On the process of formation of Early Rus’ burial culture in the Novgorod Land

Rome, Constantinople and

Newly-Converted EuropeArchaeological and Historical Evidence

Volume I

U ŹRÓDEŁ EUROPY ŚRODKOWO-WSCHODNIEJ / FRÜHZEIT OSTMITTELEUROPAS

Geisteswissenschaftliches Zentrum Geschichte und Kultur Ostmitteleuropas, LeipzigInstytut Archeologii i Etnologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk, Warszawa

Instytut Archeologii Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, Rzeszów

Rada Redakcyjna / HerausgebergremiumAndrzej Buko, Christian Lübke, Małgorzata Rybicka

Redakcja Serii / Redaktion der Reihe Matthias Hardt, Marcin Wołoszyn

tom 1, część 1 / Band 1, Teil 1

Rome, Constantinople and

Newly-Converted EuropeArchaeological and Historical Evidence

edited byMaciej Salamon, Marcin Wołoszyn, Alexander Musin, Perica Špehar

in cooperation withMatthias Hardt, Mirosław P. Kruk, Aleksandra Sulikowska-Gąska

Kraków – Leipzig – Rzeszów – Warszawa 2012

U ŹRÓDEŁ EUROPY ŚRODKOWO-WSCHODNIEJ / FRÜHZEIT OSTMITTELEUROPAS Geisteswissenschaftliches Zentrum Geschichte und Kultur Ostmitteleuropas e.V., Leipzig

Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk, Warszawa Instytut Archeologii Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, Rzeszów

Redakcja tomu / Redaktion des BandesMaciej Salamon, Marcin Wołoszyn, Alexander Musin, Perica Špehar,

Matthias Hardt, Mirosław P. Kruk, Aleksandra Sulikowska-Gąska

Recenzenci tomu / Rezensenten des BandesEduard Mühle, Günther Prinzing

Tłumaczenia / ÜbersetzungenAutorzy / Autoren, Alexey Gilevich, Monika Dzik oraz / sowie

Anna Kinecka (j. angielski / Englisch), Katarzyna Łyp (j. niemiecki / Deutsch), Alexander Musin (j. rosyjski / Russisch)

Weryfikacja językowa / SprachverifizierungMarcin Bednarz, Anna Kinecka, Doris Wollenberg

Skład / LayoutIrena Jordan

Obróbka graficzna / Graphik Autorzy / Autoren oraz / sowie Irena Jordan,

przy udziale / unter Mitwirkung von Jolanta Ożóg, Rafał Janicki

Projekt okładki / Layout des UmschlagesIrena Jordan, Rafał Janicki

Zdjęcie na okładce / Photo auf dem UmschlagBizantyńska stauroteka (X / XI w.) z Ostrowa Lednickiego,

zbiory Muzeum Pierwszych Piastów na Lednicy (Foto: R. Kujawa)Byzantinische Staurothek (10. / 11. Jh.) aus Ostrów Lednicki,

Sammlungen des Muzeum Pierwszych Piastów na Lednicy (Photo: R. Kujawa)

Druk tomu I / Druck von Band IPoligrafia Inspektoratu Towarzystwa Salezjańskiego, Kraków

Dystrybucja / DistributionLeipziger Universitätsverlag

Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk Instytut Archeologii Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego

© Copyright by Geisteswissenschaftliches Zentrum Geschichte und Kultur Ostmitteleuropas e.V., Leipzig 2012© Copyright by Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk, Warszawa 2012

© Copyright by Instytut Archeologii Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, Rzeszów 2012

ISBN: 978-3-86583-659-5ISBN: 978-83-89499-85-1ISBN: 978-83-936467-0-8

The present volume is the result of cooperation of institutions named here:

Polish Academy of SciencesCommittee for the Research in Antique Culture

Byzantine Commission = National Committee of the AIEBInstitute of Archaeology and EthnologyPolish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw

Leipzig Centre for History and Cultureof East Central Europe (GWZO), Leipzig

Institute of HistoryJagiellonian University, Cracow

Institute of ArchaeologyUniversity of Rzeszów, Rzeszów

Institute for the History of Material CultureRussian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg

Institute of ArchaeologySerbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade

Sponsored by:

CONTENTS

Editors’ Foreword ............................................................................................................................................................. Jonathan Shepard Rome, Constantinople and Newly-Converted Europe: Archaeological and Historical Evidence. Some Introductory Remarks ............................................................................................................................................

I.1 HISTORY: ROME, CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE NEW BORDERS

THE INTRODUCTORY ESSAYSJerzy Strzelczyk Missionsstrategie und Missionspraxis der westlichen Kirche im frühen Mittelalter ...................................................... Maciej Salamon Byzantine Missionary Policy. Did It Exist? ..................................................................................................................... Matthias Hardt Frühe Grenzen im Blick der europäischen Mediävistik ..................................................................................................

I.2 HISTORY: SEARCHING FOR ROME AND CONSTANTINOPLE

FROM THE SOUTH TO THE NORTHJenny Albani Painted decoration of the church of St. Onoufrius near Genna, Crete ............................................................................Georgios Th. Kardaras Christian symbols among the nomads, 5th-8th century A.D. ............................................................................................Georgi N. Nikolov Die Christianisierung der Bulgaren und das Mönchtum in der Familie des Khans Boris I. Michail im 9.-10. Jahrhundert .....................................................................................................................................................Angel Nikolov Making a new basileus: the case of Symeon of Bulgaria (893-927) reconsidered ........................................................Lumír Poláček Mikulčice und das Christentum in Mähren im 9. Jahrhundert .......................................................................................Béla Miklós Szőke Kulturelle Beziehungen zwischen Mosaburg/Zalavár und dem Mittelmeerraum ..........................................................Márta Font Lateiner und Orthodoxe: Völker und ihre Gewohnheiten. Das Beispiel des mittelalterlichen Königreichs Ungarn .........Vincent Múcska Zur Frage der großmährisch-byzantinischen Tradition im früharpadischen Ungarn – Möglichkeiten der Interpretation ...................................................................................................................................Petr Sommer Der Heilige Prokop, das Kloster Sázava und die sogenannte altkirchenslawische Liturgie in Böhmen .......................Jitka Komendová Rus’-Czech Relations during the Middle Ages as a Historiographical Problem ...........................................................Christian Lübke Ottonen, Slaven und Byzanz ..........................................................................................................................................

