Nr. 3 -2020 - BSLEA

Bulletin scientifique en langues étrangères appliquées

1

BSLEA


2020

UNIVERSITATEA DIN PITEȘTI

FACULTATEA DE TEOLOGIE, LITERE, ISTORIE ȘI ARTE


2

UNIVERSITATEA DIN PITESTI

FACULTATEA DE TEOLOGIE, LITERE, ISTORIE ȘI

ARTE

DEPARTAMENTUL DE LIMBI STRĂINE APLICATE

BSLEA

Bulletin scientifique en langues

étrangères appliquées

NR. 3, 2020

PITEȘTI


3

DIRECTOR REVISTĂ/ DIRECTEUR DE LA REVUE

Laura CÎŢU

COMITET DE REDACŢIE/ COMITÉ DE RÉDACTION

Carmen BÎZU

Silvia BONCESCU

Cristina ILINCA

COMITET ŞTIINŢIFIC/ COMITÉ SCIENTIFIQUE

Irina ALDEA, Universitatea din Pitești

Carmen BÎZU, Universitatea din Pitești

Silvia BONCESCU, Universitatea din Pitești

Laura CÎȚU, Universitatea din Pitești

Ioana COSMA, Universitatea din Pitești

Mirela COSTELEANU, Universitatea din Pitești

Gisela CUMPENAȘU, Universitatea din Pitești

Bianca DABU, Universitatea din Pitești

Sorin ENEA, Universitatea din Pitești

Angela ICONARU, Universitatea din Pitești

Crsitina ILINCA, Universitatea din Pitești

Ana Maria IONESCU, Universitatea din Pitești

Laura IONICĂ, Universitatea din Pitești

Mirela IVAN, Universitatea din Pitești

Adina MATROZI, Universitatea din Pitești

Nicoleta MINCĂ, Universitatea din Pitești

Andreea MOISE, Universitatea din Pitești

Celmentina NIȚĂ, Universitatea din Pitești

Raluca NIȚU, Universitatea din Pitești

Florinela ŞERBĂNICĂ, Universitatea din Pitești

Marina TOMESCU, Universitatea din Pitești

Cristina UNGUREANU, Universitatea din Pitești

FACULTATEA DE TEOLOGIE, LITERE, ISTORIE ŞI ARTE

Str. Aleea Şcolii Normale, nr. 7, cod 110254, Piteşti, jud. Argeş, România

http://www.bslea.eu/


4

COMITET DE LECTURĂ 2020/ COMITÉ DE LECTURE 2020

Irina ALDEA, Universitatea din Pitești

Ioana COSMA, Universitatea din Pitești

Mirela COSTELEANU, Universitatea din Pitești

Bianca DABU, Universitatea din Pitești

Angela ICONARU, Universitatea din Pitești

Cristina ILINCA, Universitatea din Pitești

Laura IONICĂ, Universitatea din Pitești

Adina MATROZI, Universitatea din Pitești

Nicoleta MINCĂ, Universitatea din Pitești

Andreea MOISE, Universitatea din Pitești

Clementina NIȚĂ, Universitatea din Pitești

Raluca NIȚU, Universitatea din Pitești

Florinela ȘERBĂNICĂ, Universitatea din Pitești

Marina TOMESCU, Universitatea din Pitești

Cristina UNGUREANU, Universitatea din Pitești


5


6

CUPRINS / TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Limba franceză contemporană pentru obiective specifice; Cultură și

civilizație franceză și francofonă. Limbaje de specialitate / Le français sur

objectifs spécifiques ; Culture et civilisation française et francophone.

Langages de spécialité

MIHAELA-BIANCA ANTONESCU

Difficultés de la traduction des noms propres dans le film Harry

Potter / 9

MIHAI-ALEXANDRU BADEA

Automobile classique vs. Automobile électrique/ 14

IRINA MĂDĂLINA BURCEA

L'emprunt: luxe ou nécessité / 18

ALEXANDRA-MIHAELA MATEI

La fonction du réviseur des traductions / 23

ANAMARIA GEORGIANA NEDEA

La formation et le rôle d'un traducteur professionnel / 28

LEILA N’GOUMBA

L’ergothérapie-de la théorie à la pratique/ 32

ADRIANA PETRESCU

Les avatars de la politique en France - les présidents français / 39

ELENA-ROXANA POPA

La problématique du gérondif passé dans la traduction/ 46

ANA TUDOSE

La peinture contemporaine en France et en Roumanie – passion et

défi / 53

OANA ALEXANDRA ȚECU

Performance et limite de la traduction automatique au niveau du

lexique du meuble / 58


7

Limba engleză contemporană pentru obiective specifice; Cultură și

civilizație britanică și americană. Limbaje de specialitate/ L’Anglais sur

objectifs spécifiques ; Culture et civilisation britannique et américaine.

Langages de spécialité

DANIEL BLAGA

Quantum Computing: the Future or a Fluke?/ 63

DRAGOS STEFAN FIERARU

The Specialist in Human Resources and Cultural Organization /68

GABRIEL GEANĂ, MIHAI-VLĂDUȚ GUȚU

Global Warming / 77

AMALIA-MARIA IOAN

Domestic Violence - Social and Legal Effects/ 80

MARINA-IULIA IONAȘCU

Manipulation in Social Relations/ 85

ANDREEA DENISA LUPESCU

New and Old Trends in AVT/ 90

CĂTĂLIN MAGHERU, SORANA NEDELCU

How Volcanoes Could Power the Future / 102

ADELA-NICOLETA MARIN

General Remarks on the English Pronoun/ 105

MIHAI NECULA

Covid-19: a Case of ‘Force Majeure’?/ 111

IULIANA DENISA OPRULEASA

Coming into Being: the Birth of a Language/ 115

DOINA OSTROV

Translation vs. Interpretation/ 123

GEORGIAN POPESCU, ALEXANDRU MATEESCU

Computer-aided Translation, Trados and Google Translate,

Advantages and Disadvantages / 127

MARIA PREDESCU

Formal and Informal English-some General Remarks / 131


8

AURA IOANA PREDUȘCĂ

Activating Leadership Potential/ 135

BIANCA LOREDANA STANCIU

The State Opening of Parliament / 138

IONUȚ-DANIEL STĂNESCU

The Roman Military Structure / 144

ELENA ROXANA TICUŢĂ

Translating Humour in Subtitling / 149

NICOLETA ANDREEA UDREA

Terminology and Specialized Translation / 154

MĂDĂLINA-ELENA UNGUREANU

Difficulties When Translating Modal Verbs: an English-German-

Romanian Approach / 161

ALEXANDRA-MARIA VÎRȘESCU

The Effects of Birth Order on Personality and Achievements / 167


9

DIFFICULTÉS DE LA TRADUCTION DES NOMS

PROPRES

DANS LE FILM HARRY POTTER1

Mihaela-Bianca ANTONESCU

Langues Modernes Appliquées, 3ème année

Résumé : La traduction des noms propres joue un rôle fondamental dans le système social.

Dans ce travail, nous aborderons le problème de la traduction des noms propres. Traduire

aujourd'hui est une constante dans nos vies, une opération à laquelle beaucoup d'entre

nous, soumis à des besoins et à des raisons différents, sommes volontairement ou

involontairement soumis. Nous l'exerçons passivement et, accros au processus et désirant

ardemment le produit, nous ne nous attardons pas sur ce que pourraient être ses origines et

sa nature. Mais si nous nous arrêtons un instant pour réfléchir, par exemple, à l'étymologie

et à l'histoire du terme, nous réalisons à quel point la traduction est l'un des plus anciens

métiers d'artisanat du monde.

Mots clés : traduction, noms propres, la littérature fantastique, Harry Potter.

Considérations générales sur la traduction

C'est Heidegger qui a approfondi le sens philosophique et esthétique

du lemme Über-setzung / Übersetzung. La traduction destinée à «transférer»

une signification d’une langue à une autre, c’est-à-dire traduction littérale,

mot à mot, est une idée illusoire et naïve. Point de rencontre et de passage

entre différentes langues, cultures et littératures, lien entre le passé et le

présent, ligne imaginaire qui approche de près et de près, créateur et

modeleur de traditions, la traduction joue un rôle fondamental dans les

systèmes sociaux.

Comme le dit Charles Peirce, la traduction interlingue est une

comparaison dynamique entre deux mondes qui finit par souligner et

problématiser les différences parfois irréconciliables entre les langues et les

cultures. La traduisibilité devient un autre moyen de définir le paramètre de

la différence entre deux réalités culturelles dans un moment historique

donné (apud CATFORD, 1962: 22).

Peut-être que l'un des problèmes difficiles pour un traducteur est de

trouver une équivalence lexicale pour des choses ou des événements.

Parfois, cependant, le nom propre qui a une certaine signification, est

difficile à récupérer de la simple transcription de ce nom dans la langue

cible. Les noms propres ont un aspect très local et sont donc inconnus de la

culture cible, même si pour lesquels il existe des noms équivalents dans la

langue dans laquelle il est traduit (VINAY & DARBELNET, 1995: 93).

Nous avons choisi d’aborder ce sujet parce que d’une part la

traduction des noms propres est l’un des défis le plus intéressante et en

même temps difficile pour un traducteur. Chaque nom propre contient un

détail significatif et une valeur sémantique et stylistique. Nous essaierons

dans ce sujet de sensibiliser à l’importance du nom propre dans l’activité de

1 Coordinateur: Cristina ILINCA, maître de conférences, docteur ès lettres


10

traduction. En donnant des exemples, nous présenterons les solutions

adoptées par les traducteurs. Les objectifs de notre ouvrage sont de définir

les noms propres, d’analyser les noms propres dans différents contextes et

d’identifier leurs problèmes de traduction (chaque nom propre contient un

élément important).

Roman Jakobson a divisé la traduction en traduction

intralinguistique (interprétation de signes verbaux par d’autres signes de la

même langue), interlinguistique (interprétation de signes verbaux par des

signes dans une autre langue) et traduction intersémiotique ou transmutation

(interprétation de signes verbaux par signes non verbaux dans un autre

système sémiotique) et a utilisé la linguistique comme point de départ

(JAKOBSON, 1971: 261). Nous aimerions prendre l'interdisciplinarité de la

traductologie comme point de départ. Nous suggérons le concept de

traduction totale, ce qui signifie d'une part l'élargissement de la gamme de

problèmes et de phénomènes qui font l'objet d'études en traduction. D'autre

part, le concept de « traduction » totale symbolise la recherche d'une

méthodologie complète et une tentative de « traduire » méthodologiquement

les résultats d'autres disciplines dans un seul domaine interdisciplinaire de

traductologie.

La traduction textuelle consiste à traduire un texte complet en un

autre. C'est la traduction dans le sens traditionnel du mot. La traduction

textuelle est l’objet le plus traditionnel des études de traduction. La

traduction intra et intertextuelle est liée au fait qu’il n’existe pratiquement

aucun texte « pur » dans une culture. L'auteur, le traducteur et le lecteur ont

leur propre mémoire textuelle. La traduction extra-textuelle implique le

transfert d'un texte écrit dans une langue naturelle au moyen de codes

verbaux et non verbaux dans un autre texte. Le texte est sorti de son

environnement et présenté par différents canaux et la comparaison de

l'original et de sa traduction (par exemple, un roman et son rendu sous forme

de film) nécessite l'utilisation de divers paramètres pour assurer la

comparabilité.

La traduction est une discipline universitaire qui étudie la théorie et

la pratique de la traduction. C'est, par nature, un domaine d'étude

multilingue mais aussi interdisciplinaire puisqu'il établit des relations avec

la linguistique, les études culturelles, la philosophie, les sciences de

l'information, etc.

La traduction a été définie de nombreuses façons. Selon Mayoral

(2001: 45), il existe autant de définitions qu'il y a d'auteurs qui ont écrit sur

le sujet. Cette diversité est due au fait que la traduction est un terme à

multiples facettes. Il peut se référer à: a) le domaine général; b) le produit

(le texte qui a été traduit) ou ; c) le processus (l'acte de réaliser réellement

une traduction, autrement dit traduire). (MUNDAY, 2001: 4-5)

Il existe deux types de discours, à savoir les citations directes et

indirectes. Le devis direct enregistre exactement ce qu'un autre a dit. Si elle

est interprétée dans le contexte d'origine, elle permet à un tiers de récupérer

la signification exacte du locuteur d'origine. La traduction directe et


11

indirecte est analogue à la citation directe et indirecte. La traduction directe

tente de traduire exactement ce que l'auteur original a dit, tandis que la

traduction indirecte filtre le message afin de le rendre plus immédiatement

pertinent et compréhensible pour le lecteur cible, acceptant une certaine

perte de sens.

Le but d'une traduction directe de la Bible est de rendre accessible à

ses lecteurs modernes autant que possible le sens que l'original aurait

transmis à ses lecteurs. Une traduction indirecte, en revanche, a un objectif

beaucoup plus modeste: produire des effets contextuels immédiats. La

traduction indirecte accepte une certaine perte de ressemblance en échange

d'un impact instantané sur le lecteur.

La traduction des noms propres de la littérature fantastique

Les noms propres nécessitent un traitement particulièrement

soigneux lorsqu'ils ont un sens ; ils créent des effets comiques et décrivent

les traits de personnalité des personnages. Ne pas traduire sa signification

reviendrait à interrompre le processus de communication. L'étude s'est

concentrée sur l'identification des stratégies les plus courantes pour

comprendre comment le monde fictif de Harry Potter a été traduit, et pour

identifier quelles informations ont été perdues et ce qui a été acquis.

Dans cette saga, il ne s'agit pas de simples noms de personnages,

mais de noms « parlants ». En fait, ils contiennent des significations cachées

souvent liées à la tradition britannique; ils sont le miroir du personnage

auquel ils ont été affectés, ils le décrivent et évoquent ses caractéristiques

intrinsèques.

Tout d'abord, il est bon de mentionner les noms qui sont restés

inchangés, afin d'analyser plus en profondeur ceux qui ont été modifiés. Sur

les quarante-sept noms pris en analyse, dix-sept noms n'ont pas subi de

modifications, si l'on exclut les surnoms de certains personnages, qui ont été

traduits presque littéralement. C'est le cas d'Alastor « Mad-Eye » Moody

(« Evil Eye »), James « Prongs » Potter (« Ramoso »), Remus « Moony »

Lupin (« Lunastorta ») et Sirius « Padfoot » Black (« Padfoot »).

Les stratégies les plus couramment utilisées dans la traduction des

noms propres sont (GARCES, 2003: 124-125):

a) Substitution par un nom similaire dans la langue correspondante,

en essayant de conserver certaines significations implicites;

b) Substitution par des noms qui semblent plus familiers aux

lecteurs du texte traduit, même s'ils ne créent pas d'associations spécifiques;

c) L'utilisation de noms qui conservent le sens métaphorique et les

allusions produites

et qui cherchent à reproduire les effets phonologiques du nom du

texte original (...).

C'est le cas du professeur Snape, professeur de potions. Le nom est

conservé dans les traductions espagnole, catalane, portugaise et allemande.

Au lieu de cela, en italien, il devient «Professeur Snape», produisant ainsi

les mêmes associations (Ita. «Snape» = Eng. « Snake ») et en français

Professeur Rouge (avec le sens du rouge comme couleur du sang, mauvais).


12

Dans ce cas, des mots différents sont utilisés mais certaines des allusions

présentes dans la version originale sont conservées. Un exemple se trouve

dans la traduction du serviteur de Rusard, appelé Peeves dans la version

anglaise originale, traduit en italien sous le nom de « Pix ».

Dans Harry Potter, il existe également des constructions lexicales

pour décrire ou nommer certains personnages. Un exemple est Lord

Voldemort, appelé, dans la version originale, He-Who-Must-Not-Not-Be-

Named ou You-Know-Who. La plupart des traducteurs optent pour une

traduction mot à mot. Le nom devient ainsi « Celui-qui-ne-doit-pas-être-

nommé ». Les traducteurs roumains ont opté pour « Ştii tu cine » sau « Cel

care nu trebuie numit ».

Étant donné que la signification d'un nom n'est pas toujours claire, il

ne suffit pas que le traducteur ait une bonne connaissance de la langue

émettrice et réceptrice, mais il est nécessaire d'avoir également une

connaissance approfondie des cultures respectives. Les noms propres sont

souvent très drôles et donnent beaucoup d'informations sur la personnalité

des personnages. Dans le cas de Harry Potter, la traduction des noms qui

décrivent implicitement le personnage n'est pas du tout simple. Dans ces

cas, le traducteur doit interpréter la référence descriptive dans l'original et

essayer de transmettre les mêmes informations dans la version de la langue

de réception.

La plupart des noms des personnages se réfèrent à la langue latine.

Les exemples sont les terminaisons des noms -en -ou, -us (Agus, Lucius,

Dementor, Severus), les références à d'anciennes figures mythologiques

(exemple: Hermione, Minerva) et les formules magiques (exemple:

Wingardium Leviosa, formule qui permet faire voler des objets; de Lévis,

« lumière »).

En regardant plus en détail quelques exemples tirés du corpus de

noms propres recueillis dans les deux traductions, on peut voir que, dans les

deux, les noms du protagoniste et de ses parents (Harry, James et Lily

Potter) restent inchangés par rapport à l'original, le même a lieu, à

l'exception de la variante française Hermine pour Hermione, pour les amis

les plus proches du sorcier, Hermione Granger et Ron Weasley.

Contrairement à ce qui se passe en français, les noms des quatre

confréries, ou « Maisons », dans lesquelles les élèves de l'école de magie de

Poudlard sont divisés (dont le nom reste l'original dans les deux traductions)

sont également systématiquement traduits :Gryffondor, Poufsouffle,

Serdaigle et Serpentard. Sur la base de l'assonance avec l'original, la

confrérie d'appartenance du protagoniste est, ici, appelée Gryffondor, moins

évidente est la similitude phonétique entre les noms dans les deux langues

dans les autres cas qui se réfèrent, probablement par analogie avec la

précédente (aucun lien sémantique n'est par exemple reconnaissable entre

Poufsouffle et Poufsouffle).

Conclusions

La traduction des noms propres est l'un des défis les plus difficiles.

Notre travail traite de la traduction des noms propres, dans laquelle les


13

méthodes générales adoptées dans la traduction des noms propres et les

problèmes découlant des relations spécifiques entre les langues d'émission et

de réception sont analysés. La première partie de notre étude présente les

théories de la traduction. Les noms propres nécessitent un traitement

particulièrement soigneux lorsqu'ils ont un sens; ils créent des effets

comiques et décrivent les traits de personnalité des personnages. Ne pas

traduire sa signification reviendrait à interrompre le processus de

communication.

Bibliographie:

Catford, J.C., 1962. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. London, Oxford University Press,

p. 22.

Jakobson, R., 1971, “First One to coin the Term Semiotic Translation”.

Mayoral, R., 2001, “Aspectos epistemologicos de la traduction‘’, Castello : Servei de

Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I.

Munday, J., 2001. Présentation des études de traduction - Théories et applications.

Routledge: Londres et New York.

Vinay J.-P. & Darbelnet J. 2004. A methodology for Translation. The Translation Studies

Reader, Routledge: 84-93.

Vinay, J. P. et Darbelnet, J., 1995. Comparative Stylistics of French and English: A

Methodology for Translation. Traduit par J. C. Sager et M. J. Hamel. Amsterdam et

Philadelphie: John Benjamins.

Corpus :

Rowling J.K. 1997. Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone. London.

Rowling, J. K., 1997. Harry Potter et la pierre philosophale. Londres: Bloomsbury.

Rowling, J. K., 1998. Harry Potter et la chambre des secrets. Londres: Bloomsbury.

Rowling, J. K., 2000. Haris Poteris ir išminties akmuo. Traduit de l'anglais par Zita

Marienė. Vilnius: Alma Littera.

Sitographie

https://bytelevel.com/global/translating_harry_potter.html [consulté en avril 2020].

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Potter_in_translation [consulté en avril 2020].

http://harrypotter.wikia.com/wiki/Main_Page [consulté en avril 2020].

https://www.pottermore.com/ [consulté en avril 2020].

https://bytelevel.com/global/translating_harry_potter.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Potter_in_translation

http://harrypotter.wikia.com/wiki/Main_Page

https://www.pottermore.com/


14

AUTOMOBILE CLASSIQUE vs. AUTOMOBILE

ÉLECTRIQUE1

Mihai Alexandru BADEA

Véhicules routiers, 2ème année

Résumé: Le débat automobile classique/ automobile électrique existe déjà depuis des

années. Au début, parler de l’électrique semblait quelque chose tiré des contes de science-

fiction. De nos jours, ce n’est pas le cas. L’électrique s’impose de plus en plus, même si les

« partisans » de l’automobile classique restent encore nombreux.

Mots clé : classique/ électrique, consommation, prix, autonomie, pollution.

Introduction

On a choisi ce thème car, lorsqu’on dit « électrique » dans l’industrie

automobile d’aujourd’hui, on dit « avenir ». De nos jours, on assiste à une

période de profonde transformation dans le secteur automobile, les

constructeurs investissant plus de ressources dans le segment des véhicules

électriques.

Automobile électrique

La première automobile électrique a été construite par Robert Anderson en

1830. Au début du XXe siècle, les automobiles électriques se trouvaient à

70-80 % grâce au fait que celles thermiques étaient plus difficiles à

conduire (le conducteur devait être attentif à l’échange de vitesse parce que,

à l’époque, il n’y avait pas de synchroniseurs et le démarrage se faisait à

l’aide d’une manivelle) (OPREAN, 2019 :256). De ce fait ce sont les

femmes qui optaient pour un véhicule électrique. Lors de l’apparition du

démarreur électrique, les automobiles électriques ont disparu du marché. Au

cours des années 1996 – 1999, General Motors a lancé une automobile

électrique moderne, mais elle a été retirée du marché à cause des pressions

les grandes compagnies pétrolières. L’année 2008 représente le début de

l’âge d’or des automobiles électriques. Beaucoup de constructeurs

automobiles ont introduit la propulsion électrique dans la production en

série: Tesla, BMW, Renault, Citroën, Mitsubishi sont quelques-unes des

plus connues compagnies produisant des véhicules électriques.

Une automobile électrique utilise de l’énergie électrique pour mouvoir,

utilisant un ou plusieurs moteurs électriques. Dans le moteur électrique, un

courant alternatif crée autour d’un stator un champ magnétique variable

dans le temps qui met en mouvement le rotor dont la vitesse de rotation est

proportionnelle à la fréquence du courant qui parcourt le moteur. Le

mouvement créé est ensuite dirigé vers les roues via un réducteur. Ce

réducteur a un seul rapport de transmission, ayant le rôle d’adapter le couple

et le régime transmis (BABESCU, 2009 : 112).

Le moteur électrique peut jouer aussi le rôle de générateur en transformant

l’énergie mécanique en énergie électrique lorsque le conducteur lève le pied

1 Coordinateur: Angela ICONARU, chargée de cours, docteur ès lettres


15

de l’accélérateur. Ensuite l’énergie est stockée dans la batterie contribuant à

l’augmentation d’autonomie.

Presque tout le temps c’est une batterie qui fournit le courant pour le moteur

électrique, offrant entre 15 et 100 kWh de capacité. La recharge de la

batterie se fait à l’aide d’un câble qui branche le véhicule au réseau

électrique. Il y a aussi des méthodes alternatives de recharge, comme le

“Wirellescharging” ou le freinage régénératif. La première méthode

recharge le véhicule sans câble à l’aide de l’induction électromagnétique et

la deuxième méthode recharge le véhicule en convertissant l’énergie

cinétique dissipée pendant le freinage en énergie électrique qui est ensuite

stockée dans la batterie du véhicule. La dernière technologie de recharge

s’appelle “Battery Swap” et avec elle on peut recharger un véhicule

électrique en seulement 3 minutes en changeant la batterie dans un “Baterry

Swap Station”( ECKERMANN, 2001: 287) où elle est remplacée avec une

autre chargée. Pour l’instant on retrouve cette technologie seulement en

Chine grâce au constructeur automobile NIO, mais à l’avenir grâce au

service “Batterie as a Service” la technologie va se répandre.

Cette importance tournée vers les automobiles électriques est due au fait

qu’elles ont zéro émission à l’échappement.

Avantages et Inconvénients

Avantages

• Zéro émission de CO2 et de polluants pendant l’utilisation

• Pas de pollution phonique

• Le coût de l’électricité réduit, voire gratuit

• Peu d’entretien, fiabilité

• Subventions du gouvernement pour l’achat

• Les acheteurs sont dispensés de quelques taxes

• L’usure du moteur moins sévère

• Pas de problèmes de démarrage ; même en hiver

• Du parking réservé dans les centre-ville

• L’impact sur l’environnement et la santé publique est bien meilleur

• Le rendement élevé >90%

• Le couple de démarrage maximum

Inconvénients

• Prix d’achat élevé

• Les émissions de CO2 et des polluants dues à la fabrication de la

batterie

• Le danger pour les piétons car elle est trop silencieuse

• Le temps de recharge trop long

• L’autonomie située entre seulement 100 et 500 km

• Le nombre limité de bornes de recharge

• Moins de boulots pour les gens travaillant dans l’industrie

automobile

• Intérêt limité au dehors du ville


16

Automobile classique

Les premières automobiles qui pouvaient être utilisées et qui fonctionnaient

à l’aide d’un moteur à combustion interne ont été réalisées par Karl Benz et

Gottlieb Daimler en 1886 les projets étant développé indépendante. Ensuite,

la fabrication des automobiles en grande série est introduite par Henry Ford.

En 1908 est réalisée le célèbre Ford T qui a révolutionné sans précédent le

développement du secteur du transport ce qui a permis aux moteurs

thermiques de conquérir le XXIe siècle.

Une automobile classique utilise de l’énergie chimique provenant dans des

combustibles fossiles pour mouvoir. Dans le moteur thermique, la chaleur

résulte à l’issue de la combustion est transformée en puissance motrice. Le

flux de puissance est dirigé vers les roues pas avant de traverser la

transmission qui a le but de multiplier le moment moteur et de démultiplier

le régime. Ensuite, les roues motrices transforment leur mouvement de

rotation en mouvement de translation du véhicule (OPREAN, 2019 :257).

Avantages et Inconvénients

Avantages

• Le prix d’achat convenable.

• L’autonomie élevée.

• Les gens y sont habitués.

• Le nombre élevé des stations service .

• Le temps de recharge reste très réduit.

• Sa notoriété.

Inconvénients

• Plus polluant à l’utilisation.

• Plus de pollution phonique.

• Maintenance coûteuse.

• Construction complexe.

• Le rendement reste faible <50%.

• Les problèmes de démarrage, particulièrement pendant l’hiver.

• Les prix des combustibles.

• L’usure du moteur.

Conclusion

Assistons-nous aux derniers jours des moteurs à combustible fossile ? Peut-

être. L’essor formidable des moteurs électriques ces dernières années, leur

amélioration constante quant à l’autonomie, la durée de la recharge

(inconvénients majeurs au début) nous font croire que l’avenir est à

l’électrique. Pour le moment, leur prix reste quand même un peu

« prohibitif » mais, dans quelques années, quand le moteur électrique se sera

généralisé, ce ne sera plus le cas, peut-être. Finalement, l’argument le plus

fort en faveur de l’électrique devrait être la réduction de la pollution.

Bibliographie

Babescu, M., Vehicule electrice hibride, Ed. Politehnica, 2009.


17

Bălan, Ştefan, Mihăilescu, Nicolae Şt., Istoria ştiinţei şi tehnicii în România. Date

cronologice, Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România, Bucureşti, 1985.

Eckermann, Erik, World History of the Automobile, Editor: Society of Automotive

Engineers, 2001.

Oniciu, L. (coordonator), Conversia electrochimică a energiei Editura Științifică și

Enciclopedică, București, 1977.

Oprean, Mircea, Andreescu, Cristian, Dumitrache, Nicu, Chiru, Anghel, Băţăuş, Marius,

Capitolul 6, Istoria Autovehiculelor în Istoria tehnicii si a industriei romanesti. Vol II

(pp.253-282), Editura Academiei Romane, 2019.


18

L'EMPRUNT: LUXE OU NÉCESSITÉ1

Irina Mădălina BURCEA

Langages Spécialisés et Traduction Assistée par Ordinateur, 2ème

année

Résumé: Le présent article est consacré à l’étude des termes français liés aux nouvelles

technologies d’information, empruntes à l’anglais. Le corpus utilisé dans le cadre de notre

analyse a réussi à faciliter ce trajet, en contribuant à l’approfondissement de cette

problématique; il est constitué de deux discours spécifiques au domaine de l’informatique,

rédigés en anglais et en français. Nous allons essayer de les comparer et se rendre compte

quelle est la tendance: utilisation des anglicismes ou des équivalents, afin d’élucider le

mystère concernant l’invasion des emprunts linguistiques.

Mots-clés: terminologie, emprunts, anglicismes, TIC

Définitions et caractéristiques des emprunts

Réputé comme un processus essentiel concernant l’enrichissement

d’une langue du point de vue lexical, comme le soutient également

Cheriguen « devant une nécessite d’exprimer une réalité étrangère à la

langue du locuteur, il ne peut faire autrement qu’appeler les choses par leur

nom » (CHERIGUEN, 2002: 48), l’emprunt linguistique est défini en termes

générales comme étant une transmission d’éléments d’une langue à une

autre, sans faire appel à la traduction.

Une exploration large et diversifiée des emprunts a débuté dans les

années 60, particulièrement dans la langue anglaise. La plupart des

recherches, menées par Colpron, Pergnier ou Darbelnet, visent la langue

générale. Toutefois, depuis les années 80, à cause de l’expansion du

domaine de l’informatique, quelques chercheurs ont commencé à

s’intéresser à l’influence exercée par l’anglais sur les domaines scientifiques

et techniques.

Dubois soutient « qu’il y a emprunt linguistique quand un parler A

utilise et finit par intégrer une unité ou un trait linguistique qui existait

précédemment dans un parler B et que A ne possédait pas » (DUBOIS,

1973: 188).

Le dictionnaire Le Robert définit l’emprunt comme étant un « acte

par lequel une langue accueille un élément d’une autre langue » (LE

ROBERT, 2010). De la même manière, Corbeil définit l’emprunt comme

étant « tout phénomène de passage d’un mot d’une langue dite langue

source dans une autre langue, dite langue emprunteuse » (CORBEIL, 1994:

15). Il est considéré également comme un résultat: « on parlera d’un

emprunt quand un mot d’origine anglaise est intégré au français et accepté

par l’ensemble de la communauté » (THEORET, 1994: 80). L’emprunt est

apprécié comme étant, d’un côté, un processus et d’un autre côté, un

1 Coordinateur: Marina TOMESCU, maître de conférences, docteur ès lettres


19

résultat, tout en restant « explicitement diachronique et translinguistique »

(LERAT, 1987: 138).

Gaston Paris expose une définition de l’emprunt assez complexe mais

qui réussit à regrouper les éléments sur lesquels est fondé ce phénomène. Il

affirme que « les emprunts que fait un peuple soit à des langues mortes, soit

aux idiomes de ses voisins témoignent à la fois des lacunes qui existaient

dans son vocabulaire et de sa capacité à accueillir de nouvelles idées ou de

nouveaux éléments de culture; ils attestent, en même temps, l’influence

exercée sur ce peuple, soit par l’instruction, qu’il acquiert, soit par le

commerce plus ou moins amical des étrangers avec lesquels il se trouve en

rapport » (FATHI, 1966: 18).

Selon Ourfahli (2010: 21), le terme emprunt est constitué de quatre

éléments:

- le préteur

- la chose empruntée

- l’emprunteur

- l’action d’emprunter

Après avoir fait une analyse exhaustive de ces composantes, on

remarque des significations plus profondes. À première vue, l’emprunt

linguistique indique un échange. Toutefois, il est évident que dans ce cas,

l’emprunteur ne restitue aucun élément. Il s’agit uniquement « d’une

imitation d’une unité lexicale d’une autre langue qui sera ensuite adaptée, à

des degrés divers dans la langue d’arrivée » (LOVECCHIO, 2008: 25). Dans

cette situation, les emprunts sont utilisés pour introduire dans une langue

donnée des concepts qui n’existent pas dans le lexique afin de désigner des

objets.

Weinreich (traduit par Lovecchio) considère « qu’il s’agit d’une

interférence-lexicale ou grammaticale entre deux langues qui sont en

contact, une situation dans laquelle deux ou plusieurs langues sont

employées dans un même espace et où de nouvelles réalités doivent être

articulées » (LOVECCHIO, 2008: 25).

Pergnier affirme que l’emprunt suppose « l’introduction d’un signifiant,

c’est-à-dire d’une forme phonique et graphique nouvelle » (PERGNIER,

1989: 30) dans la langue qui incorpore une unité linguistique. Par contre,

Delisle caractérise l’emprunt comme étant un procédé de traduction qui

implique « intégrer tel quel dans le texte d’arrivée un mot appartenant à une

autre langue, soit parce que la langue d’arrivée ne dispose pas d’un

équivalent, soit pour des raisons d’ordre rhétorique » (DELISLE, 1997: 29).

D’autres linguistes, comme par exemple Georges Motore, définissent

l’emprunt linguistique d’une manière différente, en l’incluant dans la

catégorie des néologismes: « acceptation nouvelle introduite dans le

vocabulaire d’une langue à une époque déterminée » (FATHI, 1966: 17).

Les spécialistes estiment que l’emprunt est un moyen

d’enrichissement, ce qui représente parfois un réel péril quand il remplace

des termes bien enracinés. Bien qu’il soit un phénomène découvert depuis

l’Antiquité, l’impact de ces termes étrangers sur la langue d’accueil reste un

sujet controversé qui suscite de longs débats.


20

La transmission et l’intégration de l’emprunt dans le domaine de

l’informatique

Dans le contexte d’une commercialisation dynamique des appareils

électroniques, les emprunts voyagent aux quatre coins du monde, en laissant

leurs traces dans le lexique de chaque langue. Suivre le trajet des emprunts

nous offre la possibilité de comprendre leurs origines, significations et

statuts acquis dans la langue d’accueil, comme le soutient également Baider

Fabienne « Suivre les mots à travers leur histoire permet aussi

d’appréhender leur nomadisme: leur voyage d’une discipline à l’autre, d’une

discipline à la langue commune, de la langue commune à la spécialité »

(BAIDER, 2007: 51).

En revanche, l’identification du premier usage d’un emprunt reste

une question controversée parce que c’est presque impossible de repérer

d’une manière précise le moment de son assimilation: « il est à peine

possible de localiser le moment exact de l’emprunt » (LOVECCHIO, 2008:

32).

Au niveau des échanges interlinguaux, les emprunts sont devenus le

centre d’intérêt de toute langue en matière d’expansion lexicale. En fait, on

peut considérer que « tout est empruntable et tout a été emprunté »

(OURFAHLI, 2010). La différence consiste dans le fait que chaque élément

détient un certain degré de facilité et fréquence au moment de l’emprunt.

Les éléments lexicaux ont la tendance d’être plus empruntables que ceux

grammaticaux.

Josette Rey-Debove signale que « les emprunts à l’anglais créent des

irrégularités lexicales » (REY-DEBOVE, 1998: 167) ce qui nous conduit au

témoignage de Lovecchio qui affirme que « les vocabulaires anglais et

français se caractérisent des fois par des ressemblances : graphiques,

phonétiques et sémantiques » (LOVECCHIO, 2008: 67). C’est ainsi que

survient « l’internationalisme lexical » (DEROY, 1956: 334), c’est-à-dire le

repérage à peine des anglicismes dans le lexique français.

Il faut mentionner également la polysémie qui est en rapport direct

avec le processus de répartition des dénominations aux contenus

sémantiques. Par exemple, le mot souris a plusieurs sens, mais une seule

appellation. Il s’agit dans ce cas de la répartition d’un signifiant aux

différents signifiés.

Mode ou nécessité

À l’heure actuelle, les nouvelles technologies d’information se

trouvent en plein essor, en s’emparant de notre vie personnelle et

professionnelle. Cette invasion de la technique engendre également des

modifications qui touchent le vocabulaire des langues. On constate une

augmentation significative de nouveaux termes pour désigner les nouvelles

réalités.

Les emprunts peuvent entraîner le bouleversement des traditions et

la perte de l’originalité des langues emprunteuses, dans le but d’obtenir un

vocabulaire clair et précis.

« Pour l’optimiste, l’emprunt est un enrichissement de la langue;

pour le pessimiste, il en est une altération regrettable » (DEROY, 1956:


21

325). Mais, franchement l’idée de langue pure est illusoire parce que tous

les mots tirent leur origine d’une autre langue.

La mondialisation ne cesse de nous impressionner, plus

particulièrement dans le domaine de l’informatique. Un seul terme a la

capacité de faire le tour du monde en 24 secondes au moment où il sert à

dénommer un besoin urgent, comme cela a été le cas de l’anglicisme

Internet.

Les contributions étrangères apportent des bénéfices quand elles

remplissent les conditions suivantes:

- Il n’y a aucun mot français qui puisse rendre le contenu sémantique;

- Il est trop difficile de créer un néologisme français avec la même

signification;

- Il s’avérait lourd de faire appel à une périphrase;

- Il n’existe pas une enfreinte abusive des règles graphiques et

phonétiques ou de la cohérence de la langue.

L’emprunt de mode

C’est un genre d’emprunt réputé à cette époque, étant également

critiqué par les spécialistes à cause de son manque d’efficacité, comme

l’affirme Deroy « logiquement inutile et qui a été pris alors qu’une

désignation existait ou était possible dans la langue emprunteuse »

(DEROY, 1956: 84).

L’emprunt de mode « dénomme une réalité qui a déjà un nom

français » (REY-DEBOVE, 1998: 174). Un exemple concret est représenté

par l’emprunt anglais e-mail qui a déjà un correspondent en français, c’est-

à-dire courrier électronique. L’emprunt de mode est employé dans la

plupart des cas par les jeunes internautes.

Les emprunts de mode appartenant au domaine de l’informatique

sont souvent utilisés dans la langue française pour faciliter la

compréhension, comme c’est le cas de l’anglicisme CD qui représente

l’abréviation de l’expression Compact disc. La fréquence avec laquelle ce

terme est employé est très élevée, bien qu’il existe un équivalent français, il

s’agit du terme disque. Les utilisateurs ont la tendance de faire appel plutôt

aux anglicismes qu’aux équivalents français à cause de leur caractère

avantageux du point de vue de la prononciation.

La majorité des linguistes considèrent ce processus comme étant

redondant, comme le soutient Rey-Debove « On a alors le sentiment que les

mots français sont ou doublés ou évincés, que ce qui était tout à l’heure un

enrichissement est à présent une redondance ou une substitution mutilatrice»

(REY-DEBOVE, 1998: 174). Il peut provoquer de la confusion parmi les

utilisateurs ou encore de l’insécurité du point de vue sémantique pour ceux

qui ne maîtrisent pas la langue anglaise.

Par conséquent, son utilisation ne conduit pas à un enrichissement

du vocabulaire, mais au contraire il est plutôt toxique pour la langue, étant

souvent le résultat d’un snobisme linguistique ou d’un politique de

marketing.


22

L’emprunt de nécessité

On fait appel à l’emprunt en général pour exposer des réalités

étrangères. L’emprunt de nécessité vise à combler des lacunes lexicales, son

rôle étant plutôt pratique, comme c’est le cas des termes Windows xp ou

Web, qui sont très répandus grâce à leur usage intense. Leur transmission est

réalisée d’une manière très rapide à cause de leur importance dans le lexique

informatique. Un autre exemple qui illustre ce phénomène est représenté par

le terme Google qui constitue un moteur de recherche électronique utilisé

partout dans le monde.

On constate qu’il y a un nombre important d’emprunts informatiques

de nécessité d’origine anglaise qui se retrouvent dans le lexique français à

cause de la domination de l’univers anglo-saxon dans le domaine de

nouvelles technologies d’information. La nécessité est confirmée par le vide

lexical existant dans le vocabulaire informatique du français plus

particulièrement quand il s’agit des logiciels ou programmes.

En même temps, Rey-Debove considère que l’emprunt de nécessité

peut être divisé en deux catégories: « les xénismes, servent à parler des

réalités étrangères, qui n’existent pas en France et les autres désignent des

réalités étrangères acclimatées en France » (REY-DEBOVE, 1998: 174). La

première catégorie possède une fréquence basse, exposant une réalité anglo-

saxonne et la deuxième catégorie est souvent substituée par des termes

français, parce qu’en France l’invasion des mots étrangères dans l’univers

familier n’est pas toléré aisément. Toutefois, les anglicismes ne peuvent pas

être complètement substitués, c’est pourquoi il surgit la nécessité de les

introduire dans le lexique afin de faciliter l’utilisation de la technologie.

En conclusion, les emprunts représentent un phénomène actuel qui

génère de réels avantages lorsqu’ils font l’objet d’une importation

rationnelle et justifiée.

Bibliographie

Baider, Fabienne, 2007, Emprunt linguistique, empruntes culturelles, L’Harmattan, Paris.

Deroy, Louis, 1956, L’emprunt linguistique, Les belles lettres, Paris.

Dubois, Jean, 1973, Dictionnaire de linguistique, Paris: librairie Larousse.

Pergnier, Maurice, 1989, Les anglicismes: Danger ou enrichissement pour la langue

française, Presse Universitaire de France, Paris.

Rey-Debove, Josette, 1998, La linguistique du signe: une approche sémiotique du langage,

Armand Colin, Paris.

Seridj, Fouad, 2012, Étude lexico-sémantique des anglicismes informatiques dans la langue

française: Cas des revues électroniques, Université de Béjaïa, Algérie.

Seridj, Fouad, 2013, « De l’intégration des emprunts français a l’anglais: cas des

anglicismes informatiques dans les revues en ligne » dans Synergies, no 19, Université de

Béjaïa, Algérie.


23

LA FONCTION DU RÉVISEUR DES TRADUCTIONS1

Alexandra-Mihaela MATEI


année

Résumé: Le présent article essaie de donner des détails sur la profession de réviseur. On

verra que le réviseur est celui qui traduit, révise, adapte et relit des documents divers et

complexes dans une grande variété de domaines : technologie, droit, histoire, arts,

littérature, économie, finance, informatique, politique, science, sports. Il lui appartient de

transposer les observations quotidiennes ou tout type de texte dans une autre langue et de

contrôler la qualité des textes écrits ou traduits.

Pour exercer la fonction de révision, le réviseur doit posséder certaines compétences,

parmi lesquelles une excellente connaissance et maîtrise de la langue cible ainsi que de la

langue source, maîtrise des outils de traduction assistée par ordinateur, rigueur, autonomie

et précision, très bonne orthographe et syntaxe, compétences d'adaptation et

d'interprétation et des qualités éditoriales.

Mots-clés: révision, réviseur, traduction, communication.

La fonction de révision est décrite comme la fonction de réciter

soigneusement un texte préalablement traduit par un traducteur de la langue

source dans la langue cible. Avec des connaissances linguistiques

approfondies et des compétences en communication écrite, le réviseur sera

mis au défi d'améliorer la qualité des textes confiés, de prendre soin de leur

contenu et de leur forme, afin que le lecteur puisse avoir des documents

clairs, précis et sans ambiguïté.

Compétences et de qualifications du réviseur

Le réviseur doit avoir un certain nombre de compétences et de qualifications

requises pour la fonction de révision :

- Excellente connaissance et maîtrise de la langue cible ainsi que de la

langue source ;

- Maîtrise des outils de traduction assistée par ordinateur ;

- Attraction pour la culture ;

- Rigueur, autonomie et précision ;

- Gestion terminologique ;

- Très bonne orthographe et syntaxe ;

- Qualités éditoriales ;

- Compétences d'adaptation et d'interprétation.

On peut distinguer quatre catégories de réviseurs :

- Le réviseur linguistique est celui qui s'occupe de la révision

linguistique d'une traduction. Il doit avoir une connaissance

linguistique approfondie et doit être capable de distinguer les aspects

de la langue du texte tels que : langage de spécialité, norme

linguistique et usage de la langue et adaptation au destinataire.

- Le réviseur thématique est celui qui examine le contenu d'une



24

traduction. Il doit être un spécialiste du sujet du texte ou un bon

connaisseur du domaine, afin de reconnaître certains aspects relatifs

du contenu, tels que : logique, donnes et langage de spécialité.

- Le réviseur-traducteur est le responsable de la révision

fonctionnelle. Il doit avoir une compétence en traduction et une

expérience professionnelle pour détecter les aspects relatifs de la

fonction contextuelle du texte, tels que : adaptation au destinataire,

exactitude et intégralité.

- Le réviseur typographique est celui qui s'occupe de la révision

typographique d'une traduction. Il doit être une personne possédant

des connaissances professionnelles approfondies et une expérience

en typographie, grammaire et disposition graphique pour rendre les

aspects relatifs à la présentation du texte, tels que : intégralité,

disposition graphique et orthotypographie.

