New Archaeological Sites and finds on Zakynthos

Pharos 19(1), 127-159. doi: 10.2143/PHA.19.1.3009293© 2013 by Pharos. All rights reserved.

New archaeological sites and finds on Zakynthos

GERT JAN VAN WIJNGAARDEN, GEORGIA KOURTESSI-PHILIPPAKIS &NIENKE PIETERS

Abstract

The archaeology on Zakynthos is less well-known than that on the other Ionian islands. Partly, this is the result of a lack of archaeological research and partly because the archaeological record on the island shows a high degree of destruction and fragmentation. Since 2006, the participants of the Zakynthos Archaeology Project, which is aimed specifically to deal with such a difficult archaeological landscape, have been applying a range of interrelated methodologies to investigate the archaeology of the island. It has become clear that Zakynthos has known human activities and habitation from early prehistory to the present day. The archaeological record, albeit frag-mented, is particularly rich for the Palaeolithic, the Late Bronze Age and the Hellenistic-Roman periods. The project of landscape archaeology presented here, begins to reveal the significance of the archaeology at Zakynthos.

Keywords

Zakynthos – landscape archaeology – prehistoric archaeology – Classical Greece – Roman archaeology.

Introduction

Zakynthos has received much less archaeological attention than the islands of Ithaca and Kefalonia or the nearby western Peloponnese. To some extent, this may be the result of the fact that Zakynthos is identifiably mentioned by Homer in the Iliad and the Odyssey as part of Odysseus’ realm.1 Much of the archaeological research on the Ionian islands has been spurred on by the search for Homeric Ithaca.2 Since Zakynthos has been identified, it could not be Ithaca and has, therefore, received less archaeological attention. Also, very few standing archaeological remains are visible on the island. In fact, Zakynthos has been referred to as ‘the least interesting of all the islands in its historical associations’.3

1 Iliad 2.2.634; Odyssey 1.286, 9.26. 2 Souyoudzoglou-Haywood 1999, 9-10. Steinhart & Wirbelauer 2002. 3 Ansted 1863, 435.

128 G.J. VAN WIJNGAARDEN, G. KOURTESSI-PHILIPPAKIS & N. PIETERS

Figure 1. Map of Zakynthos with places mentioned in the text

NEW ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AND FINDS ON ZAKYNTHOS 129

Since 2006, the 35th Ephorate for Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities (EPKA) and the Netherlands Institute at Athens have cooperated in the Zakynthos Archae-ology Project.4 The aim of the project is to relate the spatial and chronological distribution of archaeological materials to the dynamics of the island’s landscape. To this aim, a range of interrelated research methodologies have been applied: archaeological reconnaissance, archaeological surface survey, geomorphologic landscape research, remote sensing, historical research, limited excavation (test trenches) and material research on finds. Fieldwork of the Zakynthos Archaeology Project has ended after the 2012 campaign and the project members are currently preparing the final publication.

The core of the Zakynthos Archaeology Project is a comparison between three selected areas on the island: research areas A, B and C (Figure 2). Within these three areas, all of the main geological zones are represented. At the same time, these areas vary considerably in terms of landscape types and topography. More-over, in each research area at least one archaeological site, already known from before the first campaign, is located. In each of the three research areas, several transects, consisting of adjoining fields in coherent landscape units, were investigated by systematic field walking. The total area covered by systematic field walking covers somewhat more than 500 ha and some 85,000 finds were collected, mostly pottery fragments and lithic artefacts.5

The results of the Zakynthos Archaeology Project as a whole will be published in a separate volume and in scientific articles and on websites, which are cur-rently being prepared. For this article, a chronological overview will be given of the most significant sites and finds on Zakynthos. Due to the absence of pub-lished stratigraphic excavations on the island, the chronological periods distin-guished here are deliberately broad and overlapping. The article is based on a pre-liminary list of archaeological find concentrations and sites that were explored in the context of the Zakynthos Archaeology Project from 2006 to 2012 (Appendix 1; Figure 1).

4 Project directors are Andreas Sotiriou (35th EPKA) and Gert Jan van Wijngaarden (University of Amsterdam). The project started with a pilot survey in 2005. For preliminary fieldwork reports, see Van Wijngaarden et al. 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010. 5 In research area A (Lithakia) 1524 tracts, comprising 110 ha. were systematically surveyed in 2009 and 2012 (c. 20,000 finds). In research are B (Machairado) 1943 tracts, comprising 186 ha were sys-tematically surveyed in 2007 and 2008 (c. 46,000 finds). In research area C (Vasilikos), 1171 tracts, comprising 241 ha were systematically surveyed in 2006 and 2010 (c. 20,000 finds). In addition to systematic fieldwalking, less intensive methods such as reconnaissance surveys and ‘walk-overs’ were carried out.


Prehistory: lithic artefacts

Earlier research had already testified to the presence at Zakynthos of lithic arte-facts dating to the Palaeolithic, the Neolithic and the Bronze Age.6 Of particular importance has been the research by A. Sordinas, who surveyed the island from 1965 to 1967 and identified eight places with lithic artefacts and/or prehistoric pottery. The evidence of lithic artefacts indicates that the island had a frequent human presence from the Middle Palaeolithic onwards.7 Nevertheless, the lack of stratigraphic deposits on the island makes it difficult to assess these finds in a

6 Zapfe 1937; Sordinas 1970; Kourtessi-Philippakis 1993, 1999; Kourtessi-Philippakis & Sorel 1996. 7 Kourtessi-Philippakis 1999, 286.

