Brain extracellular matrix affects AMPA receptor lateral mobility and short-term synaptic plasticity
Music and Brain Plasticity
16
Music and Brain Plasticity Page 1 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy ). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015 Subject: Psychology, Cognitive Psychology Online Publication Date: Feb 2015 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198722946.013.23 Music and Brain Plasticity Simone Dalla Bella The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology, Second Edition (Forthcoming) Edited by Susan Hallam, Ian Cross, and Michael Thaut Oxford Handbooks Online Abstract and Keywords Learning and making music are complex multimodal activities which put a high load on our brain functioning. They engage perceptual, cognitive, motor, and sensorimotor processes and the associated neuronal circuitries. Long- and short-term musical training and practice can shape brain structure and functions. In this chapter, evidence supporting the neuroplastic effects of music is reviewed, by examining the differences in musicians’ and nonmusicians’ brains, in terms of structure and function. In addition, the effects of musical training and early music experience on brain development are examined. Conclusions are drawn on the role played by music-driven neuroplasticity for the purposes of neuroprotection and rehabilitation. Keywords: music, brain plasticity, learning, perception, action, sensorimotor processes, development, neurorehabilitation Introduction Musical training and performance are an ideal human model for examining the brain effects of learning specialized sensorimotor skills. They are both examples of multisensory experiences that put a high load on our sensory, motor, and cognitive systems. Years of dedicated and constant practice are necessary to master the skills displayed by professional musicians. Playing a musical instrument is typically initiated early during development, and proficient performance in adults is grounded in extensive learning and practice of a variety of skills over the course of a musician’s lifetime. Acquiring and maintaining musical skills has important and quantifiable effects on brain networking and functioning, which are manifestations of brain plasticity. In cognitive neurosciences, the term “brain plasticity” generally refers to the malleability of the human brain, which in response to experience or training partly modifies its structure and/or functions. These changes are not confined to the developing brain, but, albeit less pervasive, they are also visible in adults (e.g., Wan and Schlaug, 2010). Brain plasticity is most important when the training task is meaningful to the subject (e.g., Jenkins, Merzenich, Ochs, Allard and Guic-Robles, 1990), a fact which is particularly relevant for targeted musical training, and is modulated by the degree of awareness of sensory information or action planning (e.g., Pascual-Leone, Grafman and Hallett, 1994). Moreover, brain plasticity is associated with behavioral effects and is underpinned by processes at the cellular and molecular level (e.g., Buonomano and Merzenich 1998). In this chapter the effects of musical training and practice on brain structure and functioning are reviewed. Particular attention is paid to the effects of musical training in the adult musician, and to the mechanisms underlying music learning during development. Where Musicians’ and Nonmusicians’ Brains Differ A first approach to identify the effects of musical training on brain plasticity is to compare adult musicians and
Transcript of Music and Brain Plasticity
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 1 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
Subject: Psychology,CognitivePsychologyOnlinePublicationDate: Feb2015
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198722946.013.23
MusicandBrainPlasticity SimoneDallaBellaTheOxfordHandbookofMusicPsychology,SecondEdition(Forthcoming)EditedbySusanHallam,IanCross,andMichaelThaut
OxfordHandbooksOnline
AbstractandKeywords
Learningandmakingmusicarecomplexmultimodalactivitieswhichputahighloadonourbrainfunctioning.Theyengageperceptual,cognitive,motor,andsensorimotorprocessesandtheassociatedneuronalcircuitries.Long-andshort-termmusicaltrainingandpracticecanshapebrainstructureandfunctions.Inthischapter,evidencesupportingtheneuroplasticeffectsofmusicisreviewed,byexaminingthedifferencesinmusicians’andnonmusicians’brains,intermsofstructureandfunction.Inaddition,theeffectsofmusicaltrainingandearlymusicexperienceonbraindevelopmentareexamined.Conclusionsaredrawnontheroleplayedbymusic-drivenneuroplasticityforthepurposesofneuroprotectionandrehabilitation.
Keywords:music,brainplasticity,learning,perception,action,sensorimotorprocesses,development,neurorehabilitation
Introduction
Musicaltrainingandperformanceareanidealhumanmodelforexaminingthebraineffectsoflearningspecializedsensorimotorskills.Theyarebothexamplesofmultisensoryexperiencesthatputahighloadonoursensory,motor,andcognitivesystems.Yearsofdedicatedandconstantpracticearenecessarytomastertheskillsdisplayedbyprofessionalmusicians.Playingamusicalinstrumentistypicallyinitiatedearlyduringdevelopment,andproficientperformanceinadultsisgroundedinextensivelearningandpracticeofavarietyofskillsoverthecourseofamusician’slifetime.Acquiringandmaintainingmusicalskillshasimportantandquantifiableeffectsonbrainnetworkingandfunctioning,whicharemanifestationsofbrainplasticity.Incognitiveneurosciences,theterm“brainplasticity”generallyreferstothemalleabilityofthehumanbrain,whichinresponsetoexperienceortrainingpartlymodifiesitsstructureand/orfunctions.Thesechangesarenotconfinedtothedevelopingbrain,but,albeitlesspervasive,theyarealsovisibleinadults(e.g.,WanandSchlaug,2010).Brainplasticityismostimportantwhenthetrainingtaskismeaningfultothesubject(e.g.,Jenkins,Merzenich,Ochs,AllardandGuic-Robles,1990),afactwhichisparticularlyrelevantfortargetedmusicaltraining,andismodulatedbythedegreeofawarenessofsensoryinformationoractionplanning(e.g.,Pascual-Leone,GrafmanandHallett,1994).Moreover,brainplasticityisassociatedwithbehavioraleffectsandisunderpinnedbyprocessesatthecellularandmolecularlevel(e.g.,BuonomanoandMerzenich1998).
Inthischaptertheeffectsofmusicaltrainingandpracticeonbrainstructureandfunctioningarereviewed.Particularattentionispaidtotheeffectsofmusicaltrainingintheadultmusician,andtothemechanismsunderlyingmusiclearningduringdevelopment.
WhereMusicians’andNonmusicians’BrainsDiffer
Afirstapproachtoidentifytheeffectsofmusicaltrainingonbrainplasticityistocompareadultmusiciansand
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 2 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
nonmusicians.Plasticchangesassociatedwithshort-termandlong-termmusicaltrainingencompassdifferentlevelsofbrainorganizationspanningprimaryperceptualandmotorregionstosensorimotorintegrationandcross-modalassociationareas(forreviews,seeBarrett,Ashley,StraitandKraus,2013;HabibandBesson,2009;HerholzandZatorre,2012;Jäncke,2009;Merrett,PeretzandWilson,2013;Münte,AltenmüllerandJäncke,2002;Rauschecker,2001;StraitandKraus,2014;WanandSchlaug,2010;ZatorreandMcGill,2005).
StructuralandFunctionalDifferencesintheBrainsofMusiciansandNonmusicians
Importantdifferencesbetweenmusiciansandnonmusiciansarevisibleatdifferentlevelsoftheauditorypathway,fromthebrainstem(KrausandChandrasekaran,2010;StraitandKraus,2014),throughprimaryandneighborauditoryregions(Bermudez,Lerch,EvansandZatorre,2009;GaserandSchlaug,2003;Schneideretal.,2002),uptohigh-levelauditoryprocessing(Jamesetal.,2014;Loui,ZammandSchlaug,2012).Structuraldifferencesemergeatthelevelofprimaryauditorycortexandauditoryassociationareas,suchastheplanumtemporale(Bermudezetal.,2009;GaserandSchlaug2003;Keenan,Thangaraj,HalpernandSchlaug,2001;Loui,Li,HohmannandSchlaug,2011;Schlaug,Jäncke,HuangandSteinmetz,1995;Schneideretal.,2002;Zatorre,Perry,Beckett,WestburyandEvans,1998).Aparticularlypronouncedasymmetryoftheright/leftplanumtemporaleisobservedinmusicianswhoarepossessorsofabsolutepitch.Ingeneral,trainedmusiciansexhibitgreatervolumeandcorticalthicknessinauditorycortex(Heschl’sgyrus).Theseregionsaremostlikelyresponsibleforfinepitchcategorizationanddiscrimination,aswellasfortemporalprocessing.
Differencesarealsofoundatafunctionallevel,asrevealedbyfunctionalneuroimagingandneurophysiologicaltechniques(e.g.,auditoryevokedpotentials).Yet,theregionsinvolvedarenotalwaysconsistentwiththeresultsofstructuralbrainimagingstudies.Whilestructuralstudiespointtowarddifferencesinprimaryauditoryareas(GaserandSchlaug2003;Schneideretal.,2002),functionalstudiesrevealstrongerresponsesinhigher-levelauditoryregionswhencomparingmusicianswithnonmusicians.Moreover,nonmusiciansappearasneedingmoreneuronalresourcesforprocessingauditoryinformation,asshownbystrongeractivationofprimaryauditoryregionsrelativetomusicians(Besson,FaïtaandRequin,1994;Bosnyak,EatonandRoberts,2004;GaabandSchlaug2003;Shahin,Bosnyak,TrainorandRoberts,2003;Shahin,RobertsandTrainor,2004;Trainor,DesjardinsandRockel,1999).Thus,itisnotalwaysobviouswhethertrainingisassociatedwithincreasedordecreasedactivationintheunderlyingbrainregions.
