Notes and References

Notes and References

1 THE BIRTH OF PUBLIC OPINION

I. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,412. 2. George Gallup and S. F. Rae, The Pulse oj Democracy, 1940,270. 3. B. C. Hennessy, Public Opinion, 1970, 130. 4. J. L. Woodward, 'Public Opinion Polls as an Aid to Democracy', Political

Science Quarterry, 61,1946,238. Note alsoJ. C. Ranney, 'Do the Polls Serve Democracy?' Public Opinion Quarterry, 10, 1946,349-60.

5. Leo Bogart, 'No Opinion, Don't Know, and Maybe No Answer', Public Opinion Quarterry, 31, 1967,332.

6. P. A. Palmer, 'The Concept of Public Opinion in Political Theory', in Essays in History and Political Theory in Honor oj Charles H. McIlwain, 1936,231.

7. David Hume, Essays, Vol. I, Essay iv, p. 110. 8. James Bryce, The American Commonwealth, Vol. II, 1914,255. 9. J. Ortega y Gassett, Revolt ojthe Masses, 1932, 126.

10. Hans Speier, 'The Historical Development of Public Opinion', American Journal ojSociology, 55,1950,384.

II. Walter Bagehot, Physics and Politics, 1872, 117-18. 12. Walter Bagehot, ibid., 119-20. 13. 'I know of no country in which there is so little independence of mind and

real freedom of discussion as in America ... In America the majority raises formidable barriers around the liberty of opinion.' Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Vol. I, 1835,337.

14. William Albig, Modem Public Opinion, 1956,31. 15. Joseph Moseley, Political Elements: or, The Progress oj Modem Legislation, 1852,

119. 16. See D. K. Ber10, 'The Context of Communication', in G.]. Hanneman and

W. J. McEwen, Communication and Behavior, 1975, 18. 17. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922,248-9. 18. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,48. 19. Peter Golding, The Mass Media, 1974,20. 20. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922,253. 21. William A. Mackinnon, On the Rise, Progress, and Present State of Public Opinion

in Great Britain and Other Parts of the World, 1828 (Reissued 1971), 15. 22. See F. G. Wilson, A Theory of Public Opinion, 1962,98. 23. Hans Speier, 'The Historical Development of Public Opinion', American

Journal ojSociology, 55,1950,376. 24. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961, 14. 25. James Bryce, Modem Democracies, Vol I, 1921, 173.

253

254 Notes and References

26. James Bryce, ibid., 177. 27. F. G. Wilson, 'James Bryce on Public Opinion: Fifty Years Later', Public

Opinion Quarterry, 3, 1939,420-35. 28. F. G. Wilson, A Theory qf Public Opinion, 1962, 99. Note also Wilson's

comments in an earlier paper: 'One common principle is that public opinion is at times intelligent and well-founded and sometimes it is not.' From 'Public Opinion: Theory for Tomorrow' ,Journal of Politics, 16, 1954, 603.

29. A. D. Monroe, Public Opinion in America, 1975, 6. See also E. L. Bernays, Crystallizing Public Opinion, 1923,61.

30. See F. P. Chisman, Attitude Psychology and the Study qf Public Opinion, 1976, 18. 31. See F. G. Wilson, A Theory of Public Opinion, 1962, for a survey of the literature

on this theme. 32. F. A. Allport, 'Toward a Science of Public Opinion', Public Opinion Quarterry,

I, 1937, 10. 33. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,8--9. William Albig

called this the 'group fallacy' of democracy - Modern Public Opinion, 1956, 6. 34. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,412. 35. F. A. Allport, 'Toward a Science of Public Opinion', Public Opinion Quarterry,

1,1937,8. 36. F. A. Allport, ibid., 8. 37. Walter Lippmann, in The Phantom Public, 1925, for one, warned of the

confusions arising from the attempt to ascribe an organic unity to a single public with a single will. See pp. 155-6.

38. Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd: A Study qfthe Popular Mind, 1895,40. 39. Gustave Le Bon, ibid., 16. 40. James Bryce, The American Commonwealth, Vol. II, 1914,365. 41. E. S. Bogardus, The Making of Public Opinion, 1951,5. 42. H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,46. 43. H. L. Childs, ibid., 357. 44. E. S. Bogardus, The Making qf Public Opinion, 1951, was another good

example of this kind of wishful thinking. 45. Graham Wallas, Human Nature in Politics, 1908,21. 46. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956, 488. 47. James Bryce, Modern Democracies, Vol. 1,1921,167. In dismissing such beliefs

as untenable, Bryce here modifies his former optimism. 48. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Vol. I, 1835, 325. 49. Alexis de Tocqueville, ibid., 330-1. Note Mill in the Essay on Liberty, 'If all

mankind minus one were of one opinion, and only one person were of contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person, than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind.' (Everyman edition, 1948, 79.)

50. See Mill's review of Democracy in America in Edinburf(h Review, October, 1840, 1-47.

51. Ernest Barker, Political Thought in England, 1848 to 1914, 1928,203. Note also Crane Brinton, The Political Ideas qfthe English Romanticists, 1962.

52. There is an excellent discussion of this point in Carl J. Friedrich, The New Image qfthe Common Man, 1950.

53. B. E. Lippincott, Victorian Critics f!! Democracy, 1938,254. 54. J. Ortega y Gassett, Revolt qf the Masses, 1932, II.

Notes and References 255

55. Norman Angell, The Public Mind: Its Disorders, Its Exploitation, 1926, 175. 56. Norman Angell, ibid., 176. 57. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922, 75. 58. Walter Lippmann, ibid., 256. 59. Walter Lippmann, The Phantom Public, 1925, 14. 60. See T. H. Qualter, Graham Wallas and the Great Sociery, 1980, for a fuller

analysis of Wall as' concepts of rationality and behaviour. 61. See William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956,29. 62. F. G. Wilson, A Theory of Public Opinion, 1962,8. 63. Walter Lippmann, The Phantom Public, 1925, 144-5. Note also Childs' later

comment that publics are 'more competent to determine the ends of public policy than the specific means for attaining those ends'. H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,93.

64. A. D. Monroe, Public Opinion in America, 1975,6. 65. R. E. Lane and D. O. Sears, Public Opinion, 1964, 13. 66. See Michael Balfour, Propaganda in the War /939-/945, 1979, or Ian McLaine,

Ministry of Morale: Home Front Morale and the Ministry of l'!formation in World War II, 1979, for useful accounts of the official British attitude to survey research.

67. George Gallup and S. F. Rae, The Pulse of Democracy, 1940,245. 68. George Gallup and S. F. Rae, ibid., 15. 69. See David Riesman and Nathan Glazer, 'The Meaning of Opinion',

Public Opinion Quarterb>, 12, 1948,635. 70. George Gallup and S. F. Rae, The Pulse of Democracy, 1940,258. 71. The phrase is from C. W. Smith, Public Opinion in a Democracy, 1942,346. 72. H. D. Lasswell, Democracy Through Public Opinion, 1941, 15. 73. See F. G. Wilson, 'Public Opinion: A Theory for Tomorrow', Journal of

Politics, 16, 1954,603. 74. Avery Leiserson, 'Notes on the Theory of Political Opinion Formation',

American Political Science Review, 47, 1953, 171. 75. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,7. 76. For a discussion of this point see also Bertrand Russell, Power: A New Social

Anab>sis, 1938, 146. 77. A. D. Monroe, Public Opinion in America, 1975,291. 78. James Best, Public Opinion: Micro and Macro, 1973,216. 79. See F. P. Chisman,Attitude Psychology and the Stutly of Public Opinion, 1976, 161.

See also Robert Weissberg, Public Opinion and Popular Government, 1976, 7-8. 80. Walter Lippmann, The Public Philosop~, 1955,25. 81. 'The paradox of scientific measurement is that we change phenomena by

measuring them,' Leo Bogart, 'No Opinion, Don't Know, and Maybe No Answer', Public Opinion Quarterb>, 31; 1967,335.

82. F. G. Wilson, 'Public Opinion: Theory for Tomorrow,'Journal of Politics , 16, 1954,607.

83. See D. W. Minar, 'Public Opinion in the Perspective of Political Theory', Western Political Quarterb> , 13, 1960,31-44, and also H. H. Hyman, 'Toward a Theory of Public Opinion', Public Opinion Quarterb>, 21, 1957,54-60.

256 Notes and Riferences

2 OF PUBLICS AND OPINIONS

I. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961, 182. 2. W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965,27. 3. See, for example,J. N. Rosenau, Public Opinion and Foreign Policy, 1961, 19. 4. Robert Weissberg, Public Opinion and Popular Government, 1976,9-10. 5. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956,5. 6. F. A. Allport, 'Toward a Science of Public Opinion', Public Opinion Quarterry,

1,1937,9. 7. F. P. Chisman, Attitude Psychology and the Study of Public Opinion, 1976, 7. 8. H. D. Lasswell, Democracy Through Public Opinion, 1941,20. 9. E. J. Baur, 'Public Opinion and the Primary Group', American Sociological

Review, 25, 1960, 209-10. 10. Kimball Young, 'Comments on the Nature of "Public" and "Public

Opinion" ',International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research, 2, 1948, 385. II. R. M. MacIver, Academic Freedom in Our Time, 1955,23. 12. E. J. Baur, 'Public Opinion and the Primary Group', American Sociolo,l!.ical

Review, 25, 1960, 209. In a like manner, Robert Nisbet emphasised the necessity of common ends, purposes, and rules of procedure. 'Public Opinion versus Popular Opinion', The Public In/erest, 41, 1975, 168.

13. H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,92. 14. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,544-5. 15. E. S. Bogardus, The Making of Public Opinion, 1951,7. 16. A. L. Lowell, Public Opinion in War and Peace, 1923, 12. 17. A. L. Lowell, ibid., 13. Note also William Albig's remarks on the opening

page of his Modern Public Opinion, that where there is no debate, there is no opinion.

18. See William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956,4. 19. A. L. Lowell, Public Opinion in War and Peace, 1923, 14. 20. See R. E. Lane and D. O. Sears, Public Opinion, 1964,3. 21. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961, 10-11. This is a view

held also by, inter alia, Herbert Goldhamer, 'Public Opinion and Personality', American Journal of Sociology, 55, 1950, 346.

22. H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,20. 23. William Bauer, 'Public Opinion', Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. 13,

1934,670. 24. Tom Harrisson, 'What is Public Opinion?'~ Political Quarterry, 11, 1940,374. 25. Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, 'The Spiral of Silence: A Theory of Public

Opinion',Journal of Communication, 24, 1974,44. 26. H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,23. 27. E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication, 1973, 18. 28. F. A. Allport, 'Toward a Science of Public Opinion', Public Opinion Quarterry,

1,1937,14. 29. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,207. 30. L. W. Doob, Public Opinion and Propaganda, 1949,40--1. 31. H. D. Lasswell, Democracy Through Public Opinion, 1941, 20. 32. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,263. 33. E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication, '1973,22. 34. See H. J. Eysenck, The Psychology of Politics, 1954, II.


35. H.J. Eysenck, ibid., 1954,269--70. 36. G. W. Allport, 'The Composition of Political Attitudes', American Journal oj

Sociology, 35, 1929,221. 37. G. D. Wiebe, 'Some Implications of Separating Opinions from Attitudes',

Public Opinion Quarterly, 17, 1953, 329. 38. Daniel Katz, 'The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes', Public

Opinion Quarterly, 24, 1960, 168. 39. H. J. Eysenck, The Psychology oj Politics, 1954,265. 40. E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication, 1973,21. 41. Milton Rokeach, Beliifs, Attitudes, and Values, 1968, 135. 42. T. M. Newcomb, Social Psychology, 1950, 154. 43. Philip Zimbardo and E. B. Ebbesen, Influencing Attitudes and Changing

Behavior, 1969,6. 44. Hadley Cantril, Gauging Public Opinion, 1944, 77-82. 45. G. D. Wiebe, 'Some Implications of Separating Opinions from Attitudes',

Public Opinion Quarterly, 17, 1953, 333. 46. H. C. Triandis, Attitude and Attitude Change, 1971,25. 47. Ian McLaine, Ministry oj Morale: Home Front Morale and the Ministry of

Information in World War 1/, 1979,8. 48. Irving Sarnoff and Daniel Katz, 'The Motivational Bases of Attitude

Change', Journal oj Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49, 1954, 116. 49. H.J. Eysenck, The PsychologyoJPolitics, 1954, 14. See also T. W. Adornoetal.,

The Authoritarian Personality: Studies in Prejudice, 1950, as another key study of the relationships among sets of attitudes.

50. W. J. Crotty, Public Opinion and Politics, 1970, 7. 51. This paperis in S. Koch (ed.) Psychology: A Study oj a Science, 1963, 94-172-52. P. Zimbardo and E. B. Ebbesen, Influencing Attitudes and Changing Behavior,

1969,6. 53. For a fairly typical schematic conception of this classification, see M. J.

Rosenberg et al., Attitude Organization and Change, 1960, 3. 54. Milton Rokeach, Beliifs, Attitudes, and Values, 1968, 132. 55. J. J. Best, Public Opinion: Micro and Macro, 1973, 19. The significance of

'dissonance' will be more fully developed in Chapter 4. 56. P. E. Converse, 'The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics', in D. E.

Apter (ed) Ideology and Discontent, 1964,230. 57. Milton Rokeach, Beliifs, Attitudes, and Values, 1968, ix. 58. Milton Rokeach, 'The Nature of Attitudes', International Encyclopedia oj the

Social Sciences, Vol. I, 1968,455. 59. Bernard Berelson and G. A. Steiner, Human Behavior: An Inventory oj Scientific

Findings, 1964,558. 60. J. J. Eysenck, The Psychology of Politics, 1954, 112. 61. Angus Campbell et al., The American Voter, 1960, 193. 62. D. E. Trueblood, The Logic oj Belief: An Introduction to the Philosophy oj Religion,

1942,24. 63. Hellmut Lehmann-Haupt, Art Under a Dictatorship, 1954,243. 64. David Krech et al., Individual and Society: A Textbook oJSocial Psychology, 1962,

24. 65. P. E. Converse, 'The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics', in D. E.