Figure 2. The three research area of the Zakynthos Archaeology Project projected onto a geological map of the island. Research was done in Area A (Lithakia, Limni Keriou) during 2009 and 2012;in area B (Machairado, Koiliomenos) during 2007 and 2008; in area C (Vasilikos) during 2006

and 2010


secure chronological framework. In all cases, the lithics have been found at open air sites or in off-site material. Study of these lithic assemblages, taking into account raw material, technology and typology, is still in progress.8

In the period from ca 125,000 to 6,000 BP, the sea level has fluctuated between – 120 and – 20 meter below the present level and, consequently, the island of Zakynthos was much larger during most of the Palaeolithic period.9 Even though Zakynthos probably was attached to Kefalonia and Ithaki during parts of the Pleistocene, the group of islands remained insular and detached from the Greek mainland. Moreover, geological research indicates that the peninsula of Vasilikos was detached from the rest of Zakynthos and constituted a separate island until the end of the Bronze Age.10 The presence of early humans at Zakynthos during Palaeolithic times, therefore, must have involved some type of seafaring.11

One reason for the interest in Zakynthos during early prehistory may have been the presence of raw materials for lithic tools on the island. Flint and chert occur as nodules in the limestone mountains of the Vrachionas range (Figure 3) and in the hills on the peninsula of Vasilikos.12 In 2006, the geological team noted a 7 metre thick conglomerate section on the Yerakas peninsula in research area C, with flint/chert content in the form of large nodules.13 In addition to these pri-mary sources of flint, pebble flint collected from secondary sources, such as terrace and beaches, were also used as raw material.

In total, some 10,000 lithic artefacts have been collected in the course of the Zakynthos Archaeology Project. They occur in all three of the research areas and constitute a substantial proportion of the surface finds. Nevertheless, the three research areas differ in the extent to which lithic artefacts occur as off-site materials and in the raw materials that were used.

In research area B, in the centre of the island, around the town of Machairado, lithic finds, which here represent 42% of the lithic material collected during the Zakynthos Archaeology Project, are widely distributed: in 41% of all tracts lithic artefacts were present.14 This ‘carpet of lithics’ in research area B indicates an

8 The study of the lithics is coordinated by Prof. G. Kourtessi-Philippakis and her students from the National and Kapodistrian University at Athens. All results presented here are preliminary. For an overview, see Kourtessi-Philippakis et al. 2009. 9 Vött 2007; Ferentinos et al. 2012, 2172-2173. Since 6,000 BP, sea water levels have been continually rising, see Lambeck & Purcell 1995. 10 Van Wijngaarden et al. in press. 11 See also Strasser et al. 2010; Ferentinos et al. 2012. 12 The terms chert and flint are used fairly loosely here. Both are siliceous rocks with at least 95% fine-grained silica (SiO2). For a discussion, see Luedtke 1992, 5; Andrefsky Jr 1998, 53-56. 13 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2006, 39, see pl. IV for a photograph of the section with nodules of flint/chert (tract 4006A). 14 In these figures, both artefacts and production debris were present, as well as natural, unworked flint. For fieldwalkers it is often very difficult to distinguish natural from worked flint.


important human presence and activity in an area where raw material is abundant. The western part of research area B consists of the limestone hills of the Vrachionas anticline.15 Here, natural flint nodules appear to be present in primary position in the limestone (Figure 3). Several concentrations of lithic artefacts are also present in these hills, mostly on unstable slopes, which makes it difficult to consider them to be in situ.16 However, a horizontal plateau above the Achiouri valley, which was explored in 2007 and showed signs of heavy bulldozing, yielded a palaeosol and an important concentration (c. 300 pieces) of lithic artefacts.17 The finds from this site are still being studied, but the first stages of the reduction sequence (chaîne opératoire) appear to be present, indicating the production in situ of blanks for lithic tools.

The eastern slopes of these mountains and the foothills and the transitional zone towards the central plain in the west, have extensive Holocene deposits. The wide distribution of lithic artefacts in these Holocene deposits, must be the result of post-depositional erosion and sedimentation. However, it is interesting to note that in the low-lying Holocene soil, there are concentrations of lithic artefacts, such as at Mouzaki Brouma.18 At Brouma, very high densities of lithic artefacts were attested, of which a sample of 760 pieces was collected in 2008. Preliminary technological and typological study of these materials confirmed that they have Mousterian trends and then can be dated to the Middle Palaeolithic (Figure 4).

15 Zelilidis et al. 1998. 16 Rick 1976. OSL dating of one of these deposits indicated a date of c. 800 BC for the deposit, which is clearly too late for the artefacts that belonged to a Palaeolithic industry. Obviously the deposit was the result of subsequent erosion. 17 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2007, 51; eid. 2008, 75. 18 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2005, 68-69; eid. 2008, 74.

Figure 4. Characteristic lithic finds from Mouzaki-Brouma (tract 3369)

Figure 3. A sizeable nodule of natural flint near Machairado-Palaiokastro in the

Vrachionas mountains


In research area C, the peninsula of Vasilikos, lithic artefacts, which here repre-sent 24% of the lithic material, are also widely distributed but in a different way: they occur in small numbers in most tracts. However, a big difference with research area B is the raw material that has been used: the great majority of lithic artefacts at Vasilikos is made of flint pebbles (Figures 5 & 6). A. Sordinas had already reported on the similarities of some pebble tools from the Vasilikos area with those found at Sidari (Corfu), as well as with the galets amenagés that have been found in Kyllini on the nearby Peloponnesian coast.19 The abundance of flint pebble tools, with different degrees of patina, suggests that they may have been produced through the Palaeolithic period and even in later prehistory.20 Several concentrations of lithic artefacts were already known from area C at Vasilikos-Ayios Nikolaos and the peninsula of Yerakas.21 Our surveys have yielded several new find spots.22 Of particular interest were two find spots on Yerakas, (tracts 2006 and 3006-3009 respectively), where flint tools, as well as obsidian blades and pottery indicate activities in the Neolithic and/or the Bronze Age (Figures 7 & 8).

In research area A, near Lithakia and Limni Keriou, lithic artefacts collected represent 33% of the lithic material. On the northern slopes of the lake of Keri

19 Sordinas 1970, 126. For Kyllini, see Leroi-Gourhan 1964; Chavaillon et al. 1969. 20 Cf. Darlas 1999. 21 Kourtessi-Philippakis 1993, 35-39; Kourtessi-Philippakis & Sorel 1996. 22 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2006, 36-37; id. 2010, 49-51.