Structuraldifferencesduetomusicaltrainingextendtomotorandsensorimotorcortices,topremotorandsupplementarymotorregions,andinvolvesubcorticalstructuressuchasthebasalgangliaandthecerebellum(Amunts,SchlaugandJäncke,1997;BangertandSchlaug,2006;Bermudezetal.,2009;Elbert,Pantev,Wienbruch,RockstrohandTaub,1995;GaserandSchlaug2003;Hutchinson,Lee,GaabandSchlaug,2003).Thisneuronalcircuitryisengagedinmotorcontrolandfinemotorplanning(e.g.,fingermotions)duringmusicperformanceaswellasinmotorlearning(SchmidtandLee2011).Differencesarealsoobservedintermsofbrainconnectivity(i.e.,whitematter).Forexample,musiciansexhibitgreatermidsagittalsizeofthecorpuscallosum(Lee,ChenandSchlaug,2003;Oztürk,Tasçioglu,Aktekin,KurtogluandErden,2002;Schlaug,Jäncke,Huang,StaigerandSteinmetz,1995).Thisstructure,supportingtheinteractionbetweenthetwohemispheres,maybethesubstrateofcoordinatedmovementofrightandlefthand(e.g.,fortheperformanceofcomplexbimanualmotorsequences;forinstance,seeWiesendangerandSerrien2004).Finally,theamountofmusicalpracticeisassociatedwithgreaterintegrityofthecorticospinalpathway(Bengtssonetal.,2005).
Morerecently,thereareindicationsthattrainingisnotsystematicallyassociatedwithincreasedbrainvolume.Forexample,adecreaseinstriatalvolumeisobservedinballetdancers(Hänggi,Koeneke,BezzolaandJäncke,2010)andskilledpianists(Granertetal.,2011)asafunctionofefficiencyinmotorperformance(seealsoJamesetal.,2014).Similarmixedeffectsofmusicaltrainingarefoundinfunctionalneuroimagingstudies,andarenotalwayscoherentwiththeobservedanatomicaldifferences.Musiciansexhibiteitherlowerormorelocalizedactivationintheprimarymotorcortexthannonmusiciansandmorevariablelevelsofactivationinmotorassociationregionssuchasthepremotorandsupplementarymotorareas(Haslingeretal.,2004;Hund-GeorgiadisandvonCramon,1999;Jäncke,ShahandPeters,2000;Kringsetal.,2000;Meisteretal.,2005).Theseinconsistenciesinfunctionalchangesmayreflectdifferentialrecruitmentofresourcesandmechanismsinskilledmusicians.Musicaltrainingandperformancerequiregreaterinvolvementofhigher-ordercognitiveprocesses(e.g.,tonalprocessing,workingmemory,syntax),thustheymayfavorincreaseddensityintheassociatedbrainregions.Yet,otherprocesses,
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 3 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
likelytobeautomatizedandrequiringlessresourcestobeexecuted(e.g.,sensorimotorfunctionsandbasicmotorcontrol),mightrecruitlessbrainvolume(Jamesetal.,2014).Asimilarexplanationmayshedlightoninconsistenciesbetweenvisiblestructuralchangesandvariablefunctionalcorrelates(i.e.,increasedordecreasedactivationinmusicians)inprimaryauditoryandmotorregions.Thisproblemisinherentinthecomplexrelationbetweenstructuraldifferencesandfunctionalchangesassociatedwithmusicaltraining(seeZatorre,FieldsandJohansen-Berg,2012).Asystem(perceptualormotor)extendingitsrepresentationinthebrainasaresultofmusicaltrainingmayprocessinformationmoreefficientlyusingfewerneuronalresourcesthanaless-specializedsystem.Enhancedefficiencymightmanifestinlowerbloodflowdemandsinskilledmusiciansascomparedtononmusicianswhenperformingacomplexmotorsequence(Hund-GeorgiadisandvonCramon,1999;Jänckeetal.,2000;Koeneke,Lutz,WüstenbergandJäncke,2004;Kringsetal.,2000;Meisteretal.,2005).
Structuraldifferencesinthebrainofmusiciansandnonmusiciansarenotconfinedtotheauditorypathwayortomotorcircuitries.Theyextendtoparietalregions(e.g.,tothesuperiorparietallobe,includingtheintraparietalsulcusandtheinferiorlateraltemporallobe)andtotheinferiorfrontalgyrus.Althoughthefunctionalroleofthesedifferencesisstillunclear,itislikelythattheyareinvolvedinmultisensoryencodingandintegration.Sincemusicaltrainingandperformancearerichandintensemultimodalexperiencesitisexpectedthattheseactivitieswillhavebraineffectsontheinteractionbetweenmodalities(i.e.,oncross-modalintegration)(Zatorre,ChenandPenhune,2007).Notably,structuraldifferencesinfrontallobehavebeenconsistentlyreportedintheinferiorfrontalgyrus(BermudezandZatorre2005;Bermudezetal.,2009;GaserandSchlaug2003;Hanetal.,2009;Slumingetal.,2002).Ingeneral,frontalstructuresareassociatedwithavarietyofprocessesspanningfromintegrationofindividualauditoryeventsintolargerunits,mappingactionstosounds,tomusicaltonalsyntax(BangertandAltenmüller2003;Bangertetal.,2006;Koelschetal.,2002;Lahav,SaltzmanandSchlaug,2007;LevitinandMenon2003;Lotze,Scheler,Tan,BraunandBirbaumer,2003;Tillmannetal.,2006;Zatorre,ChenandPenhune,2007).Inparticulartheleftinferiorfrontalgyrusseemstoplayarelevantroleintheauditory-motornetwork.ThisregionhasbeenreferredtointhepastasBroca’sareaduetoitsfunctionsupportingaudio-motorinteractioninspeechproduction.
Functionalneuroimaginginmusiciansandnonmusiciansrevealmajordifferencesinbrainactivationslinkedtomusicaltraining,includingparietalandfrontalregions.Itisintriguingthatthesedifferencesemergealsowhenpeoplemerelylistentomusic.Forexample,priorinstrumentalpracticeisassociatedwithincreasedactivityintheauditoryandvisualsensorimotornetworkswhenperformingaperceptualtask(BangertandAltenmüller2003;Bangertetal.,2006).Thereexiststrongfunctionalconnectionslinkingauditoryperceptionandmotorprocessingduringbothmusicperceptionandperformance.Mereexposuretosoundsofwell-learnedactionstriggersaneuralnetworkextendingwellbeyondauditoryregions(BangertandAltenmüller2003;Bangertetal.,2006;D’Ausilio,Altenmüller,OlivettiBelardinelliandLotze,2006;Hasegawaetal.,2004;Haslingeretal.,2005;HaueisenandKnösche2001;Keysersetal.,2003;Kohleretal.,2002;Lahavetal.,2007;Zatorreetal.,2007).AregionwhichhasattractedparticularattentionwithinthisneuronalcircuitryisBroca’sarea,correspondingtotheposteriorinferiorfrontalgyrus.Theinferiorfrontalgyrusispartofanetworkreferredtoas“mirrorneuronsystem”(RizzolattiandCraighero2004;Rizzolatti,FadigaGalleseandFogassi,1996).MirrorneuronswereinitiallydiscoveredinregionF5inmonkeybrain,whichistreatedasthehomologofhumanBroca’sarea(RizzolattiandArbib,1998).Theinferiorfrontalgyrusisinvolvedwhenactionsareperformedbutalsowhenweseemeaningfulandgoal-directedmovements,orwhenwearepresentedwithsoundslinkedtowell-knownactions(e.g.,hearingactionwords,graspingfoodorplayingamusicalinstrument;Aziz-Zadehetal.,2006;Buccino,BinkofskiandRiggio,2004;Buccino,Vogt,etal.,2004;Lahavetal.,2007;Pulvermüller,ShtyrovandIlmoniemi,2005;Rizzolattietal.,1996).Therearesomeindicationsthatmusiciansexhibitincreasedgraymattervolumeintheinferiorfrontalgyruswhencomparedtononmusicians(Slumingetal.,2002;GaserandSchlaug2003;foraconfirmationoffunctionalinvolvementofBroca’sarea,seeSluming,Brooks,Howard,DownesandRoberts,2007),inassociationwithparietalanddorsalpremotoractivation.Thusmusicalexpertisemaybeassociatedwithgreaterinvolvementofamultimodalsensorimotor-integrationsystem,whenmusicianslistento,readthescoreof,orwatchperformancesofwell-knownmusic.
Instrument-Specific,Training-InducedPlasticity
Theevidencereviewedabovefromcross-sectionalstudiesshowsthatbrainplasticitycandifferentiatemusiciansfromnonmusicians.Notably,additionaldifferencesarefoundwhencomparingmusicianswhohavereceived
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 4 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
differenttypesofinstrumentalpractice.Changesinthecorticalrepresentationswithinthemotorcortexdependontheplayedinstrument(i.e.,instrument-specificplasticity).Forexample,corticalrepresentationofthehandisdependentonthesidewhichismostinvolvedinfinemotorcontrolduringmusictrainingandperformance.Greatercorticalrepresentationsoffingersinviolinists’lefthand,ascomparedwithrighthand,havebeenfoundwithmagnetoencephalograpy(MEG)(Elbertetal.,1995).Use-specificfunctionalreorganizationofthemotorcortexisobservedwhencomparingtheshapeoftheregionscontaininghandrepresentationsinpianistsandviolinists,showinggrossanatomicaldifferencesintheprecentralgyrus(BangertandSchlaug2006).Stringplayersrequirehighlydevelopedfinemotorskillsinparticularintheirlefthand.Incontrast,inkeyboardplayers,bothhandsareassociatedwithhighlytrainedfinemotorskillswithapreferencefortherighthandasittypicallysupportsmelodyandmorearticulatedtechnicalpassageswhereasthelefthandrealizestheaccompaniment.Moreover,mostkeyboardperformersexhibitaparticularconfigurationreferredtoas“Omegasign”ontheleftmorethanontherighthemisphere,whilstmoststringplayersshowthissignonlyontheright.Theprominenceofthissigniscorrelatedwiththeageatwhichmusiciansstartedmusicalpracticeandtothecumulativeamountofpracticetime.Theobservationofthisconfigurationinrelationtothetypeofperformerarguesinfavorofastructuralplasticitymechanismdrivenbyspecificinstrumentalpractice.