Apter, 1964,207.


66. J. J. Best, Public Opinion: Micro and Macro, 1973, 26. 67. See Morris Rosenberg, 'Self-Esteem and Concern with Public Affairs', Public

Opinion QuarterV', 26, 1962,201. 68. See C. W. Sherif et al., Attitude and Attitude CluIn,e.e, 1965, 13. 69. See D.J. Bern, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Human Affairs, 1970,7. 70. G. W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, 1954,24-5. 71. J. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967, 14. 72. J. J. Best, Public Opinion: Micro and Macro, 1973, 12. 73. See, for example, Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind, 1960,68. Note

also Rokeach's paper, 'The Nature and Meaning of Dogmatism' , Psychological Review, 61, 1964, 194-204, in which he defined dogmatism as 'a relatively closed cognitive system of beliefs and disbeliefs about reality' organised around a central set of beliefs and providing a framework for a pattern of intolerance. - 195.

74. Colin Cherry, World Communication: Threat or Promise? 1978,3. 75. P. E. Converse, 'The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics', in D. E.

Apter, 1964,207. 76. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956, 12-13. 77. Feliks Gross, European Ideologies, 1948,5. See also W. T. Bluhm, Ideologies and

Attitudes, 1974, 1-5. 78. R. E. Lane, Political Ideology, 1962, 19. 79. R. E. Lane, Political Ideology, 1962, 425-6. 80. Georges Sorel, Reflections on Violence, 1914. 81. Quoted by Herman Finer, Mussolini's Italy, 1935,218. 82. B. S. Murty, Propaganda and World Public Order, 1968, 14. 83. Innumerable books have dealt with the Nazi racial myth, but two useful

sources, specifically from the perspective of propaganda, are J. W. Baird, The Mythical World of Na;;.i War Propaganda, 1939-1945, and R. E. Herzstein, The War That Hitler Won, 1978.

84. See, for example, the model in Dan Nimmo, Political Communication and Public Opinion in America, 1978,264.

85. P. E. Converse, 'The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics', in D. E. Apter, 1964,212-3.

86. P. E. Converse, ibid., 251.

3 THE COMPOSITION OF ATTITUDES

I. See James Bryce, Modern Democracies, Vol. I, 1921, 151. 2. See W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965,30. 3. james Bryce, Modern Democracies, 151. 4. H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936,29. 5. N. R. Cauthen et al., 'Stereotypes: A Review of the Literature 1926-1968',

Journal of Social Psychology, 84, 1971, 103-25. 6. Daniel Katz and K. Braly, 'Racial Stereotypes in One Hundred College

Students', Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28, 1933,280-90. For a fuller discussion of the methodology of much stereotype research see R. A. jones, Self-Fulfilling Prophecies, 1977,53-7. See also j. C. Brigham, 'Ethnic


Stereotypes', PSychological Bulletin, 76, 1971, 15-38, with its extensive bibliography and literature review.

7. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922, 14. 8. Walter Lippmann, ibid., 15. 9. Walter Lippmann, ibid., 29.

10. W. P. Davison, 'On the Effects of Communication', Public Opinion Quarterg, 23, 1959,349.

II. R. H. Thouless, Straight and Crooked Thinking, 1932, 133. 12. For some appropriate illustrations seeJ. C. Brigham, 'Ethnic Stereotypes',

Psychological Bulletin, 76, 1971,31. 13. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922, 126. 14. See G. A. Borden et al., Speech Behavior and Human Interaction, 1969, 105. 15. J. A. Fishman, 'An Examination of the Process and Function of Social

Stereotyping',Journal oj Social Psychology, 43, 1956,34-5. 16. J. A. Fishman, ibid., 32. 17. See F. La Violette and K. H. Silvert, 'A Theory of Stereotypes', Social Forces,

29, 1951,258. 18. Garnet McDiarmid and David Pratt, Teaching Prejudice, 1971,2. 19. D. T. Campbell, 'Stereotypes and the Perception of Group Differences',

American Psychologist, 22, 1967,824. 20. G. W. Allport, The Nature oj Prejudice, 1954, 189-91. 21. D. T. Campbell, 'Stereotypes and the Perception of Group Differences',

American Psychologist, 22, 1967,821. 22. G. W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, 1954,200. 23. L. W. Doob, Patriotism and Nationalism: Their Psychological Foundations, 1964,

77. 24. See D. T. Campbell, 'Stereotypes and the Perception of Group Differences',

American Psychologist, 22, 1967,825. 25. J. A. Fishman, 'An Examination of the Process and Function of Social

Stereotyping' ,Journal oj Social Psychology, 43, 1956, 54. 26. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956, 76. 27. R. M. Eaton, Symbolism and Truth, 1925,22. 28. S. I. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 1978, 20. Note also J. O.

Hertzler, A Sociology oj Language, 1965, for much more on the same theme. 29. See C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The Meaning oj Meaning, 1923, 103. 30. Note the subtitle, 'Symbol Manipulation as Instrument of Politics', in B. S.

Murty, Propaganda and World Public Order, 1968, 13. 31. H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936,29. 32. Karin Dovring, Road oj Propaganda, 1959,45-6. 33. R. H. Abrams, Preachers Present Arms, 1933, xvii. 34. R. H. Abrams, ibid., 50. 35. See A. N. Whitehead, Symbolism: Its Meaning and Effect, 1928, and also G. G.

Coulton, Medieval Faith and Symbolism, 1928. 36. Karl Loewenstein, 'The Influence of Symbols on Politics', in R. V. Peel and

J. S. Roucek, Introduction to Politics, 1941, 71. 37. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956,87. 38. WilHam Albig, ibid., 76-80, has some nice comments on this theme. 39. S. I. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 1978,24. 40. M. L. Defleur and S. Ball-Rokeach, Theories oj Mass Communication, 1975,


125. See also Franklin Fearing, 'Human Communication', in L. A. Dexter and D. M. White (eds) People, Sociery, and Mass Communications, 1964,37-67, who also stresses the uniquely human character of symbol use.

41. See S. I. Hayakawa,Language in Thought and Action, 1978,22, and note alsoJ. J. Gumperz, 'The Speech Community', International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. IX, 1968,381-6.

42. J. O. Hertzler, A Sociology of Language, 1965,29. 43. C. E. Osgood, 'Conservative Words and Radical Sentences in the Semantics

ofInternational Politics', in Abcarian, Gilbert, and SouleJ. W. (eds) Social Psychology and Political Behavior, 1971, 104.

44. C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning, 1923, 10. This is a pioneer work establishing the relationship between the symbols and the things symbolised.

45. Cited by J. W. Baird, The Mythical World of Na;;,i War Propaganda, 1974, 184. 46. See Edrith Fried, 'Techniques of Persuasion', in H. L. Childs and J. R.

Whitton, Propaganda by Short Wave, 1942,279. 47. B. F. Skinner, Verbal Behavior, 1957,9. 48. S. I. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 1978, 50. Note also Judith

Greene, Thinking and Language, 1975, as a valuable reference to the nature and use of language.

49. S. I. Hayakawa, Ibid. 50. Aneurin Bevan, In Place of Fear, 1952, 13. 51. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956, 105. 52. C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning, 1923,24. 53. See j. O. Hertzler, A Sociology of Language, 1965, 270. 54. For some delightful illustrations of the vagaries of human languge, and the

general problem of relating names to things, see J. J. Jacobs, Naming Day in Eden, 1958. What language did Adam use when, before there was another human human being on earth, he named every living creature?

55. S. I. Hayakawa, Lan.f!.ua.f!.t in Thou.f!.ht and Action, 1978,33. 56. J. O. Hertzler, A Sociology of Language, 1965, 272. 57. Stuart Chase, in the Foreword to B. L. Whorf, Language, Thought and Rea/iry,

1956, vi. 58. For a critical commentary on the Whorf thesis, see J. W. Carey, 'Harold

Adam Innis and Marshal McLuhan', in Phelan, John (ed), Communications Control, 1969,43-77.

59. Dan Nimmo, Political Communication and Public Opinion in America, 1978, 73. 60. Claus Mueller, The Politics of Communication, 1973,33. 61. David Krech et al., Individual and Sociery, 1962,291 and 303. See also Denis

Lawton, Social Class, Lan.f!.ual!.e. and Education, 1968. 'Whether it can be said that language is a determiner of perception, cognition and thought might be disputed, but there is little doubt that it exerts a channelling influence on thought processes.' - 157-8.

62. G. A. Borden, SPeech Behavior and Human Interaction, 1969,220. 63. J. O. Hertzler, A Sociology of Language, 1965,41-2. 64. L. W. Doob, Patriotism and Nationalism: Their Psychological Foundations, 1964,

231. 65. Denis Lawton, Social Class, Language, and Education, 1968, 157. This is a most

Notes and Riferences 261

useful study of t~e social consequences of a class-structured educational system.

66. See, for example, Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975,69. 67. Claus Mueller, The Politics qfCommunication, 1973, 14. 68. It is worth drawi~g attention to the title ofJ ames Marshall's book, Swords and

Symbols: The Technique qf Sovereignty, 1939. 69. R. J. Lifton, Thought Riform and the Psychology qf Totalism, 1969, 430.

4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ATTITUDE CHANGE

I. J. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967,60. 2. M. B. Smith, 'Attitude Change', International Encyclopedia qfthe Social Sciences,

1968, Vol. 1,458. 3. For an extremely detailed bibliography of experiments in attitude formation

and chang-e, see H. C. Triandis, Altitude and Attitude Chan.f!f, 1971. 4. An excellent survey of the field, which does as much as could be expected in

one small volume, is R. E. Petty andJ. T. Cacioppo, Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches, 1981.

5. Leo Bogart, 'No Opinion, Don't Know, and May be No Answer', Public Opinion Quarterly, 31, 1967,344.

6. H. D. Lasswell, 'The Theory of Political Propaganda', American Political Science Review, 21,1927,630.

7. Aldous Huxley, Brave New World, 1932. 8. J. A. M. Meerloo, The Rape of the Mind: The Psychology qf Thought Control,

Menticide and Brainwashing, 1956,47. Note also W. W. Sargant, Battlefor the Mind, 1957, which relates Pavlovian theory to the psychology of brainwashing, and R. J. Lifton, Thought Riform and the Psychology of Totalism, 1969.

9. J. A. M. Meerloo, The Rape qf the Mind, 1956, 37-8. Note, too, Serge Chakhotin, The Rape qf the Masses, 1940, which also explains propaganda control in terms of Pavlovian conditioned reflexes.

10. See Judith Greene, Thinking and Language, 1975,31-2. II. R. E. Lane, Political Thinkin.f! and Consciousness, 1969,95. 12. Roberta Sigel, 'Assumptions About the Learning of Political Values', Annals

qf the American Academy qf Political and Social Science, 361, 1965, 7. 13. See his Power and Personality, 1948. 14. Erich Fromm, Escape From Freedom, 1941. 15. T. W. Adorno et al., The Authoritarian Personality: Studies in Prejudice, 1950. 16. E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication, 1973. 87. See also F. I.

Greenstein, Personality and Politics, 1969. 17. I. L. Janis et al., Personality and Persuasibility, 1962,226. 18. Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind, 1960. Note also C. I. Hovland et

al., Communication and Persuasion, 1953, in which it is argued that personality predispositions affect one's readiness to accept or reject new points of view.

19. J. H. De Rivera, The Psychological Dimension cif Foreign Policy, 1968,431. 20. R. E. Lane, Polilical Life: Why People Get Involved in Politics, 1959,99. 21. SeeJ. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967, 11. H.J. Eysenck, The


Psycholo.1!,Y of Politics, 1954, and T. F. Petti~rew, 'Personality and Sociocultural Factors in Inter~roup Attitudes',.Journal ofCotiflict Resolution, 2,1958,29-42; both also ar~ued that cultural norms and the social back~round were more important determinants of behaviour than personality.

22. A. D. Monroe, Public Opinion in America, 1975,58. 23. Note Herbert McClosky, 'Conservatism and Personality', American Political

Science Review, 52, 1958, 27-45. 24. E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication, 1973,52. 25. R. E. Petty and J. T. Cacioppo, Attitudes and Persuasion, 1981, 93. 26. J. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967,60-1. 27. L. J. Martin, 'Effectiveness of International Propaganda', Annals of the

American Acade"!J' of Political and Social Science, 398, 1971, 69. 28. W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965,40. 29. David Butler and D. Stokes, Political Change in Britain, 1969,265. 30. W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965, 43. 31. In M. B. Smith et al., Opinions and Personaliry, 1956, 275, these are referred to

as reality demands, social demands, and inner psychological demands. 32. C. I. Hovland et al., Experiments on Mass Communication, 1949. 33. SeeJ. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967,59. 34. C. I. Hovland et al., Communication and Persuasion, 1953, 10. 35. See P. E. Converse, 'Information Flow and the Stability of Partisan

Attitudes', Public Opinion Quarterly, 26, 1962,578. 36. Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, 1959.3. 37. J. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967,91. 38. Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, 1959,3. 39. See, in particular, the severaJ works of.1. W. Brehm and A. R. Cohen. 40. M. J. Rosenberg et al., Attitude Organization and Change. 1960,22. 41. Leo Bogart, 'No Opinion, Don't Know, and Maybe No Answer', Public

Opinion Quarterly, 31, 1967, 344, discusses the implications ofsirnultaneously held contradictory opinions for the analysis of survey research findings.

