“Natures of Borders: from Historical to Prospective Epistemologies” in Cartographies of Nature:...

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ChapTer Three

naTures of borders: from hisToriCal To prospeCTive episTemologies

anne-laure amilhaT szary

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to build up arguments for linking nature and borders outside the binary mode, which traditionally characterised both conservation and border studies, in order to set the basis for rethinking conservation practices. In a very simplistic way, the relation of borders with nature should not even have to be questioned since the conventional international boundaries seem to have little to do with the diversity of life as embedded in all forms of natural beings. The ‘nature of nature’ is FRQVWLWXWLYH� RI� FRPSOH[� LQWHUUHODWLRQV� ZKLFK� DUH� GLI¿FXOW� WR� XQUDYHO�� ,Q�his seminal book, La méthode, 1. La Nature de la Nature, 0RULQ� ��tried to set the basis for understanding order within a system marked by the possibility of chaos, but his dynamic proposal gave little space to boundaries or any bordering principle. This view of a systemic environment is quite recent: the preoccupation has long been to characterise the many ways in which human beings have dealt with nature, both materially and VSLULWXDOO\��LQ�D�WD[RQRPLF�SHUVSHFWLYH��+DGRW��$OWHUQDWLYHO\��UHO\LQJ�upon visions of benevolent or dangerous natures, environmental approaches in social sciences have reproduced the thinking of a “radical disjunction EHWZHHQ�QDWXUH�DQG�VRFLHW\´��/XVVDXOW��

(YHQ� ZKHQ� VWXG\LQJ� QRQ�ZHVWHUQ� FRVPRORJLHV�� LW� ZDV� GLI¿FXOW� IRU�occidental scholars to distance themselves from this human mediation of QDWXUDO�LQWHUDFWLRQV��%HUTXH��XQOHVV�WDNLQJ�DQ�DQWKURSRORJLFDO�VWDQFH�OHDGLQJ�WR�WKH�SRVVLELOLW\�RI�QHJDWLQJ�WKLV�GLYLGH��'HVFROD��>��(QJOLVK�WUDQVODWLRQ@��$FFRUGLQJ�WR�/DWRXU�WKLV�SUHOLPLQDU\�FODVVL¿FDWLRQ�UHPDLQV�YHU\�strong because it functioned as one of the postulates on which our modern VRFLR�WHFKQLFDO�HQYLURQPHQW�KDV�EHHQ�EXLOW��7KHUH�LV��KRZHYHU��WKH�QHHG�IRU�DOO�VFLHQFHV�WR�TXHVWLRQ�KXPDQ�QRQ�KXPDQ�UHODWLRQV�DQG�WKH�ZD\�WKH\�LPSRVH�WR�UHIRUPXODWH�DQG�UHQHZ�UHVHDUFK�TXHVWLRQV��/DWRXU��>��@��+RZHYHU��

�� Chapter Three

the same starting point has to be reiterated: “in the literature, the link between QDWXUH�DQG�VSDFH�LV�DOZD\V�VRPHZKDW�GXDOLVWLF�DQG�SDUDGR[LFDO��FRQWLQXLQJ�the intrinsic and contradictory divide between nature and culture. A dualism GRHV�H[LVW�EHWZHHQ�JHRJUDSKLFDO�geopolitical notions of spatialising nature” �*X\RW��7KH�SXUSRVH�RI� WKLV�YROXPH�PD\� LQGHHG�EH� WR� VHW� WKH�EDVLV�IRU�D�SRVW�ELQDU\�TXHVWLRQLQJ�RI�ERWK�QDWXUH�DQG�ERUGHU��7KLV�YHU\�SRVW�modern stance (going beyond the traditional oppositions, such as nature/FXOWXUH��FLYLOLVHG�VDYDJH��FI��+DUYH\��/\RWDUG��LV�PDGH�SRVVLEOH�by changing frameworks so as to allow for thinking of social relations within environmental settings in a more holistic ecological perspective on the one KDQG��DQG�E\�WKH�H[SDQVLRQ�DQG�FRQVROLGDWLRQ�RI�border studies which have QRZ�VHWWOHG� WKH� FRPSOH[LW\�RI�GH�ERUGHULQJ�DQG� UH�ERUGHULQJ�SURFHVVHV� DW�work on and around any ERXQGDU\��RQ�WKH�RWKHU�KDQG��3RSHVFX��:DVWO�:DOWHU��:LOVRQ�DQG�'RQQDQ��

5HFHQW� ERUGHU� UHVHDUFK� LQGHHG� XQGHUOLQHV� ERWK� WKH� QHFHVVLW\� RI� FRQ�structive approaches and the ongoing importance of the material artefacts ZKLFK� H[SUHVV� WKH� GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQ� SURFHVVHV� VHW� XS� E\� ERUGHUV� �$PLOKDW�6]DU\��D��:KDW�ZH�FDQ�DJUHH�RQ�LV�WKDW�D�ERUGHU�LV�D�FRQYHQWLRQ�endowed with linear materiality, meaning that it has become a useful tool to establish the basis of modern territorialised sovereignty, which closely accompanies the process of state building. With challenges of state power from above and below, the meaning of those lines has tumbled since they have become more and more multilevel and reticular devices, and their IXQFWLRQ� RI� ¿OWHULQJ� ÀRZV� RI� DOO� NLQGV� ZLWKLQ� globalisation has become essential. What they have always been, and remain is however more than a line: borderlands are kinds of space where otherness and relationship to RWKHUQHVV�LV�GH¿QHG�

Nature is not only about the ‘natural imaginings’ (Singh and Ganster ��RI�LW��KHQFH�LW� LV�SURGXFWLYH�WR�DQDO\VH�WKH�³ZD\�LQ�ZKLFK�QDWXUH�LV�PRELOLVHG� WR� PDNH� XS� VRFLDO� UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV� �«�� >DQG� WKHQ� KRZ@� WKRVH�representations are used for biased means in electorally directed political narratives bases on ‘us vs.�WKHP¶´��*LUDXW��*X\RW��DQG�+RXVVD\�+RO]VFKXFK��>SHUVRQDO�WUDQVODWLRQ@��:H�DOVR�QHHG�WR�FRQVLGHU�LWV�SUHVHQFH�LQ�and constraints on the capacity of the agency. Through its performative IXQFWLRQ��DUW�SURGXFWLRQ�PD\�EH�DQ�LQWHUHVWLQJ�ZD\�WR�UHYHDO�WKH�µPRUH�WKDQ�UHSUHVHQWDWLRQDO¶�ZD\� RI� FRQYH\LQJ� WKH� SRZHU� RI� QDWXUH� �/RUULPHU� ��0DFSKHUVRQ��7KLV�FKDSWHU�VHHNV�WR�H[SDQG�RQ�SRVVLEOH�KHXULVWLFV�IRU�understanding the links between conservation, borders and social relations �%DUWUDP� ��&KDWHDX�� 3DUUHW�� DQG� 6DODEHUW� �� /DXVVRQ� ��7KH�case of FRQVHUYDWLRQ�SROLFLHV�FDQ�EH�YHU\�LOOXVWUDWLYH�LQ�DV�PXFK�DV�LW�GH¿QHV�

� %RUGHUV�IURP�+LVWRULFDO�WR�3URVSHFWLYH�(SLVWHPRORJLHV� ��

WKUHVKROGV�EHWZHHQ�KXPDQ�LQWHUYHQWLRQ�RU�QRQ�LQWHUYHQWLRQ�LQWR�ecosystems, according to the perception of threats made to the latter’s durability.

It is quite striking that the methods and concepts used for the maintenance of nature share so much in common with the governability of human SRSXODWLRQV�� QDPHO\��PDQDJLQJ� ÀRZV� KDYH� IRU� D� ORQJ� WLPH� EHHQ� OLPLWHG�WR�WU\LQJ�WR�FRQWDLQ�YROXPHV�ZLWKLQ�WZR�GLPHQVLRQDO�H[WHUQDO�boundaries. ³7KH� VR�FDOOHG� µSURWHFWLRQ� DQG� PDLQWHQDQFH� RI� biological diversity’ is ELDVHG��ZLWK�WKH�ERXQGLQJ�RI�HFRV\VWHPV�LQ��VPDOO��VL]HG�UHVHUYHV�DQG�WKH�historically agricultural use of the ecosystems is often replaced by tourism and recreation, negating the timeless dimension of such environments.” �*X\RW� �� 7KH�SROLWLFV� RI�nature has largely relied on ‘drawing WKH�OLQH¶��)DOO��L�H��DSSO\LQJ�]RQLQJ�SROLFLHV�WR�DQVZHU�HQYLURQPHQWDO�questions. Criticism of this kind of approach should not mistakenly be levelled against planners and politicians alike, blaming their incapacity to make proper decisions. %RXQGDU\�PDNLQJ�OLHV�ZLWKLQ�YHU\�VWURQJ�SDUD�GLJPV� RI� FODVVL¿FDWLRQ� LQ� ELRORJLFDO� VFLHQFHV� ZKLFK� KDYH�� IRU� H[DPSOH��formalised ecosystems as a set of interactions within conceptually enclosed settings. These measures of protection may have suited the needs to protect certain VSHFLHV�RI�ÀRUD�RU� IDXQD�DW� WKH� WLPH� WKH\�ZHUH� WDNHQ��+RZHYHU��D�mobile bordering perspective is needed to confront more contemporary environmental issues, and not only by switches in the shape of conservation areas, i.e., passing from parks to corridors.