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Sabine Altmann Grenzüberschreitungen am westlichen Rand Ostmitteleuropas –Die Saale als Grenz- und Kontaktzone zwischen Frankenreich und slawischer Fürstenherrschaft im 9. Jahrhundert ......Stanisław Rosik Greeks and Romans in pagan Wolin. Integrating the Barbarians into the collective memory of the Latin West at the time of the conversion of the Slavs .........................................................................................Marian Dygo A Letter from Matthew, a Bishop of Cracow, to Bernard of Clairvaux “on the Conversion of Russians” (1145?) .....................................................................................................................Darius von Güttner-Sporzyński The archetypal crusader. Henry of Sandomierz, the second youngest son of Bolesław III ...........................................Andrzej Buko Byzantine cultural enclave in Central Europe? An example of the mortared tower complex at Stołpie (south-eastern Poland) ....................................................................................................................Alexey Chernetsov Paradoxical hierarchy of civilizations (Medieval Russian concept) ..............................................................................Maja Gąssowska Der Heilige Olaf und Holmgård – Novgorod als Grenzraum zwischen Ost und West im 11.-12. Jahrhundert .............................................................................................................................Jukka Korpela Die Christianisierung der finno-ugrischen Peripherie Europas: Zwei Theorien und unangenehme Tatsachen .................................................................................................................Jörn Staecker Drei Magier auf einem gotländischen Bildstein. Die Perzeption des Epiphaniethemas in der Wikingerzeit .............................................................................................Anna Waśko Pagans in Erik’s Chronicle and in the Revelations of Saint Birgitta .............................................................................Volodymyr Bak Die Weihe Kyrillos II. (1242-1281) zum Metropoliten der Rus’ in den 40er-Jahren des 13. Jahrhunderts: ein Ereignis aus den kirchenpolitischen Beziehungen zwischen Halič-Volyn’ und dem Byzantinischen Reich ................................................................................................................Sebastian Kolditz Christliche Missionsbestrebungen und Konversionsansätze gegenüber den Steppenvölkern, insbesondere Pečenegen und Kumanen ..............................................................................................

II.1 ARCHAEOLOGY: ROME, CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE GRAVES

THE INTRODUCTORY ESSAYSSebastian Brather Pagan or Christian? Early medieval grave furnishings in Central Europe ....................................................................Aleksandra Sulikowska-Gąska Funeral rites in Ruthenian iconography .........................................................................................................................Justyna Straczuk Death beliefs and practices among peasant inhabitants of the Catholic-Orthodox borderland in Belarus: an anthropological perspective ..................................................................................................

II.2 ARCHAEOLOGY: SEARCHING FOR ROME AND CONSTANTINOPLE

FROM THE SOUTH TO THE NORTHNatalia Poulou-Papadimitriou, Elli Tzavella, Jeremy Ott Burial practices in Byzantine Greece: archaeological evidence and methodological problems for its interpretation .......................................................................................................Perica Špehar, Orhideja Zorova Christianity on the territory of the Archbishopric of Ohrid, 11th to the 13th century: archaeological evidence from burial sites ......................................................................................................................

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Lyudmila Doncheva-Petkova, Maria Christova La transition du paganisme au christianisme, reflétée dans les nécropoles du IXème-Xème siècle en Bulgarie ...............Maja Petrinec Croatia between the East and the West – evidence from early medieval graves ...........................................................Tina Milavec Sacred places? Eighth century graves near sixth century churches at Tonovcov grad (Slovenia) ................................Stefan Eichert Zu Christentum und Heidentum im slawischen Karantanien ........................................................................................Elisabeth Nowotny On the confessional situation between the Frankish Empire and Moravia in Carolingian times. Focus on archaeological sources from Lower Austria ...................................................................................................Petr Hejhal, Michal Lutovský In agris sive in silvis… Secondary medieval burials in ancient barrows in Bohemia ...................................................Anna Mazur, Krzysztof Mazur Des tombes à inhumation du Haut Moyen Age en Petite-Pologne: le cas de la nécropole de Wawrzeńczyce .......................................................................................................................Jacek Wrzesiński The Dziekanowice cemetery – Christians cultivating venerable traditions ..................................................................Przemysław Urbańczyk A ‘Roman’ connection to the oldest burial in the Poznań Cathedral? ...........................................................................Joanna Kalaga The early medieval hillfort at Sąsiadka in the light of 1930s-1950s research. Current status of post-excavation analysis of the archival record in the University of Warsaw ..........................................................Jerzy Kuśnierz Das mittelalterliche Körpergräberfeld auf dem Burgwall von Gródek (altrussischer Volyn’) in Anbetracht der erhaltenen Grabungsdokumentation des Vorstandes zur Erforschung der Červenischen Burgen (1952-1955) ............Michał Dzik Bi-ritual burials in the central Bug river basin during the Middle Ages .......................................................................Łukasz Miechowicz Coins in the Western and Eastern Slavs burial practices in the Middle Ages – relicts of pagan beliefs or a sign of Christian traditions? ..............................................................................................Vsevolod Ivakin Burial grounds and graves in medieval Kiev (10th to 13th century) ...............................................................................Przemysław Sikora Die ostslawischen Bestattungssitten zu Beginn der Christianisierung am Rande der christlich-orthodoxen Welt am Beispiel Weißrusslands aus archäologischer Perspektive ............................................Anna Barvenova, Kristina Lavysh Burials in churches from the 11th-14th centuries on the territory of Belarus: influence of Christianization on the costume of the elite in the Western Rus’ principalities ........................................Eugenijus Svetikas Latin Christianisation in the Orthodox Christian Grand Duchy of Lithuania in late 14th and 15th centuries: a puzzle of historical facts and archaeological data .......................................................Roberts Spirģis Archaeological evidence on the spread of Christianity to the Lower Daugava area (10th-13th century) ........................Vitolds Muižnieks Archaeological evidence of 14th-18th century burial practices on the territory of Latvia ..............................................Heiki Valk The Zhalnik Graves: Evidence of the Christianization of the Novgorod and Pskov Lands? ........................................Vladislav Sobolev On the process of formation of Early Rus’ burial culture in the Novgorod Land .........................................................Stanislav Bel’skiy, Ville Laakso New archaeological evidence on the Christianization in Karelia in the 13th-15th centuries (Northern Lake Ladoga region, Russian Federation) ....................................................................................................

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СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

Предисловие составителей .......................................................................................................................................... Джонатан ШепардРим, Константинополь и новая Европа: археологические и исторические свидетельства. Некоторые предварительные размышления ...............................................................................................................

I.1 ИСТОРИЯ: РИМ, КОНСТАНТИНОПОЛЬ, НОВЫЕ ГРАНИЦЫ

ВВЕДЕНИЕ В ПРОБЛЕМУЕжи СтржельчикМиссионерские стратегии и практики Латинской Церкви в раннем средневековье .............................................. Мачей СаламонСуществовала ли миссионерская политика в Византии? .......................................................................................... Матиас ХардтГраницы в исследованиях средневековой Европы .....................................................................................................