42. W.J. McGuire, 'A Syllogistic Analysis of Cognitive Relationships', in M.J. Rosenberg et al., Attitude Organization and Change, 1960, 65.

43. SeeJ. W. Brehm, 'A Dissonance Analysis of Attitude-Discrepant Behavior', in M. J. Rosenberg et al., Attitude Organization and Change, 1960, 164.

44. G. A. Borden et al., SPeech Behavior and Human Interaction, 1969, 47-8. 45. See M.J. McGuire, 'A Syllogistic Analysis of Cognitive Relationships', 66. 46. See, for example, B. R. Berelson et al., Voting: A Study oJOpinion Formation in a

Presidential Campaign, 1954, or Joseph Trenaman and Denis McQuail, Television and the Political Image, 1961.

47. Stuart Chase, The Tyranny oj Words, 1938, 3. 48. For a useful summary of this proposition and the generalisations drawn from

it, see D. F. Roberts, 'TI}e' Nature of Communication Effects', in Wilbur Schramm and D. F. Roberts, The Process and Effects oj Mass Communication, 1971,369-71.

49. See T. E. Patterson, The Mass Media Election, 1980,90. 50. T. E. Patterson, ibid., 91. 51. Colin Seymour-Ure, The Press, Politics and the Public, 1968,302. 52. See J. H. De Rivera, The Psychological Dimension oj Foreign Policy, 1968, 431. 53. Tom Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 1978.


54. David Krech et al., Individual and Society, 1962, 41. 55. See E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication, 1973,66-75.

5 THE SOCIOLOGY OF ATTITUDE CHANGE

I. B. C. Hennessy, Public Opinion, 1965, 159. 2. See]. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967, II. 3. There is a useful summary of the major methodological differences between

the laboratory experiment and the survey research, and their consequences, in A. R. Cohen, Attitude Change and Social Influence, 1964, 130-1.

4. M. L. Defteur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communication, 1975,238-50.

5. Erich Fromm, Escape From Freedom, 1941,22. 6. Erich Fromm, ibid., 12. 7. Erich Fromm, ibid., 13-14. 8. Lewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities, 1938. 9. As a seminal work on this theme see G. A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The

Civic Culture, 1965. Note also W. T. Bluhm, Ideologies mid Attitudes, 1974. 10. B. C. Hennessy, Public Opinion, 1965, 191. II. B. E. Collins (ed.), Public and Private Conformity, 1973, 16. 12. Erich Fromm, Escapefrom Freedom, 1941,201. 13. See C. I. Hovland et al., Communication and Persuasion, 1953, 137. 14. I. L.Janis, Victims of Groupthink, 1972,63. 15. Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, 'Public Opinion and the Classical Tradition: A

Re-evaluation', Public Opinion Quarterly, 43, 1979, 148. 16. H. C. Kelman, 'Process of Opinion Change', Public Opinion Quarterly, 25,

1961,63. 17. R. S. Murty, Propaganda and World Public Order, 1968,24. 18. Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd, 1895. 19. Note also from this period, Wilfred Trotter, Instincts of the Herd in Peace and

War, 1916. 20. I. L.Janis, Victims of Groupthink, 1972,9. 21. I. L.Janis, ibid., 13. 22. W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965, 179. 23. See Albert Bandura, Principles of Behavior Modification, 1969,3-4. 24. See R. E. Lane and D. O. Sears, Public Opinion, 1964,94-5. 25. Some useful general texts, not elsewhere cited in this chapter, include: R. E.

Dawson et al., Political Sociali<;ation: An Analytic Study, 1977; M. K. Jennings and R. G. Niemi, The Political Character of Adolescence, 1974: P. A. Beck et al., Political Sociali;:;ation Across Generations, 1975; andJ ack Dennis (ed.), Sociali;:;ation to Politics: A Reader, 1973.

26. F. I. Greenstein, 'Political Socialization' ,International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 14, 1968, 551.

27. K. P. Langton, Political Sociali;:;ation, 1969, 5. 28. Roberta Sigel, 'Assumptions About the Learning of Political Values', Annals

of the American Acadenry of Political and Social Science, 361, 1965, I. 29. Adapted from R. D. Hess, 'The Acquisition of Feelings of Political Efficacy


in Pre-Adults', in Gilbert Abcarian and J. W. Soule (eds), Social Psychology and Political Behavior, 1971, 61.

30. Claus Mueller, The Politics oj Communication, 1973, II. 31. H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936,32. 32. D. A. Saunders, 'Social Ideas in McGuffey Readers', Public Opinion Quarterry,

5,1941,579. 33. H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936,34. 34. Robert Weissber/{, Political Learning, Political Choice, and Democratic Citizenship,

1974,3. 35. See R. D. Hess, 'The Acquisition of Feelings of Political Efficacy in

Pre-Adults', 59-60. 36. R. D. Hess, ibid., 63. 37. See James Best, Public Opinion: Micro and Macro: 1973,48. 38. J. C. Davies, 'Political Socialization: From Womb to Childhood', in Stanley

A. Renshon (ed.), Handbook oj Political Socialization, 1977, 171. 39. Robert Weissberg, Political Learning, Political Choice, and Democratic Citizen-

ship, 1974,6. 40. Robert Weissber/{, ibid., xiii. 41. J. C. Davies, 'Political Socialization: From Womb to Childhood', 170. 42. D. D. Searing et al., 'The Structuring Principle: Political Socialization and

Belief Systems', American Political Science Review, 67, 1973, 415-32. See also David Marsh, 'Political Socialization: The Implicit Assumptions Questioned', British Journal oj Political Science, I, 1971, 454-65.

43. R. G. Niemi et al., The Politics of Future Citizens, 1974, 4. 44. R. G. Niemiet al., ibid., I. D. C. and S. Schwartz, in New Directions in Political

Socialization, 1975, also argued for more studies of groups other than the WASP middle classes, with more focus on older people, and alternative socialisation agencies.

45. D. C. and S. Schwartz, in New Directions in Political Socialization, 1975, 6. 46. R. E. Lane, 'Fathers and Sons: Foundations of Political Belief, American

Sociological Review, 24, 1959,502-11. 47. R. W. Connell, 'Political Socialization in the American Family: the

Evidence Re-examined', Public Opinion Quarterry, 36, 1972, 323-33. 48. P. H. Odegard, 'Propaganda and Dictatorship', in G. S. Ford (ed.),

Dictatorship in the Modern World, 1939, 246-7. 49. A. E. and P. E. Freedman, The Psychology oj Political Control, 1975, 110. 50. See R. D. Altick, The English Common Reader, 1957,85. 51. Robert Weissberg, Political Learning, Political Choice, and Democratic Citizen

ship, 1974, 1~6 .. 52. R. D. Hess andJ. V. Torney, The Development of Political Attitudes in Children,

1967,242. 53. L. W. Doob, Patriotism and Nationalism, 1964,6. 54. Edgar Litt, 'Civic Education, Community Norms, and Political Indoctrina

tion', American Sociological Review, 28, 1963,69-75. 55. R. D. Hess andJ. V. Torney, The Development oj Political Attitudes in Children,

1967, 114. 56. See P. A. Beck, 'The Role of Agents in Political Socialization', in S. A.

Renshon (ed.) Handbook of Political Socialization, 1977, 128. 57. J. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Chan.l!e, 1967,41. Note also I. D. Steiner,


'Primary Group Influences on Public Opinion', American Sociological Review, 19, 1954, 26(}-7.

58. See, for example, C. I. Hovland et al., Communication and Persuasion, 1953. R. E. Lane and D. O. Sears, Public Opinion, 1964, 35--6, provide a summary of variables that might increase or diminish the capacity of a group to achieve conformity among its members.

59. See R. E. Lane and D. O. Sears, Public Opinion, 1964,34. 60. R. E. Lane and D. O. Sears, ibid., 40. 61. See D. F. Roberts, 'The Nature of Communication Effects', in Wilbur

Schramm and D. F. Roberts, The Process and Effects of Mass Communication, 1975,380.

62. D. C. Barnlund, 'A Transactional Model of Communications', in K. K. Sereno and C. D. Mortensen, Foundations of Communication Theory, 1970,87.

63. B. H. Bagdikian, The Information Machines, 1971, 19. 64. This literature, published for the most part as selected studies in the

academic journals, is so extensive, and so varied in approach, methodology, content, and significance, that selective citation here would be invidious.

65. S. H. Chaffee et al., 'Mass Communication and Political Socialization', Journalism Quarterly, 47, 1970,647-59.

66. G. W. Goldie, Facing the Nation, 1977, 12. 67. M. L. Defleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communication,

1975, II. 68. Karin Dovring, Road of Propaganda, 1959, 134. 69. See, for example, Richard Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy, 1971,229.

6 PROPAGANDA: WHAT IT IS

I. See George Orwell and Reginald Reynolds, British Pamphleteers, Vol. I. 1948.

2. W. T. Brande, I Propaganda', in Dictionary of Science, Literature and Art, 1842. 3. Graham Wallas, Human Nature in Politics, 1908,201. 4. They were not as sensitive about being labelled propagandists when, after

the war, they began writing memoirs and academic texts. 5. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965,52. 6. G. N. Gordon, Persuasion, 1971,529. 7. Abridged and adapted from A. M. and E. B. Lee, The Fine Art of Propaganda,

1939,23-4. 8. Dan Nimmo, Political Communication and Public Opinion in America, 1978, 119. 9. H. L. Childs, in the Foreword to a special issue of Public Opinion Quarterly

devoted to the Office of War Information. 7, 1943,3. 10. See L. W. Doob, Propaganda: Its Psychology and Technique, 1935,306-7. II. H. D. Lasswell, in the Foreword to G. G. Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the

Collapse of the German Empire in 1918, 1938, v. 12. For more on this theme see G. S. Viereck, Spreading Germs of Hate, 1930. 13. H. D. Lasswell, ibid., vii. 14. See, for example, the historical accounts going back to the Roman Empire,

the Papacy, the Reformation, and the English Civil War in Oliver


Thomson, Mass Persuasion in History, 1977, as well as the studies of propaganda in the French Revolution inJ. B. Whitton and Arthur Larson, Propaganda, 1964, and E. A. Beller, Propaganda in Germany in the Thirty Years War, 1940.

15. H. D. Lasswell, Propaganda Technique in the World War, 1926. 16. David Riesman, The Lonely Crowd, 1950. 17. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965, 148-9. 18. F. E. Lumley, The Propaganda Menace, 1933, 21-44, listed more than 50

attempts at definition. For a further brief survey of these early efforts, see T. H. Qualter, Propaganda and Psychological Warfare, 1962,6-26.

19. See S. I. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 1978, 183. 20. Michael Choukas, Propaganda Comes of Age, 1965,257. 21. James Bryce, Modern Democracies, Vol. II, 1921,505. 22. See A. P. Ponsonby, Falsehood in Wartime, 1928, for a fascinating account of

some of the more outrageous lies told by all belligerents, and their great ingenuity in misleading even when all their statements were factually true.

23. Darrell Huff, How to Lie With Statistics, 1954. 24. The two most carefully documented and balanced accounts of First World

War propaganda are H. D. Lasswell, Propaganda Technique in the World War, 1926, and G. G. Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918, 1938.

25. Daniel Lerner, Sykewar: The Psychological Warfare Campaign Against Germany, D-Day to VE-Day, 1949,26.

26. See the examples in M. F. Herz, 'Some Psychological Lessons From Leaflet Propaganda in World War II', Public Opinion Quarterly, 12: 1949.

27. E. R. Murrow, Director of the USIA, cited by T. C. Sorensen, The Word War, 1968,4. Note also Charles Roetter, Psychological Warfare, 1974, 18-20, in which he discusses the credibility of various 'black' broadcasting stations directed at German soldiers in Europe.

28. R. H. S. Crossman, 'Supplementary Essay', in Daniel Lerner and R. H. S. Crossman, Psychological Warfare Against Germany, 2nd edit. 1971,344.

29. See Leo Bogart, Premises for Propaganda, 1976, xviii. R. W. Chandler, War if Ideas: The US Propaganda Campaign in Vietnam, 1981, also demonstrated that US propaganda in Vietnam regularly violated the principle that strict adherence to the truth makes the most effective propaganda. - p. 215.

30. Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale, 1979, 26. 31. F. E. Lumley, The Propaganda Menace, 1933,44. 32. F. E. Lumley, ibid., 21. 33. See H. D. Lasswell et al., Propaganda and Promotional Activities, 1935,3, and

also, H. D. Lasswell and Dorothy Blumenstock, World Revolutionary Propaganda, 1939, 10.

34. H. D. Lasswell, 'A Theory of Political Propaganda', American Political Science Review, 21, 1927,627-31.

35. See the illustrations in R. R. Fagan, Cuba: The Political Content of Adult Education, 1964, 63-71. That this is not an activity exclusive to Communist regimes can be seen from the American examples of arithmetic lessons stressing the concepts of capitalism in Ellis Freeman, Social Psychology, 1936, 254-5.

Noles and Riferences 267

36. E. H. Carr, Prnpa.eanda ill InlffnatiOlwl Politic.f, 1939, 5. 37. L. W. Doob, Propaganda: Its Psychology and Technique, 1935. This is briefly

summarised and discussed in T. H. Qualter, Propaganda and Psychological Warfare, 1962, 11-16.

38. L. W. Doob, Public Opinion and Propaganda, 1949,237-40. 39. See R. E. Summers (ed),America's Weapons of Psychological Warfare, 1951,39. 40. A survey of these several other classifications can be found in C. H.

Wooddy, 'Propaganda and Education', Annals of the American Acade"!)' of Political and Social Science, 179, 1935,227-39.