Figures 5 & 6. Lithic finds from the Vasilikos peninsula. Choppers on flint pebble(tract 3130 and 2235)


lithic artefacts were discovered together with prehistoric pottery.23 In addition, two concentrations of lithic artefacts were attested, one to the west of Lithakia-Kamaroti and a second one at Perlakia.24 The assemblage from Perlakia is of a particular interest. The majority of the artefacts are made of a grey flint with a

23 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2009, 78 fig. 6 A-D. In the 1930s H. Zapfe collected lithic artefacts and pottery at the prominent hill of Kastelli, see Zapfe 1937, 158-163; Sordinas 1970, 128; Kourtessi-Philippakis 1993, 34. Even though building activities have taken place in recent years at Kastello,we managed to retrieve some lithic artefacts and pottery, confirming the archaeological site that was seen by Zapfe. 24 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2009, 79 fig. 6 F (Perlakia) and 7 E (west of Kamaroti).

Figures 7 & 8. Lithic finds from the northwestern find concentrationat Gerakas (tracts 3006-3009). An appointed blade with lateral retouch

and an obsidian blade

Figure 9. Lithic find from Perlakia (tracts 2912-14).A denticulate on flake


heavy reddish patina, but a white patinated flint is also present associated with a blade technology and two small pieces of obsidian were found. The assemblage with the heavy patina is characterized by a flake technology. An important part of the flakes present on the dorsal face radial removals. This observation, in relation with the fact that some flakes also carry parts of discoid cores, of which some entire examples are preserved, allows us to understand the procession of detach-ment. The presence of some other short and wide flakes with a long and largebutt (‘deversé’), also supports the evidence of the discoid technology applied to our assemblage (Figure 9). More over, Levallois technology typical of the Middle Palaeolithic is missing.25

It is clear that the rich sources of lithic raw materials at Zakynthos were exploited for an exceptionally long period, stretching from the Middle Palaeolithic to the Bronze Age (and perhaps later). Further study of the lithics will provide us with more indications of the chronology and nature of the human presence on Zakynthos during early prehistory.

Prehistory: Bronze Age pottery

Much of the pottery on Zakynthos that can be identified with any certainty as prehistoric, is coarse with a dark-grey to black core and orange to red exterior margins (Figures 10-11). The chronology of this type of pottery is extremely dif-ficult to assess and generally is assumed to encompass the Bronze Ages and the Iron Age up to the 8th century BC.26 The lack of stratigraphic excavations onthe island makes it impossible to assign a secure chronology to most of our sur-face finds, which are mostly wall fragments without clear morphological charac-teristics.

Prehistoric pottery is fairly widely distributed in research area A. On the slopes north of Limni Keriou small concentrations of worn fragments of this type of pottery were discovered, in several cases together with small amounts of lithics and, in one case, a piece of obsidian.27 Considering the thin spread of artefacts, one could think of a landscape with farmsteads or small hamlets. These may also have been situated on and around Lithakia-Kamaroti, where prehistoric pottery was widely distributed on the surface, but also found in fragments during the

25 Sordinas 1970. 26 Hammond 1967, 299-302, figs 11-16; Dakaris 1951, 177-183; Tartaron 2004, 71-84; Lima 2013, 40-42. See also, Livitsanis, this volume, who assigns this type of pottery to the Neolithic, making the possible time span of this pottery even longer. N. Pieters (University of Amsterdam) is currently conducting systematic macroscopic and microscopic research into the different pottery types at Zakynthos for her PhD thesis. 27 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2009, 71 and fig. 6.


excavations conducted in 2012 (see below). In contrast, in research area B, in the center of the island near Machairado, prehistoric pottery is limited to the area of Palaiokastro, which is a hill with remains from many different periods.

Research area C, the peninsula of Vasilikos, also shows a landscape with small and scattered concentrations of prehistoric pottery. In addition, there are two concentrations of prehistoric material, in the hills of Doretes to the west of the village of Vasilikos and at Cape Kaloyeros, near Porta Roma. The site of Doretes was discovered during the campaign of 2010.28 It is situated on two plateaus on the top of a hilly ridge, which provides a majestic view of Vasilikos and of the Bay of Laganas. The pottery from the two plateaus consists mostly of wall fragments of generic prehistoric appearance, which is hard to define chronologically. In addi-tion, a spindle whorl was found (Figure 12) and some pottery fragments decorated

with applied bands with circular impres-sions (Figure 10) and with crescent-shaped impressions (Figures 13-14). Pre-liminary study of the finds from Doretes suggests a date in the Early or Middle Bronze Age. However, at least one kylix stem dating to Mycenaean times has also been found.

Some 2 km east of Doretes, on the east coast of Vasilikos near the small harbour of Porto Roma, the site of

28 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2010, 43-45.

Figures 10 & 11. Typical examples of prehistoric pottery from research area C (Vasilikos)and research area A (Lithakia-Kamaroti)

Figure 12. Part of a spindle whorl from Vasilikos-Doretes


Cape Kaloyeros also has yielded prehis-toric finds.29 A large fragment of a high-footed bowl (Figure 15) has good paral-lels at Lefkada and can be dated in the Early Helladic period.30 At least one pot-tery fragment with a flaring neck of a coarse jar (Figure 16) can be dated tothe Middle Helladic period, while vari-ous coarse fragments may originate in this period as well. The proximity of Doretes and Kaloyeros (the two sites are in clear visible range from each other) and the chronological overlap between them, suggests that the two sites were related economically or culturally.

The Late Bronze Age

In spite of the fact that not much archae-ological research has been conductedon Zakynthos, it has long been known that the island was important during

29 Von Stein & Van Wijngaarden 2010. 30 Kilian-Dirlmeier 2005, 104: nos 53-54, Tafels 40, 69-3. These fragments come from an occupation layer near the ‘R tombs’ at Steno in the Nidri plain.