Instrument-specificneuroplasticityinterestinglyextendstoperception.Musiciansshowgreaterevokedpotentialsinthepresenceofauditorystimuliascomparedtononmusicians(Pantevetal.,1998).Thiseffectismodulatedbythespecificmusicaltraining,asindicatedbytimbre-specificneuronalresponsesobservableindifferentgroupsofinstrumentalists.Forexample,stringandtrumpetplayersrevealstrongerevokedcorticalresponseswhenpresentedtothesoundoftheirrespectiveinstrument(Pantev,Roberts,Schulz,EngelienandRoss,2001),aneffectparticularlyvisibleintherightauditorycortex(Shahinetal.,2003).Inaddition,musiciansdisplayincreasedgamma-bandactivityinducedbythesoundoftheirowninstrumentascomparedtoothers(Shahin,Roberts,Chau,TrainorandMiller,2008).Thesefindingsaresupportedbyfunctionalimagingevidenceinviolinistsandflutists(Margulis,Mlsna,Uppunda,ParrishandWong,2009)indicatingthatinstrument-specificplasticityisnotrestrictedtotheprimaryauditorycortexbutratherspansacrossanetworkincludingassociationandauditory-motorintegrationareas.Recentstudiesprovideadditionalevidencethatexperience-specificplasticitymaybevisibleatthelevelofthebrainstem(Strait,Chan,AshleyandKraus,2012;forareview,Barrettetal.,2013).Insum,thereiscompellingevidenceofimportantandmeasurabledifferencesinbrainstructureandfunctionassociatedwithmusicaltrainingandlisteningexperienceinaheterogeneousgroupofmusicians.Eventhoughthesestudiesarecross-sectional,thusmakingitdifficulttoconcludeaboutacausalroleoftrainingonbraindifferences,instrument-ortimbre-specificplasticitystillsupportsthenotionofdedicatedbrainadaptations.
BeyondaCross-SectionalApproach:Short-TermEffectsofTraininginAdults
Cross-sectionalstudiesaresupportiveofstructuralandfunctionaldiscrepanciesbetweenthebrainsofmusiciansandnonmusicians.Inaddition,factorssuchasageofcommencement,intensity,ordurationofmusicaltraining/practicecanaccountfortheamountofbraindifferences(e.g.,Amuntsetal.,1997;BangertandSchlaug,2006;Elbertetal.,1995;GaserandSchlaug,2003;Schneideretal.,2002;Slumingetal.,2002).Thesefindingsandrelationspointtowardacausalrelationbetweenmusicaltraining/practiceandtheirstructuralandfunctionalbraincorrelates.Yet,themainproblemofthiscross-sectionalapproachisthatpreexistingfactorssuchaspredispositionsorgeneticcausesmayberesponsibleforsomeoftheobserveddifferencesbetweenmusiciansandnonmusicians.Longitudinalstudiesonshort-termorlong-termeffectsoftrainingareaviablealternativewhichcanallowdrawingcausalinferences.Inadults,effectsofshort-termtrainingatthebrainstemlevelarefoundinlinguisticandmusicalpitchdiscrimination(CarcagnoandPlack2011;Song,Skoe,WongandKraus,2008).Electroencephalography(EEG)andMEGstudiesrevealcorticalchanges(e.g.,increasedevokedpotentialsandincreasedsynchronizationinsecondaryauditorycortex)duetopitchdiscriminationtraining,associatedwithenhanceddetectionofpitchdiscrepancies(Bosnyaketal.,2004;Menning,RobertsandPantev,2000;Schulte,Knief,Seither-PreislerandPantev,2002),orinresponsetoimprobablesoundsfollowingrapidlearningofanovelmusicalsystem(Loui,Wu,WesselandKnight,2009).Transcranialmagneticstimulation(TMS)alsorevealschangesinhandcorticalrepresentationresultingfromshort-termtrainingofnovelfinemotorskills(e.g.,learningfive-fingerexercisesonthepiano)(Pascual-Leoneetal.,1995).However,functionalneuroimagingyieldsresultswhicharelessconsistentandmoredifficulttointerpret.Pitch-relatedlearningtasksareassociatedwitheitherdecreased(Jäncke,Gaab,Wüstenberg,ScheichandHeinze,2001;Zatorre,DelhommeauandZarate,2012)orincreasedactivation(Gaab,Gaser,andSchlaug,2006)oftheauditoryregions.Similardiscrepanciesareobserved
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 5 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
followingshort-termsensorimotortraining(e.g.,piano-likeinstrumentallearning).Inthiscase,listeningtomelodiesbeforeandafterthetrainingisassociatedwitheitherincreasedactivationofregionsassociatedwithactionobservation(e.g.,thepremotorregion,Broca’sarea,andtheinferiorparietalregion)(Lahavetal.,2007),orwithdecreasedactivationofthedorsalauditoryactionpathway(Chen,RaeandWatkins,2012).Thesefindingsarereminiscentofthesituationencounteredincross-sectionalstudies,wheremusicaltrainingmanifesteditselfinincreasedordecreasedactivation.Similarly,itispossiblethatundercertaincircumstances,learningimprovesefficiencyinencodingorprocessinginformation(foranexampleinvision,seeYotsumotoetal.,2008),thusrequiringlessneuronalresources.
Traininginanexperimentalsettingcanbringaboutshort-termbrainchanges(e.g.,Chenetal.,2012;Lahavetal.,2007).Recentstudiesshowthatthenatureofthetrainingplaysarelevantroleinfosteringplasticchanges.Comparingauditoryexposurepersetoauditory-motortrainingisparticularlyinsightful.Lappeandcollaborators(Lappe,Herholz,TrainorandPantev,2008;Lappe,Trainor,HerholzandPantev,2011)submittednonmusiciansto2weeksofmusicaltraining.Inonegroup,thesensorimotortrainingconsistedoflearningtoplayamusicalsequenceonthepiano.Intheothergroup,nonmusiciansdetectederrorsinperformancesafterlisteningtothestimuliplayedbyotherparticipants.Followingthesensorimotortraining,participantsshowedenhanceddetectionofincorrectpitchortiming,ascomparedtomerelistening.Thisdifferencewasaccompaniedbylargerbrainresponse(i.e.,increasedauditorymismatchnegativity)topitchanddurationdeviations,indicatinggreaterenhancementofmusicalrepresentationintheauditorycortexfosteredbysensorimotortraining.Similarresultsshowinggreaterbenefitsofauditory-visualmultimodaltrainingascomparedtounimodaltrainingarereported(Paraskevopoulos,Kuchenbuch,HerholzandPantev,2012).Tosummarize,short-termchangesinbehaviorandbrainactivitycanbeobservedinadultsasaresultofabriefperiodofmusically-relatedtraining.Sensorimotorandmultimodaltraining,typicaloflearningamusicalinstrument,ismoreefficientindrivingneuroplasticchangesthanunimodaltraining.Thiseffectislikelytobeunderpinnedbybrainchangesoccurringbetweenauditory,motor,andsensorimotorintegrationsregions,andinvolvingbothfeedforwardmechanismscapableofpredictingtheoutcomeofmotoractivityaswellasfeedbackmechanismsformonitoringtheperformance(HerholzandZatorre2012;forexamplesinspeech,seeHickokandPoeppel2007;RauscheckerandScott2009).
MusicShapingChildBrainDevelopment
Thereisasignificantbodyofevidenceshowingstructuralandfunctionaldifferencesintheadultbrainsofmusiciansandnonmusicians.However,whetherthesedifferencesaretheresultofnatureorofnurtureisstillsubjecttodebate.Theymaybetheoutcomeoffactorswhichexistedpriortotraining(i.e.,brainpredispositionsoraptitude)orresultfrombrainadaptationsduetomusicaltrainingorexperience(e.g.,mereexposurefosteringimplicitlearning)duringsensitiveperiodsofbraindevelopment.Thereareindicationsfromcross-sectionalstudiesinadultsinfavorofexperience-dependentfactorsdrivingbrainadaptation.Earlyonsetofmusicaltraining(before7yearsofage),withinasensitiveperiod,isparticularlyefficientinstimulatingbrainchanges(forreviews,seeBarrettetal.,2013;Penhune2011;Zatorre2013;forotherdomains,suchasspeech,seeKuhl2010).Asensitiveperiodindicatesatimeframewhenearlyexperience(e.g.,musicaltraining)hasthegreatesteffectonbrainandbehaviorrelatedtotraininglaterinlife(Knudsen2004).Structuraldifferencesinthecorpuscallosumbetweenmusiciansandnonmusiciansandtheextentofhandrepresentationsinmotorcortexaregreaterformusicianswhobegantrainingbefore7years(Amuntsetal.,1997;Elbertetal.,1995;Schlaug,Jäncke,Huang,StaigerandSteinmetz,1995).Moreover,earlytrainingisassociatedwithgreaterauditorycortexandbrainstemresponsestotones(Pantevetal.,1998;Wong,Skoe,Russo,DeesandKraus,2007).Thedependenceofstructuralchangesontheageofcommencementisconfirmedwhencontrollingfortheamountoftraining(BaileyandPenhune,2010;Watanabe,Savion-LemieuxandPenhune,2007).Forexample,early-trainedmusicians(<7years)displaybettersensorimotorsynchronizationskillsascomparedtolate-trainingmusicians(>7years).Thisdifferenceisunderpinnedbybrainconnectivity(intermsofwhitematter)andstructuraldiscrepancies(intermsofgraymatter)(BaileyandPenhune,2012;Bailey,ZatorreandPenhune,2014;Steele,Bailey,ZatorreandPenhune,2013).Finally,inarecentcross-sectionalfunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging(fMRI)study,alinearregressionapproachisusedtoteaseapartage-relatedmaturationeffects,linkedmostlytofrontal(e.g.,premotor)andparietalregions,andtraining-relatedeffects,involvingmostlythesuperiortemporalgyrus(Ellisetal.,2012).