41. See E. L. Bemays, Crystallizing Public Opinion, 1923,212. 42. See Michael Balfour, Propaganda in War, 1939-1945, 1979,422. 43. F. G. Wilson, A Theory of Public Opinion, 1962, 160. 44. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965, 19. 45. See L. W. Doob, Propaganda: Its Psychology and Technique, 1935,80. 46. See T. H. Qualter, Propaganda and Psychological Warfare, 1962,27. 47. The International Communication Agency replaced the United States

Information Agency in 1978. 48. L. M. Fraser, Propaganda, 1957, I. Howard Becker made the same point

that propaganda is the attempt to impose one's will 'on anyone not ordinarily disposed to acquiesce peaceably to that will'. Howard Becker, 'The Nature and Consequences of Black Propaganda'. American Sociological Review, 14, 1949,221.

49. F. G. Wilson, A Theory of Public Opinion, 1962, 159. 50. B. S. Murty, Propaganda and World Public Order, 1968,34. 51. H. D. Lasswell, 'The Theory of Political Propaganda', American Political

Science Review, 21, 1927,627. 52. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965. 53. Jacques Ellul, ibid., 62. 54. Jacques Ellul, ibid., 67. 55. B. S. Murty, Propaganda and World Public Order, 1968,26. 56. D. L. Altheide andJ. M.Johnson, Bureaucratic Propaganda, 1980, 18. 57. D. L. Altheide andJ. M.Johnson, ibid., 230. 58. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965, 68. 59. E. R. Black, Politics and the News, 1982, 15. 60. T. E. Patterson, The Mass Media Election, 1980, vii. 61. Jacques Ellul, Propa.eanda, 1965, 119. 62. Jacques Ellul, ibid., 126. 63. Jacques Ellul, ibid., 132. 64. David Hennessy, 'The Communication of Conservative Policy, 1957-59',

Political QuarterlY, 32, 1961, 239. 65. Paraphrased and adapted from Oliver Thomson, Mass Persuasion in History,

1977,11-12. 66. H. D. Lasswell, 'Propaganda and Mass Insecurity', in A. H. Stanton and S.

E. Perry (eds), Personality and Political Crisis, 1951, 20. 67. Karin Dovring, Road of Propaganda, 1959, 56£[, has some useful material on

the techniques and purposes of content analysis. Note also T. F. Carney, Content AnalYsis, 1972.

68. See Michael Gurevitch and J. G. Blumler, 'Linkages Between the Mass


Media and Politics: A Model for the Analysis of Political Communications Systems', in James Curran et al., Mass Communications and Socielj', 1970, 270-1.

69. J. T. Klapper and Leo Lowenthal, 'The Contributions of Opinion Research to the Eval uation of Psychological Warfare', Public Opinion Quarterly, 15, 1951,656.

70. P. F. Lazarsfeld and R. K. Merton, 'Mass Communication, Popular Taste and Organized Social Action', in Lyman Bryson (ed.), The Communication of Ideas, 1964,95-6.

71. Sir Campbell Stuart, The Secrets of Crewe House, 1920, and George Creel, How We Advertised America, 1920. Note alsoJ. R. Mock and Cedric Larson, Words That Won the War, 1939, andJohn Hargrave, Words Win Wars, 1940.

72. J. D. Squires, British Propaganda at Home and in the United Statesfrom 1914 to 1917, 1935,82.

73. See the several references in Ladislas Farago, German Psychological Warfare: Survey and Bibliography, 1942.

74. Note, as more recent examples of this genre, H. I. Schiller, The Mind Managers, 1973, and Michael Choukas, Propaganda Comes of Age, 1965.

75. Leo Bogart, Premises for Propaganda, 1976, xx. 76. C. G. Cruikshank, The Fourth Arm, 1977, 175. 77. G. G. Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918,

1938, I 89ff, describes Allied efforts in the First World War to measure the impact of their propaganda on German civilian morale, through reports from agents in Germany. The results, however, were entirely impressionist and generally unduly optimistic.

78. L. J. Martin, 'Effectiveness of International Propaganda', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 398, 1971, Abstract.

79. See Denis McQuail, 'The Influence and Effects of Mass Media', in James Curran et al., Mass Communication in Socielj', 1977,82.

80. Richard Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy, 1971, 198. 81. L.J. Martin, 'Effectiveness of International Propaganda', 70. 82. C. I. Hovland et al., Experiments on Mass Communication, 1949. 83. C. I. Hovland et al., ibid., 64-5. 84. See B. L. Smith, 'Propaganda', International Encyclopedia of the Social Science.!,

1968, vol. XII, 579-89, for a description of some of the techniques available for testing propaganda effects.

85. G. G. Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918, 1938,41-2.

86. G. G. Bruntz, ibid. 203. 87. J. D. Squires, British Propaganda at Home and in the United States from 1914 to

1917, 1935, 45. See also a German interpretation of this period in G. S. Viereck, Spreading Germs of Hate, 1930.

88. T. S. Matthews, The Sugar Pill: An Essay on Newspapers, 1957, 166. 89. E. R. Black, Politics and the News: The Political Function of the Mass Media,

1982,3-4. 90. Edwin Diamond, The Tin Kazoo, 1975,8. 91. John Pearson and Graham Turner, The Persuasion Industry, 1965,326. 92. R. W. Chandler, War of Ideas: The US Propaganda Campaign in Vietnam, 1981,

147.


93. R. W. Chandler, ibid., 1981. 94. Charles Roetter, Psychological Waif are, 1974, 185. 95. See the several references on this theme in L. P. Lochner (ed.), The Goebbels

Diaries 1942-43, 1948. 96. J. G. Blumler, 'Mass Media Roles and Reactions in the February Election',

in H. R. Penniman (ed.), Britain at the Pol/s, 1975, 157. 97. Michael Balfour, Propaganda in War 1939-1945, 1979,424. 98. David Hennessy, 'The Communication of Conservative Policy, 1957-59',

255. 99. Michael Balfour, Propa.f!anda in lVar 1939-1945, 1979,437.

100. See the fascinating account on the reporting of wars from the eighteenth century until our own times in J. J. Mathews, Reporting the Wars, 1957.

101. Charles Roetter, P.rycholof!icallVaifare, 1974, 15. 102. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965, 20-4. See also Leo Bogart, Premises for

Propaganda, 1976,226, for other comment on the same theme. 103. See]. D. Squires, British Propaganda at Home and in the United Statesfrom 1914

to 1917, 1935. There are a number of other accounts of British propaganda organisation in the First World War all of which tell much the same story of intrigue and empire building. Note, especially, Campbell Stuart, The Secrets qf Crewe House, 1920; C. G. Cruikshank, The Fourth Arm, 1977; and The Times, History of the War, 1919, chap. 44 in Vol. 21, 'British Propaganda in Enemy Countries'.

104. C. G. Cruikshank, The Fourth Arm, 1977,45. 105. See J. B. Black, Organising the Propaganda Instrument: The British Experience,

1975, for a detailed account of these rivalries and their consequences. Michael Balfour, Propaganda in War 1939-1945, and Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale, 1979, are also rich sources of information on these in ternal divisons.

106. SeeJ. B. Black, Organising the Propaganda Instrument, 1975,50. 107. Charles Roetter, Psychological Waifare, 1974,39. 108. Z. A. B. Zeman, Nazi Propaganda, 1964, 171. 109. See R. E. Herzstein, The War That Hitler Won, 1978, 94. 110. J. W. Baird, The Mythical World qf Nazi War Propaganda, 1939-1945, 1974,

34-5. III. See Daniel Lerner, Sykewar, 1949, for a fuller development of this theme. 112. R. H. S. Crossman, 'Psychological Warfare', Journal qf the Royal United

Service Institution, 98, 1953, 355. 113. See Leo Bogart, Premises for Propaganda, 1976, xvii. This is one of several

books with detailed historical accounts of the troubles besetting the USIA. Other important sources include: R. E. Elder, The Information Machine, 1968; R. I. Rubin, The Objectives qf the U.S. Information Agenry, 1968; W. P. Dizard, The Strategy of Truth, 1971;]. W. Henderson, The United States Iriformation Agenry, 1969; and T. C. Sorensen, The Word War, 1968.

114. See W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965,228. 115. A. M. Winkler, The Politics qf Propaganda, 1978,53-4. 116. See T. C. Sorensen, The lVord /Var, 1968. 117. ]. B. Black, Organising the Propaganda Instrument, 1975, 17. 118. ]. B. Black, ibid., 71.


7 RESTRICTING INFORMATION

I. G. E. G. Catlin, 'Propaganda as a Function of Democratic Government', in H. L. Childs (ed.), Propaganda and Dictatorship, 1936, 127.

2. N. M. Hunnings, Film Censors and the Law, 1967,383. 3. See F. E. Rourke, Secrecy and Publicity, 1961,227. 4. See John Phelan (ed.), Communications Control, 1969, xiii. 5. G. N. Gordon, Persuasion: The Theory and Practice of Manipulative Communica-

tion, 1971,502. 6. E. F. Williams, Press, Parliament, and People, 1946,66. 7. E. F. Williams, ibid. 8. See Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale, 1979, 189, and for detailed accounts of

the imposition of censorship in the First World War, see G. G. Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918, 1938. See also Michael Balfour, Propaganda in War 1939-1945, 1979, for details from the Second World War.

9. James Curran and Jean Seaton, Power Without Responsibility, 1981,87. 10. E. F. Williams, Press, Parliament and People, 1946,24. II. Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty, 1975, 75. 12. G. D. Hollander, Soviet Political Indoctrination, 1972, 191-6. 13. J. A. Barron, Freedom of the Pressfor Whom? 1973,321. 14. Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society, 1969,229. 15. Ralph Miliband, ibid., 238. 16. H. I. Schiller, Mass Communications and American Empire, 1969, 19. 17. Tom Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 1978, has some good copy on the

patronising attitudes of the governing classes. 18. Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale, 1979, has much to say on this theme, and on

the efforts, only partly successful, to counteract this class prejudice. 19. R. L, Rosnow and G. A. Fine, Rumor and Gossip, 1976, 130. 20. R. V. Altick, The English Common Reader, 1957,64. see also T. H. Qualter,

Graham Wallas and the Great Society, 1980,54-9. 21. R. D. Altick, The English Common Reader, 1957, 74 and 76. 22. E. F. Williams, Press, Parliament and People, 1946,64. 23. See B. C. Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy, 1963, for a useful discussion of

the conflicting claims of government secrecy and public information in the areas offoreign policy and diplomacy.

24. David Williams, Not in the Public Interest, 1965, 215. The central theme of Williams' book is a strong criticism of the excessive secrecy of British Government.

25. See Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty, 1975,80--1. 26. Jonathan Aitken, OfJiciallySecret, 1971,2. 27. On the whole question of executive secrecy in the United Kingdom, one

should see, in addition to the sources already cited, David Leigh, Frontiers of Secrecy, 1980, a well-documented, if somewhat polemical record of the most extreme and indefensible instances of government secrecy, and Peter Hedley and Cyril Aynsley, The D-Notice Affair, 1967.

28. A. C. Breckenridge, The Executive Privilege, 1974, I. 29. A. M. Cox, The Myths of National Security, 1975, I. For further accounts of the

growth of government secrecy in the United States, see Norman Dorsen and


Stephen Gillers, None oj Your Business, 1974, and M. H. Halperin and D. N. Hoffman, Top Secret, 1977.

30. Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty, 1975, has several examples of these tactics, in several wars.

31. See Sean Kelly, Access Denied: The Politics of Press Censorship, 1978, 10-20. 32. See Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale, 1979,48. 33. See Erik Barnouw, Tube of Plenty, 1975, and Bernard Rubin, Media, Politics

and Democracy, 1977. 34. H. A. Innis, The Bias oj Communication, 1951, 48. 35. See, for example, S. S. Baker, The Permissible Lie, 1969, v, with its description

of the efforts by Reader's Digest to ban the book. 36. Lord Windelsham, Broadcasting in a Free Society, 1980, 58. 37. Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968,79. 38. Robert MacNeil, ibid., 79-80. 39. Lord Windelsham, Broadcasting in a Free Society, 1980, 58. 40. J. A. Barron, Freedom ojthe Pressfor Whom? 1973, 13-20. 41. Anthony Smith, Television and Political Life, 1979,37. 41. There is a wealth of literature here, much of it narrowly sectarian in

character. Among the more balanced treatments I would suggest I. H. Carmen, Movies, Censorship and the Law, 1966.

43. C. J. Brown et al., The Media and the People, 1978, 152. Brown includes here some first-class summaries of other early voices in the libertarian tradition (pp. 150-67).

44. John Phelan, Communications Control, 1969, xii. 45. Graham Wallas, in a letter 27 Oct. 1916, cited by T. H. Qualter, Graham

Wallas and the Great Society, 1980, 154. 46. R. D. Altick, The English Common Reader, 1957,327. 47. G. W. Allport and Leo Postman, The Psychology of Rumor, 1948 ix. This may

be treated as definitive work on rumour. 48. R. H. Knapp, 'A Psychology of Rumor', Public Opinion Quarterly, 8, 1944,22. 49. See Tamotsu Shibutani, Improvised News, 1966. 50. G. W. Allport and Leo Postman, The Psychology oj Rumor, 1948, I. 51. G. W. Allport and Leo Postman, ibid., 75. 52. C. G. Cruikshank, The Fourth Arm, 1977, 108. 53. For some early sources which first explored the gatekeeper concept, see D.

M. White, 'The "Gatekeeper": A Case Study in the Seiection of News', Journalism Quarterly, 27, 1950, 383-90, and R. E. Carter, 'Newspaper "Gatekeepers" and the Sources of News', Public Opinion Quarterly, 22, 1958, 133-44.