,QGHHG��ZKHQ� WKH� FRQFHUQ� LV�QR� ORQJHU� WR� FRQ¿QH�EXW� WR�¿JKW� DJDLQVW�an invading factor, any bordering process may reveal a very inappropriate response; the idea that pollution knows no border has been denounced for years,� and there is increasing awareness of, and engagement with recent narratives about species invasion and biosecurity that multiply (Dodson, %DUNHU�� DQG�7D\ORU� �� ³&OLPDWH� DV� D�geopolitical space, therefore, is constantly moving in and out RI�SK\VLFDO�PDWHULDO�JHRJUDSK\´��'R\OH�DQG�&KDWXUYHGL��

The challenge is to confront the recent major climatic changes ZKLFK� WKUHDWHQ� WKH� LQWHUQDWLRQDO� RUGHU� �'DOE\� �� 7KRVH� JOREDO�environmental issues strongly affect the relationships between borders and conservation. Global warming may induce the migration of species out of WKH� SHULPHWHUV� ZKLFK� KDG� EHHQ� WUDFHG� WR� SURWHFW� WKHP�� IRU� H[DPSOH�� /HVV�EHQHYROHQW� LQ� WKH� LQWHUQDWLRQDO� QHZV� LV� ,QGLD¶V� MXVWL¿FDWLRQ� IRU� IHQFLQJ�RI� LWV�ERUGHU�ZLWK�%DQJODGHVK�RQ� WKH�EDVLV�RI� WKH� IHDU�RI� LQYDVLRQ�E\�QRQ�PDQDJHDEOH�ÀRZV�RI�FOLPDWLF�UHIXJHHV��7KLV�PD\�OHDG�WR�GHYLVLQJ�D�V\VWHP�that allows bears through the fence but not uncontrolled human interaction, as LQ�WKH�(8�H[WHUQDO�ERUGHUV�LQ�WKH�%DONDQV��*DUGLQ��


These developments lead us to formulate the need for a relational approach to conservation issues that is not common in specialised literature. The role of nature in spatialising processes is under going an important HYROXWLRQ��7KLV�FKDSWHU�ZLOO�¿UVW�UHYLVLW�WKH�GLYLVLYH�UROH�FRQIHUUHG�RQ�QDWXUH�in the modern period (dividing QDWXUH��,W�ZLOO�WKHQ�GLVFXVV�DUJXPHQWV�DQG�rationales for cooperation which totally renewed our thinking of the link between QDWXUH�DQG�ERUGHUV�LQ�WKH��V��FRRSHUDWLQJ�QDWXUH��/DVWO\��WKH�chapter will try to draw prospective lines of analysis of what may become RI�WKH�SROLWLFV�RI�QDWXUH�LQ�FRQWH[WV�LQ�ZKLFK�environmental panicking gives ZD\�WR�VHFXULW\�SROLFLHV�ZKRVH�FRPSDWLELOLW\�ZLWK�FRQVHUYDWLRQ�DUH�QRW�VHOI�evident (panicking QDWXUH��

Dividing nature

1DWXUH�PD\� LQGHHG�NQRZ�PRUH�ERUGHUV� WKDQ�RQH�ZRXOG�H[SHFW��SUREDEO\�because it is the product of a located history. The initial time and space of nature is that of the modern western world, which has been the cradle for a FODVVL¿FDWLRQ�RI�EHLQJV�LQWR�WZR�H[FOXVLYH�RUGHUV�³DFFRUGLQJ�WR�WKHLU�IDOOLQJ�XQGHU� WKH� ODZV�RI� WKH�PDWWHU�RU� WR� WKH�KD]DUGV�RI�FRQYHQWLRQV´� (Descola �� >��@��7KLV� FRQGLWLRQ� JDYH� ULVH� WR� µQDWXUDOLVP¶�� DQ� XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�RI� RXU� HQYLURQPHQW� WKDW�� DFFRUGLQJ� WR�'HVFROD�� ³OLQNV� XV� WR� QRQ�KXPDQV�through material continuities and separates us from them by cultural aptitudes.” These settings coincide with the building up of the modern state in Europe that has been of ultimate consequence in our instrumentalisation of nature to justify territorial divides.

It is generally accepted that the ‘invention’ of modern borders dates back WR�WKH�VLJQLQJ�RI�WKH�:HVWSKDOLDQ�WUHDWLHV�WKDW�SXW�DQ�HQG�WR�WKH�7KLUW\�<HDUV¶�:DU�� LQ��7KLV�GRHV�QRW�PHDQ� WKDW� OLQHDU�boundaries had not been in use before that date. One could say that the principles of demarcation date EDFN� WR� WKH�EHJLQQLQJ�RI�KXPDQ�VHGHQWDU\�H[LVWHQFH�DQG��PRUH�SUHFLVHO\��WR� WKH�¿UVW�XUEDQ�VHWWOHPHQWV�ZKLFK�ZHUH�VXUURXQGHG�E\�ZDOOV��+RZHYHU��IURP� WKH��WK�FHQWXU\�RQZDUGV�� WKH�SROLWLFDO�XVH�RI�ERUGHUV� FKDQJHG�GXH�to the need for the ruling powers to legitimise their authority upon a new form of sovereignty. The transition from the medieval to the modern order LV� EDVHG� RQ� WKH� IDFW� WKDW� WKH� SDVVDJH� IURP� D� PXOWL�ERXQGHG� ZRUOG� WR� D�political order is built on the necessity to strike a balance between political conditions and requirements for territoriality.� Nature was to play a very important role in the design of territorial limits. Most of European polities were under monarchical systems, those kings and queens establishing their


legitimacy on the basis of divine attribution. Founding their kingdoms on topographical elements whose origin was ascribed to divine nature revealed an interesting way to assert themselves. If God had created the earth to his image, with mountains and rivers set where he pleased, then it could be TXLWH�LQÀXHQWLDO�IRU�D�VRYHUHLJQ�WR�HVWDEOLVK�WKH�OLPLWV�RI�KLV�DXWKRULW\�XSRQ�such natural elements.

This step was not only to naturalise but indeed to essentialise power, DQG� WKH� ERUGHUV� WKDW� ZHUH� QHHGHG� WR� HVWDEOLVK� LW�� ,Q� WKLV� FRQWH[W�� LW�PD\�be easier to understand the vivid intensity of the idea of ‘natural border’ which has never quite been abandoned in popular representations of the JHRSROLWLFDO�RUGHU�RI�WKH�ZRUOG��)DOO��UHPLQGV�XV�RI�WKH�WHQWDWLYH�distinction between physical ERXQGDULHV� H[LVWLQJ� ³LQGHSHQGHQWO\� RI� DOO�KXPDQ�FRJQLWLYH�DFWV´�DQG�ZKLFK�WZR�SKLORVRSKHUV�KDYH�TXDOL¿HG�DV�bona ¿GH�ERXQGDULHV��IURP�WKH�/DWLQ�µLQ�JRRG�IDLWK¶��6PLWK�DQG�9DU]L��DQG�the ones demarcated by humans, categorised as ¿DW� �LQ�/DWLQ� µOHW� LW� EH¶��boundaries. She does so to alert us to avoid confusing ERQD�¿GH�boundaries ZLWK�µQDWXUDO¶�RQHV��DOWKRXJK�WKLV�VKRUW�FXW�KDV�EHHQ�LQ�FRPPRQ�XVH�

7KH� ORQJ�ODVWLQJ� LPSDFW� RI� WKLV� KLVWRULFDO� UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ� LV� GXH� WR� WKH�WRRO�WKDW�ZDV�XVHG�WR�HQDFW�LW��7KH�EXLOGLQJ�XS�RI�WKH�¿UVW�PRGHUQ�boundaries anchored by topological features, which made them look natural, is due to a technical concomitance. The negotiation of the Osnabrück and 0XQVWHU�WUHDWLHV�RI�WKH�PLG��WK�FHQWXU\�ZDV�PDGH�SRVVLEOH�SDUWO\�E\�WKH�SUHVHQFH��RQ�WKH�GLVFXVVLRQ�WDEOH��RI�WKH�¿UVW�SUHFLVH�PDSV�VLQFH�6WUDER�DQG�3WROHP\¶V��7KH�PDS�PDGH� LW� SRVVLEOH� IRU� WKH� GHFLVLRQ�PDNHUV� WR� SURYLGH�their governments with tangible evidence of their decisions. One could even VD\�WKDW�WKH�PDS�SURYLGHG�WKH�FRQGLWLRQ�RI�H[LVWHQFH�±�D�WHPSODWH�±�IRU�D�SROLWLFDO�FRQYHQWLRQ��3ODFLQJ�D�ERXQGDU\�RQ�WKH�PDS�PDNHV�LW�H[LVW��EXW�RQO\�EHFDXVH�WKH�H[LVWHQFH�RI�WKH�PDS�PDNHV�LW�SRVVLEOH�IRU�WKH�ERXQGDU\�WR�H[LVW�as such, notably as a linear device. From the moment they were laid on the YHOOXP�RI� WKH�PDS��ERXQGDULHV�ZHUH�JLYHQ�DQ�H[LVWHQFH� WKDW� UHWURDFWLYHO\�MXVWL¿HG� WKH� SRZHU� WKDW� KDG� RUGHUHG� WKH�PDS�� ERUGHUV�ZHUH� ERUQ� RI� WKLV�visual condition. ,Q� WKLV� FRQWH[W�� WKH� JHVWXUH� RI� ERXQGDU\� GUDZLQJ� UHOLHG�RQ�WKH�HOHPHQWV�WKDW�¿JXUHG�RQ�WKRVH�PDSV��PRVW�QRWDEO\�WKH�WRSRJUDSKLFDO�notations. Both rivers, which unfolded as curves, and mountains, which were represented by a series of small triangles linked together to pass on the then fashionable idea of ‘chains’, opened ground for the tracing of lines �'HEDUELHX[��1RUGPDQ��

This congenital mapping condition of boundaries and borders may help XV� WR� XQGHUVWDQG� EHWWHU� WKH� GLI¿FXOW\� RI� FRQFHSWXDOLVLQJ� WHUULWRULDO� FRQ�structions in regions which were devoid of mapping culture (or at least of


D�FXOWXUH�RI�GUDZLQJ�PDSV��$IULFDQ�ERUGHUV�DUH�FHUWDLQO\�QR�PRUH�DUWL¿FLDO�than others, but they overlap a political order which was not traditionally established on a mappable sovereignty (where location tools did not take WKH�IRUP�RI�WZR�GLPHQVLRQDO�SDSHU�GHYLFHV�FDOOHG�PDSV��DQG�KDYH�WKHUHIRUH�proven notably less accessible to a number of such collective representations. ³<RXU� QDWXUH� LV� MXVW� D�ZRUG� WR� VLJQLI\� WKH� XQLYHUVDOLW\� RI� WKLQJV´��ZURWH�WKH�(QOLJKWHQPHQW�SKLORVRSKHU�9ROWDLUH�LQ�� The power of the ‘natural border’ has been to establish the universality of bordering principles. The VFLHQWL¿F�DSSDUDWXV�QHHGHG�WR�SURGXFH�WKH�PDSV�ZKLFK�HVWDEOLVKHG�ERUGHUV�UHSUHVHQWHG�D�VWURQJ�FRPSRQHQW�RI�WKLV�H[SDQVLRQLVW�FRVPRORJ\��DQG�LW�KDV�VLQFH�EHHQ�XVHG�LQ�RWKHU�FRQWH[WV��QRWDEO\�IRU�nature management.

7KH�FRQWH[W�ZDV�VHW�WR�FRQVLGHU�QDWXUH�DV�D�GLYLGH��D�IXQFWLRQ�ZKLFK�ZDV�later to be applied to conservation initiatives with marked consequences. The peripheral location of natural spaces was seen as a good condition for conservation, even in the absence of legal measures to ensure protection. 7KLV�KDV�EHHQ�FRQ¿UPHG�LQ�JHRSROLWLFDOO\�FRPSOH[�VLWXDWLRQV��DQG�QRWDEO\�during the &ROG�:DU��:LHFNRZVNL��KDV�VKRZQ�WKDW�3ROLVK�borderlands KDYH�EHQH¿WWHG�IURP�WKH�DEVHQFH�RI�GHYHORSPHQW�SURMHFWV�GXULQJ�WKH�SHULRGV�RI� FORVHG� ERUGHUV� H[SHULHQFHG� LQ� WKDW� FRXQWU\�� ,Q� RWKHU� FDVHV�� SHULSKHUDO�locations led to another classical case of conservation strategy i.e. the establishment of EXIIHU� ]RQHV� GRWWHG� ZLWK� ERWK� PLOLWDU\� DQG� HFRORJLFDO�principles. This is notably the case of the national parks in southern Africa which are discussed in detail below. Parks of this nature can also be witnessed LQ�WKH�KLJK�SODWHDX[�RI�WKH�Andes, where the military governments in charge GXULQJ�WKH��V�FRLQFLGHG�ZLWK�WKH�HVWDEOLVKPHQW�RI�SHULPHWHUV�WR�SURWHFW�nature as well as to deter possible invasion from neighbours. These parks, located close to the tripartite borders, are now offering the possibility of networking their fragmented tourism areas for a foreign clientele in search RI�XQWRXFKHG�ODQGVFDSHV��$PLOKDW�6]DU\�DQG�*X\RW��

The role of nature in separating national destinies also implied that some remote places were treated in the opposite manner in conservation WHUPV��EHLQJ�LQYHVWHG�ZLWK�KHDY\�LQVWDOODWLRQ��QRWDEO\�PLOLWDU\�IRUWL¿FDWLRQV�which were to mark HFRV\VWHPV�HQGXULQJO\��$XIUqUH�DQG�0D]R\HU��Indeed, during periods of UH�ERUGHULQJ�SURFHVVHV��WKH�ERUGHU�PD\�EH�XQGHU�UHQHZHG�VWUHVV��IRU�H[DPSOH��WKH�ZDOOV�WKDW�VHSDUDWH�0H[LFR�IURP�WKH�86$�or Israel from the West Bank hinder the movement not only of humans but also animals and surface water. Similarly, the militarisation of the border between Costa Rica and Nicaragua led to the building of a security road on the Costa Rican bank of the San Juan River, through forest ecosystems which were as yet ‘untouched.’


Most strikingly, this dividing function with which nature has been endowed may not be as precise, nor as stable, as it seemed to be when its principles were introduced. The natural border that seemed to have been FUHDWHG�E\�*RG�LQ�DQ�LQGH¿QLWH�SDVW�GRHV�LQ�IDFW�KDYH�D�KLVWRULFLW\��5LYHU�beds and their evolving topographies are constantly changing coordinates as evidenced by the demarcation of contemporary African borders that require FODUL¿FDWLRQ� RI� WKHLU� SRVLWLRQV� DV� GH¿QHG� LQ� LQLWLDO� WUHDWLHV�� 7KLV� NLQG� RI�process is also taking place in the very heart of Europe, where climate change is causing the melting of glaciers along which borders had been established, thus making it necessary to review the borders which are dependent on the location of a summit, pass or watershed. The location of the top of a ski lift LQ�WKH�=HUPDWW�%UHXLO�&HUYLQLD�UHVRUW�FRPSOH[�LV�SUREDEO\�JRLQJ�WR�FKDQJH�FRXQWULHV�IROORZLQJ�XQH[SHFWHG�ERUGHU�UHQHJRWLDWLRQV�ZLWKLQ�WKH�European 8QLRQ��2I¿FLDO� WDONV�ZHUH�RSHQHG� LQ�-XO\��EHWZHHQ�6ZLW]HUODQG�DQG�,WDO\�WR�UHGH¿QH�WKH�ULGJH�OLQH��IROORZLQJ�WKH�PHOWLQJ�RI�JODFLHUV�EHWZHHQ�the Matterhorn and the Monte Rosa massif. These negotiations include a discussion on the transnationality of ski lifts situated on either side of the Theodul Pass.