Insum,previouscross-sectionalstudiespointtowardexperience-dependentfactorsinshapingmusicians’brains.However,todeterminetherelativecontributionofnatureandnurtureinthedevelopmentofmusicalskills,
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 6 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
longitudinalstudiesareneeded.Longitudinalstudiesshowbeneficialeffectsofmusicallessonsonmusicalabilitiesaswellasbehavioraleffectsonanumberofextramusicalareas.Thisphenomenonisreferredtoas“transfer”(BangerterandHeath,2004;forareview,seeKrausandChandrasekaran,2010).Neartransferisobservedwhenthetrainingdomainandthetransferdomainarehighlysimilar(e.g.,whenlearningamusicalinstrumentaffordsfinemotorskillswhichsubserveotheractivitiesbeyondmusic,suchastyping).Fartransferoccurswhenthereisrelativelylittleresemblancebetweenthetrainedabilityandthetransferdomain(e.g.,whenmusicaltrainingisassociatedwithenhancedmathematicalthinking).Fartransferofmusicaltraining,typicallymoredifficulttoachievethanneartransfer,isfoundinverbal,spatial,mathematicalthinkingandonintelligencequotient(IQ)(e.g.,Chan,Ho,andCheung,1998;Ho,CheungandChan,2003;Rauscher,ShawandKy,1993;Schellenberg2004;TierneyandKraus2013;Vaughn2000;forreviews,Schellenberg2001,2011;SchellenbergandWeiss2013).Someofthesefindings,inparticularthoserelatedtoshort-termeffectsoflimitedmusicalexposure(e.g.,theso-calledMozarteffect),arecontroversialanddifficulttoreplicate(Chabris1999;Steeleetal.,1999).Forexample,Schellenberg(2004)tested6-year-oldchildrenwhounderwentkeyboardorvoicelessonsfor36weeks.Controlgroupsofchildrenreceiveddramalessonsornolessons.Afterthetraining,childrenwhoreceivedmusiclessonsshowedasmall,albeitconsistent,increaseinfull-scaleIQandhigherperformanceinstandardizededucationalachievementtests,ascomparedtothecontrolgroups.ConsideringthatsimpleattendancetoschoolraisesIQ(CeciandWilliams1997),musicallessonsmayprovideanadditionalboostinIQbyprovidingaricheducationaloptionwhichishighlymotivatingandinvolvesawiderangeofmultimodalandsensorimotoractivities.Ataneurallevel,fartransferofmusicaltrainingmightbefosteredbysustainedinvolvementofthemultimodalsensorimotorintegrationnetworkduringrepeatedmusicallessons,drivingbrainplasticitychanges.Cross-modalplasticityinducedbymusicaltrainingislikelytoaffectregionswhicharerelevantforothertaskssuchasmathematics(parietal;Chochon,Cohen,vandeMoorteleandDehaene,1999),workingmemory(parietal;GaabandSchlaug,2003;Gaabetal.,2006),sequentialmentaloperations(frontal;Slumingetal.,2007),speech/language,auditory-motormapping,auditoryintegrationorprediction(frontal;Koelschetal.,2002;Koelsch,Fritz,Schulze,AlsopandSchlaug,2005;Lahavetal.,2007;Patel,2003;TettamantiandWeniger,2006).
Agrowingbodyofstudiesfocusesonthestructuralandfunctionalchangesoccurringinchildren’sbrainsasaresultofmusicaltraining.Insomestudies,theeffectofchildrentakingspecificinstrumentallessonswiththeSuzukimethodisexamined.Thismethod,basedontrainingtolistenbyearandlearningbyimitation,isstandardized,andthusparticularlyappropriateforsystematicstudies.Inastudy,4–6-year-oldchildrentrainedwiththeSuzukimethod(traininggroup)revealedchangesinauditoryevokedresponsestoaviolinandanoisestimulus.Inparticular,thetraininggroupshowedfasterresponsestoviolinsoundsthanthecontrolgroup(Fujioka,Ross,Kakigi,PantevandTrainor,2006;seealsoShahinetal.,2008).Notably,thesechangeswereaccompaniedbyenhancedperformanceinabehavioralmusicaltaskandimprovedworkingmemoryinanonmusicaltask.EffectsofmusicaltrainingonelectrophysiologicalbrainresponsesarenotconfinedtochildrenlearningwithSuzukimethod.Standardmusicaltrainingislinkedtogreatermismatchnegativity(MMN)responsestomelodicandrhythmicmodulationsinchildrenbetween11and13yearsofage(Putkinen,Tervaniemi,Saarikivi,deVentandHuotilainen,2014),andlargerinducedgamma-bandresponsesin5-year-oldchildren(Trainor,ShahinandRoberts,2009).Notably,enhancedbrainresponsetomusicalsoundsdoesnotrequireextensivetraining.Four-month-oldinfantsexposedtomelodiesineitherguitarormarimbatimbreforabout2.5hoursoverthecourseofaweekexhibitedMMNselectivelytothetimbreatwhichtheywereexposed(Trainor,LeeandBosnyak,2011).Furthermore,theeffectsofmusicaltrainingduringdevelopmentarenotlimitedtocorticalfunctionalitybutextendtobrainstemresponseswhenprocessingspeechinnoise(Strait,Parbery-Clark,O’ConnellandKraus,2013).Electrophysiologicalchangesareaccompaniedbyfunctionalchanges,asrevealedbyfMRI,suggestingleftwardasymmetryintask-relatedactivityduringmusicprocessing(same/differentdiscrimination),withpeaksintheauditorycortexandsupramarginalgyrus(Ellis,Bruijn,Norton,WinnerandSchlaug,2013).
Finally,musicaltrainingcanbringaboutchangesinbrainanatomy.Afterabout2.5yearsofmusicaltraining,5–7-year-old,high-practicingchildrenshowedincreasedsizeoftheanteriorpartofthecorpuscallosum,agroupoffibersconnectingmotorrelated-areasofthetwohemispheres(Schlaugetal.,2009).Thenumberofweeksofmusicalexposurewasassociatedwithchangesinthisregion,aswellaswiththeperformanceinamotor-sequencingtask.Structuralbrainchangesarealsofoundattheleveloftemporo-occipitalandinsularcortex,regionsrelatedtomusicalreading(BergmanNutley,DarkiandKlingberg,2014).Notably,braindeformationchangesinmotorandauditoryareascriticalforinstrumentalmusictrainingarevisibleassoonasafter15monthsoftrainingin6-year-oldchildren(Hydeetal.,2009).Someofthesechangesareassociatedwiththeperformance
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 7 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
inbehavioraltesting.Forexample,thedeformationchangesinrightauditoryareaunderlieimprovedmelodic/rhythmicdiscrimination.Tosummarize,musicaltrainingandpracticingamusicalinstrumentareassociatedwithcognitivebenefitswhichmanifestintermsofnearorfartransfereffects.Thereisincreasingevidencepointingtothefunctionalmechanismsandstructuralchangesunderpinningthesetransfereffectsduringdevelopmentbasedonlongitudinalapproaches.Thesefindingsbegintouncovertheprocesseswhichallowmusicaltrainingtoshapefunctionalandstructuralbraindevelopment.Theeffectwouldbemostevidentwhenthetrainingisdeliveredwithinagivensensitiveperiod,whoseboundarieshavestilltobeclearlyidentified.
Conclusions
Thehumanbrainhastheremarkableabilitytochangeasafunctionoftrainingandenvironmentaldemands.Musicaltrainingandpracticearerichsensorimotorandmultimodalexperienceswhichcanshapeboththestructureandthefunctionsofhumanbrainandwhichareassociatedwithcognitivebenefits.Learningandrepeatedpracticeofaninstrumentbyprofessionalmusiciansimpliestheassociationbetweenfinemotormovementswithmeaningfulsoundpatterns,whilereceivingreal-timemultisensoryfeedback.Brainchangesaremanifestwhencomparingmusicianstononmusicians(e.g.,training-andinstrument-specificbrainplasticity),andcanbemeasuredinchildrenafterafewmonthsofmusicallyrelatedtraininginlongitudinalstudies.Behavioraleffectsandbenefitsofmusicaltrainingareundergirdedbyplasticchangesinprimaryandsecondaryauditoryandmotorcortices,aswellasinsensorimotorandmultimodalintegrationareas.