54 Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, 186. 55. J. K. Buckalew, 'The Local Radio News Editor as Gatekeeper',Journalism

Quarterly, 18, 1974,211. 56. Lewis Donohew, 'Newspaper Gatekeepers and Forces in the News Chan

nel', Public Opinion Quarterly, 31, 1967,61-8. 57. Walter Gieber, 'News is What Newspapermen Make It', in L. A. Dexter and

D. M. White (eds), People, Society, and Mass Communications, 1964, 173. 58. J. K. Buckalew, 'The Local Radio News Editor as Gatekeeper', 212. 59. See E.J. Epstein, Newsfrom Nowhere, 1973, 142. 60. B. H. Bagdikian, The Information Machines, 1971, 16-17.


61. See G. A. Donohue et al., 'Gatekeeping: Mass Media Systems and Information Control', in F. G. Kline and P. J. Tichenor (eds), Current Perspectives in Mass Communication Research, 1972,51.

62. E. R. Black, Politics and the News, 1982,202. 63. Anthony Piepe et al., Television and the Working Class, 1975, 16. 64. David Murphy, The Silent Watchdog, 1976, II. 65. David Murphy, ibid., 136-7. 66. See B. C. Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy, 1963,271. 67. B. C. Cohen, ibid., 13. A number of other writers have made the same

comment in virtually identical words. 68. Political and Economic Planning, Report on the British Press, 1938,33. 69. Glasgow University Media Group, More Bad News, 1980,399-400. 70. Theodore White, The Making of the President 1972,1973,247. 71. D. L. Shaw and M. E. McCombs, The Emergence of American Political Issues,

1977, II. 72. M. L. Defleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mars Communication,

1975,269. 73. Tom Burns, 'The Organization of Public Opinion', in James Curran et al.,

Mass Communication and Sociery, 1977, 66. 74. P. F. Lazarsfeld and R. K. Merton, 'Mass Communication, Popular Taste

and Organized Social Action', in Lyman Bryson (ed.), The Communication of Ideas, 1964, 107.

75. Tom Burns, 'The Organization of Public Opinion', 66. 76. T. E. Patterson, and R. D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye, 1976, 75. 77. See C.J. Brownet al., The Media and the People, 1978, and D. H. Weaver,etal.,

'Watergate and the Media: A Case Study of Agenda-Setting', American Political Quarterg, 3, 1975, 458-72.

78. T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye, 1976, 176. See also M. E. McCombs and D. L. Shaw, 'The Agenda-setting Function of the Mass Media', Public Opinion Quarterg, 36, 1972.

79. A. H. Birchet al., 'The Popular Press in the British General Election of 1955', Political Studies, 4, 1956,298. See also James Curran and Jean Seaton, op. cit., for a more up-to-date commentary.

80. Bad News, 1976, and More Bad News, 1980. 81. Glasgow University Media Group, More Bad News, 1980,401.

8 EXTENSIONS OF PROPAGANDA

I. H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936,55. 2. H. D. Lasswell, ibid., 56. 3. P. M. Linebarger, Psychological Waifare, 1948,25. 4. Ladislas Farago, German Psychological Waifare, 1942, 117. 5. P. M. Linebarger, Psychological Waifare, 1948,25. 6. W. E. Daugherty, A Psychological Waifare Casebook, 1958,2. 7. Ladislas Farago, German Psychological Waifare, 1942. 8. See Hans Speier, 'Psychological Warfare Reconsidered', in his Social Order

and the Risks of War, 1952,443-4.


9. W. E. Daugherty, A Psychological Warfare Casebook, 1958,275. 10. See, for example, R. H. Bruce Lockhart, 'Political Warfare', Journal of the

Royal United Service Institution, 95, 1950, 193-206, and Daniel Lerner, Sykewar, 1949,17-25.

II. P. M. Linebarger, Psychological Warfare, 1942,49-50. 12. Ladislas Farago, German Psychological Warfare, 1942;J. W. Baird, The Mythical

World of Nazi War Propaganda, 1974; Z. A. B. Zeman, Nazi Propaganda, 1964. 13. Typical are L. J. Margolin, Paper Bullets, 1946, and Ronald Seth, The Truth

Benders, 1969. 14. R. H. Bruce Lockhart, 'Political Warfare', 198. 15. R. H. S. Crossman, 'Psychological Warfare' ,Journal of the Royal United Service

Institution, 97, 1952,329. 16. Hans Speier, 'Psychological Warfare Reconsidered', 441. 17. A. P. Ponsonby, Falsehood in Wartime, 1928, 102. Ponsonby recounts a

number of other deliberately contrived atrocity stories. Note also J. M. Read, Atrociry Propaganda, 1914-1919, 1941.

18. See Charles Roetter, Psychological Warfare, 1974, 93, for an account of the coincidence of well-meaning exposures of fake atrocities in World War I with the beginnings of real atrocities under Hitler.

19. See R. H. Abrams,Preachers Present Arms, 1933, in which he describes how the 'forces of righteousness' had made Americans 'drunk with hate.' (p. 429). It is a depressing account of mob passion and prejudice.

20. R. W. Chandler, War of Ideas, 1981,3-4 .. 21. R. W. Chandler, ibid., 216. 22. See R. T. Holt and R. W. Van De Velde, Strate.f!.ic Psycholo.f!.ical Operations and

American Foreign Policy, 1960, 237. 23. See, for example, W. A. Hachten, MufJIed Drums: The News Media in Africa,

1971, or Rosemary Righter, Whose News? 1978. 24. Giancarlo Buzzi, Advertising, 1968, 121. 25. See Milton Rokeach, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values, 1968, 183. 26. Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968, 193-4. 27. Richard Rose, Irifluencing Voters, 1967, 174-5. 28. Dan Nimmo, Political Communication and Public Opinion in America, 1978, 110. 29. Joe McGinniss, Selling the President 1968, 1969,44. 30. Joe McGinniss, ibid., 82. 31. See G. W. Goldie, Facing the Nation, 1977,316. 32. Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968, 194. 33. See, as a fascinating illustration of this point, Joseph Grego, A History of

Parliamentary Elections and Electioneeringfrom the Stuarts to Queen Victoria, 1892. 34. Richard Rose, Influencing Voters, 1967, 15. 35. T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure (eds), The Unseeing Eye, 1976,95. 36. R. A. Bauer and S. A. Greyser, Advertising in America, 1968, Chap. vii. 37. T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye, 1976, 113. 38. See Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968,21. 39. See Michael Tracey, The Production of Political Television, 1977, 247, for a

summary of the impact of 'show business' values on the production of television news and public affairs programmes.

40. Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968, 38. 41. H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,264.


42. G. N. Gordon, Persuasion, 1971, 131. 43. B. H. Bagdikian, The Information Machines, 1971,296. 44. See L. I. Pearlin, and M. Rosenberg, 'Propaganda Techniques in Institu

tional Advertising', Public Opinion Quarterry, 16, 1952,5-26. 45. L. I. Pearlin and M. Rosenberg, ibid., 15-18. 46. There are numerous accounts of this. See, for example, Allen Potter,

Organi<.ed Groups in British National Politics, 1961, 16-20, or A. A. Rogow, The Labour Government and British Industry, 1945-51, 1955, chap 7.

47. Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968, 13. 48. See John Westergaard, 'Power, Class and the Media', inJames Curran et al.,

Mass Communication and Society, 1977,95-115. 49. See Michael Tracey, The Production of Political Television, 1977, 240. 50. D. J. Boorstin, 'The Rhetoric of Democracy' , in Robert Atwan et al., American

Mass Media, 1978,42. 51. Joe McGinniss, Selling the President, 1968, 30. 52. A. R. Saldich, Electronic Democracy, 1979,55. 53. See Giancarlo Buzzi, Advertising, 1968, for more on this theme. 54. See Richard Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy, 1971, for comments on the impact

of advertising on English working-class values. 55. See Anthony Piepe, Television and the Working Class, 1975,25-46. 56. SeeJ ames Curran andJ ean Seaton, Power Without Responsibility, 1981, 222-6. 57. See H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,265. 58. SeeJohn Pearson and Graham Turner, The Persuasion Industry, 1965,306-7. 59. John Pearson and Graham Turner, ibid., 325. 60. James Curran and Jean Seaton, Power Without Responsibility, 1981, 228.

9 COMMUNICATION AND THE MEDIA

I. C. H. Cooley, Social Organi<.ation, 1909,61. 2. See Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, 35ff, for a summary of several

sociological/psychological theories. 3. For an excellent, detailed treatment of the complexities of the human

communication process, see G. A. Borden et at., Speech Behavior and Human Interaction, 1969.

4. G. N. Gordon, Persuasion, 1971, 7-8. 5. See the useful models offered by George Gerbner, 'Toward a General

Model of Communication', Audio-Visual Communication Review, 4, 1956, 171-99; F. E. X. Dance, Human Communication Theory, 1967; C. E. Shannon and W. Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication, 1970; and D. C. Barnlund, 'A Transactional Model of Communication', in K. K. Sereno and C. D. Mortensen, Foundations of Communication Theory, 1970.

6. Most notably, Understanding Media, 1964. 7. See Edward Sapir, Selected Writings in Language, Culture, and Personality, 1949,

and B. L. Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality, 1956. 8. See]. W. Carey, 'Harold Adams Innis and Marshall McLuhan', inJohn

Phelan (ed.), Communications Control, 1969,54-8. 9. Marshall McLuhan, Understandin.f!. Media, 1964,24.


10. L. W. Pye, Communications and Political Development, 1963,58. 11. For a devastating attack on McLuhanism on these lines see S. W.

Finkelstein, Sense and Non.feme in McLuhan, 1968. And note also the opening pages of A. R. Saldich, Electronic Democracy, 1979.

12. Joyce Hertzler, A Sociology of Language, 1965,476. 13. Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975,93. Note also George Gerbner, 'Mass

Media and Human Communication Theory', in F. E. X. Dance, Human Communication Theory, 1967,42-3.

14. P. J. Tichenor et al., Communiry Conflict and the Press, 1980, 222. 15. H. A. Innis, Empire and Communications, 1950, and The Bias oj Communication,

1951. 16. H. A. Innis, Empire and Communications, 1950, 7. 17. H. A. Innis, The Bias of Communication, 1951,59. 18. E. R. Black, Politics and the News, 1982, 89. 19. Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, 135-6. 20. George Gerbner, 'Toward a General Model of Communication', 45. 21. Richard Maisel, 'The Decline of the Mass Media', in Robert Atwan et al.,

American Mass Media, 1978,27. 22. Loosely adapted from Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, 193-5. 23. See Richard Bunce, TelevisiOTI in the Corporate Interl'st, 1976, for more on 'an

authoritarian information structure and communication flow'. 24. Caroline Heller, Broadcasting and Accountabiliry, 1978, 13. 25. Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, 194. 26. Anthony Piepe et al., Television and the Working Class, 1975, 166. 27. See F . .J. Cook, 'Radio Right: Hate Cluhs of the Air', Nation, 198, 1964,

523-7, for an account of the vast sums of money spent on radio and television propaganda by the ultra-wealthy, far right extremist groups in the United States. .

28. See M. L. Defteur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories,!! Mass Communication, 1975,9.

29. See H. A. Innis, The Bias oj Communication, 1951,4. 30. Oliver Thomson, Mass Persuasion in History, 1977,41. 31. See Michael Novak, 'Television Shapes the Soul' in D. Cater and R. Adler,

Television as a Social Force, 1975, 15. 32. See Colin Cherry, World Communication, 1978,45-6. 33. See E. R. Black, Politics and tke News, 1982, 8. 34. See Hans Speier, 'The Rise of Public Opinion', in H. D. Lasswell et al.,

Propaganda and Communication in World History, Vol. II, 1980, 155. 35. Richard Altick, The English Common Reader, 1957,89. 36. B. H. Bagdikian, The Information Machines, 1970,4. Also note Harold Perkin,

The Age of the Railway, 1970, and the hundreds of related works. 37. B. H. Bagdikian, The Information Machines, 6. 38. H. A . .Innis, The Bias of Communication" 1951, 53. 39. Bernard Rubin, Political Television, 1967,2. 40. J. G. Blumler and John Madge, Citi<.enship and Television, 1967,46. 41. See A. R. Saldich, Electronic Democracy, 1979,29. 42. Colin Cherry, lVorld (:ommunication, 1978, 10. 43. M. L. Defteur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories oj Mass Communication,

1951,159.


44. See Colin Cherry, World Communication, 119-20. 45. For an early consideration of this point seeJ. T. Klapper, 'What We Know

About the Effects of Mass Communication', Public Opinion QuarterlY, 21, 1957,453-74.

-Hl. G. A. Borden, SPeech Behavior and Human Interaction, 1969, 206. 47. SeeJ. H. De Rivera, The Psychological Dimension of Foreign Policy, 1968,49. 48. Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, 163. 49. See Bertrand Russell, Power: A New Social AnalYsis, 1938, for an excellent

treatment of this theme. 50. See H. I. Schiller, Mass Communications and American Empire, 1969, 32-3. 51. J. A. Barron, Freedom of the Pressfor Whom? 1973,5. 52. Michael Novak, 'Television Shapes the Soul', 1975, 15. 53. Dan Nimmo, Political Communication and Public Opinion in America, 1978, 188.

Note also E. J. Epstein, Newsfrom Nowhere, 1973, 272. 54. See Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968, 19. 55. Tom Burns, 'The Organization of Public Opinion', in James Curran, et al.,

Mass Communication and Sociery, 1977,50. 56. P. J. Tichenor, Communiry, Conflict and the Press, 1980, 217. 57. C.]. Brown, The Media and the People, 1978,38. See also H. I. Schiller, Mass

Communications and American Empire, 51-9. 58. C. J. Brown, The Media and the People, 38. 59. Richard Bunce, Television in the Corporate Interest, 1976, 138. Note also Denys

Thompson, Discrimination and Popular Culture, 1973, 15. 60. J. P. Robinson, 'Mass Communication and Information Diffusion', in F. G.