Types de révisions

Selon Brunette (2007), nous pouvons distinguer plusieurs types de

révision en fonction des rapports interpersonnels du reviseur. Ainsi, en

autorévision, le traducteur est également réviseur. Une fois la traduction du

texte terminée, le traducteur accorde un certain temps pour obtenir le

détachement nécessaire avant de commencer la révision. Dans la révision

interne, le réviseur peut être un autre traducteur, tandis que dans la révision

externe, il s’agit d’un spécialiste dans le domaine du texte à traduire, qui

connaît également très bien la langue de départ. Les révisions interne et

externe peuvent également être effectuées à distance via e-mail entre des

traducteurs du même niveau. Mossop a appelé cette façon l'interrévision.

En 1991, Rega a classé les interventions et les approches d'un

réviseur en trois catégories. Le principe sur lequel cette classification était

fondée était celui de l'aspect interpersonnel en termes d'adaptation du texte

aux normes et conventions rhétoriques et stylistiques du genre auquel le

texte appartient dans la langue-culture de la langue cible.

Les interventions subjectives se caractérisent par des habitudes

éditoriales personnelles et la discrétion du réviseur. Ils ne sont pas

strictement nécessaires, ils ne représentent que des possibilités différentes de

celles proposées par le traducteur. Ce type d'interventions stylistiques

subjectives n'est justifié que si le principe du « plaisir du stylo rouge » est

invoqué, comme le disait Jacques Permentiers (PERMENTIERS et coll.,

1996 : 51). Le sujet a également été débattu par Mossop, qui partageait la

même opinion. Il a catégorisé cette attitude du réviseur comme étant erronée

et a soutenu que les questions qu'un réviseur devrait se poser sont « Le texte

a-t-il besoin d’être amélioré ? » et « Comment puis-je justifier ce

changement ? » et non « Comment aurais-je traduit ce texte ? » (MOSSOP,

2001 : 144). En posant ces questions, le réviseur montre qu'il respecte le

travail du traducteur et comprend les compromis nécessaires entre qualité et

délais. Cette catégorie comprend les hyperrévisions, les révisions qui

n'améliorent pas la traduction, au contraire, peuvent introduire des erreurs de

traduction. Un réviseur avec une approche subjective est un réviseur

inexpérimenté. Les interventions subjectives doivent être évitées, elles sont


25

coûteuses, potentiellement nuisibles et augmentent le risque d'erreurs de

traduction. Les grandes organisations ont développé plusieurs stratégies

pour éviter d'utiliser ces approches. L'Union européenne et l'ONU ont créé

des mécanismes d'évaluation des articles de synthèse (COSMAI, 2007: 110-

114 ; DURIEUX, 1998b).

Les interventions objectivement motivables visent à améliorer les

aspects formels du texte pour plus de concision, une clarté accrue de la

traduction et afin de s'adapter aux attentes stylistiques du destinataire. Cette

catégorie d'interventions stylistiques est celle qui caractérise le réviseur. En

1999, Magris a développé une étude sur les relations entre les processus

cognitifs du réviseur et la qualité du produit final. Il a mentionné que de

telles interventions entraînent des non-linéarités et des non-uniformités du

processus de révision et qu'une tolérance croissante du réviseur envers la

version produite par le traducteur est inévitable. Il existe trois tendances que

l'on retrouve dans les traductions, quelle que soit la langue source et la

langue cible, qui caractérisent les interventions stylistiques des réviseurs et

sont souvent utilisées dans un environnement éducatif pour guider la

révision professionnelle.

Les interventions spécialisées représentent les prérogatives de la

traduction spécialisée. Ils peuvent être abordés de façon lexicale,

terminologique ou mal interprétée en termes de contenu textuel. Cette

catégorie est souvent recherchée, le besoin d'une traduction spécialisée étant

très élevé. Il existe cependant des cas où, bien que le réviseur ait une

connaissance approfondie du domaine en question, il ne possède aucune

expérience en matière d'examen et peut donc créer des incohérences

terminologiques dans le produit final et des omissions. De telles situations

rendent parfois la traduction entière moins précise que l'original

(CORTESE, 1999 : 336-337).

Brunette propose également une approche de la révision, à savoir

celle de regarder le texte traduit avec les yeux du destinataire, le principe

fresh eyes (BRUNETTE, 2000 : 172). Il suggère qu'une correction n'est

nécessaire que si la traduction est incompréhensible sans recourir au texte

source, si une lecture répétitive d'une phrase à la compréhension est

nécessaire, ou si une grave erreur de langage est constatée.

Aspects de de communication liés à la fonction du réviseur

Lorsque nous parlons de communication, nous parlons d'un

ensemble d'actions qui ont en commun la transmission d'informations sous

forme de messages, d'actualités, de signes ou de gestes symboliques, de

textes écrits, entre deux individus, appelés interlocuteurs, ou plus

formellement, expéditeur et destinataire.

Les aspects linguistiques représentent l'une des grandes difficultés

auxquelles est confronté un réviseur en traduction. Roger T. Bell a soutenu

que lorsque nous traduisons et révisons un texte, il n'y a pas de

correspondance absolue du texte traduit avec l'original. Le texte traduit est

une reconstruction, pas une copie du texte original. Cependant, le message

dans la langue cible n'a pas besoin d'être modifié lorsqu'il atteint le

destinataire.


26

L'un des problèmes de langue auxquels un réviseur est confronté est

la détection de mots spécifiques dans la langue source, de sorte que leur

rendu dans la langue cible garde le même contexte. Les faux équivalents

causent également des difficultés dans le processus de traduction et de

révision.

Le réviseur doit prouver une valeur esthétique incontestable. Dans

ces conditions, le travail du réviseur est extrêmement important. Il est

responsable du maintien de la signification et du contexte d'origine du texte

dans la langue cible. Une fois envoyé pour révision, le texte sera vérifié en

tenant compte de tous les aspects, grammatical, stylistique, contextes,

orthographe. Toute omission négligée par le traducteur doit être détectée et

corrigée par lui. Il est donc très important que le réviseur comprenne très

bien le contenu du document sur lequel il travaille afin de maintenir

l'intégrité du matériel original.

Lorsqu'il s'agit de réviser des traductions spécialisées, les difficultés

rencontrées par un réviseur sont encore plus grandes. En général, les langues

spécialisées sont souvent ambiguës et loin d'être comprises par le traducteur.

Nous parlons ici de textes non littéraires, de textes académiques écrits par

des scientifiques, dans le but de transmettre des informations liées à des

données exactes, des faits concrets et divers phénomènes. Ces textes sont

dépourvus d'expressivité, l'accent étant mis sur les hypothèses, les idées, les

définitions et les notions dans le domaine respectif, le langage ayant une

fonction cognitive. Les textes scientifiques sont écrits avec un grand nombre

de néologismes, ils sont concis et n'utilisent que des mots ayant leur propre

sens. Les textes spécialisés peuvent provenir de plusieurs domaines :

juridique, commercial, scientifique, médical, technique, financier, etc. Pour

exécuter la fonction de révision, le réviseur doit également se spécialiser

dans le domaine auquel appartient le document.

Les variables du réviseur

Comme le suggère Jääskelaïnen (2010 : 215), nous devons

comprendre de manière pragmatique le terme « réviseur professionnel ». Il a

développé une définition d'un traducteur professionnel : « Anyone who

earns their living by translating is a professionnal translator».

La première variable du réviseur est représentée par l'expérience en

traduction et révision. Afin d'étudier le lien entre l'expérience de traduction

et de révision d'une part et la qualité de la révision, le potentiel de détection

d'erreur et la durée du processus de révision, d'autre part, au fil du temps, un

coefficient de corrélation a été calculé entre ces variables. Après quelques

analyses dans lesquelles la valeur de ce coefficient a été suivie de près,

aucune corrélation significative n'a été trouvée. Ainsi, il a été conclu que ni

la qualité de la révision, ni le potentiel de détection, ni la durée du processus

de révision ne sont liés à l'expérience de la traduction ou de la révision.

La seconde variable du réviseur est liée aux habitudes en matière de

procédures de révision. Dans son étude de 2012, Isabelle Robert a utilisé les

quatre procédures de traduction (A, B, C et D) et a réalisé une expérience

avec des réviseurs professionnels. Pour identifier le lien entre les procédures

utilisées et la qualité de la révision, elle a commencé par attribuer un score à


27

chaque procédure de révision en fonction de sa fréquence d'utilisation,

établissant ainsi le rang moyen pour chaque procédure. Les procédures C et

D sont similaires, toutes deux comportent deux étapes : la procédure C

consiste en une correction bilingue suivie d'une correction unilingue, tandis

que la procédure D est l'inverse, consistant en une correction unilingue

suivie d'une correction bilingue.

Bibliographie

Guasco, Patrizia, 2013, « La révision bilingue : Principes et pratiques », EDUCatt, Milano,

consulté le 03 mars 2020.

Martin, Charles, 2012, « La face cachée de la révision », Traduire Revue française de la

traduction, vol. 227, pp. 93 – 100, URL

file:///C:/Users/ay46496/AppData/Local/Packages/Microsoft.MicrosoftEdge_8wekyb3d8bb

we/TempState/Downloads/traduire-493%20(1).pdf, consulté le 17 mars.

Morin-Hernandez, Katell, 2009, « Pratiques et perceptions de la révision en France »,

Traduire Revue française de la traduction, vol. 221, pp. 58 -78, URL

file:///C:/Users/ay46496/AppData/Local/Packages/Microsoft.MicrosoftEdge_8wekyb3d8bb

we/TempState/Downloads/traduire-368%20(1).pdf, consulté le 02 avril 2019.

Mossop, Brian, 2010, « Revising and editing for translators », 2e edition, Manchester, St.

Jerome.

Robert, Isabelle, 2012, « La révision en traduction : les procédures de révision et leur

impact sur le produit et le processus de révision », Universiteit Antwerpen – Artesis

Hogeschool Antwerpen, Anvers.

Robert, Isabelle, 2008, « Translation Revision Procedures : An Explorative Study »,

Universiteit Antwerpen – Artesis Hogeschool Antwerpen, Anvers, consulté le 23 février

2020.

file:///C:/Users/ay46496/AppData/Local/Packages/Microsoft.MicrosoftEdge_8wekyb3d8bbwe/TempState/Downloads/traduire-493%20(1).pdf





28

LA FORMATION ET LE RȎLE D'UN TRADUCTEUR

PROFESSIONNEL1

Anamaria Georgiana NEDEA


année

Résumé: Le présent article est consacré à l'étude de la traduction, qui a été établie en tant

que profession qu’au XXe siècle, mais notre intérêt porte surtout sur la traduction

technique et le traducteur professionnel. La traduction technique représente parfois un

obstacle pour un traducteur professionnel, car elle englobe une catégorie vaste des

domaines et le traducteur doit être spécialisé pour réussir à fournir de la qualité de ses

traductions.

Mots-clés: traduction, traducteur, qualité.

Le statut du traducteur professionnel

En général, un traducteur connaît une langue active de travail, à

savoir la langue dans laquelle il/elle traduit, et plusieurs langues de travail

passives, représentées par les langues à partir desquelles la traduction a lieu.

La plupart des traducteurs préfèrent traduire dans leur langue maternelle

plutôt que dans l’une des langues étrangères connues, car l'activité et le

travail du traducteur dépendent fortement des langues de travail. Cette règle,

que la plupart des traducteurs ont appliquée, se trouve également dans le

code de déontologie de nombreuses associations de traducteurs dans le

monde, telles que la Fédération Internationale des Traducteurs,

l’Association Suisse des Traducteurs, Terminologues et Interprètes,

l’Institute of Translation and Interpreting (Royaume-Uni) ou la

Bundesverband der Dolmetscher und Übersetzer (Allemagne).

Bien que cette règle sur la traduction dans la langue maternelle soit

respectée par la majorité des traducteurs, elle fait également l’objet d’un

débat actif entre eux. Gerard MC Alister soutient l’idée qu’une traduction

peut également se faire dans l’une des langues passives connues du

traducteur, si le contenu des documents à traduire n’implique pas des

notions liées à la culture de la langue cible, telles que les brochures

touristiques. (1992) D'un autre côté, Peter Newmark considère que la

traduction dans la langue maternelle est la meilleure méthode pour un

traducteur pour fournir un texte naturel et précis de la langue cible. Cette

opinion est également partagée par Mona Baker (1992 : 64), qui met l'accent

sur les compétences linguistiques, en faisant valoir qu'aucun traducteur qui

traduit dans les langues passives qu'il a acquises ne sera pas en mesure de

remplir toutes les conditions liées à l'équivalence, le style et la qualité

éditoriale qui doivent être à respecter dans toute traduction car elle ne sera

jamais aussi maîtrisée dans cette langue étrangère que dans sa langue

maternelle, une langue peu répandue imposant beaucoup plus de contraintes

qu’il n’y paraît au premier abord.



29

Malgré le fait que la traduction dans une langue « les exigences du

marché et la pénurie de traducteurs ayant les combinaisons linguistiques

nécessaires pour respecter cette règle font que dans de nombreux pays, une

proportion non négligeable des traducteurs travaillent également vers une

langue étrangère » (GILE, 2005 : 181).

La formation et le rôle d’un traducteur professionnel

À partir du milieu du XXe siècle, la traduction a commencé à être

connue dans des domaines qui sont à la base de la recherche scientifique ou

universitaire. Aussi, durant cette période, les auteurs qui ont étudié le

processus de traduction ont fait des recherches et expliqué l'analyse du texte

initial au niveau de la phrase et ont parlé du processus de compréhension.

Eugene Nida (1964; 1969) a étudié le travail de Noam Chomsky qui se

concentre sur les structures syntaxiques de la phrase et a souligné l'idée

qu'une traduction se fait en trois étapes, à savoir:

- l’analyse du texte ;

- le transfert du texte de départ ;

- la restructuration du texte dans le texte d’arrivée.

Au cours des années 1970, l'activité de traduction a placé le

traducteur au centre de l'acte de traduction. Les stratégies de traduction ont

été mises en évidence, et les études menées au cours de cette période

contiennent des idées selon lesquelles il existe un processus de traduction

qui comprend une phase de lecture et une phase de reformulation, dans

lesquelles il est nécessaire d'effectuer une analyse du texte. Toujours au

cours de cette décennie, il y a eu des études selon lesquelles effectuer une

traduction impliquait des connaissances extralinguistiques générales ou

spécialisées et une connaissance des aspects pratiques et commerciaux de la

profession et des travaux ont été écrits qui visent à enseigner la didactique.

Les années 80, en revanche, se sont concentrées sur le processus de

traduction, qui est devenu populaire parmi les chercheurs en traduction.

Actuellement, deux théories sont essentielles au processus de

traduction, à savoir la théorie interprétative (un concept qui a émergé au

milieu des années 1970 et recommandé par l'École d'interprètes et de

traducteurs et de nombreuses universités au Québec) et la théorie skopos

(datant du milieu des années 80 et est soutenu en particulier par de

nombreux enseignants dans les pays de l'Allemagne du Nord et de

l'Allemagne et de l'Allemagne).

Le processus de traduction est défini comme un processus cognitif

qui se caractérise par le traitement des informations contenues dans le texte

original et par la connexion avec les connaissances antérieures du

traducteur, accompagné d'une étape de reformulation du contenu, si

nécessaire dans la langue cible. La reformulation implique également

l'utilisation par le traducteur de la mémoire de travail et de la mémoire à

long terme car ils jouent un rôle clé dans la rédaction d'une traduction. Il

s'agit notamment de disposer d'informations linguistiques et extra-

linguistiques que le traducteur doit utiliser pour traduire des passages qui

n'ont pas de correspondant fixe dans la langue cible.


30

Il est important que, tout d'abord, le futur traducteur maîtrise

parfaitement la langue source et la langue cible. Après l'avoir acquis, le

traducteur doit acquérir d'autres compétences, telles que la compréhension

facile des expressions dans la langue cible, l'application de procédures de

traduction et la maîtrise des techniques de maîtrise de soi en relecture. Pour

atteindre ces compétences, deux leçons doivent être combinées :

l'enseignement orienté processus, c'est-à-dire les techniques à utiliser et

l'approche à suivre par l'apprenant, et l'apprentissage orienté produit, qui

met l'accent sur la qualité du texte cible, linguistique, terminologique,

sémantique et stylistique.

Selon Mejri, dans le cadre de la traduction spécialisée qui comprend

une partie de la formation en traduction professionnelle, en plus de

l'attention particulière à porter à la transmission des compétences techniques

et méthodologiques, le traducteur devrait se concentrer sur la terminologie,

considérée comme aspect constitutif de tout discours spécialisé. (MEJRI,

2008 : 11).

D’un côté, un facteur important concernant la formation d'un

traducteur est l'intérêt pour la recherche documentaire et pour l'acquisition

de connaissances ad hoc. Étant donné que la technologie est en constante

évolution, en particulier dans le domaine des technologies de l'information,

un traducteur doit porter une attention particulière à la mise à jour régulière

des logiciels de traduction ou à la mise en œuvre de nouveaux logiciels qui

peuvent aider à augmenter sa productivité, comme la traduction assistée par

ordinateur.

Si ces programmes ne sont pas utilisés à bon escient, la traduction

peut être altérée, c'est pourquoi il est important que le traducteur ne s'appuie

pas uniquement sur ce logiciel et néglige ses propres connaissances ou

l'accumulation de nouvelles informations. Le traducteur doit être conscient

que les logiciels, outils et équipements dans le domaine de l'informatique

sont le seul moyen pouvant faciliter le processus de traduction. Le rôle du

traducteur est très important dans le processus de traduction, car la

technologie est limitée, et le cerveau humain du traducteur comble les

lacunes et compense les imperfections des différents logiciels utilisés pour

faciliter son travail.

D’un autre côté, au sein de la formation universitaire des futurs

traducteurs professionnels, un rôle important est joué par la pratique

spécialisée développée par eux qui constitue une étape vers l'intégration

dans le monde professionnel.

En particulier, ils peuvent également rechercher divers stages

professionnels dans lesquels ils peuvent appliquer et consolider les

connaissances et les compétences acquises dans le milieu universitaire. De

plus, l'esprit critique du traducteur joue un rôle important dans la réalisation

d'une traduction, car les connaissances acquises au cours de la formation

universitaire et dans la pratique spécialisée lui permettent de sélectionner les

meilleurs termes pour les traductions qu’il va les réaliser.

Après la fin de la formation universitaire et l'obtention du diplôme

universitaire par le traducteur, il peut s'activer sur le marché du travail en

tant que :


31

- traducteur salarié (cela implique que le traducteur exercera sa

profession au sein d'une entreprise ou au sein d'une organisation

internationale ou gouvernementale);

- traducteur indépendant (cela signifie que le traducteur peut travailler

sur le marché du travail à domicile ou en public);

- en collaboration avec d'autres collègues (entreprises partenaires,

partenariats, agences de traduction).

Dans le cas d'une traduction professionnelle, le traducteur a l'obligation

éthique et légale de se conformer aux spécifications que le client lui donne

concernant le texte à traduire.

Certaines études sur la traduction technique suggèrent que le travail du

traducteur est limité et réalisé selon certaines règles régies par la culture

économique, sociale et de la traduction. Parmi ces règles, les traducteurs

doivent aussi respecter le principe de cohérence terminologique qui

implique l'utilisation du même nom pour le même objet ou concept dans

l'ensemble du document traduit, la conformité à toute exigence du client et il

a l'obligation de bien comprendre tout segment du texte avant sa traduction.

Bibliographie

Brunette, L., 2000, Towards a Terminology for Translation Quality Assessment. The

Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication, 6(2), 169-182.

Delisle, Jean, 1980, L’analyse du discours comme méthode de traduction. Initiation à la

traduction française de textes pragmatiques anglais. Théorie et pratique. Ottawa. Éditions

de l’Université d’Ottawa. 282 p.

Gile, Daniel, 1993, Les outils documentaires du traducteur, dans Palimpsestes. 8a. pp. 73-

89.

Gile, Daniel, 1994, Les outils documentaires du traducteur, Palimpsestes, 8, 73-89,

disponible en ligne https://journals.openedition.org/palimpsestes/735, consulté le 08 mars

2020.

Gile, Daniel, 2005, La traduction : la comprendre, l'apprendre. Paris. Presses

Universitaires de France. 278 p.

Gouadec, D., 2002, Profession : Traducteur, La maison du dictionnaire, Paris.

Lemaire, Claire, 2017, Traductologie et traduction outillée : du traducteur spécialisé

professionnel à l’expert métier en entreprise, Linguistique, Université Grenoble Alpes,

Français, disponible en ligne https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01691113/document,

consulté le 03 juin 2020.

Mejri, S., 2008, La traduction des textes spécialisés : le cas des sciences du langage.

Colloque du 50e anniversaire de l’ISIT, oct. 2008, Belgique. Editions du Hazard.

Mossop, Brian, 2010, Revising and editing for translators, 2nd Edition, Manchester: St.

Jerome.

Nida, Eugène et Taber, Charles, 1969, The theory and practice of translation,

Leiden/Boston, Brill, 218 p.

Nida, Eugène, 1964, Toward a science of translating, Leiden, Brill, 331 p.

https://journals.openedition.org/palimpsestes/735

https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01691113/document


32

L’ERGOTHÉRAPIE :

DE LA THÉORIE À LA PRATIQUE 1

Leïla-Joy NGOUMBA

Thérapie Occupationnelle, 2ème année

Résumé : En 2019, j’ai participé à la session scientifique des étudiants en présentant le

métier d’ergothérapeute. À la suite d’un stage Erasmus+ de trois mois chez

l’ergothérapeute libérale Aurélie DEVILLE à Marseille en France, j’ai pu mettre des

images sur les cours suivis durant l’année, et la théorie apprise en pratique. Cet essai

abordera donc les éléments fondamentaux de la profession mis en pratique lors des

différentes prises en charge de l’ergothérapeute.

Mots clés : Structures, altérations, prises en charge

Introduction :

Pour rappel, selon l’association nationale française des

Ergothérapeutes (l’ANFE) :

« L'objectif de l'ergothérapie est de maintenir, de restaurer et de permettre

les activités humaines de manière sécurisée, autonome et efficace. Elle

prévient, réduit ou supprime les situations de handicap en tenant compte des

habitudes de vie des personnes et de leur environnement. L'ergothérapeute

est l'intermédiaire entre les besoins d'adaptation de la personne et les

exigences de la vie quotidienne en société. »

Plus communément expliqué, l’ergothérapie a pour objectif de

restaurer, maintenir ainsi que de permettre les activités qui occupent la vie

des patients de manière sûre, efficace et autonome en incluant des activités

de rééducation, compensation et aussi de réadaptation.

Exerçant en tant qu’ergothérapeute libéral, Madame DEVILLE,

intervient dans plusieurs structures dont la profession aussi récente soit elle,

est nécessaire au suivi des patients en collaboration avec kinésithérapeutes,

médecins généraliste, infirmières, assistantes sociale.

Les différentes structures seront présentées de la façon suivante :

présentation de la structure, présentation des différentes déficiences dans

chacune d’elles, puis la présentation des différentes prises en charge selon

les cas rencontrés.

L’ergothérapie en cabinet libéral :

Une fois par semaine, nous étions au cabinet. C’est ici que les

évaluations et les prises en charge se déroulaient. Les clients étaient

majoritairement des enfants de la primaire au lycée ayant plus ou moins les

mêmes profils.

1 Coordinateur: Irina ALDEA, maître de conférences, docteur ès lettres


33

Les altérations du langage, de l’écriture et de la concentration étaient

souvent la principale raison des prises en charge au cabinet libéral, et à

domicile.

La dysgraphie :

Selon le neuropsychiatre français d’origine espagnole, Julian de

Ajuriguerra,

« Est dysgraphique un enfant chez qui la qualité de l’écriture est déficiente

alors qu’aucun déficit neurologique ou intellectuel n’explique cette

déficience. »

En d’autres termes, la dysgraphie est un trouble de la réalisation du

geste graphique qu’est l’écriture en la déformant et en la ralentissant.

Les troubles des praxies :

Les troubles praxiques sont à l’origine de l’affectation des

principaux programmes qui sont la base de l’automatisme du geste dans un

but précis.

Selon Stamback et al,

« Il s’agit d’enfants d’intelligence normale, ayant une relative facilité dans

le domaine du langage, mais présentant par ailleurs des difficultés

importantes sur le plan de l’organisation gestuelle et spatiale. »

Les évaluations de prise en charge : il s’agissait d’évaluer l’élève de

part une batterie de teste regroupant les différents aspects posant problème à

l’élève lors des heures de classe, ou lors des devoirs à faire à la maison.

Il était souvent sujet de :

- manque de concentration

- lenteur d’écriture- écriture peu lisible- troubles des praxies visuo-spatiales-

troubles de réalisation des activités de la vie quotidienne et de la mobilité

fine


34

Nous élaborions à la suite du bilan des préconisations pour

l’organisation et la planification des tâches de la vie quotidienne ainsi que

pour la scolarité comme la rééducation et les aménagements scolaires.

L’ergothérapie en centre polyhandicap :

Un autre jour dans la semaine, nous nous rendions dans une MAS,

un centre polyhandicap pour adultes en situation de grande dépendance. Les

prises en charge y étaient en effet différentes du cabinet. Beaucoup de

différents handicaps étaient regroupés dans le centre.

Handicap moteur :

Les handicaps moteurs sont caractérisés par la limitation de capacité

individuelle de mouvement des membres, réalisation de geste précis, comme

le sont les paralysies, les amputations…

Handicap psychique :

Les handicaps psychiques sont eux caractérisés par l’atteinte d’une

maladie mentale qui entraine donc l’apparition de troubles mentaux et

émotionnels, des troubles de la personnalité sont également découverts. La

schizophrénie, les hypochondriaque sévères, les maladies bipolaires… sont


35

des exemples d’handicap psychique.

Les tâches principales que nous effectuions en centre polyhandicap,

étaient celles de :

- réparation d’appareillages en toute sorte

- évaluations des postures, des prises de repas- prise en charge pour le

travail de motricité globale comme fine

L’ergothérapie en maison de retraite :

Les maladies gériatriques étaient omniprésentes lors des prises en

charge en maison de retraite. Ici, les résidents ont une envie d’autonomie et

de dignité plus importante que dans les autres structures.

Les pathologies neuropsychiatriques :

Les accidents vasculaire et cérébraux, les syndromes parkinsonien ou

démentiel, les troubles du comportement, les états dépressifs … sont des

pathologies fréquentes en gériatrie. Elles doivent être traitées par traitements

médicamenteux comme non médicamenteux tels des séances de

psychologie, kinésithérapie, d’ergothérapie afin d’apporter aux résidents des

maison de retraite, une motivation psychiques comme physique en initiant

durant les prises en charge des activités manuelles tel des jeux sensoriels,


36

des jeux utilisant la recherche de souvenirs, des jeux de mémoire…

Les pathologies ostéoarticulaires :

Toutes les pathologies ostéoarticulaires de la hanche, de l’épaule

comme la polyarthrite ou vertébro-discale sont également des pathologies

communes à la gériatrie. L’ergothérapeute prend en charge ces pathologies

en appliquant aux séances des activités de temps libre plus ou moins

sportives, comme des balades en extérieurs pour les résidents qui apprécient

le grand air. Des activités collectives afin de maintenir la forme physique

des résidents et leur socialisation.

Nous nous occupions en maison de retraite de :

- la réparation d’appareillages en toutes sortes - l’évaluation des postures,

des prises de repas - la prise en charge du travail de motricité globale

comme fine


37

L’ergothérapie en crèche :

La crèche représente un lieu d’accueil collectif destiné aux enfants

préscolaires dès l’âge de deux mois qui a comme but de compenser au

mieux l’absence des parents lorsqu’ils travaillent et ne peuvent être présents

toute la journée, sans essayer de s’approprier leur rôle par l’éducation…

Troubles du spectre de l’autisme (TSA) :

Ces troubles résultent d’anomalies neuro développemental. Leur

apparition précoce apparaît à la petite enfance et persiste jusqu’à l’âge

adulte. Les interactions sociales, la communication et le développement

comportementaux sont altérés ce qui affectent donc les relations

interpersonnelles. L’ergothérapeute veille donc à l’intégration de l’enfant

dans la communauté de la crèche qui devient pour lui son deuxième lieu de

prédilection après sa propre maison. Cette intégration se fait par le biais

d’activités collectives (danses, chants, parcours de motricité globale,

activités de motricité fine, apprentissage du vivre ensemble…)

Les séances d’ergothérapie en crèche sont généralement constituées :

- d’un travail de motricité globale et fine

- d’adaptation au milieu et aux autres

- d’apprentissage des activités de la vie quotidienne


38

En conclusion :

En conclusion, la présence de l’ergothérapie est présente et

nécessaire dans beaucoup de structures. L’ergothérapeute intervient dans de

nombreux cas, peu importe la pathologie du patient, son âge... Cette

présentation à fait l’éloge d’une partie du métier d’ergothérapeute, celle des

prises en charges. Un ergothérapeute peut également intervenir en tant que

conseiller lors d’une adaptation de milieu nécessaire à la recherche d’une

autonomie maximum chez le patient.

Sitographie:

https://www.anfe.fr/ ( consulté le 30 juin 2020).

https://www.anfe.fr/%20(%20consulté%20le


39

LES AVATARS DE LA POLITIQUE EN FRANCE - LES

PRÉSIDENTS FRANÇAIS1

Adriana-Elena PETRESCU

Langues Modernes Appliquées, 1ère année

Résumé: Les régimes institutionnels de la France ont été trés divers au fil des années, car

après la Révolution, ce pays a connu beaucoup de formes d’organisation avant de choisir

le régime actuel. Mots clés: présidents, partis politiques, républiques

L’histoire institutionnelle de la France a subi beaucoup de

changements, car, après la Révolution, la France a connu trois monarchies,

deux empires, cinq républiques et “l’État français” de Vichy. Le plus long

régime a été celui de la République, qui s’est imposé plusieurs fois. Même si

ce régime a été aussi contesté, le fait qu’il a créé un cadre institutionnel et

qu’il a manifesté une vraie préoccupation pour les citoyens l’a transformé

dans le meilleur choix pour la majorité. La première république, instaurée en 1792, après l’abolition de la

royauté, a connu trois formes. Elle a pris fin quand Napoléon Ier a mis les

bases du premier empire.

La seconde république a été marquée par de nombreuses réformes

importantes, comme celle du suffrage universel masculin ou l’abolition de

l’esclavage. Cette république a été considérée une république sociale,

jusqu’au moment où Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, devenant Napoléon III,

met en place un coup d’état. Après ce coup d’état, il rétablit l’empire.

La troisième république, instaurée en 1870, est considérée comme

ayant la plus longue durée. Elle a été secouée par des événements comme

l’affaire Dreyfus et les deux guerres mondiales. Pendant cette période on a

mis les bases de l’école gratuite, obligatoire et laïque. La quatrième république, qui s’étend du 1946 à 1958, a été

impuissante face aux conflits de cette période. comme par exemple le conflit

algérien. Le général de Gaulle, qui est venu au pouvoir après la démission

de Pierre Pflimlin, a éliminé le régime de Vichy. La cinquième république, instaurée en 1958 et encore stable, de nos

jours, a adopté une nouvelle constitution. Le pouvoir exécutif a été renforcé

et l’élection du président a dû se faire moyennant le suffrage universel

direct. Le rôle de l’Assemblée Nationale a été diminué et le président a pu

s’adresser au peuple par voie de référendum.

Gouverner la France depuis la fin de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale a

généré un certain nombre de défis. Afin de tenter de bâtir un système

politique stable, nombreux partis se succèdent. La plupart d’entre eux

appartiennent à la V𝑒 République, dont la Constitution est encore en vigueur.

1 Coordinateur: Irina ALDEA, maître de conférences, docteur ès lettres


40

Il ne s’agit pas seulement de gouverner le pays, mais de l’administrer à

toutes les échelles: locale, régionale et nationale. L’État s’intéresse aussi à

l’amélioration économique et culturelle du pays. Les partis nationaux sont divisés selon leur orientation. Il y a les

partis d’extrême droite et droite radicale (comme, par exemple,

Rassemblement National, présidé par Marine Le Pen, Debout la France,

fondé par Nicolas Dupont-Aignan, Les Patriotes, créé par Florian Philippot,

Ligue du Sud, Les Identitaires et d’autres), les partis de droite ( Agir, dirigé

par Franck Riester, Soyons Libres, dirigé par Valérie Pécresse, Alliance

royale, fondé par Yves-Marie Adeline, Le rassemblement des contribuables

français, etc), les partis de centre ( La République en marche, parti lancé par

Emmanuel Macron, Mouvement Démocrate, Les Centristes, etc), les partis

de gauche ( Parti socialiste, Les Radicaux de gauche, Mouvement des

citoyens, etc) et les partis de gauche radicale et extrême gauche ( La France

insoumise, Ensemble, mouvement lancé en 2013, Nouveau Parti

Anticapitaliste). Depuis la fondation de la Ve, l’Etat central a redéfini ses moyens

d’action. Les enjeux qui ont contribué aux changements de l’administration

de France sont l’essor des demandes d’autonomie locale et la construction

européenne. C’est pourquoi, de nos jours, les partis politiques se mobilisent

pour améliorer la qualité de la politique. Les principaux partis politiques d’aujourd’hui sont : La République en

marche, Les Républicains et le Parti socialiste. La République en marche est un parti centriste et libéral, qui veut

rendre l’Union Européenne plus forte. C’est le parti qui a le plus de députés

et qui est majoritaire dans l’Assemblée Nationale. Ce parti, qui a été créé

par Emmanuel Macron, en 2016, s’appelle officiellement l’Association pour

le renouvellement de la vie politique. Les Républicains est un parti de droite. Il milite pour le gaullisme.

C’est, entre autre, le parti de Nicolas Sarkozy. Actuellement, c’est le parti

avec le plus de sénateurs. Son ancien nom est L’Union pour un mouvement

populaire. Ce parti est le principal opposant de l’Assemblée Nationale,

majoritaire au Sénat. Au sein du parti, il y a aussi un secteur appelé Les

jeunes Républicains.

Le Parti Socialiste est un parti de centre-gauche. Le but de ce parti

est de réduire les inégalités sociales. C’est le parti de François Mitterrand.

C’est le plus important de la gauche française. Il est présidé par Olivier

Faure. Ce parti a été initialement appelé Section française de

l’Internationale ouvrière. Jean Jaurès, un professeur de philosophie, a fondé

ce parti en 1905. Le président de la République est devenu le personnage central du

pouvoir politique, au fil des années. Après la Révolution, les pouvoirs du

président sont renforcés. Il nomme le Premier Ministre, il dirige la

diplomatie et est aussi le garant des instituions et de l’unité nationale. Les

présidents de la République se remarquent par beaucoup d’expérience dans

la vie civile et dans la politique. Il y aussi des personnages qui proviennent

du domaine militaire (comme, par exemple, Mac-Mahon, de Gaulle) et de

celui d’affaires (comme Casimir-Perier, Faure).


41

Parmi les personnalités marquantes de la politique française, pendant

la Ire République, on doit mentionner Danton, Robespierre, Barras,

Bonaparte. La IIe République est marquée par les actions de Louis Napoléon

Bonaparte, devenu l’empereur Napoléon III, ultérieurement élu comme

président de la République. Il avait beaucoup d’expérience militaire et de

fortes aptitudes politiques. Il s’est fait entourer par des gens auxquels il

pouvait faire confiance, comme par exemple, son frère. Il désigne comme

président du Conseil de son gouvernement un monarchiste, Odilon Barrot. La IIIe République nous donne des noms comme Adolphe Thiers,

qui a été le chef du pouvoir exécutif de la République Française, puis son

président. Il a eu un esprit brillant, étant membre de l’Académie française et

de l’Académie des sciences morales et politiques. En qualité de journaliste

libéral et historien de la Révolution, il publie beaucoup d’études historiques

remarquables. Adolphe Thiers a été l’un des proches du roi Louis-Philippe.

Patrice de Mac-Mahon a été un militaire et homme d’état français, il a été à

la tête de l’armée pendant la Commune de Paris. Il participe à la Guerre

franco-prussienne, pendant laquelle il est blessé à cause de sa mauvaise

stratégie. Il a été élu président après la chute d’Adolphe Thiers par les

royalistes. Jules Grévy a été le président de l’Assemblée Nationale et de la

Chambre des députés, mais aussi l’ancien président de l’Assemblée de

Bordeaux. Il a été élu à l’âge de 72 ans, après le renoncement de Gambetta.

Il a pris des mesures symboliques pour renforcer le sentiment de pouvoir de

la République. Parmi ces mesures il faut mentionner la transformation du 14

Juillet en fête nationale et l’adoption de La Marseillaise comme hymne

national. A la fin de son mandat, il est le protagoniste du scandale des

décorations quand son gendre, Daniel Wilson, est accusé de trafic

d’influence. A cause de ce scandale, il finit par démissionner, après près de

9 ans de présidence. Sadi Carnot a occupé, avant d’être élu président de la

République, des fonctions de haut fonctionnaire, comme député, préfet,

sous-secrétaire d’État, ministre des Travaux publics et ministre des

Finances. En 1889, pendant le mois de mai, il participe à une série

d’événements comme la célébration du centenaire de la Révolution

française, l’inauguration de l’Exposition universelle de Paris et celle de la

Tour Eiffel. Après avoir obtenu un accord de partage d’influence en Afrique

avec les Anglais, il a anéanti avec une grande violence les royaumes

d’Amadou, Soudan, Samory, Béhanzin, Dahomey et Côte d’Ivoire. Après

l’assassinat de Sadi Carnot, Jean Casimir-Perier est élu comme président.

Félix Faure a eu plusieurs atouts pour être élu : il a été très apprécié, il a

occupé des postes ministériels et a été aussi le président de la Commission

du Budget à la Chambre. Il a soutenu l’alliance franco-russe. Il est aussi

important de mentionner que, malgré les découvertes du chef du service de

renseignement, le colonel Picquart, le président nie l’existence de l’affaire

Dreyfus. Quelques mois après son élection, Paul Deschanel est

diagnostiqué avec le syndrome d’Elpenor, une maladie relativement bénigne

qui provoque des troubles d’anxiété et d’émotivité. Il est admis en maison

de repos et il semble guéri. Mais cela ne dure et il rechute pendant l’été,

quand il signe sa lettre de démission.


42

La IVe République connaît des personnalités comme Vincent Auriol,

docteur en droit, qui a fondé Le Midi Socialiste. Il est nommé ministre des

Finances du Front populaire en 1936, ministre de la Justice en 1937, puis de

la Coordination des services ministériels en 1938. Au début de son mandat,

il se confronte à une grande crise économique, qui se traduit par une hausse

des salaires et une forte inflation. Pour diminuer la crise, Auriol fait appel à

l’aide d’Antoine Pinay. Même si ses mesures ne sont pas les meilleures, il

parvient à réduire l’inflation. Après la crise sociale et politique de 1953, on

prépare les élections présidentielles. C’est le moment où René Coty,

diplomé en droit et en philosophie, a été élu président de la République à

l’âge de 71 ans. Avant d’être élu président, il a occupé un poste de sous-

secrétaire d’État à l’Intérieur, puis il a été élu sénateur en 1935. Il est devenu

ministre de la Reconstruction et de l’Urbanisme, au côté de Robert

Schuman, en 1947. Même si la France n’a pas su comment résoudre le

problème de la décolonisation, son bilan économique a été excellent. Dans

la seconde moitié de l’année 1958 le président a du multiplier les voyages

en Algérie et en Afrique noire, pour s’informer et pour trouver des solutions

pour la décolonisation, parce que la France ne pouvait plus supporter le

poids financier de ses colonies. Il adopte, par voie de référendum, une

nouvelle Constitution, en créant la 𝑉𝑒 République. Il renforce les pouvoirs

du président. La Ve République met en relief les histoires de quelques personnages

qui ont marqué la vie politique de la France. Charles de Gaulle a été connu

comme militaire, résistant, écrivain et homme politique français. En 1916,

pendant la guerre contre les Allemands, il a été blessé et capturé. Il a essayé

de s’échapper quatre fois, mais sans réussite. Après avoir participé à la lutte

contre l’armée polonaise sur les bords de la Vistule en 1920, il est admis à

l’École de guerre. Après son mariage avec Yvonne Vendroux, il écrit

quelques œuvres, comme La discorde chez l’ennemi, Au fil de l’épée,

L’armée de métier. Son style l’aide à se faire remarquer, mais ses stratégies

offensives déplaisent à ses supérieurs et il est envoyé à Beyrouth. Le général

de Gaulle a été un homme ambitieux et rationnel et il a voulu rétablir la

puissance française et sa souveraineté nationale. De Gaulle impose la mise

en place des projets structurants dans le domaine militaire, mais aussi dans

le domaine civil. Un des plus connus évènements qui a eu lieu pendant son

mandat est la crise de 1968. Pendant une longue période de temps, la France

a vu beaucoup de grèves : celle des étudiants, la grève ouvrière, puis une

grève générale, qui a affecté le secteur public, mais aussi beaucoup

d’entreprises privées. Par conséquent, on assistera également à une crise

politique. Après cette crise, le 28 avril 1969, le général annonce sa

démission. Alain Poher a été élu président intérimaire après la démission du

général de Gaulle. Il a assuré la continuité des institutions publiques et a dû

s’occuper de l’organisation des élections présidentielles. La haute formation

d’Alain Poher (il a été diplômé de l’école des Mines, de Sciences Politiques

et licencié en droit) lui a permis d’accéder aux diverses fonctions politiques.

Il a occupé des postes de secrétaire d’État, puis il a été élu président du

Sénat. Son premier essai de participer aux élections a été un échec, car il a

été vaincu par Georges Pompidou au second tour. La mort du président


43

Pompidou lui donne une seconde chance. Il a été appelé à exercer des

fonctions constitutionnelles, en assurant de nouveau l’intérimaire de la

présidence de la République. Mais il ne se présente pas comme candidat

aux élections, et Valéry Giscard d’Estaing a été élu président. Georges

Pompidou a été un haut fonctionnaire et homme d’État français, qui a

occupé plusieurs fonctions au fil des années. Il a été le directeur général de

la banque Rothschild, membre du Conseil Constitutionnel, puis premier

ministre. Pendant son mandat, il a essayé de renforcer l’industrie de la

France. Grâce à lui, la France a connu une croissance économique majeure.

Il a ordonné la construction d’une usine sidérurgique sur l’eau, a développé

le nucléaire civil et militaire et s’est doté avec le personnel et les éléments

nécessaires (par exemple : opérateur minier, fabricant de combustible,

concepteur de cuves). En 1972, après presque 5 ans de présidence, son fils,

le docteur Alain Pompidou, a découvert qu’il souffrait d’’une forme rare de

leucémie. Malheureusement, il est l’un des quatre présidents dont le mandat

a été interrompu par la mort. Valéry Giscard D’Estaing a occupé plusieurs

postes pendant la présidence du général de Gaulle, comme secrétaire d’État

aux Finances, puis ministre des Finances et des Affaires économiques. Il a

occupé de nouveau la fonction de ministre de l’Économie, mais il a présidé

aussi la Fédération nationale des républicains indépendants. Même s’il s’est

confronté aux difficultés financières, il a essayé de développer le projet de

TGV (Train à grande vitesse) et de relancer l’industrie nucléaire. Il a adopté

quelques réformes (il a établi plusieurs chaînes de télévision, pour multiplier

les sources d’information, a créé le Ministère de la Condition féminine, a

baissé l’âge pour le droit de voter à 18 ans), mais il a prévu aussi l’élection

du maire de Paris au suffrage universel direct. Le président a essayé aussi

d’instaurer un style décontracté, en prenant partie aux dîners mensuels avec

des familles ordinaires, en faisant des visites en prisons et d’autres. Le président François Mitterrand a eu un incroyable parcours dans

sa carrière. Diplômé en droit et en sciences politiques, il a eu la formation

nécessaire pour occuper des fonctions comme : secrétaire général aux

Prisonniers de guerre, déportés et réfugiés, ministre des Anciens

Combattants et victimes de guerre, plusieurs fois ministre de l’Information,

mais aussi ministre d’Outre-mer. Il a eu une fille, qui s’appelait Mazarine,

de sa liaison avec Annie Pingeot. Pendant sa présidence, il a fait construire

la pyramide du Louvre, la Bibliothèque nationale de France et l’Arche de la

Défense. Il y a eu aussi un progrès du point de vue social, après que le

président a pris quelques mesures : l’abolition de la peine de mort, la retraite

à 60 ans et l’instauration du RMI (revenu minimum d’insertion). Jacques Chirac a été un homme politique français qui a eu un

parcours très intéressant. Après avoir passé son baccalauréat, il est parti aux

États-Unis, où il a exercé quelques petits boulots. Son retour a été marqué

par son entrée dans l’élite française, en suivant les Sciences Politiques à

Paris. Après avoir fini la première partie de sa formation, il a été admis à

l’ENA (École Nationale de l’Administration). C’est à la fin de ses études

qu’il se marie avec une fille provenant d’une famille française aisée,

Bernadette Chodron. Ses bons résultats lui ont permis d’obtenir un poste à la

Cour des Comptes. Deux ans après, il est devenu membre du cabinet de


44

Georges Pompidou et a été chargé avec des tâches dans les domaines de

construction, travaux publics et transports. Il a occupé aussi la fonction de

secrétaire d’État chargé des problèmes d’emploi, mais aussi celle de

secrétaire d’État à l’Économie et aux Finances. Nicolas Sarkozy, le sixième président de la République, a eu une

longue carrière politique, de plus de 30 ans. Même s’il a eu des difficultés

pendant son processus d’instruction, il a réussi à devenir avocat au barreau

de Paris, après avoir choisi la carrière de sa mère. Il a accédé aux diverses

fonctions politiques, en occupant chronologiquement les postes suivants :

conseiller municipal à Neuilly-sur-Seine, président du Comité de soutien de

Jacques Chirac, ministre du Budget, le maire de Neuilly-sur-Seine.