Figures 13-14. Prehistoric pottery with crescent–shaped impressed decoration fromVasilikos-Doretes

Figure 15. Early Helladic fragment of a high-footed bowl with a chunk of clay inserted

in the foot from Vasilikos-Kaloyeros

Figure 16. Middle Helladic flaring neck of a coarse ware jar from Vasilikos-Kaloyeros


the Mycenaean period.31 Zakynthos is mentioned three times on Linear B tablets from Pylos and there were Zakynthian rowers present in the Messenian state.32 Moreover, several monumental Mycenaean tombs have been excavated at Zakyn-thos, of which the built tomb at Keri is still visible.33 A large Mycenaean tholos tomb was excavated in 1934 by S. Benton and H. Lorimer at Akroteri near Alika-nas.34 The tomb was never properly published, but, apparently, there were three pits dug in the floor and there were at least five burials present. Another tholos, likewise never published, was excavated in 1974 near the town of Planos.35 Of particular significance is the Mycenaean cemetery that was accidently discovered during road construction in 1971 near the town of Kambi.36 Fourteen rectangular pit graves were cut in the limestone rock of a hill called Vigla in the remote west-ern part of the island (Figure 1). On the basis of the pottery present in the tombs, the graves have been dated in the Late Bronze Age: from Late Helladic IIB-IIIA1 to Late Helladic IIIC.37

In addition to Mycenaean graves, settlement remains from the same period have also been found on Zakynthos. S. Benton and H. Lorimer discovered a Mycenaean house near the tholos tomb at Alikanas-Akroteri and they investigated a well with Mycenaean sherds at Katastari.38 Nowadays, the exact location of both sites is unclear. Moreover, Benton and Lorimer also excavated Mycenaean houses at Cape Kaloyeros, in Vasilikos.39 These excavations were never published, but among the pottery were, apparently, several fragments of Late Helladic I-II Vapheio cups decorated with tentacles of an Argonaut (FM 22).

The site of Vasilikos-Kaloyeros, where Benton and Lorimer carried out excava-tions, nowadays, is subject to severe marine erosion, while development and build-ing for tourism also has taken place (Figure 17).40 However, several revisitsin 2005, 2006 and 2010 to the cape and the waterfront below it have confirmed the presence of a multi-period site, at which Mycenaean pottery ranges fromLate Helladic I to Late Helladic IIIB. Unfortunately, it is not possible to conduct further research at Kaloyeros, due to the eroded nature of the cape. About a

31 Souyoudzoglou-Haywood 1999, 122-126. 32 Palaima 1991, 281-282. In addition, a man referred to as za-ku-si-jo is mentioned on a tablet from Mycenae (MY Oe 122). 33 Agallopoulou 1973, 212. 34 Benton & Lorimer 1933-1934, 5; Von Stein & Van Wijngaarden 2010, 66. 35 Ta Nea 01-06-1974, 7 (newspaper article). 36 Agallopoulou 1972; 1973. To date, the cemetery at Kambi remains the only archaeological site at Zakynthos that has been systematically excavated and fully published. 37 Agallopoulou 1973; Mountjoy 1999, 480-483; Souyoudzoglou-Haywood 1999, 121. 38 Benton 1931-1932, 218; Souyoudzoglou-Haywood 1999, 122. 39 Benton & Lorimer 1933-1934, 5; Taylour 1951, 186; Von Stein & Van Wijngaarden 2010, 72-73. 40 Von Stein & Van Wijngaarden 2010.


kilometre south-west of Kaloyeros, an extremely weathered round structure was discovered, which yielded several fragments of Mycenaean pottery.41 Considering the vicinity of this tomb to Kaloyeros, it is likely that the tomb was situated in the territory of the Mycenaean settlement.

It is of interest that Mycenaean pottery is not very widely distributed in the three research areas that were part of the Zakynthos Archaeology Project. In research area C, Vasilikos, apart from Kaloyeros and the tomb discussed above, a few sherds of Mycenaean type were found only at the hill site of Doretes (see above). In the centre of the island, in research area B near Machairado, a few possible Mycenaean sherds were found at the hill of Palaiokastro, among which was a fragment of a stemmed bowl (FS 305) (Figure 18). In research area A, the area of Lithakia, Mycenaean pottery was limited to the hill of Kamaroti, where two concentrations were discovered: one around the top of the hill and another near the coast, below the south-east slope.42 Apparently, pottery of Mycenaean type is limited to larger sites near the coast.43

41 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2010, 48-49. These are probably the remains of a small tholos tomb that had been identified previously, see Agallopoulou 1972, 65; Hope Simpson & Dickinson 1979, 193-194; Kalligas 1993, 51, 66 n. 10. 42 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2009, 71-78. 43 See Van Wijngaarden et al. in press, where this argument is developed further.

Figure 17. Cape Kaloyeros at Vasilikos in the summer of 2008


The site of Lithakia-Kamaroti was discovered during the pilot survey of 2005 and explored in further detail during the 2009 campaign.44 Moreover, we con-ducted test trenches at the site in 2012. The Mycenaean pottery that was found at the surface of Kamaroti included decorated fragments dating to Late Helladic II and Late Helladic IIIA-IIIB (Figures 19-20). Most Mycenaean finds clustered around the top of the hill, where various walls are still visible at the surface(Figure 21).45 Unfortunately, it was impossible to investigate this structure by excavation, but test trenches were set out on several terraces to the south of the top. These excavations showed that the hill had been thoroughly changed in post-Mycenaean times, due to which possible existing Mycenaean structures had been destroyed. Nevertheless, the wall of a building (Figure 22) was exposed to

44 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2005, 68; eid. 2009, 71-78. 45 These walls are referred to as ‘the square structure’, see Van Wijngaarden et al. 2009, 77-78, fig. 12.