Kline and P. J. Tichenor (eds), Current Perspectives in Mass Communication Research, 1972, 87.

61. See T. H. Qualter, 'Politics 'and Broadcasting: Case Studies of Political Interference in National Broadcasting Systems', Canadian Journal oj Economics and Political Science, 28, 1962,225-34.

62. See Anthony Smith, Television and Political Life, 1979, 29, and Michael Tracey, The Production oj Political Television, 1977,231.

63. See Anthony Smith, Television and Political Life, for a detailed description of the largely informal linkages, practices, processes, and understandings which govern the relationships of the broadcasting authorities, parliament and the government, and the public.

64. Michael Tracey, The Production oj Political Television, 1977,245. 65. Glasgow University Media Group, More Bad News, 1980,3. 66. A. R. Saldich, Electronic Democracy, 1979, 66. 67. See Phillip Knightley, The First Casualry, 1975,413. 68. See G. W. Goldie, Facing the Nation, 1977,328-9. 69. M. L. Defleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communicatioll,

1975,260. 70. J. G. Blumler and Denis McQuail, Television in Politics, 1968, 286. 71. R. E. Lane, Political Life, 1959,288. 72. T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure, The Umeeing Eye, 1976,22. 73 . .J. D. Halloran, The RjJec/J rifMasJ Communication, 1968,13. H. P. F. Lazarsfeld and R. K. Merton, 'Mass Communication, Popular Taste

and Organized Social Action', in Lyman Bryson, The Communication of Ideas, 1964, 101-6.


75. W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965,46. 76. See Anthony Smith, Television and Political Life, 1979, 3. 77. Michael Tracey, The Production of Political Television, 1977, 241. 78. P. F. Lazarsfeld and R. K. Merton, 'Mass Communication, Popular Taste

and Organized Social Action', 106. R. E. Lane, Political Life, 288, also refers to narcotising dysfunction, but suggests that it may sometimes be a preliminary to action.

79. H. A. Innis, Empire and Communication, 1950, 10. 80. Colin Cherry, World Communication, 1978, 47. 81. See the excellent summary of this topic in Colin Seymour-Ure, The Press,

Politics, and the Public, 1968, 301-17. 82. See, for example, Bernard Berelson, 'What Missing the Newspaper

Means', in P. F. Lazarsfeld, Communication Research, 1948-9, 1949, 111-29. 83. Adapted and condensed from T. H. Qualter, Propaganda and Psychological

Warfare, 1962,86-9. 84. Cited by Forsyth Hardy, Grierson on Documentary, 1946, 13. 85. L. C. Rosten, Hollywood, 1941,359. For a summary listing, from several

sources, of the cliches and stereotypes of American movies, see William Albig, Modem Public Opinion, 1956, 512-4.

86. Quoted by Roger Manvell, Film, 1946, 172-3. 87. See T. H. Qualter, Propaganda and Psychological Warfare, 1962,93-8. 88. See Julian Hale, Radio Power, 1975, ix-xi. 89. L. J. Martin, International Propaganda, 1958, 7. 90. Julian Hale, Radio Power, xii. 91. Hadley Cantril and G. W. Allport, The Psychology of Radio, 1935,20. There is

much in this book on the supposed democratisation of radio. 92. Llewellyn White and R. D. Leigh, Peoples SPeaking to Peoples, 1946, 13. 93. See, for example, Harold Ettlinger, The Axis on the Air, 1943, and any of the

many histories of broadcasting, perhaps most usefully, Asa Briggs, The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom, 4 volumes, 1961-1979.

94. Note P. F. Lazarsfeld, 'The Effects of Rad io on Public Opinion', in Douglas Waples, Print, Radio, and Film in a Democracy, 1942,66.

95. M. L. Defleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communication, 1975,96.

96. R. M. Batscha, Foreign Affairs News and the BroadcastJournalist, 1975,219. 97. T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye, 1976,85. 98. R. M. Batscha, Foreign Affairs, News and the BroadcastJournalist, 216. See also

Jerry Mander's amusing, and sometimes perceptive, polemic against television, with its list of 33 miscellaneous 'inherent biases', mostly stemming from the stereotyped, visual, action-oriented conventions of television programming. Jerry Mander, Four Argumentsfor the Elimination of Television, 1978, 323-8.

99. G. W. Goldie, Facing the Nation, 1977, 19. 100. See, for example, T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye,

1976. 101. E.]. Epstein, Newsfrom Nowhere, 1973,242. 102. Adapted from David Littlejohn, 'Communicating Ideas by Television', in

D. Cater and R. Adler, Television as a Social Force, 1975,68-9. 103. J. S. Mill, Essay on Liberty, 130.


10 THE FUTURE OF LIBERAL DEMOCRACY

1. See Giovanni Sartori, Democratic Theory, 1965,9. 2. For an expansion of these alternative versions see C. B. Macpherson, The

Real World of Democracy, 1965. 3. See H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936,84. 4. Note the excellent description of the character of liberalism in H.J. Laski,

The Rise of European Liberalism, 1936, and especially the summary,;on p. II. 5. For a fuller development of the relationships of conservatism, liberalism,

and socialism in various contexts, see Louis Hartz, The Liberal Tradition in America, 1955, and The Foundin.f! of New Societie.r, 1964. Gad Horowitz, 'Conservatism, Liberalism, and Socialism in Canada: an Interpretation', Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, 32, 1966, 143-71, applied these concepts specifically to the Canadian setting.

6. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, 1776, Bk. I, chap. i. 7. See Kenneth Minogue, The Liberal Mind, 1963,22. 8. C. B. Macpherson, The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy, 1977,44-76. 9. C. B. Macpherson, ibid., 77-92.

10. C. B. Macpherson, ibid., 77. 11. See, as typical of this approach, B. R. Berelson et al., Voting, 1954. 12. See H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936, 168. Most of

the first studies of propaganda and the media focused on their supposed enormous power to manipulate.

13. E. H. Carr, The New Society, 1951, 109. See also his Propaganda in International Politics, 1939,6-7.

14. See R. A. Dahl, A Priface to Democratic Theory, 1956, for an analysis of this model, not only as a description of how the American political system works, but as ajustification ofit as a successful system, making a reasonable job of what is expected of it. B. R. Berelson et al., Voting, 1954, also concluded that as the American system had not degenerated into either dictatorship or civil war, the model must have some merit.

15. B. C. Hennessy, Public Opinion, 1965, 109 and 116. See also B. R. Berelson et al., Voting, 307-8.

16. B. R. Berelson, et al., ibid., 322. 17. R. E. Lane, Political Ideology, 1962,86. 18. George Gerbner, 'Mass Media and Human Communication Theory', in F.

E. X. Dance (ed.), Human Communication Theory, 1967,54. 19. Robert Weissberg, Public Opinion and Popular Government, 1976,47. 20. See]. W. Prothro and C. M. Grigg, 'Fundamental Principles ofDemoeracy:

Bases of Agreement and Disagreement' ,Journal of Politics, 22, 1960, 293. 21. B. R. Berelsonetal., Voting, 314. 22. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922,312. 23. Lewis Lipsitz, 'On Political Belief: The Grievances of the Poor', in A. R.

Wilcox (ed.), Public Opinion and Political Attitudes, 1974,273. 24. G. A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture, 1965,340. 25. See Leo Bogart, 'No Opinion, Don't Know, and Maybe No Answer', Public

Opinion Quarterly, 31, 1967,333. 26. Giovanni Sartori, Democratic Theory, 1965,455. 27. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965, 138.

Noles and References 279

28. W. P. Davison, international Political Communication, 1965,6. 29. H. D. Lasswell, 'Propaganda and Mass Insecurity', in A. H. Stanton and S.

E. Perry, Personaliry and Political Crisis, 1951, 34. 30. H. D. Lasswell, ibid. 31. H. D. Lasswell, ibid., 30. 32. See B. S. Murty, Propaganda and World Public Order, 1968, for a lengthy

commentary on this theme. 33. See Burton Paulu, Radio and Television Broadcasting in Eastern Europe, 1974,9. 34. H. D. Lasswell, Democracy Through Public Opinion, 1941,96. 35. Bertrand Russell, Power: A New Social Anarysis, 1938, 155. 36. Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Sociery, 1969, 182. 37. Claus Mueller, The Politics of Communication, 1973,94. 38. Lord Windelsham, Broadcasting in a Free Sociery, 1980,2. 39. A. R. Saldich, Electronic Democracy, 1979,67. 40. See Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, II. 41. J. G. Blumler and John Madge, Citizenship and Television, 1967,48. 42. Daniel Lerner, 'Toward a Communication Theory of Modernization', in L.

W. Pye, Communications and Political Development, 1963,343. 43. A. R. Saldich, Aleclromc Democracy, 1979,36. 44. T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye, 1976, 144. 45. Bernard Rubin, Media, Politics, and Democracy, 1977,44. 46 . .J. G. B1umler and John Madge, C'ilizfllship and Television, 1967, 48. 47. A. R. Saldich, Electronic Democracy, 58. 48. See James Curran and Jean Seaton, Power Without Responsibiliry, 1981, 286. 49. H. L. Wilensky, 'Mass Society and Mass Culture: Interdependence or

Independence', American Sociological Review, 29, 1964, 195-6. 50. H. I. Schiller, The Mind Managers, 1973, 19. 51. Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968, xvi. 52. William Mackinnon, On the Rise, Progress, and Present State qf Public Opinion,

1828,15. 53. This line was borrowed from Peter Ustinov's delightful novel, Krumnagel,

1971. 54. Aldous Huxley, Brave New World, 1932,23. 55. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956, 30. 56. Erich Fromm, Escapefrom Freedom, 1941,266. 57. Herbert Goldhamer, 'Public Opinion and Personality', AmericanJournal qf

Sociology, 55, 1950,347.

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Index Abrams, R. H., 61, 259, 273 Adorno, T. W., 77-8,257,261 advertising, 22,72,126.130-1,150,167,

178--91,206,246 censorship in, 155-6 compared with propaganda, 178--83 effects of, 135, 183-91 ideological, 184-6 political, 179-83, 200, 221 psychology of, 87, I 711-80

agenda-setting, 163-8,211,238--9,247,250 Aitken, Jonathan, 270 Albig, William, 5,16-(,7,31,48,248,

253-6,258--60,277,279 alienation, 233-4 Allport, F. A., 11-12,37,254,256 Allport, G. W., 39, 58, 257':"9, 271, 277 Almond, G. A., 234, 26,3; 278 Altheide, D. L., 125, 2P7 Altick, R. D., !58, 201. 264, 270-1,275 Angell, Norman, 19--:iW, 255 apathy, 233 Aristotle, II art - modern, 45-6 association theory, 75 attitudes, 38ff, 82, 116-17, 211

acquired, 42, 53-4, 73-4,91-4 classified, 42-5 defined, 39-42 formation and change, 41-2, 73fT, 123,

132,204,211,246-7 function, 41, 46-7, 123 habitual, 53, 73, 137 inconsistent, 43, 50, 83 psychological theories, 73-87 sociological theories, 88--106 stability, 41,44,47-8,52,82-3, 137-8 systems, 41-5, 83

attitudinal complex, 41, 43-4, 46, 48, 71, 87, 88--9, 123, 179-80

Aynsley, Cyril, 270

Bagdikian, B. H., 161,265,271,274-5 Bagehot, Walter, 4-5, 253

Baird,J. W., 174,258,260,269,273 Baker, S. S., 271 balance theory, 86 Balfour, Michael, 139,255,267,269-70 Ball-Rokeach, Sandra, 259, 263, 265, 272,

275-7 BanduJ'a, A. S., 263 Barker, Ernest, 34, 254 Barnlund, D.C., 265, 274 Barnouw, Erik, 271 Barrow,J, A., 270-1, 276 Batscha, R. M., 277 Bauer, R. A., 183,273 Bauer, William, 37, 256 Baur, E. J" 32, 256 Beck, P. A., 263-4 Becker, Howard, 267 beliefs, 42, 44-7, 49-50, 82-4, 98, 211 Beller, E. A., 266 Bem,J. D .• 258 Bentbam • .Jeremy, I. 8, 249 Berelson, B. R., 44,233,257,262,277-8 Berlo, D. K., 253 Bernays, E. L., 254, 267 Best, James, 27, 43, 255, 257-8, 264 Bettin/1:haus, E. P., 37, 256-7, 261-3 Bevan, Aneurin, 65-6, 260 Birch, A. H., 167,272 Black, E. R., 267-8, 272, 275 Black,./. B., 269 Bluhm, W. T., 258, 263 Blumenstock, Dorothy, 266 Blumler,J.-G, 137,267,269,275-6,279 Bogardus, E. S., 13, 16-17,33,254,256 Bogart, Leo, 253, 255,261-2,266, 168--9,

278 Boorstin, D . .I., 186-7,274 Borden, G. A., 68, 83-4, 204, 259-60, 262,

274,276 brainwashing, 128, 261 Braly, K., 53, 258 Brande, W. T., 107-8,265 Breckcnrid!(,c, A. C., 153-4,270 Brehm, J. W., 262

309

310 Index

Bril{l{s, Asa, 277 Bril{ham,.J. C., 258-9 Brinton, Crane, 254 British Board of Film Censors, 218 British Broadcastinl{ Corporation, 141,

157,167,186,207,209-10,220,222-3, 243

British Council, 141 Brown, C . .J., 271-2, 276 Bruce Lockhart, R H., 273 Bruntz, G. G., 134,265-6,268,270 Bryce, .lames, 2, 9-10,13,53,113,248,

253-4,258,266 Buckalew,J. K., 161,271 Bunce, Richard, 275-6 Burke, Edmund, 24 Burns, Tom, 272, 276 Butler, David, 262 Buzzi, Giancarlo, 273-4