I.2 ИСТОРИЯ: В ПОИСКАХ РИМА И КОНСТАНТИНОПОЛЯ

С ЮГА НА СЕВЕРЕни Албани Настенные росписи XIV в. в церкви св.Онуфрия (Генна, остров Крит) .................................................................Георгиос Ф. КардaрасПредметы с христианской символикой у кочевников в V-VIII вв. ...........................................................................Георги Н. Николов Христианизация болгар и монашество в семье хана Бориса I – Михаила (IX-X вв.) ............................................Ангел Николов Становление нового василевса: новый взгляд на правление Симеона Болгарского (893-927) ..............................Люмир ПольачекМикульчицы и христианство в Моравии в IX в. .......................................................................................................Бела Миклош Сыке Культурные контакты между Блатенградом/Мозабругом/Залаваром и Средиземноморьем ................................Марта Фонт Латиняне и православные: люди и обычаи средневековой Венгрии ......................................................................Винсен Мучка К вопросу о моравской традиции в Венгрии эпохи первых Арпадовичей –возможности интерпретации ......................................................................................................................................Петр Соммер Святой Прокопий, Сазавский монастырь и «старославянское богослужение» в средневековой Чехии .............Йитка Комендова Русско-чешские отношения эпохи Средневековья как историографическая проблема .......................................Христиан ЛюбкеОттониды, славяне и Византия ....................................................................................................................................

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Сабинэ Альтман Пограничье на периферии Центральной и Восточной Европы: река Зале как граница и контактная зона между Франкской империей и славянскими княжествами .............................................................................Станислав РощикГреки и Римляне языческого Волина: варвары в коллективной памяти латинского Запада в эпоху христианизации славян .....................................................................................................................Мариан ДыгоПослание Матфея, епископа Краковского, к Бернарду Клервоскому «об обращении русских» (1145?) .............Дариус фон Гютнер-Спожински Образцовый крестоносец? Генрих Сандомирский, младший сын Болеслава III ..................................................Анджей Буко Каменная башня в Столпье (Юго-Восточная Польша): византийский культурный анклав в Центральной Европе? ...............................................................................................................................................Алексей Чернецов Парадоксальная иерархия цивилизаций (древнерусский взгляд) ...........................................................................Майа Гонссовска Святой Олав и Хольмгард-Новгород как культурное пограничье между Востоком и Западом в XI-XII вв. .................................................................................................................................................Юкка Корпела Христианизация Северо-Восточной Европы: две теории и неудобные факты .....................................................Йорн Штекер Изображение трех волхвов на поминальном камне c Готланда: восприятие христианских сюжетов в языческом мире .........................................................................................................................................Анна Ващко Язычники в Хронике Эрика и Откровениях св. Бригитты ......................................................................................Владимир Бак Поставление Кирилла II (1242-1281) митрополитом вcея Руси в 1240-х гг. в контексте религиозно-политических связей Галицко-Волынской Руси и Византии ..............................................................Себастьян Колдиц Христианская миссия и христианизация степных народов в истории печенегов и половцев .............................

II.1 АРХЕОЛОГИЯ: РИМ, КОНСТАНТИНОПОЛЬ, ПОГРЕБАЛЬНЫЙ ОБРЯД

ВВЕДЕНИЕ В ПРОБЛЕМУСебастьян Братер Язычники или христиане? Раннесредневековые погребения с инвентарем в Центральной Европе .................Александра Суликовска-Гонска Тема погребения в древнерусской иконографии .....................................................................................................Юстына СтрачукЗаупокойные верования и обряды сельского населения православно-католического пограничья Белоруссии в антропологической перспективе ....................................................................................

II.2 АРХЕОЛОГИЯ: В ПОИСКАХ РИМА И КОНСТАНТИНОПОЛЯ

С ЮГА НА СЕВЕРНаталья Пулу-Пападимитриу, Елли Тсавелла, Джереми Отт Погребальный обряд византийской Греции: данные археологии и методологические проблемы их интерпретации ......................................................................................................................................Перица Шпехар, Орхидея Зорова Христианство на территории Охридской архиепископии в XI-XIII вв.: свидетельство археологии погребального обряда .............................................................................................................................Людмила Дончева-Петкова, Мария Христова Процесс перехода от язычества к христианству в Болгарии по материалaм раскопок некрополей IX-X вв. ....................................................................................................................................................

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Майа ПетринецХорватия между Востоком и Западом по данным средневековых некрополей ......................................................Тина МилавецСвященные места? Погребения VIII в. близь позднеантичной церкви Тоновцева града (Словения, VI в.) ..........................................................................................................................................................Стефан АйхертХристианство и язычество в Карантании ..................................................................................................................Елизабет Новотны Конфессиональная ситуация на границе Франкской империи и Моравии в эпоху Каролингов по археологическим памятникам Нижней Австрии .................................................................................................Петр Хейхаль, Михал Лютовски In agris sive in silvis… Cредневековые впускные погребения в древних курганах Чехии ....................................Анна Мазур, Кшиштов МазурРаннесредневековые погребения в Малопольше – некрополь Вавженчице ..........................................................Яцек Вжешиньски Некрополь в Декановичах – христианское развитие древних традиций ...............................................................Пшемыслав Урбанчик «Римские» элементы древнейшего погребения кафедрального собора в Познани? ............................................Иоланта Кальага Средневековое городище в селе Сансядка: обзор археологических исследований 1930-1950-х гг. по материалам архивного собрания Варшавского университета ............................................................................Ежи КушнежСредневековые погребения городища Грудек (древнерусский Волынь) в свете архивных документов Научной Комиссии Польской Академии наук по изучению Червенских городов (1952-1955) ...........................Михал Дзик Неполные трупосожжения в погребальном обряде центрального Побужья эпохи средневековья ...................Лукаш Мехович Монеты в средневековом погребальном обряде западных и восточных славян: пережитки язычества или влияние христианства? ......................................................................................................................Всеволод Ивакин Погребальные памятники древнерусского Киева X-XIII вв. ...................................................................................Пшемыслав Сикора Славянский погребальный обряд ранних этапов христианизации на окраинах восточно-христианского мира на примере Белоруссии – археологический подход ........................................................................................Анна Барвенова, Кристина Лавыш Погребения в храмах на территории Белоруссии XI-XIV вв.: роль христианизации в формировании костюма элиты княжеств Западной Руси ...................................................................................................................Евгениус Светикас Латинская христианизация православных земель Великого княжества Литовского в конце XIV-XV вв.: исторические факты и данные археологии ............................................................................Робертс Спиргис Археологические свидетельства о распространении христианства в низовьях Западной Двины в X-XIII вв. ......................................................................................................................................Витольдс Музнекс Археология погребального обряда XIV-XVIII вв. на территории Латвии .............................................................Хейки Валк Жальники: свидетельство христианизации Новгородской и Псковской земли? ...................................................Владислав Соболев Проблемы формирования древнерусской погребальной культуры Новгородской земли .....................................Станислав Бельский, Вилле ЛааксоНовые археологические свидетельства о христианизации Приладожской Карелии в XIII-XV вв. .....................