The dividing power with which nature has been endowed appears in all LWV�KXPDQ�FRPSOH[LW\�ZKHQ�LW�LV�FRQWH[WXDOLVHG�ZLWK�FRJQLWLYH�DSSURDFKHV�WR�con servation issues. Most activists and scientists consistently alert us to the impossibility of building effective conservation policies while remaining prisoners of disciplinary bodies of thought which prevent us from working WRZDUGV� LQWHJUDWHG� VROXWLRQV� �0DUJOHV� HW� DO�� )ROORZLQJ� WKH� VDPH�ORJLF��%ODWWHU��ZDUQV�XV�WKDW�VHFWRULDO�GLYLGHV�PD\�EH�DV�LPSRUWDQW�DQG�hard to cross as political borders when environmental policies are at stake. (IIRUWV� WR� FRXQWHU� WKLV� LQÀXHQWLDO� SHUFHSWLRQ� RQ� ZKLFK� WKH� OLQN� EHWZHHQ�border and QDWXUH�ZDV�¿UVW�EXLOW�KDV�RSHQHG�D�QHZ�SODWIRUP�RQ�ZKLFK�WKH�relationship between humans and nature could be mobilised to create links DQG�IRU�UHXQL¿FDWLRQ�

Cooperating nature

,W� LV� SDUDGR[LFDO� WKDW� QDWXUH� LV� DEOH� WR� VXVWDLQ� TXLWH� WKH� RSSRVLWH� UROH� WR�that for which it was initially designed. In the transition from geopolitical FRQÀLFW�WR�ZKDW�VHHPHG�WR�EH�D�SHDFHIXO�ZRUOG��WKH��V�VDZ�WKH�HPHUJHQFH�RI�QDWXUH�DV�RQH�RI� WKH�FRUH�DUJXPHQWV� IRU�FURVV�ERUGHU�FRRSHUDWLRQ��7KH�‘naturalness’ of nature on which the rhetoric of separation was sustained has become the ground for dialogue on the basis of two arguments. The


¿UVW�RQH�LV�WKDW�HQYLURQPHQWDO�resources belong to all (and this, even before WKH�JOREDO�DJHQGD�VKHG�OLJKW�RQ�µFRPPRQ�JRRGV¶��FI��'HEDUELHX[�DQG�3ULFH��7KH�VHFRQG�RQH�UHODWHV�WR�WKH�SRZHU�WR�³UHJXODWH�WKH�YRLG�OLQNHG�WR�the repulsive effects of borders and answer to the disjunctions created by the superposition of political limits and physical discontinuities” (Fourny ��7KH�FRPPRQDOLW\�EHWZHHQ�ERWK�GLYLGLQJ�DQG�FRRSHUDWLQJ�natures is that they rely upon a comparable ecological thought. Accordingly, Duffy �� FRPPHQWHG� WKDW� ³WKH� HQYLURQPHQWDO� SKLORVRSK\� WKDW� XQGHUSLQV�the notion of transfrontier conservation areas is the idea of bioregions – ecological regions which do not follow national borders, and which need to be managed as integrated wholes.” This shared concept probably helps H[SODLQ�KRZ� WKH� WUDQVIHU� IURP�RQH�PRGHO� WR� WKH�RWKHU�PD\�KDYH�EHHQ� VR�swift.

7KH�HPHUJHQFH�RI�HFRORJLFDO�WKLQNLQJ�EDVHG�XSRQ�WKH�VHOI�DZDUHQHVV�RI�FLWL]HQV�DQG�WKHLU�FRQVFLRXVQHVV�RI�WKH�VWHZDUGVKLS�RI�WKH�HDUWK�KDV�SOD\HG�an essential role in generating new border narratives. This has been made possible through the plasticity of meanings of nature, some of which can be used to endorse various kinds of cooperation, from a minima occasional meetings and decisions to a maxima institutionalisation and regulations.

This range of possibilities is very sensitive to the historical insights that DUH�GUDZQ�IURP�VRPH�RI�WKH�PRVW�IDPRXV�H[DPSOHV�RI�UHJLRQDO�LQWHJUDWLRQ�sustained by nature, whether in Europe or 1RUWK�$PHULFD��%ODWWHU��([DPSOHV�RI�RXWVWDQGLQJ�QDWXUH�EDVHG�VROXWLRQV�LQFOXGH�WKH�ERUGHU�EHWZHHQ�the west coast of the 8QLWHG�6WDWHV� DQG�Canada, as well as around Lake &RQVWDQFH��%RGHQVHH��bordering on Germany, Austria and 6ZLW]HUODQG��,Q�what was characterised as local paradiplomacy a few decades ago (Hocking �� .HDWLQJ� �� %ODWWHU� �� VKRZV� WKDW� WKH� SUHVHQFH� RI� WKH�common waters of Lake Constance has strengthened the links between the neighbouring regions,5 from common management to the search for better ZDWHU�TXDOLW\��PHDVXUHV�DJDLQVW�WKH�RUJDQLF�FRQWDPLQDWLRQ�RI�WKH�ODNH��DQG�later to low carbon transportation policies on the banks. The chronology of the process is important, starting with developments such as the creation of WKH�¿UVW�LQVWLWXWLRQDO�ERGLHV��WKH�,QWHUQDWLRQDO�&RPPLVVLRQ�IRU�WKH�3URWHFWLRQ�RI�/DNH�&RQVWDQFH�±�,QWHUQDWLRQDOH�*HZDHVVHUVFKXW]NRPPLVVLRQ�IXHU�GHQ�%RGHQVHH�RU�,*.%�±�LQ��IROORZHG�E\�WZR�PRUH�ERGLHV�LQ�WKH��V��,Q�WKH��V�WKH�LQYROYHPHQW�RI�XQLYHUVLWLHV��WKH�SULYDWH�VHFWRU��DQG�D�JURZLQJ�number of environmental groups led to the creation of a new structure, the (QYLURQPHQWDO�&RXQFLO�RI�/DNH�&RQVWDQFH�±�8PZHOWUDW�%RGHQVHH��7KHVH�VWUXFWXUHV�IHOO�XQGHU�WKH�(8�,17(55(*�SURJUDPPHV�LQ�WKH��V��D�PRYH�that enlarged the possible sectorial scope of initiatives. Formerly dealing


DOPRVW� H[FOXVLYHO\� ZLWK� ZDWHU� LVVXHV�� WKH� ,*%.� ZLGHQHG� LWV� DJHQGD� WR�LQFOXGH�DOO�PDMRU�SROLWLFDO�LVVXHV��$QRWKHU�H[DPSOH�LV�IRXQG�RQ�WKH�QRUWKHUQ�ERUGHU�RI�WKH�8QLWHG�6WDWHV�±�QRW�RQ�LWV�LQWHUIDFH�ZLWK�0H[LFR�±�IURP�ZKLFK�%ODWWHU� �� HPSKDVLVHG� WKH� LPSRUWDQFH� RI� WKH� HQWUHSUHQHXULDO� DFWRUV�WR�HQDFW�D�UHJLRQDO�LGHQWLW\�DJHQGD��,Q�ERWK�RI�WKH�H[DPSOHV�UHIHUUHG�WR�LQ�%ODWWHU¶V��SDSHU��VKDULQJ�WKH�HQYLURQPHQW�KDV�YHU\�PDQ\�YLUWXHV��QRW�the least being the capacity to enhance economic development and market dynamics.

,Q�WKLV�FRQWH[W��LW�PD\�EH�XVHIXO�WR�ORRN�DW�ZKDW�KDV�KDSSHQHG�WR�WKH�PRVW�documented border, the one that separates the 8QLWHG� 6WDWHV� RI�$PHULFD�IURP� 0H[LFR�� 2YHU� WKH� \HDUV�� WKLV� ERUGHU� KDV� VHHQ� D� JUHDW� QXPEHU� RI�environmental initiatives, trying to overcome the degradation of the arid areas through which the border crosses and which make water a central LVVXH�DORQJ�LWV��NP��NP�RI�ZKLFK�IROORZV�WKH�Rio Grande/Bravo 5LYHU� �*DQVWHU�DQG�/RUH\��>��@��7KH�¿UVW� OHJDO�DUUDQJHPHQW�RYHU�ZDWHU�ZDV�FDOOHG�IRU�LQ��OHDGLQJ�WR�D�SURYLVLRQDO�DJUHHPHQW�LQ��$QRWKHU�GLYLVLRQ�RI�VXUIDFH�ZDWHU�ZDV�FRQFOXGHG�E\�WUHDW\�LQ��$IWHU�this date, FRQÀLFW�UHVXUIDFHG�DV�WKH�XVH�RI�WKH�resource increased with the GHYHORSPHQW� RI� LQWHQVLYH� DJULFXOWXUH�� LQLWLDOO\� RQ� WKH� 86� VLGH�� 7KH� ODFN�of water is ascribed to the poor quality of the rivers, most notably due to badly controlled urban sewage, making the Río Nuevo/New River the most polluted of all. As a result, the Salton Sea ecosystem has been endangered rapidly.

