CHAPTER 3

'More Flung aruan Flungarians,More Fluman F{umans'

Social and National Discourse onFlungarran Minorities in the Interwar Period

Eric Beckett Weauer

Tivo inrases dominate discussions about Hungar ian nr inor i t ies in Czechoslovakia,Rotnatria, attd Yugoslavia in the interrvar era - the states that received the sreatestarea of pre-First \forld War Hungary, and rvhere Hunsarian nrinorit ies l ived inthe largest nttntbers. The first image depicts Hunsarian minorit ies as victinrs ofabuse by the r"r:it ionalizing states in 'uvhich they unwill inely found thenrselves afterthe Treaty of Trianon (Hungary's Versail les Treaty) clrt away trvo-thirds of historicHuneary in rg2o. C)n this view Hunsarian nrinorit ies were isolated fronr their'natural'

collrnrunity, and suffbred accordinely.The second, not ent i re ly contradictory inrase depicts Hungar ian n-r inor i t res

surreptit iously rvorking to den-rolish the states in lvhich they l ived. A i,vell-knownexample, orte that closely parallels this vier,v of Hungarian nrinorit ies, is the roleGerman ut i r tor i t ics werc secn to have played in the expansionist pol ic ies of NaziGertrrany. 'So, in 1932, The klegral t l is correspondent to Vienna wrote that theeflect of Triar-ron's itrclttsion of Hungarians in the successor states was 'to rveake'Hungary's neishbottrs bv the inclusion of a nri l l ion or so potential agents of Maeyari r redenta, propaq: lnda, espionage and, in case of : r rnred conf l ic t , sabotage withi ltheir frontiers'.2

There is ample justif ication for both of these views, set in the intenuvar periocl:that Hungarian nrinorit ies were severely abused, and that they were fifth-col-unrnists. IJut there is also evidencc, arising precisely front the world of l i terature ,that individual Hungarian minorit ies found nrore colourful roles than the twoascribed to them: l i ly-white rnartyrs to the injustices of Trianon, or blackelrardsundermining the European order.

* * * * *

This black-and-white dichotomy, which has obscured so nruch vibrant colour, wasprojected onto Hungarian nrinorit ies by the governnlent of rump Hungary, though

*

i t d id i ts best to eon

Affairs, Mataja, h. iJ

t reat ies , an organ ot - I

rvas quick to denr- \1

seemed to estab l is i r . i

t h e r i g h r s o f t r t i r t o r r t

Frank ly spc. tk in . .cannot elt . l ;rh.t ' t . . .that of the protc! 'problerns. [ . . . ] I t ibetr 'veen thenr nr

This was eyervash. H

protect ion o l t t t t i t t . . ' '

The Versa i l les set t lc r

Hungar ian governnr

nrinori t ies the suc(.c

the Versa i l les set t lc r l

Trcaty . An exr rnp l , - '

s t f , tes f ronr Hunq. r r r

Ar t ic le z5o o i r l r ,a r rd o f , t l r c r i c l r r .arbitrat ion trr l ' , tr :be ing b ro t rg l r r t . ,Tre:rty.a

l f ab r r se o f l r i r r o r i t i . '

for further, terr i torr. i

Through their r-,- ' r ' ,

As Kinya put i t to I

possibi l i t ies creatcrl l '

Some saw Ht tng. l

act ive way. in r9-t- l

Rornania engagctl i rr

the country's bor. lcr

meant for ther-n. .\.

H u n g a r i a n r r r i r r o r i t r

wood', eating a\\-.r \ .

l i ve .7 Budapest fe l t i r

res is t ass imi la t ion. In

s ta tes were encor l r . ls

the i r lands had becn

To help theni ,.1,

government in Btr. l . t

favoured. The Htrn :

po l i t ica l par t ies , chr

Romania, and Yug,

HuNcan raN MTNORTTTES rN THE IN rpnwan PEnrop 3 7

rt did its best to conceal its role. In r93j, after the Austrian Minister of ForeignAffairs, Mataja, had made sonle statements in support of revision of the peacetreaties, an organ of Hungarian propaganda directed at the English-speakrng worldri 'as quick to deny Mataja's 'startl ing query dealing with the rninority problenr fthat|.cefl1ed to establish a connection between territorial principles and the question ofthe rights of minorit ies':

Frankly speaking, I have never thought of the two in conjunct ion. [ . . . ] Wecannot ernphasise too stronll ly that the question of territorial readjustnrent anclthat of the protection of the minorit ie s are two entirely distinct and independentproblems. [...] I feel convinced that the establishment of this i l legitirnate relationbetween thenr rnust be an unwitting error on Herr Mataja's part.3

Tl-ris was eyewash. Hungarian authorit ies made every connection possible betweenprotection of minorit ies and territorial adjustment, openly and clandestinely.The Versail les settlements had included guarantees of minority rights, and so theHungarian government had a point when it declared (repeatedly) that by abusingrrrinorit ies the successor states were violating the minority protection clauses ofrhe Versail les settlement, and had thereby already unilaterally revised the TrianonTreaty. An example of this comes from crit icism of land refornr in the successor\t:ttes from Hungary's Foreign Minister, Kilmin Klnya, rvho said in 1936:

Article z-5o of the Trianon Treaty, which placed the protection of the properryand of the r ights of Hungar ian c i t izens under the suarantee of internat ionalarbitration tribunals, fared particularly badly. [ .] In this connerion wc rrcbeingbrought face to face with a de-facto revision of an inlportant article of theTreaty.a

I iabuse of minor i t ies was a revis ion of an art ic le of Tr ianon, th is opened the doortor further, territorial revision of the treaty.