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Rome, Constantinople and Newly-Converted Europe. Archaeological and Historical EvidenceM. Salamon, M. Wołoszyn, A. Musin, P. Špehar, M. Hardt, M.P. Kruk, A. Sulikowska-Gąska (eds.)U źródeł eUroPy ŚrodKoWo-WScHodniej/FrüHzeit oStMitteleUroPAS 1,1

Kraków-leipzig-rzeszów-Warszawa 2012, vol. i, p. 751-766

VlAdiSlAV SoboleV

On the prOcess Of fOrmatiOn Of early rus’ burial culture in the nOvgOrOd land

abstract. On the process of formation of Early Rus’ burial culture in the Novgorod Land. this paper deals with the process of formation of early rus’ burial culture in the novgorod land. the change in the burial rite and introduction of new funerary practices are explained by christianization of the populace and appearance of a christian community. in studies of the emergence of medieval rus’ burial rite, a number of features are discriminated as characteristic not only of the novgorod territories but also of the entire early rus’ population of the forest zone of eastern europe: the continuation of the tradition of raising burial mounds, the presence of different objects and the dress accessories in the graves, the small number of devotional objects in burials of the 11th to 14th century. the earliest phase of the formation of the medieval mortuary rites still remains poorly studied since there are practically no reliably dated sites before the mid-11th century. After this date we find inhumations across the novgorod land documenting different variations in the rite but which nevertheless keep within the frame of the christian norms. As the main rules on the rite of interment set by the church were complied with, some details of the mortuary practice not regulated by the orthodox canon law, continued to evolve, drawing on the pre-christian tradition. of these the most prominent was the raising of burial mounds. differences in the method of construction of the burial mounds indicate a partial change in the population which took place in the western area of the novgorod land in the second half of the 12th century. throughout the 13th century across this region the funerary rite becomes much more uniform. everywhere the kurgan-zhalnik and flat zhalnik cemeteries (zhalnik – is a grave with a stone setting) become widespread and stone crosses start to be set up. the 13th century is the time of a gradual disappearance of ornaments and ceremonious costume in the burials. the youngest of the excavated zhalnik cemeteries are dated by the coin finds to the 14th-15th century, possibly, even as late as 15th-16th century. during the first half of the 16th century, written sources record the continuation of the kurgan rite in the outlying areas of the novgorod land. However, this practice was already an anachronism in that period. the problem of the time of transition from kurgan and kurgan-zhalnik burial sites to church cemeteries among the rural population is also still unsolved. it seems necessary to stress that we have no grounds to separate the aggregate of the medieval burials according to their religious features or to the extent of penetration of christianity into the mentality of the inhabitants of the novgorod land.

the process of formation of the early rus’ community in the novgorod land (Fig. 1) and the rise of the early rus’ nation was occurring simultaneously to the establishment of the early rus’ state. these interrelated processes influenced all the aspects of life, both of the society in general and every individual in particular, affecting, it seems, all the spheres of spiritual and material culture.

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fig. 1. novgorod and its territory, after a. nasonov (1951), sopkas culture,

after v. sedov (1982, 181, fig. 32), long kurgans culture, after e. mikhailova (2009);

drawn by i. Jordan and v. sobolev. a – novgorod land state border;

b – sopky culture area; c - long kurgans culture; d – sites.

list of the sites (o. – oblast’; r. – region): 1 – maly, pechory r.; 2 – lezgi, pechory r.;

3 - verkholyany, gdov r.; 4 - bakin Konets, gdov r.; 5 – Zalakhtovie, gdov r.; 6 – Kalikhnovshchina, gdov r.;

7 Kotorsk, plyussa r.; 8 - srednye Ozertsy, luga r.; 9 - Os’mino, luga r.; 10 - estomichi, luga r.;

11 – rapti - navolok, luga r.; 12 - rep’yi, luga r.; 13 – udray, batetskiy r.; 14 – Khreple, batetskiy r.; 15 – terpilitsy, volosovo r.; 16 - volosovo, volosovo r.; 17 – tyaglino, gatchina r.; 18 – beseda, volosovo r.; 19 – domashkovitsy, volosovo r.; 20 – bornitsy,

gatchina r.; 21 – derevyanitsy, novgorod r.; 22 – Zarutchevie, malaya vishera r.; 23 – sorogozskoe, lesnoe r.; 24 – dregli, lyubytino r.; 25 – gorodische, tikhvin r.; 26 – bokovo, marevo r.; 27 – berezovets,

Ostaskov r.; 28 – ivorovo, staritsa r. 1-7 – pskov o.; 8-12, 15-20 – leningrad o.; 13,14, 21, 22,

24, 26 – novgorod o.; 23, 27, 28 – tver’ o.

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on the process of formation of early rus’ burial culture in the novgorod land

thus the emergence of new funerary rites in the novgorod land and across the territory of medieval rus’ at large can be reliably explained by the rise and establishment of the christian community after the baptism of the common people and spread of christianity. the simultaneous and extensive change of the funerary rite and the abrupt appearance of the first inhumations seem to be evident indications of christianization of the population. it is notable that in the novgorod land, in contrast to southern regions of rus’ this process of adaptation to christianity, the rise of the first christians and the mass official conversion was, as it seems, practically instantaneous. it is also necessary to accentuate that the adoption of christianity was a political act of the establishment of a state religion.

A detailed historiography analysis of publications relevant to our subject is outside the limits of the present study. We only need to note that some of the investigations concerned, to some extent, with the process of formation and development of medieval rus’ funerary rites deal with the establishment of rites in specific regions of the novgorod land, e.g. V. Konetskiy is concerned with its central region (Konetskiy 1984), n. Platonova discusses the territory on the Upper luga river (Platonova 1988), V. Sobolev focuses on the Upper and Middle Plyussa river (Sobolev 1998а; 1998b), n. Khvoshchinskaya on the area east of the lake Peipus (Khvoshchinskaya 2004), e. ryabinin on the izhora Plateau, leningrad oblast’ (ryabinin 2001), some authors have examined specific types burial sites (Pronin 1988). A large segment of fundamental works of V. Sedov (1982, 166-185, 222, Pl. XlViii, Pl. lii), and the book by A. Musin (2002) are dedicated to the funerary rites of the novgorod land in general.

before discussing the process of emergence of the early rus’ burial culture in the novgorod land itself we need to focus on a number of features which are important for our subject. Some of them are characteristic not only of the population of the novgorod land but also of the early rus’ living in the forest zone of eastern europe in general.

the first noteworthy aspect is the preservation of the tradition of building kurgan mounds (Fig. 1). this custom appeared in the forest zone on the turn of the 5th and 6th centuries, possibly, in the early 6th century; in the period of 600-1300 Ad it prevailed while the decline of the cremation rite and introduction and spread of inhumation were accompanied by changes in the height, shape and internal structure of the kurgans. nevertheless, the practice of raising the earthen mounds continued. indeed, the presence of a tumulus over a grave is interpreted by some researchers as a sign of adherence to the pagan tradition by the local people and the society in general (see e.g.: Pronin 1988, 12), however we have no grounds to juxtapose the kurgan with the christian burial tradition. in general, the presence or absence of a grave mound, as well as of any other burial constructions does not run contrary to the rare indications of the canon law of early rus’ preserved in several manuscripts.

the next notable feature is the presence of dress accessories and other goods in many of the early rus’ burials investigated so far. these include personal ornaments, weapons, various tools and agricultural implements, fishing tackle, coins and pottery. the presence of a range of similar grave goods is an additional argument to interpret the burials and the society as a heathen one or one retaining strong heathen traits. While similar conclusions need to be treated with attention and criticism they are not the focus of the present study. We only need to bear in mind that also the unquestionably christian burials inside churches or in church cemeteries in the novgorod region contained not only dress accessories and jewellery but also coins, nut shells, fish bones, etc.