Cacioppo,J. T., 261-2 Campbell, Angus, 'l5, 257 Campbell, D. T., 42, 58, 259 Canada, 57, 61, 200, 205, 221, 226 Cantril, Hadley, 40, 257, 277 capitalism, 7-8,107,149-50,155-6,184-6,

206-9,212,226,228-9,238,241-3, 245

Carey,J. W., 260, 274 Carmen, I. H., 271 Carney, T. F., 267 Carr, E. H., 231, 267, 278 Carter, R. E., 271 catharsis, 128, 236, 238 Catlin, G. E. G., 270 Cauthen, N. R, 53, 258 censorship, 103, 145-58,217, 24&-7

corporate, 149-50, 155-6 in democracies, 146, 151-2, 158,237 elitist phenomenon, 150-1 forms, 154-6 moral issues, 157-8 necessity, 145-7, 152, 157,239 propaganda and, 148-9 totalitarian, 149, 154 wartime, 114, 14&-9, 154

Chaffee, S. H., 265 Chakhotin, Serp:e, 261 Chandler, R. W., 136, 177,266,268-9,273 Chase, Stuart, 260, 262 Cherry, Colin, 47, 258, 275-7 Childs, H. L., 14-17,33,37,254-6,265,

273-4 Chisman, F. P., 32, 254-6

Choukas, Michael, 113, 266, 268 Christianity, 61, 118 Churchill, Winston, 147 cOl{nition, 44-5, 53, 81-3, 87

.ref al.ro dissonance theory Cohen, A. R., 262-3 Cohen, B. C., 270, 272 Cold War, 118, 142, 170-1, 174,219,252 Collins, B. E., 263 communication

democratisation, 199-200, 202-3 effect, 77, 79-80, 102, 131,205 media, .ffe media persuasive, 79-81,91, 110, 112-13, 132,

205,211 process, 15,68,79,81,162-3,192-4,

198-205,241-2 symbols, 61, 197 systems, 197-8, 211 technolop:y, 25, 193, 19&-202 theory, 192-205 transport, 201-2

conditioned reflex, 75-6, 86, 89-90 conformity, 3, 91-6, 98,101-2,125-6,145,

149-50, 166, 186,224,236,238-40, 244,248-9

Connell, R. W., 99, 264 conservatism, 226-8 consistency, 82-4 consumerism, 187-9,227-8,244,248-51 content analysis, 129, 267 Converse, P. E., 43, 46, 48, 50-I, 257-8,

262 Cook, F . .J., 275 Cooley, C. H., 274 Coulton, G. G., 259 Cox, A. M., 154,270 Creel, Georp:e, 130, 268 Crossman, R. H. S., 114, 142,266,269,273 Crotty, W . .J., 41,257 crowds, 12,32,92 Cruikshank, C. G., 131, 160,268-9,271 Cuba, 266 culture: social/political, 22, 32, 48, 53,

68-9,90-3,96,125-6,178,197-8,212 Curran, .lames, 189,270,272,274,279 cybernetics, 83-4, 193

Dahl, R A., 278 Dance, F. E. X., 274 Dau!(herty, W. E., 171, 173-4, 272-3 Davies, J. C., 98, 264 Davison, W. P., 30, 256, 258-9, 262-3, 269,

277,279

Index 311

Dawson, R. Eo, 263 Delleur, M. L., 89, 259, 263, 265, 272,

275-7 democracy,

concept, 1-2, 12-22,25, 145, 151-2, 165-6,181,184,187,225-6,228-34, 239,241,247-8

critics, 15, 17-21,26-7,92, 1611,225, 237-8

future, 20, 26, 250--2 institutions, 6, 21-2,27,209,226,228,

230,247 lel(itimisinl( role, Jff lel(itimacy liberal democratic ideolol(Y, 5-6,9--13,

24,33,35-6,76, 100, 105-6, 112, 116,118,126,144,146,168,225-31, 235, 239--40, 246, 249

media effect, 200--1, 203, 209, 211, 219--20,240--3

models, 229--34, 247 process, 9, 22, 33-4,126-7,152,179,

241-2,247,249 Soviet, 225 Third World, 225

democratic socialism, 226 Dennis, Jack, 263 Department of PropaJ{anda in Enemy

Countries, 108 De Rivera,J. H., 261-2,276 De Tocqueville, Alexis, 5, 7, 18,224,237,

253-4 Diamond, Edwin, 135, 268 dispositions, 39--40, 78, 94 dissent, 32, 236-9 dissonance theory, 43, 81-7, 103, 138, 180 Dizard, W. P., 269 Donohew, Lewis, 271 Donohue, G. A., 272 Doob, L. W., 38,100--1,118,121,256,

259--60,264-5,267 Dorsen, Norman, 270 Dovring, Karin, 61, 259, 265, 267

Eaton, R. M., 259 Ebbesen, E. B., 40, 42,257 education, 14, 17, 19--20,57, 70, 75,97-8,

116-21,151,201 democratic concepts of, 116-21 propal(anda,Sff propaganda - education system supportive, 97,100--1,117-19,

235 ego defence, 46-7, 80 Elder, R. E., 269 elections and electorate, 14-15, 181-3

elites and c1itism, II, 17-19,25,37,61, 123, 150--1, 179, 198-9, 202-:i, 212, 215, 224, 229-30, 238

Ellul,Jacques, 109, 112, 121, 124-7, 140, 235, 26:}-7, 269, 278

Epstein, E.J., 271, 276-7 Ettlinl(er, Harold, 277 executive privileJ{e, 153-4 ~:ysenck, H.J., 39, 41, 44, 256-7, 261-2

Fagan, R. R., 266 Farago, Ladislas, 171, 174, 268, 272-3 fascism, 22, 49, 131 Fearing, Franklin, 260 Festinger, Leon, 81-2, 262 Fine, G. A., 270 Finer, Herman, 258 Finkelstein, S. W., 275 Fishman,J. A., 259 Fraser, L. M., 267 free will, 75-6, 91 Freedman, A. E. and P. Eo, 264 freedom of expression, 145-6, 157, 166,

236-40 Freeman, Ellis, 266 Freud, SiJ{mund, 76, 89 Fried, Edrith, 260 Friedman, Milton, 228 Friedrich, C . .1.,254 Fromm, Erich, 77, 89--90, 249, 261, 263,

279

Gallup, GeorJ{e, 2, 24-5, 253, 255 gatekeepers, 160--3, 168 generalisation, Jff simplification Gerbner, George, 274-5, 278 Germany, 21, 50, 65,75, 130-1, 134, 140,

I 70, 173, 177, 220, 240 Gieber, Walter, 271 Gillers, Stephen, 271 Glasgow University Media Group, 168,

272, 276 Glazer, Nathanial, 255 Goebbels,Joseph, 65, 92,112,131,140--2,

149, 173, 177 Goldhamer, Herbert, 256, 279 Goldie, G. W., 104,265,273,276-7 Golding, Peter, 253 Gordon, G. N., 265, 270, 274 Greene, Judith, 260--1 Greenstein, F. 1.,94,261,263 GreJ{o, Joseph, 273 Gregory XV, Pope, 107-8, 121 Greyser, S. A., 183,273

312 Index

Grierson, John, 216-17 GriJ.!J.!, C. M., 278 Gross, Fcliks, 48, 258 groupthink, 92-3 Gumperz, J. J., 260 Gurevitch, Michael, 267

habit, 3, 41, 52-3, 75, 90, 125 Hachten, W. A., 273 Hale, Julian, 277 Halloran,J. D., 81-2, 258, 261-4, 276 Halperin, M. H., 271 Hardy, Forsyth, 277 Hargrave, John, 268 Harrisson, Tom, 37, 86, 256, 262, 270 Hartz, Louis, 278 Hayakawa, S. I., 65-6, 259--60, 266 Hayek, F. A., 228 Heldey, Peter, 270 Heller, Caroline, 198,275 Henderson,.J. W., 269 Hennessy, B. C., 231, 263, 278 Hennessy, David, 138,267,269 Hertzler,J. 0., 64, 68,259--60,275 Herz, M. F., 266 Herzstein, R. E., 258, 269 Hess, R. D., 100--1,263-4 Hitler, Adolf, 21,46,75,142,177,219 Hoffman, D. N., 271 HOJ.!J.!art, Richard, 131, 265, 268, 274 Hollander, G. D., 148, 270 Holt, R. T., 273 Horowitz, Gad, 278 Hovland, C.I., 79--81, 132,261-3,265,268 Huff, Darrell, 113, 266 human nature, 16, 89--90, 203 Hume, David, 2, 253 Hunnings, N. M., 145,270 Huxley, Aldous, 76, 126,248,261,279 Hyman, H. H., 255

ideology, 45, 48-9, 53, 232, 235-6 image-makinJ.!, 15,54,212 Independent BroadcastinJ.! Authority, 157,

210 Index of Prohibited Books, 157 information, 14,21,25,30-1,50-1,79--82,

139--40,160-2,194,213,234,243,246 control,53, 125, 148, 150-2, 154-5, 161,

205 Innis, H. A., 195-6,211,213,271,275,277 Institute for Defence Analysis, 136 Institute for Propaganda Analysis, 109--10,

129

intellectualism, 16, 19,21 interest J.!roups, 33-4 International Communication AJ.!ency,

122,267 isolation, 92, 112

Jacobs, N . .1.,260 Janis, I. L., 78, 92, 261, 263 JenninJ.!s, M. K., 263 Johnson,J. M., 125,267 Jones, R. A., 258

Katz, Daniel, 39, 41, 53, 257-8 Kelly, Sean, 271 Kelman, H. C., 92, 263 Key, V. 0., 6, 9, 11,26,30,33,36,253,

255-6 Klapper,J. T., 268, 276 Knapp, R. H., 271 Knightley, Phillip, 148,270-1,276 Krech, David, 48, 68, 257, 260, 262

Lane, R. E., 23, 49, 77-8, 99, 232, 255-6, 258,261,263-5,276-8

Langton, K. P., 94, 263 languaJ.!e,64-72, 124, 193

connotation and denotation, 71-2 control throuJ.!h, 70--2 meaninJ.!. Sff meaninJ.! socioloJ.!y of, 67-71, 95 symbolism, 64-6 word magic, 66-7

Larson, Arthur, 266 Larson, Cedric, 268 Laski, H. J., 278 Lasswell, H. D., 24-5, 32, 38, 53, 75, 77, 95,

111,116-17,124,128,169,236-7, 255-6,258-9,261,264-7,272,278-9

latency, 38 La Violette, F., 257 Lawton, Dennis, 260 Lazarsfeld,P.F., 130,212,268,272,276-7 learning theory, 79--81,86,97-8 Le Bon, Gustave, 12,92,254,263 Lee, A. M. and E. B., 109--10,265 legitimacy, 3, 17,32,48,93,98,125,127,

148, 205, 225 Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut, 257 Leigh, David, 270 Leigh, R. D., 277 Leiserson, Avery, 26, 255 Lerner, Daniel, 174, 266, 269, 273, 279 liberalism, 226-30, 247

Jee also democracy, liberal democratic ideoloJ.!y

Index 313

libertarians, 145, 157-8,239-40 Lifton, R. j., 261 Linebarger, P. M., 171, 174, 272-3 linguistic determinism, 67-8, 194 Lippincott, B. E., 19,254 Lippmann, Walter, 6, 20-2, 28,53-5,233,

253-5,259,278 Lipsitz, Lewis, 278 literacy, 6-7, 151,201,203,219 Litt, Edgar, 101,264 Littlejohn, David, 277 Lochner, L. P., 269 Locke, John, 119 Loewenstt'in, Karl, 259 logical consistency, 84 Lowell, A. L., 34-5, 256 Lowenthal, Leo, 268 Lumley, F. E., 115,266

McCarthy,joseph, 13,50-1,142,236 McClosky, Herbert, 262 McClure, R. D., 183,272-3,276-7,279 McCombs, M. E., 272 McDiarmid, Garnet, 57, 259 McGinnis,Joe, 181,273-4 McGuffey Readers, 95 McGuire, M.j., 262 Machiavelli, Niccolo, 251 Maciver, Robert, 32, 256 Mackinnon, W. A., 8, 246, 253, 279 McLaine, Ian, 114,255,257,266,269-71 McLuhan, Marshall, 194-7,274 MacNeill, Robert, 155,271,273-4,276,279 Macpherson, C. B., 229, 278 McQuail, Denis, 197,261-2,268,271,

274-6, 279 Madge, john, 275, 279 Maisel, Richard, 275 majorities, 5-7, 18,21 Mander, jerry, 277 Manvell, Roger, 277 Margolin, L..J., 273 Marsh, David, 264 Marshall, James, 261 Martin, L.j., 79,131,219,262,268,277 masses, 5, 7-8,11-12,17,19,21-2,31-2,

61,92, 123,224 Mathews,J . .J.,269 Matthews, T. S., 134,268 meaning, 60, 64-6, 71 media

access to, 200, 203 American, Set United States - media

audiences, 15, 104, 164-5, 199,204,219, 223

commercial, 150, 155-6, 165, 167, 183-6, 189-90,206,218,220,240,242-3, 245

effect and power, 85, 103-5, 135, 163-4, 166-8, 190-1, 194-7,200-24, 241-4, 251

film, 80, 104,133,216--18,241 local, 160-2 mass, 102-3, 195-200,203,211-12,224,

240 medium as message, 193-7 organisation and control, 14-15, 149-50,

155-6, 161-2, 198,202,205-10, 213-14,222,238,240,243

print, 57, 85,103,131-2,135,153-4, 160-4,177,183,186,205-7,213-16, 218,241,243

radio and television, 15, 103-4,'131, 135, 155-7, 160-1, 165-6, 183-4, 194, 198-202,206,209-15,218-24, 240-2, 244

role and function, 14-15, 54, 103-5, 124, 155-6,163-4,167,186,195-6,203, 206-7,210,212-13,215,220,240-7

social values, 104-5, 186--9 socialisation role, 103-5 socially determined, 195-7,201-2,204,