Pendant sa carrière politique, François Hollande a exercé plusieurs

fonctions au niveau local (il a été maire de Tulle et président du conseil

général de Corrèze), mais aussi national (il a été le premier secrétaire du

Parti Socialiste, député et magistrat à la Cour des comptes). Parmi les

évènements les plus marquants qui ont eu lieu lors de son mandat, il faut

mentionner : la loi sur le mariage homosexuel, la crise migratoire en Europe

et les interventions militaires au Mali et au Moyen-Orient. Emmanuel Macron, l’actuel président de la France est né dans une

famille de médecins. Il a eu une très bonne relation avec sa grand-mère

maternelle, à laquelle il doit son parcours dans la politique. Même s’il a

obtenu son baccalauréat scientifique avec une très bonne note et qu’il ait

suivi des cours de formation supérieure dans le domaine de l’économie, il

présente un grand talent pour l’écriture littéraire et pour la philosophie. Sa

formation (il est diplômé de Sciences Politiques, a obtenu une maîtrise en

philosophie à l’Université Paris-Nanterre et a poursuivi ses études à l’École

Nationale d’Administration) lui a permis d’accéder aux fonctions comme :

inspecteur de finances et ministre de l’Économie, l’Industrie et du

Numérique. Il a travaillé aussi dans la banque d’affaires Rothschild. Jusqu’à

présent, son mandat a été marqué par la réforme du code du travail, la loi de

réforme de la Société Nationale des chemins de fer français (SNCF), le

mouvement des Gilets jaunes et les protestes contre la réforme des retraites. « Ah ! la politique c'est l'art de créer des faits ; de dominer, en se

jouant, les événements et les hommes ; l'intérêt est son but ; l'intrigue son

moyen : toujours sobre de vérités, ses vastes et riches conceptions sont un

prisme qui éblouit », disait Beaumarchais dans La mère coupable. Nous

espérons pourtant, que, de nos jours, à part les vices dénoncés par l’auteur

du Mariage de Figaro, la politique et, au moins une partie de ceux qui la

gère sont réellement au service des citoyens parce qu’autrement, l’évolution

du monde ne serait pas possible.

Bibliographie :

Cédric Oline, Sylvie Fleury, 2014, Réussite-bac, Histoire, Paris, Rue des écoles, p. 14-16. Didier Giorgini, Sandrine Henry, 2013, Réviser son bac avec Le Monde- Histoire, Paris,

Rue des écoles, p. 74-80. Philippe Valode, 2007, Les Présidents de la République, Paris, Editions First. Rémy Knafou, Valéry Zanghellini, 1989, Histoire- Géographie. Initiation économique,

Paris, Belin, p. 156- 166. Antologia statelor lumii, Editura Steaua Nordului, Constanța, 2007, p. 695-697.


45

Istoria lumii de la origini până în anul 2000, Editura Olimp, București, 2000, p. 622-623.

Sitographie:

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_des_partis_et_mouvements_politiques_fran%C3%A7ais

(consulté le 5 Mai 2020). https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadi_Carnot_(homme_d%27%C3%89tat) (consulté le 24

Avril 2020). https://www.bonjourdefrance.com/exercices/contenu/saisir-lhistoire-des-republiques-

francaises.html (consulté le 27 Avril 2020). https://www.gala.fr/stars_et_gotha/francois_hollande (consulté le 30 Juin 2020).

https://www.lepoint.fr/tags/nicolas-sarkozy (consulté le 3 Juillet 2020).

https://www.linternaute.com/actualite/politique/1363862-emmanuel-macron-biographie-

secrete-d-un-monsieur-parfait/ (consulté le 30 Juin 2020).

https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/jules-grevy/ (consulté le 27 Avril 2020).

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_des_partis_et_mouvements_politiques_français

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadi_Carnot_(homme_d%27État)

https://www.bonjourdefrance.com/exercices/contenu/saisir-lhistoire-des-republiques-francaises.html

https://www.bonjourdefrance.com/exercices/contenu/saisir-lhistoire-des-republiques-francaises.html


46

LA PROBLÉMATIQUE DU GÉRONDIF PASSÉ DANS LA

TRADUCTION1

Elena-Roxana POPA

Langages Spécialisés et Traduction Assistée par Ordinateur, Ière année

Résumé : Cette étude vise à présenter les équivalents de traduction possibles du

gérondif passé de la langue française, construction sans équivalent en roumain. Le

gérondif représente un prédicat secondaire, désignant une action terminée, vue - en

elle-même ou comme résultant de celle-ci - comme associée ou intégrée dans le

prédicat principal. Il existe deux solutions possibles pour sa traduction: soit en

utilisant le gérondif, lorsque la langue cible le permet sans distorsions logiques ou

sémantiques (bien qu'avec une signification terminative implicite), soit en utilisant des

clauses subordonnées adverbiales (ou parfois des adverbiaux prépositionnels) en

fonction de l’ interprétation imposée par le context.

Mots-clés : traduction automatique, logiciels de traduction automatique, gérondif

passé, langue cible, processus de traduction

I. Introduction

La traduction consiste à transposer un texte écrit d’une langue à une

autre, en transmettant le plus fidèlement possible le message. Le

traducteur traduit généralement d’une 2e ou d’une 3e langue vers sa

langue maternelle. Il est de nature curieuse, a une vaste culture, une

grande souplesse d’esprit, une très bonne connaissance de ses langues de

travail et des aptitudes à rédiger. La traduction se distingue de

l’interprétation, qui consiste à reformuler oralement d’une langue à une

autre un message lors de discours, de réunions, de conférences et de

débats, ou encore devant des cours de justice ou des tribunaux

administratifs. La traduction présente aujourd’hui nombre de défis

résolument actuels, façonnés par la mondialisation et l'évolution des

nouvelles technologies.

La question formulée dans le titre de cet article est justifée par

l’inexistence en roumain d’une forme verbale correspondant à la forme

composée du gérondif (gérondif passé), qui existe en français. Comme

on pourra observer dans cet article, le terme français de gérondif ne

recouvre que partiellement la sphère sémantique du terme gerunziu du

roumain. Pour prouver cette affirmation, on va analyser aussi l’article de

l’auteur M.Tenchea, « Quels équivalents roumains pour le gérondif

passé du français? » .

II. Les temps verbaux dans les deux langues

En français il existe sept modes verbaux :

- quatre modes personnels, qui se conjuguent : indicatif,

conditionnel, subjonctif et impératif.

1 Coordinateur: Florinela ȘERBĂNICĂ, maître de conférences, docteur ès lettres


47

- trois modes impersonnels, qui ne se conjuguent pas : infinitif,

participe et gérondif.

Etant une langue romane (d’origine latine) le roumain se rapproche

bien du français, dans le cas des modes et des temps verbaux aussi:

• Indicativ (Indicatif) temps ex. prezent(présent), imperfect

(imparfait), perfectul compus (passé composé)

• Conjunctiv – Subjonctif

• Condiţional – Conditionnel

• Infinitiv – Infinitif

• Participiu – Participe

• Gerunziu – Gérondif

Pour ilustrer mieux les similitudes et les différences entre ceux deux

langues en ce qui concerne la nature verbale, on a réuni les informations

dans les tableaux suivants:

1. L'indicatif, qui compte huit temps : quatre temps simples et quatre

temps composés se conjuguant avec les auxiliaires être ou avoir en

français et seulement avec l’auxiliaire avoir en roumain:

Temps simples Temps composés

Français Roumain Français Roumain

Présent J'aime

Je finis

Je pars

Eu iubesc

Eu termin

Eu plec

Passé

composé

J'ai aimé

J'ai fini

Je suis parti(e)

Eu am iubit

Eu am terminat

Eu am plecat

Imparfait J'aimais

Je finissais

je partais

Eu iubeam

Eu terminam

Eu plecam

Plus-

que-

parfait

J'avais

aimé

J'avais fini

J'étais parti(e)

Eu iubisem

Eu terminasem

Eu plecasem

Futur

simple

J'aimerai

Je finirai

Je partirai

Eu voi iubi

Eu voi termina

Eu voi plea

Futur

antérieu

r

J'aurai aimé

J'aurai fini

Je serai parti(e)

Eu voi fi iubit

Eu voi fi

terminat

Eu voi fi plecat

Passé

simple

j'aimai, tu

aimas...

Je finis... ils

finirent

Je partis... ils

partirent

Eu iubii, tu

iubişi

Eu terminai, ei

terminară

Eu plecai, ei

plecară

Passé

antérieu

r

J'eus aimé

J'eus fini

Je fus parti(e)

-

-

-

2. Le subjonctif, qui compte quatre temps:

Temps simples Temps composés


48

Français Roumain Français Roumain

Présent Que j'aime

Que je finisse

Que je parte

Eu (să)

iubesc

Eu (să)

termin

Eu (să) plec

Passé Que j'aie aimé

Que j'aie fini

Que je sois

parti(e)

Eu să fi iubit

Eu să fi

terminat

Eu să fi plecat

Imparfait Que j'aimasse

Que je finisse

Que je partisse

-

-

-

Plus-

que-

parfait

Que j'eusse

aimé

Que j'eusse fini

Que je fusse

parti(e)

-

-

-

3. Le conditionnel, qui compte deux temps et en emprunte un

troisième au subjonctif:

4. L'impératif, qui compte deux temps:

Français Roumain

Impératif présent finis, finissons,

finissez

Termină, terminați

Impératif passé aie fini, ayons fini,

ayez fini

-

5. Les modes impersonnels

Français Roumain

Conditionnel présent J'aimerais

je finirais

je partirais

Eu aș iubi

Eu aș termina

Eu aș pleca

Conditionnel passé J'aurais aimé

J'aurais fini

Je serais parti(e)

Eu aș fi iubit

Eu aș fi terminat

Eu aș fi plecat


49

Un mode impersonnel ne se conjugue pas, mais existe au présent

et au passé.

Français

Infinitif présent aimer, finir , partir

Infinitif passé avoir aimé, avoir fini, être

parti(e)

Participe présent aimant, finissant, partant

Participe passé (ayant) aimé, (ayant) fini,

(étant) parti(e)

Gérondif présent en aimant, en finissant, en

partant

Gérondif passé en ayant aimé, en ayant fini,

en étant parti(e)

Roumain

Infinitiv a iubi, a termina, a pleca

Participiu iubit, terminat, plecat

Gerunziu iubind, terminând, plecând

Comme on a pu observer, dans les deux langues il y a quelques

différences, parmi lesquelles l’inexistence en roumain des formes qui

correspondent aux temps suivant du français : le passé antérieur, le

subjonctif passé, le subjonctif imparfait et l’impératif passé.

A propos des modes impersonnels il y a encore des différences au

niveau des temps : dans la langue française on a deux temps de chaque

mode, présent et passé, bien qu’en roumain, on ait seulement un seul temps

pour chaque mode, le présent. C”est pour cela qu’on a des difficultés en ce

qui concerne la traduction des termes français dans le roumain.

III. L’article « Quels équivalents roumains pour le gérondif passé

du français? »

De plus, dans l’article de l’auteur M.Tenchea, « Quels équivalents

roumains pour le gérondif passé du français? », ce qui nous intéresse en

premier lieu, c’est l’analyse des faits dans une perspective pratique, celle de

la traduction. Dans l’analyse des exemples du corpus de l’article et dans

le processus de mise en équivalence, l’auteur a pris en considération

plusieurs facteurs d’ordre sémantique, syntaxique et pragmatique: le type de

construction (liée ou détachée), la position du groupe gérondival par rapport

au prédicat principal (antéposition/ postposition), les éventuelles

questions auxquelles pourraient répondre les groupes gérondivaux.

Selon l’article étudiée, le gérondif passé du français peut être

traduit par le gérondif (gerunziu), cette forme unique du gérondif

https://b.gemini.yahoo.com/mbclk?bv=1.0.0&es=XnfkfbMGIS8PzpWTW49mDbI.ExMSnFZdc6ZvBC_h1ZKgLRdEn.ZlQJujnyfa62vL7TqCymFKOXP2HWUUBxgHCpneSIgAu3RS6BcGOHaNpcJ6ZxwXd.2vCE5hK7uPnZsUU4ee83VKJn3b3NzFBpRfIoOWWPImxAEIuD8ICmmsgsU0mZm0RyFa93HN_twcuKYVTyFfzLF3VCZSgyS249XKAJw2rIJxMiUdcQj7Pt5yBbq4nUeSVz1ETFfqktkphT618ubPezeoBhh.g3Fee_AObpNCbd2mKB9z6peGEXCUq2hg.F9MJKEBNBYLdaVCI_086Xzkf2J6aRvTCBEU4ik7OBQbiF2HWt7LpXX3Fx4mTtTP4iEPcFTOf1r3lFmsWKmQsJoy9uCxZlbbQKNQtFaRSF.nk3mFTahGRIRmqUzVpEBF2kgVHzBHZ5vMu67bpnQbGl5nEoVx2xITtSkvYf4BkL0lDsDlea2TGBPKFS6ZH7cv9t82CLBJQ4psdt1PcZ6R7xWk

https://b.gemini.yahoo.com/mbclk?bv=1.0.0&es=XnfkfbMGIS8PzpWTW49mDbI.ExMSnFZdc6ZvBC_h1ZKgLRdEn.ZlQJujnyfa62vL7TqCymFKOXP2HWUUBxgHCpneSIgAu3RS6BcGOHaNpcJ6ZxwXd.2vCE5hK7uPnZsUU4ee83VKJn3b3NzFBpRfIoOWWPImxAEIuD8ICmmsgsU0mZm0RyFa93HN_twcuKYVTyFfzLF3VCZSgyS249XKAJw2rIJxMiUdcQj7Pt5yBbq4nUeSVz1ETFfqktkphT618ubPezeoBhh.g3Fee_AObpNCbd2mKB9z6peGEXCUq2hg.F9MJKEBNBYLdaVCI_086Xzkf2J6aRvTCBEU4ik7OBQbiF2HWt7LpXX3Fx4mTtTP4iEPcFTOf1r3lFmsWKmQsJoy9uCxZlbbQKNQtFaRSF.nk3mFTahGRIRmqUzVpEBF2kgVHzBHZ5vMu67bpnQbGl5nEoVx2xITtSkvYf4BkL0lDsDlea2TGBPKFS6ZH7cv9t82CLBJQ4psdt1PcZ6R7xWk


50

roumain – et c’est ce qui arrive, effectivement, dans nombre de cas.

Comme la forme simple du gérondif français, le gérondif roumain a de

multiples valeurs dans les contextes où il apparaît, et donc la

correspondance s’établit souvent sans diffculté. En roumain, il n’existe pas

une forme verbale correspondant à la forme composée du gérondif (gérondif

passé), qui existe en français. Après la comparaison entre le paradigme

verbal des deux langues en cause, on peut constater une dissymétrie

évidente:

− Le français possède un système en –ant structure en fonction

de l’opposition entre formes simples et formes composées

− Le roumain n’a qu’un seule forme (simple) en –ând/-ind

appelée gerunziu (gérondif), qui correspond à la fois au

participe présent et au gérondif du français

Par exemple :

En français

Gérondif (forme simple) en parlant

▪ Gérondif passé (forme

composée)

▪ en ayant parlé

Fr. « …au moment où le Maître se releva en ayant fini d’écrire, il ne

vit plus que la femme debout et seule devant lui. »

En roumain:

Gérondif (forme simple) vorbind « (en) parlant »făcând «

(en) faisant »

Roum. « … în clipa când Maestrul, terminând de scris, se

ridică, nu o mai văzu decât pe femeia ce se afla singură, în picioare în faţa

lui. »

En ce qui concerne les difficultés rencontrées dans la traduction on a

observé:

• dans le processus de traduction du gérondif passé, on se sert

d’un corpus de quelques exemples d’utilisation du gerondif

passé en français

• on a utilisé deux systèmes de traduction automatique (

GoogleTranslate et Reverso ) pour relever les erreurs qui

peuvent se produire, et aussi les moyens linguistiques

auquels le traducteur doit recourir dans la traduction de cette

forme.

Pour prouver ces affirmations, on a les exemples suivants:


51

Exemple en français Traduction Google

Translate

Traduction révisée

« Je suis sorti de ce

restaurant en l’ayant

classé et catalogué.

»

Am părăsit acest

restaurant după ce l-

am clasificat și

catalogat.

Am ieşit din acest

restaurant clasându-l şi

catalogându-l.

➢ L’exemple contient deux verbes coordonnés au gérondif

composé, en construction liée, postposés au verbe principal,

représentant une complémentation obligatoire.

➢ Le fait d’avoir classé et catalogué le restaurant en question

représente une circonstance qui accompagne l’action de sortir.

➢ De plus, il y a un lien cohésif très marqué entre les deux procès,

exprimés par le prédicat régissant et le prédicat secondaire.

➢ En ce qui concerne le résultat donné par le système de traduction

automatique, on peut observer que le gérondif n’a pas été restitué et

qu’il a été remplacé par le passé compose.

Exemple en

français

Traduction

Google Translate

Traduction

Reverso

des ressortissants

de pays tiers qui, ayant

terminé leurs études,

souhaitent travailler dans

l'Union (par exemple,

comme stagiaires) afin

d'acquérir une expérience

professionnelle….

Resortisanţi din

ţări terţe care, după

terminarea studiilor,

doresc ca, înainte de a se

întoarce, să se angajeze

în UE (de exemplu ca

stagiari) pentru a

dobândi experienţă

profesională …

Resortisanți ai

țărilor terțe care, după ce

și-au terminat studiile,

doresc să lucreze în UE

(de exemplu, ca stagiari)

pentru a dobândi o

experiență

profesională….

IV. Conclusion

L’étude comparative du gérondif entre les deux langues, le français

et le roumain, a mis en évidence le fait que le terme français de gérondif ne

recouvre que partiellement la sphère sémantique du terme gerunziu du

roumain, bien plus large, puisqu’elle correspond à toutes les formes en -ant

du français. De plus une convergence fondamentale: l’existence des

formes simples en -ant du français et celle de leurs correspondants

roumains en -ând /-ind, et d’autre part, une divergence structurale


52

importante: l’existence des formes composées en -ant. En ce qui concerne

l’utilisation d’un système de traduction automatique, on a constaté que pour

obtenir la meilleure traduction, on a toujours besoin de l’intervention du

traducteur humain et la traduction du gérondif passé implique une

modulation, par la neutralisation de l’idée d’accompli que comporte la

forme composée du gérondif français. De plus, le système TA peut faire des

erreurs d’orthographe, d’ordre dans la phrase, des erreurs d’ordre

sémantique, syntaxiques et pragmatique.

Donc, pour réduire l’effort du traducteur, on peut utiliser un système

TA, mais cela seulement comme point de départ.

Bibliographie :

Champsaur, caroline, La traduction automatique: un outil pour les traducteurs?,

disponible en ligne https://www.jostrans.org/issue19/art_champsaur.pdf, consulté le 15 mai

2020.

Cristea, A., Cristea, A. (2006), Dicţionar francez-român pentru traducători,

Academic, Braşov.

Țenchea M., Quels équivalents roumains pour le gérondif passé du français ?,

Studii de lingvistică 2, 2012, 211 – 249.

Ţenchea, M. (1973), « Remarques sur le gérondif français », Bulletin de la

Société Roumaine de Linguistique Romane, IX, Bucureşti, p. 67-90.

Sitographie:

Dicţionar explicativ al limbii române. DEX online https://dexonline.ro/ (consulté

le 5 mai 2020).

https://gramaticalimbiiromane.ro/ (consulté le 7 mai 2020).

https://la-conjugaison.nouvelobs.com/regles/grammaire/ (consulté le 5 mai 2020).

https://ling-trad.umontreal.ca/departement (consulté le 10 mai 2020).

https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/ (consulté le 10 mai 2020).

https://translate.google.com/ (consulté le 7 mai 2020).

https://www.larousse.fr/ (consulté le 5 mai 2020).

https://www.jostrans.org/issue19/art_champsaur.pdf

https://dexonline.ro/

https://gramaticalimbiiromane.ro/

https://la-conjugaison.nouvelobs.com/regles/grammaire/

https://ling-trad.umontreal.ca/departement

https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/

https://translate.google.com/

https://www.larousse.fr/


53

LA PEINTURE CONTEMPORAINE EN FRANCE ET EN

ROUMANIE – PASSION ET DEFI1

Camelia-Anamaria TUDOSE

Langues Modernes Appliquées, 3ème année

Résumé: Cet article vise à suivre l'évolution de la peinture en France et en Roumanie

après la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale. En France, un grand nombre de courants se

manifestent après 1945: l’Art abstrait, l’Art concret, l’Op Art, le Pop Art, le Nouveau

Réalisme et bien plus. C’est une période de floraison et de développement pour la peinture

française. La Roumanie se trouve au pôle opposé: l’expansion du régime communiste

impose un nouveau mouvement, le réalisme socialiste qui a le but de règlementer les

œuvres d’art. La censure en art cesse en 1989 après la chute du régime communiste. Les

artistes désireux d’apprendre à créer sans être soumis à des règles strictes apportent un

nouveau souffle dans la peinture roumaine.

Mots clés: peinture contemporaine, création, art abstrait, réalisme socialiste.

Introduction

Depuis la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale commence une nouvelle

période pleine de changements pour l’humanité. Les gens qui ont survécu à

la période des deux guerres doivent maintenant apprendre à vivre dans un

nouveau monde. Tous les changements politiques et sociaux apportent de

l’incertitude dans l’esprit des peuples. Toute la violence et l’horreur ne

peuvent pas être oubliées du jour au lendemain. Il est impossible dans ce

contexte que l’art ne souffre pas de modifications. L’artiste ne peut pas

continuer de créer sans inclure dans son œuvre une partie du monde dans

lequel il vit.

L’art contemporain naît dans ce nouveau monde qui commence à

prendre forme après 1945 et dure jusqu’à nos jours. L’art contemporain

englobe tous les styles, mouvements et techniques qui prennent naissance

après 1945.

L’art contemporain en France

La fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale apporte une période très riche

du point de vue des manifestations artistiques pour la peinture française.

Nous remarquons le grand nombre de mouvements et de manifestations

artistiques durant le XXe siècle, depuis l’Op Art ou l’Abstraction et le

Figuratif jusqu’à l’Art brut et le Nouveau réalisme. Dans la seconde moitié

du siècle, se trouvent sur la scène de la peinture, le Pop Art à côté de la

peinture abstraite et la Figuration libre. 2

Deux grands mouvements opposés du XXe siècle sont l’Art abstrait et

l’Art concret. La peinture abstraite refuse d’imiter le monde extérieur. Elle

1Coordinateur: Irina ALDEA, maître de conférences, docteur ès lettres 2https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_peinture 24.04.2020

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_peinture


54

n’a pas besoin de modèle et s’oppose à des siècles de tradition picturale.

Elle se concentre simplement sur des formes et des couleurs. La peinture

abstraite utilise les lignes et les couleurs afin d’obtenir une image qui

reproduit autre chose que la réalité.1

L’origine de l’Art abstrait remonte depuis la première partie du XXe

siècle. Même s’il existe des débats, certains critiques considèrent que la

peinture abstraite commence avec Vassily Kandinsky et son aquarelle Sans

titre. Kandinsky commence à peindre dans la manière abstraite pour

simplifier la peinture afin de révéler plus directement ses pensées et ses

émotions au public. La force de la couleur et de la forme permet à l’artiste

de montrer ce qui se caché dans l’apparence banale de ce qui nous entoure.2

Au pôle opposé se trouve l’Art concret. Le peintre et critique

néerlandais Theo van Doesbourg introduit la notion d’art concret dans Le

manifeste de l’Art concret, en 1930. En général, l’Art concret propose une

peinture universelle, composée uniquement par des éléments géométriques,

lignes et couleurs. Les compositions sont précises, claires et objectives. On

ne cherche pas à provoquer des émotions à travers les toiles. Par

Composition arithmétique, Theo van Doesburg dépeint les idées proposées

dans Le manifeste de l’Art concret. Quelques années plus tard, après la fin

de la Seconde Guerre, l’Art abstrait jouit d’attention au niveau international.

En France, il est représenté par les travaux du groupe Madi et du groupe

ZERO.3

L’art optique ou, bref, l’Op Art rassemble les créations basées sur des

illusions optiques. L’Op Art utilise les formes, les lignes et les couleurs

appropriées à fin d’obtenir différents jeux optiques: depuis le mouvement

simple ou alterné jusqu’à des portions éclairées et ombragées. Le

mouvement jouit d’attention au niveau international et reçoit une exposition

dans le Museum of Modern Art de New York, en 1965.4 L’initiateur du

mouvement est Victor Vasarely. Il mène des recherches pour comprendre la

manière de laquelle l’œil humain perçoit la réalité et comment les effets

optiques opèrent. (KRAUSSE: 1995, 110)

Le Pop Art se développe aux États-Unis et en Angleterre. Les artistes

du Pop Art trouvent leur inspiration dans la vie quotidienne, dans les choses

banales qui deviennent des vrais œuvres d’art sous leur attention. Les

artistes du Pop Art veulent proposer un art « simple » qui satisfait la culture

de masse et qui parfois ressemble à une bande dessiné. (Ibidem, 114-115)

Le Nouveau réalisme prend naissance en 1960. Même si l’idée du

mouvement peut trouver des sources d’inspiration dans le réalisme du XIXe

siècle, le nouveau mouvement est adapté au contexte et à la société de

consommation de la seconde moitié du XXe siècle. Le mouvement

commence avec une exposition collective à Milan organisée par des artistes

caractérisés par beaucoup d’originalité et par la différence entre les

membres au sein du groupe. Au mois d’octobre de la même année, le groupe

de peintres signe le manifeste du Nouveau réalisme. Parmi les signataires de

1https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_abstrait 27.04.2020 2https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_abstrait 27.04.2020 3https://www.espacedelartconcret.fr/fr/histoire-et-contenu/lart-concret 06.05.2020 4https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op_Art 06.05.2020

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_abstrait


https://www.espacedelartconcret.fr/fr/histoire-et-contenu/lart-concret

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op_Art


55

la déclaration se trouvent Yves Klein, Arman, Martial Raysse, et Jacques

Villeglé. La création de ce mouvement n’est pas précisément l’image

équivalente de la réalité qui se trouve devant le peintre, mais une image qui

présente l’objet choisi par celui-ci.1

Yves Klein est une figure très importante de la peinture du Nouveau

réalisme. Il commence sa carrière artistique en 1955. Toute sa carrière, son

attention est concentrée sur des monochromes en raison de sa fascination

pour les couleurs. Pour lui, la plus importante, abstraite et infinie couleur est

la couleur du ciel, le bleu. Il brevète sa propre nuance de bleu,

l’International Klein Blue ou l’IKB. 2

L’art contemporain en Roumanie

Vers la seconde moitié du XXe siècle, l’art roumain perd le contact

avec l’art français. Depuis 1945, la Roumanie se trouve dans la sphère

d’influence communiste. Graduellement, l’idéologie communiste commence

à dominer la Roumanie. Le régime communiste aura une très grande

influence sur l’histoire et sur tous les aspects de la vie des citoyens pour une

période d’environ 45 ans.

Sur le plan européen, la manifestation du réalisme socialiste

commence en 1932. Il s’agit d’une doctrine proclamée par le Parti

communiste de l’Union soviétique, qui, selon l’idéologie communiste

règlemente le contenu des créations dans tous les domaines de l’art. Les

artistes devaient produire des créations qui promouvaient l’esprit

communiste. C’est une des formes d’éducation des personnes pour créer le

citoyen modèle pour cette idéologie. Les principales sources d’inspiration

sont les ouvriers et les paysans, les dirigeants de l’état et les fondateurs de

l’idéologie, Lenin et Stalin. Cette direction amène la censure des personnes

et des créations qui ne se conforment pas aux règles imposées.3

En Roumanie, le réalisme socialiste est adopté après l’expansion du

régime communiste. Les nouveaux mouvements artistiques sont éliminés,

étant classés sous le nom de « formalisme bourgeois ». La Coopérative

d’Artistes Plasticiens, conduite par Jules Perahim, prend naissance en 1949.

Les peintres appartenant à cette Coopérative ont le rôle de produire des

œuvres d’arts soumises à l’idéologie communiste. Parmi leurs créations, on

trouve de grands portraits des fondateurs de l’idéologie et du dirigeant de

l’état.4

En 1971, l’ex président de la Roumanie, le dictateur, Nicolae

Ceaușescu visite les états communistes d’Asie et est impressionné par la

façon dont le culte de la personnalité y est développé. À travers les Thèses

de juillet 1971, le président propose plusieurs mesures afin d’améliorer la

pratique de l’idéologie dans le pays, y compris le culte de la personnalité. Le

culte de la personnalité se manifeste dans plusieurs domaines artistiques. À

1http://mediation.centrepompidou.fr/education/ressources/ENS-nouvrea/ENS-nouvrea.htm

22.04.2020 2http://mediation.centrepompidou.fr/education/ressources/ENS-nouvrea/ENS-nouvrea.htm

22.04.2020 3https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_socialist 17.04.2020 4https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_socialist 17.04.2020

http://mediation.centrepompidou.fr/education/ressources/ENS-nouvrea/ENS-nouvrea.htm


https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_socialist



56

partir de cette année, le dictateur et sa femme deviennent les protagonistes

d’un grand nombre de créations artistiques (des poésies, des chansons, des

histoires ou des tableaux) qui en font l’éloge de sa contribution au

développement du pays. Ils sont le sujet d’un nombre impressionnant de

tableaux: de simples portraits ou des illustrations des activités comme les

visites des usines, des écoles, etc.

La révolution de 1989 apporte la chute du régime communiste et de la

censure en art. La peinture a encore une fois beaucoup à récupérer pour se

mettre à jour avec la peinture des pays démocratiques. Le reste du monde de

la peinture avait continué à progresser. Les règles strictes du régime n’ont

pas permis le contact avec ce progrès. On a besoin de prendre contact avec

l’art d’autres pays pour synchroniser la peinture roumaine avec la peinture

occidentale.1

Pendant les dernières décennies, les peintres roumains ont beaucoup

travaillé pour que nous puissions parler aujourd’hui d’un nouveau souffle

dans l’art roumain. Bien sûr, il n’a pas été facile de substituer presque

quarante ans de coupure avec les innovations artistiques, pourtant on s’est

constamment évertuer à assimiler et à s’intégrer dans la modernité.

Maintenant, nous pouvons parler de nombreux artistes qui contribuent

beaucoup au développement de la scène de la peinture en Roumanie.

L’une des plus importantes figures de la peinture roumaine

contemporaine est Adrian Ghenie. Il finit ses études universitaires d’art à

Cluj-Napoca en 2001 et commence sa carrière de peintre. Ghenie jouit de

succès international et participe à de nombreuses expositions aux États-

Unis, en Allemagne, en France, en Angleterre ou en Suisse. Un bref coup

d’œil sur ses toiles nous montre des tableaux influencés par différents

mouvements ou artistes: le clair-obscur trouvé chez Caravage, la perspective

qui occupait un lieu vital pendant la Renaissance et des compositions

inspirés par David Hockney et par l’expressionnisme abstrait.2 Le grand

peintre néerlandais, Vincent van Gogh, représente une autre source

d’inspiration pour Ghenie comme on voit dans la peinture - hommage Les

tournesols en 1937.

Ghenie peint un grand nombre de portraits et d’autoportraits

(Autoportrait, L’œil sans paupières) qui évoquent ses personnages dans une

manière très différente. La façon dont la peau semble être arrachée

brutalement du visage de ses personnages naît de nombreuses

interprétations. Certains le voient comme une manière d’arracher le masque

porté par chaque personne dans la société ou dans la vie quotidienne. Pour

d’autres, le processus signifie une analyse plus profonde qui va au-delà de

l’image qu’une personne veut présenter. Il y a aussi des critiques qui le

considèrent comme un symbole de l’aliénation. La même technique est

appliquée pour ses autoportraits ce qui nous pousse à penser à une auto-

analyse du peintre.3

1https://idea.ro/revista/ro/article/XIV84hIAAB8At6Qm/reflectii-despre-practica-artistica-din-

romania-inainte-de-1989-si-acum 07.05.2020 2https://www.observatorcultural.ro/articol/arte-vizuale-adrian-ghenie-artist-european/ 23.04.2020 3https://www.lapunkt.ro/2013/05/jupuitii-lui-adrian-ghenie/ 23.04.2020

https://idea.ro/revista/ro/article/XIV84hIAAB8At6Qm/reflectii-despre-practica-artistica-din-romania-inainte-de-1989-si-acum


https://www.observatorcultural.ro/articol/arte-vizuale-adrian-ghenie-artist-european/

https://www.lapunkt.ro/2013/05/jupuitii-lui-adrian-ghenie/


57

Conclusion

En conclusion, l’art contemporain prend naissance dans une période

trouble après les horreurs de la Seconde Guerre mondiale. La France jouit

du développement d’un grand nombre de mouvements artistiques: l’Art

abstrait, l’Art concret, l’Op Art, le Nouveau réalisme, etc. À l’opposé, la

Roumanie perd le contact avec l’art occidental, en entrant dans l'ombre du

régime communiste et en étant soumise à la censure. Finalement, la chute du

régime permet à nouveau la synchronisation de l’art roumain avec l’art

occidental.

Bibliographie

Krausse, Anna-Carola, 1995, Histoire de la peinture: De la Renaissance à nos jours,

Paris, GRÜND.

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_peinture (consulté le 24 Avril 2020).

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_abstrait (consulté le 27 Avril 2020).

https://www.espacedelartconcret.fr/fr/histoire-et-contenu/lart-concret (consulté le 06

Mai 2020).

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op_Art (consulté le 06 Mai 2020).

http://mediation.centrepompidou.fr/education/ressources/ENS-nouvrea/ENS-

nouvrea.htm (consulté le 22 Avril 2020).

http://mediation.centrepompidou.fr/education/ressources/ENS-nouvrea/ENS-

nouvrea.htm (consulté le 22 Avril 2020).

https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_socialist (consulté le 17 Avril 2020).

https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_socialist (consulté le 17 Avril 2020).

https://idea.ro/revista/ro/article/XIV84hIAAB8At6Qm/reflectii-despre-practica-

artistica-din-romania-inainte-de-1989-si-acum (consulté le 07 Mai 2020).


(consulté le 23 Avril 2020).

https://www.lapunkt.ro/2013/05/jupuitii-lui-adrian-ghenie/ (consulté le 23 Avril

2020).

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_peinture


https://www.espacedelartconcret.fr/fr/histoire-et-contenu/lart-concret

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op_Art



http://mediation.centrepompidou.fr/education/ressources/ENS-nouvrea/ENS-nouvrea.htm%20(consulté%20le%2022%20Avril%202020).

http://mediation.centrepompidou.fr/education/ressources/ENS-nouvrea/ENS-nouvrea.htm%20(consulté%20le%2022%20Avril%202020).






https://www.lapunkt.ro/2013/05/jupuitii-lui-adrian-ghenie/


58

PERFORMANCE ET LIMITE DE LA TRADUCTION

AUTOMATIQUE AU NIVEAU DU LEXIQUE DU MEUBLE1

Oana Alexandra ȚECU

Langages Spécialisés et Traduction Assistée par Ordinateur, Ière année

Résumé : Cette étude vise à présenter la qualité obtenue par les logiciels de traduction

automatique au niveau du lexique du meuble. On va présenter dans cet article une liste de

termes qui désignent des pièces de mobilier dans une approche contrastive (français –

roumain). L’intérêt porté aux logiciels de traduction automatique est expliqué par l’usage à

grande échelle de ces applications de traduction.

Mots-clés : traduction automatique, logiciels de traduction automatique, meuble, pouf,

placard

Introduction

La traduction automatique est une branche de la linguistique

computationnelle qui étudie l'utilisation des logiciels dans la traduction entre

les langues naturelles. La traduction automatique fait partie du grand

domaine de l'intelligence artificielle. Dans les dernières années, la traduction

automatique est apparue sous diverses formes comme : site Web qui offre

gratuitement une traduction en ligne, projets de recherche ou logiciels

destinés au grand public. (CHAMPSAUR, 2013). Divers logiciels sont

commercialisés depuis plusieurs années, mais la véritable démocratisation

en termes de traduction automatique est l'apparition sur Internet d'une

multitude de sites qui proposent des traductions en ligne immédiates et

gratuites. Parmi eux, le plus populaire est Google: Google Translate. Depuis

fin avril 2006, ce site, également basé sur une approche statistique, propose

une traduction automatique dans plus de soixante-quatre langues.

(CHAMPSAUR, 2013).

L’intérêt porté aux logiciels de traduction automatique est expliqué

par l’usage à grande échelle de ces applications de traduction.

L’objectif de cet article est de discuter la qualité obtenue par les

logiciels de traduction automatique au niveau du lexique du meuble. On va

présenter dans cet article une liste avec des termes qui désignent des pièces

de mobilier dans une approche contrastive (français – roumain). La sélection

de notre corpus s’est effectuée à l’aide de plusieurs sites de meuble de

France, mais aussi a l’aide de plusieurs revues de meuble.

Le champ lexical des meubles

L’insertion de termes français dans le lexique de la langue roumaine

a été faite dans plusieurs domaines d’activité. Etant donné leur grande

présence dans le lexique roumain, les emprunts français ont représenté

l’objectif de plusieurs études.

1 Coordinateur: Florinela ȘERBĂNICĂ, maître de conférences, docteur ès lettres


59

En nous référant au champ sémantique du meuble, on peut observer

que les pièces de mobilier fondamentales ne sont pas d’origine française :

dulap = armoire, masă = table, pat = lit, mais les autres ont en général un

étymon français : balansoar – fr. balançoire, birou – fr. bureau. (SCURTU,

2012)

Dans cet article nous allons nous concentrer sur les termes qui ne

sont pas d’origine française, termes que nous allons traduire avec les

logiciels de traduction automatique. Le corpus que nous allons discuter

premièrement est formé par : placard, chiffonnier, armoire.

Pour souligner la position des logiciels de traduction automatique, on

a traduit le corpus avec les moteurs de traduction. On a utilisé le plus

populaire moteur de traduction – Google Translate, mais aussi Reverso.

FRANÇAIS ROUMAINE

Google Translate Reverso

Placard dulap Dulap/debara

chiffonnier chiffonnier șifonier

Armoire dulap dulap

L’analyse que nous proposons dans cet article et une brève

illustration de l’efficience des moteurs de traduction automatique sur le

lexique du meuble. On va présenter le sens du mot dans la langue source et

aussi son équivalent dans la langue cible, en faisant une comparaison avec la

traduction donnée par les moteurs de traduction.

Placard, chiffonnier, armoire

Selon le dictionnaire Larousse, le mot placard signifie « face d'armoire,

composée d'un bâti dormant et d'une ou deux portes, fermant une niche, une

partie en retrait dans un mur, où l'on dispose des tablettes, des

portemanteaux. » ou « Construction de menuiserie réalisée à demeure contre

un mur, le plus souvent du plancher au plafond, formant armoire fixe ». Le

meilleur équivalant en roumain c’est debara ou l’emprunt anglais dressing

(pièce dans laquelle on peut garder tous les vêtements de la famille).

Le mot chiffonnier a la définition « petit meuble de rangement à tiroirs

superposés, plus haut que large. (Création d'époque Louis XV ; à sept

tiroirs, c'est le semainier.) » (Larousse). Même si en roumain on a l’emprunt

français șifonier, basé sur son sens, il ne représente pas l’équivalant du mot

chiffonnier. Pour rendre parfaitement le sens français on utilise dans la

langue roumaine le mot dulap (petit meuble en bois ou en métal, petit

meuble de rangement à tiroirs superposés, pour le stockage de vêtements,

vases, livres, etc.)

Le mot armoire a la définition suivante : « meuble de rangement, plus

haut que large, subdivisé intérieurement par des tablettes et fermé par une

ou plusieurs portes (qui parfois portent une glace) » (Larousse). Pour ce

mot, l’équivalant roumain c’est l’emprunt français șifonier.

A partir de ces exemples, on peut souligner le fait que les moteurs de

traduction Google Translate et Reverso ne font pas une traduction exacte,

car en français on emploie les trois mots pour designer trois type de pièces

de meuble distinctes.

Chaise, fauteuil, tabouret, canapé, pouf


60

A partir de la célèbre analyse de l’ensemble des sièges de B. Pottier («

Vers une sémantique moderne », Travaux de linguistique et de littérature de

Strasbourg, II. 1964, p. 107-137), on va analyser aussi l’efficacité des

moteurs de traduction dans le cas des cinq mots qui désignent les pièces de

meuble présentées par Pottier dans son travaux : chaise, fauteuil, tabouret,

canapé, pouf. On va utiliser les mêmes moteurs de traduction automatique.

FRANÇAIS ROUMAINE

Google Translate Reverso

Chaise scaun scaun

Fauteuil fotoliu fotoliu

Tabouret Scaun/taburet Scaun/taburet

Canapé canapea canapea

Pouf beanbag Fotoliu/scaun

Etant donné que pour les autres mots la traduction automatique ne pose

pas autant de problèmes, on va se concentrer sur la traduction du mot pouf.

Qu'est-ce que c'est un pouf ? Selon le dictionnaire Larousse, le mot pouf

désigne « un coussin épais, plus haut que large, servant de siège ». Le nom

provienne de l’onomatopée pouf ! qui évoque la chute. Plus tard le pouf,

tout comme le tabouret, peut être aussi l’accessoire d’un fauteuil ou d’un

canapé, utilisé pour allonger les pieds à la même hauteur que le siège.

L’équivalent en roumain c’est puf. Ce mot est entré en roumain avec les

acceptions du domaine de l’ameublement : « sorte de tabouret ou de coussin

capitonné ou en plastique, rempli d’air » (DEX).

Pour analyser l’efficacité des moteurs de traduction on a cherché sur

plusieurs site de meuble des paragraphes avec le mot pouf qui ont été traduit

avec le moteur de traduction Google Translate.

Le texte qu’on a analysé est un extrait puisé sur le site Jisk.

PUFURI ȘI TABUREȚI PENTRU

O SUFRAGERIE BOEMĂ

Pufurile vin în toate formele și

dimensiunile - și într-o gamă variată

de materiale. Pufurile elegante sunt

tapițate și fără picioare și pot avea

formă de cub, cilindrică sau semi-

sferică. Unele pufuri sunt solide, cu

o umplutură fermă, iar altele pot fi

mai moi. Avem o gamă variată de

pufuri și tabureți comozi, ușor de

mutat în funcție de nevoie, ideale

pentru sufragerii mici și boeme.

Alege un taburet cu spațiu de

depozitare dacă vrei să faci

economie de spațiu sau un fotoliu

puf dacă vrei o piesă de mobilier

ușor de mutat.

PRUNES ET TABOURETS POUR

UN SALON BOHEMIQUE

Les plumes sont de toutes formes et

tailles - et dans une large gamme de

matériaux. Les plumes élégantes

sont rembourrées et sans pieds et

peuvent être de forme cubique,

cylindrique ou semi-sphérique.

Certains peluches sont solides, avec

une garniture ferme, et d'autres

peuvent être plus molles. Nous

avons une large gamme de peluches

et tabourets confortables, faciles à

déplacer selon les besoins, idéaux

pour les petits salons bohèmes.

Choisissez un tabouret avec espace

de rangement si vous voulez gagner

de l'espace ou un fauteuil moelleux

si vous voulez un meuble facile à

déplacer.


61

On peut observer que dans un seul texte le mot pouf a reçu plusieurs

variantes de traduction : prunes, plume, peluche, fauteuil moelleux. La plus

grande erreur a été faite dans le titre car le mot pouf a été traduit par prunes.

Or le mot prune signifie « fruit du prunier », aucune connexion avec le sens

du mot. Les autres variantes de traduction représentent des mots liés à la

signification de base du mot roumain puf, qui signifie « Petites plumes

douces et fines, qui constituent le premier plumage des poussins ou qui

recouvrent le corps de certains oiseaux sur le ventre et sous les ailes et qui

servent à garnir oreillers, couettes, etc. » et elles excluent totalement le sens

de pièce de meuble.

On a traduit aussi les autres équivalentes (beanbags, fotolii para, fotolii

tip beanbag, saci) en contexte pour voir si les erreurs sont toujours présentes

et on a obtenu le résultat suivant:

Beanbags, fotolii para, fotolii tip

beanbag ori saci sunt denumiri

utilizate de fiecare dintre noi pentru

a defini confortabilii saci ce se

muleaza dupa forma corpului!

Poufs, fauteuils para, fauteuils

poufs ou sacs sont des noms utilisés

par chacun de nous pour définir des

sacs confortables qui épousent la

forme du corps!

On observe que les autres équivalentes sont mieux reconnus par le

moteur de traduction automatique. La seule erreur produite est sur le mot

fotolii para, car le moteur de traduction ne reconnait pas le mot para.