Another distinctive feature of the medieval rus’ burial rite, characteristic both of the inhabitants of the novgorod land and of the early rus’ population in general, is that for the entire duration of the period under consideration – 11th to 14th centuries – burials contain only a small number of objects of personal devotion. one fine example of this situation would be that of the early rus’ rural cemeteries which have been fully investigated. even though their rite is unmistakably christian, they have yielded very few pendant crosses and other devotionals. thus, for instance, in the kurgan burial ground excavated, first in the late 19th and early 20th century and next, in full, in 1952-1953, near the village of Kharlapovo on the Upper dnieper river (dorogobuzh region, Smolensk oblast’), with more than 90 mounds, objects of personal devotion were discovered only in two burials (excavation by M. chebysheva in 1886 and by n. Savin in 1924; 21/11; excavations

1 the total number of the excavated barrows/the number of the devotional objects found in them.

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of e. Schmidt in 1952-1953, 71/1; Schmidt 1957). At the berezovets cemetery on the north-eastern bank of lake Seliger in the basin of the Upper Volga (ostaskov region, tver’ oblast’), none of the 139 of the excavated raised burial features contained personal devotional objects (Uspenskaya 1993, 125-135); the kurgan group near the village of bokovo (Marevo region, novgorod oblast’), out of 54 excavated mounds only two burials yielded this type of object (Pronin 1978; 1979); in the cemeteries of the Kotorsk pogost (centre of medieval administrative and parish district, in several cases – the whole district itself) on the Upper Plyussa river (Plyussa region, Pskov oblast’), devotional objects were unearthed in seven out of more than 90 excavated burials (Kotorsk-ii 34/5; excavation by S. Kuzmin; Kotorsk-Xi 38/2 excavation by the author); in kurgan groups on the upper reaches of the luga river at rapti-navolok ii and estomichi (luga region, leningrad oblast’; excavations by e. Mikhailova) none was found (19/0 and 25/0 respectively); the kurgan group near the village of os’mino in the middle course of the luga river (luga region, leningrad oblast’) yielded a find only in one out of the 28 excavated mounds (Malmgren 1893; 1894); out of 93 burials dated to the 13th-14th century in the fully explored cemetery at Kylälahti Kalmistomäki in Southern Karelia (lahdenpohja region, republic of Karelia, russian Federation), a single small icon was uncovered2, however, we need to note also that from this cemetery, quite uncommon for Karelia at large, we have a find of a stone grave cross; finally, in the cemetery at zalakhtovie on the bank of lake Peipus (Gdov region, Pskov oblast’), only a single cast pendant cross was found (Khvoshchinskaya 2004, 77-78)3.

Probably the nature of orthodox christianity or the orthodox funeral rite in particular was such that objects of personal devotion were either not obligatory for everyday wear or were not to be buried with their owner, with the exclusion, perhaps, of some special circumstances, in life or death of the buried individual. it is noteworthy that in the undoubtedly christian burials of the 12th-13th century in churches, interpreted as tombs of princes and boyars, devotional objects tend to be absent too (Strokov 1945, 71-73; dubynin 1945, 97-98). by contrast, in late medieval cemeteries of the novgorod region we either find numerous devotionals or none at all4.

Stone grave crosses, introduced presumably during the 11th century and raised for the entire early medieval period, possibly even longer, are also fairly uncommon (Fig. 5). it is not possible at present to estimate the number of stone crosses in kurgan and zhalnik cemeteries in the novgorod land. Many of the crosses recorded on an archaeological map from the early 20th century have not survived or were moved to another location as for instance, stone crosses from the kurgan/zhalnik cemetery near the village of domashkovitsy (Volosovo region, leningrad oblast’) set into the walls of a chapel during its construction in 1911.

Field investigations suggest that the mounds were not raised over the graves at the time of burial but only after a lapse of time. Probably, the graves were marked in some way on the ground, perhaps with a wooden cross or some other sign made from an organic material which has not survived till now5. We have to stress that the presence or absence of a cross over a grave, the presence of a devotional object placed over the buried body cannot serve as an indication of the christian or non-christian nature of the burial. As suggested by reliable archaeological evidence, grave crosses (of stone or metal) were introduced on a mass scale only in the 18th-19th century in the north-west of what was then no longer the early medieval rus’ state, but the russian empire.

yet another specific trait which must not pass unnoticed is that, notwithstanding the presumable existence of a christian community in novgorod before the official adoption of christianity (Musin 2002, 97) and the large area investigated by archaeologists in that city, no medieval cemeteries of the urban population, except for single burials inside the churches, have been identified until now. the focus of archaeological excavation was on cemeteries attached to churches dated to the 15th century (Artsikhovskiy 1941, 26-28) or later. And no cemetery has been identified in the vicinity of the princely residence at riurikovo Gorodishche, two kilometres from novgorod. Funerary sites of the early rus’ period in the closest surroundings of novgorod are represented only by kurgan or flat graves cemeteries of the rural population around the city. excavations

2 i am sincerely grateful to the director of these excavations, Stanislav V. bel’skiy, Museum of Anthropology and ethnology, russian Academy of Sciences, Saint-Petersburg, for his kind consultation. See also, the article by S. bel’skiy and V. laakso in the present volume (bel’skiy, laakso 2012).

3 Possibly, these statistics will be slightly changed if one takes into account that byzantine and/or western european coins at large may have been used as objects of personal devotion. indeed, this use appears to be plausible (boguslavskiy 1990); however, to confirm this idea a careful examination of the position of each coin in the grave is necessary. And even then, the situation will largely be remain the same.

4 i am thankful to the anthropologist denis Pezhemskiy, Moscow State University, for his kind consultation. 5 A similar situation was observed by researchers from Macedonia (cf. e.g.: Maneva 1998, 392).