208-9, 211, 223 superficiality, 104-5,203,211,244 system supporting, 85, 161-2, 165-7,

199,206-11,218,239-40,244, 249-50

technology, 197-202,213 totalitarian, 208, 243,

Meerloo,J. A. M., 76, 261 memory, 86, 213 Merton, R. K., 212, 268, 272, 276-7 Michels, Robert, 25 Miliband, Ralph, 270, 279 MiII,.J. S., 18,224,229,254,277 Milton, John, 157 Minar, D. W., 255 Ministry for People's Enlightenment and

Propaganda, 112, 141-2 Minogue, Kenneth, 278 Mock,.J. R., 268 Monroe, A. D., 10-11,23,254-5,262 morale, 41,136,171,175 Moseley, Joseph,S, 253 Mueller, Claus, 67-8, 238-9, 260-1, 264,

279 Mumford, Lewis, 90, 263

314 Index

Murphy, David, 162-3,272 Murrow, E. R., 266 Murty, B. S., 92,123-5,258,260,263,267,

279 Mussolini, Benito, 49 myth, 49--50, 90

narcotisin/l: dysfunction, 213, 277 nationalism, 61, 69, 107, III, 118 Newcomb, T. M., 40, 257 news, 103, 114, 139, 159--64, 168, 183-4,

206-7,210-11,222-3,242 Niemi, R. G., 98, 263, 264 Nimmo, Dan, 181,258,260,265,273,276 Nisbet, Robert, 256 Nixon, Richard, 154, 181 Noelle-Neumann, Elisabeth, 37, 256, 263 normative theory, 22, 26 Northcliffe, Lord, 108 Northern Ireland, 209 Novak, Michael, 275-6

Odc/l:ard, P. H., 264 Office of War Information, 143 O/l:den, C. K., 259--60 opinions

expressed, 37, 40 nature of, 4, 9--11, 14, 34-8 real, 35-6, 82 stability, 38 Jee also public, public opinion

Ortc/l:a y Gassett, jose, 2-3, 19, 253-4 Orwell, Geor/l:e, 67-8,72, 126, 144,240,

248, 265 OS/l:ood, C. E., 64, 260

Paine, Tom, 158 Palmer, R. A., 253 participation, 4, 7, 21-2, 127,232-3,248 patriotism, 100-1, III, 118 Patterson, T. E., 85, 126, 183,262,267,

272-3,276-7,279 Paulu, Berton, 279 Pavlov, I. P., 75-6 Pearlin, L. I., 274 Pearson, john, 135, 189,268,274 peer /l:roups, 58,88--9,91-2,97, 101-2 Perkin, Harold, 275 personality, 22, 48--9, 77-9 Petti/l:rew, T. F., 262 Petty, R. E., 261-2 Phelan, john, 270-1 Piepe, Anthony, 272, 274-5 Plato, II, 18--19,54,97, 157 pluralism, 93, 229--31, 233, 245, 247

Political and Economic Plannin/l:, 163-4, 272

political warfare, .<if psycholol(ical warfare politics, salience of, 26-7, 137,243 Ponsonby, A. P., 266, 273 Postman, Leo, 271 Potter, A. M., 274 Pratt, David, 57, 259 pro/l:ress, beliefin, 227 propa/l:anda,6, 107ff, 173, 191,246

actions, 169 advertisinl(, see advertisinl( a/l:encies and or/l:anisations, III, 140-1 American, 80, 114, 118, 126, 130, 134,

136, 142-3, 175-7 analysis and research, 109--10, 112-15,

121, 129--35 atrocity, 134, 148, I 75-6 audience for, 129--30, 137 British,65, 114, 130, 141, 144, 150,269 bureaucratic, 125-6 censorship, set censorship - propaganda connotations of term, 107-9, 112-13,

116, 120-1, 124 danl(ersof, 10,21,108,113,115-16,124,

126, 131, 181-2 definition, 107-24, 169 democratic, 25, 105-6, 113, 126, 143,

181-2,220,235-8 education, 100, 116-21,235 effect and power, 76, 80, 84, 87, 102,

110-14,126-7,130-44,178 elitist, 123 function, 53, 110-12, 118, 123, 125-8,

236 German, 50,65,75,131,134,140-1,

169--70, 220 international, 129, 131, 135-6, 141-3,

220 media, 103, 117, 124, 126, 133,216-18 methods and techniques, 15,46-7,86,

92-3,109--10,113-14,118--21,124, 128--9, 134, 138--9

policy input, 143-4 psycholo/l:y, 75-6 sociolo/l:ical, 124-7,235 Soviet, 76, 131, 220 system sustainin/l:, 91, 125-7, 133,236 totalitarian, 128, 131, 148, 220, 235, 293 truth in, Jef truth typolo/1:Y, 128--9 wartime, 22, 41, 65, 80, 108, 110-11,

113-15,130-7,139,141-3,148,150, 159--60,170,172-5,217,220

Index 315

propal/:andists, 60, 86, 91, 93, III, 113, 117-18, 122-4, 133, 135, 138

Prothro, j. W., 278 psycholol/:ical warfare, 108, 114, 128, 136,

170-8 effectiveness, 172-5, 177-8 orl/:anisation, 172-4, 177 psycholol/:y, methods and theories, 22,

25,39,73-89, 121, 133 public, 9,26,30-34

see also opinion, public opinion public interest, 31 public opinion

authority, 1,8, 10, 12, 18,21,26-9, 187 defined, 1,8-16,20-1,31,38,246 democratic concept, 1-3,9, 12-13, 17,

25, 28-9, 33 emerl/:ence of, 4-7 informed/rational, 1,8-11,13-15,20-1,

25,31,35--7,112-13,116,126,168, 181,231

manipulators, 22-5, 38, 42, 86, 240 orl/:anic unity, 11-12, 18 power and influence, 1-5,7,9,17,21-8,

33, 127, 132,232,237,241,250-2 research and analysis, 23-4, 30, 33, 37-8 role, 1-3,5--7,13,17,22-6,51,127,232 stratified, 7-8, 50-I

public opinion pollinl/:, 2, 23-4, 28-9, 40 Pye, L. W., 275

Qualter, T. H., 255, 266-7, 270-1, 276-7

race, 50, 57, 103, 161 Radio Free Europe, 220 Rae, S. F., 253, 255 Ranney,j. C., 253 rationalism, 6, 8, 228 rational politics, 1,8-9, 11-16, 19--22,46,

57,76,107,112,151-2,168,182, 190-1,231,246,251

Read, j. M., 273 reality, subjective, 47, 54-6, 85, 90, 95,103,

125, 136-7, 148, 159--60, 194,210-11 reality testin/(, 47-8, 59, 80, 92, 236 referenda, 2, 127 reinforcement, 62,75,79, 100-1, 133, 137,

211,218 Reynolds, Rel/:inald, 265 Richards, I. A., 259--60 Riesman, David, 112,255,266 Righter, Rosemary, 273 Roberts, D. F., 262, 265 Robinson,j. P., 276

RoNter, Charles, 140, 174,266,269,273 ROl/:ow, A. A., 274 Rokeach, Milton, 40, 42-4,78,257-8,261,

273 Roosevelt, F. D., 164 Rose, Richard, 273 Rosenau,j. N., 256 Rosenberl/:, M. j., 82-3, 257-8, 262, 274 Rosnow, R. L., 270 Rosten, L. C., 277 Rourke, F. E., 270 Rousseau,j.j.,8, 12, 119 Rubin, Bernard, 271, 275, 279 Rubin, R. I., 269 rumour, 158-60 Russell, Bertrand, 158, 255, 276, 279

Sacra Conl/:rel/:atio de Propal/:anda Fide, 107

Saldich, A. R., 240, 274-6, 279 Sapir, Edward, 194,274 Sarl/:ant, W. W., 261 Sarnoff, IrvinI/:, 41, 257 Sartori, Giovanni, 278 Saunders, D. A., 264 Schiller, H. I., 150,245,268,270,276,279 Schwartz, D. C. and Sandra, 98-9, 264 Searinl/:, D. D., 98, 264 Sears, D.O., 23, 255--6, 263, 265 Seaton, jean, 189,270,272,274,279 secrecy in I/:overnment, 146-7, 151-4,

246-7, 250 selective perception, 45--6, 54, 85, 102, 199,

204-5, 246 sentiments, 39 Seth, Ronald, 273 Seymour-Ure, Colin, 85, 262, 277 Shannon, C. E., 274 Shaw, D. L., 272 Sherif, C. W., 258 Shibutani, Tamotsu, 271 Sil/:e1, Roberta, 94, 261, 263 Silvert, K. H., 259 simplification, 54-6 Sinclair, Upton, 46 Skinner, B. F., 65, 260 Smith, Adam, 227, 278 Smith, Anthony, 271, 276-7 Smith, B. L., 268 Smith, C. W., 255 Smith, M. B., 261-2 social class, 7-8,17-19,23,69--70,95,

100-1, 106, 149--51, 168, 187-9, 198, 201,203,229--30

316 Index

Social Darwinism, 228-9 social norms, 78, 101, 105-6,212 social sciences, 7, 16,22,25 socialisation, 25, 53,78,91-106, 125, 128,

193,207,235-6,246 ap:encies, 98-105, 117-18 childhood, 97-8, 117-18 class, 95, 101 definition, 94 effectiveness, 91-106 process and theories, 15, 94-9 studies, 94, 96--8, 102, 104,263 system maintaininp:, 94-8, 106 ,fie also education

Society for the Suppression of Vice, 158 sociolop:y, methods and theories, 73-4,

88-9 Sorel, Georp:es, 49, 258 Sorensen, T. C., 143-4,266,269 South Africa, 103, 217 Speier, Hans, 4,9, 253, 272-3, 275 Spencer, Herbert, 228-9 Squires,J. D., 134, 141,268-9 Steiner, G. A., 44, 264-5 Steiner, I. D., 257 stereotypes, 53-9, 73, 87, 92, 96, 217,

222-3, 246 classification, 55-6 fictions, 54 function, 54-5, 58-9 process, 54-8 stability, 57-9

stimulus-response theory, 75-6, 86, 203-4 Stokes, D., 262 Stuart, Campbell, 130, 268-9 Summers, R. E., 267 survey research, 73, 88-9, 129-30 symbols and symbolism, 59-64, 92, 119,

127 conventional, 60,64,71 defined, 60 forms, 61-3 function, 63-4 map:ic,63 manipulation, 60, 62, 66,71-2,86,

123-4, 169 national, 61-2, III, 127 persistence of, 66 reference, 60, 63-4, 71 verbal, Sfe lanp:uap:e

Talleyrand, C. M. de, 3 Tate & Lyle Ltd, 186 terrorism, 169-70

Thatcher, Marp:aret, 153 Thompson, Denys, 276 Thomson, Oliver, 128,265-7,275 Thouless, R. H., 259 Tichenor, P. J., 275-6 Torney,J. V., 100-1,264 Tracey, Michael, 273-4, 276--7 tradition, 52-3, 90 Treleaven, Harry, 181 Trenaman, Joseph, 262 Triandis, H. C., 257, 261 Trotter, Wilfred, 263 Trueblood, D. E., 257 truth, 109, 113-15, 120-1,210 Turner, Graham, 135, 189,268,274

United Kinp:dom media, 85, 135, 153,156--7,162, 168, 186,

201,207,209-10,212,222 Ministry of Information, 114 official secrecy, 152-3 political parties, 135, 167, 182 social class, 23, 70,106,131-2,147,150,

162, 167,201 United States

army, 80 democracy,S, 9-10, 33, 36, 49, 142,

154-5, 230 education, 98, 100, 116 electoral politics, 4, 23, 33, 166--7, 181 forei~n policy, 142-3 Justice Department, 158 media, 103, 150, 156, 161-2, 167, 183-6,

205,207,217,220-1,223,245-6 official secrecy, 153-4 patriotism, 61, 100 political extremism, 142-3,220-1,275 public opinion in, 13,23,26,33,36 socialisation, 95-6, 98-100

United States Information Ap:ency, 112, 142-3, 176, 267

urban-industrial society, 93, 105, 124-5, 195

USSR, 21,33, 76, III, 117, 140, 148, 173-5, 220, 240, 251

Ustinov, Peter, 279

values, 44, 46--7, 83, 90, 94, 103-5 Vance, James, 61 Van de Velde, R. W., 273 Verba, Sidney, 234, 263, 278 Viereck, G. S., 265, 268 Vietnam, 13,67, 114, 125, 136, 176--7,210,

266

Voice of America, 175 voting behaviour, 212, 230

Index 317

Wallas, Graham, 16,20--1,108,158,231,

Wiebe, G. D., 39, 257 Wilensky, H. L., 245, 279 Williams, David, 153, 270 Williams, E. F., 148,270 Wilson, F. G., 10,253-5,267 Windelsham, Lord, 271, 279 Winkler, A. M., 269 Wooddy, C. H., 267 Woodward,J. L., 2, 253

254,265,271 Watergate, 26, 166,207 Weaver, D. H. 272 Weaver, W., 274 Weissberg, Robert, 31, 98, 255, 264, 278 Westergaard, John, 274 White, D. M., 271 White, Llewellyn, 277 White, Theodore, 164,272 Whitehead, A. N., 259 Whitton,.J. B., 266 Whorf,8. L., 67, 194,260,274

word magic, .ret language - word magic writing, 202, 213-14

Young, Kimball, 32, 256

Zeman, Z. A. 8., 174, 269, 273 Zimbardo, Philip, 40, 42, 257

Notes and References

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