These issues cannot be separated from the deterioration of air quality ZLWK� WKH� JURZWK� RI� FURVV�ERUGHU� DJJORPHUDWLRQV� RU� IURP� WKH� TXHVWLRQ� RI�industrial waste which has grown with the maquila industry, in spite of LQFUHDVLQJ�HIIRUWV� WR� LPSRVH�HQYLURQPHQWDO�IULHQGO\�PDQDJHPHQW�V\VWHPV�on the border plants. A number of endeavours have been made to create regulatory LQVWLWXWLRQV�VXFK�DV�DGYLVRU\�DQG�H[HFXWLYH�ERDUGV��)RU�H[DPSOH��WKH� 86� ,QWHUQDWLRQDO� %RXQGDU\� DQG�:DWHU� &RPPLVVLRQ� �,%:&�� DQG� WKH�0H[LFDQ�&RPLVLyQ�GH�/LPLWHV�\�$JXD��&,/$��ZHUH�ERWK�FUHDWHG�LQ��DQG�HQGRZHG�ZLWK�UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV�DQG�DXWKRULW\�RYHU�ZDWHU�VLQFH�WKH��treaty. It is interesting to see how the environment was pushed forward by presidents George W. Bush and Carlos Salinas de Gortari to open the JURXQG�IRU�WKH�1RUWK�$PHULFDQ�)UHH�7UDGH�$JUHHPHQW��1$)7$��WKURXJK�the signing of an ,QWHJUDWHG�%RUGHU�(QYLURQPHQWDO�3ODQ��,%(3��±��which was not too well received by border communities. It was criticised for not including the necessary budgets to implement its agenda. Its successors, %RUGHU� ;;,� 3URJUDP� ��±�� DQG� %RUGHU� �� ±�� ZHUH�more open to multiple agency projects.


A side agreement of NAFTA created the Border Environment &RRSHUDWLRQ�&RPPLVVLRQ��%(&&��ZRUNLQJ�FORVHO\�ZLWK�WKH�North American 'HYHORSPHQW�%DQN��1$'%��7KH�Good Neighbour Environmental Board �*1(%��RI��DLPHG�DW�JDWKHULQJ�PRUH�FLYLO�VRFLHW\�UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV��7KHVH�forums went hand in hand with the promotion of research on environmental projects, resulting in the creation of the 6RXWKZHVW�&RQVRUWLXP�IRU�(QYLURQ�PHQWDO�5HVHDUFK�DQG�3ROLF\��6&(53��ZKLFK�RSHUDWHG�IURP��XQWLO�WKHLU�UHFHQW�FXW�RI�IXQGLQJ�DW�WKH�HQG�RI��$SDUW�IURP�WKLV�RYHUDOO�IUDPHZRUN��DQ�enormous number of local and regional initiatives have been deployed over the years, and their role in the economic integration process is noticeable. Some measures taken include a joint protection of the Tijuana Estuary and the realisation of common urban sewage plants. Additional major projects in the pipeline include the creation of common watershed basin regulation authorities for the big border rivers and shared authorities for protected DUHDV� VXFK� DV� WKH� 86� %LJ� %HQ� 1DWLRQDO� 3DUN�� 7H[DV� DQG� QHLJKERXULQJ�Sierras del Carmen preserve, 0H[LFR�� Some analysts underline the fact that the multiplication of environmental cooperation projects, when there are no VSLQ�RIIV��FDQ�DOVR�EH�D�ZD\�RI�QRW�SXVKLQJ�FURVV�ERUGHU�LQWHJUDWLRQ�WRR�IDU�LQ� RUGHU� WR� DYRLG�PRUH� SROLWLFDOO\� SUREOHPDWLF� LVVXHV� �+RJHQERRP��$O¿H�&RKHQ��DQG�$QWDO��

Cooperation through nature is an even more powerful narrative when the public sector is dominant in terms of project leadership, as is notably the case with European regional funds in general and INTERREG projects in particular. A thorough analysis of the INTERREG II projects involving )UHQFK� SDUWQHUV� �)RXUQ\� �� UHYHDOV� WKDW� PRUH� WKDQ� �� RI� WKHP�contain a nature conservation component. However, they are underlined by two types of understandings of the role of nature in border building. ,Q�WKH�¿UVW�FDVH��WKH�DUJXPHQW�IRU�FRRSHUDWLRQ�LV�EDVHG�RQ�WKH�VKDULQJ�RI�D�common ecosystem whose conservation becomes an issue for both parties: nature is at stake because it is threatened. In so doing, nature is somehow ³REMHFWL¿HG´��)RXUQ\��WR�MXVWLI\�WKH�H[LVWHQFH�RI�³VSDWLDO�REMHFWV�which are continuous but endowed with a restricted surface, protected or JUHHQ�DUHDV�´�$�JRRG�H[DPSOH�RI� WKLV� UHYHUVDO�RI�V\PEROLF�YDOXHV�FDQ�EH�found in the history of the straits that have separated Corsica from Sardinia over the past centuries.

The traditional crossings were interrupted due to efforts to incorporate WKH�LVODQGV�LQWR�WKH�QDWLRQDO�WHUULWRULHV�RI�)UDQFH�DQG�,WDO\�GXULQJ�WKH��WK�DQG��WK�FHQWXULHV�UHVSHFWLYHO\��,Q�UHFHQW�\HDUV��IURP�WKH��V�HVSHFLDOO\�� cooperation between the two conservation areas in both countries has led to an international partnership giving birth to two linked maritime protected


areas, the Italian ‘Maddalena Archipelago’ Park and the French ‘Bouches de Bonifacio’ Natural Reserve, in lieu of a international marine park which ZDV�QRW�SRVVLEOH�DW�WKH�WLPH��3LFRXHW��7KH�PDULWLPH�ORFDWLRQ�RI�WKLV�H[DPSOH�PDNHV�LW�HYHQ�PRUH�LQWHUHVWLQJ�WR�UHÀHFW�XSRQ�WKH�LQWURGXFWLRQ�RI�borders according to their symbolic importance, given the fact that a linear boundary makes even less sense on the high seas than over a mountain ULGJH��$V�)RXUQ\��QRWHG�³QDWXUDO�REMHFWV�WKHUHIRUH�PD\�DSSHDU�DV�RSHUDWRUV�LQ�UH�VHPDQWLVLQJ�WKH�OLPLW�LWVHOI�´�,Q�WKH�VHFRQG�FDWHJRU\��WKH�VWDUWLQJ�SRLQW�IRU�FURVV�ERXQGDU\�FRRSHUDWLRQ�LV�QRW�VR�PXFK�WKH�SK\VLFDO�PRUSKRORJ\��RI�WKH�PRXQWDLQ��WKH�VWUDLWV��WKH�ULYHU��EXW�WKH�FXOWXUDO�XVH�RI�ODQGVFDSH��7KH�SURMHFW�LV�WKHUHIRUH�DLPHG�DW�UHGH¿QLQJ�D�WUDGLWLRQDO��UHJLRQ��GH¿QHG� E\� D� VRPHZKDW� DWHPSRUDO� OLIHVW\OH� WKDW� WUDGLWLRQDOO\� UHVSHFWHG� nature, notably through a predominantly rural use of it.

The case of the ‘peace SDUNV¶�WDNHV�WKH�¿UVW�RI�WKRVH�WZR�,17(55(*�categories further, since they are not concerned merely with cooperation but also the swing from war to peace by the forging of FRQÀLFW�UHVROXWLRQ��3HDFH�SDUNV�� RU� PRUH� JHQHUDOO\� VSHDNLQJ�� ZKDW� WKH� 81(3� FDOOV� transboundary SUR�WHFWHG�DUHDV��7%3$��KDYH�EHHQ�UDSLGO\�VSUHDGLQJ�DFURVV�WKH�SODQHW��,Q�DGGLWLRQ�WR��SHDFH�SDUNV�LGHQWL¿HG�LQ��ZHUH�LQGLYLGXDO�SUR�WHFWHG�DUHDV�RU�LQWHUQDWLRQDOO\�GHVLJQDWHG�VLWHV�FRYHULQJ�VRPH��PLO�OLRQ�KHFWDUHV� �4XLQQ��%UREHUJ�� DQG�)UHLPXQG��7KH� DXWKRUV� IXUWKHU�QRWH�that this generic term for transboundary protected areas refers to realities ZKLFK� JR� IURP� QRQ�FRQWLJXRXV� FRQVHUYDWLRQ�RULHQWHG� 7UDQVERXQGDU\�Migratory Corridors which “are required to sustain a biological migratory SDWKZD\�� DQG�ZKHUH� FR�RSHUDWLYH�PDQDJHPHQW� KDV� EHHQ� VHFXUHG� WKURXJK�OHJDO�RU�RWKHU�HIIHFWLYH�PHDQV´� WR�PRUH�RU� OHVV� IRUPDOLVHG�³PDWUL[HV� WKDW�contribute to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity.