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showed that the burial rite, clothes and other objects here were similar to those at sites from the same period in other rural regions of the novgorod land (Konetskiy 1981; 1982; Konetskiy, nosov 1985, 100-113). in early rus’ cities where cemeteries of the second half of the 11th and 12th centuries have been excavated inhumations under mounds which have parallels to the burials in the rural surroundings of the same period (labutina 1981; Kolosova, Milyutina 1994; 1995; 1996; labutina 1996; Volochkova, zakurina 1996; Milyutina 1996; Kildyushevskiy 1996; Plotkin 1996; Sedova 1997; Mazurov 2004).

Proceeding to address the questions related directly to the emergence of the early rus’ burial culture in novgorod land we need to recall again that the early phase of the formation of the early rus’ rites, i.e. the first 60 years after the adoption of christianity in 988 as recorded in the chronicles, is still poorly investigated because of the almost total absence of burial sites dated reliably to the period earlier than mid-11th century. After this date inhumation burial spread in early rus’ “abruptly and suddenly” far and wide across the land of novgorod, both in its western and eastern regions. the period around the year 1050 and the second half of the 11th century is the time of a great variation in the form of the burial rite, almost each of the excavated cemeteries has its own local set of elements, all of which on the whole follow the christian norms. A plausible interpretation of this great variety could be both the underdeveloped organisation of the church in the countryside and absence of any direct instructions and requirements in the canon law of early rus’ (Musin 2002, 73 ff.). the first rural churches were constructed in pogost centres probably not earlier than the middle and the second half of the 12th century.

in burials of the second half of the 11th and of the early 12th century, objects of personal devotion, although still not numerous, are clearly distinguishable. it seems that the earliest among them were manufactured from sheet silver (Platonova 1998, 377, Fig. 5:4). Similar crosses made from sheet silver or from oriental coins appear in christian burials starting from the final third of the 10th century (nedoshivina 1983; Avdusin, Pushkina 1989).

Worth noting is the distinctive “Scandinavian veil” observed mostly in female burials (Fig. 2). it is most evident during the period second half of the 11th-first third of the 12th century: fairly often, the graves yield north european objects or their imitations, i.e., zalakhtovie, kurgan no. 37 (excavations by K. trofimov; cf. Khvoshchinskaya 2004, Pl. cXXХi), kurgan no. 181 (Khvoshchinskaya 2004, Pl. lXXVii), Kotorsk (Kuzmin, Mikhailova, Sobolev, tarasov, Shmelev 2006, 91-92; Sobolev 2008), Udray (batetskiy region, novgorod oblast’; Platonova 1998), dregli, burial no. 18; Sukhonogovo (Marevo region, novgorod oblast’; see Pronin, Milkov 1981, 79-83), zarutchevie, kurgan no. 8 (okulovka region, novgorod oblast’); bokovo, kurgan no. 39/3 (Pronin 1978, 48-49, Fig. 211:5) and kurgan no. 43/2 (Pronin 1979, 44, Fig. 213:4), cemetery of berezovets, kurgan no. 65 (Uspenskaya 1993, 102, 130), kurgan no. 124 (Uspenskaya 1993, 99-100, Figs. 10, 134). this feature cannot be interpreted by a single closely spaced “infiltration” of a large consignment of Scandinavian imports to the market of novgorod itself or its rural surroundings. indeed, during the same period the chamber graves also apparently become a fashion widespread in novgorod. in the pre-christian period, this form of burial was not practiced in the city of novgorod or at riurikovo Gorodishche; neither have they been encountered in excavations of local centres of the novgorod land. However it is precisely in the second half of the 11th century that the rite of chamber burial becomes widespread and continues on what is already a fairly mass scale until the end of the first third or, perhaps, the middle of the 12th century. the best known examples were excavated by n. Platonova under a “stone mound” and under barrow no. iii of the kurgan group near the village of Maly Udray (Platonova 1998) and by n. Khvoshchinskaya in the burial ground near the village of zalakhtovie on the shore of lake Peipus (Khvoshchinskaya 2004). currently, the total number of sites in the novgorod land where inhumation chamber burials under mounds have been excavated is over 25. these tombs are dated to the second half of the 11th-first third of the 12th century (Sobolev 1997а; 1997b). let me stress once again their connection to the local elites and to the christian burial rite. noteworthy is the Udray find of a pendant cross made of sheet silver. it was discovered in a chamber grave of a male under a mound of stones (Platonova 1998). Similar objects come from chamber burials at Gnezdovo, Kiev, timerevo on the Volga near yaroslavl’ and the Shestovitsa necropolis on the desna river near chernigov (nedoshivina 1983). they are considered as related to the spread of christianity in the territory of Kievan rus’.

Another interesting question is the introduction of coffins made of planks, hollowed out logs and other wooden containers, the remains of which have been detected both in graves and on the ancient ground surface of the burials (Fig. 3). the earliest of these coffins came into use with the first inhumations; on rare occasions, interment in a wooden coffin was practised during the period late 11th-14th century, whereas the time of the mass spread of the tradition of interments in coffins has not been determined so far.

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fig.

2.

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fig. 3. different types of wooden burial structures in novgorod land; drawn by v. sobolev, with contribution from e. mikhailova

Fig. 2. Archaeological finds of Scandinavian style and origin from Novgorod Land.1 – Derevyanitsy, Novgorod region, Novgorod oblast’, stray find. The State Novgorod Museum, No. 45808/1;

Photo by S. Toropov; 2 – Zalakhtovie, kurgan No. 37, Gdov region, Pskov oblast’; excavation by K. Trofimov (1908-1909); photography archive, institute for the history of material culture, russian academy of sciences, saint-petersburg,

no. ii 10980; photo by i. chistyakov; 3 – vakhrushevo, kurgan no. cXvii, grave no. 4, tikhvin region, leningrad oblast’; after n. brandenburg (1895, pl. i: 6); 4 – Zarutchevie ii, kurgan no. 7, malaya vishera region,

Novgorod oblast’. The State Novgorod Museum, No. 35773/68; Photo S. Toropov; 5 – Bokovo, kurgan No. 43, grave No. 2, Marevo region, Novgorod oblast’. The State Novgorod Museum, No. 31550/A-79/55; Photo by S. Toropov;

6 – maly, kurgan no. 1 (excavated in 1921), pechory region, pskov oblast’; after h. valk (2009, 186, fig. 7: 4); 7 – Kotorsk-Xi, kurgan no. 10, grave no. 1, plyussa region, pskov oblast’; drawn by v. sobolev;

8 – gorodische, kurgan no. cXXv, grave no. 2, tikhvin region, leningrad oblast’; after n. brandenburg (1895, pl. iv: 2); 9 – dregli, grave no. 18, lyubytino region, novgorod oblast’. the state novgorod museum,

No. 31900/A-83/22; Photo by S. Toropov; 10 – Kotorsk-XI, kurgan No. 2, Plyussa region, Pskov oblast’; drawn by v. sobolev; 11 – berezovets, kurgan no. 124, Ostashkov region, tver’ oblast’; after a. uspenskaya

(1993, 100, fig. 10); 12 – verkholyany, zhalnik no. 4, gdov region, pskov oblast’; after a. spitsyn (1903, pl. XXii:7); 13 – Kalikhnovshchina, kurgan no. 52, gdov region, pskov oblast’; after a. spitsyn (1903, pl.