Pour analyser l’efficacité des moteurs de traduction on a traduit aussi

des paragraphes du français en roumain avec Google Translate.

On peut constater donc que les algorithmes du moteur de traduction

Google Translate ne sont pas efficaces quand on met le mot dans un

contexte. Le moteur de traduction ne réussit pas à reconnaitre le bon sens

dans le contexte. Pour cette raison, on affirme que les moteurs de traduction

ne peuvent pas remplacer le traducteur.

Conclusion

Actuellement, la traduction automatique a évolué et vise même à

augmenter la productivité des traducteurs. Cependant, la propriété de cette

technologie n'est pas facile. Si les résultats fournis par la traduction

automatique sont de qualité insuffisante, ils ne font pas gagner du temps

FRANÇAIS ROUMAINE

Le pouf n'a jamais été aussi

tendance. Super pratique car mobile, il

n'est plus seulement une.

Poufa nu a fost niciodată atât de la

modă. Super practic, deoarece mobil, nu

mai este doar un .

Nous recherchons un pouf. Cautam un otoman.


62

dans le processus de traduction et peuvent même perturber le processus

intellectuel impliqué dans la traduction.

Concernant l'efficacité des moteurs de traduction, selon les analyses sur

le lexique du meuble qu’on a présenté, des incohérences liées au sens et des

incohérences terminologiques pourraient être observées, ce qui nous amène

à penser que les moteurs de traduction ne peuvent pas réaliser une traduction

parfaite, mais ils sont une véritable aide dans le travail du traducteur.

Bibliographie :

Champsaur, Caroline, La traduction automatique: un outil pour les traducteurs?,

disponible en ligne https://www.jostrans.org/issue19/art_champsaur.pdf, consulté le

05mai2020.

Pottier, B., 1964, Vers une sémantique moderne, Travaux de linguistique et de littérature de

Strasbourg, II édition, Strasbourg.

Scurtu Gabriela, 2013, Etude lexico-sémantique du micro-champ lexical des meubles de

rangement en français et en roumain, disponible en ligne

https://www.lingv.ro/RRL%203%202012%20art04Scurtu.pdf, consultee le 07mai2020.

Sitographie:

https://www.systransoft.com/fr/systran/technologie/traduction-automatique/.

https://translate.google.com/.

https://www.larousse.fr/.

context.reverso.net .

https://dexonline.ro/ .

https://www.jostrans.org/issue19/art_champsaur.pdf

https://www.lingv.ro/RRL%203%202012%20art04Scurtu.pdf

https://www.systransoft.com/fr/systran/technologie/traduction-automatique/

https://translate.google.com/

https://www.larousse.fr/

https://dexonline.ro/


63

QUANTUM COMPUTING:

THE FUTURE OR A FLUKE?1

Daniel BLAGA

Informatics, 1st year

Summary: Quantum computing is a fairly new development in the field of computational

technology. In this article, we’ll be taking a deep dive into what it is, its pros and cons, how

it works, and various tools and uses, while also trying to keep it simple, interesting and

easy to understand.

Key words: Qubits, transistors, Moore’s law, Quantum supremacy,

Technology is developing rapidly nowadays. You don't have to look too

far back to notice the pattern - from the room-sized computers of the ‘40s, to

the cabinet-sized ones during the Apollomissions, to today's portable

smartphones,technology gets more and more space efficient.

But as gadgets get smaller and smaller every year, we will eventually

run into a problem. With the iterative means we have developed throughout

the decades as to downsize circuits, we’ll come to make so small a transistor

that it will ultimately stop sending electricity efficiently. This puts a hard

limit on how far we can go with this trendof making devices smaller and

increasingly more powerful.

With this in mind, by working together, scientists all over the globe

came up with a very advanced solution to this big, yet small in size problem.

It’s the buzz word “Quantum Computing”you probably have heard about,

especially if you’re interested in either the evolution of technological trends,

or just really into Science Fiction.

Now, what does quantum computing mean exactly? Well, to put it

simply, quantum computing is a form of computing that utilizes quantum-

mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement to solve

computational problems. Now as you would imagine, this is much harder

than traditional processing.

So, when we’re talking about quantum physics, and especially

superposition, some of you might think about Schrödinger's cat (looking at

you, Rick and Morty fans), a thought experiment, sometimes described as a

paradox, devised by the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in 1935,

though the idea originated from Albert Einstein. The scenario presents a

hypothetical cat that may be simultaneously both alive and dead, a state

known as a quantum superposition, as a result of being linked to a random

subatomic event that may or may not occur.Morbid explanation aside, this

example shows that working with quantum phenomena proves a little more

difficult to use for processing inside a computer than Euclidian physics.

Traditional processing makes use of a unit of memory called a “bit”. A

bit is as simple as a yes or a no, a true of a false, a 1 or a 0. On the other

1 Coordinator: Andreea MOISE, PhD Lecturer


64

hand, quantum processing makes use of quantum bits, or qubits for short,

which just as humans, aren’t so decisive. Qubits can be in a 1 or 0 quantum

state, or they can be in a superposition of the 1 and 0 states, which as we

discussed earlier means they can be both a 1 and a 0 at the same time.

All that fancy talk basically means that qubits can store and transfer

exponentially more information, but they are also harder to work with. It is

also really hard to keep the quantum state of qubits, as they are very

unstable. This is called quantum decoherece and because of it, quantum

computers require significant error correction.

Another problemthat working with quantum processors brings to the

table would be the fact that you have to keep it hooked up to a source of

quantum particles, like a supercollider. This means that with current

technology it is impossible to create wireless quantum devices, such as a

theoretical quantum laptop, or a quantum smartphone… or at least it wasn’t

when I started writing this article.

You see, quantum computing and quantum processors are such a hot

topic in the realm of computational science right now, that new discoveries

are made all of the time. Quite recently a new advancement has been made

in keeping the quantum state of qubits for longer periods of time, and that is

cryogenically freezing them. Right now, we can’t hold them in a stable state

for extended periods of time, but we just have to figure out how to make the

best use of it.

Cryotechnology has already been heavily used in maintainingstability of

qubits even before its consideration as an answer to quantum batteries. In

order for circuits to have as little errors as possible, the temperature of

qubits has to be held at as close as possible to 0°𝐾, also known as absolute

zero especially while they are passing through circuits, and there’s a number

of companies specializing in this field, one of which being Zurich

instruments. They produce what is called a Dilution Refrigerator, a

steampunk like chandelier of pipes and nozzles which sure doesn’t help with

the Alien look of supercomputers.

Now, going back on track, let’s make like a bit, and change orientation

from negative to positive, and take a look at all the opportunities that

quantum processing might bring in the future:

Well, for starters, let’s get back to the size problem I brought up.

According to Moore’s law, the number of transistors in a microchip doubles

almost every two years, so to keep processors as tiny as possible transistors

have to gradually get smaller. At the rate processors are evolving today,

we’ll eventually rich a limit on how small we can physically make them in

the next 100 years at best. Today’s smallest transistors are about 14

nanometers across, which is about 70 silicon atoms. That is even smaller

than a human hair, which is pretty insane.

Quantum computers, on the other hand, can send a lot more information

through those same transistors, and might even evolve until traditional

transistors aren’t required at all, making them in theory able to shrink

indefinitely.

Secondly, quantum computers are also much more efficient than their

regular counterparts. This is known in the industry as “Quantum


65

supremacy”, and has been proven on numerous occasions, most recently

being shown at the Google AI Quantum labs in Santa Monica, where by

superconducting qubits with chip-based scalable architecture they managed

to achieve a two-qubit gate error of less than 0.5%, which seeing how

unstable qubits can be, is an incredibly good error rate, although their goal is

to bring it down to only 0.2%. In October 2019, they were also able to create

a machine that surpasses typical processors by a ridiculous amount.

Allegedly, this monster was able to finish a calculation that would have

taken supercomputers a whopping 10 000 years in only 200 seconds,

although the claim was shut down by IBM that recreated the test on their

flagship unit, the Raleigh, and were only able to complete it in 2 days and a

half, which is still only a miniscule fraction of the time an Euclidian

machine would take.

And although the quantum computers of today aren’t the most accurate,

as we touched on previously, they are still plenty powerful. As of the 19th of

June 2020, according to several acclaimed publications, the fastest quantum

computer was built by the North-Carolinian company known as Honeywell.

This beast of a machine has a quantum volume of 64, double as much as its

IBM produced competitor, the aforementioned Raleigh. This was achieved

by tethering together 6 high-functioning qubits . Following this enormous

success, Honeywell started offering the use of their machine for solving

crazy calculations $10 000 an hour, so if you’re looking to test the limits of

this marvel of engineering it will cost you a pretty penny.

Quantum computers can also perform tasks that normal computers

simply can’t perform as the NASA Professor Colin P. Williams claimed in

his 1998 book entitled “Quantum Computing and Quantum

Communications”:“These tasks include teleporting quantum information,

establishing shared cryptographic keys, search unstructured “virtual”

databases, factoring composite integers, simulating physical systems and

enhancing the capability of classical communication channels.”

Now, that’s cool and all but I believe you would like some more

concrete applications of this science, for example some software that can

run on Quantum Computers, and the best place to start with would be with

something basic, Quantum Basic.

Now, contradictory name aside (personally, I wouldn’t describe

anything powered by Quantum Physics as basic), what is Quantum basic?

Well, to begin to understand it, we have to look at its traditional

Counterpart, Basic, which is, as the name implies, the most basic

programing language. Similarly, Quantum basic isn’t the best programing

language for Quantum Computers, being quite limited, but it opened the

way for new programing languages and SDKs (Software Development

Kits)to be created. Let’s take a look at some notable examples:

Firstly, let’s take a look at Microsoft’s offerings to the soon-to-be

market, Q# and QDK. These two can’t be talked about separately because of

how interconnected they are. Q# is an open source programing language

developed by Microsoft as part of the Quantum Development Kit, or QDK

for short. It was developed especially with running quantum algorithms in

mind, and can’t run as such on traditional machines, unless run through a


66

Toffoli simulator. It is mostly similar with Microsoft’s C# programming

language, although it also borrows elements from Python and F#. Being

similar to C#, Q# is an object-oriented programing language, and seemingly

the most robust one of its kind on quantum computers.

Secondly, there’s the Quantum Computational Language, or QCL, for

short. It was one of the first ever implemented programing languages and its

standout feature is the ability for users to define and use their own functions,

making it the first of its kind to allow something like that. The programming

language is most alike to C, having similar syntax and data types.

And last but not even close to least we have QMASM, or the Quantum

Macro Assembler, coming even before quantum basic. QMASM is a low-

level language, which can only run machine code, but it was instrumental in

the creation of everything else.

With technology evolving faster than ever before, the prospects of

seeing this tech evolve and eventually become a mainstay in very exciting.

We'll probably start seeing it being used in places that require complex

calculations that can’t be achieved with today’s supercomputers long before

it can be distributed to consumer level. This is also the path classical

computers had to climbwhen they were starting out, but in time this

technology is sure to make it into our households.

In conclusion, and as my answer to the question raised in the title, I

really do believe that quantum computing is the future of not only

informatics, but technology as a whole, and I’m excited to see what leaps

and improvements we’ll reach with it in the near future.

Bibliography:

Bayern,Macy, 2020, “Honeywell claims to surpass IBM with the world's fastest quantum

computer”,TechRepublic

https://www.techrepublic.com/article/honeywell-claims-to-surpass-ibm-with-the-worlds-

fastest-quantum-computer/.

Google AI quantum labs, Google Research (last accessed on21.06.2020):

https://research.google/teams/applied-science/quantum/ .

Hazari, Arnab, 2017, “Electronics are about to reach their limit in processing power—but

there’s a solution”, Quartz Magazine

https://qz.com/852770/theres-a-limit-to-how-small-we-can-make-transistors-but-the-

solution-is-photonic-chips/.

Jeans, David, 2020, “Honeywell Says It Has Built The World’s Most Powerful Quantum

Computer”, Forbes Magazine

https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidjeans/2020/06/19/honeywell-says-it-has-built-the-

worlds-most-powerful-quantum-computer/#2ae460b07cd4.

Microsoft QDK, 2020, “What are the Q# programming language and QDK?”, Microsoft

Docs:

https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/quantum/overview/what-is-qsharp-and-qdk.

Root, Al., 2020, “Honeywell Shows Quantum Computers Are Always Right”,BARRON’S,

https://www.barrons.com/articles/this-is-what-the-worlds-most-powerful-quantum-

computer-looks-like-51592513735.

Williams, Colin P., 1998,Quantum Computing and Quantum Comunications, Palm Springs

California, Springer:

https://books.google.ro/books?hl=en&lr=&id=OJ-

UysqGBXYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=quantum+computing+papers&ots=-

YTDQRCKxG&sig=Q_5d1i8xuuzSqF_d7fVYGQ3Wwco&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=

false .

https://www.techrepublic.com/article/honeywell-claims-to-surpass-ibm-with-the-worlds-fastest-quantum-computer/

https://www.techrepublic.com/article/honeywell-claims-to-surpass-ibm-with-the-worlds-fastest-quantum-computer/

https://research.google/teams/applied-science/quantum/

https://qz.com/852770/theres-a-limit-to-how-small-we-can-make-transistors-but-the-solution-is-photonic-chips/

https://qz.com/852770/theres-a-limit-to-how-small-we-can-make-transistors-but-the-solution-is-photonic-chips/

https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/quantum/overview/what-is-qsharp-and-qdk

https://www.barrons.com/articles/this-is-what-the-worlds-most-powerful-quantum-computer-looks-like-51592513735

https://www.barrons.com/articles/this-is-what-the-worlds-most-powerful-quantum-computer-looks-like-51592513735

https://books.google.ro/books?hl=en&lr=&id=OJ-UysqGBXYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=quantum+computing+papers&ots=-YTDQRCKxG&sig=Q_5d1i8xuuzSqF_d7fVYGQ3Wwco&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false





67

Wikipedia:

-Schrodinger’s Cat(last accessed on21.06.2020)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger%27s_cat.

-Quantum Computing (last accessed on21.06.2020)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing.

-Qubit(last accessed on21.06.2020)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qubit.

-Quantum Programing(last accessed on21.06.2020)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_programming.

-Quantum computation language(last accessed on21.06.2020)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Computation_Language.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger%27s_cat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qubit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_programming

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Computation_Language


68

THE SPECIALIST IN HUMAN RESOURCES AND

CULTURAL ORGANIZATION1

Dragoș Ștefan FIERARU

Human Resources, 1st year

Abstract: Organisational culture has been of interest to scientists as well as managers for

several decades. A well-built and managed organisational culture can create a significant

competitive advantage for a company.

As Edgar Schein said :

“The only thing of real importance that leaders do is to create and manage culture.” “If

you do not manage culture, it manages you, and you may not even be aware of the extent to

which this is happening.”

Organizational Culture is an important construct in Social Sciences research. This

exploratory study elaborates the impact of organizational culture on organizational

performance.

Keywords : organizational culture, leadership skills, organizational performance.

Introduction

Society consists of people who interact in a social structure consisting of

statuses, roles, groups, institutions and organizations, but in human societies

the social structure is incomprehensible in the absence of culture. Culture is

the way of life that gives birth to and sustains the social or organizational

structure.

This is characteristic of the members of a group or a society and they live it

in relationship and under the influence of material and non-material

products created by people. Society can be compared to the way iron filings

are arranged on a magnet. Culture, on the other hand, resembles the field of

the magnet which makes it possible to tighten the iron filings together.

As it follows, society and culture, although theoretically dissociated, are

practically closely interrelated.

A society cannot exist without a culture, just as a culture cannot exist

without a society

There is a special relationship between cultural anthropology and sociology,

which is much closer than that between anthropology and other social

sciences, such as political science. This specific relationship is due to the

theoretical and methodological approach between the two disciplines.

Sociology signaled the importance of anthropology and introduced it to

academia. The successes of anthropology have aroused suspicion from

representatives of other social sciences who have accused anthropologists of

arivism. There are also differences between cultural anthropology and

sociology. Initially, sociologists focused on the industrialized West, and

anthropologists on non-industrial illiterate societies.

1 Coordinator: Laura IONICĂ, Phd Lecturer


69

From this perspective or peculiarity also result methodological differences.

To study complex and extensive nations, sociologists relied on

questionnaires and other methods to collect quantifiable data masses.

Sampling and the use of statistical techniques are basic for sociology,

however, statistical training is less common among anthropologists,

although working conditions have begun to change lately.

Cultural anthropologists use in particular the work method or field research

in which the participant observation is fundamental. Currently, there is an

expanding interdisciplinary communication between anthropology and

sociology.

Sociology tends to be more open to culture today than in the past, which

means a closer approach to qualitative studies and the interpretation of

sociological data and problems. Also, anthropology does not resume only at

the study of small, illiterate, undeveloped communities. It also addresses

issues of industrial societies, such as rural decline, urban life, the role of the

media in creating current national and international cultural models.

In small, illiterate, underdeveloped societies, researched by cultural

anthropology, politics and economics are not distinct activities, as they are

in the modern world. They are rather immersed or embedded in the general

social order.

Anthropology has brought important data in connection with the

acknowledgment of economic life. It pointed out that the motivation for

effective action is culturally adjusted. Profit is not the only guide for people

to make economic decisions. These findings have contributed to broadening

the vision of economics.

There is a close connection between cultural anthropology and the

humanities that study religion, art, literature, music, dance and other forms

of creative expression.

In this field, anthropology adopts an attitude of overcoming the

understanding of culture only in an elitist sense, as something cultivated,

sophisticated, belonging to those who have finished college, something of

"good taste."

For anthropology, culture is not reduced to elites or a single social segment,

it deals among other things, with all forms of creative expression.

Conceptualization of organizational culture

Long ago, social theorists studied collective action and its problems, trying

to determine the ways suitable for organizing human activity and thus

achieved certain organizational goals.

So theorists were forced to consider the indissoluble relationship between

the organization and collective action. Indeed, the organization can be

considered interchangeable as a system, hierarchy or a purpose mechanism.

Organizations are social entities with deliberately structured activity,

directed towards an end and bound by the external environment through

permeable boundaries. Any organization requires specific roles of social

actors involved, namely compliance behaviors that cannot be understood

and explained outside.


70

Individuals need to find some motivation to join such structures aimed at

integrating them. Once integration achieved of new individual in the

organizational culture, this get a part from culture. In this point of

transformation and adaptation intervenes interaction with social subgroup,

start to adopt values and norms. This norms and values once adopted they

will influence also his life even outside of the company.

The organization is a complex social entity, and the meanings of the term

“organization” are vast. There is no universally accepted definition,

according to which the organization defines: sociology, management,

psychology, economics. The most common definition of the organization is:

“the organization may consist of two or more persons engaged in order to

achieve common goals”.

Various disciplines contributed to defining the organizational culture:

anthropology, psychology, economics, sociology, general management.

Currently, the concept of organizational culture is the core theory of cultural

management school.

Organizational culture is the basic expectation that a certain group invented,

discovered or developed during the process of learning and external

adaptation and integration.

There are many ways to define organisational culture as it is influenced by

factors such as the sector in which the company operates, its geographic

location, the events that occurred during its history, personalities of its

employees, and their patterns of interaction.

Some of the formal definitions define culture as follows: cognitive

framework, which consists of attitudes, values, behavioural norms and

expectations (Greenberg, Baron, 1997), collective thinking, habits, attitudes,

feelings and behaviour patterns (Clemente, Greenspan, 1999), programmed

way of perception derived from the beliefs and values (Hall, 1995),

configuration, material or behaviour pattern that was adopted by a company

as an acceptable way to solve problems (Ahmed et al., 1999) and basic

values, attitudes and beliefs that exist in the organisation, patterns of

behaviour that are a result of these shared meanings that express the

connection between beliefs, values and behaviours of members of the

organisation (Denison, 1990).

In the context of the content of this paper, the following definition was

selected:

"Organisational culture is an elusive phenomenon characterising the quality

of the social climate within the organisation and determining the dominant

work positions of all workers. The status of organisational culture is

relatively easy punishable immediately after joining the organisation, but the

definition of the term is difficult because it represents a phenomenon that

appeals more to emotions than rational considerations of an observer.

(Mohelska & Pitra, 2012)”

Organizational culture is an important part of modern approaches related to

human capital in organizations. Developing the concept of organizational


71

culture has been favored by major reconsideration of the role that human

capital plays in the evolution of the organization.

A strong culture protects the organization from environmental change and

gives its values the stability necessary for long-term survival. These

organizations can quickly adapt to changes, finding in their values the

strength needed to resist.

Organizational Culture can be defined as "the collective programming of the

mind that distinguishes the members of one organization from others".

(Hofstede, The Hofstede Center).

Organizational culture on corporate performance

The relationship between the culture and the performance of an

organization is highlighted by the functions of the organizational culture: it

strengthens the cohesion of the staff, improves the external adaptation of the

organization, increases staff loyalty, by encouraging feelings of devotion

and loyalty to the organization.

More and more organizations are aware of the "strength" of an

organizational culture; it is an important strategic tool to guide and mobilize

people to common goals, a lever that promotes or slows down the

introduction of the new "key" to organizational excellence.

Because organizations are open systems like “biological systems”, we can

say that they behave exactly like a social entity that operates on a relatively

continuous basis to achieve a common goal. Cultural organization is the link

of the organization, which helps to change it, influences the conflict and

represents an effective tool for its evaluation.

Culture can be defined as a combination of values, sets, beliefs,

communications and simplification of behaviour which gives direction to

peoples.

The basic idea of culture means sharing the learning processes based on the

proper allotment of resources. (Titiev, 1959) The mental ability of human

which helps in enhancing thinking and decision making depends on the

organization culture (Pettigrew, 1979).

Organizational culture consists of two important elements of social group;

structural stability in the number of people and assimilation of an

individual’s item in good standard (Schein, Organizational culture, 1995).

According to Strewart, 2010, organization’s norms and values have a great

impact on those who are fully devoted to the organization. According to him

norms are unable to be seen but if the organizations want to increase the

profits and productivity of the employees norms are first considered.

The human resources specialist has the necessary knowledge, experience

and skills to research, observe, analyze, interpret, integrate and develop the

organization. The specialist also depends on the policies and the

development plan, and can lead or implement the development plan desired

by the top management.

Culture can be learned and shared in the organizations. According to

Pettigrew, 1979, culture of an organization is based on the systems that may

help to define how employees make decisions and think. Him also noted the


72

different level of culture based on the multilayers set of beliefs, values and

assumptions can may define new ways in organizations to do its business.

Organizational culture is the combination of values, beliefs, and norms

which may impact the way employees behave, think and feel in the

organization.

There are 4 functions of organization culture: providing sense of identity to

members, enhancing the commitment, strengthening organizational values,

and shaping behavior through a control mechanism (Nelson & Quick, 2011).

Performance is a measure that involves productivity, quality, consistency,

and so on.

On the other side, performance indicators involve results and behaviors

(criterion-based) and education and training concepts and instruments

involving management development and leadership training for developing

essentials skills and attitudes of performance management, relative

(normative) measures.

The organization's performance is to install a strong culture in the

organization’s systems, wich allows it to achieve its goal without problems.

This concept is important and permits researchers and managers to assess

firms’ performance over time and match their performance with the

competitors’. In simple words, organizational performance is the most

essential criterion in managing and assessing the actions and environments

of the organization.

Taking into account G. Hofstede’s research we can say that any culture can

be defined through these cultural dimensions: hierarchic distance

large/small, control of uncertantities intense/reduced,

individualism/collectivism and masculinity/femininity, long term

orientation, indulgence. (Hofstede 1980)

Also, if we take into account the research regarding the different solutions

chosen by different cultures for the 3 main universal problems (human

relationships, time outlook and human relations with nature) made by author

F. Trompenaars, any culture can be characterized through seven main

cultural dimensions: universalism/particularism, individualism/collectivism,

affective/neutral, specific/diffuse, obtained status/assigned status, attitude

towards time-lapse and human relations with nature. (Trompenaars 1993).

Understanding of organisational culture and cultural types also helps our

understanding of why managerial reforms may impact differently within

organisations.

An organisation with a predominantly internal process culture, for example,

may be more resistant to reforms aimed at promoting innovation. Pollitt and

Bouckaert (2004, p.55) noted: ‘We would also expect staff in high

uncertainty avoidance cultures to be more concerned with rule-following

and more reluctant to risk changing jobs − both factors of some importance

for those reformers who want to deregulate bureaucracies and encourage

more rapid job change in the public service’.

Practitioners in both the private and public sectors have come to realise that

organisational change often requires changing the organisation’s culture and

learning. For example, in terms of improving career progression

arrangements in the civil service, O’Riordan and Humphreys (2002)


73

suggested a need for a change in organisational culture in many areas of a

department (p.83). In particular, O’Riordan (2004) says that ‘developing a

culture in which career progression and development of staff is prioritised

represents an important retention and motivation tool.

Change of Organizational Culture in Organization

If culture is important, is it possible to manage culture change? Culture

change involves moving an organisation from one form of culture to

another, often through a culture change programme. Managing this cultural

change programme requires that attention be paid to a range of issues.

Pettigrew et al., (2003, 2000, 1992, 1983) suggests a number of key factors:

• creating a receptive climate for change;

• top leadership drive − coherent and cohesive;

• requiring an articulate and precise vision from the top;

• discrepant action to increase tension;

• use of deviants and heretics;

• new avenues for articulating problems;

• reinforcing structural change and rewards;

• use of role models;

• deep socialisation, training and development;

• new communication mechanisms to transmit new values and

beliefs;

• integrated selection criteria and removal of deviants;

• luck, persistence and patience.

Changing organizational culture is a kind of organizational change, but an

important one, since any transformation amounts to a reassessment of basic

assumptions that individuals take them. On the other hand, the

organizational culture is the interface between individuals and changes,

which may in turn be converted into a barrier or a facilitator of the process.

Organizational transformations have echoes on the cultural layers. Whether

transformation occurs in the structure, the form of ownership, the type of

technology or management strategies, it requires cultural change.

Preservation and cultural adjustment are enemies of success of the

organizational cultural change. To understand the relationship

“organizational culture – change”, the following key features are taken into

account:

• culture consists of three key elements: beliefs, behaviors and

attitudes that are indicative in consideration of appropriate action or

unsuitable for individuals and groups within the organization;

• culture is shared, fostering cohesion of people in an organization;

• culture develops over time, the current organizational culture is the

result of beliefs, behaviors and attitudes that have contributed in the

past to the success of the organization.

Sources cultural change in the organization can be both inside and outside

the organization. The methods and mechanisms by which organizational

culture is maintained, in organizational change can also be sources from


74

which we can help ourselves. As a result of changes in the external

environment in which the organisational culture may occur.

The internal dynamics of the organization may determine, at some point,

need to change organizational culture in terms of:

• reduced performance or different compared to those covered by top

management;

• change the object of attention of managers;

• change management team;

• change the vision and mission of the organization;

• modification of the treatment of crisis and response to incidents;

• how to achieve change roles by managers;

• appreciable differences between the strategy adopted and the reality

of the organization;

• promotion of new methods and management techniques;

• change the criteria for reward and recruitment recruitment,

selection and promotion of personnel within the organization;

• low ability to adapt the organization to the environment;

•

Psychosocial processes that intervene in organizational change

We can say that all organizations in the process of integrating new human

resources within the organization will formalize the individual in

accordance with the requirements and standards of the organization, and the

position that the individual has. This somehow difficult or easy process

inoculates the individual with the new culture. As all specialized books link

the change of organizational culture to organizational change, we are

obliged to admit that certain individuals will no longer be part of the

organization.

There are individuals who no longer represent the future vision of the

organization, or who cannot / do not want to accept to integrate into the new

culture. There are also individuals who make the process more difficult or

impossible. Their position will be occupied with new individuals who bend

to the requirement and the new vision.

New recruits will take part in the culturalization process. Even if the process

of change is major or minor, all the company's human resources undergo

changes at the psychological level. We can realize this from the

psychosocial research of multiculturalism and the difficulty of acculturation

of those who come into contact with a new culture, or completely change

the old culture with another. Because there may be cultural differences

within the same culture, we will certainly find cultural differences between

organizations.

As I said before, every organization can be compared to a small society, so

each organization has its own particularity and culture. This will lead us to

know that the old culture will be particulary different from the new culture

that they will adopt.

Throughout this process, the human resources specialist plays an important

role being the one who creates the new cultural vision and seeks to be

integrated and accepted by all individuals involved in this process. He must


75

follow all these processes and be aware of them, by neither ommitting, nor

forgetting them.

Because it is a difficult and complex process, the team with which he builds

this new vision must be composed of well-qualified specialists, aware of the

importance of the process in which they are engaged.

Conclusions

Organizational culture is the link to the organization, which helps to change

it, influences the conflict and is an effective tool for evaluating it.

An important step in understanding culture is the ability to identify it at the

level of the organization and to detail its major components. Organizational

culture has a number of dimensions and attributes according to which it is

structured: external environment, mission, strategy and goals at the strategic

level.

We can say about the organizational culture that it is the basic expectation

that a certain group invented, discovered or developed during the learning

process of the problems of external adaptation and internal integration and

that worked well enough to be considered valid.

Culture refers to that set of values, beliefs and ways of understanding that

are common to the members of a group. The culture of the organization

seems to be more in everyday practices than in common values, these are

the conclusions of research during in the field.

This being much more explicit in Hofstede's cultural model which

highlighted the 6 cultural dimensions of the organization.

Culture is the way of life of a group of people, in the circumstances of a

certain environment, created by man and formed by material and non-

material products transmitted

from one generation to another. culture is the way of life of a group of

people. the way of life takes place in the circumstances of a certain

environment

Edward B. Tylor: culture is a very complex whole, which includes

knowledge, faith, art, morals, law, habit, and other abilities and habits

acquired by man as a member of society

Clyde Kluckhohn: considers that the anthropological term culture refers to

those aspects of the human environment, tangible or intangible, that were

created by man. He also adds: a "culture" refers to the distinctive way of

life, of a group of people, to their whole project of living.

References:

Ilies, Liviu, Gavrea, Corina, 2008, "The Link Between Organizational Culture And

Corporate Performance", Annals of Faculty of Economics, vol. 4, pag. 322-325.

Mashal, Ahmed, Saima Shafiq, 2014, "The Impact of Organizational Culture on

Organizational Performance: A Case Study of Telecom Sector", Global Journal of

Management and Business Research: A Administration and Management Volume 14 Issue

3.

Mihu, Achim, 2000, Antropologie culturală, Cluj-Napoca, Napoca Star.

Mohelska, Hana , Sokolova, Marcela, 2015, „Organisational culture and leadership”,

Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 171, 6.


76

Muscalu Emanoil, 2014, „Organizational Culture Change in the Organization”, Revista

Academiei Fortelor Terestre, nr. 19, 4.

O’Donnell, Orla, Boyle, Richard, 2008, Understanding and Managing Organisational

Culture, Institute of Public Administration.

Tănase, Ion Alexandru, 2015, "The Importance Of Organizational Culture Based On

Culture Transfer", Proceedings of the International Management Conference, Faculty of

Management, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania, vol. 9(1), pag. 848-852.


77

GLOBAL WARMING1

Gabriel GEANĂ

Mihai-Vlăduț GUȚU

Machine Building Technology,1st year

Abstract: It’s more and more obvious that global warming is real and that it poses a great

threat to the planet and to people. Current data show that we have to reduce greenhouse-

gas emissions in developed countries by at least 80% by 2050 in order to be able to stay

below an average temperature rise of over 2ºC. It is our responsibility to take immediate

measures to prevent global warming from getting much worse. Although it may sound

impossible, ordinary people can put pressure on governments to act urgently. Moreover, we

can make changes in our everyday lives to reduce our carbon emissions.

Key words: warming, effects, prevention

The Earth's climate has changed throughout history. There have been

several cycles of glacial advance and retreat, with the abrupt end of the last

ice age about 11,700 years ago marking the beginning of the modern climate

era - and of human civilization. Most of these climate changes are connected

with small variations in Earth’s orbit that change the amount of solar energy

our planet receives.

People all over the world are suffering from the catastrophic effects

of extreme disasters caused by climate change - from prolonged drought to

devastating storms. Over the past years, people have experienced terrible

heatwaves and wildfires, droughts, floods and precipitation, cloud and

vegetation cover changes that resulted in the deaths of hundreds of people.

It is beyond doubt that people have caused most of the last century’s

warming by releasing heat-trapping gases - commonly referred to as

greenhouse gases - to power our modern lives. We are doing this through

burning fossil fuels, agriculture and land-use and other activities that drive

climate change. What is most worrying is that greenhouse gases are

currently at the highest levels they have been over the last 800,000 years.

This incredibly rapid rise is a serious problem because it’s changing our

climate at a rate which doesn’t allow people to adapt to it.

The Earth's average temperature has risen about 1.62 degrees

Fahrenheit (0.9 degrees Celsius) since the late 19th century, a change caused

mainly by increased carbon dioxide and other human-made emissions into

the atmosphere. The most worrying changes have occurred over the last 35

years. According to scientists, the last six years have been the warmest years

ever. 2016 was the warmest year on record.

The oceans have absorbed much of this increased heat. The

Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass. According to

data from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment, Greenland

lost an average of 286 billion tonnes of ice per year between 1993 and 2016,

1 Coordinator: Mirela COSTELEANU, PhD Lecturer


78

while Antarctica lost about 127 billion tonnes of ice per year during the

same period.

Glaciers are retreating all over the world - including in the Alps,

Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska and Africa. The amount of spring snow

cover in the Northern Hemisphere has decreased over the past five decades.

Global sea level has risen about 8 inches in the last century, the rate in the

last two decades being nearly double that of the last century.

The acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30%.

This is the direct effect of people emitting more carbon dioxide into the

atmosphere, much of it being absorbed by the oceans. The amount of carbon

dioxide absorbed by the upper layer of the oceans is increasing by about 2

billion tonnes per year.

Are people aware of global warming?

Although the effects of global warming are undeniable, analysis of a

global survey shows that more than a third of the world’s population has

never heard of global warming. In developed countries, more than 90% of

the respondents were aware of global warming and its effects on our

everyday lives. In developing countries, lower levels of awareness were

recorded.

Unfortunately, being aware of global warming and being concerned

about it are two different things. In other words, a lot of people see global

warming as a real threat to their lives, but few are willing to take measures

against it. Do people care enough about the Earth to be willing to, for

instance, give up their car or are they too indolent to do it?

Fortunately, more and more young people realise that it is their own

responsibility to protect the environment. It is their children’s life, health

and happiness that is at stake. Nowadays, people change their daily habits in

order to look after our planet. They are looking for ways to repair the

massive damage caused by decades of environmental exploitation. It is a

long process in which each and every action matters. We can all take

individual action to avoid making the mistakes our parents and grandparents

made consciously or unconsciously.

How can we stop global warming?

1. Use energy wisely

By becoming more energy-efficient, you not only pollute less but save

money, too. Such habits as looking for the Energy Star label when buying

new appliances, changing to energy-efficient light bulbs, installing a

programmable thermostat turn out to be healthy habits in the long run.

2. Use renewable energy sources

With lower and lower costs, renewable energy is the best choice for the

environment and the economy.

3. Eat for a healthy planet

The decisions we make about the food we eat have a direct impact on the

environment. People should buy organic and local products whenever

possible. Food should not be wasted.

4. Reduce transportation emissions


79

You can do this by cycling whenever and wherever possible, by flying as

rarely as possible, relying more on public transportation than on your own

car.

5. Consume less, waste less and enjoy life more

Focusing on life’s simple pleasures - having a picnic in the middle of nature,

cycling in the park, spending time with your friends - makes you happier

and more fulfilled than buying useless things.

6. Support or join youth-led movements

All over the world teenagers and young adults are actively involved in

organizations whose objective is to protect the environment. Find a group in

your community and ask how you can help them.

To sum it up, climate change is one of the most challenging

problems that humanity has ever faced. At stake are the planet’s life, the

lives of hundreds of millions of people, a lot of species and ecosystems and

the health of the economy of each and every country. Fortunately, climate

change is a problem that can be solved. We have the technologies. We have

the science. All we need is the wisdom and the courage to use them

correctly to change course.

Bibliography

https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/climate-change (accessed on 2nd May 2020).

https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/ (accessed on 7th May, 2020).

https://fundaforest.eu/en/projects/project_details/ (accessed on 11th May2020).

https://www.nrdc.org/stories/global-warming-101 (accessed on 2nd May 2020).

https://warmheartworldwide.org/climate-change/ (accessed on 1st June 2020).

https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/climate-change

https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/

https://fundaforest.eu/en/projects/project_details/

https://www.nrdc.org/stories/global-warming-101

https://warmheartworldwide.org/climate-change/


80

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE - SOCIAL AND LEGAL

EFFECTS1

Amalia-Maria IOAN

Law, 1st year

Abstract: Domestic violence is broadly defined as a form of physical, emotional, sexual,

psychological, and economic abuse of another person. Regardless of one’s race, gender, or

economic status, domestic violence between partners, parents, etc., we can hypothesize that

only through educational programs one may reduce the impact this social issue has on

victims, their families, friends, co-workers and health care providers.

Key words: violence; victims; psychological abuse, effects

Introduction:

Domestic violence is a social and legal concept that, in the broadest

sense, refers to any abuse—including physical, emotional, sexual, or

financial—between intimate partners, often living in the same household.

The term is often used to specifically designate physical assaults upon

women by their male partners, but, though more rarely , the victim may be a

male abused by his female partner, and the term may also be used regarding

the abuse of persons from the same genders against each other

Domestic violence has increased alarmingly in the context of a society

generating dissatisfaction and frustration that offers the premises for violent

behaviour. Behaviour aggression has long been studied by many people,

who have tried to find the causes and even prevent the various states that

cause aggression.

1. Physical Abuse

Physical abuse is any intentional act causing injury or trauma to

another person or animal by way of bodily contact. In most cases, children

are the victims of physical abuse, but adults can also be victims, as in cases

of domestic violence or workplace aggression. Alternative terms sometimes

used include physical assault or physical violence, and sexual abuse.

Physical abuse may involve more than one abuser, and more than one

victim.

“Physical abuse means any non-accidental act or behavior causing

injury, trauma, or other physical suffering or bodily harm. Abusive acts

toward children can often result from parents' attempts at child discipline

through excessive corporal punishment.”2

2. Sexual Abuse

„Sexual abuse includes marital rape, forcing sex after physical violence

has occurred, or something such as one partner treating the other partner in a

1 Coordinator: Nicoleta-Florina MINCĂ, PhD Lecturer 2 "Child physical abuse". American Humane Association.


81

sexually demeaning manner. Incest is also considered a form of sexual

abuse.”1

Sexual abuse is any form of forced or unwanted sexual activity. The

perpetrator of sexual abuse may use physical force, make threats or take

advantage of a person unable to give consent.

Sexual abuse mainly happens between people who know each other

and can occur in the context of domestic violence.

„Sexual abuse has impacts on a person’s physical and emotional

health. It can lead to long-term mental health issues, including anxiety and

post-traumatic stress disorder.”2

3. Emotional Abuse

Emotional abuse consists of undermining the selfesteem of one’s

partner, or upsetting the balance of one’s relationship with their children. It

may include constant criticism, threats, and jealous control, such as isolating

the woman from friends and family. Emotional abuse, also known as

emotional battering, may be taken less seriously than physical abuse.

However, emotional abuse may leave long-term emotional scars, which

could be more damaging than scars caused by physical attacks. It is widely

recognized that emotional abuse contributes to both depression and low self-

esteem in battered women.

Interestingly enough, research has shown that a battered woman who

has killed her spouse will be judged guilty more often when the abuse she

has suffered is emotional rather than physical. These results indicate that the

use of physical violence by a battered woman is perceived as more

justifiable when she has experienced physical abuse .

4. Economic Abuse

“Economic abuse is a form of abuse when one intimate partner has

control over the other partner's access to economic resources, which

diminishes the victim's capacity to support themselves and forces them to

depend on the perpetrator financially.”3

It is related to, or also known as, financial abuse, which is the illegal

or unauthorized use of a person’s property, money, pension book or other

valuables (including changing the person's will to name the abuser as heir),

often fraudulently obtaining power of attorney, followed by deprivation of

money or other property, or by eviction from own home. Financial abuse

applies in most of the cases to domestic violence.

A key distinction between economic abuse and financial abuse is that

economic abuse also includes the control of someone's present or future

earning potential by preventing them from obtaining a job or education.

“Economic abuse means to make one partner financially dependent on

the other by maintaining complete control over the finances.

1 "Abuz sexual" . Asociația Americană de Psihologie . 2018 American Psychological Association .

Preluat 28 ianuarie 2018 2 https://www.whiteribbon.org.au/understand-domestic-violence/types-of-abuse/sexual-abuse/ 3 Adams, Adrienne E.; Sullivan, Cris M.; La revedere, Deborah; Greeson, Megan R. (mai 2008).

„Dezvoltarea scării abuzurilor economice”. Violența împotriva femeilor. Pp. 563–588.


82

Severe violence against both women and children is highest among

families with low incomes or with male partners that are either unemployed

or have a low paying job.”1

5. Effects of Domestic Violence on Children

Children are affected by domestic violence in a variety of ways.

Domestic violence in the household is often accompanied by other major

developmental risk factors for children such as poverty, female-headed

household, and low education level. Children in violent households may be

involved in the violence by feeling the need to call for help or by being

identified as a cause of the dispute that led to the abuse. Children who live

in violent households also are at risk for physical injury both prenatally and

postnatally.

“Physical trauma is the leading cause of maternal death during

pregnancy not associated with childbirth, with homicide being the cause of

death in just over half of pregnant victims. Physical violence during

pregnancy increases the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes such as

antepartum haemorrhage, preterm labor, or fetal loss.” 2

Fear of domestic violence is one reason a mother will stay in a

relationship when she is aware of child sexual abuse. Children living with

domestic violence are at risk not only physically but also psychologically

and emotionally. First of all, children of battered women tend to be much

more aware of the battering than their parents imagine. Children who

witness domestic violence respond in a variety of ways. Some children

remain relatively unscathed from their experiences, whereas others reveal

any of a range of psychopathology or adjustment problems.

The negative changes in parenting that result from domestic violence are

those that lead to the child’s emotional and behavioral problems, not the

domestic violence directly. In general, children are more likely to develop

negative psychological effects from witnessing domestic violence if they

witness severe or chronic violence, if they are younger, if the violence is

frequent, and if it is perpetrated in close proximity to them .Withdrawn,

subdued, or mute behaviors are commonly seen in preschoolers who witness

domestic violence.

Also, witnessing domestic violence as a child has been found to

increase the potential to perpetrate child physical abuse as an adult. Groves

states that children who witness domestic violence may exhibit aggressive

behavior, decreased social competencies, depression, fears, anxiety, sleep

disturbances, and learning problems. The children’s emotional responses to

the violence, such as intense terror, fear of death, and fear of loss of a

parent, underlie many of the emotional/behavioral problems they exhibit.

“Children also may feel rage, guilt, and a sense of responsibility for

the violence . Witnessing domestic violence may invoke in children feelings

1 Colleen Peace, Universitatea A&M din Texas The Impact of Domestic Violence on Society 2 Edleson JL (1997) Problems associated with children’s witnessing of domestic

violence.


83

of helplessness and they may come to see the world as unpredictable,

hostile, and threatening.”1

“Studies show that living with domestic violence can cause physical

and emotional harm to children and young people in the following ways:

• ongoing anxiety and depression

• emotional distress

• physical symptoms, such as headaches and stomach aches

• find it hard to manage stress

• low self-esteem

• self-harm

• feel guilt or blame themselves for the violence

• develop phobias and insomnia

• use bullying behaviour or become a target of bullying

• difficulty concentrating

• have less empathy and caring for others

Young people exposed to domestic and family violence are more

likely to:

• suffer from depression

• be homeless

• abuse drugs and alcohol”2

Conclusion

The causes of domestic violence are as follows: poverty, jealousy,

drug and alcohol abuse, child’s misbehavior and child’s low social status in

the hierarchy of power in the community. The resarch shows that domestic

violence inflicts harm to children such as emotional harm, psychological

harm, physical pain and low self-esteem which impact the child learning

systems thereby influencing a child to lose interest in education, arrive late

at school, being absent from school, dropout of school and even early

marriage.

“Therefore, it is relevant that domestic violence against children

affects the education of the victim's (child's) school. Consequently, several

strategies must be found that can be implemented to mitigate the causal

factors of this social pathology, given the implications it has not only on

children but also on society in general.”3

Bibliography

Adams, Adrienne E.; Sullivan, Cris M.;Deborah; Greeson, Megan R.; mai 2008.

„Dezvoltarea scării abuzurilor economice. Violența împotriva femeilor”.

American Humane Association. "Child physical abuse".

Asociația Americană de Psihologie. Preluat 28 ianuarie 2018 "Abuz sexual".

Colleen Peace; Universitatea A&M din Texas; “The Impact of Domestic Violence on

Society”.

1 Edleson JL (1997) Problems associated with children’s witnessing of domestic

violence. 2 https://www.facs.nsw.gov.au/domestic-violence/about/effects-of-dv-on-children 3 Fantuzzo JW, Mohr WK (1999) Prevalence and effects of child exposure to

domestic violence.