$OWKRXJK�LQLWLDWHG�LQ�WKH��V��WKHLU�SURPLVHV�PHHW�WKH�H[SHFWDWLRQV�RI�SRVW�Cold War geopolitics, since they have provided a useful tool for healing wounds (see the southern African and central American cases docu mented LQ�'XII\��$OL��DQG�5DPXWVLQGHOD��7KH�RI¿FLDO�YHUVLRQ�suggests that “the proliferation of TBPAs is a clear indicator that historical and geopolitical constraints imposed on ecosystems, species, and communities DUH� DEDWLQJ��0RUHRYHU�� WKH� H[SHULHQFH� JDUQHUHG� E\�7%3$� SUDFWLWLRQHUV� LQ�D�P\ULDG� RI� HFRORJLFDO� DQG� VRFLR�SROLWLFDO� FRQWH[WV� RIIHUV� WKH� RSSRUWXQLW\�to develop new models and approaches for effective manage ment” (Quinn, %UREHUJ��DQG�)UHLPXQG��7KH�QDUUDWLYH�KHUH�LV�DV�PXFK�DERXW�µEHQH¿WV�EH\RQG� ERXQGDULHV¶� �%XVKHOO� DQG� (DJOHV� �� DV� DERXW� FURVV�ERUGHU�political construction. One can certainly qualify this viewpoint by claiming that the success of these initiatives lies in their capacity to mobilise at all


levels, from the local to the supranational, both politically and economically, since, on the ground, their success is linked more to international tourism DQG�WRXULVP�ÀRZV�WKDQ�WR�HIIHFWLYH�SROLWLFDO�FKDQJHV��5DPXWVLQGHOD��7KH�LQWHUYHQWLRQ�RI�LQWHUQDWLRQDO�1*2V�RU�LQWHUQDWLRQDO�¿QDQFLDO�institutions VXFK�DV�WKH�:RUOG�%DQN�KDV�DOVR�EHHQ�VHHQ�DV�DQ�LOOXVWUDWLRQ�RI�³E\�SDVVLQJ�RI� FHQWUDO� LQVWLWXWLRQV´� �'XII\�� LQ� WKH�SURFHVV�RI�GH¿QLQJ�nature WKURXJK�D�FRPSOH[�V\PEROLVDWLRQ�RI�WKH�VWDWH�ERUGHU��D�OLQH�WKDW�VKRXOG�EH�HUDVHG�RQO\�WR�WKH�SRLQW�WKDW�LW�GRHV�QRW�GLVDSSHDU�DV�D�UHVRXUFH��

The striking conclusion of twenty years of active cooperation over nature and borders is that there is no clear political outcome of cooperating natures. Changes in the legitimacy of territorial divides seem to have occurred, but these are not more inclusive than under the dividing nature’s paradigm. If more actors have been allowed into the negotiation chamber, some only bear paper rights. Much of the literature denounces the fact WKDW� LQ� WKH� FURVV�ERUGHU� DUHDV� GHGLFDWHG� WR� WKRURXJK� FRQVHUYDWLRQ�� ORFDO�SHRSOH�ZKR�RIWHQ�FRLQFLGH�ZLWK�KLVWRULFDOO\�H[FOXGHG�PLQRULWLHV��KDYH�QRW�really� been included in management schemes. Especially in cases where WKH\�KDYH�H[SHULHQFHG�SUHYLRXV�H[SXOVLRQV�WR�DOORZ�IRU�WKH�HVWDEOLVKPHQW�of the protected perimeters, the recognition of their rights has appeared HYHQ�PRUH�GLI¿FXOW��&XQGLOO�HW�DO��+RZHYHU��PRVW�RI�WKHVH�ZULWLQJV�tend to stress the fact that “the moves towards transfrontier conservation areas can also be viewed as part of a process of shifting responsibility for FRQVHUYDWLRQ�RXW�RI�VWDWH�KDQGV�DQG�LQWR�WKH�KDQGV�RI�VXSUD�VWDWH�HQWLWLHV´��'XII\��$�FORVHU�UHDGLQJ�RI�VRPH�FDVHV�UHYHDOV�TXLWH�WKH�RSSRVLWH��environmental cooperation can serve to reinforce national objectives and strengthen state actors, who remain in charge of powerful regulatory tools in this GRPDLQ��1RUPDQ��2SHUDWLQJ�LQ�D�YHU\�OLEHUDO�FRQWH[W��FURVV�border nature building meets a very traditional conception of ecological UHJLRQDOLVP� �5DPXWVLQGHOD� ��7KLV�PD\� EH�ZK\�� DOWKRXJK� QXPHURXV�projects continue to communicate and function under this paradigm, a good QXPEHU� HVFDSH� WKLV� FDWHJRULVDWLRQ� DQG� WKHLU� UHODWLRQ� WR� ERUGHUV� UHÀHFWV� D�form of panicking nature.

Panicking nature

In recent years, the links between border and nature issues have been H[SUHVVHG�WKURXJK�WKH�transnationalisation of environmental questions. This apparent loss of precise location not only complicates the politics of scale, it also deeply questions the notion of conservation itself, and its traditional


reference to ELRUHJLRQDOLVP��9LULOLR��WHOOV�XV�WKDW�EHFDXVH�WKH�GLVWDQFH�embedded by the border grid is removed, fear can arise quickly, even panic. If ‘elsewhere begins here’ we are faced with the need to reformulate our relationship with a nature that is no longer ‘out there’, on the peripheries of our cities or of the national territory, but which hurts us at heart. More integration is required in the formulation of all the relationships that accommo date dimensions of our environment into an ecology that includes XV��WKURXJK�KXPDQ�DV�ZHOO�DV�QXPHURXV�QRQ�KXPDQ�LQWHUDFWLRQV��,Q�VR�PXFK�as this ‘Latourian’ view may be useful to reformulate any analysis of the link between nature and conservation, it may even lead us to negate the SRVVLELOLW\�RI�H[LVWHQFH�RI�QDWXUH��DV�D�KXPDQ��ZHVWHUQ�UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ��RU�HYHQ�RI� ERUGHUV� �DV� GLYLGHV�ZKLFK� GR� QRW� H[LVW�ZKHQ� DOO� FDWHJRULHV� KDYH�PRELOH�SHULPHWHUV��

It may appear that the analysis of Virilio is wrong as much as it is ULJKW��(YHQ�LI�WKUHDWHQHG�E\�WLPH�FRPSUHVVLRQ��GLVWDQFH�VWLOO�H[LVWV��+DUYH\��0DVVH\��$QG�VR�GR�QDWXUDO�HOHPHQWV�RU� VSHFL¿F�ecosystems, representing material constraints which may be used as the ground for FRQVHUYDWLRQ� SHULPHWHUV�� )RU� H[DPSOH�� WKH� FDVH� RI� PRXQWDLQV� LV� TXLWH�illustrative because “the constraints that they represent oblige the observer to take into account the multiple dimensions of what is generally referred WR��DIWHU�%UXQR�/DWRXU��DV�WKH�µQRQ�KXPDQ¶��/DWRXU��>«@�,W�DSSHDUV�WKDW�the border is no longer seen as the periphery of a territory, but as a founding HOHPHQW�RI�FRPSOH[�WHUULWRULDOLWLHV��,Q�WKLV�UHVSHFW��WKH�ERUGHU�KDV�QRW�RQO\�a controlling and limiting function but also plays the role of operator or agent in processes. The approach via borders leads us to question, however, the political dimension of a relational thought: like it or not, one has to DGPLW�WKDW�µWKH�ZRUOG�FDQQRW�EH�ÀDW¶�´��$PLOKDW�6]DU\��7KXV��WKH�YHU\�important issue that comes to the forefront when tackling panicking natures is the need to acknowledge materialities without leaving aside their social DQG�GLDOHFWLFDO�FRPSRQHQW��6PLWK�DQG�2¶.HHIH��

7KH� ¿UVW� VSDWLDO� HOHPHQW� RI� WKLV� QHZ� FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ� RI� ERUGHUV� LV� WKH�fact that the components to be analysed are all transnational. The most evident of them is the paradigm of global change which links all ecological transformations and provides a common framework to interpret them. It DOVR�LQFOXGHV�WKH�LPSDFW�RI�LQWHQVL¿FDWLRQ�RI�KXPDQ�DFWLRQV�RQ�ELRV\VWHPV��L�H��WKH�IDFW�WKDW�ZH�KDYH�HQWHUHG�WKH�µDQWKURSRFHQH¶��&UXW]HQ�DQG�6WRHUPHU��6WHIIHQ�HW� DO��RQ�ZKLFK� WKH� MRXUQDOLVW�&RRNVRQ� ��QRWHG�that the “human impact on the global environment now rivals that of nature – and climate change is only one of the results.” This impact induces an apparent global disorder, which may not be maintained under a b/


ordering WHUULWRULDOLVDWLRQ� �9DQ� +RXWXP�� .UDPVFK�� DQG� =LHIKRIHU� ��Global change obliges us to consider what there is to preserve from/for nature? How do we adapt conservation policies to moving boundaries, whether political or technical? It forces us out of the binary thinking which we have seen is dominant in the two other types of relations between nature and borders.