XXii:13); 14 – verkholyany, kurgan no. 9, grave no. 2, gdov region, pskov oblast’; after a. spitsyn 1903, (pl. XXii:11); 15 – sorogozskoe, kurgan no. 3, lesnoy region, tver oblast’. museum of anthropology and ethnography of russian

academy of sciences, saint-petersburg, no. 1533: 7; drawn by v. sobolev; 16 – Kotorsk-iii, kurgan no. 27, Plyussa region, Pskov oblast’; drawn by V. Sobolev; 17 – Bornitsy, kurgan No. 24 (excavated in 1874/1875),

Gatchina region, Leningrad oblast’; after A. Spitsyn (1903, Pl. XVI: 24); 18 – Poozerie; stray find, unknown location, novgorod region, novgorod oblast’; photo by s. toropov; 19 – terpilitsy, kurgan no. 29, volosovo region,

leningrad oblast’; after a. spitsyn (1903, pl. Xiv:23); 20 – bornitsy, kurgan no. 44, gatchina region, leningrad oblast’; after a. spitsyn (1903, pl. vii:9); 21 – tyaglino, kurgan no. 19, gatchina region, leningrad oblast’;

after a. spitsyn (1903, pl. vii;1); 22 – Kirillino, kurgan no. lXXXiX, grave no. 2, volkhov region, leningrad oblast’; after N. Brandenburg (1895, Pl. IV: 3); 23 – Derevyanitsy, Novgorod region, Novgorod oblast’, stray find.

The State Novgorod Museum, No. 45808/1; Photo by S. Toropov; 24 – Berezitsy-III, kurgan No. 19, strugi Krasnye region, pskov oblast’; drawn by v. sobolev; 25 – siaznega, kurgan no. li, grave no. 1, volkhov region, leningrad oblast’; after n. brandenburg (1895, pl. iv:17); 26 – beseda, kurgan no. 78,

volosovo region, leningrad oblast’; after a. spitsyn (1903, pl. iv:20); 27 – derevyanitsy, novgorod region, Novgorod oblast’, stray find. The State Novgorod Museum, No. 45808/1; Photo by S. Toropov;

28 – Khreple, kurgan no. 20, grave no. 2, batetskiy region, novgorod oblast’. state historical museum; drawn by v. sobolev.

1, 2, 3, 5, 10-15, 18-28 – bronze, cooper; 4 – iron, gold-plated; 6-9 – silver, glass; 17 – bronze, leather; 18 – silver (no to scale).

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it is notable that with the general observance of the requirements of orthodoxy for the rite of interment (burial of uncremated remains, the body placed in the grave with legs oriented west), some details of the funerary rite of the early rus’ society not regulated by the orthodox canon continued to evolve, drawing on the pre-christian tradition, mainly, the raising of mounds over the graves.

in the west (in the basin of the Upper Plyussa river and in the middle reaches of this river, in the eastern area on lake Peipus) and in the south and south-east of the novgorod land, where the formation of the early rus’ population was taking place under the conditions of synthesis of cultural traditions of the people of Sopkas culture and the long kurgans culture, with the participation of Finno-Ugric tribes and, perhaps, regular trade contacts with the natives of Scandinavia, the rite was established of interment in graves or, more seldom, on the surface of the ancient topsoil over which a mound was raised of earth (sand) without the use of boulders or flagstones (Fig. 4:1). Sporadically, traces of the use of wooden structures are encountered within the mounds.

in the luga river region, along the banks of the Shelon river and to the east and north-east of lake ilmen, i.e. those areas where the rus’ culture was taking form in the conditions of predominance of cultural traditions of the people of the Sopkas culture, another type of grave structure came into use. Around the grave large boulders were arranged in a circle, the internal space covered with earth. the height of the mound is often the same as that of the stone circle (Fig. 4:2-5).

Fig. 4. Different types of Early Rus’ burial grounds in Novgorod Land; after K. Trofimov (1909, 67, 68).1 – kurgan with a mound of earth (sand) without a stone setting; 2-3 – kurgan and kurgan/zhalnik within a stone setting;

4 – zhalnik – oval form; 5 – zhalnik – rectangular form; 6 – skudel’nitsa – collective grave.

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fig. 5. medieval stone crosses (1, 2) and a zhalnik with a place for a stone-cross (3).

1 – srednye Ozertsy, luga region, leningrad oblast’; after K. Trofimov (1909, 68);

2 – bakin Konets, gdov region, pskov oblast’; after v. glazov (1899, 38);

3 – bakin Konets, gdov region, pskov oblast’; after a. spitsyn (1903, 105, fig. 97).

Fig. 6. Pre-Christian barrowfield with a zhalnik cemetery attached to it;

after K. Trofimov (1909, 31).

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these different structures, raised over the graves during the second half of the 11th-the middle of the 12th century, suggest a replacement of population in the western area of the novgorod land around the middle of the 12th century. the more or less completely excavated early rus’ cemeteries arose around the middle of the 11th century and were functioning until the late 12th century. these include Kotorsk-iii, Kotorsk-Xi, berezitsy-iii on the Upper Plyussa, or estomichi-i and rapti-navolok-ii on the Upper luga. these mounds were built without the use of stone. in mid-12th century, throughout a broad region covering the upper and middle reaches of the Plyussa, the Pskova river and eastern area on lake Peipus, kurgans with an outer circle of stones came into use. As a rule, these mounds represent new cemeteries not related topographically to rus’ burial sites of the preceding periods. the number of cemeteries where the mounds made without the use of stones and those with stone circles are found in one and the same burial ground is extremely small; these cemeteries came into use before the early rus’ period. it is also notable that the newly set up kurgan/zhalnik cemeteries or those with only zhalnik type burials were attached to the older pre-christian burial grounds, the kurgan groups being mostly related with the culture of long kurgans (Fig. 6).

Probably, the influx of a new population to the western regions of the novgorod land, indicated by the funerary sites, reflects the process of occupation of this territory by the boyars which began in the first third of the 12th century and continued to the end of that century. the westward migration from the central and north-eastern novgorod territories may have been set off by the disastrous famine recorded by chronicles under the years 1125-1130. the famine caused a high death rate and the outflow of considerable numbers of people. An indirect proof of it may be seen in the migration of the natives of the south and south-east (regions of the eastern lake Peipus and Plyussa river) to the territory of the izhora Plateau, sparsely populated in the 11th-early 12th century (lesman 1982).