84

Edleson JL; 1997; “Problems associated with children’s witnessing of domestic violence”.

Fantuzzo JW, Mohr WK; 1999; “ Prevalence and effects of child exposure to domestic

violence”.

Internet resources:

https://www.facs.nsw.gov.au/domestic-violence/about/effects-of-dv-on-children (Accessed

on: May 6, 2020).

https://www.whiteribbon.org.au/understand-domestic-violence/types-of-abuse/sexual-

abuse/ (Accessed on: May18, 2020).

https://www.facs.nsw.gov.au/domestic-violence/about/effects-of-dv-on-children

https://www.whiteribbon.org.au/understand-domestic-violence/types-of-abuse/sexual-abuse/

https://www.whiteribbon.org.au/understand-domestic-violence/types-of-abuse/sexual-abuse/


85

MANIPULATION IN SOCIAL RELATIONS1

Marina-Iulia IONAȘCU

Human resources, 1st year

Abstract: This paper aims at the sociological causes of manipulation and highlights

the relationship between the manipulator and his victim. It also comprises a set of

manipulation techniques.

Key words: manipulation techniques; principles of manipulation; persuasion

Manipulation characterizes as the action of changing opinions,

attitudes and behaviors by exposing human persons and groups to

messages in order to achieve goals desired by someone else

(individuals or organizations), without applying physical constraints

and without awareness of the discrepancy between the distant goals of

target people and groups and the distant aims of those who exercise

influence.(CHELCEA, 2002: 226)

Manipulation is part of everyday life. Social influence is generally

perceived to be harmless when it respects the right of the influenced to

accept or reject it, and is not overly coercive. Depending on the

context and motivations, social influence may build immoral

manipulation.

Manipulation techniques

The-foot-in-the-door technique is a strategy used to persuade

people to agree to a particular action, based on the idea that if a

respondent complies with a request then he will be more likely to agree

to a later, more significant, request, which he would not have agreed to

had he been asked it outright. Charities, as an example, sometimes use

the foot-in-the-door technique in fund raising efforts. Some

organizations ask that a person donates a small amount each month to

a cause, and later ask if they are willing to increase that contribution.

The foot-in-the-door method, involves making a higher request

from the start; one which is so demanding that the victim is likely to

refuse. A second, more realistic request is then made, which the

person may be more inclined to agree to when comparing it to the

first. It is clear from findings that making an extreme initial request

which is sure to be rejected and then moving to a smaller request

significantly increases the probability of a target person's agreement to

the second request. For example, if a person asks a seller the price of a

shirt, and the seller demands a price 10 times of what might be

reasonable, the shopper will refuse it. If the seller then makes a more

reasonable offer which is still twice what the person would expect to

pay, they may be more inclined to agree to pay it, as the second

1 Coordinator: Laura IONICĂ, PhD Lecturer


86

request appears by comparison to be more fair than the first. Professor

Robert Cialdini talks in one of his books about 6 principles of

persuasion.

1 Reciprocity Principle

Cialdini’s first principle of persuasion states that human beings

are wired to return favors and pay back debts; people are obliged to

give back to others the form of a behavior, gift, or service that they

have received first.

According to Cialdini, each human society practises this rule of

reciprocity. It is a cultural standard that obligates us to return favours,

gifts and invitations.

Evidence for the existence of a reciprocal concessions

relationship in our society can be seen in numerous terms and phrases

of the language: "give and take," "meeting somebody halfway," etc.

If a friend invites you to his party, you will feel obliged to invite

him to a party you are hosting. If a colleague does you a favor, then

you owe that colleague a favor. And in the context of a social

obligation people are more likely to say "yes" to those who they owe.

2. Social Proof

Social proof is being defined by Cialdini as people doing what

they observe other people doing, as the old quote goes, “I’ll have what

she’s having.” It’s essentially people’s tendency to want and choose

products and solutions that other people like, other people

recommend, or other people promote.

We will choose the crowded restaurant over the nearly empty

one, even though we’ll be served more slowly.

The principle of social proof leads us to believe that the higher

the number of people who find an idea correct, the more the idea will

seem to be correct to us.

3. Consistency and commitment

People unconsciously want to behave in a manner that is

consistent with past behavior. As Cialdini states, “Once we have made

a choice or taken a stand, we will encounter personal and interpersonal

pressures to behave consistently with that commitment. Those

pressures will cause us to respond in ways that justify our earlier

decision.”

This principle is based on the fact that people like to be consistent

with the things they have previously said or done. We want to be

ourselves and to be seen as consistent. Cialdini once said that his

behavior tells him about himself. It’s a primary source of information

about his beliefs, values and attitudes. Essentially, this is very similar

to foot-in-the-door technique. Experiments have shown that if a

person does even one favor to someone, they are far more likely to

perform a bigger one later.

This commitment-consistency mechanism has been reported to be self


87

enforcing, especially when the commitments are written (WERNER,

1995:) or made in public (Pallak)

We’re even more influenced by this principle if:

-We’re unsure of ourselves.

-The people we observe seem similar to us.

4. Liking

According to Robert Cialdini we are more likely to comply with

requests made by people we like. Whatever the reason, people we like

tend to have more perceived credibility than those we do not like.

People we like tend to have the same beliefs, interests, and language

as we do. A salesman will try to make friends with you before trying

to sell you something.

5. Authority

This is the idea that people follow the lead of credible,

knowledgeable experts. Counsciosly, we may follow the direction of

an authority figure. At a subconscious level, we tend to weight the

opinion of an authority more than that of others. Authority seems a bit

like social proof, but it’s based not on numbers but on perceived

expertise, status, or power.

This acceptance of authority, even though it allows a society or

culture to operate smoothly, can have as a result men with authority

abusing their power.

“A crucial point here with regard to authority is I’m not talking

about being in authority and using that lever to move people in your

direction. There are all kinds of problems associated with that,

including resentment and resistance. I’m talking about being an

authority. Someone who is perceived as a credible source of

information can use it to make good choices.” (CIALDINI, 2001: 93)

6. Scarcity

This is one of the best-known principle. Scarcity is the

perception that products are more attractive when their availability is

limited. “Offer expires at midnight!” is one phrase we hear the most.

The little there is of something, the more we like or want it. Usually,

we are quite unaware of our preference for scarcity.


88

Cialdini states that humans are challenged emotionally when

freedoms are threatened and scarcity can limit free choice. This may

cause people to want to try and possess the item more than ever.

Because we live in an increasingly complex environment that

requires shortcuts to survive, we often do not have the luxury of

analysis and contemplation in making our decisions. Consequently,

“profiteers” who understand what our triggers are can exploit that

understanding without our awareness by mimicking trigger features.

In essence, they cultivate the “ability to manipulate without the

appearance of manipulation” (CIALDINI, 2009: 12). They use the

construction of “click, whirr” to illustrate the mechanical nature of

human decision-making. Like those old tape recorders, there is a

“click” as the pre-programmed tape is activated, followed by a

“whirr” as the tape begins to run.

The owner of an establishment called Cialdini with a surprising

question. Her turquoise jewelry was not selling, so she displayed the

jewelry in a more prominent location within the store. However, the

change in location did not matter, as the jewelry continued to be

ignored. Then, prior to departure on a business trip, she left a note

next to the turquoise jewelry display, instructing her employee to

lower the price on the jewelry by half „X 1/2” . However, because she

was in a hurry, her handwriting wasn’t very clear, so the employee

interpreted “2” instead of „1/2”, doubling the price. When the owner

returned, the turquoise jewelry was sold.

As Cialdini notes, in the minds of tourists came the idea that “you get

what you pay for”. This idea served as a “trigger” making the

customers buy. Controlled responding is a term referring to situations

during which humans utilize analysis and contemplation when making

a complex decision, or a decision which affects their personally.

Cialdini refers to Ellen Langer’s experiment, specialist in

psychology at Harvard, when standing in line to use a library’s

copying machine, asked to move to the head of the line at the

photocopier because she had only five pages to copy, and she was in a

hurry. A significantly higher percentage of individuals allowed line-

cutting when a reason was given than when the request was simply:

“May I use the Xerox machine?” Then, Ellen Langer inserted a twist

in her experiment. Instead of providing a reason for her desire to cut in

line, she only asked if she could go to the head of the line because she

had some copies to make. About the same percentage of individuals

allowed her to pass. She thought she was allowed to advance to the

front of the line only because of mentioning the word “because”.

The implication in this situation is that when it comes to

persuasion, we are more likely to be swayed in a certain direction

when exposed to the trigger word “because”, which encourages the

perception of a logical reason for the decision we’re being asked to

make.

Cialdini now takes his findings to environmentalists,

policymakers and business owners, in hopes of inspiring them to use


89

his weapons of influence to reduce energy usage among industries and

consumers. As legislators and industry leaders search for cheaper

ways to conserve energy, he believes his findings are more pertinent

than ever.

British philosopher states “Civilization advances by extending

the number of important operations which we can perform without

thinking of them.”

I think it is important to be aware of how our brain works in

situations when other people attempt to persuade us, either to accept

another point of view, or to buy someting insignificant like trousers.

“Here’s a story for you. It has to do with the authority principle,

and how I sought to learn about the action of these principles, not just

in the laboratory, but in the training programs of the most successful

influence industries of our society. When I took the training I always

did that incognito, undercover — they didn’t know who I was.

At the end of the training, I would reveal my true identity, my

university affiliation, and my intention to write a book about the

influence process. Because I had not informed them ahead of time that

I was collecting data from them, I always gave them the opportunity

to tell me that they prohibited me from using their data in my book. I

said, - If you are not comfortable with this, and don’t want me to

include any reference to what I learned here, I will honor that

preference. Eric, not one asked me to embargo their information. Not

one.

When I asked them about it, the answer was a version of the

authority principle. They said -You mean you’re a university professor

and you’re asking me? You mean, you’re my student? They puffed up

their chest and said -Of course you can use my insights.” (CIALDINI,

2003)

References

Cialdini, R. B., 2009, Influence: Science and practice, Boston, Pearson Education.

Cialdini, R. B., 2017, Pre-suasion , Boston, Conerstone.

Chelcea, Septimiu, 2002, Opinia publică: strategii de persuasiune și manipulare,

Bucuresti, Editura Economica.

CarolM.Werner,JaneTurner,KristenShipman,F.Shawn Twitchell, Becky

R.Dickson,Gary V.Bruschke, Wolfgang B.von Bismarck, 1955, Commitment,

behavior, and attitude change: An analysis of voluntary recycling, Psychology

Department, University of Utah.

M. S. Pallak & R. O. Perloff , The Master lectures, Vol. 5. Psychology and work:

Productivity, change, and employment (p. 89–136). American Psychological

Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10055-003 (consulted on 3rd of July).

http://www.edecon.ro/autor/377/septimiu-chelcea/

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0272494495900039#!








https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/10055-003


90

NEW AND OLD TRENDS IN AVT1

Andreea Denisa LUPESCU

Applied Modern Languages, 3rd year

Resume: This article deals with the issues concerning general considerations on

translation theories connected to the idea of equivalence of languages in the context of the

globalization of products and cultural items. Divided into three sections, the theoretical

research focuses on translation procedures and strategies applied in AVT, the idea of

cultural exchange through images, the typologies and semiotics of the AVT and the future

of AVT through globalization.

Key words: audiovisual translation, AVT, subtitling, dubbing, translation strategies,

equivalence, globalization, sitcom, Friends,

This article aims to describe a theoretical and practical approach

necessary to understand the difference between the difficult task of

translation as theoretical framework and audiovisual translation (AVT) as a

practical endeavour.

The methodology of work was structured, first of all, on scientific

research in the field of translation studies, in general and AVT in particular.

Many studies were used to demonstrate the theoretical ground necessary to

understand AVT as a relatively new field of translation studies.

Equivalence of languages is perhaps the most debated issue

concerning the translation process. Any type of human communication,

either spoken or written, consists of a conventional way of structuring words

in sentences in order to provide meanings.

Linguistically speaking, translation is basically a transfer of the

message from a source language into another (receptor language), including

all the cultural and systematical features of the initial text (NIDA, TABER,

1969:484). Nevertheless, Larson (1998:3) considers that translation is a

much more complex activity as it

”[…] consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication

situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to

determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon and

grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural

context.”

In terms of equivalence, Nida’s definition of translation is

comprehensive as the process of transferring meanings consists in:

“reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the

source-language message, (…) in terms of meaning and (…) style.” (NIDA

1982:12). This approach is very useful in audiovisual translation where

space constraints have to be considered.

1Coordinator: Bianca DABU, PhD Associate Professor

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/write#write__5


91

Many researchers have dealt with translation categories: Jackobson

(1959:232-39) identified intralingual, interlingual and intersemiotic

translations; Koller (1979:188-89) provided four types of equivalence in

translation (denotative equivalence, connotative equivalence, pragmatic

equivalence, formal equivalence) while Baker (1992:112) structured five

types of equivalence in translation (equivalence at word level, equivalence

above word level, grammatical equivalence, textual equivalence, pragmatic

equivalence).

Translation procedures and strategies rely on Vinay and Darbelnet

model (1958/1995:85-93) considering all aspects of the model (direct

translation, borrowing, calque, literal translation, oblique translation,

modulation, equivalence, adaptation).

Eugene Nida (2006:11) brings into attention an important principle

concerning the translation process. He points out the idea that “language” is

a synonym for “culture”. This is a reason for which translating the linguistic

content should rely on the extra-linguistic knowledge in order to render the

basic concept in question as accurately as possible.

Culture is acquired through the process of learning which is a

prerequisite for effective intercultural communication and to greater

tolerance for cultural differences. But cultures are submitted to the process

of change as no culture remains immutable. It preserves a traditional feature

but at the same time it is altered by innovation. One of the most important

aspect is the cultural borrowing also called cultural diffusion (FERRARO,

1998:25). The cultural implications for translation may take several forms

ranging from lexical content and syntax to ideologies and ways of life in a

given culture.

Considering the cultural background in translation, Katharina Reiss

contends that the text to translate should be seen as a whole, not as a body of

translation units, and the text purpose should be defined in the first place.

Considering this, she proposed a separation of the text typology into four

categories: the informative text, the expressive text, the operative text, the

audio-visual text. (FURGANI, 2016:3)

AVT began with intertitles (FURGANI, 2016:3) and pursued with

other types of AVT: subtitling or double-vision all associated with film

industry. From a semiotic point of view, cinematography can be viewed as a

communicative process that can be confirmed only with code.

Gottlieb (1994:105) considers subtitling to be ‘intrasemiotic’: it

operates within the film and TV media, and stays within the code of verbal

language. Gambier (2013:47) strongly believes that the analysis of the AVT

process should rely on all aspects and signs the types of the relationships

between verbal and non-verbal signs.

The notions of code and channel come together to form four

categories of signs in AVT (LOUCIF, 2011:52)

-verbal signs with visual transmission (the verbal visual channel):

generic, signs displayed on the screen;

-non-verbal signs with visual transmission (the non-verbal visual

channel): composition and editing of images;


92

-verbal signs with acoustic transmission (the verbal auditory

channel): dialogues;

-non-verbal signs with acoustic transmission (the non-verbal

auditory channel): music, sound effects.

Audiovisual translation (AVT) has existed as a professional practice

for many years but, as Diaz-Cintas (2008:1) considers, only since the 1990s

it has gained well-deserved visibility thanks to the proliferation and

distribution of audiovisual materials in our society.

Nowadays people are consuming audiovisual programmes to carry

out our work, to develop and enhance our professional and academic

careers, to enjoy ourselves and to obtain information (DIAZ CINTAS,

2008:1).

Chiaro (2009:141) defines audiovisual translation as

”one of several overlapping umbrella terms that include ‘media translation’,

‘multimedia translation’, ‘multimodal translation’ and ‘screen translation” and refers to

any type of translation involving audio-visual texts or products.”

Thus, the audiovisual translation will envisage both linguistic and

cultural references. The products involved would clearly target the TV and

radio programmes and films that are broadcast on a screen (cinema screen,

TV set or computer screen).

Yves Gambier (2013:49-51) makes an accurate description of two

the main groups of Audiovisual Translation: the translation between codes

and the translation between languages.

The distinction in fact is that the oral or written codes are mostly

used for translations within the same language, while the second category

of translation implies the transfer between two different languages. Some of

them can be intra or interlingual and can be part of either of the two groups.

Gambier displays the taxonomy of the following categories:

-AVT between codes, within the same language (intralingual

subtitling, live subtitling or respeaking, Audio description, audio

subtitling);

-AVT between languages (script or scenario translation,

interlingual subtitling, dubbing, freecommentary, interpreting, voice-

over/half dubbing, narration).

According to Matkivska (2014:39) there are two main categories of

AVT:

-revoicing (audiovisual methods of translation and covers

completely or partially the original text by the new one of the target

language)

- subtitling (a presentation of dialogue translation in a film in the

form of titles usually at the bottom of image or shot on the screen).

Another direction for studying AVT is to focus on the two major

processes used in various audiovisual situations: subtitling and dubbing.

For Baker and Hochel (1998:74) subtitling is visual, involving the

superimposition of a written text on to the screen. Dubbing, on the other

hand, is oral; it is one of a number of translation methods which makes use


93

of the acoustic channel in screen translation. The distinction between the

two processes have both advantages and constraints.

Although subtitling is arguably the most widespread for the simple

reasons that it is cheap and fast (DIAZ-CINTAS, 2012:274) among the

several modes available to translate audiovisual programmes, there are

constraints that emphasize the difficulties in the process of translation:

Technical constraints envisage the layout (subtitles should be

positioned at the lower part of the screen so that they do not cover the

image action) and the duration (the reading speed of a text of medium

complexity is between 50-180 words per minute, which means 2.5-3 words

per second).

Textual constraints generate several processing and cohesion issues,

making it very hard to maintain the filmic illusion in the target product. In

the case of subtitles, the reader does not have the option to reread a

sequence, which is possible when it comes to books. So as to obtain a

successful subtitling, the “sequence of speech acts” must be preserved “in

such a way as to relay the dynamics of communication” (MASON,

1989:15, apud. Cintas, Anderman, 2009:23). Another challenge for the

subtitlers is the change of mode from speech to writing. In the first place,

the subtitler should know how to prioritize some features of the sequences

of speech.

Linguistic constraints refer to how many of the elements of speech

are commonly omitted or condensed in subtitles. Kovačić has distinguished

a hierarchy of three discourse elements in subtitling:

(a) The indispensable elements (that must be translated);

(b) The partly dispensable elements (that can be condensed);

(c) The dispensable elements (that can be omitted).

(KOVACIC, 1991:409, apud. Cintas and Anderman 2009:26)

Nevertheless, in the subtitling process there are many linguistic

elements which are frequently deleted, such as the names in appellative

constructions; false starts and ungrammatical constructions; words which

are known internationally such as ”no”, ”ok” etc and exclamations such as

”wow”, ”oh” etc. The reason these linguistic elements are oftentimes

deleted is because they can be retrieved from the soundtrack. However,

subtitles will usually only account for about 60% of the spoken original

simply because speaking is, as a rule, faster than reading. This means that

the written translated texts are usually more condensed than the original

speech, which in turn leads to losses of ambiguity and indirectness.

(HOUSE, 2018:170)

Dubbing constraints arise from the dubbing process (LUYKEN,

1991:78) consisting in the following steps:

• Checking and mapping the script and dialogue sheet, working out the

temporary draft copy with the mapping and marking;

• First preliminary translation which serves the basis for further work;

• Selection of dubbing actors’ voices;

• Special text layout and translation processing, synchronization with the

actors’ mimics;

• Process of recording;


94

• Editing and confirming a finished translation of an audiovisual product.

Technical and financial constraints are obvious in the process of the

lip-sync dubbing, the most expensive form of audiovisual translation. This

is due to the involvement of a great deal of professionals in the process.

House (2018:172) defines lip-synchronized dubbing as the replacement of

the original speech by a voice-track that mimics the original speech as

closely as possible. This technique was first used in the film industry during

the 1930s as a means of producing dialogues in a foreign language that

would fit an actor’s lip movements.

Additionally other constraints occur in the process of synchronism:

phonetic synchronism, semantic synchronism and dramatic synchronism

(BAMBUSEK, 2012:17-19).

Considering all above theoretical directions, the research hereinafter

focuses on practical issues concerning the subtitling outcomes of American

referential pop culture sitcom Friends translated into Romanian.

The methodology of work consisted in the analysis of the examples

drawn out from various episodes of the series in point of the adequate

translation of linguisitic and cultural items. Sitcom may be regarded as a

“genre of comedy performance in which recurring characters take part in

humorous storylines centred on a common environment, such as a family

home or workplace” (BRITISH COMEDY GUIDE, 2006).

The analysis of sitcoms made by Mills (2009:4-5) highlights some

main issues concerning their structure and content. On the one hand, the

sitcoms concentrate on a small, recurring main cast illustrating authentic

characters who represent an example of different typologies of people and

lifestyles with whom the viewers can identify with or use as a source of

inspiration and guidance. On the other hand, sitcoms portray social norms,

conventions and generic rules while making use of simple, light comedic

entertainment and therefore representing an entertaining genre suitable for

every viewer. (MILLS 4-5 apud.Vierrether, 2017:6).

Friends is an American sitcom television series created by David

Crane and Marta Kauffman which aired on the American programme NBC

from September 22, 1994 to May 6, 2004. The series was produced by

Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions in association with Warner Bros

Television. It was not only another successful television show but a trend-

setter of cultural patterns. (https://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends )

The analysis is based on the assumption that the Romanian culture

is different from the US culture so people in these two countries may

encounter problems in understanding cultural specific issues (CSIs) if they

are translated literally and if the subtitle translation is not adapted to the

target audience. Considering the linguistic and cultural aspects already

mentioned, the relevance of subtitling is researched under the umbrella of

the following aspects: the cultural impact of a globalized television product

(the sitcom in general and Friends in particular), wordplay and culture-

specific items, idioms, and Phonological and Graphological Structures.

Example 1- Non-adapted cultural content

https://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends


95

Visual frame Situation English Romanian

S10E01 03:51

Monica is

surprised that

their friends

switched the

pairs and tells

Chandler about

that. He

responds with

a joke about

Monica’s hair

in Barbados.

Ross and Charlie,

Joey and Rachel.

Phoebe and Mike.

We're the only ones

leaving with the

person we came

with!

That's not true. I

came with Monica

and I'm leaving with

Weird Al.

Okay, I've had it

with the hair jokes.

Tomorrow I'm going

to the salon.

Okay, Buckwheat.

Ross și

Charlie, Joey

și Rachel,

Phoebe and

Mike. Numai

noi plecăm cu

cine am venit!

Nu e adevărat.

Eu am venit cu

Monica și plec

cu Weird Al.

M-am săturat

de glumele cu

păr. Mâine mă

duc la coafor.

Bine,

Buckwheat.

Analysis

In this scene, Monica is compared by her husband, Chandler, to

Weird Al, who is a well-known American singer and parodist known for his

dark unruly hair. Later in the conversation, after Monica agrees to go to the

salon to fix her hair, Chandler makes another joke on the same topic and

calls her “Buckwheat”, who is a child actor from the 1934 movie Our Gang

(Little Rascals) and whose hair is very fluffy and messy.

In the Romanian translation, both nicknames were preserved the

way they are in English and the translator chose not to adapt them into

Romanian. Given the fact that neither Weird Al, nor Buckwheat are known

in the TL culture, at least not by the vast majority, I consider that the

humour of the scene is lost to a certain extent, especially because the

particular concepts coded by the two names say nothing to the target

audience.

In my opinion, a better choice would have been to adapt the concepts

by finding similar personalities in the target culture. For example, a well-

known Romanian singer who has an interesting hairstyle is Cristi

Minculescu. On the other hand, if some other more internationally-known

names would have been used in the source language, the need of adapting

them to the target language would have disappeared, as the joke could have

be easily understood by the viewers.

Another choice could have been the translation (in between

paranthesis) of the names so that they could get a certain associative

relevance to the audience. Buckwheat (which has a denotative meaning:

hriscă) could have been translated as zbârlici, ciufulici, crețofolin(ă)


96

inducing a positive emotional attachmentor for Weird Al-păr vâlvoi with

negative connotation.

Example 2-Non-adapted cultural content


S10:E6 01:22

Phoebe

presents her

”black book” to

her friends. The

book contains

all the guys

Phoebe dated.

He was old ...

Yeah. And he

lived a full

life. He was

in the first

wave at

Omaha

beach.

E în ordine. Era

bătrân. Da. Și a

dus o viață

agitată. A fost

printre primii la

plaja Omaha.

Analysis

This scene holds an extremely well-known cultural reference for the

Americans. According to Britannica, The Omaha beach was one of the

landing areas of the Normandy Invasion of World War II, in 1944. The 1`st

infantery division soldiers were drowned or killed, the battle being known

as one of the most horrendous, especially for the Americans.

The translator chose not to adapt this cultural item to the TL culture,

but instead s/he borrowed the word from the SL. To the SL public, the

translation does not say anything and is not relevant, given that this battle is

not known at all in the target culture. Consequetly, part of the humour in

this scene is lost.

In my opinion, adapting this cultural reference to the TL culture would have

been a better idea, especially because while plaja Omaha tells nothing to the

Romanain audience, a translation including the reference about debarcarea

din Normandia would have had another impact. Another remark should be

made about the overlooking of the metaphorical meaning of the word wave

associated with the context (Omaha beach). In Romanian translation the

equivalent was a neutral construction printre primii having a very low

linguistic and cultural impact.

Example3-Idioms


S01E01 06:05

Rachel

explains to

her father

why she no

longer

wanted to

marry and

why she left

her fiancé in

front of the

altar.

What if I

don't wanna

be a shoe?

What

if I want to be

a purse? Or

a hat?”. I

don't want

you to buy me

a

hat!

Și dacă nu

vreau să fiu

pantof? Dacă

vreau să fiu o

poșetă? Sau o

pălărie? Nu, nu

vreau o pălărie.


97

Analysis

In the first sentence, Rachel uses the idiomatic expression to be a

shoe, meaning ‘to lead a life in which everybody else decides what one

should do’. As the monologue proceeds, the expression is modified. Shoe –

as a part of clothes – is substituted by other accessories – purse and hat. The

motive for the substitution is an emphasis on the urge of change, i.e. change

of Rachel’s life. Nevertheless, the intentional modification is not understood

by her father.

The translation can be considered successful because the formal

aspect and the functional aspect are maintained, as the translator chose to

use the denotative meaning of ”shoe”.

Example 4-Idioms


S10E01 19:08

Mike is at a

restaurant,

waiting for his

girlfriend whom

he wants to

break up with.

As she is late to

appear, he calls

his friend,

Phoebe.

She's not here

yet. You know,

I'm just

Gonna take off

and break up

with her over

the phone.

You can't do

that. Oh, come

on,

Mike, strap on

a pair.

Nu, încă nu a

venit. O să vin

acasă și mă

despart de ea la

telefon.

Nu poți face

asta. Mike, fii

curajos!

Table 6. Idioms

Analysis

In this analysis we have to consider two directions: the idioms

proper and the phrasal verbs which occur with idiomatic meaning.

Mike is telling his friend, Phoebe, that his girlfriend is late to appear

and that he would come home and break up with her over the phone. Phoebe

does not encourage him to do that and tells him that he should strap on a

pair. In the source language, this is an idiomatic, indelicate expression

(strap on a pair of testicles) meaning to be brave and to show some

courage, especially in a situation where one has so far failed to do so.

(https://www.yourdictionary.com/strap-on-a-pair ).

In the TL, the expression strap on a pair is translated as ”Fii

curajos” which, in literal translation, means ”Be brave”. Thus, the meaning

of the idiomatic expression was preserved by the translator on the whole,

but, in my opinion, the TL translation creates a weaker humour because the

significance is very neutral and does not fit the imperative of the situation

and the original meaning of the entire construction. I consider a better

translation would be: Nu mai fi laș (meaning to stop being a coward) or

even ai puțină vâna in tine (which would be closer to the basic expression).

https://www.yourdictionary.com/strap-on-a-pair


98

The second aspect concerning the phrasal verbs focuses on two

elements:

- (to) break up (with her) – translated as să mă despart de ea, a correct

choice for a clear meaning (another possible suggestion would be să rupem

relația);

- I'm just gonna take off – translated as O să vin acasă which is way too far

from an idiomatic and metaphorical meaning of the context and linguistic

register. In my opinion I would have chosen a more colloquial expresion

such as: Imi iau zborul/ am de gând s-o intind/ în curand mă fac nevazut

etc.which is more appropriate for the context (a casual talk between friends).

Example 5- Homonymy


S04E24 13:28

S

Joey asks

Chandler if he has

seen a girl called

Monica, as he

needs to find her

immediately.

Chandler thought

that somebody

found out about

the affair between

him and Monica,

so he instinctively

felt the need to

pretect himself

and denied.

Have you seen

Monica?

I`m not seeing

Monica.

Unde este

Monica?

Nu mă văd cu

Monica

Analysis

The context of the scene is that Joey asked Chandler whether he has

seen (using eyes), by any chance, a friend of them called Monica. When

Chandler heard the word ”see” in relation to Monica and uttered by Joey, he

immediately thought that Joey had found out about his affair with Monica

and that they were seeing (have a meeting, a date) each other, therefore

causing his denial.

In this case, in English, the words seen and seeing which come from

the infinitive form see represent a homonymous case in wordplay, given that

their writing, pronunciation and spelling are the same. Furthermore, both the

past participle form seen and the present participle form seeing have the

same pronunciation, i.e /si:/.

In Romanian, this case of homonymy could not be rendered by the

translator, therefore losing a part of the humour of this scene.

Example 6-Lexical Structure.Polysemy

Visual frame Situation English Roumanian


99

S04E12 12:11

Monica and

Rachel are

playing a

funny game

with their

friends, Joey

and Chandler,

where the

losing team

loses money.

Monica, I don't

want to lose

$200.

We won't.

Okay.

Three hundred?

Monica.

I'm just trying

tospice it up.

Okay, so then

play for some

pepper. Stop

spending my

money.

Nu vreau să

pierd 200

dolari.

Nu.

(omitted)

Pe 300

dolari?

Încerc să

înviorez

atmosfera.

Atunci hai să

jucăm pe

viorele și să

nu jucăm pe

bani.

Analysis

Polysemy is the coexistence of multiple meanings of the same word.

In our scene, Monica used the idiomatic expression spice it up meaning to

make something more interesting, exciting, etc. However, when Rachel

heard her friend, she automatically thought of the other meaning of the

idiomatic expression, that is to add some ingredient to food or drink in order

to make it spicier (”pepper”) which created a funny moment.

In its Romanian version, the words concerned are not polysemic,

however I find their translation very inspired. The idiomatic expression

spice it up was translated with the verb înviorez which I find very

appropriate for the context, as it perfectly expresses the idea of brightening

up the atmosphere. On the other hand, the word pepper was translated as

viorele which are the equivalent of alpine quills or two-leaf squills. They are

a type of flower blooming during springtime, which has a common root with

the Romanian verb înviorez.

In conclusion, Translation Studies must open up to other studies

such as communication, media and film, cultural, semiotics, sociology

studies etc., and possibly other disciplines. One of the main reasons why

audiovisual translation is so complex is that it requires interdisciplinary

knowledge. Research in the field of AVT has been stimulated by the

popularity of television series and movies produced by Hollywood and

exported worldwide during decades.


100

There are three most dominant ways of translating audiovisual

programmes, those are dubbing (also called lip-sync), subtitling and voice

over. However, most of the Hollywood series and movies that appear in

Romania are predominantly subtitled.

The scenes analyzed in this article only represent a small selection of

the many difficult translation choices that the subtitlers of Friends had to

make. This shows that the process of subtitling a sitcom is highly

challenging and requires a variety of different skills. The difficulty lies in

the combination of linguistic features, humor and cultural references.

Bibliography Baker, M., 1992, In Other Words. A Coursebook on Translation, London: Routledge.

Baker, M.,hochel, B.,1998, Dubbing. London, London: Routledge.

Bambusek, M., 2012,A clockwork Orange: The Film in Translation, Bachelor`s Diploma

Thesis, Masaryk University, Faculty of Arts, Department of English and American Studies,

English Language and Literature.

Chiaro, D., 2009, Issues in Audiovisual Translation, in Companion to Translation Studies,

J. Munday (ed.), Routledge, Francis&Taylor.

Diaz Cintas, J.,2012, Clearing the smoke to see the screen: ideological manipulation in

audiovisual translation. Meta, 57 (2), 279-293.

Diaz Cintas, J., G.Anderman, 2009, Audiovisual Translation Language Transfer of Screen,

Palgrave Macmillan, available at

https://www.academia.edu/13709644/Audiovisual_Translation_Language_Transfer_on_Scr

een.

Diaz Cintas, J., 2008, Introduction: Audiovisual translation comes of age Chapter · January

2008, DOI: 10.1075/btl.78.02dia, available at

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300855510_Introduction_Audiovisual_translation

_comes_of_age.

Furgani, K.T., 2016, A Study into the Challenges of Subtitling English into Arabic,

Liverpool John Moores University, pp.3-22 available at

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4748/e287a6b67d00423ec099d548860fed13181b.pdf?_ga

=2.88013208.1234411692.1593052965-886106471.1593052965.

Gambier, Y., 2013, The Position of Audiovisual Translation in The Routledge Handbook of

Translation Studies, C. Millánand F. Bartrina.(ed.), Taylor and Francis Group, pp.45-58.

Gottlieb, H.,1994,Subtitling: Diagonal translation, Perspectives2.1: 101–121.

House, J.,2018,TRANSLATION THE BASICS, Routledge, Francis and Taylor.

Koller, W., 1979, “Einführung in die Übersetzungswissenschaft.”, “Introduction into the

Science of Translation”, Heidelberg: Quelle and Meyer, pp. 186-191.

Larson, M.L., 1991, Translation: Theory and Practice, Tension and Interdependence,

American Translators Association scholarly monographs, Binghampton.

Loucif, H., 2010/2011, La dimension culturelle dans la traduction audiovisuelle. Cas du

sous-titrage dans le film ”Mascarades” de Lyes Salem, pp. 45-

52availableathttps://bu.umc.edu.dz/theses/traduction/LOU1293.pdf.

Luyken, G. M., 1991, Overcoming Language Barriers in Television. Dubbing and

Subtitling for the European Audience, Manchester: The European Institute for the Media,

80.

Matkivska, N., 2014, Audiovisual Translation: Conception, Types, Characters’ Speech and

Translation Strategies Applied, ISSN 1648-2824 KALBŲ STUDIJOS. 2014. 25 NR. *

Studies About Languages.. NO. 25 http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.sal.0.25.8516.

Nida, E., and TABER, Ch., 1969/1982, The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden:

E.J.Brill.

Nida, E., 2006, Theories of Translation, Pliegos de Yuste, No 4, I.

Vinay, J.-P.and DARBELNET, J., 1958/1995/2004, “Stylistique Comparée du Francais et

de l’anglais: Méthode de Traduction”, Paris: Didier, translated and edited by J.C.Sager and

https://www.academia.edu/13709644/Audiovisual_Translation_Language_Transfer_on_Screen

https://www.academia.edu/13709644/Audiovisual_Translation_Language_Transfer_on_Screen

https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1075%2Fbtl.78.02dia?_sg%5B0%5D=cpH84pYh6LmKIcnqXHcEu2f-DQJpotBtt1PsYEj15f9eFpwvACAsUiakAmnjfOg6d4k1VdJqnnVb6MWolc50AtRNKQ.mkcfs8GuyGuURpprdHpqJa2QaheiC1vULwqZbhPKFV5tA_GPf9LX41IS0mCC29pK6RkDClJEDKGFpFqBSgtKhg

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300855510_Introduction_Audiovisual_translation_comes_of_age

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300855510_Introduction_Audiovisual_translation_comes_of_age

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4748/e287a6b67d00423ec099d548860fed13181b.pdf?_ga=2.88013208.1234411692.1593052965-886106471.1593052965

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4748/e287a6b67d00423ec099d548860fed13181b.pdf?_ga=2.88013208.1234411692.1593052965-886106471.1593052965

https://bu.umc.edu.dz/theses/traduction/LOU1293.pdf

http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.sal.0.25.8516


101

M.J. Hamel as “Comparative Stylistics of French and English: A Methodology for

Translation”.

Vierrether, T. 2017, , Cultural And Linguistic Issues Of Sitcom Dubbing: An Analysis Of

"Friends" A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS August

2017, available at

https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=bgsu1494865832944617.

https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=bgsu1494865832944617


102

HOW VOLCANOES COULD POWER THE FUTURE1

Cătălin MAGHERU

Sorana NEDELCU

Road Vehicles (AR), 2nd year

Abstract: Vulcanol (TM) is synthetic fuel made from carbon dioxide and volcano power. It is

identical to fossil methanol from a chemical point of view. Consequently, it can be

substituted for any traditional methanol application. It is a low-carbon intensity feedstock

for production of different synthetic materials, such as formaldehyde, methyl tert-butyl

ether, acetic acid and dimethyl ether. Vulcanol is a clean burning, high octane fuel that

can be used in internal combustion engines, fuel cells, turbines or boilers, for gasoline

blending and production of fossil fuel components.

Key words: pollution, causes, effects, Vulcanol

Global warming is the gradual rise in the Earth’s temperature. In

some areas, the temperature has increased by 3.8 degrees Celsius over the

past fifty years. This rapid rise has been connected with the way people live.

Global warming and climate change have become an issue of great concern.

The policy-makers all over the world have decided to create a plan of

measures to keep the effects of global warming within safety limits. The

world is advancing technologically and industrially. More factories

inevitably mean more pollution. Human activity since the Industrial

Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

The consequence is increased radiative forcing from CO2, methane,

tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide. According to specialists, the

concentrations of CO2 have increased by 36 per cent and those of methane

have increased by 148 per cent in the last seventy years. CO2 concentrations

are higher and higher due to the burning of fossil fuels and land-use change.

Volcanic eruptions discharge water and CO in considerable

quantities, in the form of atmospheric gases. When they are in the

atmosphere, they absorb and retain heat radiation emanating from the

ground. This process is referred to as outgassing. In addition to ash or

pyroclastic flow, volcanic eruptions release water vapour, carbon dioxide,

sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride,

and hydrogen fluoride into the atmosphere. Gases derived from volcanoes

have extremely bad impacts on vegetation; direct exposure to volcanic gases

over a long period is lethal to most plants. People’s respiratory system can

be extremely affected if it is exposed to sulphur dioxide. According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the world’s

volcanoes, both on land and undersea, generate about 200 million tonnes of

carbon dioxide (CO2) every year, while our automotive and industrial

activities cause some 24 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions every year

worldwide. In other words, greenhouse gas emissions from volcanoes

1 Coordinator: Mirela COSTELEANU, Phd Lecturer


103

represent less than one percent of those generated by today’s human

activities.

Atmospheric CO2 levels, as measured by sampling stations around

the world set up by the federally funded Carbon Dioxide Information

Analysis Center, have increased constantly over the last years, regardless of

whether or not there have been major volcanic eruptions in specific years. If

individual volcanic eruptions dominated human emissions and if they

caused the rise in carbon dioxide concentrations, these carbon dioxide

records would be full of spikes - one for each eruption. Iceland, the land of

fire and ice, is an interesting combination of glaciers and volcanic activity,

including more than two dozen active volcanoes, as well as geysers, hot

springs, and mud pools. Geothermal energy is big business in Iceland,

heating about 85% of homes there. Volcanic activity is also closely

associated with carbon dioxide emissions, which makes it a special

consideration in making synthetic fuels.

Production of renewable methanol is not dependent on agricultural

resources, as hydrogen and carbon dioxide are the primary inputs. CRI's

emissions-to-liquids production process relies on three main modules,

hydrogen generation, carbon dioxide purification and the methanol synthesis

and purification system. The catalytic conversion process from hydrogen

and carbon dioxide takes place in one step, whereas the production of

methanol from fossil fuels involves several reforming steps to obtain syngas

followed by the catalytic step. CRI's emissions-to-liquids process does not

require the carbon dioxide to be 'shifted' prior to the synthesis step.

Carbon dioxide is one of the main causes of global warming. By

removing carbon dioxide from industrial emissions and increasing the

availability of energy derived from electricity or low-carbon intensity

hydrogen, CRI's process helps to diminish the effects of global warming.

Renewable methanol burns cleanly as a fuel and substituting renewable

methanol for gasoline and diesel fuels reduces urban emissions of

particulate matter, sulphur oxides (SOx) and nitrous oxides (NOx).

CRI's process can also be used to store energy in the form of

methanol, especially in case the energy source is intermittent. For instance,

wind and solar power are intermittently available. If we store energy from

these sources in liquid chemical form, the generation of electricity and its

use does not have to be linked in time and space. Methanol is also known to

be a good energy carrier. As a liquid fuel, it is easier and cheaper to store

and transport than hydrogen or methane.

The Gemera is the first four-seater car built by Koenigsegg and the

first to be powered by a compact engine. Power is produced by a 2.0 litre

Koenigsegg Tiny Friendly Giant three-cylinder twin-turbocharged camless

piston engine driving the front wheels, rated at 600 horse power and 600

N⋅m of torque, as well as three electric motors (two at the rear and one at the

front), with a combined peak output of 1,700 horse power and 3,500 N⋅m of

torque. The engine’s peak power is reached when running on special fuel,

with a higher octane, like Methanol, which improves power by about 25 per

cent compared with running on normal gasoline. Koenigsesgg recommends

running the car on Vulcanol, to make it carbon neutral. This shows clearly


104

and undeniably that Carbon Recycling International might have a very good

solution for climate change - more efficient and more eco-friendly volcano

powered fuel, being recognised by one of the biggest hyper-car producers in

the world.

In conclusion, Vulcanol, methanol synthesized from volcanic power

and carbon dioxide, could change our future, being available today, easy to

make, proven to work and better than gasoline and other renewable fuels.

This could be our best solution for a greener and healthier future.

Bibliography: https://www.greenoptimistic.com/vulcanol-synthetic-fuel-made-carbon-dioxide-volcano-

power-20131129 (accessed on 1st March).

https://intlpollution.commons.gc.cuny.edu/volcanic-pollution (accessed on 22nd February).

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/earthtalks-volcanoes-or-humans (accessed on

19th February).

https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/how-energy-storage-works (accessed on 2nd March).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_Recycling_International (accessed on 28th April).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koenigsegg_Gemera (accessed on 3rd April).

https://www.greenoptimistic.com/vulcanol-synthetic-fuel-made-carbon-dioxide-volcano-power-20131129

https://www.greenoptimistic.com/vulcanol-synthetic-fuel-made-carbon-dioxide-volcano-power-20131129

https://intlpollution.commons.gc.cuny.edu/volcanic-pollution

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/earthtalks-volcanoes-or-humans

https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/how-energy-storage-works

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_Recycling_International

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koenigsegg_Gemera


105

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ENGLISH PRONOUN1

Adela-Nicoleta MARIN

Applied Modern Languages, 3rd year,

Abstract: English pronouns can be presented from various points of view. Thе aim οf thіѕ

paper іѕ to present the Еnglіѕh prοnοun from dіffеrеnt pеrѕpесtіvеѕ аnd by сοmpаrіng it

whеnever іt іѕ pοѕѕіblе. Thіѕ аpprοасh can lead to dіѕсοvеr thе glοbаl bеhаvіοur οf the

prοnοun, аѕ еvеry vіеw wіll еnrісh wіth dіvеrѕе general іnfοrmаtіοn аbοut it.

Key-words:: pronouns, gender, distinguishing characteristics

Introduction

The pronoun is an individual from a closed class of words that work

as the head of an expression that can perform works normally completed by

noun phrases, that is subject, direct object, and so forth.

Examples: She is / they are / he is / at the Central Park.

Personally, I can’t sing. As far as I can see, you can't sing

either.

Etymologically, Meriam-Webster Dictionary (2018) records that the

pronoun originated as a part of speech in the mid-15th-century from the

Latin word pronomen (pro meaning in place of and nomen name, noun),

which is a loan-translation of Greek anatonymia.

Examples: Stephan is an annoying person; Stephan hardly understands

good manners. (noun)

He is an annoying person; he hardly understands good

manners. (pronoun)

Alec told the truth to Mrs. Geller. (noun)

Distinguishing Characteristics

It is commonly acknowledged that the English individual pronoun

worldview is a case of a shut class since it comprises of a lot of fixed

capacity words, which are utilized to communicate linguistic relations

(PETERSON, 2014:13). In any case, the line among open-and shut class

words is not a language general, and Geurts (2000:728) takes note of that

"there is no sharp separation between content words and capacity words".

Thеrе аrе а numbеr οf dіѕtіnguіѕhіng fеаturеѕ οf thе Еngliѕh prοnοunѕ.

Thеse fеаturеѕ аrе саtеgοrіzеd іntο fοur mаxіmѕ, іnсluding : (а ) Pеrѕοn (b)

Nu mbеr (с) Gеndеr (d) Саѕе.

(a) Pеrѕοn

1 Coordinator: Clementina NIȚĂ, Phd Lecturer


106

The first person is viewed as the person speaking, that is the speaker (I, me,

my, mine and we, us, our, ours); the second person is the person spoken to,

that is the listener (you, your, yours) and the third person is viewed as the

person being spoken about, that is the referred (it, they, them and it, their,

theirs).