7KH�¿UVW�HOHPHQW�RI�SURRI�XVXDOO\�PRELOLVHG�WR�VXVWDLQ�WKLV�DQDO\VLV�LV�WKH�fact that environmental problems are transnational, and as such, challenge the power of the state as a major environmental regulator. In this sense, not RQO\�KDYH�VSHFL¿F�LQVWLWXWLRQV�HPHUJHG��ZLWKLQ�H[LVWLQJ�JOREDO�LQVWLWXWLRQV�such as the World Bank, through its *OREDO�(QYLURQPHQW�)DFLOLW\��*()��RU�GHGLFDWHG�DW�VSHFL¿F�UHJLRQV�RU�WKHPHV��VXFK�DV�WKH�7ULODWHUDO�&RPPLVVLRQ�for Environmental Cooperation for 1RUWK�$PHULFD��&(&��EXW�HQYLURQPHQWDO�conservation has become a competence of all components of society, from FLYLO�DFWLYLVWV�WR�JOREDO�¿UPV�ZKR�KDYH�OHDUQW�WR�PDQDJH�HQYLURQPHQWDO�LVVXHV�LQ� RUGHU� WR�PDNH� WKHLU�ZD\� WKURXJK� WKH� H[SORLWDWLRQ� RI�natural resources ZKLFK�VNLUW�WKH�ERUGHU��$PLOKDW�6]DU\��+RZHYHU��LQ�WKH�¿HOG��WKRVH�actors which threaten or back up the state regulatory power have more GLUHFW�UHVXOWV�LQ�IRFXVHG�¿JKWV�WKDQ�WKURXJK�JHQHUDO�DZDUHQHVV�FDPSDLJQV��The case of Metales y Derivados, a lead smelter in Tijuana, which was VKXW�GRZQ�DQG�OHIW�XQFOHDQHG�LQ��E\�LWV�0H[LFDQ�RZQHU��D�VXEVLGLDU\�RI�D�0H[LFDQ�FRPSDQ\��FDQ�EH�FRQVLGHUHG�VLJQL¿FDQW��*DQVWHU�DQG�/RUH\��5HVRUWLQJ�WR�WKH�&(&�DQG�KDYLQJ�WKHP�SURYLGH�DQ�DGYHUVDULDO�UHSRUW�enforced the cleaning up of the site, which had been largely completed by WKH�FRPSDQ\�E\��7KH�86�SDUN�QHWZRUN�V\VWHP�LV�DQRWKHU�H[DPSOH�RI�this process. The network is portrayed as an urban metro map, indicating the IDFW�WKDW�DOO�SURWHFWHG�DUHDV�DUH�OLQNHG��HYHQ�LI�QRW�FRQWLQXRXV��)LJXUH��However, the national borders are still quite visible: they transform Alaska into an island but silence all other continental parks. The message that the LOOXVWUDWLRQ�GHOLYHUV�LV�SUREDEO\�WKH�RSSRVLWH�RI��ZKDW�ZDV�LQWHQGHG�

7KH�PXOWL�VFDOLQJ�RI�FRQVHUYDWLRQ�DFWLRQV� LPSOLHV�PRUH� WKDQ�DQ\WKLQJ�the growing possibility of environmental FRQÀLFWV� RQ� WKH� EDVLV� RI� ULYDO��OHJLWLPDFLHV�H[HUWHG�RYHU�QDWXUH��*X\RW��7KLV�FDQ�UHVXOW�LQ�UHFXUUHQW�violence in conservation areas, but also in all of the locations which lend themselves to less intensive nature policies, either because the claims over the use of resources differ (claiming environmental justice is not always EHQHYROHQW��RU�EHFDXVH� WKH�DEXQGDQFH�RI� WKRVH�YHU\� UHVRXUFHV�RSHQV� WKH�way for both protection and depredation. The fact that protected areas are UHPRWH�PDNHV�WKH�FRQWURO�RI�OHJDO�DQG�LOOHJDO�DFWLYLWLHV�GLI¿FXOW�EHFDXVH�RI�WKH�ORZ�GHQVLWLHV�RI�UDQJHUV��HYHQ�LQ�ULFK�FRXQWULHV��0RXPDQHL[��7KH�


recent transformation of international borders to promote a global security DJHQGD�¿W�WKLV�VFHQDULR�LQ�D�FRQWUDGLFWRU\�ZD\��7KH�PXOWLSOLFDWLRQ�RI�ERUGHU�LQIUDVWUXFWXUH�DQG�SDWUROV�LQFUHDVHV�WKH�KXPDQ�LPSDFW�RQ�]RQHV�ZKLFK�ZHUH�previously little frequented. This development supposedly counters illegal LPPLJUDWLRQ��WUDI¿FNLQJ��DQG�ÀRZV�WKDW�HQGDQJHU�ORFDO�HFRORJLFDO�EDODQFHV��7KH�FRH[LVWHQFH�RI�WKHVH�VHFXULW\�PHDVXUHV�LQ�UHPRWH��SRRUO\�HFRORJLFDOO\�SURWHFWHG��DUHDV�±�VRPH�RI�ZKLFK�SUHVHQW�GLI¿FXOW�FRQGLWLRQV�IRU�KXPDQ�VXU�vival – brings to the forefront the need to reconsider the legitimacy and modalities of intervention in those territories. On the 86�0H[LFR�ERUGHU��especially, the tension between environmental movements and humanitar�LDQ�DFWLYLVP�LV�JURZLQJ��6KHOODEDUJHU��3HWHUVRQ��DQG�6LOOV��6XQGEHUJ��

All these motives of violence contradict strongly with the premises of nature conservation regarding peace and harmony. These may encounter HYHQ� VWURQJHU� UHIXWDWLRQ� LQ� WKH�PXOWLSOLFDWLRQ� RI� µQDWXUDO¶� KD]DUGV� ZKLFK�

Figure 3-1:�$�ERUGHUHG�QHWZRUN�RI�86�SURWHFWHG�DUHDV VRXUFH��KWWS��FRQWHQW�VLHUUDFOXE�RUJ�0<3,(&(2)$0(5,&$�QDWLRQDO�SDUNV�VXEZD\�PDS�


UHQHZ� WKH� IHDU� RI� DQ� XQ�PDVWHUHG� QDWXUH� RU� ZRUVH�� RI� D� GRPLQDWLRQ� RI�nature which has not led to the promised harmony but on the contrary, to its devastating disequilibrium. Global warming and security conjugate to not only reverse cooperation narratives but deeply transform the spatial representations of nature and borders. When ecoregionalism is jeopardised by climate deregulation and national limits are threatened by security threats, WKH� DQVZHU� LV� ERWK� WR� WKLFNHQ�DQG� WR�GHORFDOLVH� WKH�ERUGHU� �:KLWH��:KHQ�,QGLD�VHHV�FRDVWDO�ÀRRGLQJ�DV�µD�QDWLRQDO�VHFXULW\�LVVXH¶��)ULHGPDQ��QDWXUH�FRQVHUYDWLRQ�QR�ORQJHU�FRQFHUQV�WKH�PDLQWHQDQFH�RI�UHJXODWHG�DUHDV�GHGLFDWHG�WR�SURWHFWLRQ��EXW�UHIHUV�WR�WKH�LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ�RI�FRPSOH[�sets of border securitisation devices, both on the boundary and in a series of networked points of entry. In some cases, both nature protection and security devices coincide, and the borders of nature reserves can be endowed with international meaning. A case in point is some Polish national parks where rangers are being entrusted with controlling identity papers, since they are the last to witness movement into national territory before people cross WKH� OLQH��:LHFNRZVNL��Nature and its conservation which had been a strong argument for sovereignty building now often appears as a reason for bypassing and questioning sovereignty. In this sense, climatic refugees may appear as the synecdoche for this panicking nature that seems to blur all preceding territorial bearings.