As noted earlier, the first churches arose in the pogost districts probably in the middle – second half of the 12th century. it seems that the appearance of the first cemeteries attached to churches should be dated to this period. there is no direct evidence on the appearance of church cemeteries. However, an indirect indication could be the absence of kurgans in the closest surroundings of the Kotorsk pogost in the period after the cemeteries at Kotorsk-iii and Kotorsk-Xi went out of use. the youngest burials in these sites are dated narrowly to 1177-1197 or to circa 1197. the zhalnik burial ground nearest to this pogost centre is situated 3 km from the latter and is not large. therefore it seems that it cannot pretend to have been the pogost cemetery. However, if one assumes that was a cemetery next to the church, then the fact must be specially noted of the coexistence of graves in the consecrated and fenced in plot of land next to the church and cemeteries not attached to a church within the limits of a pogost as a territorial unit6.

no cemeteries of the novgorod urban population of the 12th-13th century nor burial grounds from the preceding period are known. inside the urban churches only single burials of princes and ktitors (church patrons) have been investigated; it seems that so far none of the rural churches of this period in the novgorod lands has been investigated archeologically. therefore the question of the possible burials inside rural temples stays open.

throughout the 13th century on the territory of novgorod, the burial rite becomes considerably uniform. everywhere cemeteries of kurgan-zhalnik and zhalnik type become widespread (Fig. 4:2-5); in some, stone crosses are put up (Fig. 5). the 13th century is the time of the gradual disappearance of almost all the personal ornaments and dress accessories. the rare objects encountered in burials of the 13th and 14th centuries allow us to date the latter only very broadly to within a century or half a century. the youngest of the excavated zhalnik cemeteries are dated by coin finds to the 14th-15th century possibly, even as late as the 15th-16th century (Spitsyn 1903, 68-70).

Another pressing and still not fully resolved question related to the process of formation of the early rus’ burial rite is how to identify the burials of the upper ranks, both in the early rus’ urban and the rural environment. While the burial rite of the highest strata of the urban community, both lay and ecclesiastic, is well understood (from interments inside churches), the criteria of identification of the lower ranking members of the elite, including boyars, mentioned not once in the chronicles and birchbark documents, have not been

6 According to the 19th century written sources the remains of chapels were identified in kurgan/zhalnik and kurgan cemeteries (e.g.: tselepi 1900; iessen 1927). However building of chapels at zhalniks possibly dates to the 18th century, the earliest ones may be of 17th century date. there are no sources or archaeological finds to document the presence of chapels during the earlier period.

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developed so far. An exception, it seems, would be the find of a sarcophagus built of limstone holding the remains of a male under one of the mounds in the ivorovo kurgan group on the Upper Volga near Staritsa, tver’ oblast’ (Komarov, elkina 1976).

Pestilence and other diseases recorded in chronicles during the 13th-14th and, possibly the 15th centuries, gave rise to a new form of burial – the skudel’nitsa – collective graves of the victims of the plague (Fig. 4:6). the dating of skudel′nitsa burials is extremely difficult because of the scarcity of archaeological evidence.

in the 14th-15th centuries, probably the last archaeologically tangible transformation of the burial rite took place – the spread of very numerous flat-grave cemeteries. occasionally, mounds of the earlier periods were used for new burials (e.g. 10th century burial mounds near the villages of rep’yi, Srednye ozertsy, lezgi, Kryuchkovo north-west of the city of novgorod, Volosovo and luga region leningrad oblast’).

For the first half of the 16th century (1534 and 1548) written sources record the continuation of the kurgan rite in the outlying districts of the novgorod land. in that period this practice was already an anachronism. the novgorod archbishops Macarios and theodosius, in 1534 and 1548 sent letters to “Votskaya Pyatina (modern territory of leningrad oblast’ – V.S.), to chud, to toldozhsky pogost, to yzhera, to Kargalsk pogost, and to izhersky pogost, and to dudorov pogost, and to zamoshsky pogost, and to Spassky pogost in zaretskaya, and to all the chyut’ pogosts and izhera ones, and to Voshki, and also to all the Koporetsk and yamskiye and ivangorod and to Korela and to orekhovo uyezd (administrative district)” condemning the lingering of the rite and e.g., “burials in forests under kurgans and at kolomishches (pagan areas probably in the form of a circle)” (Gramota 1534; Gramota 1548).

in conclusion we have to admit that the earliest stage of formation of the burial culture of the christian population in the land of novgorod remains the least well investigated. the problem of the time of transition of the rural population from the kurgan and kurgan-zhalnik cemeteries to flat graves and to burial in church cemeteries is also still unresolved. once again, let me stress that, in my opinion, we have no grounds to separate the aggregate of the medieval burials according to their confessional features or to the extent of penetration of christianity into the consciousness of the inhabitants of the novgorod land during the medieval period.

Резюме. Проблемы формирования древнерусской погребальной культуры Новгородской земли. Статья посвящена проблематике формирования древнерусской погребальной культуры Новгородской земли. Смена погребального обряда и формирование новой погребальной обрядности объясняется крещением населения и появлением христианской общины. При изучении формирования древнерусского погребального обряда выделяется ряд особенностей, характерных не только для Новгородской земли, но для всего древнерусского населения лесной зоны Восточной Европы: сохранение традиции возведения курганных насыпей, наличие в захоронениях находок различных предметов, деталей костюма и одежды, малое число предметов личного благочестия в погребениях Xi-XiV вв. Малоизученным остается ранний этап формирования древнерусской погребальной обрядности, т.к. надежно датированные до середины Xi столетия памятники практически отсутствуют. С середины Xi в. древнерусские ингумации появляются на всей территории Новгородской земли, демонстрируя многообразие вариантов обряда и находясь при этом в рамках христианского канона. При соблюдении основных требований, предъявляемых Церковью к обряду погребения, некоторые детали погребальной

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Vladislav Sobolev

1998b

2008

Spitsyn = Спицын А.А. 1903

Strokov = Строков А.А. 1945

Trofimov =Трофимов К.Д. 1909

Tselepi = Целепи Л.Н. 1900

Uspenskaya = Успенская А.В. 1993

valk h. 2009

Volochkova, Zakurina = Волочкова О.К., Закурина Т.Ю. 1996

address of the author:

Владислав СоболевФакультет социологии Санкт-Петербургский Государственный университет ул. Смольного 1/3 (9-й подъезд)191124 Санкт-ПетербургРОССИЯe-mail: [email protected]

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О раскопках Л.Н. Целепи в Новгородском и Лужском уездах, Рукописный отдел научного архива Института истории материальной культуры Российской Академии наук, Санкт-Петербург (Ф. 1. 1900 г. Д. 92).

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Vladislav Sobolev MAFaculty of Sociology

Saint Petersburg State University

Smolnogo street 1-3 (9 pod’ezd)191124 Saint Petersburg

rUSSiAe-mail: [email protected]

On the process of formation of Early Rus’ burial culture in the Novgorod Land

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