Considering epicene structures explicitly, Segalowitz and Lane (2000: 376)

contend that albeit an unbiased third-individual pronoun would be helpful,

adding to a shut class "through social change is moderate and open to

contention".

(b) Nu mbе r

Number alludes to the numerical qualification made to the characters

associated with the discourse action. Along these lines, it is the particular

and the plural (I/we, me/us, he/she/it/they and you/You).

(c) Gеndеr

The Е nglіѕh prοnοuns are also саtеgοrіzеd ассοrdіng to sex οf the

сhаrасtеrѕ іnvοlvеd in the speech асtіvіty. By gеndеr, fοur сlаѕѕеѕ havе

bееn іdеntіfіеd: the mаѕсulіnе (mаlе ), the fеmіnіnе (fеmаlе ), thе nеutеr

(fοr unѕpесіfіed gеndеr, nοn-humаn аnd аt tіmеѕ, bаbіеѕ) аnd thе gеnеrіс

(uѕеd fοr bοth mаlе and fеmаle іn саѕеѕ οf gеnеrаlіzаtіοnѕ аѕ wеll аѕ fοr

prοpеr nοunѕ pеrѕοnаl nаmеs οf ѕpесіfіс pеοplе , plасеѕ, thіngѕ οr еvеntѕ).

Masculine: He, Him

Feminine: Ѕhe, Hе r

Neuter: I, me, І t, І tѕ

Generic: Hі ѕ, Hе r

Е xа mples of generic cases: You should give back his place.

Linda is known in school for her

popularity.

The table needs to be cleaned by

whipping its glass.

(d) Са ѕе

І n the pronominal class, case refers to the changes a word undergoes in line

with its syntactic relationship with other words in the sentence. Са se also

е xprе ѕѕе ѕ ο wnе rѕhі p in award. А kі nbο de (2006) dе fі nе ѕ the са se as the

rе lа tі ο nѕhі p a nο u n ο r prο nο u n ѕhο wѕ wі th ο thе r wο rdѕ (е ѕpе сі а lly

vе rbѕ) wі thі n sentence.

There are ο u tѕtа ndі ng kі ndѕ ο f са se in pronouns such as the following:

• Ѕu bjе сtі vе (nο mі nа tі vе ) - whе n а prο nο u n ѕе rvе ѕ а ѕ thе ѕu bjе сt

ο f the ѕе ntе nсе , the са ѕе і ѕ ѕu bjе сtі vе , that is bе і ng thе а сtο r ο r

pе rfο rmе r ο r dο е r. І n thі ѕ са ѕе , thа t prο nο u n і ѕ the wο rd ο r grο u p

ο f wο rdѕ bе і ng ѕpο kе n а bο u t thе ѕu bjе сt.

Example: I won it. (I is a subjective and it an objective)


107

• Ο bjе ctive (accusative) – whе n і n the objе сtі ve case, the pronoun is

udes as the object of the sentence. І t ο ftе n rе fе rrе d to as а ссu ѕа tі ve

because і t ѕu ffе rѕ ο r rе се і vе ѕ the a сtion ο f thе vе rb і n а ѕе ntence

directly ο r і ndі rе сtly.

Example: Hе told me about the lе ttе r.

(і n the example а bο ve, the pronoun He is ѕu bjе сtі ve and me is ο bjе ctive

fο r bе і ng the accused and receiver of the action of the verb gave)

• Pο ѕѕе ѕѕі vе (Gе nі tі vе ) – the prο nο u n і ѕ ѕа і d to bе і n а pο ѕѕе ѕѕі vе

са ѕе whе n і t і ѕ u ѕе d tο е xprе ѕѕ ο wnе r ѕhі p ο r pο ѕѕе ѕѕі ο n

rе lа tі ο nѕhі p, hе nсе thе tе rm gе nі tі vе.

Examples: The car is his.

Lе t me enjoy my moment.

Thа t і ѕ the person whο se dog missing.

(і n thе а bove sentences, the underlined prο nο u nѕ hі ѕ, my, whο se indicate

the pο ѕѕе ѕѕі ο n ο f the following ο bjе сtѕ: car, moment, rе ѕpе сtі vе ly dog).

Another characteristic is the possibility of parsing the pronoun.

Pаrѕing іѕ асhiеvеd by gіvіng nа mе ѕ tο thе grа mmа tісаl са tеgο rіеѕ οf

vаrіοuѕ еlе mе ntѕ, fοr еxаmplе , ѕu bjе сt, verb, predicate, object, number,

person, gender, case е tс. Tο pаrѕе а wοrd ѕіmply mеаnѕ tο еxаmіnе іt іn

twο dіffеrеnt pеrѕpесtіvеѕ: whаt pаrt οf ѕpеесh іt іѕ, аnd whаt pаrt іt plаyѕ іn

thе buіldіng οf а ѕе ntе nсе .

To pаrѕе а prοnοun, οne hаѕ tο ѕhοw fіvе dіffеrеnt aspectѕ сοnсеrnіng іt:

i) οf whаt kіnd іt іѕ whеthеr pеrѕοnаl, pοѕѕеѕѕіvе , dеmοnѕtrаtіvе , rеlаtіvе

(і .е . cοnju nсtіvе ), οr intеrrοgаtіvе ;

ii) οf whаt gеndеr іt іѕ whеthеr mаѕсulіnе , fеmіnіnе , gеnеrіс, cοmmοn οr

nеutеr;

iii) οf whаt numbеr іt іѕ whеthеr sіngulаr οr plurаl;

iv) οf whаt pеrѕοn іt іѕ whеthе r fіrѕt, ѕесοnd οr thі rd;

v) іn whаt саѕе іt іѕ whеthеr Nοmіnа tіvе , Objеctіvе , Gеnіtі vе.

Example: I have analyzed your projects in my office.

Analysis:

The pronouns are I, your and my, I is a personal one on the gender common/

neuter, singular, on person first in the Nominative case - subjective to the

verb have analyzed.

The possessive pronoun your is on common/ neuter gender, on singular, on

second person in the Possessive case- indicating possession of projects.

The possessive pronoun my is on common/ neuter gender, on singular, on

person first, in the Possessive case (possessive adjective qualifying the noun

office).


108

There have been identified twelve commandments governing the correct and

effective usage of the English pronouns as put forward by J. D. Murthy

(2012) in his Contemporary English Grammar (Revised Edition).

Therefore, the pronoun should agree with the noun in number, gender and

person.

Examples: Anastasia is my sister. She is in the hospital.

Ian is my lover. He loves me so much.

When two nouns connected by and refer to the same person or thing, the

pronoun must be singular.

Examples: The reporter and the president published the

announcement.

І f the nouns are сο mbі nе d by а nd rе fе r tο two dі ffе rе nt pе rѕο nѕ ο r thі ngѕ,

a plu rа l prο nο u n mu ѕt be used.

Examples: The Mayor а nd his manager hа d thе і r і ntе rvі е w ο n

T.V. yе ѕtе rdа y.

І f the nouns are connected by each and every, the pronouns must be

singular.

Examples: Е very man and boy has his needs.

Е very girl and woman has brought her clothes.

І f pronouns are combined by ο r, either.... ο r, neither... nor, the pronoun

must be singular.

Examples: Either Matt or David has failed his exams.

Neither Carolina nor Bonnie has finished her shift.

І f a singular noun is combined with a plural noun by or, nor, either- or,

neither- nor, the pronoun must be plural.

Examples: Neither mother nor father are interested in their

children.

Either Elena or her colleague have finished their

homework.

The correct form of pronoun (subjective and objective case) must be used

after than or a verb.

Examples: He cares about me more than I care about him.

She invited my brother and me (not I) to the party.

The correct order of pronouns and their persons must be maintained.

Examples: Him and I will going that way.

My father and I will see the doctor.

Double possessives may be used correctly.

Examples: Anna is a colleague ο f mine.

We consulted a patient of yours.


109

After a preposition and the verb, the pronoun must be in the Objective case.

Examples: Nobody but Nina helped me. (not I)

She cares about none but me. (not I)

Reflexive pronouns should never be used as subjects or objects.

Examples: Tiffany and myself saw a movie last night. (wrong)

Tiffany and I saw a movie last night. (right)

Reflexive pronouns may be used after prepositions.

Examples: He looked after himself.

He quarrelled among themselves.

Pronouns and determiners

There is considerable overlap between the determiner class and the subclass

of pronouns. Many words can be both: pre-determiners (all), central

determiners (those) and post-determiners (other people).

Examples: This is a very boring book. (pronoun)

This book is very boring. (determiner)

That is an excellent movie. (pronoun)

That movie is excellent. (determiner)

According to Nelson (2002: 106-107), the central determiners fall

into several subclasses:

i) definite article, the: The show must go on.

ii) indefinite article: a or (before a vowel sound) an: An acrobat comes today

at the wedding.

iii) demonstratives: this, that, these, those: This cat is stubborn. / Can you

tell those girls I came for the prize? / These females are annoying.

iv) possessives: my, our, your, his, her, their: My house is right on the

corner. / We must find our way back to the village. / Look, it’s her car over

there.

v) interrogatives: what, which, whose: What day is it? / Whose jacket are

you wearing?

vi) relatives: which, whose, whatever, whichever . . .At which point I

surprised him? Whose teacher I used to be? /You can use it for whatever day

you prefer.

vii) indefinites: some, any, no, enough, every, each, either, neither: Every

guy in this room know my name. /Some of you sing better. / They have

enough money for the party.

The pе rѕο nа l prο nο u nѕ (І , yο u , hе , е tс) са nnο t bе dе tе rmі nе rѕ. Thі ѕ і ѕ

а lѕο tru е ο f thе pο ѕѕе ѕѕі vе prο nο u nѕ (mі nе , yο u rѕ, hі ѕ/hе rѕ, ο u rѕ,

а nd thе і rѕ). Hο wе vе r, these prο nο u ns have cο rrе ѕpο ndі ng fο rmѕ whі сh

а re dе tе rmі nе rѕ. Also, it is obvious that the indefinite and the definite

articles can never be pronouns because they are always determiners.

Examples: The red са r і ѕ mі nе. (possessive pronoun)

My са r і ѕ red. (determiner)

Yο u rѕ і ѕ the golden dog. (possessive pronoun)

Yο u r dog is golden. (determiner)

The book on the table is his/ hers. (possessive pronoun)

Hі ѕ/hе r book is on the table. (determiner)


110

CONCLUSION

This article presented a few general aspects regarding

common characteristics and the usage of the English pronouns. Pronouns

are important in language structure and their particular features, can lead to

building connections between the number, gender, person and case.

Moreover, the article presented a specific procedure, the parsing procedure

of the English pronouns. Also, it was shown that there may be some overlap

between the classes and subclasses of determinants of the pronoun,

highlighting several determining subclasses such as the definite and

indefinite article, demonstratives, possessives, interrogatives, relatives. In

the last section of the article, it is outlined the fact that the definite and

indefinite article cannot acquire pronoun attributions, which means that they

are determiners.

Bibliography:

Aarts, B., Chalker, S., Weiner, E., 2014, The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar,

Oxford Univerisity Press, New York.

Geurts, B., 2000, Presuppositions and Pronouns (Current Research in the Semantics/

Pragmatics Interface), Oxford: Elsevier, New York.

Merriam, G. а nd Merriam, Ch., 2018, Mе rrі а m-Wе bѕtе r Dі сtі ο nа ry, Ѕprі ngfі е ld,

Mа ѕѕа сhu ѕе ttѕ: Mе rrі а m-Wе bѕtе r, І nс.

Murthy, J.D. (2012), Contemporary English Grammar. (Revised Edition). Book Master:

Lagos, New York.

Nelson, Gerald, 2002, An Introduction to English Grammar, Pearson Education Limited,

Great Britain.

Paterson, L. L., 2014, British Pronoun Use, Prescription and Processing, Linguistic and

Social Influences Affecting ‘They’ and ‘He’, Palgrave Macmilan, New York.

Segalowitz K., Lane, C., 2000, Lexical Access of Functions vs. Content Words, Brain and

Language, Berlin.


111

COVID-19: A CASE OF ‘FORCE

MAJEURE’?1

Mihai NECULA

Law, 1st Year

Abstract: In the context of the pandemic and its effects, there have been opinions that

this event is a real case of ‘force majeure’, but in our opinion it is debatable.In order to

answer the question: "Covid-19: A Case of ‘Force Majeure’? " we will analyse in broad

terms the legal effects of the pandemic generated by the SARS-COV-2, which inevitably

leads to the concern of legal specialists to analyse its nature. In such conditions - can we

speak about a case of ‘force majeure’, a fortuitous event or a contingency?

Keywords: Covid-19 pandemic, SARS-COV-2 coronavirus, case of ‘ force majeure’,

fortuitous event, foresight.

Introduction

Without claiming to be experts in law, we will try to address the issue

of the global pandemic COVID-19, starting exclusively from the legal

regulations provided by art. 53 of the Romanian Constitution in conjunction

with art. 15 of the European Convention on Human Rights and justified by

the avoidance of the spread of the Coronavirus infection, which imposes

important restrictions such as the rights to privacy and free movement.

The restrictive measures imposed by the authorities have led to a number

of important changes in the life of every natural or legal person, so we will

address to all three civil law institutions in relation to COVID-19: ‘force

majeure’, fortuitous event and contingency, to find out what situation we are

in.

At the end of this study, we must determine whether the Covid-19

Pandemic can be a case of ‘force majeure’, if it meets the conditions

provided by law.

Pandemic with Covid-19 and the provisions of the Civil Code

The Civil Code, the judicial practice, as well as the circumstances in

which the pandemic appeared in Romania, raise a question mark regarding

the qualification of the pandemic with Covid-19 as a case of ‘force

majeure’.2

As the World Health Organization (WHO) characterized the new type

of Covid-19 coronavirus as a pandemic (global epidemic), we must refer to

art. 74 and to art. 75 of the Civil Code, according to which the right to

privacy may be restricted (if the measure is necessary and proportionate) in

order to prevent a disaster or a particularly serious accident.

Last but not least, it becomes important the way in which three civil

law institutions are analyzed and interpreted in relation to COVID-19: force

1Coordinator: Nicoleta-Florina MINCA, PhD Lecturer; 2https://www.universuljuridic.ro/ce-se-intampla-cu-contractele-comerciale-in-contextul-actual-poate-

fi-invocata-forta-majora-pentru-suspendarea-obligatiilor-sau-nu/


112

majeure [art. 1351 para. (2) of the Civil Code], the fortuitous case [art. 1351

para. (3) of the Civil Code] and contingency (art. 1271 of the Civil Code).1

‘Force Majeure’

‘Force majeure’, as defined by the provisions of art. 1351 para. (2) of

the Civil Code is an external event, unpredictable, absolutely invincible and

inevitable, which may remove the party's liability for damage caused by

non-performance of its obligations: natural disasters (earthquake, hurricane,

fire, etc.). The specialized doctrine omitted the mention of epidemics

(pandemics) in this category.

Even some extraordinary social events, caused by people, such as

revolutions or wars, have been categorized as cases of ‘force majeure’.2

The Fortuitous Case

The fortuitous case, provided by art. 1351 para. (3) of the Civil Code

constitutes an event that cannot be foreseen nor prevented by the person

called to answer if the event had not occurred. This time too, the doctrine

did not mention epidemics (pandemics) .3

The events that can be qualified as fortuitous cases are of two types:

a) internal circumstances, which originate in the field of activity of the

person who is or would be called to answer, such as: hidden defects of

work, manufacturing defects, an animal fear, etc., circumstances that are

not attributable to that person;

b) circumstances of external origin, not imputable to the person called

to answer. They belong to this category: torrential rains, low-intensity

earthquakes that occur frequently in certain territorial areas, floods that

usually occur in some places every spring, etc.4

Contingency

The contingency, unlike the above institutions, is referred to, but not

expressly defined, in the content of art. 1271 of the Civil Code. It subsumes

situations in which the performance of the contract by one of the parties

becomes excessively onerous in relation to the time of negotiation of the

agreement. Forecasting is a manifestation of contractual fairness, involving

the distribution of losses and benefits between the parties.5

The controversy over the identity of these notions

1https://www.nndkp.ro/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Analiza-NNDKP_Impactul-Covid-19-asupra-

unor-ramuri-de-drept_Apr2020.pdf; 2Normele Metodologice 780VP/1996 pentru aplicarea Hotărârii Guvernului nr. 707/1996 privind

finanțarea unor lucrări de telefonie în mediul rural (Capitolul VI Forța majoră, art.14); 3https://www.nndkp.ro/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Analiza-NNDKP_Impactul-Covid-19-asupra-

unor-ramuri-de-drept_Apr2020.pdf și Noul Cod Civil – Comentariu pe articole, Flavius-Antoniu

Baias, 4Liviu Pop, Ionuț -Florin Popa, Stelian Ioan Vidu, Tratat elementar de drept civil. Obligațiile

conform noului Cod civil, Editura Universul Juridic, București 2012, pag. 444-445; 5https://www.profit.ro/taxe-si-consultanta/pandemia-covid-19-este-sau-nu-o-situatie-de-forta-

majora-care-poate-impacta-asupra-contractelor-individuale-de-munca-si-contractelor-comerciale-

19305101;

https://www.nndkp.ro/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Analiza-NNDKP_Impactul-Covid-19-asupra-unor-ramuri-de-drept_Apr2020.pdf

https://www.nndkp.ro/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Analiza-NNDKP_Impactul-Covid-19-asupra-unor-ramuri-de-drept_Apr2020.pdf


113

Although the differences between the two notions are not negligible at all,

not only in terms of conditions, but especially in terms of effects, over time

there has been and continues to be a doctrinal divergence regarding identity

and confusion. There were opinions that, dissociation of those two notions -

fortuitous case / force majeure - is unnecessary and even more, it creates

major confusions, especially since we speak about these exonerating

causes.1 The incidence of these circumstances is different according to the

Romanian law, despite the fact that the premises and effects of the two

categories of events are very similar.

Is the state of emergency a case of ‘force majeure’ or not?2

According to the Presidential Decree no. 195 / 20203 regulated that the

Ministry of Economy, Energy and Business Environment may issue, upon

request, to economic operators whose activity is affected by measures to

prevent and combat COVID-19 emergency certificates, based on supporting

documents. At first sight, it would seem that the authorities accept that the

COVID-19 pandemic is either an exceptional situation that could lead to

consequences such as delaying the payment of rent [art. X alin. (1) of the

O.U.G. no. 29/2020], or a case of force majeure4 [para. (2) of the same

article]. Naturally, this is an artificial and incorrect conclusion from a legal

perspective, the main argument in this respect being precisely the condition

imposed by the State for obtaining an emergency certificate, for invoking

force majeure. The measures taken by the authorities in accordance with the

normative act that established the state of emergency will not be

unpredictable. Therefore, the COVID-19 pandemic is not a force majeure

case and is not presumed as such.

Conclusions

The analysis of the proposed topic shows that the actions of the

authorities to prevent and combat the spread of coronavirus to establish a

state of emergency / alert should not be confused with the legal effects of

the COVID-19 pandemic, which is not a case of force majeure.

In other words, an emergency ordinance cannot restrict the fundamental

rights and freedoms of the citizen, but only by law, or laws are adopted by

parliament and the President's decree is only a normative administrative act.

In conclusion, our view is that the COVID-19 pandemic is not a case of

force majeure, the legislator must be careful to use the terms in the special

legal rules on measures to combat the Covid-19 epidemic, in order to avoid

litigation against courts that must weigh well before administering justice.

1https://www.juridice.ro/660006/forta-majora-si-cazul-fortuit-conditii-divergenta-doctrinara-

jurisprudenta.html 2https://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-specialisti_stoica_si_asociatii-23771934-covid-19-pandemie-contracte-

derulare-forta-majora.htm; 3Decret nr. 195/ 2020 privind instituirea stării de urgență pe teritoriul României, publicat în M.Of. al

României, Partea I nr. 212/2020; 4https://legalup.ro/invoca-forta-majora/.

https://www.juridice.ro/660006/forta-majora-si-cazul-fortuit-conditii-divergenta-doctrinara-jurisprudenta.html


https://legalup.ro/invoca-forta-majora/;


114

Bibliography

Constituția României - republicată în Monitorul Oficial, Partea I nr. 767 din 31

octombrie 2003.

Convenția Europeană a Drepturilor Omului, adoptat la Roma la 4 noiembrie 1950. A

intrat în vigoare la 3 septembrie 1953. România a ratificat Convenția prin Legea nr. 30

din 18 mai 1994, publicată în Monitorul Oficial nr. 135 din 31 mai 1994.

Decretul Președintelui României nr. 195/2020 privind instituirea stării de urgență pe

teritoriul României, publicat în Monitorul Oficial al României, Partea I nr.

212/16.03.2020.

Normele Metodologice 780VP/1996 pentru aplicarea Hotărârii Guvernului nr. 707/1996

privind finanțarea unor lucrări de telefonie în mediul rural, Monitorul Oficial nr. 284 din

12 noiembrie 1996.

Noul Cod civil - Legea nr. 287/2009, republicat în Monitorul Oficial, Partea I nr. 505

din 15 iulie 2011.

Noul Cod Civil – Comentariu pe articole, Flavius-Antoniu Baias, Eugen Chelaru, Rodica

Constantinovici, Ioan Macovei, Editura C.H. Beck, 2014.

Ordonanță de urgență nr. 29/2020 privind unele măsuri economice și fiscal-bugetare,

publicată în M.Of. al României, Partea I nr. 230/2020.

Pop Liviu, Popa Ionuț -Florin, Stelian Ioan Vidu, Tratat elementar de drept civil.

Obligațiile conform noului Cod civil, Editura Universul Juridic, București 2012.

https://www.juridice.ro/660006/forta-majora-si-cazul-fortuit-conditii-divergenta-

doctrinara-jurisprudenta.html.

https://www.nndkp.ro/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Analiza-NNDKP_Impactul-Covid-

19-asupra-unor-ramuri-de-drept_Apr2020.pdf.

https://www.profit.ro/taxe-si-consultanta/pandemia-covid-19-este-sau-nu-o-situatie-de-

forta-majora-care-poate-impacta-asupra-contractelor-individuale-de-munca-si-

contractelor-comerciale-19305101.

https://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-specialisti_stoica_si_asociatii-23771934-covid-19-

pandemie-contracte-derulare-forta-majora.htm .

https://legalup.ro/invoca-forta-majora /.

https://www.universuljuridic.ro/ce-se-intampla-cu-contractele-comerciale-in-contextul-

actual-poate-fi-invocata-forta-majora-pentru-suspendarea-obligatiilor-sau-nu/ .

https://legeaz.net/noul-cod-civil



https://www.nndkp.ro/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Analiza-NNDKP_Impactul-Covid-19-asupra-unor-ramuri-de-drept_Apr2020.pdf.

https://www.nndkp.ro/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Analiza-NNDKP_Impactul-Covid-19-asupra-unor-ramuri-de-drept_Apr2020.pdf.

https://www.profit.ro/taxe-si-consultanta/pandemia-covid-19-este-sau-nu-o-situatie-de-

https://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-specialisti_stoica_si_asociatii-23771934-covid-19-pandemie-contracte-derulare-forta-majora.htm

https://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-specialisti_stoica_si_asociatii-23771934-covid-19-pandemie-contracte-derulare-forta-majora.htm

https://legalup.ro/invoca-forta-majora

https://www.universuljuridic.ro/ce-se-intampla-cu-contractele-comerciale-in-contextul-actual-poate-fi-invocata-forta-majora-pentru-suspendarea-obligatiilor-sau-nu/

https://www.universuljuridic.ro/ce-se-intampla-cu-contractele-comerciale-in-contextul-actual-poate-fi-invocata-forta-majora-pentru-suspendarea-obligatiilor-sau-nu/


115

COMING INTO BEING: THE BIRTH OF A LANGUAGE1

Iuliana Denisa OPRULEASA

Applied Modern Languages, 2nd year

Abstract: The history of the English language was a tumultuous history marked by

significant events in England’s history. Its main periods – Old English, Middle English and

Modern English – revealed the most important changes suffered by the language and its

development throughout time. Natural transformations as well as other languages

influences could be observed in the grammar, the pronunciation and the vocabulary of

English from different periods.

Key-words: language, history, development, borrowings.

The history of Englisc and Englaland and their long journey towards

present-day English and England represent a complex subject, equally

interesting and essential. English is said to be one of the languages with the

oldest history on earth, being part of the Germanic branch of the Indo-

European family of languages. Its incipient form was brought to the isle by

the Germanic tribes (the Angles, the Saxons, the Jutes and the Frisians) at

the middle of the fifth century.

The history of a language is automatically related to the history of a

nation, to its ancestors and to their land. Along the way, English was

divided into three main periods subdivided in their turn (IAROVICI,

1970:15) – and roughly corresponding to events in England’s history (the

Anglo-Saxon conquest, the Norman conquest, the British Empire):

- Old English: Early Old English and Late Old English;

- Middle English: Early Middle English and Late Middle English;

- Modern English: Early Modern English and Later Modern

English.

1. The Old English Period

Old English lasted between 450 and 1150, although in some books

these dates can differ with just a few years. What is a sure fact is that Old

English represents roughly the period between the Germanic conquest and

the Norman one. Few written records of Old English have been discovered

in metal, bone and stone. Much more evidence was kept as manuscripts, as

it is written in the Jeremy J. Smith’s book ‘Old English, A Linguistic

Introduction’ (SMITH, 2009: 6,7). Old English poetry can be found in four

manuscripts: “The Exeter Book”, “The Vercelli Book”, “The Junius

Manuscript” and “The Beowulf Manuscript”2 (SMITH, 2009: 7). Literary

manuscripts were mainly kept by the West Saxon kingdom. There are

1 Coordinator: Raluca NITU, PhD, associate professor 2 For a more accurate picture of what Old English sounded and looked like, we provide the link of a

short video containing a few lines from the 7th century epic poem ‘Beowulf’ recited by Andy

Orchard, Rawlinson and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon at University of Oxford:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0zorjJzrrvA 22


116

manuscripts and runes – Rutwell Cross’ was a rune from the 8th century in

the Northumbrian dialect – that preserved the writings but, unfortunately,

there is no piece of evidence for the Old English speech. These gaps caused

the process of linguistic reconstruction which mainly developed in the

eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It contains two complementary

procedures: comparative reconstruction (characteristic to different

languages, dialects and varieties of the same language) and internal

reconstruction (paradigmatic variation) (SMITH,2009:7). For example, the

letter “c” from “cēosan” was pronounced [tʃ] in OE and [k] in “curon”.

Through internal reconstruction it was showed that [k] and [tʃ] would have

had the same ancient origin and comparative reconstruction would have

sustained that it was [k] (SMITH, 2009: 8). However, this method of

reconstruction cannot give certain facts but rather theories (HOGG,

2008:27).

There were four dialects which could be distinguished in the course

of Old English period: the Northumbrian, the Mercian, the West Saxon (in

southwest) and the Kentish (the dialect of the Jutes in southeast) (BAUGH

& CABLE, 2005: 47). There is less known about the first two, but the third

one represented then the standard English owing to literary texts preserved.

1.1 The Celtic Influence

A very obvious difference between the language which was spoken

in England at its beginnings, the Celtic language, and the one from

nowadays would be the syntax. There are a few characteristics of each of

them which differentiate them from each other (MURTI1ANA, 2012: 107):

• The word order: - subject – verb – object e.g.: ‘The boy called her.’

(Modern English) - verb – subject – object e.g.: ‘Called the boy her.’ (Celtic

language)

• Preference for the passive voice: - e.g.: ‘I write.’ (English) - e.g.: ‘is

written.’ (Celtic)

• The usage of “have”: - e.g.: ‘She has a guitar.’ (English) e.g.: ‘There is a

guitar with her.’ (Celtic) – instead of the verb, prepositions are used which

should express the same idea.

1.2 The Latin Influence

The Latin influence is mainly seen in writing and more exactly in

Shakespeare’s writings. The Roman invasion (43 A.D. – 410 A.D.) brought

few Latin words into English. A larger number of words were brought

alongside with the next contact of Romans in the year 596 and, of course,

during the Norman conquest (1066-1200), another amount of borrowings

took place. All these events represent the stages of Latin introduction into

English, distinguished as the Latin of the First Period, Latin of the Second


117

Period, Latin of the Third Period and the last one which was represented by

the Revival of Learning, Latin of the Fourth Period.

Words like “bishop”, “clerk”, “monk”, “priest”, “apostle”

“butter”, “cheese”, “mind”, “oyster”, “elephant”, “camel” etc. have been

inherited (MEIKLEJOHN, 2007: 210). Even though the vocabulary of

English language has more Latin than English words, it is the latter one who

is more daily spoken and, of course, characterizes the English man.

1.3 The German Influence

When the Germanic tribes came to Britain, they found there the

Britons who spoke the Celtic language. After they forced them to move to

the southernmost and westernmost parts of the island, the invaders also

replaced their language with the English one which they gave the name

“Englisc”. They also renamed the island “Englaland”. The Anglo-Saxons

could be perceived as the founders of the current English language.

1.4 The Scandinavian (Danish or Old Norse) Influence

After the Anglo-Saxons’ conquest, the settlers didn’t have peace all

the time. The Danes started to invade the island in 797 and took over the

northern and the eastern parts of the island. Along with that, some new

dialects were brought into these parts of England because of the influence of

the Danes. The biggest impact was reflected in the north of England and this

can also be seen today: unlike the others, the dialect from Scotland

developed in a particular way (KNOWLES, 1997: 33). As indicated in the

second volume of “A Brief History of the English Language and Literature”

by John Miller Dow Meiklejohn, the features of the Danish in English were

represented by differentiation between some sounds like in “kirk” instead of

in “church”; daily words and place names.

A few Danish words that one could also meet nowadays are “holm”

(an island in a river), “thorpe” (village), “force” (waterfall), “weak”,

“ugly”, “cake”, “sky”, “fellow”, “kid”, “ill” etc. A noteworthy and

surprisingly used Danish word in English everyday speech is “are”. Another

feature inherited from the Scandinavians is the formation of infinitive with

“to” – in the Danish “at”. (MEIKLEJOHN, 2007: 205, 206)

1.5 The Norman Influence

As mentioned in “A Brief History of the English Language and

Literature”, second volume, of J.M.D. Meiklejohn, a generous number of

Norman-French words could be distinguished, starting with specialized

terms, for example, from the law area, which came at the same time as the

Normans: “attorney”, “justice”, “court”, “trespass” (MEIKLEJOHN,

2007: 214). We can also see some distinctions between some words used for

animals: the majority of them are Latin while only a few are English (“fox”,

“snake”). A distinction between words which belong to the same family but

have English or Latin origin: “title”, “dignity” (French); “king”, “queen”,


118

“lord”, “lady” (English). Almost all the words describing the

administrative area are French words: “court”, “state”, “constitution”,

“people”, “treaty”, “army”. On the other hand, the words referring to the

framework of agriculture are for the most part English (MEIKLEJOHN,

2007: 216). The same thing is true for the words denoting the parts of the

body (a number of around one hundred words is English while only a few

words like “face”, “spirit” or “stature” are French).

The borrowing was one powerful modality through which French

affected English. A very well-known example of French borrowing in

English is represented by the various names that meat received on the basis

of their type. For example, ox – beef, pig – pork, sheep – mutton

(MEIKLEJOHN, 2007:215). There were also borrowings of French

collocations and expressions as “s 'il vous plait” (“if you please”); “tomber

malade/amoureux” (“to fall ill/in love”); “par cause de” (“because

of”);”prendre quelque chose en consideration/a coeur” (“to take something

into consideration/to heart”) etc. (KNOWLES, 1997: 57)

Also specified in Gerry Knowles’ book, ‘A Cultural History of the

English Language’, an effect of French on the English grammar was the

reuse of ‘who’, which was represented by the word “þe” in Old English, as

a relative pronoun corresponding to “qui” from French (MUSTANOJA,

1960: 187—206).

As noted in the 2nd volume of ‘A Brief History of the English

Language and Literature’ by J.M.D. Meiklejohn, Norman-French started to

replace on a large scale the existing compound English words, thereby

“earth-tilth” or “wantrust” found their equivalent in Norman-French as

“agriculture”, respectively “suspicion”. (MEIKLEJOHN, 2007: 220) Even

though English lost many compound words as “pinchpenny” (miser) or

“lily-livered” (cowardly), there are still some which survived as the years

passed. Some of those are well-known proper compound names such as

“Shakespeare”, “Dolittle” or “Golightly”. (MEIKLEJOHN, 2007: 221)

This was the time when misunderstandings among people emerged

because of the new varieties of English spoken among them caused by the

introduction of French.

2. The Middle English Period

The Middle English period (1150-1500) was a fresh new start for the

language and represented the interim phase between Old English and

Modern English. It was dominated by the French influence. Edward the

Confessor was the first who started to introduce French in England in the

year 1042, followed by William the Great in 1066.

The Old English pronouns for the second person “thou” and “ye”

(subjects, e.g.: “thou are a nice person”, “ye are nice persons”), respectively

“thee” and “you” (objects, e.g.: “I love thee/you”), were marking the

singular and the plural before their use being changed because of the French

language impact. More explicitly, in the period of Middle English, these

pronouns were the products of two main changes, as it follows: firstly, the

“ye” and “you” became undistinguished leading to the current form and


119

usage of “you” (e.g.: “you are nice persons”); secondly, the differentiation

of singular and plural was no longer present owing to “thou” loss, whose

usage was inherited by “you” (KNOWLES, 1997: 57-58).

In the 14th century, a noteworthy factor of English growth was the

people’s conflict with the state and the church, which, as a form of

disobedience, were utilizing English instead of the imposed Latin. This

issue also appeared in the Lollard movement1 (KNOWLES,1997: 63-66).

In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, there was a long and hard

fight from a political, social, and ecclesiastical point of view towards the

ascertaining of English as the official language of the land which afterwards

occurred in the sixteenth century.

As the Middle English was a period of transition from old to new,

from ancient to modern, a pure representation of evolution, it remarked

itself through significant waves of changes that could be observed in almost

everything related to a language such as grammar, vocabulary,

pronunciation etc. The most important transformations in grammar were the

drop of inflexions, rules for noun plural formation, considerable losses of

the strong verbs, the word order.

There were borrowings or influences from the military vocabulary as

“army”, “navy”, “skirmish”, “ambush”, “stratagem”, “captain”,

“lieutenant”, “sergeant” etc. (Baugh& Thomas Cable, 2005: 158). Among

various differentiations we can mention the group “qu-“ from Paris French

which, after suffering a change in Anglo-Norman French, came to be [kw]

in English (e.g.: “consequences”, “frequencies”, “quiz”, “quantity” etc.)

and [k] in French (e.g.: “manquer”, “Québec”, “quatre”, “questionnaire”

etc.) (BAUGH & CABLE, 2005: 161-163).

3. The Modern English Period

The literature started to be of great importance only during the

period of Modern English, which was also the time of Shakespeare (1564-

1616). In the second half of the sixteenth century, English knew its Golden

Age. It enjoyed a great development. At that moment, English was the

language of education instead of Latin. “I loue Rome, but London better, I

favor Italie, but England more, I honor the Latin, but I worship the

English”, the exposed view of Richard Mulcaster (MULCASTER,1582:

254) (KNOWLES,1997:78).

A great impact on the development of the language the Bible’s

translation, which, at that moment, had already been translated in many

other languages (Italian, French, Spanish etc.) by the year 1500, but no

official English version could be realized until 1540 (KNOWLES,

1997:71,73). The most important masterpiece of all times, the Bible, was,

finally, translated into English in 1611.

As we can see in Gerry Knowles’ book ‘A Cultural History of the

English Language’, what is very interesting is that the spelling English has

1 ‘A general but very limited, minority reform movement of critics led by John Wyclif against the

established church since the fifth century’

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/lollards_01.shtml, June 9, 2020).


120

today is closer to the pronunciation that existed in the medieval period

(KNOWLES, 1997: 83, 84). Changes have also occurred in sounds like <i>,

pronounced then the same way it was written, and becoming [ai] after the

most important event in terms of pronunciation, namely, the Great Vowel

Shift. Another example would be <ou>, this one pronounced initially under

the French influence, changed in [au] (KNOWLES, 1997: 83). Groups of

the vowels [oo] and [ee], firstly pronounced as long vowels, acquired the

old pronunciation of <i> and <ou>. This was also the moment when <ea>

and <ee> started to have pretty much the same pronunciation (KNOWLES,

1997: 84).

Starting with the middle of the seventeenth century it became of

great importance to improve the spelling, the grammar and the

pronunciation in the use of the English language. The grammar of more

recent times, specifically of the twentieth century, underwent likewise

transformations. Some of them represented the results of the progression of

a process started a long time ago in the past, while others appeared to

pertain to earlier times.

A representative moment in the history of the English language was

the Glorious Revolution in 1688, a moment after which English became a

more popular language and started its expansion, firstly in its country and

little by little reaching out to be the language known (more or less) by just

about every human. The beginning of the Modern English period was

characterized by a great development of the language and of the education

as one of the consequences of the introduction of printing in the country at

the end of the 15th century, somewhere around 1476. This new evolution

towards a modern world which was providing new facilities for people

made them become more aware in terms of their literacy. By the middle of

the seventeenth century, to the surprise of those generations, a production of

quite impressive number of books, newspapers, magazines had been

recorded and these, in their turn, became available in many other copies

accessible for all classes of people (BAUGH & CABLE, 2005: 187, 188).

The early modern English, although presenting great expansion of

the language, it was likewise surrounded by insecurity. A reason of this

concern could have been the complete ascertaining of the improved

language, which was long overdue since sometimes the usage of two terms

was quite common, each of them from a different stage of its development.

It was not until the next period of modern times, namely the Late Modern

English, that a proper establishment of the respective changes had the

expected effect and gave results, producing, eventually, the language we all

know today.

The biggest anxiety that characterized the 18th century and around

which all the actions orbited, was the ascertainment of the English language

(BAUGH & CABLE, 2005: 242). This period also represented one of the

greatest times in the history of England. It was during the period of Modern

English that the British Empire had its beginning and it is said that the

language had started to conquer the world even before the power of the

empire did (BAUGH & CABLE, 2005: 273). A great number of foreign

words such as “buffalo” (Spanish), “bankrupt” (Italian), “trigger” (Dutch),


121

“poodle” (German), “chocolate” (American), “marmalade” (Portuguese),

“paradise” (Persian), “bungalow” (Hindu), “tea” (Chinese), “talisman”

(Arabic) was borrowed by English (MEIKLEJOHN, 2007: 249).

The transformations suffered by the vocabulary of a language are

transparent in showing the historical evolution and its different phases,

which means that every new word, borrowed or developed under some sort

of circumstances, corresponds to a more or less significant historical event1.

English is the language with, perhaps, the most accelerate addition of new

words in its dictionaries, therefore this matter of fact has risen a lot of

questions over time. During centuries, writers, traders as well as enemies,

strangers and many others have contributed to the enrichment of vocabulary,

but it seems that, despite their implication, the words continue to become

more and more numerous and the reason for this are thirteen processes:

derivation, back formation, compounding, repurposing, conversion,

eponyms2, abbreviations, loanwords, onomatopeia, reduplication, nonce

words3 , error, portmanteaus4 (https://www.theguardian.com/media/mind-

your-language/2016/feb/04/english neologisms-new-words, April 21, 2020).

The recent time has also brought words like “Anthropocene”, “selfie”,

“Brexit”, “coronavirus” etc.

Probably, the greatest feature of English history was the quite

impressive number of words borrowed as well as their numerous origins.

Especially until 20th century, the English language was like a “magnet” for

concocted and foreign words, but after it, English words started to be

progressively adopted by other countries, English reaching the most widely

distributed language in the next century and also the first language ever used

so extensively (https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jul/27/english-

language-global-dominance, May 21, 2020). The so-called “global

language” did not contributed only in terms of vocabulary to the

exportation towards several countries’ languages but also in terms of syntax,

morphosyntax and phonology.

Bibliography

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable, 2005, A History of the English Language, Routledge

Hogg, Richard M., 2008, The Cambridge History of the English Language, Cambridge

University Press.

Bodle, Andy, “How New Words Are Born”, The Guardian,

https://www.theguardian.com/media/mind-your-language/2016/feb/04/englishneologisms-

new-words, (April 21, 2020).

Iarovici, Edith, 1970, A History of the English Language, Editura Didactica si Pedagogica

Smith, Jeremy J., 2009, Old English, A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge University

Press.

Ibeji, Mike, “Lollards”,

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/lollards_01.shtml, (June 9, 2020).

Knowles, Gerry, 1997, A Cultural History of the English Language, Arnold - Hodder

Headline Group.

1 See Appendix 6 (Schneider, 2011: 64) 2 Words named after a person or place. 3 Words pulled out of thin air, bearing little relation to any existing form. 4 Compounding with a twist. Take one word, remove an arbitrary portion of it, then put in its place

either a whole word, or a similarly clipped one.


122

Meiklejohn, John Miller Dow, 2007, A Brief History of the English Language and

Literature, D. C. HEATH & CO. PUBLISHERS.

Mikanowski, Jacob, “Behemoth, Bully, Thief: How the English Language is Taking over

the Planet”, The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jul/27/english-

language-global-dominance, (May 21, 2020).

Murtiana, Rahmila, 2012, The Dynamics of English language Change from the Old Era to

the Digital Age

Orchard, Andy, “Beowulf (Old English)”, RadioWest,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0zorjJzrrvA, (May 26, 2020).


123

TRANSLATION VS. INTERPRETATION1

Doina OSTROV

Specialized Languages and Computer-Assisted Translation, 2nd year

Abstract: The above article was intended to identify the differences between translating and

interpreting process, in order to explain the similarities of translating and interpreting

process, and describing the process between translating and interpreting.

Key words: Translation, Interpretation

I. What is translation

Oxford University defines translation as "The process of translating words

or text from one language into another"

Translation happens everywhere all the time. Anyone can find different

words for something that has been said in another language, or in the same

one; anyone with internet access can click the ‘translate’ option on their

browser. But when it comes to the public and commercial world of printed

books, political documents, diplomatic negotiations, business transactions,

and world news, translation is strictly limited. Official rules and market

forces combine to determine who can do it, how it is done, and which

languages it involves.

Translation Definitions

- Oral Translation is a translation performed orally, irrespectively of

the form of the text-source, either consecutively or simultaneously.

- Written translation is a translation performed in writing,

irrespectively of the form of the text-source, either consecutively or

simultaneously.

- Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called “computer-aided

translation,” “machine-aided human translation (MAHT)” and

“interactive translation,” is a form of translation wherein a human

translator creates a target text with the assistance of a computer

program.

- Machine translation (MT) is a procedure whereby a computer

program analyzes a source text and produces a target text without

further human intervention. In reality, however, machine translation

typically does involve human intervention, in the form of pre-editing

and post-editing.

Basis of translation

• Ferdinand Saussure: Language is a structure that achieves meaning

through oppositions.

• Conventional meaning “Their most exact meaning is that they are

what the other words are not”. 1793

• Linguistic Determinism: thoughts and perceptions are determined by

the categories of their language.

1 Coordinator: Cristina-Violeta UNGUREANU, PhD Associate Professor


124

Translator’s role: “An excellent translation reads like a piece originally

written in the target language, sentence structure, linkages and

discourse, are entirely appropriate to the target language.” U.K.

Linguistics Association

Types of Translation

• Literary Translation

Literary translation requires a lot of skill. Translation of literature is

fundamentally different from other categories. This is because the main

principle of literary translation is the dominance of poetic communicative

function.

• General Translation

The simplest of translation types, a general translation allows a translator

quite a lot of leeway because its source material mostly uses layman terms

and ordinary, everyday speech.

• Economic Translation

An economic translation, containing the smallest mistake or even a typing

error can cause unfavorable consequences. For this reason translation of

economic texts requires high responsibility from the translator, ability to

concentrate as well as thoroughness and accuracy.

II. What is Interpretation?

• Webster New World Dictionary defines Interpretation as, “The

expression of a person’s conception of a work of art or subject

through acting, playing, writing, etc.”

• Interpretation is “an educational activity which aims to reveal

meaning and relationships through the use of original objects, by

firsthand experience, and by illustrative media, rather than simply to

communicate factual information.” (TILDEN, 1957, p. 8)

Interpretation Types

• Simultaneous: In simultaneous interpretation (SI), the interpreter

renders the message in the target-language as quickly as he or she

can formulate it from the source language, while the source-

language speaker continuously speaks.

• Consecutive: In consecutive interpreting (CI), the interpreter speaks

after the source-language speaker has finished speaking. The speech

is divided into segments, and the interpreter sits or stands beside the

source-language speaker, listening and taking notes as the speaker

progresses through the message.

• Whispered: In whispered interpreting, the interpreter sits or stands

next to the small target-language audience whilst whispering a

simultaneous interpretation of the matter to hand; this method

requires no equipment, but may be done via a microphone and

headphones if the participants prefer.

The Differences between consecutive interpretation (CI) and

simultaneous interpretation (SI)?