Figure 18. Worn fragment of the foot of a Mycenaean stemmed bowl(LH IIIA2-LH IIIB) from Machairado-Palaiokastro

Figures 19 & 20. Decorated Mycenaean pottery fragments(LH II and LH IIIA-LH IIIB respectively) from Lithakia-Kamaroti


Figure 21. Lithakia-Kamaroti. Exposed walls near the top of the hill,referred to as the ‘square structure’

Figure 22. Lithakia-Kamaroti.Wall of Mycenaean building excavated in 2012


which two superimposed floors could be associated, dating, respectively, to Late Helladic II-IIIA and Late Helladic IIIA-IIIB (Figures 23-24). Associated with this structure were large quantities of decorated Mycenaean drinking vessels. Together with the so-called square structure, which remains unexcavated, and the evidence for additional structures that can be deduced from deposits of pot-tery on the surface and in a second excavation trench, the newly excavated building reveals the presence of a Mycenaean settlement at Lithakia-Kamaroti.46 The location of this settlement can probably be related to the nearby coast and, possibly, to the presence of a harbour at Limni Keriou.

The first millennium BC: Early Iron Age to Classical period

Zakynthos is relatively well documented in ancient written sources. As discussed above, the island is mentioned in the Homeric epics as part of Odysseus’ king-dom and some of Penelope’s suitors came from Zakynthos.47 During the Clas-sical period, Zakynthos constituted one polis, which encompassed the whole island.48 The urban centre of the polis was probably located on and around the

46 B. Bogaard is preparing a study in which he takes the survey finds at Lithakia-Kamaroti as well as the excavation results and the site’s landscape setting into account. 47 Odyssey 1.286, 16.280. Homer mentions 20 nobles from Zakynthos among a total of 108 suitors. In Apollodoros’ Bibliotheca (Epitome VII.29), written after the 1st century BC, 44 Zakynthian suitors, out of a total of 138, are mentioned by name. 48 For a summary of the textual, epigraphical and numismatic sources on Zakynthos, see Kalligas 1993, 54-63; Gehrke & Wirbelauer 2004, 374-375.

Figure 23 & 24. Finds associated with the upper and lower floors respectively of the building excavated at Lithakia-Kamaroti in 2012


Kastro of Bochali, above the modern capital of the island, which is now thesite of a fortress dating to the Venetian and British periods.49 Excavations at Bochali have yielded architecture and finds from the late Classical period

onwards.50 Historical and epigraphical sources mention another urban centre on Zakyn-thos. In 375 BC, the democratic faction at Zakynthos, which sided with Athens, were driven out of the polis by the oligargic fac-tion, which sided with Sparta. The demo-crats were taken by the Athenian general Timo theos to a fortified settlement referred to as ‘Nellos’.51

Curiously, the archaeological record at Zakynthos does not match the relatively rich historical documentation. Finds of the Early Iron Age are limited to the peninsula of Vasilikos. During her survey of Zakynthos in 1929-1930, S. Benton was shown several small bronze figurines, most probably of Geometric date, that came from a tomb north of Kaloye-ros (Figure 25).52 At Kaloyeros itself, a few pottery fragments have tentatively been dated to the Early Iron Age. They include the foot of a Protogeometric (or earlier) cup or skyphos (Figure 26) and a decorated wall fragment of a cup.

Finds of the Archaic period are somewhat more abundant. Again, the main site is Vasi-likos-Kaloyeros, where about 15 Archaic pot-tery fragments were collected in the course of the Zakynthos Archaeology Project. A frag-ment of a Laconian krater is of Archaic date

49 Mylonas 1993, 122-123; id. 2003, 11-12. Excavations at the Kastro have yielded finds from the Late Classical period onwards. So far, earlier finds are lacking, but S. Benton noted 6th-century pottery on the south side of the castle as well as some lithic artefacts; see Benton 1931-1932, 217-218. 50 Mylonas 1993, 123-125 51 On Nellos, see Kalligas 1993, 59; Dreher 1995, 176-178; Gehrke & Wirbelauer 2004, 374; Hansen & Nielsen 2004, 28-29. According to Diodoros Siculus (16.45.3) Nellos was fortified and situated near the sea. It is most likely, but not entirely certain, that Nellos was on the island itself. 52 Benton 1931-1932, 216-217. See, also, Von Stein & Van Wijngaarden 2010, 62.

Figure 25. Two bronze figurines from the Geometric period, found by

S. Benton near a tomb in the vicinity of the Cape. Photograph by E. Hartmann. Courtesy of 35th Ephorate for Prehistoric

and Classical Archaeology

Figure 26. Foot of a skyphos or cup from Vasilikos-Kaloyeros of possible Protogeometric (or LH IIIC?) date


(Figure 27), as is the most exceptional find from the foot of the cape: the thin walled base and lower part of a cup, which is incised with the character ‘A’ (Figure 28). Moreover, S. Benton pub-lished three terra-cotta plaques from Kaloyeros, which can be dated to the 7th century BC.53 These finds were con-centrated in a high area at the headland of Kaloyeros, where Benton suspected a sanctuary. Unfortunately, the structures that she saw in the 1930s can no longer be recognized in the landscape due to the construction of holiday houses.54

In the general area, which was destroyed by bulldozing, black-glazed pottery of likely Classical date was found, together with substantial pieces of slag indicating the processing of metals.

