comparison with nylon, abrasion properties, melting points, price in comparison with nylon.

7. How can you tell nylon, polyester and manila apart ?

8. How can you tell polypropylene and polyethylene apart?

9. Give a use for the ropes listed as follows, nylon, polyester, polypropylene, polyethylene, kuralon.

10 What is a copolymer or parallel-fibre rope? What are their advantages and disadvantages?



ASSIGNMENTS 6. 2/3

1. List five things which will cause deterioration in fibre ropes

2. List five things you would look at when inspecting a fibre rope for wear ordamage.

3. How do you coil down, right-hand, left-hand and piaited-fibre rope ?

4. Explain how you would take laid rope from a new coil.

5. What is meant by 6x19 wire rope ?

6. Which is more flexible 6x12 or 6x34 wire rope ?

7. What is the use of 1 x19 wire rope ?

8. List five things you would always do to prevent wire from deteriorating.

9. List six things you must take care to do when working with wire rope in order for you to be safe at all times.

10. Explain how you would inspect a wire rope for damage.

MODULE 6 : FIBRE ROPES, WIRE ROPES, CHAIN AND ATTACHMENT PAGE 31

PACIFiC ISLAND QUALIFIED FISHING DECKHAND

LIST OF OHP'S

0HP6.1 Construction of a Three Strand, Right-hand Laid Rope.

OHP 6.2/3 Right-hand (Z twist) and Left-hand (S twist) Laid Rope, andMeasuring the Jaw.

OHP 6.4/5 Braided Rope, andPlaited Rope.

OHP 6.6/7 Unwinding Rope from a New Coil, andMistakes in Coiling Down.

OHP 6.8/9 Coiling a Rope for Running, andHand Coiling.

OHP 6.10/11 How to Fake Out a Rope, andWire Rope Configuration.

OHP 6.12/13 Chain Measurement, andHardware and Attachments (1.).

OHP 6.12 B More Hardware and Attachments.

OHP Table 6.1 Rope Prices.

OHP Table 6.2 Fibre Rope Specifications.

OHP Table 6.3 Breaking Strains of Fibre Ropes, Wires and Chains.



OHP 6.1Construction of a Three Strand, Right-Hand Laid Rope

Manila 0 38mm

54 rope yarns (single yarns)


OHP 6 .2 /3Right Hand (Z twist) and Left Hand (S twist) Laid Rope


O H P 6.4/5

Braided Rope

Braided Rope


OHP 6 .6 /7Unwinding Rope from a New Coil

Mistakes in Coiling Down


OHP 6 .8 /9Coiling a Rope for Running

Hand Coiling

Right hand thumb towards

the end

Left hand thumb towards

the end


OHP 6.10/11How to Fake Out a Rope

Wire Rope Configuration

6x19 6x24 6x29Rope core shown in black.

1x19


OHP 6.12/13Chain Measurement

Hardware and Attachments

Bulldog Grip Wire Grip

Hammerlock


OHP 6.12BMore Hardware and Attachments


OHP Table 6.1Rope Prices

Type of Rope. Price

Nylon Laid Rope 100%

Polyester Laid Rope 148%

Polyester Tubular Braid 164%

Polypropylene Laid Rope 31%

Polyethylene Laid Rope 38%

From the above table it can be seen that braided or plaited ropes will be around 12% more in price than laid ropes of the same material and equivalent breaking strain,

Table 6.2 Fibre Rope SpecificationsOX■oQ 1C[<DC*io

Note. Price and strength are comparisons against that of nylon. Stretch is given as the percentage increase in length before breaking.



OHP Table 6.3Breaking Strains of Fibre Ropes, Wires and Chains

TYPE OF ROPE OR CHAIN FORMULA

Manila and Sisal 2d2300

Nylon M 2300

Polyester 4d2300

Polypropylene 2d2300

Wire 12 strand 2d2300

Wire 37 strand 15d2300

Chain 15d2300

The above formulae give the Breaking Strain in tonnes. A Safe Working Load (SWL) of one sixth of the breaking strain should be used.

Pacific Island Qualified Fishing Deckhand

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