Eventhoughbrainchangesaregenerallydrivenbydedicatedmusicaltrainingasshowningroupstudies,thereareimportantindividualdifferencesinpeople’slearningofmusicalskills.Atoneendofthecontinuumthereareindividualssufferingfromlifelongdisordersofmusicallearning(i.e.,congenitalamusiaortone-deafness;forreviews,seeDallaBella,BerkowskaandSowiński,2011;PeretzandHyde2003;WilliamsonandStewart,2013).Attheotherendwefindmusicalprodigiesshowingprecociousmusicalabilities(e.g.,afinesenseofrhythmorexceptionalmotorcontrolinplayinganinstrument),whichallowthemtoachievelevelsofmusicalexpertiseunattainablefortheaveragemusician(e.g.,Kirnarskaya,2009).Indeed,thepresenceofexperience-relatedplasticitydoesnotruleoutthecontributionofpredispositionalfactors.Practiceandexperiencetypicallyoperateonnaturalabilitieswithageneticsubstrate.Thus,individualanatomicalandfunctionalpropertiesoftheneuralarchitecture(i.e.,geneticpredispositionsforlearning)mightbemoreorlessconducivetolearningmusicalskills(Zatorre,2013).Accordingly,individualdifferencesareanimportantfactorinexplainingdiscrepantresultsinneuroplasticityduetomusicaltraining(Merrettetal.,2013).Inparticular,geneticdifferenceswhichmaypavethegroundtomusicallearningaredevotedincreasingattention(Parketal.,2012;Ukkola-Vuotietal.,2013).Thereisrecentevidencethatexperience-relatedneuroplasticitycannotaccountforallobservedvariabilityinexpertbrains(FosterandZatorre,2010;Golestani,PriceandScott,2011),thusopeningthedoortogenetic/maturationalfactors.
Finally,alterationofbrainfunctionsandstructureasafunctionoftrainingorexperienceisnotconfinedtothedevelopmentalbrain,duringaparticularsensitiveperiod.Acertaindegreeofbrainplasticityisalsopossibleinadulthoodandintheelderly(e.g.,followingajugglingtraining;Boyke,Driemeyer,Gaser,BüchelandMay,2008;Draganskietal.,2004;Draganskietal.,2006).Thereareindicationsthatneuroplasticityispossibleintheadultbrainfollowingrelativelyshort-termmusicaltraining(e.g.,Herdeneretal.,2010;Lappeetal.,2008,2011).Thisfacthasmajorconsequenceswhichmotivatetheuseofmusicasatooltolimitordelaycognitivedeclineintheelderlyortoactasaneuroprotector(forareview,seeWanandSchlaug2010).Forexample,trainingprogramsrequiringintensivemultisensory,cognitive,andmotoractivities(e.g.,halfanhourofpianolessonsperweek,for6months)aresuccessfulinimprovingworkingmemory,perceptual,andmotorskills(Bugos,Perlstein,McCrae,BrophyandBedenbaugh,2007),andindelayingage-relateddeclineinspeechperception(Parbery-Clark,Anderson,HittnerandKraus,2012;Parbery-Clark,Strait,Anderson,HittnerandKraus,2011),nonverbalmemory,andexecutiveprocesses(Hanna-PladdyandMacKay,2011).Inaddition,beneficialeffectsofmusic-relatedactivitiesarefoundinstrokepatients(e.g.,Särkämöetal.,2008),andinpatientswithneurodegenerativedisorders,suchasParkinson’sdiseaseanddementia(e.g.,Limetal.,2005;Spauldingetal.,2013;VanWegen,Hirsch,HuiskampandKwakkel,2014;Vergheseetal.,2003).Understandingthemechanismsoftraining-relatedplasticityunderlyingthesebeneficialeffectsofmusicisacriticalstepfordevelopingsuccessfultheory-drivenrehabilitationstrategiesandpreventionprograms.
Acknowledgments
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 8 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
ThewritingofthischapterwassupportedbyagrantfromtheEuropeanCommission(FrameworkProgramme7,ITNEBRAMUS,n.238157).
References
Amunts,K.,Schlaug,G.,Jäncke,L.,Steinmetz,H.,Schleicher,A.,Dabringhaus,A.,andZilles,K.(1997).Motorcortexandhandmotorskills:structuralcomplianceinthehumanbrain.HumanBrainMapping,5(3),206–215.
Bailey,J.A.andPenhune,V.B.(2010).Rhythmsynchronizationperformanceandauditoryworkingmemoryinearly-andlate-trainedmusicians.ExperimentalBrainResearch,204(1),91–101.
Bailey,J.andPenhune,V.B.(2012).Asensitiveperiodformusicaltraining:contributionsofageofonsetandcognitiveabilities.AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences,1252,163–170.
Bailey,J.A.,Zatorre,R.J.,andPenhune,V.B.(2014).Earlymusicaltrainingislinkedtograymatterstructureintheventralpremotorcortexandauditory-motorrhythmsynchronizationperformance.JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience,26(4),755–767.
Bangert,M.andAltenmüller,E.O.(2003).Mappingperceptiontoactioninpianopractice:alongitudinalDC-EEGstudy.BMCNeuroscience,4,26.
Bangert,M.,Peschel,T.,Schlaug,G.,Rotte,M.,Drescher,D.,Hinrichs,H.,…Altenmüller,E.(2006).Sharednetworksforauditoryandmotorprocessinginprofessionalpianists:evidencefromfMRIconjunction.NeuroImage,30(3),917–926.
Bangert,M.andSchlaug,G.(2006).Specializationofthespecializedinfeaturesofexternalhumanbrainmorphology.TheEuropeanJournalofNeuroscience,24(6),1832–1834.
Bangerter,A.andHeath,C.(2004).TheMozarteffect:trackingtheevolutionofascientificlegend.TheBritishJournalofSocialPsychology/theBritishPsychologicalSociety,43(4),605–623.
Barrett,K.C.,Ashley,R.,Strait,D.L.,andKraus,N.(2013).Artandscience:howmusicaltrainingshapesthebrain.FrontiersinPsychology,4,713.
Bengtsson,S.L.,Nagy,Z.,Skare,S.,Forsman,L.,Forssberg,H.,andUllén,F.(2005).Extensivepianopracticinghasregionallyspecificeffectsonwhitematterdevelopment.NatureNeuroscience,8(9),1148–1150.
BergmanNutley,S.,Darki,F.,andKlingberg,T.(2014).Musicpracticeisassociatedwithdevelopmentofworkingmemoryduringchildhoodandadolescence.FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience,7,926.
Bermudez,P.,Lerch,J.P.,Evans,A.C.,andZatorre,R.J.(2009).Neuroanatomicalcorrelatesofmusicianshipasrevealedbycorticalthicknessandvoxel-basedmorphometry.CerebralCortex,19(7),1583–1596.
Bermudez,P.andZatorre,R.J.(2005).Differencesingraymatterbetweenmusiciansandnonmusicians.AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences,1060,395–399.
Besson,M.,Faïta,F.,andRequin,J.(1994).Brainwavesassociatedwithmusicalincongruitiesdifferformusiciansandnon-musicians.NeuroscienceLetters,168(1–2),101–105.
Bosnyak,D.J.,Eaton,R.A.,andRoberts,L.E.(2004).Distributedauditorycorticalrepresentationsaremodifiedwhennon-musiciansaretrainedatpitchdiscriminationwith40Hzamplitudemodulatedtones.CerebralCortex,14(10),1088–1099.
Boyke,J.,Driemeyer,J.,Gaser,C.,Büchel,C.,andMay,A.(2008).Training-inducedbrainstructurechangesintheelderly.TheJournalofNeuroscience,28(28),7031–7035.
Buccino,G.,Binkofski,F.,andRiggio,L.(2004).Themirrorneuronsystemandactionrecognition.BrainandLanguage,89(2),370–376.
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 9 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
Buccino,G.,Vogt,S.,Ritzl,A.,Fink,G.R.,Zilles,K.,Freund,H.J.,andRizzolatti,G.(2004).Neuralcircuitsunderlyingimitationlearningofhandactions:anevent-relatedfMRIstudy.Neuron,42(2),323–334.
Bugos,J.A.,Perlstein,W.M.,McCrae,C.S.,Brophy,T.S.,andBedenbaugh,P.H.(2007).Individualizedpianoinstructionenhancesexecutivefunctioningandworkingmemoryinolderadults.Aging&MentalHealth,11(4),464–471.
Buonomano,D.V.andMerzenich,M.M.(1998).Corticalplasticity:fromsynapsestomaps.AnnualReviewofNeuroscience,21,149–186.
Carcagno,S.andPlack,C.J.(2011).Subcorticalplasticityfollowingperceptuallearninginapitchdiscriminationtask.JournaloftheAssociationforResearchinOtolaryngology,12(1),89–100.
Ceci,S.J.andWilliams,W.M.(1997).Schooling,intelligence,andincome.AmericanPsychologist,52,1051–1058.
Chabris,C.F.(1999).Preludeorrequiemforthe“Mozarteffect”?Nature,400(6747),826–827.
Chan,A.S.,Ho,Y.C.,andCheung,M.C.(1998).Musictrainingimprovesverbalmemory.Nature,396(6707),128.
Chen,J.L.,Rae,C.,andWatkins,K.E.(2012).Learningtoplayamelody:AnfMRIstudyexaminingtheformationofauditory-motorassociations.Neuroimage,59(2),1200–1208.
Chochon,F.,Cohen,L.,vandeMoortele,P.F.,andDehaene,S.(1999).Differentialcontributionsoftheleftandrightinferiorparietallobulestonumberprocessing.JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience,11(6),617–630.
DallaBella,S.,Berkowska,M.,andSowiński,J.(2011).Disordersofpitchproductionintonedeafness.FrontiersinPsychology,2,164.