Classical-Hellenistic finds

Several finds dating to Classical and Hellenistic times have been made in the town of Zakynthos itself, notably on the Kastro, the likely site of the ancient town.55 However, elsewhere on the island, finds that can be securely dated to these periods are scarce. At the site of Lithakia-Kamaroti, in research area A, some frag-

ments of Archaic pottery and black-glazed fragments of likely Classical-Hellenistic date were found on the sur-face and during the excavations of 2012 (Figure 29). In fact, the Mycenaean remains at Kamaroti may have been severely damaged during a restructuring of the landscape in the Classical-Hellen-istic periods, which involved the creation of a few large plateaus or rectangular

53 Benton 1931-1932, 215, figs 2-3. 54 Von Stein & Van Wijngaarden 2010, 63. 55 See n. 49.

Figure 27. Fragment of a Laconian column krater from the Archaic period found at

Vasilikos-Kaloyeros

Figure 28. Late Archaic decorated cup with incised ‘A’ from Vasilikos-Kaloyeros

Figure 29. Black glazed pottery fragment and an Archaic-Classical base fragment found on

the surface at Lithakia-Kamaroti


terraces, which are still recognizable on historical aerial photographs and in the landscape. Based on the presence of tile, coarse and black-glazed pottery and of stone tools our preliminary interpretation is that these plateaus had an agricultural purpose.56

Black-glazed pottery has also been found at Machairado-Palaiokastro in research area B. The pottery at this site is very worn, but appears to incorporate finds from Classical to the Roman period (and later).57 These finds can perhaps be associated with a fortification wall at Palaiokastro, which was discovered on aerial photo-graphs and subsequently mapped by Total Station (Figures 30-31).58 This wall appears to have two building phases, of which the latest is restricted to the summit of the hill and includes mortar.59 The much longer stretch of the wall of the earlier

56 Cf. Lohmann 1992, Rackham & Moody 1992. 57 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2007, 51-52. Prehistoric pottery (including some Mycenaean-type fragments) was also found. 58 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2008, 69-72. 59 Mylonas 1991, 174-175. The later building phase can be dated to the Medieval period.

Figure 30. The hill of Palaiokastro as seen from the west. The course of the western sectionof the wall is indicated by dotted lines


building phase follows closely the topography of the hill and incorporates natural features such as outcrops of bedrock. The wall consists of loosely joined, polygonal masonry of unhewn blocks (Figures 32). The wall is at least 2 m thick, with the largest blocks on the outside placed with their longest sides perpendicular to the direction of the wall. It is impossible to date the wall on the basis of the few finds between the stones. However, the strategic location along two routes into the mountains and the structure of the wall resemble somewhat the military outposts on Kefalonia, which are dated to the 5th-4th centuries BC.60 The plan of thewall at Palaiokastro is peculiar, with a central dividing wall over the summit and a section missing in the north (Figure 31). Although it is of substantial size, the masonry and building style of the wall are not very elaborate, which may indicate that it was built in haste or, perhaps, was never completely finished.

It is of interest that the distribution of finds from the Early Iron Age and the Archaic and Classical periods, which are well documented historically, is extremely limited in the landscape of Zakynthos and, apparently, restricted to multi-period

60 For example, the enclosure at Halio, which belonged to the territory of Crane; Sotiriou thisvolume (figs 42 & 47).

Figure 31. Plan of phase A of the Palaiokastro fortification wall


sites such as Machairado-Palaiokastro, Vasilikos-Kaloyeros and Lithakia-Kamaroti. This may indicate that the island’s landscape was not intensively used duringthis period and that habitation was restricted to the larger towns and villages. However, it is also likely that much of the domestic pottery types from these periods are not recognized in the surface material.

Hellenistic-Roman period

Zakynthos appears to have been of some strategic importance during Hellenistic and Roman times. In his Ab Urbe Condita, Livy describes how the occupation of Zakynthos was a political issue among Romans and Macedonians.61 In later times, reports of visitors to Zakynthos mention the discovery in 1550 of a Roman tomb or epitaph with inscriptions possibly referring to the famous orator Cicero in the town of Zakynthos.62 Elsewhere in the town, excavations have yielded remains of a Hellenistic-Roman fortification wall and a building from the same period.63

Finds dating to Hellenistic and Roman times are more ubiquitous in the land-scape of Zakynthos than those of the Classical period. At Vasilikos-Kaloyeros

61 Livy 36.31.10-32.9. 62 Dapper 1688; Saint Sauveur 1802; Zoïs 1955, 49-50. 63 Arapoyianni 1991, 131-132; Arapoyianni 1992, 122-123.

Figure 32. Part of the Palaiokastro fortification wall,photographed after the hill had burned in August 2010


there are substantial quantities of black-glazed pottery (Figure 33).64 Moreover, several Roman pottery fragments have been collected, among which were cooking pots, an early Roman amphora and at least one fragment of terra sigillita. Late Roman tile fragments were foundas well. At Palaiokastro, in research area B,black-glazed pottery was also found and various pithos fragments (Figure 34) that have been preliminarily dated to Hellenistic-Roman times. The presence of fragments with combed deco-ration (Figure 35) at Palaiokastro indicate activ-ities during the Late Roman or Early Medieval periods.

It is of interest that, in contrast to the Archaic-Classical periods, Hellenistic-Roman finds do not only occur at larger multi-period sites such as Vasilikos-Kaloyeros and Machairado-Palaiokastro,65 but are also present in the Zakynthian countryside. For example, at Mouzaki Brouma, among the many lithic artefacts (see above), a concentration of Roman coarse pottery and tiles was also found, probably indicating the remains of a Roman farmstead. Two similar concentrations of Roman coarse pottery and tiles were also attested to the west of Limni Keriou in

64 Von Stein & van Wijngaarden 2010, 74-75. 65 At Lithakia-Kamaroti in research area A, finds clearly indicative of the Roman period were not particularly abundant.