A consecutive interpreter listens to

the speaker, takes notes, and then

reproduces the speech in the target

A simultaneous interpreter, usually

sitting in a soundproof booth, listens

to the speaker through earphones


125

language. Depending on the length

of the speech, this may be done all at

one go or in several segments. The

consecutive interpreter relies mainly

on memory, but good note-taking

technique is an essential aid.

and, speaking into a microphone,

reproduces the speech in the TL as it

is being delivered in the SL. Because

the simultaneous interpreter cannot

fall too far behind, this method

requires considerable practice and

presence of mind.

III. Interpretation vs. Translation

It is easy to assume that interpretation and translation differ only in the

medium: oral or written. However, there can be great differences in training,

skills and even some personality attributes.

In order to understand and to define a clear line between translation and

interpretation I have analyzed the main difference between them:

Interpreter

• listens to a spoken message

• relies mainly on the ability

• expected to convey the essence of the message immediately

Translator

• studies written material

• relies mainly on thorough research

• usually held to a higher standard of accuracy and

completeness

Both of them translator and interpreter are trying to improve the process of

communication.

Translation and Interpretation

• A translator should have a comprehensive set of dictionaries and

reference materials available (as well as have a high level of

expertise in using on-line resources).

• A professional interpreter will also have these resources, but they are

more for study and preparation and not for use while actually

engaged in interpreting.

• While a translator may specialize in a narrowly focused subject or

two, most conference interpreters normally prepare for a wide

variety of topics.

• A translator’s work is more methodical and exact. A translator must

write well and express herself/himself superbly in the target

language. Ideally, the translator is a native speaker of the target

language.

• An interpreter must have a good voice, excellent public speaking

skills. She/he should feel comfortable in the spotlight. Consecutive

interpreters tend to be more visible, as they are standing or sitting

beside their principal.

IV. Conclusion

Translation and Interpretation is ultimately a human activity which

enables human beings to exchange ideas and thoughts regardless of the

different tongues used. The translation is decidedly a more difficult job than


126

creation; this is obvious because, the richness of vocabulary, depth of

culture, and vision of the translator could certainly have very conspicuous

effects on her/his work. In a sense, translation and interpretation’s norms are

mythical; the nation, whatever we take that to mean, cannot speak with one

voice, according to one view of what is appropriate or inappropriate. At any

one time, there will be a range of different norms or definitions of

appropriateness circulating within the Translation and/or Interpretation

Practice within the culture as a whole. Some of these will be ones which a

large number of Communities of Practice will draw upon and some of them

will be ones which they will identify as being social rather than individual

Communities of Practice norms. 1

However that does not mean that there are no norms or no perceptions

of what those norms are. Those norms which are comprehended to be social

norms are, in general, the ones associated with those who are appreciated to

be powerful, either economically or culturally, and are able to make

pronouncements about what is appropriate. This is not to suggest that at all

times in all contexts, the ruling classes will judge what is appropriate, since

very often it is other social groups, such as the media in modern times who

play an important role in bringing about change in perceptions of language

norms. 2

Translation is most clearly art, when a poem is sensitively translated

into a poem. But any deft 'transfusion of an imaginative piece of writing is

artistic, when it conveys the meaning through a happy balance or resolution

of some of the tensions in the process.

Bibliography

Catford, J., 1995, A linguistic Theory of Translation. London. Oxford University Press.

Foster, M., 1958, Translation from/in Farsi and English, Retrieved April, 2007.

Freeman Tilden, 1957. Interpreting Our Heritage.

Nida, E., 1976, A Framework for “The Analysis and Evaluation of The Theories of

Translation”, In Brisilin, R., (ed.), Translation Application and Research. Gardener Press,

Inc., New York.

Saussure’s Third Course of Lectures in General Linguistics (1910–1911) from the

Notebooks of Emile Constantin. (Language and Communication series, vol. 12). French

text edited by Eisuke Komatsu & trans. by Roy Harris. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Websites:

http://study.com/academy/lesson/cross-cultural-communication-definition-strategies-

examples.html.

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/social-norms/.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215366/ .

1https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215366/ 2https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/social-norms/

http://study.com/academy/lesson/cross-cultural-communication-definition-strategies-examples.html

http://study.com/academy/lesson/cross-cultural-communication-definition-strategies-examples.html

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/social-norms/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215366/


127

COMPUTER-AIDED TRANSLATION, TRADOS AND

GOOGLE TRANSLATE, ADVANTAGES AND

DISADVANTAGES1

Georgian POPESCU

Alexandru MATEESCU

Machine Building Technology,1st year

Abstract: Translation is defined as the communication of meaning from one language (the

source) to another language (the target). Unlike interpretation, which refers to spoken

information, translation refers to written information. The aim of translation is to convey

the original tone and intent of a message, without neglecting cultural and regional

differences between source and target languages. Translation has been used by people for

centuries,. Modern translators use sophisticated tools and technologies to do a translation.

Key words: translation, source, target, message

Translation is a process that consists in taking a word, a group of

words or a text etc. from the source language and putting it into the target

language. This process is essentially a process of communication between

cultures. Translation is concerned “with moral and with factual truth. This

truth can be effectively rendered only if it is grasped by the reader”

(NEWMARK, 2001:1).

It all began in 270 B.C., when seventy Jewish translators decided to

translate the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek. Septuaginta or

Septanta is known to be the first translation work.

The traditional translation theory is based on the translation of the

source language text into the target language, focusing on the grammar rules

and the form of the message, not on the content and what it transmits to the

receiver. The translator translates the text word by word, his interference

being considered to affect the text.

The translators’ job is quite difficult because they must respect the

original version without altering the text, but, when they translate a text into

another language, the text is completely different. Another obstacle for the

translator is represented by literary texts, where the grammar is far from

being important. What is most important is what the author wants to

express. The word by word translation cannot keep the expressiveness of the

source language.

In contemporary translation theory, the translator in no longer

focused on grammar but rather on the meaning of the text and what it

represents for the receiver. Translation represents an adaptation of the

source text to the target language and culture.

A translator should not reproduce the source text, but carry out the

author’s work by transposing the text into another language and culture,

trying to keep his work alive.

1 Coordinator: Mirela COSTELEANU, PhD Lecturer


128

At the beginning of translation, the translator’s job was very difficult

and time-consuming. The mere task of searching for the meaning of a word

was challenging. Nowadays, thanks to great advances in technology, the

task of translating a text from a source language into the target language is

not as challenging as it used to be.

The first computer-assisted translation software made its appearance

30 years ago. Its basic function was to store the translated texts

in a translation memory and use that memory subsequently to make

translating recurring text easier and more efficient. This allowed translators

to do their work much more easily. CAT represents a partnership between

technology and translators. Translators use the computer and the Internet in

their translation work.

During the translation process, errors may occur as the translator

focuses on translating the text without altering its message. Fortunately, a

grammar and spell checker can do that job for the translator. Another time

saving tool is the dictation tool. You no longer have to write or type your

translation. Speech recognition software will allow the computer to type the

text for you.

Machine translation started with a letter sent by Warren Weaver to

the computer specialist Norbert Wiener in 1947. Two years later, Warren

Weaver published his ideas about the computer’s role in translation. In 1954

a prototype of machine translation was created. This prototype of machine

translation was based on bilingual dictionaries. Although this project did not

work at full capacity and it had some shortages, it enjoyed great success.

Machine translation seemed to be a real success at the beginning.

Yet, researchers came to the conclusion that it was not enough to solve

language barriers. IBM and Washington University created an operating

system called Mark 2, but the results did not meet their expectations. In

1964 the US Government created the ALPAC (Automatic Language

Processing Advisory Committee). The ALPAC report criticized the machine

translation because it was a slow and expensive process and said that it

could not make a proper translation without post-editing. But the ALPAC

report also stipulated that the tools of machine translation could be useful in

the process of translation. Machine translation became computer-aided

translation, which represented collaboration between computer software and

a human translator. The computer’s job was to help the translator during the

process of translation. In order to do this, computer-aided translation has a

number of tools called CAT (computer-aided translation) tools designed to

help the translator in his/her work.

CAT tools:

- Data-capture tools

- Corpus-analysis tools

- Terminology-management systems

- Translation memory

- Localization and web page translation tools

Data-capture tools

The text to be translated is first converted into a digital format. To do

this, a translator can use various methods.

http://www.zelenka-translations.com/blog/translations-and-cat-tools


129

The first and oldest method is typing the text using the keyboard.

The biggest disadvantage is that it takes a lot of time.

Scanning is another way to enter the text into the computer. The text

is put into the scanner, the computer recognizes the characters and then it

puts the text into a digital format. This method saves time, but errors can

appear during the process.

Voice Recognition Software is a tool that helps the translator dictate

the text by using a microphone, the computer recognizes the words and then

it types the text.

Translation memory tool is a program that divides the text into parts,

searching the similarities between them and previously translated texts.

Specialized texts are usually translated using this program. The main

advantage of this program is that it can speed up the process of translation.

Terminology-management systems help translators organise

monolingual or multilingual term bases from different specialized fields

such as medicine, law, advertising, engineering etc. The term base can be

permanently changed if someone wants to add or to remove a word.

Grammar and spell checkers help translators find mistakes in their

work. It allows them to focus on the translation of the text without worrying

about grammatical issues. After the work is done, grammar and spell

checkers find the mistakes and correct them. The program is available

online and offline, the online version being better because it is connected to

the internet and it is always up-to-date.

The main disadvantage of CAT is accuracy. Because CAT is

mainly designed for word to word translation, a computer cannot identify

the multiple meanings of words. Another disadvantage is that translators

may spend more time post-editing the text after it was translated by the

computer than they would have spent if they themselves had translated it.

In case there is a technical problem or some software problem with

the computer, all the work stored on the computer can be lost in a few

seconds. That is why all your work should be stored on an external memory.

SDL Trados is a computer-aided software developed by the German

company Trados GmbH. Trados GmbH was designed in 1984 by Jochen

Hummel and Iko Knyphausen in Stuttgart, Germany. It can be a useful tool

for freelance translators, translation agencies, companies and universities.

SDL Trados has many useful applications for translators:

-a terminology tool, SDL Multiterm that helps you create databases from

different fields. You can store your terms in Trados databases in one

language or more languages. This tool replaces old glossaries;

-a translation memory tool which stores the translator’s previous work such

as translated texts, phrases, expressions.

-SDL Trados has a typing tool called SDL Autosuggest. When typing the

beginning of the word, the program gives a list of words from which one

can choose.

-SDL Studio Group Share is a function that helps you do team projects,

where everybody has a different task.


130

SDL Trados is easy to use because you have everything you need in

a single place. Besides, it helps you increase your productivity, it is easy to

learn and use, being a time saving program.

Google Translate is a free multilingual statistical machine translation

service provided by Google to translate text, speech, images, or real-time

video from one language to another. Google Translate is considered to be

the best consumer-level tool we currently have available. It gives people a

resource that we could hardly imagine twenty years ago. A question that

arises when talking about Google Translate is how accurate it is.

Google Translate was introduced in 2006 as an automatic translation

tool, and has been evolving ever since. It is very easy to use. Yet, it is far

from perfect. Professional translation services are always the best choice

since people are much better at bridging the language barrier gap than

artificial intelligence.

To sum it up, the benefits of Google Translate and similar

technologies cannot be underestimated. However, something is still missing

in this machine approach. It is understanding that is missing. In other words,

computer translation is never focused on machine understanding. However,

there is no reason to believe that computer devices will not be able to think

like people in the future. Seeing how fast modern technology is evolving,

computer devices will even be able to translate jokes, poems and puns.

Bibliography Newmark, P., 2011, About translation, Centre for Translation and Language Studies,

University of Surrey, Multilingual matters.

Reynolds, M., 2016, Translation, A very short introduction, Oxford.

https://www.argotrans.com/blog/accurate-google-translate-2019 (accessed on 9th May

2020).

https://www.betranslated.com/blog/how-good-is-google-translate (accessed on 12th May

2020).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Translate (accessed on 10th May 2020).

http://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/ (Accessed on 12th February 2020).

https://www.argotrans.com/blog/accurate-google-translate-2019

https://www.betranslated.com/blog/how-good-is-google-translate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Translate

http://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/14/62/43/146243287590382592044287238746367616828/siljot2013_1_01.pdf


131

FORMAL AND INFORMAL ENGLISH-

SOME GENERAL REMARKS1

Maria PREDESCU


Abstract: This paper embraces some of the most important uses of formal and informal

language depending on the context. It is generally aknowledged that being aware of these

differences is of paramount importance and need to be seriosly taken into consideration,

especially by non-native speakers who try to learn the English language.

Key words: formal and informal language, collocations, slang, taboo words, swear words

Introduction

Having become one of the most spoken languages across the world,

English displays a plethora of dialects, terms and non-native speakers

expressing themselves in various ways. (HUGHES, TRUDGILL, WATT,

2012:1)

As people have evolved throughout the years so does the language

they speak. Thus, when talking or writing, the word-choice and the

grammatical structures which the speaker is going to employ are of

paramount importance regarding the situation she/he is in. (ibidem: 16)

When it comes to communication, there is no denying that in today’s

society, people are endeavouring to fathom the way they should master the

use of language. That is why they must adapt their vocabulary according to

the situation. Therefore, they should resort to the use of academic language

when being in an official meeting and talking to important people. On the

other hand, when finding themselves in a familiar context, people are

expected to use a simple, yet clear vocabulary and to adapt their language

according to the needs of the public target. (HYNNIEN, 2016:1)

Should you have further recommendations, please, let us know as

soon as possible. (formal)

If you have oth

er recommendations, tell me asap. (informal)

The first example is fit in professional and education situations,

whereas the second one is informal, and it could be considered slightly rude,

hence people should be careful when using it.

Common features of Formal Language

When it comes to formal language, English uses various ways in

which people can adapt their way of speaking and writing accordingly. Even

though academic vocabulary is most likely to occur in formal situations,

1 Coordinator: Clementina NIȚĂ, Phd Lecturer


132

there are certain cases in which writing can be informal, such as drafting an

email to a friend or sending a letter to family members.

There are different situations in which formal language is most likely

to occur. Hence, one must be extremely careful when employing it. This can

be done through ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ questions.

Example: Could I have another glass of wine, please?

Another effective way through which people can express politeness is

by employing ‘distancing verbs forms’ (SWAN, 2016: 206).

Example: How long did you want to spend there, Madam?

Common features of informal language

Unlike formal language, the informal one is used in less official

situations, when addressing to people that one is familiar with.

Even though informal language helps people avoid repetition and it

shows the level of language that one has, it is of paramount importance to

use informal expressions and words in the right context, otherwise certain

people can be offended by them. Therefore, some speakers make a valiant

effort to use the right terms in order to be polite and not to make their

interlocutors feel uncomfortable. (BAUGH, CABLE, 2002:12)

Idioms and Collocations

According to Michael Swan, an idiom is an expression like turn up

(meaning "arrive"), break even (meaning "making neither a profit nor a

loss"), or a can of worms (meaning "a complicated problem") which can be

difficult to understand because its meaning is different from the meaning of

separate words in the expression. (SWAN, 2016: 244)

Examples: to cut corners – If you cut corners on your time spent on

studying, you’re

not going to pass the exam with flying colours

to be in a bind – We’ll be in a bind unless we hurry up.

to feel under the weather – I’m not in the mood of going out

today- I feel under the weather

Likewise, collocations epitomise idioms to a certain extent.

Notwithstanding the fact that they are not difficult to be grasped, forming

them correctly in spontaneous situations is troublesome for learners.

Michael Swan posits that even though one can resort to a plethora of

adjectives which can collocate with the word smoker, in order to express the

fact that someone smokes regularly, English speakers utilise the adjective

heavy. Therefore, one must be familiar with these structures in order to be

clearly comprehended by others.

Examples: to file for sanctions (not to demand for sanctions)

plead for mercy (not to demand for mercy)

tell a story, a joke ( not to say a story, a joke)


133

Informal vocabulary- Slang

Slang vocabulary is defined as an informal way of speaking and it is

addressed mainly to people that one is familiar with. In British English, for

example there are numerous types of expressions used as slang: (SWAN,

op.cit. :334)

Examples:

What happened last night? I don’t know, I was legless. ( very

drunk )

That’s bollocks! (I don’t believe you)

I’ve been working to this project for hours. I’m shattered. ( very

tired )

Do you happen to have quid left? ( money)

How many porkies are you going to tell? ( lies)

According to Michael Munro (2007: vi) "[...] the word itself is of doubtful

origin. Some make a connection between slang and sling, the idea being

that people sling words at one another in a devil-may-care manner".

Nevertheless, the origin of the word is mainly speculative and its

veracity stands little chance to be proven anyway. Thereby, Munro reiterates

in his book that the core of slang lies in its informal aspect, hence it is fit to

be utilised solely in informal situations. When people find themselves in

formal circumstances the language they employ must be unambiguous and

not to be an issue for interpretation. (idem)

Offensive language

Some words or expressions that exist in English might be offensive

towards a specific group, which can be considered lesser or abominable to

the society by certain people. These words are commonly addressed to

people in regards to their religious beliefs, origin, sexual preference or race.

According to Michael Swan "in some cases the offensive use of a term may

be accidental- a speaker may not realise, for example, that disabled people

prefer not to be called ‘handicapped". (SWAN, op.cit. :335)

Taboo Words

Taboo words are described as offensive, since their usage can be

interpreted as unutterably divine, such as religious terms, or as ineffably

abhorrent, such as slavery or incest.(HUGHES, 2006: XV). According to

Swan (op.cit.: 335), in English there are three main types of taboo words:

• Words and expressions linked to religion, such as the name of God

• Various words which refer to certain parts of the body, that are

usually associated with sexual activity (tits, arse)

• Words connecting with riddance of body wastes

Swear Words


134

According to Hughes in his book An Encyclopedia of Swearing

(2006: XV)

"Words cannot be unsaid, any more than blows can be taken back, and both can have

serious repercussions. Swearing is a perennial source of fascination for those interested in

language and society, continuously provoking controversy and raising topical issues. An

extraordinary range of style and content has evolved in oaths, profanity, foul language, and

ethnic slurs over the centuries, on a scale from the most sacred utterances to the most

taboo."

In his book, Hughes also highlights the existence of two types of

swearing: one which is formal and one which is informal. The former one is

used whenever formal situations occur, such as in suing someone in court or

in an oath of allegiance. On the other hand, the usage of informal swearing

implies an infringement of etiquette which can vary from the solely boorish

to the immoral. (idem)

Conclusion

The present paper has dealt with the bare bones of the English

language, whether it is utilised in academic writing or in everyday speech.

Every communicative situation imposes certain rules, which need to

be taken into consideration in order to have an effective communication.

Thus, every detail can make the difference in each situation of every day

life, from the outfit one wears to the vocabulary and gestures she/he is going

to employ.

Bibliography

Baugh, Albert, Cable, Thomas, 2002, A History of the English Language, Routledge, UK.

Hynninen, Niina, 2016, Language regulation in English as a Lingua Franca, De Gruyter

Mouton, Berlin.

Hughes, Arthur, Trudgill, Peter, Watt, Dominic, 2012, English Accents and Dialects, Fifth

Edition, Routledge, New York.

Hughes, Geoffrey, 2006, An Encyclopedia of Swearing, M.E. Shape, New York.

Munro, Michael, 2007, Pardon my English, Edinburgh, Chambers, Edinburgh.

Swan, Michael, 2016, Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press, Oxford.


135

ACTIVATING LEADERSHIP POTENTIAL1

Aura Ioana PREDUȘCĂ

Psychology, 1st Year

Abstract: People have free will and the liberty to act how it pleases them without harming

others. When it comes to activating leadership potential it is a matter of choice, of an

individual’s beliefs, of the clarity used to present a vision that others will accede to, thus

becoming followers. Great leaders have a clear defined purpose and are capable of

articulating a clear vision of that purpose. Leaders know “why” they are doing “what”

their doing.

Key words: leadership potential, vision, great leaders

Introduction

Organizations that successfully outmaneuver their competition,

command respect and loyalty, and tolerate risks have something in common

when it comes to the way they’re run: They all have leaders that look out for

their people. In return, those people look out for each other and the well-

being of the organization. To be a leader who truly values your team, there

are five rules you must follow:

1.Interact in person. Build trust and relationships with face-to-

face interaction.

2.Keep the organization’s size manageable. Limit the number of people you

’re responsible for to 150.

3.Meet those you help.Seeing your impact makes the fruits of your work mo

re tangible and motivates you to do more.

4.Give time and energy. Money isn’t enough to build strong relationships an

d loyalty.

5.Take your time. Getting to know someone and build a meaningful relation

ship with them doesn’t happen overnight.

Effective leaders care for their employees through thick and thin, just as a

parent would care for their child.

Powerful Forces

While being a leader has its benefits, it also comes with sensitive

expectations and crucial responsibilities, including protecting their

people. Being a true leader is a choice. Strong leaders are willing to give up

some of their own time, energy, money, and comfort for the benefit of

others. If someone is just in it for the status and perks, they’re going to be

a weak leader and struggle to build the trust necessary to be successful and

keep their position.

1 Coordinator: Laura IONICĂ, PhD Lecturer


136

A Society of Addicts

This constant need to win can cloud people’s judgment and lead to

prioritizing themselves over others to get the next big dopamine hit. This

need to win can extend beyond individuals: Companies addicted

to dopamine hits will prioritize profit at all costs, even at the expense of its

people and integrity. They forget about who they’re meant to be serving and

only focus on their bottom line. The baby boomers dismantled several

protections for people to promote their own self-gain, and the world is

paying the price of their actions. As millennial have made their way into the

workforce, employers have found themselves unsure of how to deal with

this new generation. As a generation characterized by widespread

technology use, many millennial have developed an addiction to distraction.

Digital distractions — text message alerts, likes on social media, and email

notifications — are becoming dopamine-producing addictions among

millennial. These addictions are bad for productivity and stand in the way of

building strong relationships. Millennial need leaders who are empathetic to

the challenges they face; in return, they bring their high level of education

and skill to the workplace.

Becoming a Leader

Leaders need to ignite the spirit of their people by giving them a reason

to grow. People need something bigger than simply a goal to achieve, and a

leader must create a vision that inspires and gives them a reason to come to

work. If people believe in something, no challenge will be too great. Causes

like building a company into a household name or becoming an industry

leader aren’t inspiring enough. The cause must be bigger than the company

itself and dedicated to the service of others.

What is potential?

What it means to be a leader?

Most people think that in order to be successful you need to have a great

career.

Most people in their day to day life live on autopilot.

Most people if asked, don't know what is their purpose in life.

Taking responsibility for your life starts with an accurate assessment of your

current skills and performance

Know yourself by knowing your strengths and weaknesses.

A great leader has followers, people that believe in him and his vision

Leaders have a vision! Leaders know their "why!" Great leaders have clarity

of purpose and are great at articulating their beliefs.

I aspire to be the kind of leader that pushes people to be the very best they

can be but still make people feel safe because it starts with the heart.

Leaders know their "why?" "how?" "what?"


137

What defines a great leader? The answer is : Passion , Integrity , Never

giving up

Leaders inspire people

Have Faith in Their Beliefs :You can't expect others to consider you a leader

unless you have solid faith in your ideas.

Make the Hard Choice:Great leaders make the hard choice, and self-

sacrifice in order to enhance the lives of others around them.

Earn the Respect of the Team:Having the ability to show respect, empathy,

and care to those that follow you, are all attributed to being a great leader

Know the Team: Knowing the strengths and weaknesses of every individual

to effectively manage the outcome of a team is imperative for success.

Know That the People are the Key to Success

Articulate a Clear Vision

Do Not Lead by Force : There are 2 ways to influence people's behavior.

You can inspire it or you can manipulate it.

Conclusion

Being an effective leader takes time, energy, and work. It’s a responsibility

that isn’t always easy, but leaders who put their people first and act with

integrity have the foundation to build a strong culture wherein people work

hard for the good of the whole. When it comes down to it, trust is

everything. Being a leader is like being a parent: You must be willing to

make sacrifices for your child and put their interests above your own, so

they can continue thriving long after you’re gone. Change doesn’t have to

occur in a single, sweeping gesture. Even small changes can have a big

impact. If you don’t have a leader who adequately fills their role, you can

strive to be the leader you wish you had.

Bibliography

Sinek,.Simon, 2009, “Leaders Eat Last: Why Some Teams Pull Together and Others

Don't”, USA, Portfolio.

Sinek, Simon, 2014, “Start with Why: How Great Leaders Inspire Everyone to Take Action

”, USA, Portfolio.


138

THE STATE OPENING OF PARLIAMENT1

Bianca Loredana STANCIU

Applied Modern Languages, 1st year

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to present one of the most famous traditions in the UK:

the State Opening of Parliament. Having deep historical roots, this event has been an

essential part of British traditions since the 16th century. Nowadays, it still represents one

of the most important public events organised each year.

Key Words: tradition, political power, cultural significance

The State Opening of Parliament is a state affair which is meant to

mark the beginning of a session of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It

comprises the Queen's Speech (or the King's Speech respectively). The State

Opening, an elaborate ceremony, is an opportunity to showcase the history,

culture and contemporary politics of the United Kingdom to large crowds

and television viewers.

This event takes place in the House of Lords chamber on the first

day of a new session, which is usually in May or June, and traditionally in

November. Depending on the timing of General Elections and on the date

when the parliamentary session starts, the date can change. The

Queen/King, wearing the Imperial State Crown, reads a speech in front of

both Houses of Parliament. The speech, prepared in advance by the

government outlines the plans for that parliamentary year. Her Majesty's

Judges, although not members of either House, are summoned to attend as

The Queen-on-the-Bench and represent the judiciary. By doing this the State

Opening summarizes the governance of the United Kingdom as well as

the separation of powers. The corps diplomatique is also present to

represent The importance of international relations.

Since she ascended the throne Queen Elizabeth II has opened every

session of Parliament, with two exceptions. Both times she was pregnant: in

1959 with Prince Andrew and 1963 and Prince Edward. After having

received empowerment from the Queen herself, the Lords Commissioners,

headed by the Archbishop of Canterbury (Geoffrey Fisher in 1959

and Michael Ramsey in 1963), opened those two sessions.

The eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York

(later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth), Elizabeth was born

in Mayfair, London on 1926. Privately educated at home she

started to undertake public duties during the Second World War,

by serving in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. She got married in

1947 with Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, a former prince of Greece

and Denmark and from their union resulted four children: Charles

(Prince of Wales), Anne (Princess Royal), Prince Andrew (Duke

of York) and Prince Edward (Earl of Wessex).

1Coordinator: Raluca NIȚU, PhD Associate Professor


139

Elizabeth took over as monarch on February 6, 1952, after the death

of her father, George VI. That was the first time in history when the

coronation ceremony was broadcast on television, allowing people from all

around the world to witness the pomp and spectacle of the event. She

became queen on February 6, 1952, and was crowned on June 2, 1953

in Westminster Abbey. She was only 27 years old. As the longest-serving

monarch in British history, she has tried to make her reign more modern and

sensitive to a changing public while maintaining traditions associated with

the crown.

She is known to favour simplicity in court life and is also known to

take a serious and informed interest in government business, aside from the

traditional and ceremonial duties. Privately, she became a keen

horsewoman; she owns racehorses, frequently attends races, and

periodically visits the Kentucky stud farms in the United States. Her

financial and property holdings have made her one of the world’s richest

women. A fierce dog lover and especially corgis the Queen has surrounded

herself with dogs for most of her life. She received as a teenager her first

corgi and ever since she has owned a corgi from the first one to more than

30 of its descendents, until the death of the last one, Willow, in 2018.

Despite her age, the Queen continues to carry out a full agenda, from

visits to charities and schools, to hosting visiting Heads of State, to leading

the nation in Remembrance and celebratory events - all supported by other

members of the Royal Family.

The Queen sees public and voluntary service as one of the most

important elements of her work. The Queen has links - as Royal Patron or

President - with over 600 charities, military associations, professional

bodies and public service organisations. These vary from well-established

international charities to smaller bodies working in a specialist area or on a

local basis only.

What happens during the State Opening?

The Queen travels to the Palace of Westminster in a State coach,

being escorted by the Household Cavalry. The Imperial State Crown and

regalia travels in front of The Queen in a carriage of its own. Upon arrival,

the Queen proceeds to the Robing Room where she is bedecked in the long

crimson velvet Robe of State. The Queen then leads the Royal

Procession through the Royal Gallery, to the chamber of the House of

Lords.

Members of the House of Lords wear appropriate ceremonial robes,

and judges of the High Court of Justice wear their wigs.

The House of Lords official, known as 'Black Rod', is then sent to

summon the House of Commons. The door to the Commons is first

symbolically slammed in his face, which symbolises the

Commons' independence from the monarchy. Black Rod then strikes the

door loudly three times with his ebony staff, or rod, before it is opened, and

the 250 Members of the House of Commons follow him back to the Lords

Chamber, to stand at the opposite end to The Queen's Throne.

The Queen's Speech


140

Before either House can proceed to public business, the Queen must

officially open Parliament by addressing both Houses in The Queen's

Speech. The Speech is not written by the Queen, but by the Government,

highlighting plans and future legislation. The speech is brought by the Lord

Chancellor in a special silk bag, and presented to her Majesty on bended

knee.

By the time the Queen leaves, a new parliamentary session starts and

Parliament gets back to work. The content of the speech is debated by

Members of both Houses and agree a reply which is known as the ‘Address

in Reply to Her Majesty’s Gracious Speech’.

Each House continues to debate the planned legislative programme

for several days, looking at different subject areas. The Queen's Speech is

voted on by the Commons, meanwhile no vote is taken in the Lords. The

vote is seen symbolic because it is extremely rare for Parliament to reject it.

Customs and traditions

Due to television broadcasting, people all over the world are now

familiar with the sequence of events and the various traditional elements of

the State Opening.

Everyone is aware of the door of the House of Commons Chamber

being slammed in the face of Black Rod. This practice dates back to the

English Civil War, symbolising the Commons' independence from the

monarchy.

There are also some widely-known traditions that take place away

from the public eye. One is the ceremonial search of the cellars by the

Yeomen of the Guard (the Royal bodyguards) the night before the State

Opening, which dates from the Gunpowder Plot. Another tradition is taking

hostage a Member of Parliament in Buckingham Palace, being released

when the Queen returns safely.

A Brief History of the State Opening

Traditions surrounding State Opening and the delivery of a speech

by the monarch can be traced back as far as the 16th century. The current

ceremony dates from the opening of Palace of Westminster in 1852 which

was rebuilt after the fire of 1834.

Appendix

The Queen’s latest speech (delivered on 19th December 2019)

“My Lords and Members of the House of Commons, my

Government’s priority is to deliver the United Kingdom’s departure from

the European Union on 31 January. My Ministers will bring forward

legislation to ensure the United Kingdom’s exit on that date, and to make

the most of the opportunities that this brings for all the people of the United

Kingdom.

Thereafter, my Ministers will seek a future relationship with the

European Union based on a free trade agreement that benefits the whole of


141

the United Kingdom. They will also begin trade negotiations with other

leading global economies.

The integrity and prosperity of the United Kingdom is of the utmost

importance to my Government. My Ministers will work urgently to facilitate

talks to restore devolved government in Northern Ireland.

My Government will embark on an ambitious programme of

domestic reform that delivers on the people’s priorities. For the first time,

the National Health Service’s multi-year funding settlement, agreed earlier

this year, will be enshrined in law.

Steps will be taken to grow and support the National Health

Service’s workforce and a new visa will ensure qualified doctors, nurses and

health professionals have fast-track entry to the United Kingdom. Hospital

car parking charges will be removed for those in greatest need.

My Ministers will seek cross-party consensus on proposals for long

term reform of social care. They will ensure that the social care system

provides everyone with the dignity and security they deserve and that no

one who needs care has to sell their home to pay for it. My Ministers will

continue work to reform the Mental Health Act.

A modern, fair, points-based immigration system will welcome

skilled workers from across the world to contribute to the United Kingdom’s

economy, communities and public services.

My Government will bring forward measures to support working

families, raising the National Insurance threshold and increasing the

National Living Wage. To ensure every child has access to a high-quality

education, my Ministers will increase levels of funding per pupil in every

school.

Measures will be brought forward to encourage flexible working, to

introduce the entitlement to leave for unpaid carers and to help people save

for later life. New measures will be brought forward to protect tenants and

to improve building safety. My Government will take steps to support home

ownership, including by making homes available at a discount for local

first-time buyers. My Ministers will develop legislation to improve internet

safety for all.

My Government is committed to a fair justice system that keeps

people safe. My Ministers will establish a Royal Commission to review and

improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the criminal justice process.

New sentencing laws will ensure the most serious violent offenders,

including terrorists, serve longer in custody. New laws will require schools,

police, councils and health authorities to work together to prevent serious

crime. My Government will ensure those charged with knife possession face

swift justice and that the courts work better for all those who engage with

them, including victims of domestic abuse. Legislation will be brought

forward to support victims of crime and their families. Measures will be

developed to tackle hostile activity conducted by foreign states.

My Ministers will bring forward measures to ensure that every part

of the United Kingdom can prosper. My Government will invest in the

country’s public services and infrastructure whilst keeping borrowing and

debt under control; maintaining the sustainability of the public finances


142

through a responsible fiscal strategy. My Government will prioritise

investment in infrastructure and world-leading science research and skills,

in order to unleash productivity and improve daily life for communities

across the country. It will give communities more control over how

investment is spent so that they can decide what is best for them.

To support business, my Government will increase tax credits for

research and development, establish a National Skills Fund, and bring

forward changes to business rates. New laws will accelerate the delivery of

gigabit capable broadband. To ensure people can depend on the transport

network, measures will be developed to provide for minimum levels of

service during transport strikes.

My Government will continue to take steps to meet the world-

leading target of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. It will continue

to lead the way in tackling global climate change, hosting the COP26

Summit in 2020. To protect and improve the environment for future

generations, a bill will enshrine in law environmental principles and legally

binding targets, including for air quality. It will also ban the export of

polluting plastic waste to countries outside the Organisation for Economic

Co-operation and Development, and establish a new, world-leading

independent regulator in statute.

A Constitution, Democracy and Rights Commission will be

established. Work will be taken forward to repeal the Fixed-term

Parliaments Act.

My Ministers will continue to invest in our gallant Armed Forces.

My Government will honour the Armed Forces Covenant, which will be

further incorporated into law, and the NATO commitment to spend at least

two per cent of national income on defence. It will bring forward proposals

to tackle vexatious claims that undermine our Armed Forces and will

continue to seek better ways of dealing with legacy issues that provide

better outcomes for victims and survivors.

My Government will work to promote and expand the United

Kingdom’s influence in the world. An Integrated Security, Defence and

Foreign Policy Review will be undertaken to reassess the nation’s place in

the world, covering all aspects of international policy from defence to

diplomacy and development. My Ministers will promote the United

Kingdom’s interests, including freedom of speech, human rights and the

rule of law. My Government will work closely with international partners to

help solve the most complex international security issues and to promote

peace and security globally. It will stand firm against those who threaten the

values of the United Kingdom, including by developing a sanctions regime

to directly address human rights abuse, and working to ensure that all girls

have access to twelve years of quality education.

Members of the House of Commons, estimates for the public

services will be laid before you.

My Lords and Members of the House of Commons, other measures

will be laid before you.

I pray that the blessing of Almighty God may rest upon your

counsels.”


143

Bibliography:

Farrell, Mark, 2000, British Life and Institutions, Stuttgart, Ernst Klett Verlag.

Irimia-Anghelescu, Mihaela, 20002, Dicţionarul universului britanic. Bucureşti,

Humanitas.

Leese, Peter, 2006, Britain since 1945. Aspects of Identity. New York, Palgrave Macmillan.

McDowell, David, 2001, An Illustrated History of Britain, Harlow, Longman Group.

Nicolescu, Adrian, 1999-2008, Istoria civilizaţiei britanice, Bucureşti, Institutul European

https://www.biography.com/royalty/queen-elizabeth-ii (consultat pe 12 iulie 2020).

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Elizabeth-II (consultat pe 12 iulie 2020).

https://www.householddivision.org.uk/state-opening-of-parliament-origins (consultat pe 14

iulie 2020).

https://www.parliament.uk/stateopening (consultat pe 15 iulie 2020).

https://www.royal.uk/state-opening-parliament (consultat pe 12 iulie 2020).


144

THE ROMAN MILITARY STRUCTURE1

Ionuț-Daniel STĂNESCU

History, 1st year

Summary: The command structure of the Roman legion operated with a hybrid top down-

bottom up system. The smallest unit was the contubernium, under the command of a

Decanus. 10 contubernium formed a century, the basic tactial unit that the Romans used

during battle. The century was commanded by a Centurion and an Optio (2nd in command.

A cohort consisted of 6 centuries, making them 480 men strong. There were 10 cohorts in

every legion. If generals were moving men around the battlefield, they were moving

cohorts. Each had their own unique trumpet call so that they could receive orders quick

without the use of messengers.

Key words: Roman, military, legion, contubernium

THE EARLY MANIPULAR LEGION

The early Roman Manipular Legion, used from the 4th century B.C. until

the Marian Reforms of 107 B.C., was the largest and most basic unit of the

army’s composition. The Roman Army consisted of four Legions, each with

the strength of roughly 4200 infantrymen. The Legion, when formed up for

battle, had three lines of infantry: first were the hastati, then the principes,

and finally the veteran triarii. Each of these three lines contained five

manipuli of 120 hastati, 120 principes, and sixty triarii. A maniple was

further subdivided into two centuriae of sixty each hastati and principes,

and thirty triarii. Each century had six squads; a squad, aptly named

contubernium (“tenting-together”) in Latin, shared a tent when the Legion

went on campaigns. Manipular Legions were supported by ten thirty-man

squadrons (turmae) of equites, light cavalry, and the more loosely organized

velites, skirmishing troops.2 The manipular formation would be initially

deployed in four lines. The first was a solid line made up of the skirmishing

velites, who would hurl missiles at the approaching enemy to inflict

casualties and disrupt their formations. The final three lines known as the

triplex acies were made up of the infantry, a line each for the hastati,

principes and triarii. These three lines would be segmented and deployed in

a checkerboard pattern known as a quincunx. When the marching enemy

would get close the velites would retreat through the gaps in the maniples to

the rear of the formation. The front line of hastati then would most likely

have formed a solid line to engage the enemy in close-quarters combat. If

the front line could not hold, they would fall back on the principes. If that

line could not hold they would then fall back on the triarii. 3

1 Coordinator: Ioana COSMA, PhD Lecturer 2https://sites.psu.edu/successoftheromans/organization-of-the-roman-army/accessed on 06.07.2020,

1:07 PM 3Center for New Technology Institute of Archaeology Belgrade,ARCHAEOLOGY AND SCIENCE 11

2015, Belgrade 2016, pag. 146-148

https://sites.psu.edu/successoftheromans/organization-of-the-roman-army/


145

THE COHORTAL LEGION

The military was a highly organized institution. There was a clear-cut

system of rank, and a number of different divisions of the basic unit, the

legion. There were about 30 legions. The legions were numbered, but the

numbers tended to repeat themselves. At one point, there were 5 legions

numbered III. If a legion was destroyed, its number could not be used again,

such as the case of the massacre of legions XVII, XVIII, and XIX. Each

legion had about 5,500 men. The legion was subdivided into ten units called

cohorts. Nine of the cohorts had 480 soldiers. The cohorts were subdivided

into six centuries, of about 80 men each. Each century was commanded by a

centurion. Each century also had a tesserarius, a signifer, a cornicen, and an

optio. The tesserarius got 1½ pay, and was in control of guard duties. The

signifer was the standard-bearer, who also kept track of pay and expenses,

and received double pay. The cornicen was a hornblower. The optio was a

backup if the centurion fell, and helped with the training of the century. The

legion also had about 120 cavalrymen, who were used as scouts. 1In the

Roman army, afullstrengthlegion was officially made up of 6,000 men, but

typically all legions were organized at under strength and generally

consisted of approximately 5,300 fighting men including officers. The basic

structure of the army is as follows:

• Contubernium (tent group): consisted of 8 men.

• Centuria (century): was made up of 10 contubernium with a total of

80 men

• Cohorts (cohort): included 6 centuriae or a total of 480 fighting

men, not including officers. In addition, the first cohort was double

strength but with only 5 centuriae instead of the normal 6.

• Legio (legion): consisted of 10 cohorts.

Cohort designation:

• Cohort I: Was made up of the elite troops. Its direct commander was

the Primus Pilus, the highest ranking and most respected of all the

Centurions.

• Cohort II: Consisted of some of the weaker or newest troops.

• Cohort III: No special designation for this unit.

• Cohort IV: Another of the four weak cohorts.

• Cohort V: Again, no special designation.

• Cohort VI: Made up of "The Finest of the Young Men".

• Cohort VII: One of the four weak cohorts and a likely place to find

trainees and raw recruits.

• Cohort VIII: Contained "The Selected Troops".

• Cohort IX: One of the four weak cohorts and a likely place to find

trainees and raw recruits.

• Cohort X: Made up of "The Good Troops". 2

THE LEGION’S CHAIN OF COMMAND

➢ Senior Officers:

1https://romanmilitary.net/strategy/structure/, accessed on 06.07.2020, 1:28 PM 2https://www.unrv.com/military/legion.php, accessed on 06.07.2020, 1:58 PM

https://romanmilitary.net/strategy/structure/

https://www.unrv.com/military/legion.php


146

• LegatusLegionis

The overall Legionary commander. This post was generally appointed by

the emperor, was a former Tribune and held command for 3 or 4 years,

although could serve for a much longer period. In a province with only one

legion, the Legatus was also the provincial governor and in provinces with

multiple legions, each legion has a Legatus and the provincial governor has

overall command of them all.

• TribunusLaticlavius

Named for the broad striped toga worn by men of senatorial rank. This

tribune was appointed by the Emperor or the Senate. Though generally quite

young and less experienced than the TribuniAngusticlavii, he served as

second in command of the legion, behind the Legate.

• PraefectusCastrorum

The camp Prefect. Generally he was a long serving veteran who had been

promoted through the ranks of the centurions and was 3rd in overall

command.

• TribuniiAngusticlavii

Each legion had 5 military tribunes of equestrian (knight) class citizens.

They were in many cases career officers and served many of the important

administrative tasks of the Legion, but still served in a full tactical command

function during engagements.

• Primus Pilus

The "First File" was the commanding centurion of the first cohort and the

senior centurion of the entire Legion. Service in this position also allowed

entry into the equestrian social class upon retirement.

➢ Mid-Level Officers:

• Centurions:

Each Legion had 59 or 60 centurions, one to command each centuria of the

10 cohorts. They were the backbone of the professional army and were the

career soldiers who ran the day to day life of the soldiers as well as issuing

commands in the field. They were generally moved up from the ranks, but

in some cases could be direct appointments from the Emperor or other

higher ranking officials. The cohorts were ranked from the First to the Tenth

and the Centuria within each cohort ranked from 1 to 6, with only 5

Centuria in the First Cohort (For a total of 59 Centuria and the Primus

Pilus). The Centuria that each Centurion commanded was a direct reflection

of his rank. (Command of the First Centuria of the First Cohort was the

highest and the 6th Centuria of the 10th Cohort was the lowest). The 5

Centurions of the First Cohort were called the Primi Ordines, and included

the Primus Pilus.


147

• Pilus Prior

The commander of the first cohort of each Centuria (except the first), with

the following titles for the Centurions in sequence throughout each Centuria.

1. Pilus Posterior

2. Princeps Prior

3. Princeps Posterior

4. Hastatus Prior

5. Hastatus Posterior

➢ Low-Level Officers:

• Principales

The Principales would be the equivalent of modern day non-commissioned

officers and had the following rank structures from highest to lowest:

1. Aquilifer: A single position within the Legion. The Aquilifer was the

Legion's Standard or Eagle bearer and was an enormously important

and prestigious position. The next step up would be a post as a

Centurion.

2. Signifier: Each Centuria had a Signifer (59 total). He was

responsible for the men's pay and savings, and the standard bearer

for the Centurial Signum, a spear shaft decorated with medallions

and often topped with an open hand to signify the oath of loyalty

taken by the soldiers. It was this banner that the men from each

individual Centuria would rally around. A soldier could also gain the

position of Discentessigniferorum, or standard bearer in training.

3. Optio: One for each Centurion (59 total), they were appointed by the

Centurion from within the ranks to act as his second in command.

4. Tesserarius (Guard Commander): Again there were 59 of these, or

one for each Centuria. They acted in similar roles to the Optios.

5. Cornicern (Horn Blower): They worked hand in hand with the

Signifer drawing the attention of the men to the Centurial Signum

and issuing the audible commands of the officers.

6. Imaginifer: Carried the Standard bearing the image of the Emperor

as a constant reminder of the troop's loyalty to him.

➢ The Standard Soldier Ranks:

• Immunes

These were trained specialists, such as surgeons, engineers, surveyors, and

architects, as well as craftsmen. They were exempt from camp and hard

labor duties due to the nature of their work, and would generally earn

slightly more pay than the Milites.

• Discens

Milites in training for an immunes position.

• Munifex

The basic private level foot soldier.


148

• Tirones

The basic new recruit. A Tirones could take up to 6 months before

becoming a full Milites. 1

Bibiography:

➢ Center for New Technology Institute of Archaeology Belgrade, ARCHAEOLOGY

AND SCIENCE 11 2015, Belgrade 2016.