D’Ausilio,A.,Altenmüller,E.,OlivettiBelardinelli,M.,andLotze,M.(2006).Cross-modalplasticityofthemotorcortexwhilelisteningtoarehearsedmusicalpiece.TheEuropeanJournalofNeuroscience,24(3),955–958.
Draganski,B.,Gaser,C.,Busch,V.,Schuierer,G.,Bogdahn,U.,andMay,A.(2004).Neuroplasticity:changesingreymatterinducedbytraining.Nature,427(6972),311–312.
Draganski,B.,Gaser,C.,Kempermann,G.,Kuhn,H.G.,Winkler,J.,Büchel,C.,andMay,A.(2006).Temporalandspatialdynamicsofbrainstructurechangesduringextensivelearning.TheJournalofNeuroscience,26(23),6314–6317.
Elbert,T.,Pantev,C.,Wienbruch,C.,Rockstroh,B.,andTaub,E.(1995).Increasedcorticalrepresentationofthefingersofthelefthandinstringplayers.Science,270,305–307.
Ellis,R.J.,Bruijn,B.,Norton,A.C.,Winner,E.,andSchlaug,G.(2013).Training-mediatedleftwardasymmetriesduringmusicprocessing:across-sectionalandlongitudinalfMRIanalysis.NeuroImage,75,97–107.
Ellis,R.J.,Norton,A.C.,Overy,K.,Winner,E.,Alsop,D.C.,andSchlaug,G.(2012).DifferentiatingmaturationalandtraininginfluencesonfMRIactivationduringmusicprocessing.NeuroImage,60(3),1902–1912.
Foster,N.E.V.andZatorre,R.J.(2010).Corticalstructurepredictssuccessinperformingmusicaltransformationjudgments.NeuroImage,53(1),26–36.
Fujioka,T.,Ross,B.,Kakigi,R.,Pantev,C.andTrainor,L.J.(2006).Oneyearofmusicaltrainingaffectsdevelopmentofauditorycortical-evokedfieldsinyoungchildren.Brain,129(10),2593–2608.
Gaab,N.,Gaser,C.andSchlaug,G.(2006).Improvement-relatedfunctionalplasticityfollowingpitchmemorytraining.NeuroImage,31(1),255–263.
Gaab,N.andSchlaug,G.(2003).Theeffectofmusicianshiponpitchmemoryinperformancematchedgroups.Neuroreport,14(18),2291–2295.
Gaser,C.andSchlaug,G.(2003).Brainstructuresdifferbetweenmusiciansandnon-musicians.TheJournalofNeuroscience,23(27),9240–9245.
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 10 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
Golestani,N.,Price,C.J.andScott,S.K.(2011).Bornwithanearfordialects?Structuralplasticityintheexpertphoneticianbrain.TheJournalofNeuroscience,31(11),4213–4220.
Granert,O.,Peller,M.,Gaser,C.,Groppa,S.,Hallett,M.,Knutzen,A.,…Siebner,H.R.(2011).Manualactivityshapesstructureandfunctionincontralateralhumanmotorhandarea.NeuroImage,54(1),32–41.
Habib,M.andBesson,M.(2009).Whatdomusicexperienceandmusicalexperienceteachusaboutbrainplasticity?MusicPerception,26(3),279–285.
Han,Y.,Yang,H.,Lv,Y.-T.,Zhu,C.-Z.,He,Y.,Tang,H.H.,…Dong,Q.(2009).Graymatterdensityandwhitematterintegrityinpianists’brain:acombinedstructuralanddiffusiontensorMRIstudy.NeuroscienceLetters,459(1),3–6.
Hänggi,J.,Koeneke,S.,Bezzola,L.,andJäncke,L.(2010).Structuralneuroplasticityinthesensorimotornetworkofprofessionalfemaleballetdancers.HumanBrainMapping,31(8),1196–1206.
Hanna-Pladdy,B.andMacKay,A.(2011).Therelationbetweeninstrumentalmusicalactivityandcognitiveaging.Neuropsychology,25(3),378–386.
Hasegawa,T.,Matsuki,K.-I.,Ueno,T.,Maeda,Y.,Matsue,Y.,Konishi,Y.,andSadato,N.(2004).Learnedaudio-visualcross-modalassociationsinobservedpianoplayingactivatetheleftplanumtemporale.AnfMRIstudy.BrainResearch(CognitiveBrainResearch),20(3),510–518.
Haslinger,B.,Erhard,P.,Altenmüller,E.,Hennenlotter,A.,Schwaiger,M.,GräfinvonEinsiedel,H.,…Ceballos-Baumann,A.O.(2004).Reducedrecruitmentofmotorassociationareasduringbimanualcoordinationinconcertpianists.HumanBrainMapping,22(3),206–215.
Haslinger,B.,Erhard,P.,Altenmüller,E.,Schroeder,U.,Boecker,H.,andCeballos-Baumann,A.O.(2005).Transmodalsensorimotornetworksduringactionobservationinprofessionalpianists.JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience,17(2),282–293.
Haueisen,J.andKnösche,T.R.(2001).Involuntarymotoractivityinpianistsevokedbymusicperception.JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience,13(6),786–792.
Herdener,M.,Esposito,F.,diSalle,F.,Boller,C.,Hilti,C.C.,Habermeyer,B.,…Cattapan-Ludewig,K.(2010).Musicaltraininginducesfunctionalplasticityinhumanhippocampus.TheJournalofNeuroscience,30(4),1377–1384.
Herholz,S.C.andZatorre,R.J.(2012).Musicaltrainingasaframeworkforbrainplasticity:behavior,function,andstructure.Neuron,76(3),486–502.
Hickok,G.andPoeppel,D.(2007).Thecorticalorganizationofspeechprocessing.NatureReviewsNeuroscience,8,393–402.
Ho,Y.-C.,Cheung,M.-C.,andChan,A.S.(2003).Musictrainingimprovesverbalbutnotvisualmemory:cross-sectionalandlongitudinalexplorationsinchildren.Neuropsychology,17(3),439–450.
Hund-Georgiadis,M.andvonCramon,D.Y.(1999).Motor-learning-relatedchangesinpianoplayersandnon-musiciansrevealedbyfunctionalmagnetic-resonancesignals.ExperimentalBrainResearch,125(4),417–425.
Hutchinson,S.,Lee,L.H.-L.,Gaab,N.,andSchlaug,G.(2003).Cerebellarvolumeofmusicians.CerebralCortex,13(9),943–949.
Hyde,K.L.,Lerch,J.,Norton,A.,Forgeard,M.,Winner,E.,Evans,A.C.,andSchlaug,G.(2009).Musicaltrainingshapesstructuralbraindevelopment.TheJournalofNeuroscience,29(10),3019–3025.
James,C.E.,Oechslin,M.S.,VanDeVille,D.,Hauert,C.-A.,Descloux,C.,andLazeyras,F.(2014).Musicaltrainingintensityyieldsoppositeeffectsongreymatterdensityincognitiveversussensorimotornetworks.BrainStructure&Function,219(1),353–366.
Jäncke,L.(2009).Theplastichumanbrain.RestorativeNeurologyandNeuroscience,27(5),521–538.
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 11 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
Jäncke,L.,Gaab,N.,Wüstenberg,T.,Scheich,H.,andHeinze,H.J.(2001).Short-termfunctionalplasticityinthehumanauditorycortex:anfMRIstudy.BrainResearch(CognitiveBrainResearch),12(3),479–485.
Jäncke,L.,Shah,N.J.,andPeters,M.(2000).Corticalactivationsinprimaryandsecondarymotorareasforcomplexbimanualmovementsinprofessionalpianists.BrainResearch(CognitiveBrainResearch),10(1–2),177–183.
Jenkins,W.M.,Merzenich,M.M.,Ochs,M.T.,Allard,T.,andGuic-Robles,E.(1990).Functionalreorganizationofprimarysomatosensorycortexinadultowlmonkeysafterbehaviorallycontrolledtactilestimulation.JournalofNeurophysiology,63,82–104.
Keenan,J.P.,Thangaraj,V.,Halpern,A.R.,andSchlaug,G.(2001).Absolutepitchandplanumtemporale.NeuroImage,14(6),1402–1408.
Keysers,C.,Kohler,E.,Umiltà,M.A.,Nanetti,L.,Fogassi,L.,andGallese,V.(2003).Audiovisualmirrorneuronsandactionrecognition.ExperimentalBrainResearch,153(4),628–636.
Kirnarskaya,D.(2009).Thenaturalmusician:Onabilities,giftedness,andtalent.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Knudsen,E.I.(2004).Sensitiveperiodsinthedevelopmentofthebrainandbehavior.JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience,16(8),1412–1425.
Koelsch,S.,Fritz,T.,Schulze,K.,Alsop,D.,andSchlaug,G.(2005).Adultsandchildrenprocessingmusic:anfMRIstudy.NeuroImage,25(4),1068–1076.
Koelsch,S.,Gunter,T.C.,vonCramon,D.Y.,Zysset,S.,Lohmann,G.,andFriederici,A.D.(2002).Bachspeaks:acortical“language-network”servestheprocessingofmusic.NeuroImage,17(2),956–966.
Koeneke,S.,Lutz,K.,Wüstenberg,T.,andJäncke,L.(2004).Long-termtrainingaffectscerebellarprocessinginskilledkeyboardplayers.Neuroreport,15(8),1279–1282.
Kohler,E.,Keysers,C.,Umiltà,M.A.,Fogassi,L.,Gallese,V.,andRizzolatti,G.(2002).Hearingsounds,understandingactions:actionrepresentationinmirrorneurons.Science,297(5582),846–848.