Figure 33. Hellenistic spout from Vasilikos-Kaloyeros

Figure 34. Pithos rim from Machairado Palaiokastro, preliminarily dated to the Hellenistic-Roman period

Figure 35. Fragment of combed pottery fromMachairado-Palaiokastro, dating to Late Roman or

Early Medieval times


research area A. The best example of such a farmstead was discovered during the pilot survey in 2005, in the valley of Palaio Keri, just north of the modern town of Keri.66 Among the finds were a conical loom weight of a type common in Hellen-istic and Roman times,67 and the rim and foot of an amphora (Figure 36). Another example, perhaps somewhat earlier, constitutes a concentration of finds south of the monastery of Eleftheriotria, near Lagopodo in research area B (Figure 37).68

An inscription referring to a sanctuary of Artemis (Figure 38), that was found in the church of Ayios Dimitrios near Melinado in research area B, shows that ritual activities also took place in the countryside of Zakynthos.69 The church, which dates to the early 19th century, but was built on the site of a medievalpredecessor, also incorporates four intact marble columns (Figure 39), part of a fifth column and four Ionic column bases. On epigraphic grounds, the inscription has been dated to the 3rd or 2nd centuries BC,70 while the monolithic marble

66 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2005, 66. 67 Cf. Wilson 1930, 120 (type 8); Davidson 1952, 161 (profile XII, to be dated later than 250 BC). 68 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2008, 64. 69 For the inscription, see Chiotis 1849, 186-193; Riemann 1880, 7-9; Kalligas 1969, 279. A restudy of the inscription is currently being conducted by A. Versloot. 70 Kalligas 1969, 279; id. 1993, 62.

Figure 36. Pottery dated to Hellenistic-Roman times from the valley of Palaio Keri


columns are more indicative of the Roman period, or even later. Perhaps theyare the remains of a monumental sanctuary for Artemis. However, excavations conducted below the church in 1957 did not reveal ancient remains.71

In research area C, just south of Vasilikos-Doretes, a defensive post was discovered during 2010 below thick vegetation.72 On the basis of the pseudo-isodomic masonry

71 Daux 1958, 727; Kalligas 1993, 62. 72 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2010, 46-47.

Figure 38. Inscription referring to Artemis from the church of Ayios Dimitrios at Melinado. Courtesy of the 35th EPKA and the 20th EBA. Photograph by Eddo Hartmann

Figure 37. Finds from Lagopodo, dated to the Hellenistic period


(Figure 40) and the presence of some tiles, the structure has been tentatively dated to the Hellenistic-Roman period. The structure compares well to a similar structure that has been discovered by colleagues from the 35th EPKA near the town of Tragaki in the eastern part of the island.73 All indications are that the cultural landscape of Zakynthos was quite intensively used during the Hellenistic-Roman period.

73 Unpublished, but see a photograph in Sotiriou & Kamoulakou 2008, 9.

Figure 39. Two of the four monolithic column bases at the ruined church of Ayios Dimitrios, Melinado

Figure 40. Two courses of pseudo-isodomic masonry belonging to a defensive structurefrom the Hellenistic or Roman period, South of Vasilikos-Doretes


Medieval and modern periods

The majority by far of the artefacts collected in the Zakynthos Archaeology Pro-ject date not to antiquity, but to later periods. However, it is remarkable that finds clearly indicative of the Byzantine and Frankish periods have hardly been recog-nized during the surveys.74 At the site of Palaiokastro, a fortress was built on the highest summit, using the ancient walls as foundation at some places (Figure 41).75 Excavations done by colleagues from the 20th Ephorate for Byzantine Archaeol-ogy in 1991 suggest a 10th or 11th century AD date for this fortification,76 possibly related to historically documented attacks by Arabian pirates around this time.77 Unfortunately, our surveys at the site yielded only some medieval tile, which did not allow a more secure dating of the fortress. The lack of medieval pottery and

74 The pottery of medieval and (early) modern times is being studied by Dr J. Vroom (Leiden Uni-versity). A full report is in preparation; all remarks made here are preliminary. 75 Van Wijngaarden et al. 2008, 72. 76 Mylonas 1991, 174-175. 77 Eickhoff 1966, 235, 384.

Figure 41. Section of the medieval fortification wallat Machairado-Palaiokastro


artefacts in the landscape of Zakynthos is somewhat of a mystery, since Zakynthos is historically well documented during this period.78 In fact, the archaeological-historical situation of Byzantine Zakynthos resembles that of the Archaic and Classical periods discussed above. Perhaps the landscape was not intensively used due to a concentration of habitation around monasteries and the capital city. Alternatively, it is also possible that utilitarian pottery dating to this period is not recognised in the fragmented surface record of Zakynthos.

Historical remains from the Venetian and early modern periods are well repre-sented on the island through several churches and monasteries.79 Pottery of this period is also fairly widely distributed in the landscape, albeit in small quantities. The cultural landscape of Zakynthos shows clear signs of the destruction that isa characteristic of the island’s archaeological record. There are several abandoned villages, such as Ambelos in research area A. Also, the landscape is dotted with destroyed churches, monasteries and houses of many different periods. These ruins, some of which are very attractive (Figure 42), help to remind us of the destructive power deriving from the island’s tectonic geographic position and the effects that it must have on the archaeological record of Zakynthos.

Concluding remarks

The sites and finds that have been found in the three research areas of the Zakynthos Archaeology Project, show a continued human presence from the

78 Soustal 1981. 79 Vokotopoulos 1970; Konomos 1967.

Figure 42. The Makris villa at Mouzaki, which was severely damaged during the earthquake in August 1953. Photograph by E. Hartmann


Middle Palaeolithic to the present day. The abundance and variety of lithic arte-facts in all three research areas show the importance of early prehistory in the archaeological landscape of Zakynthos. Other periods with many archaeological remains are the Late Bronze Age and the Hellenistic-Roman period. Curiously, precisely those periods that have good historical documentation, the Archaic-Classical period and the Middle Ages, are difficult to detect in the archaeological record. Probably, this is at least partly due to unfamiliarity with coarse pottery from these periods.

It is to be noted that there are a number of sites in all three research areas that cover multiple periods of human presence and habitation. Such is the case, for example, at Vasilikos-Kaloyeros in research area C, which appears to have been inhabited continuously from the Early Bronze Age (or perhaps even earlier) to the Roman period. Machairado-Palaiokastro in research area B has known an even longer human presence from the Middle Palaeolithic to modern times. At some point in the Classical-Hellenistic period, a substantial fortification wall was erected at this site. In research area A, the site of Lithakia-Kamaroti, where we conducted test excavations during 2012, shows evidence for habitation during the Bronze Age and the Classical-Hellenistic periods. Possibly, the Kastro at Bochali, above the modern capital of Zakynthos, is another example of such a multi-period site and there may still be others elsewhere on the island.