➢ https://sites.psu.edu/successoftheromans/organization-of-the-roman-army/ , accessed

on 06.07.2020, 1:07 PM.

➢ https://romanmilitary.net/strategy/structure/ , accessed on 06.07.2020, 1:28 PM.

➢ https://www.unrv.com/military/legion.php , accessed on 06.07.2020, 1:58 PM and 2:33

PM.

1https://www.unrv.com/military/legion.phpaccessed on 06.07.2020, 2:33 PM

https://sites.psu.edu/successoftheromans/organization-of-the-roman-army/

https://romanmilitary.net/strategy/structure/




149

TRANSLATING HUMOUR IN SUBTITLING1

Elena Roxana TICUŢĂ

Specialized Languages and Computer-Assisted Translation, 2nd year

Abstract:Translation represents an attempt to fulfill an act of communication

between two cultures. The theme of this paper is translating humour in movies. This paper

gives the reader the chance to gain a better understanding of the translation of recorded

audiovisual material: dubbing and subtitling. Humour focuses on the analysis and

description of the strategies used to render specific aspects of such a complex phenomenon

in different languages and cultures. The case-study deals with translation issues in

translating humour in movies. The purpose of this case study is to identify particular

humorous situations in a famous comedy in which subtitling is showed in both the source

language and the target language and if there is necessary, another possible translation is

given, considering that the subtitling was made by non professional translators. The movie

under discussion is “The Mask”. Translating humour is a complex mixture of language

skills, cultural knowledge, great understanding of the context and responsible subjectivism.

Key words: translation, subtitling, humour, comedy

Translation represents an attempt to fulfill an act of communication

between two cultures, taking into consideration peculiarities and

particularities of both languages.

This topic is particularly interesting because of the multitude of

aspects a translator has to face when transferring a message from one

language to another. It may be seen as a challenging and interesting topic

which involves talent, linguistic skills, creativity and cultural knowledge.

The theme of this paper is translating humour in movies. This topic

is particularly interesting because of the multitude of aspects a translator has

to face when transferring a message from one language to another. It may be

seen as a challenging and interesting topic which involves talent, linguistic

skills, creativity and cultural knowledge. What fascinated me first and

foremost was the fact that the translator does not only substitute elements

from the source language to the target language, he is also a gifted creator.

The purpose of this paper is to help the reader understand the

process of translation and make him aware that the translation studies have

become a more prominent and in continuous development academic subject

in recent years around the world. This paper also gives the reader the chance

to gain a better understanding of the translation of recorded audiovisual

material: dubbing and subtitling. Both of them appeared as a contemporary

necessity, not as an exhaustive approach, but as a subject with numerous

deep-going discussions.

Subtitling is defined as the written expression of the message that is

being spoken and the process of adding text to the spoken audio. There is

taken into account certain rules, criteria and specifications. Some strict

1 Coordinator: Cristina ILINCA, PhD Associate Professor


150

restrictions of space and time have to be taken into consideration for an

accurate translation. It will be classified into: interlingual subtitling and

intralingual subtitling which is addressed to the deaf and hard of hearing,

language learners or refers to dialects.

Subtitling is analyzed from a linguistic parameter and also from a

technical one. There should be made a distinction between open subtitles

which are non-optional and the viewer cannot decide if he wants the

subtitles to appear on the screen, for the subtitles are always present and

closed subtitles which are known as optional subtitles, as the viewer can

decide if he wants the subtitles to appear on the screen.

The concept of constrained subtitling refers to the process of

subtitling that has several restrictions which should be taken into

consideration by the translator. The main ones are connected with time and

space. Translation is also viewed as a language manipulation as the source

language message is transferred into the target language format. The new

text is meant to render the same type of message. It is believed that when

making a translation it is very important to know who the target viewers are

in order to use the suitable vocabulary and syntax. It will be shown that the

perception of constrains cannot be reduced to technical impediments, the

principle of relevance represents one of the main translational problems in

interlingual communication.

Moreover, it is proved that a great interest is shown nowadays on

describing various subtitling conventions around the world. Translators

want to discover what type of practices should be followed. The parameters

a translator has to follow are the following: spatial parameters, temporal

parameters, punctuation and letter case, target text editing.

In dubbing, the translator should take into consideration the

following aspects: the pact with the viewer, the status of synchrony, credible

dialogues: adapting to a prefabricated oral register, cohesion and coherence

in the target text, fidelity to the source text, overacting and underacting, the

sound technician: the final step to achieving a realistic effect.

Humour in dubbing and in subtitling has been mostly pictured in

case studies. It focuses on the analysis and description of the strategies used

to render specific aspects of such a complex phenomenon in different

languages and cultures. There should be explained what means to deal with

humour in translation and clarify the reasons for choices made by the

translator in order to obtain a successful product. There are verbally and

nonverbally expressed humorous instances. It can also be detected in

musical and dance movies and even in thrillers and sometimes in video

games which have interactive and engaging audiovisual texts. There are

multiple means to achieve comic effects, but they depend on the language

and the modes of audiovisual television in question and that is why they

represent a challenge for the translator.

The case-study deals with translation issues in translating humour in

movies.

The personal analyses focuses on comedies which have started to

approach contemporaneous story lines, the humour behind them has started

to be even more subtle than before; sometimes humour is hidden, nicely


151

wrapped behind some beautiful words or behind some manners of the

characters. A proper manner of approaching the topic is to think of how

humour could be translated in comedies. For that to happen, there are some

specific types of humour that must be followed. In this regard, there will be

a movie, highly relevant for the topic: The Mask,. There has been chosen a

contemporary American comedy: “The Mask” which is considered a

modern slapstick comedy movie which represents a particular genre that

revolves around physical humor, exaggerated visual gags and the comedic

aspect of violence.

There has been chosen a well-known comedy, with great distribution

and incredible box-office earnings, highly appereciated for its consistent

humour.

The purpose of this case study is to identify particular humorous

situations in the above mentioned famous comedy in which subtitling is

showed in both the source language and the target language and if there is

necessary, another possible translation is given, considering that the

subtitling was made by non professional translators.

In the movie under discussion, the starring actor is Jim Carrey.

Released on 1994 and directed by Chuck Russell, the movie presents the

story of Stanley Ipkiss, a bank employee who discovers by accident a

wooden mask. That wooden mask is inhabited by the Norse god of mischief,

Loki, which determines Stanley to transform himself into a bold, funny

green creature who is up to doing funny, mischievous activities in specific

places. The storyline follows the evolution of Stanley and ‘The Mask’ and

they are getting to the point where they are crossing paths with Dorian and

his ‘up to no legal things’ gang. As the story goes on, it could be seen how

Stanley is changing from the introvert, awkward and shy guy to a brave

man. In this movie the humour is diverse, from the humour based on the

name to the humour based on the language of the characters. From this

movie, five specific scenes were extracted to justify the types of humour:


152

The moment shown in the pictures refers to Stanley’s tentative of

inviting his co-worker out on a date. She refuses him, because her best

friend just got in town and Stanley decides to give the tickets for her to go

with her best friend. Then she says about Stanley that he is a really nice guy

to Stanley’s friend. After that, he comes to Stanley to tell him that the

moment was awkward and even foul.

I consider that, a better translation in Romanian for this moment

would be: „A fost cea mai jalnică prestație pe care am văzut-o vreodată!”

The translator must have chosen this form of translation because the

space limit on the screen is of maximum 45 words. As their discussion goes

on, Stanley’s friend suggests to him to come with him at the Coco Bongo

club, the most luxurious club in the town. Stanley accepts and their

conversation is interrupted by the sudden presence of a stunning woman.

The accent is put on in the reaction that Stanley’s friend has:

The manner in which he says that a fine woman has entered the

building determines his personality and the contrast between appearance and

essence. He wants to be seen as a flirty kind of man, but in reality he is just

a usual guy who doesn’t have all the chances in the world to get a stunning

girl by his side. The manner of expressing the direction is subtle, as related

in the ‘at 3 o’clock’ structure.

I consider that a better translation in Romanian would be: „Ține-ți

telefonul. Una fatală!”

As a conclusion, comedies entertain, release people’s tension, lift

their spirits and represent an unending source of laugh, joy and good mood

for a multitude of persons, and that is why humour is universal, even though

it has some particularities for each culture. As a consequence, translating

humour is a complex mixture of language skills, cultural knowledge, great

understanding of the context and responsible subjectivism.


153

References: Diaz Cintas, Jorge (2004), "Subtitling: the long journey to academic acknowledgement",

in Journal of Specialised Translation, Issue 01, 2004, pp. 50-68. Available

at http://www.jostrans.org/issue01/issue01toc.htm.

Díaz Cintas, Jorge. (2006). Audiovisual translation in the Third Millennium. In G.

Anderman & M. Rogers (eds.), Translation Today: Trends and Perspectives (pp.192-204).

Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Diaz Cintas and Remael, A. (2010). Audiovisual translation: Subtitling. Manchester: St.

Jerome Publishing.

Double, Oliver (2014). "Observational comedy". Getting the Joke: The Inner Workings of

Stand-Up Comedy (2nd ed.). London: Methuen Drama.

Gambier Yves. Language transfer and audiovisual communication: a bibliography / Yves

Cambier (ed.). Turku: University of Turku. Centre for translation and interpreting, 1994.

http://www.jostrans.org/issue01/issue01toc.htm


154

TERMINOLOGY AND SPECIALIZED TRANSLATION1

Nicoleta Andreea UDREA


Abstract:The present paper addresses some theoretical concepts about

terminology and specialized languages.

It comprises a brief comparison between specialized language and general

language, as well as a presentation on specialized language users. Specialized Language

differs from General Language by topic, users and communicative situations. The common

language is used in everyday situations, while the specialized language belongs to a special

field of activity. The objective of specialized languages is to facilitate the communication

between individuals in different specialized areas, therefore, their users are: experts, semi-

experts and non-experts.

This paper also includes general information about the relationship between

terminology, communication and translation and highlights the fact that the most obvious

feature of special communication is the use of terminology. The terms (which are units of

meaning found only in specialized languages) can be the same in more areas, but having a

different sense.

Standardization is the process through which the speakers of a language agree to

use a term in specific circumstances. It is necessary especially when more terms define a

single concept for fixing the meaning. (cf. Sager, 1990: 114-116).Sager finds six methods

by which standardizationof the terms occurs, namely: redefinition of words, redefinition of

existing terms, derivation, composition, borrowing and compression. Standardization

facilitates and accelerates the communication between specialists, so it is a good way of

saving time.

Keywords: terminology,specialized language, general language, standardization.

1.1 Specialized Communication and Specialized Languages

Language itself is the major way of communication and the main

way of interaction between individuals. Ithelps us to communicate with each

other and it is the most important characteristic of an individual or of a

culture.

Specialized communication entails some particular constraints that

are not common in general communication. According to Jakobson, every

act of communication includes five aspects: reality, encoder, medium,

decoder, and language. The aspects mentioned above form either a written

or an oral mesagge. Encoders and decoders have certain intentions and

expectations. One of the constraints of special languages shows that the two

participants in the act of communication are experts in a specialized area

and they share a huge volume of data related to the subject field. Another

constraint is that the act of communication is limited to the special area of

knowledge, which is more formal compared to the communication in

general language. “A general language is a complex and heteregenous

linguistic system, made up of several subsystems. In order to achieve

1 Coordinator: Adina MATROZI, PhD Associate Professor


155

effective communication, a language presents a series of varieties.”

(ZANÓN, 2011:17)

Specialized communication is different from the general one in two

aspects: the way that it produces the oral or written texts and the use of

special terminology. The significant criteria for specialized texts are

concision, precision and suitability; while the significant criteria for general

language are expression,variety and originality.

General/ common language designates the language we use in a

diversity of everyday situations, while the specializedlanguage is used for

describing specialized areas of awareness. Every language is composed of

both general and specialized languages. All everyday situations (asking for a

menu, for the weather, for directions or talking with friends) can be

discussed using general language and/ or specialized languagesat a

particular level of abstraction, as well. For every particular subject field or

hobby, we can have some specialized terms. A language consists of a set of

units, rules and restrictions or a set of subcodes known by the speakers. A

specialized language is a part of general language (the whole language) and

can be considered an artificial language, especially those languages rich in

signs and symbols, such as mathematics.

The target of specialized languages is to facilitate the communication

between individuals in different specialized areas, so there are three types of

users:

1. Experts –individuals who are familiar with the specialized subject

2. Semi-experts –this category includes students who learn about a

subject

3. Non-experts –individuals who do not belong to a specialized

subject field, but use specialized terms. (BOWKER, PEARSON, 2002:25;

CABRÉ, 1999:58-59)

In order to distinguish specialized languages from general language,

we have to take into account the following three characteristics:

1. Topic – specialized languages focus on special fields

2. Users – there are fewer specialized language users than standard

language users; specialized language users are divided into

producers (always specialists in the field) and receivers (may be

specialists or non-specialists) of terminology

3. Communicative situations – it is formal.We can find specialized

communication in oral or written form: in its oral form, we can

find it in conferences, seminars, or labs, while in its written form,

we can find it in specialized books or scientific publications; we

cannot find specialized language on TV, radio, or in the street.

(ZANÓN, op. cit.:18)

Specialized languages may be accessible to a considerable number of

individuals, but the level of specialization is distinct. A special language can

be used effectively only by the experts or semi-experts from the same or

similar fields. Specialized languages do not aim at vulgarization.

A specialized language helps specialized people to communicate in

their own terms. It simplifies and eases the communication between two or

more specialists. A conversation between a specialist and a non-


156

specialistcan be difficult if the former uses specialized terms from his/ her

field.

There have been many cases in which the listener did not understand

what the speaker said/ meant. It can be dangerous and it can endanger the

listener’s life. There are many examples of specialized terms from the

medical field, that a patient may not understand, such as: neutrophils (most

common type of white blood cell); lesion (wound, sore); Gastroesophageal

Reflux Disease (GERD) (heartburn); hypotension (low blood pressure);

hypertension (high blood pressure), and some word roots: gastro-

(stomach); cholecysto- (gallbladder). A doctor has to explain these terms in

the common language in order to be understood. Specialized languages do

not aim at vulgarization. Language for Specific Purpose has been developed

to meet the needs of those learners who aim to use a language in

professional contexts and for professional purposes. (NAGY, 2014)

When experts communicate with each other, they are required to use

a specific language, namely the language of the branch to which they belong

and maintain it throughout their interactions, this fact being characteristic

and even defining for the specialization of the respective individual. Semi-

experts are more flexible, usingthe specialized languageof their branch of

interest, but also the common language. The semi-experts category is the

common point of the two categories: experts and non-experts. Non-experts

are required to adapt to the situations and try to communicate with other

peoplein the most appropriate manner, namely through the language used by

those they come into contact with. Although they are not familiar with the

terms used by experts or semi-experts, they need to understand and use them

in order to communicate with the interlocutors. Specialized Languages may

be accessible to a considerable number of individuals, but the degree of

specialization is distinct.

1.2 Terminology and Specialized Translation

Terminology is a branch of linguistics that studies all the terms used

in the specialized languages or in different fields of awareness/knowledge,

for example: medicine, law, economy, science, technology, etc.

Terminology should be consistent, so that the same object or concept

must always be described or expressed by the same term and not by the use

of synonyms. Sager distinguishes between three types of terms:

- terms defined in a standard glossary;

- terms more narrowly defined than in a standard glossary;

- terms not included in a standard glossary and not specifically defined.

Talaván Zanón (2011) defines the term as being a linguistic unit and

designating a notion or specialized concept. A term can be made up of one

or several words (nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs). It can be a

neologism, borrowing or calque. (ZANÓN, ibid.:25)

One of the essential characteristics of specialized communication is

terminology, because it distinguishes special languages from the general

language. The cognitive side of terminology is performed by thought

ordering and conceptualization. The communicative side is established by


157

the delivery of information/knowledge. Experts use terminology to

exchange specialized information in one or more dialects and languages, to

structure the data contained in specialized writings and to order thought.

(CABRÉ, op. cit.:45)

We can distinguish three categories of terminology users:

a) DIRECT USERS - specialists from a field

b) INDIRECT USERS - professionals belonging to linguistic

science, such as: translators, linguists, philologists

c) TERMINOLOGISTS - specialized in terminology and other

specific areas of knowledge at the same time. (ZANÓN, op.

cit.:6)

Every field has its basic terms, which define its area of activity. The

terms can be the same in more areas, but having a different sense. These two

brief examples might clarify this concept. For instance, the word culture has

its basic sense in sociology referring to a set of values and standards/rules,

ideas and traditions, which define a particular group of people (We have the

chance to shape American culture.); whereas in biology, this term has a

distinctive connotation referring to bacteria/microbial culture (I was getting

a culture for the lab).

Among terminology users there are translators and interpreters who

mediate the communication between specialists.A good specialized

translation must express the same content as the source text and must retain

the same meaning of the notion as in the source language. Translators use

bilingual and multilingual vocabularies and dictionaries. If there are terms

that are not recorded in vocabularies/ dictionaries/ glossaries, nor in special

data banks, the translators have to find equivalents for them

From the point of view of translation, terminology is considered a

tool to solve particular problems, while in terminology, translated

documents may serve as a source for extracting terms when there are no

original texts on the subject in the target language. Language is the essence

of both disciplines. Language is the expression system that reflects the

speakers’ conception of reality and allows individuals to interact and

express their ideas and thoughts. (CABRÉ, 2015) As Cabré states,

terminology is a very important tool that helps specialists to delineate

specialized language from the general one. They use terminology for

improving communication and exchanging information with a specific

purpose. It facilitates communication and makes it more formal.

1.2.1 Standardization

One of the critical aspects in terminology is standardization. In 1947, the

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was founded to

establish universal standards for developing communication between

nations and removing commercial barriers. The standardization process

began in the 17th century in order to facilitate the trade. (CABRÉ, ibid..:195,

196)

Standardization is the process through which the speakers of a

language agree to use a term in specific circumstances. It is necessary


158

especially when more terms define a single concept for fixing the meaning.

Specialists need to use a single designation for a concept. Standardization is

needed when there are misunderstandings regarding to names and there are

several alternatives to choose from. After standardization the alternative

terms may remain in the language for a period of time. (SAGER, 1990: 114-

116; CABRÉ, op. cit.:195)

Standardization of terms is a complex process that entails a number

of operations: unifying concepts and concept systems, defining terms,

reducing homonymy, eliminating synonymy, fixing designations, including

abbreviations and symbols, and creating new terms. (CABRÉ, ibid.: 201)

Through the standardization process the possible communication

barriers are deleted, giving the individuals the opportunity to have a

common language and to understand each other. This process occurs at

three levels: international, national and regional.

Terminological standardization helps communication in specialized

fields, but this process demands a good preparation and takes more elements

into consideration. (ibid.: 201)

There are six methods of standardization. The first one consists of

redefinition of words. The second one includes the redefinition of existing

terms; it is used mostly in social sciences, but it lacks precission. The third

one is derivation which may produce regular forms; this method is more

precise and economical. The fourth method is composition, by which we

form complex terms. The fifth one refers to borrowing; this process redefine

a term from another language. The last one is compression, which reduces a

complex term to a compact form with the help of acronyms. By this

classification, Sager points out that there are several ways of standardising

terms, their distinction and usefulness being divided by specialization. For

example, if in physics it is necessary for a term to be entirely redefined,

perhaps in law, a term must be borrowed from another language, in order to

have the same meaning.

Objects or notions may be standardized at the same time while

standardising designations. Written standardized forms are used in school

examination. Standardization may refer to spelling, punctuation and

grammatical rules. The process of standardization is not a system of the

language; it is focused on designations. ( SAGER, op. cit.: 118; CABRÉ,

op. cit.: 202)

Standardization is a good way of saving time because it accelerates

the communication between specialists. Standards are clear-cut and provide

a clear equivalence among terms. Glossaries created by national and

international standardizing agencies are considered as endeavors to ease

communication. ( SAGER, op. cit.: 119-123)

Nowadays, there are two perspectives on standardization: the one in

the Western European countries and North America and the other in the

countries from Eastern Europe. From the perspective of the former group,

first standards must be used in specialized contexts to see if they are

appropriate, and only then they are considered definitive. From the

perspective of the latter, the standards have already been applied, but


159

multilingualism has made communication difficult. (CABRÉ, op. cit.: 196,

197)

There are some differences between special communication and

general communication. In special communication, we use special concepts

and terminology in order to achieve a higher degree of understanding

between experts with no need of paraphrasing every concept. Specialized

texts are characterized by a higher degree of concision and general texts are

characterized by originality. A specialized text is harder to translate than a

general text, because specialized concepts are harder to understand and to

translate. When we are dealing with a specialized concept and we are not

specialists, we have to look it up in dictionaries or special data banks. Many

people consider that the work of a translator is easy. In a language there are

many meanings of a word, but the translator has to find the right one and put

it into the context. Translators can find equivalents for a term which is not

defined in the target language when they have to translate a concept from

one language to another; they must retain the same meaning of the notion as

in the source language.

Terminology requires a specialized documentation. Documentation

is used in all sciences or activities. It makes the information retrievable for

all the users. A document is summarized through key words (usually terms),

a process that is called indexation. The terms are registered in a thesaurus.

Terminology and documentation work together: “Terminologists do not

invent designations for concepts, but identify and collect terms that

specialists use in documents.” ( CABRÉ,ibid.:50-51)

Terminologists use documents to achieve awareness of a subject

field and to search terms from different fields. They examine each term

from a semantic point of view, its function and form. Terminologists can

require the unification or standardization of a term only when different

designations for a single notion are found. Glossaries and dictionaries are

terminological documents resulting from terminological work. Another

terminological document is represented by a terminological database, which

contains all the terms found in glossaries and dictionaries. ( CABRÉ, ibid.:

50-51)

Documentation is a very important process. The documentation

process is the basic work of a good translator. Translators need to have a

very good documentation in order to translate a specialized text. They have

to use this process for improving their knowledge in many areas. Any

translation needs documentation in the the specialized subject field of the

source text to be able to accurately reproduce the meaning from the initial

text.

Bibliography: Bowker L. and Pearson J, 2002, Working with Specialized Language - A practical guide to

using corpora, Routledge.

CabréCastellví M. T., ed. Sager J. C., 1999, Terminology: Theory, methods and

applications, John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

Nagy I. K., 2014,English for Special Purposes: Specialized Languages and Problems of

Terminology.


160

Sager J. C., 1990, A Practical Course in Terminology Processing, John Benjamins

Publishing Company Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

Zanón N. T., 2011, A Univerisity Handbook on Terminology and Specialized Translation,

Coruña/Madrid, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED).


161

DIFFICULTIES WHEN TRANSLATING MODAL VERBS

AN ENGLISH-GERMAN-ROMANIAN APPROACH1

Mădălina-Elena UNGUREANU


Abstract: Our paper focuses on the modal verbs since they present the most complex and

meaningful segment of a language. The difficulty comes from the impossibility of finding

and rendering the perfect equivalent in another language. Both translation techniques and

the use of grammatical forms are very important when one wants to get the closest

translation of the source text. Our work tries to analyse the difficulties that appear when

translating a text in the medical field. Our analysis has relied on the medical field and

because of its concision we could clearly spot the differences.

Key words: modal verbs, Ibuprofen, translation, equivalent, languages.

Because both English and German are Anglo-Saxon languages, they have

something in common. Even if throughout time both of them evolved and

flourished as separate languages their basis still have mutual aspects.

Romanian language has huge differences regarding the grammar and usage

of modal verbs. Romanian is a Latin language which makes it look more

similar to French rather than English or German.

English Romanian German

Ibuprofen

belongs to a

group of

medicines

called non-

steroidal anti-

inflammatory

drugs

(NSAIDs),

which are used

to reduce

inflammation

and pain in the

joints or

muscles and

can also reduce

fever

Ibuprofen aparține

unui grup de

medicamente

numit AINS

(antiinflamatoare

nesteroidiene).

Ibuprofen reduce

febra, calmează

durerea și are un

effect

antiinflamator.

Der Wirkstoffgehörtzueiner

Gruppe von Stoffen, die

sowohlgegenSchmerzen,

alsauchgegenEntzündungenwirken

und Fiebersenkenkönnen.

The above case depicts that the modal verbs can (English) and

können(German)are used within this case with the same meaning, they both

express the ability of the drug substance to reduce fever. If one analyses the

1Coordinator: Cristina-Violeta UNGUREANU, PhD Associate Professor


162

case of the Romanian language, one easily notices the lack of modality

within the sentence, because of the fact that in Romanian grammar the

modal verbs are not grammaticalized. In this case the sentence is expressed

just by using the Present Simple with generalizing value.


What do you

need to know

before you take

Ibuprofen 400

mg film-coated

tablets?

Ce

trebuiesăștițiînaintesăutilizați

Ibuprofen 400 mg?

Was sollen Sie vor der

Einnahme von Ibuprofen

akut 400 mg

Filmtablettenbeachten?

In all the three cases there are sentences that use different modal verbs in

each language, but, in the end, all of them have the same meaning.In this

respect, English has chosen to use the semi-modal need that expresses the

necessity of the knowledge you should have before using these drugs. The

Romanian language, however, opted for the verb trebuie, which is the

equivalent for must or have to. In German, the modal verb that is used

issollen. This modal is usually used when one gives someone pieces of

advice or when one gives recommendations.


If you

are

elderly

you will

be more

prone to

side

effects,

especiall

y

bleeding

and

perforati

on in the

digestive

tract,

which

may be

fatal.

Pacienții

vârstnici

trebuie să

fie

conștienți

de riscul lor

crescut la

reacții

adverse, în

special

sângerări și

perforație la

nivelul

tubului

digestiv,

care pot fi

fatale.

Bei

älterenPatiententretenhäufigerNebenwirkungenn

achAnwendungen von NSAR auf,

insbesondereBlutungen und Durchbrücheim

Magen- und Darmbereich, die

unterUmständenlebensbedrohlichsein können.

Daher

istbeiälterenPatienteneinebesonderessorgfältigeä

rztlicheÜberwachungerforderlich.

In English and Romanian the same modal verb may be/ poate fi is usedin

order to express probability. In German the modal verb können sein is

usedwhich expresses, as well, probability but with a higher degree of

certainty. In English the modal verb can could have been used instead of

may. Can would have been almost the perfect equivalent for können.


163

Both English and Romanian do not use modal verbs to express advice. In

this case, an Imperative form of the verb that expresses an urge is used

while in German the modal verb sollen has the aim of depicting a piece of

advice or a suggestion.


If you take

more

Ibuprofen

400 mg than

you should,

contact a

doctor,

emergency

room or

pharmacy.

Dacă ați luat mai

mult Ibuprofen

decât trebuie,

adresați-vă

întotdeauna unui

medic sau

mergeți la cel

mai apropiat

spital.

Falls Sie mehr Ibuprofen 400 mg

Filmtabletteneingenommenhaben, als

Sie sollen, wenden Sie

sichimmeraneinenArztodereinKrankenh

aus in IhrerNähe.

If one analyses the English and German sentences one can easily notice that

should and sollenare perfect equivalents regarding the usage of modal verbs.

However the Romanian statement is not far away from the other statements.

The only notable difference between them is that in Romanian the drug

producer has opted to use “trebuie” which in this case expresses more a

necessity rather than a piece of advice.

All the three languages use the same modal verb to express the capacity of

this medication to cause side effects, but also the probability of this to

happen. In English can is used with both meanings. If one analyses this case

he/she notices that can cause side effects expresses the ability of doing this

and in the same time the likelihood of this to happen.

Taking into consideration the fact that Romanian does not have the modality

as a grammar subject it cannot be said many things about the topic, but in

this case poate provoca follows very close the same idea that English


Consult a

doctor or

pharmaci

st before

taking

Ibuprofen

400 mg if

you

have…

Adresați-vă

medicului sau

farmacistului

dumneavoastră

înainte de a utiliza

Ibuprofen 400 mg,

daca aveti ...

Sie solltenIhreBehandlungvor der

Einnahme von Ibuprofen akut 400 mg

FilmtablettenmitIhremArztoderApotheker

besprechen, wenn Sie …


Like all

medicines, this

medicine

cancauseside

effects,

although not

everybody gets

them.

Ca toate

medicamentele,

acest medicament

poate provoca

reacții adverse, cu

toate ca nu apar la

toatepersoanele.

WiealleArzneimittelkönnen

Ibuprofen 400 mg

FilmtablettenNebenwirkungenhaben,

die

abernichtbeijedemauftretenmüssen.


164

language expresses within this example.

When one talks about German, one can see with the naked eye that both the

structure and the meaning are extremely close to English. Moreover, in the

German example stated above one notices the modal verb müssen, the

equivalent for the English must, used to show that it is not necessary that

those side effect to occur to everyone. Neither Romanian nor English

choose to use a modal verb in this situation. German is always an accurate

language and it displays everything very clear without a doubt.

Neither English nor Romanian makes this statement by using a modal verb.

As one has observed earlier German is always a more exact language and it

will always choose to express the idea in the most suitable and clear ways.

Within this example there is the modal verb dürfen used in the negative

form (dürfennicht=it is forbidden to) which indicates that this sentence is an

interdiction and it must be strictly observed.


Do not

use this

medicine

after the

expiry

date

which is

stated on

the packs.

The

expiry

date refers

to the last

day of

that moth.

Nu utilizați acest

medicament

după data de

expirare înscrisă

pe cutie, blister

sau flacon după

EXP. Data de

expirare se

referă la ultima

zi a lunii

respective.

Sie dürfen das Arzneimittelnachdem auf

der Blisterpackung und der

Faltschachtelnach “Verwendbarbis”

angegebenenVerfalldatumnichtmehrverwen

den. Das Verfalldatumbeziehtsich auf den

letzten tag des angegebenenMonats.

Englis

h

Romanian German

You

can

also

report

side

effects

directl

y via

De asemenea

puteți raporta

reacții

adverse direct

prin

intermediul

sistemului

național de

Sie

könnenNebenwirkungenauchdirektdemBundesins

titutfürArzneimittel und Medizinprodukte …

anzeigen.


165

For this situation one has again the modal verbs can, a putea (puteți)

andkönnenwhich are used so as to communicate your privileges, your

likelihood to do that and your capacity to achieve this action, namely to

report the side effects.

As in the example above, here one has a similar classification of modals that

are used to communicate the same idea. By using can, puteți and könnenall

threelanguagesdisplay, with the help of modal verbs, the possibility of doing

something. Those modal verbs express in this case the idea that you have

the right to report the side effect in order to help others. It can be considered

as a moral obligation that you make yourself in order to help others and of

course to help the improvement of the medical system.

One can see with the naked eye that the difficulties when translating modal

verbs in English, German and Romanian are mostly focused on the

Romanian Grammar, because of the lack of its grammaticalization.

Moreover, one notices that English and German are in most of the cases

very similar in terms of both grammar and understanding the written

message. German as one has stated in many of the examples in this survey

shows that its structure is always more accurate than the other two

languages, always choosing to use a modal verb to express a certain idea

rather than to rephrase it like English and Romanian do. As a conclusion

Modality appears to be throughout our examples more important in the

medical surveys written in German.

the

nation

al

reporti

ng

system

listed

in…

raportare ...


By reporting

the side

effects, you

can help

provide more

information

on the safety

of this

medicine.

Raportând

reacții adverse,

puteți contribui

la furnizarea de

informații

suplimentare

privind

siguranța

acestui

medicament.

Indem Sie Nebenwirkungenmelden,

können Sie dazubeitragen,

dassmehrInformationenüber die

Sicherheit dieses

ArzneimittelszurVerfügunggestelltwerde

n.


166

References:

https://mediately.co/ro/drugs/WmzYk6WUQTG893sxUA0nV0qpp1H/brufen-400-mg-

compr-film#dosing ( consultat pe 26 mai 2020).

https://mri.cts-mrp.eu/human/downloads/MT_H_0100_002_FinalPL_1of2.pdf

(consultat pe 26 mai 2020).

https://www.anm.ro/_/_PRO/PRO_5804_30.09.13.pdf( consultat pe 26 mai 2020).

https://www.apotheken-umschau.de/Medikamente/Beipackzettel/IBUPROFEN-400-

mg-Filmtabletten-13506652.html( consultat pe 26 mai 2020).

https://www.drugs.com/uk/ibuprofen-400-mg-tablets-leaflet.html( consultat pe 26 mai

2020).

https://mediately.co/ro/drugs/WmzYk6WUQTG893sxUA0nV0qpp1H/brufen-400-mg-compr-film#dosing

https://mediately.co/ro/drugs/WmzYk6WUQTG893sxUA0nV0qpp1H/brufen-400-mg-compr-film#dosing

https://mri.cts-mrp.eu/human/downloads/MT_H_0100_002_FinalPL_1of2.pdf

https://www.anm.ro/_/_PRO/PRO_5804_30.09.13.pdf

https://www.apotheken-umschau.de/Medikamente/Beipackzettel/IBUPROFEN-400-mg-Filmtabletten-13506652.html

https://www.apotheken-umschau.de/Medikamente/Beipackzettel/IBUPROFEN-400-mg-Filmtabletten-13506652.html

https://www.drugs.com/uk/ibuprofen-400-mg-tablets-leaflet.html


167

THE EFFECTS OF BIRTH ORDER ON PERSONALITY

AND ACHIEVEMENTS1

Alexandra-Maria VÎRȘESCU

Psychology, 1st year

Summary: Birth order has always been a topic of debate in psychology. Although initially

no one believed in the connection between birth order and siblings personality, numerous

studies have shown the opposite. Alfred Adler was one of the first in the field of psychology

to theorize about the differences birth order could make. It is believed that each birth order

position has its own unique set of personality traits.

Keywords: Birth order; psychology; Alfred Adler; personality; traits; unique child;

firstborn; middle born; third child.

What influence does birth order have on human life?

Birth order has always been a topic of debate in psychology.

Although initially no one believed in the connection between birth order and

siblings personality, numerous studies have shown the opposite. Alfred

Adler was one of the first in the field of psychology to theorize about the

differences birth order could make. It is believed that each birth order

position has its own unique set of personality traits. The familial atmosphere

is the first group experience a child has and the child’s role in their family

influences the development of the child’s individual personality traits. In

families, children learn what is valuable and meaningful to their parents and

siblings and they compete with their siblings for various roles before they

find their own.

The first explicit reference to the relationship between birth order

and intellectual capacity dates back to 1874 and belongs to Francis Galton,

who found a large number of British scientists who were the first born in

their families. Subsequently, Adler claimed that the school performance of

the first born was higher than that of the children born after them. Analyzing

studies between 1940 and 1980, Ernst and Angst (1983) concluded that

there was no relationship between birth order and personality.

The American researcher Frank J. Sulloway, in his book Born to

rebel (1996), starts from a series of questions that he considers fundamental

in the research process of human development: “Why are children raised in the

same family almost as different from each other as those raised in different families?”,

“Why, within the same family, do some children conform to authority and others rebel?”. According to Sulloway (1996), one of the most important factors

leading to such differences is the competition for family resources, not only

material, but also psychological, such as attention and affection. Thus

appears the rivalry between the brothers. As in any evolutionary

perspective, the dynamics within the group of children of the family is

explained on the basis of two major vectors: adopting a strategy of

1 Coordinator: Laura IONICĂ, PhD. Lecturer


168

differentiation from other siblings and assuming a style that minimizes

direct competition with other siblings. Thus the first born will seek to

approach their parents, helping and listening to them and / or will use their

physical strength and experience, to dominate their "rivals" and prevent

their direct and easy access to "parental" favors. On the contrary, children

born later will use strategies of reconciliation, avoidance and, if necessary,

insubordination. (Pânișoara G., 2016)

The most recent synthesis of studies focused on the topic of birth

order was conducted by Daniel Eckstein, one of the current exponents of

individual Adlerian psychology. In a 2010 article, after analyzing a number

of 200 studies published between 1960 and 2010, Eckstein and his

collaborators obtained for each of the positions generated by the order at

birth a series of characteristic aspects. Thus, most studies analyzed in the

paper, converge to the conclusion that firstborns achieve high academic

performance, are motivated to succeed in what they do, tend to impose

themselves as leaders, they seek the support of others in difficult situations,

they respect the authority and comply with the parental requirements/values,

are responsible, have high self-esteem and tend to be cautious in the face of

new situations. Unique children resemble firstborn in terms of high

academic performance, motivation to succeed and they need support under

stress, but unlike them they have more behavior problems and are more

selfish. The middle child has a very low sense of belonging, is more

sociable and has a lower level of impulsivity. The youngest are

distinguished by the fact that they show an increased social interest, they are

very empathetic and of all the mentioned categories, they are the most

rebellious and the most exposed to the risk of becoming addicted to alcohol.

(Dafinoiu I., 2016)

Birth order is believed to influence many aspects of one’s

personality. Alfred Adler, the founder of Individual Psychology, was one of

the first in the field of psychology to theorize about the differences birth

order could make. There are four main positions on birth order. It is

believed that each birth order position has its own unique set of personality

traits.

The firstborn, Adler believes, strives to attract attention and gain the

recognition of others. When he is praised and valued, this child becomes

responsible and his parents’ main help. The firstborn often benefits

emotionally from this experience and emerges with a sense of security and

self-confidence. Because of the attention they receive from their parents as

infants, firstborn children tend to be responsible, well behaved, and possess

strong leadership qualities. They develop communication skills, achieve

very good results at school, have a high self-esteem, are attentive and

caring, ambitious and determined, showing a strong desire to do their best.

First-born children are highly motivated and often perfectionists, which

affects academic achievement. They are seen brighter than their siblings and

work very diligently for their achievements. Socially, first born children are

also considerably less arguable and open to new experiences than later born

children.


169

First time parents are often overly concerned that their baby might

get a bump or a bruise, or worse. This can cause the parents to be more strict

with their oldest than they are with their youngest. First borns are usually

good at pleasing adults and behaving in socially appropriate ways. They are

also the dethroned children who must deal with the birth of a second sibling.

Firstborns are more likely to feel stressed and seek psychological help, due

to loss of parental attention at the time of the birth of their second child.

Middle born engages in a competition with the first born and in order

to impose himself, he will tend not to obey the rules and not to respect the

authority, he will develop the tendency towards perfectionism. He is able to

get along with most people and restore harmony when conflicts arise. They

are diplomatic, easily persuaded and will succumb to group pressure, set

realistic expectations and are more likely to excel in creative fields. They

tend to be the family peacekeeper: understanding, cooperative, agreeable,

loyal, and flexible, yet competitive. These children can be very popular

because they learn valuable skills of how to get along with varying groups

of people. Due to the extra attention by parents, in particular by the maternal

figure in the child’s life, the youngest child tends to lack in overall maturity.

The youngest child is provided with an extra dose of motherly participation

that feeds the extraverted ego and stimulates the intellect, which is probably

the reason that the youngest child is considered most creative

The "family constellation" becomes even more complex when a

third child is born, who becomes the youngest and propels the second, in a

middle position. The little ones are in a privileged situation and as a strategy

to impose themselves in front of the others, they appeal to their personal

charm, making themselves sympathetic, through sweetness, joy and

originality.

Adler described only children as often being the center of attention

and striving for attention from adults more than peers. Only children are

often leaders and have a more difficult time going along with others,

especially in groups of their peers. They are associated with being the most

academically successful and diligent, spoiled, and least likable among peers.

(Adler A., 2019)

At the same time, the order of birth influences the way we choose

our life partner. For example, a first born and a last born make up a good

pair. The first born is organized and caring, he wants a person to organize

and take care of him, and the last born is eager to have fun, less organized

and dependent on those around him. (Blair L., 2016)

It is important not to utilize birth order as a means to stereotype

people into rigid categories from which they cannot escape. While

considering birth order, there should be concern for other issues such as

gender, age differences between siblings, blended families, the death of a

sibling, family atmosphere, family values, and early recollections to form a

comprehensive picture of the individual. First born children and children

from small families tend to receive more individual attention from their

parents than later-born children and those from larger families which have

positive results on self-esteem.


170

It has been speculated that this could be explained either because

new parents are overly anxious about their first child, or perhaps because

when the second child is born, attention must be split between the two

siblings. Later-born children do not receive as extensive attention as

firstborns and often feel less appreciated. Therefore, later born children

often have lower self-esteem than first and only children. It is essential that

each child feel important and appreciated in the eyes of the parents.

However, this is not completely in the parents’ control. It is worth noting

that it is not the amount that the child is actually favored which is important

to development, but simply the amount of favoritism or attention perceived

by the child.

Personality

The youngest children are often associated with feminine gender role

characteristics. Some of these characteristics include being charming and

expressive. Women and men act differently as the youngest child.

According to how gender roles are perceived in our culture, this can impact

their behavior as well. For instance, the youngest child behaviors in men

may find a level of support from friends and family, while for a woman,

these behaviors could be seen as inappropriate.

While in other families, girls are expected to achieve as much as

boys who would significantly impact the child’ s drive to achieve. The role

models of the family are also important with how a child perceives gender

roles.

Another factor that affects personality is the socioeconomic context

that the child is born into. High socioeconomic status was directly related to

a child’s maturity and intellect, however not extraversion.

Self-esteem

The parent-child relationship is of great importance when

considering a child’s self-esteem. One of the most important aspects of the

parent-child relationship is communication. It was proved that parent-child

relationships with poor communication lead children to “perceive their

parents as being uninterested in them”. Indivertibly, children in

dysfunctional relationships tend to “learn inadequate communication

patterns from their parents” and these are usually the children that avoid

interpersonal relationships with peers or adults. The way the child perceives

communication with the parent can influence their self-esteem. When a

child communicates well with his parents, he is more likely to feel that he is

appreciated and will have a higher self-esteem.

Inteligence

The first born child is, until their siblings are born, the object of the

family’s concern. As the first child, they are intensely surrounded by adults,

and are therefore exposed to only adult language. The language includes a

diversity of sophisticated words, metaphors and analogies, and the exercise

of accuracy in expression. This is clearly far too advanced for a small child


171

to understand until they reach mental maturity, but the first child will still

have an intellectual advantage over their siblings. The second born child is

therefore exposed not only to verbal dialogues among the child’s parents,

but also of older siblings. Depending on the age difference, a different pool

of words will impact the verbal scope the child encounters.

Parental involvement and encouragement has a definite impact on a

child’s intellectual performance. Educated parents tend to encourage higher

aspirations and verbal skills in their first born children in comparison with

their later born children. This can be attributed to the more intense parental

concern about the child’s achievement and conformity for earlier born

children. Siblings also affect one another’s level of success and failure. The

later born children, tend to influence each other. As the family grows, this

influence becomes stronger among the siblings than the parental one.

(Gustafson C., 2010).

Conclusion

Birth order is the position in which a child is born into their family.

Based on a child’s birth order, the manner in which they are treated and

socialized by their family can shape the person they grow into as an adult.

This is plausible based on the assumption that the family is the child’s first

social circle. The members of a child’s family serve to develop the initial

relationships that will impact the child tremendously because these

relationships are seen as a model to interact with others outside the family.

Based on these initial relationships with in the family system, a child will

begin to develop a sense of self. Within a family, there are various niches or

roles that each family member plays. These roles all collaborate together in

a functional family. The role or niche they identify with as a child, may be a

precedent for their personality forever.

A child’s birth order is the first predictor of how a child will behave,

think and feel. Birth order has the potential to shape the child’s personality,

self-esteem, intelligence, and eventually his career choices. By examining

the birth order of children and how this aspect of their lives has affected

them today, this is an opportunity to glimpse into the complex and

convoluted human psyche.

This information could assist psychologists as a frame of reference

to understand why a client behaves in a certain way or a clue into a client’s

thought process. The issue remains that not enough time and energy is

dedicated to examining and applying a child’s birth order into their overall

understanding of the human person. The idea that birth order may be a

glimpse into an individual’s psyche is not a respect form of support due to

some insufficient research findings. By exploring the validity of a child’s

birth order and its affect on personality, self-esteem, intelligence, and career

choices, psychologists would have a more contextual notion of the

individuals and their place in the world.

Therefore, psychologists would gain a new understanding into an

individual client’s particular situation by examining their developmental

experience. In this way, they would have an insightful perspective to


172

enlighten them into understanding the core of their client. Until a

psychologist can fully appreciate and empathize with their clients, then they

cannot empower and encourage their clients to change. Further investigation

should also be done into the gender influence of a child’s birth order and

how this affects development and a child’s future.

References

Adler A., 2019, Cunoașterea omului, București, Litera.

Blair L., 2016, Ordinea nașterii, Grup Editorial Litera https://bit.ly/2B8Md6C (29 aprilie

2020).

Dafinoiu I., 2016, Psihologie socială clinică, Elefant online https://bit.ly/2TL5jpG (12

iulie 2020).

Gustafson C., 2010, „The Effects of Birth Order On Personality”, p. 2-16.

https://bit.ly/3gy4aLQ (15 mai 2020).

Pânișoara G., 2016, Psihologia copilului modern, Elefant online https://bit.ly/3c3rqOw (10

iulie 2020).

https://bit.ly/2B8Md6C

https://bit.ly/2TL5jpG

https://bit.ly/3gy4aLQ

https://bit.ly/3c3rqOw

Nr. 3 -2020 - BSLEA

Documents

Transcript of Nr. 3 -2020 - BSLEA