Kraus,N.andChandrasekaran,B.(2010).Musictrainingforthedevelopmentofauditoryskills.NatureReviewsNeuroscience,11(8),599–605.
Krings,T.,Töpper,R.,Foltys,H.,Erberich,S.,Sparing,R.,Willmes,K.,andThron,A.(2000).Corticalactivationpatternsduringcomplexmotortasksinpianoplayersandcontrolsubjects.Afunctionalmagneticresonanceimagingstudy.NeuroscienceLetters,278(3),189–193.
Kuhl,P.K.(2010).Brainmechanismsinearlylanguageacquisition.Neuron,67(5),713–727.
Lahav,A.,Saltzman,E.,andSchlaug,G.(2007).Actionrepresentationofsound:audiomotorrecognitionnetworkwhilelisteningtonewlyacquiredactions.TheJournalofNeuroscience,27(2),308–314.
Lappe,C.,Herholz,S.C.,Trainor,L.J.,andPantev,C.(2008).Corticalplasticityinducedbyshort-termunimodalandmultimodalmusicaltraining.TheJournalofNeuroscience,28(39),9632–9639.
Lappe,C.,Trainor,L.J.,Herholz,S.C.,andPantev,C.(2011).Corticalplasticityinducedbyshort-termmultimodalmusicalrhythmtraining.PloSOne,6(6),e21493.
Lee,D.J.,Chen,Y.,andSchlaug,G.(2003).Corpuscallosum:musicianandgendereffects.Neuroreport,14(2),205–209.
Levitin,D.J.andMenon,V.(2003).Musicalstructureisprocessedin“language”areasofthebrain:apossibleroleforBrodmannArea47intemporalcoherence.NeuroImage,20(4),2142–2152.
Lim,I.,vanWegen,E.,deGoede,C.,Deutekom,M.,Nieuwboer,A.,Willems,A.,…Kwakkel,G.(2005).EffectsofexternalrhythmicalcueingongaitinpatientswithParkinson’sdisease:asystematicreview.ClinicalRehabilitation,19(7),695–713.
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 12 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
Lotze,M.,Scheler,G.,Tan,H.-R.M.,Braun,C.,andBirbaumer,N.(2003).Themusician’sbrain:functionalimagingofamateursandprofessionalsduringperformanceandimagery.NeuroImage,20(3),1817–1829.
Loui,P.,Li,H.C.,Hohmann,A.,andSchlaug,G.(2011).Enhancedcorticalconnectivityinabsolutepitchmusicians:amodelforlocalhyperconnectivity.JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience,23(4),1015–1026.
Loui,P.,Wu,E.H.,Wessel,D.L.,andKnight,R.T.(2009).Ageneralizedmechanismforperceptionofpitchpatterns.JournalofNeuroscience,29(2),454–459.
Loui,P.,Zamm,A.andSchlaug,G.(2012).Enhancedfunctionalnetworksinabsolutepitch.Neuroimage,63(2),632–640.
Margulis,E.H.,Mlsna,L.M.,Uppunda,A.K.,Parrish,T.B.,andWong,P.C.M.(2009).Selectiveneurophysiologicresponsestomusicininstrumentalistswithdifferentlisteningbiographies.HumanBrainMapping,30(1),267–275.
Meister,I.,Krings,T.,Foltys,H.,Boroojerdi,B.,Müller,M.,Töpper,R.,andThron,A.(2005).Effectsoflong-termpracticeandtaskcomplexityinmusiciansandnonmusiciansperformingsimpleandcomplexmotortasks:implicationsforcorticalmotororganization.HumanBrainMapping,25(3),345–352.
Menning,H.,Roberts,L.E.,andPantev,C.(2000).Plasticchangesintheauditorycortexinducedbyintensivefrequencydiscriminationtraining.Neuroreport,11(4),817–822.
Merrett,D.L.,Peretz,I.,andWilson,S.J.(2013).Moderatingvariablesofmusictraining-inducedneuroplasticity:areviewanddiscussion.FrontiersinPsychology,4,606.
Münte,T.F.,Altenmüller,E.,andJäncke,L.(2002).Themusician’sbrainasamodelofneuroplasticity.NatureReviewsNeuroscience,3(6),473–478.
Oztürk,A.H.,Tasçioglu,B.,Aktekin,M.,Kurtoglu,Z.,andErden,I.(2002).Morphometriccomparisonofthehumancorpuscallosuminprofessionalmusiciansandnon-musiciansbyusinginvivomagneticresonanceimaging.JournalofNeuroradiology,29(1),29–34.
Pantev,C.,Oostenveld,R.,Engelien,A.,Ross,B.,Roberts,L.andHoke,M.(1998).Increasedauditorycorticalrepresentationsinmusicians.Nature,392,811–814.
Pantev,C.,Roberts,L.E.,Schulz,M.,Engelien,A.,andRoss,B.(2001).Timbre-specificenhancementofauditorycorticalrepresentationsinmusicians.Neuroreport,12(1),169–174.
Paraskevopoulos,E.,Kuchenbuch,A.,Herholz,S.C.,andPantev,C.(2012).Evidencefortraining-inducedplasticityinmultisensorybrainstructures:anMEGstudy.PloSOne,7(5),e36534.
Parbery-Clark,A.,Anderson,S.,Hittner,E.,andKraus,N.(2012).Musicalexperienceoffsetsage-relateddelaysinneuraltiming.NeurobiologyofAging,33(7),1483(e1–e4).
Parbery-Clark,A.,Strait,D.L.,Anderson,S.,Hittner,E.,andKraus,N.(2011).Musicalexperienceandtheagingauditorysystem:implicationsforcognitiveabilitiesandhearingspeechinnoise.PloSOne,6(5),e18082.
Park,H.,Lee,S.,Kim,H.-J.,Ju,Y.S.,Shin,J.Y.,Hong,D.,…Seo,J.S.(2012).ComprehensivegenomicanalysesassociateUGT8variantswithmusicalabilityinaMongolianpopulation.JournalofMedicalGenetics,49(12),747–752.
Pascual-Leone,A.,Grafman,J.,andHallett,M.(1994).Modulationofcorticalmotoroutputmapsduringdevelopmentofimplicitandexplicitknowledge.Science,263(5151),1287–1289.
Pascual-Leone,A.,Nguyet,D.,Cohen,L.G.,Brasil-Neto,J.P.,Cammarota,A.,andHallett,M.(1995).Modulationofmuscleresponsesevokedbytranscranialmagneticstimulationduringtheacquisitionofnewfinemotorskills.JournalofNeurophysiology,74(3),1037–1045.
Patel,A.D.(2003).Language,music,syntaxandthebrain.NatureNeuroscience,6(7),674–681.
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 13 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
Penhune,V.B.(2011).Sensitiveperiodsinhumandevelopment:evidencefrommusicaltraining.Cortex,47(9),1126–1137.
Peretz,I.andHyde,K.L.(2003).Whatisspecifictomusicprocessing?Insightsfromcongenitalamusia.TrendsinCognitiveSciences,7(8),362–367.
Pulvermüller,F.,Shtyrov,Y.,andIlmoniemi,R.(2005).Brainsignaturesofmeaningaccessinactionwordrecognition.JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience,17(6),884–892.
Putkinen,V.,Tervaniemi,M.,Saarikivi,K.,deVent,N.,andHuotilainen,M.(2014).InvestigatingtheeffectsofmusicaltrainingonfunctionalbraindevelopmentwithanovelMelodicMMNparadigm.NeurobiologyofLearningandMemory,110C,8–15.
Rauschecker,J.P.(2001).Corticalplasticityandmusic.AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences,930,330–336.
Rauschecker,J.P.andScott,S.K.(2009).Mapsandstreamsintheauditorycortex:nonhumanprimatesilluminatehumanspeechprocessing.NatureNeuroscience,12(6),718–724.
Rauscher,F.H.,Shaw,G.L.,andKy,K.N.(1993).Musicandspatialtaskperformance.Nature,365(6447),611.
Rizzolatti,G.andArbib,M.A.(1998).Languagewithinourgrasp.TrendsinNeurosciences,21(5),188–194.
Rizzolatti,G.andCraighero,L.(2004).Themirror-neuronsystem.AnnualReviewofNeuroscience,27,169–192.
Rizzolatti,G.,Fadiga,L.,Gallese,V.andFogassi,L.(1996).Premotorcortexandtherecognitionofmotoractions.BrainResearch(CognitiveBrainResearch),3(2),131–141.
Särkämö,T.,Tervaniemi,M.,Laitinen,S.,Forsblom,A.,Soinila,S.,Mikkonen,M.,…Hietanen,M.(2008).Musiclisteningenhancescognitiverecoveryandmoodaftermiddlecerebralarterystroke.Brain,131(3),866–876.
Schellenberg,E.G.(2001).Musicandnonmusicalabilities.AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences,930,355–371.
Schellenberg,E.G.(2004).MusiclessonsenhanceIQ.PsychologicalScience,15(8),511–514.
Schellenberg,E.G.(2011).Examiningtheassociationbetweenmusiclessonsandintelligence.BritishJournalofPsychology,102(3),282–302.
Schellenberg,E.G.andWeiss,M.W.(2013).Musicandcognitiveabilities.InD.Deutsch(Ed.),Thepsychologyofmusic(3rdEd.)(pp.499–550).Amsterdam:Elsevier.
Schlaug,G.,Forgeard,M.,Zhu,L.,Norton,A.,Norton,A.,andWinner,E.(2009).Training-inducedneuroplasticityinyoungchildren.AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences,1169,205–208.