The archaeological fieldwork in the framework of the Zakynthos Archaeology Project already has corrected somewhat the archaeological bias between the archae-ology of Zakynthos and the other Ionian islands. Clearly, Zakynthos has a rich and varied archaeological record, which, however, is highly fragmented. For the time being, the island is lacking the large monumental structures of different periods that are visible on neighbouring Kefalonia and Ithaca. However, continu-ation of research through archaeological surface surveys and excavations will surely bring to light additional surprises in the future.

G.J.M. VAN WIJNGAARDEN

University of [email protected]

G. KOURTESSI-PHILIPPAKIS

National and Kapodistrian University of [email protected]

N. PIETERS

University of [email protected]


Acknowledgements

The Zakynthos Archaeology Project would not have been possible without the cooperation of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and, in particular, the 35th Ephorate for Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities. The project is carried out as part of the research programme of the Netherlands Institute at Athens (NIA). The authors thank the staff of the NIA and, especially, its director Ch. Tytgat. The project would not have been possible without the generous support of the Netherlands Organisa-tion for Scientific research (NWO), the University of Amsterdam, the UTOPA foundation and the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP). Finally, we thank the many students and scholars who have participated in the project and we thank the inhabitants of the island, whose generous hospitality enables us to do our work.

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APPENDIX I. LIST OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES ON ZAKYNTHOS

(cf. Figures 1 & 2)80

Abbreviations: Pal = Paleolithic; Neo = Neolithic; BA = Bronze age; IA = Iron age; Arch = Archaic; Class = Classical; Hell = Hellenistic; Rom = Roman; Med = Medieval; Ven = Venetian; EMod = Early Modern

Research area A (Vasilikos and Limni-Keriou)

– Ambelos: EMod– Perlakia-Panokambi: Pal-Neo– Tourlatou-valley: Pal-Neo– Perlakia: Class-Hell– Limni Keriou- Kastello: Pal-Neo; Ven (Zapfe 1937, 158-163; Sordinas 1970, 128;

Kourtessi-Philippakis 1993: 34)– Limni Keriou – North slope: Neo-BA– Limni Keriou – Lofos: Hell-Rom– Limni Keriou – northwest of lake: Hell-Rom– Lithakia Kornos: BA – Lithakia Kamaroti: BA, Arch, Class, Hell, Med– Lithakia-Paschalis Watertank: BA, Arch, Class, Hell– Lithakia Strousza plot (Arapoyianni 1998, 264)– Ambelos: EMod

Research area B (Machairado)

– Mouzaki-Brouma: Pal, Rom– Mouzaki-Makris villa: EMod– Lagopodo: Hell-Rom– Melinado-Ayios Dimitrios: Hell-Rom; Med. EMod (Riemann 1880; Daux 1958,

727; Kalligas 1993, 62)– Palaiokastro: Pal, BA, Class, Hell, Rom, Med, Ven, EMod (Sordinas 1970, 128;

Mylonas 1991; Kourtessi-Philippakis 1993, 35)– Kakoligani hill: Hell– Achiouri-Valley: Pal, BA, Hell-Rom, Ven, EMod– Kiliomenos above Achiouri valley: Pal

80 This list is not an exhaustive catalogue of sites, but a list of places and find concentrations referred to in the text. These places (and others) will be dealt with more extensively in the final publication of the Zakynthos Archeology Project. Also, see the preliminary reports Van Wijngaarden et al. 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010. When sites have been mentioned elsewhere as well, these titles are referred to between brackets.


Research area C (Vasilikos)

– Kaloyeros-Porto Roma: BA, IA, Arch, Class, Hell. Rom (Benton 1931-1932, 214-216; Von Stein & Van Wijngaarden 2010)

– Ayios Nikolaos: Pal, Neo (Kourtessi-Philippakis 1993, 36)– Banana beach: Neo, BA– Vasilikos: BA, Class-Hell– Vasilikos-Doretes: BA– Stavromenos-Panayia Akrotiriotissa: Ven, EMod– Stavromenos: Class, Hell– Stavromenos, south of Doretes: Hell-Rom– Gerakas Parking: Class-Hell– Gerakas: Pal-Neo (Sordinas 1970, 126; Kourtessi-Philippakis 1993, 38-39)– Gerakas-Triodi: BA (Agallopoulou 1972, 65)– Gerakas: Pal-Neo– Gerakas tip: BA?

Sites elsewhere on the island81

– Bochali-Kastro: Class-Hell, Rom, Byz, Ven, EMod (Benton 1931-1932: 217-218; Mylonas 1993: 125-126; Mylonas 2003)

– Zakynthos town – Od. Mantzarou and Od. Therianou: Hell-Rom (Ara poyianni 1991, 131-132; id. 1992, 122-123)

– Zakynthos town – Ayia Anna: Hell, Ven, EMod (Arapoyianni 1991, 131-132)– Vouyiato – Ayios Ioannis (Riemann 1880)– Planos (Ta Nea 1/06/1974; Kalligas 1993: 51)– Alikanas-Akroteri: BA (Benton 1931-1932: 218-219)– Katastari: BA (Benton 1931-1932: 218-219)– Kambi-Vigla: BA (Agallopoulou 1972, 1973)– Keri-Myceneaean tomb: BA (Agallopoulou 1973, 212)– Keri-Palaio Keri: Hell-Rom (Van Wijngaarden et al. 2005, 66)

81 Known through previous archaeological research and through the 2005 pilot survey. See, also, Van Wijngaarden et al. 2005.

New Archaeological Sites and finds on Zakynthos

Documents

Transcript of New Archaeological Sites and finds on Zakynthos