Panic in nature also demonstrates the quest for handling environment in the name of conserving it. Hence, it appears that the motive for action is becoming more a question of preventing certain species from entering an area whereas it used to be more about not letting species escape. The tools to handle these reformulated relations between conservation and borders do not H[LVW�DW�WKH�PRPHQW��7KH�VWUHQJWK�RI�WKH�PDS�UHPDLQV��EXW�LW�KDV�WR�XQGHUJR�profound transformation in order to not only incorporate but represent dynamic data. In this regard a theoretical call made some years ago from WKH�¿HOG�RI�SROLWLFDO�VWXGLHV��6WHLQEHUJ��KDV�EXW�UHFHQWO\�EHHQ�WDNHQ�XS�IURP�D�JHRJUDSKLFDO�LQIRUPDWLRQ�V\VWHPV��*,6��SHUVSHFWLYH��$QGULHQNR�HW�DO��<XDQ��1DUD��DQG�%RWKZHOO��)URP�WKH�QDWXUDOLVW�SHUVSHFWLYH��this leads to the framing of more continuous transitions over space (Di 9LUJLOLR�DQG�/DIIDQ��ZKHUHDV��IURP�WKH�VHFXULW\�SRLQW�RI�YLHZ��WKH�LVVXH�UHPDLQV�KRZ�WR�FRQWURO�WKH�ÀRZ�DQG�QXPHURXV�ERUGHU�FURVVLQJV��'H�$PLFLV��6WRMDQRYLF��DQG�&RQWL��+RZHYHU��OLWWOH�KDV�EHHQ�GRQH�WR�IROORZ�D�PRUH�systematic integration of power networks into dynamic visualisation efforts, DV�DOOXGHG�WR�E\�0DUWLQ��


Conclusion

The evidence of how nature and borders intermingle in our imagination and LPDJHV�PD\�EH�TXLWH�UHYHDOLQJ��7KLV�FDQ�KDSSHQ�LQ�WKH�¿HOG��LQ�D�YHU\�PXQGDQH�way, when we are not surprised to meet a park ranger wearing a uniform that reminds us in many ways of the military. In many contemporary art events where ‘border art’ has been present over the last decade, environmental LVVXHV�DUH�FRPLQJ�WR�WKH�IRUH��7KLV�ZDV�QRWDEO\�WKH�FDVH�DW�WKH��9HQLFH�%LHQQLDO�RU�DW�WKH�OHVV�ZHOO�NQRZQ�0HUFXVRO�%LHQQDO�KHOG�LQ�3RUWR�$OHJUH��7KH��ELHQQLDO�ZDV�HQWLWOHG�µ%H\RQG�ERUGHUV¶��$PLOKDW�6]DU\��E��LQ��WKH�WKHPH�RI�WKH�ELHQQLDO�ZDV�µ:HDWKHU�3HUPLWWLQJ¶��7KH�WUDMHFWRU\�RI�DQ�DUWLVW�OLNH�8UVXOD�%LHPDQQ�ZKR�VWDUWHG�KHU�FDUHHU�LQ�YLGHR�HVVD\V�E\�HVWDEOLVKLQJ�WKH�SHUIRUPDWLYH�IXQFWLRQV�RI�WKH�ERUGHU��%LHPDQQ��has lately switched topics to alert people to the impact of climate. In her ODWHVW�ZRUN��µ'HHS�:HDWKHU¶��SUHVHQWHG�LQ��LQ�9HQLFH��EXW��LQWHUHVWLQJO\��ZLWKLQ� WKH� 0DOGLYHV� 3DYLOLRQ�� VKH� VKRZV� WKH� SDUDOOHO� WKUHDWV� RI� ULVLQJ�oceanic waters in the Bengal Delta and pollution of ground waters because RI�VKDOH�RLO�H[WUDFWLRQ�LQ�WKH�IDU�QRUWK�RI�1RUWK�$PHULFD��Panic and security LVVXHV�DVVRFLDWHG�ZLWK�HQYLURQPHQWDO�FKDQJH�DUH�VWURQJO\�UHGH¿QLQJ�ERUGHUV�and nature because of the contradiction between the emergency conditions which they seem to impose and the impossible task of resolving such global issues.

In a sense, this intertwined review of border and conservation studies reveals the limits and promises of both, and the fertility of their encounter. It shows that while binary analysis of the border and conservation as an REMHFW�ZLOO�FRQWLQXH��WKHUH�DUH�FOHDU�OLPLWDWLRQV�WR�WKLV�H[HUFLVH��7KRVH�EOLQG�DOOH\V�KDYH� IRU� ORQJ�EHHQ�ERXOHYDUGV��DV� WKH�QXPEHU�RI�VWXGLHV�RQ�FURVV�boundary natural cooperation may illustrate. One could even claim that WKH�GLI¿FXOWLHV�RI�GLVWLQJXLVKLQJ�µLQVLGHV¶�IURP�µRXWVLGHV¶�GLVTXDOLI\�border studies as a whole. I would rather suggest that they offer a body of literature DSSURSULDWH� WR�KHOS�XV� UHFRQVLGHU� WKH�SURFHVV�RI� FDWHJRULVDWLRQ� LQ� D�SRVW�modern perspective; a perspective which border studies may share with PDQ\�RWKHU�VFLHQWL¿F�DSSURDFKHV��&RQVHUYDWLRQ�LVVXHV�FRQIURQWLQJ�XV�UHYHDO�KRZ�WKH\�FURVV�WKH�ORQJ�VWDQGLQJ�GLYLGH�EHWZHHQ�VRFLDO�DQG�QDWXUDO�VFLHQFHV��Because of their capacity to underline dissenting representations within ‘the VRFLDO¶��5DQFLqUH��DUWLVWV�FHUWDLQO\�KDYH�WKH�SRZHU�WR�QRW�RQO\�enlighten but also activate our political behaviours. The analysis of what contemporary visual arts have to say to conservation and its borders may ZHOO�EH�D�VWLPXODWLQJ�SDWK�RXW�WKH�GHDG�HQG�WKDW�WKLV�FKDSWHU�KDV�KLJKOLJKWHG�


Acknowledgements

7KH�ZULWLQJ�RI�WKLV�WH[W�KDV�EHHQ�PDGH�SRVVLEOH�E\�WKH�IXQGLQJ�RI�WKH�)UHQFK�,8)�SURMHFW�³0RELOH�%RUGHUV´�DQG�WKH�(8�)3��(8%25'(56&$3(6�SURMHFW��XQGHU�WKH��WK�)UDPHZRUN�3URJUDPPH��)3��66+��$UHD��µ7KH�HYROYLQJ�concept of borders’.

Notes

�� &RQWDPLQDQWV�ÀRZ�RYHU�KXPDQ�OLPLWV� “no country is protected by prohibiting ''7� ZLWKLQ� LWV� RZQ� ERXQGDULHV´�� GHQRXQFHG� ,UVWRQ� 5�� %DUQHV� LQ� ��(“Conservation Across Borders”, The Washington Post, Times Herald (1959–1973), $SULO��

�� 3HUVRQDO�WUDQVODWLRQ�IURP��³FODVVHU�OHV�rWUHV�VHORQ�TX¶LOV�UHOqYHQW�GHV�ORLV�GH�OD�PDWLqUH�RX�GHV�DOpDV�GHV�FRQYHQWLRQV´�

�� 7HUULWRULDO�OLPLWV�ZHUH�QRW�WKH�PRVW�PHDQLQJIXO�LQ�D�IHXGDO�V\VWHP�EDVHG�RQ�LQWHU�personal allegiances which did not require spatial contiguity.

�� ³YRWUH�QDWXUH�Q¶HVW�TX¶XQ�PRW�SRXU�VLJQL¿HU�O¶XQLYHUVDOLWp�GHV�FKRVHV´��9ROWDLUH��Dictionnaire philosophique��TXRWHG�E\�)RXUQ\��

�� ,Q� WKH� FRQWH[W� RI� ORQJ�ODVWLQJ� JRRG� UHODWLRQV� �WKLV� VHJPHQW� RI� WKH� ERUGHU� KDV�EHHQ�GLVFXVVHG�XQWLO�YHU\�UHFHQWO\��LQ��WKH�9RUDOEHUJ�*HUPDQ�UHJLRQ�YRWHG�to be included within Swiss borders, a decision that was not backed by the 6ZLVV� JRYHUQPHQW�� DQG�RI� OHJDO� H[FHSWLRQDOLW\� �WKLV� ODNH�ZKLFK�KDV� EDQNV� LQ�WKUHH�FRXQWULHV�FRQVWLWXWHV�WKH�RQO\�(XURSHDQ�ORFDWLRQ�ZLWK�QR�RI¿FLDOO\�GH¿QHG�ERUGHUV��

�� &I�� )ULHQGV� RI� WKH� 3URSRVHG� %LJ� %HQG� ±� 5LR� %UDYR� ,QWHUQDWLRQDO� ZHEVLWH��DFFHVVHG�RQ�)HEUXDU\��ZZZ�LORYHSDUNV�FRP�SHDFHSDUNV�

�� De jure rights may have been set but not respected hence they are de facto.�� 7KH�PRWWR�RI�WKH�6LHUUD�&OXE��IRXQGHG�E\�WKH�FRQVHUYDWLRQLVW�-RKQ�0XLU�LQ��

“Explore, Enjoy, and Protect the Planet´�DSSHDUV�D�IDU�RII�REMHFWLYH�JLYHQ�WKH�strength of the national borders of a map that apparently aims to remove them.


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