Schlaug,G.,Jäncke,L.,Huang,Y.,andSteinmetz,H.(1995).Invivoevidenceofstructuralbrainasymmetryinmusicians.Science,267(5198),699–701.
Schlaug,G.,Jäncke,L.,Huang,Y.,Staiger,J.F.,andSteinmetz,H.(1995).Increasedcorpuscallosumsizeinmusicians.Neuropsychologia,33(8),1047–1055.
Schmidt,R.andLee,T.(2011).Motorcontrolandlearning—5thedition:Abehavioralemphasis.Champaign,IL:HumanKinetics.
Schneider,P.,Scherg,M.,Dosch,H.G.,Specht,H.J.,Gutschalk,A.,andRupp,A.(2002).MorphologyofHeschl’sgyrusreflectsenhancedactivationintheauditorycortexofmusicians.NatureNeuroscience,5(7),688–694.
Schulte,M.,Knief,A.,Seither-Preisler,A.,andPantev,C.(2002).Differentmodesofpitchperceptionandlearning-inducedneuronalplasticityofthehumanauditorycortex.NeuralPlasticity,9(3),161–175.
Shahin,A.,Bosnyak,D.J.,Trainor,L.J.andRoberts,L.E.(2003).EnhancementofneuroplasticP2andN1cauditory
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 14 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
evokedpotentialsinmusicians.TheJournalofNeuroscience,23(13),5545–5552.
Shahin,A.J.,Roberts,L.E.,Chau,W.,Trainor,L.J.,andMiller,L.M.(2008).Musictrainingleadstothedevelopmentoftimbre-specificgammabandactivity.NeuroImage,41(1),113–122.
Shahin,A.,Roberts,L.E.,andTrainor,L.J.(2004).Enhancementofauditorycorticaldevelopmentbymusicalexperienceinchildren.Neuroreport,15(12),1917–1921.
Sluming,V.,Barrick,T.,Howard,M.,Cezayirli,E.,Mayes,A.,andRoberts,N.(2002).Voxel-basedmorphometryrevealsincreasedgraymatterdensityinBroca’sareainmalesymphonyorchestramusicians.NeuroImage,17(3),1613–1622.
Sluming,V.,Brooks,J.,Howard,M.,Downes,J.J.,andRoberts,N.(2007).Broca’sareasupportsenhancedvisuospatialcognitioninorchestralmusicians.TheJournalofNeuroscience,27(14),3799–3806.
Song,J.H.,Skoe,E.,Wong,P.C.M.,andKraus,N.(2008).Plasticityintheadulthumanauditorybrainstemfollowingshort-termlinguistictraining.JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience,20(10),1892–1902.
Spaulding,S.J.,Barber,B.,Colby,M.,Cormack,B.,Mick,T.,andJenkins,M.E.(2013).CueingandgaitimprovementamongpeoplewithParkinson’sdisease:ameta-analysis.ArchivesofPhysicalMedicineandRehabilitation,4(3),562–570.
Steele,C.J.,Bailey,J.A.,Zatorre,R.J.,andPenhune,V.B.(2013).Earlymusicaltrainingandwhite-matterplasticityinthecorpuscallosum:evidenceforasensitiveperiod.TheJournalofNeuroscience,33(3),1282–1290.
Steele,K.M.,DallaBella,S.,Peretz,I.,Dunlop,T.,Dawe,L.A.,Humphrey,G.K.,…Olmstead,C.G.(1999).Preludeorrequiemforthe“Mozarteffect”?Nature,400(6747),827–828.
Strait,D.L.,Chan,K.,Ashley,R.,andKraus,N.(2012).Specializationamongthespecialized:auditorybrainstemfunctionistunedintotimbre.Cortex,48(3),360–362.
Strait,D.L.andKraus,N.(2014).Biologicalimpactofauditoryexpertiseacrossthelifespan:musiciansasamodelofauditorylearning.HearingResearch,308,109–121.
Strait,D.L.,Parbery-Clark,A.,O’Connell,S.,andKraus,N.(2013).Biologicalimpactofpreschoolmusicclassesonprocessingspeechinnoise.DevelopmentalCognitiveNeuroscience,6,51–60.
Tettamanti,M.andWeniger,D.(2006).Broca’sarea:asupramodalhierarchicalprocessor?Cortex,42(4),491–494.
Tierney,A.andKraus,N.(2013).Musictrainingforthedevelopmentofreadingskills.ProgressinBrainResearch,207,209–241.
Tillmann,B.,Koelsch,S.,Escoffier,N.,Bigand,E.,Lalitte,P.,Friederici,A.D.andvonCramon,D.Y.(2006).Cognitivepriminginsungandinstrumentalmusic:activationofinferiorfrontalcortex.NeuroImage,31(4),1771–1782.
Trainor,L.J.,Desjardins,R.N.,andRockel,C.(1999).Acomparisonofcontourandintervalprocessinginmusiciansandnonmusiciansusingevent-relatedpotentials.AustralianJournalofPsychology,51(3),147–153.
Trainor,L.J.,Lee,K.,andBosnyak,D.J.(2011).Corticalplasticityin4-month-oldinfants:specificeffectsofexperiencewithmusicaltimbres.BrainTopography,24(3–4),192–203.
Trainor,L.J.,Shahin,A.J.,andRoberts,L.E.(2009).Understandingthebenefitsofmusicaltraining:effectsonoscillatorybrainactivity.AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences,1169,133–142.
Ukkola-Vuoti,L.,Kanduri,C.,Oikkonen,J.,Buck,G.,Blancher,C.,Raijas,P.,…Järvelä,I.(2013).Genome-widecopynumbervariationanalysisinextendedfamiliesandunrelatedindividualscharacterizedformusicalaptitudeandcreativityinmusic.PloSOne,8(2),e56356.
VanWegen,E.E.H.,Hirsch,M.A.,Huiskamp,M.andKwakkel,G.(2014).Harnessingcueingtrainingfor
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 15 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
neuroplasticityinParkinsondisease.TopicsinGeriatricRehabilitation,30(1),46–57.
Vaughn,K.(2000).Musicandmathematics:modestsupportfortheoft-claimedrelationship.JournalofAestheticEducation,34,149–166.
Verghese,J.,Lipton,R.B.,Katz,M.J.,Hall,C.B.,Derby,C.A.,Kuslansky,G.,…Buschke,H.(2003).Leisureactivitiesandtheriskofdementiaintheelderly.TheNewEnglandJournalofMedicine,348(25),2508–2516.
Wan,C.Y.,andSchlaug,G.(2010).Musicmakingasatoolforpromotingbrainplasticityacrossthelifespan.TheNeuroscientist,16(5),566–577.
Watanabe,D.,Savion-Lemieux,T.,andPenhune,V.B.(2007).Theeffectofearlymusicaltrainingonadultmotorperformance:evidenceforasensitiveperiodinmotorlearning.ExperimentalBrainResearch,176(2),332–340.
Wiesendanger,M.andSerrien,D.J.(2004).Thequesttounderstandbimanualcoordination.ProgressinBrainResearch,143,491–505.
Williamson,V.J.andStewart,L.(2013).Congenitalamusia.HandbookofClinicalNeurology,111,237–239.
Wong,P.C.M.,Skoe,E.,Russo,N.M.,Dees,T.,andKraus,N.(2007).Musicalexperienceshapeshumanbrainstemencodingoflinguisticpitchpatterns.NatureNeuroscience,10(4),420–422.
Yotsumoto,Y.,Watanabe,T.andSasaki,Y.(2008).Differentdynamicsofperformanceandbrainactivationinthetimecourseofperceptuallearning.Neuron,57(6),827–833.
Zadeh,L.,Wilson,S.M.,Rizzolatti,G.,andIacoboni,M.(2006).Congruentembodiedrepresentationsforvisuallypresentedactionsandlinguisticphrasesdescribingactions.CurrentBiology,16(18),1818–1823.
Zatorre,R.J.(2013).Predispositionsandplasticityinmusicandspeechlearning:neuralcorrelatesandimplications.Science,342(6158),585–589.
Zatorre,R.J.,Chen,J.L.,andPenhune,V.B.(2007).Whenthebrainplaysmusic:auditory-motorinteractionsinmusicperceptionandproduction.NatureReviews.Neuroscience,8(7),547–558.
Zatorre,R.J.,Delhommeau,K.,andZarate,J.M.(2012).Modulationofauditorycortexresponsetopitchvariationfollowingtrainingwithmicrotonalmelodies.FrontiersinPsychology,3,544.
Zatorre,R.J.,Fields,R.D.,andJohansen-Berg,H.(2012).Plasticityingrayandwhite:neuroimagingchangesinbrainstructureduringlearning.NatureNeuroscience,15(4),528–536.
Zatorre,R.andMcGill,J.(2005).Music,thefoodofneuroscience?Nature,434(7031),312–315.
Zatorre,R.J.,Perry,D.W.,Beckett,C.A.,Westbury,C.F.,andEvans,A.C.(1998).Functionalanatomyofmusicalprocessinginlistenerswithabsolutepitchandrelativepitch.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,95(6),3172–3177.
SimoneDallaBellaSimoneDallaBella,EuroMov,MovementtoHealthLaboratory,UniversityofMontpellier-1,France;InstitutUniversitairedeFrance,Paris,France;DepartmentofCognitivePsychology,WSFiZ,Warsaw,Poland;InternationalLaboratoryforBrain,Music,andSoundResearch(BRAMS),Montreal,Canada.
Music and Brain Plasticity
Page 16 of 16
PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 04 February 2015