Through their very existence, Hungarian nrinorit ies upheld a pil lar ofirredentisnr.As Klnya put it to Mussolini, 'Flungarian revisionism in its entirety rests on theprossibil i t ies created by the keeping of ethnic minorit ies in the neighbouring states'.5

Some saw Hungarian nrinorit ies as threateninq state security in a rather lttore.rctive way. In r933 a Ronranian polit ician wrote that nationalist Hunsarians inl{omania engaged in 'regular intrigue to undernrine the Romanian state ancl revisethe country's borders'.t ' This was, indeed, the role the Hungarian sovernnlenttneant for them. As the Transyivanian poet Slndor Rem6nyik had put it, theHungarian minor i ty in the successor states was to be ' the worm gnawing in al ienrt'ood', eating away at the structure of the states in which they had bee n forced to1ive.7 Budapest felt it was vital for Hungarians to stay in the successor states, and toresist assimi lat ion. In the words of a Calv in ist Bishop, Hungar ians in the successorstates were encoura€led to resist through 'passive heroism' frorn the very montentrheir lands had been occupied. '

To help them do So, and to keep thenr from nrigratine to Hungary, theqovernnlent in Budapest supplied regular clandestine payllrents to those whom itf:rvoured. The Hungarian government financed rninority organizations, such aspol i t ical part ies, churches, schools, and scout ing federat ions, in Czechoslovakia,Romania, and Yugoslavia.e Often, l i terary and cultural societies provided the

3B Enrc BncxEr r Wlavnn

innocuous cover for such f inanc ine. In r93z-33, when the i t r ter t ra t iona l f inanc ia l

cr isis had forced a reduction in al l state expenditures in Hur-rgary, the sovernlnent

sent a to ta l o f 3 ,786,34o peng5 to Hunsar ians in the L i t t le Entente s ta tes, throueh

:1 cover organizat ion ca l led the Federat ion for Soc ia l Orsanizat ions. The largest

s lur r , z ,6o1200 peng5, was spent on Ronr : rn i : r . 'o Th is rvas substant ia l . To put i t

in to perspect ive, i t surpassed the annual net debts r l l l l r , lp by c losed accounts o f the

state adnrinistrat ion for rg32-33 (z,o16,8oo peng5), or the conrbined governntent

earn inss f ronr the lo t tery and sacchar ine nronopol ies (z nr i l l ion pe ng5) for r934-35. "

Supplementir-rg this, and lbcusing on the Hungariatrs of Rourania, the larsest grot lp

of Hungar ians abroad, w: ls a governnrent - ru l ) in i t ia t ive ca l led the 'E: rs tern

Act ion ' ,

which gave scholarsh ips for v is i ts to Hungar ian un ivers i t ies and c landest ine ly sent

funds to sl lpport Hungarian el i tes in Ronrania. ' t Al l these resorlrces were sperlt at

a t ime when Hungary had the qreatest pcr c : rp i ta debt in Europe.

At the rece iv ine end, a quar ter o f the budget o f Hungar ian church schools

in Ronran ia , anc l a lnrost the ent i re adnr in is t ra t ive and operat inu budget o f

e thn ic Hungar ians ' cu l tura l and po l i t ica l ins t i tu t iona l systenr there, canre f ro t t r

Budapes t . ' 3

This fund ins save Budapest a sreat deal o f power in the a f fa i rs o f Hunsar iau

nr inor i ty orsanizat ions. In Czechos lovak ia , G€za Sz i " i l l5 , the leader o f the Hun-

sar ian Nat iona l Chr is t ian Soc ia l is t Par ty , ' rvas a lamred to f ind that the paynlents

sent regularly fronr Budapest - the party's prinrary sol lrce of i t icotn were

sr-rddenly cut ofT. I t took nronths of peti t ions renrincl ing Budapest that his party's'ult intate

go:r1 was revision', and that party nrenrbers 'nvho wcre tror rccciving

salaries were regularly h:rrassed by the Czechoslovak pol ice, before Szi" i115 real ized

what the Clzechoslovak authorit ies had lons knorvn ft-onr their tretrvork of spies:

I ludapest rvanted Szi i115 to resign. '1 Funds bcgan f lor.ving agair-r r ,vhen the party

e iected Count J lnos Eszterh lzy to lead i t , the nran se lected by the qovernnrent in

Budapest . ' ' i

Thus, there is substar lce to the c la inr t l - ra t Hung: r r i . rn nr i r ror i t ics rvcre lqents o f

Br-rdapest, . ,r ,orking to t t trclernrine the sttccessor states.

while there w;rs 'r trch , ' . ,r ,0., t ,1r,. i , ; , . ,r : Hu'sarrat ar-rthori t ies, abuse of

Hungarian nrinori t ics u':rs not frrbricatecl b,v the governnlent in Buclapest. Anlorlg

other n lore ser ious : rbnses conrnr i t ted, K: inya had a po in t when he cr i t ic ized land

refornr . In a l l three s t : r tcs , ( lzechos lovr rk ia , l lonran ia , and Yugos lav i : r , land re for t l

lvas used to weaken the econonr ic s t rength o f Hunsar ians, and to increase the

percenta{ re o f thc s ta tc nr . r jor i rv in Hung: . r r i : rn areas. Whi le son le inrpover ished

Hunsarians also ber-ref i ted, in e:rch state thel 'e was a prejucl ice against thenr, for

norvhere d ic l poor e thn ic Hungar ia i ls get the auro l tn t o f lancJ that was the i r c lue. ' t '

Th is rvas not iced inrnred i : r te ly , : rnc l jus t servecJ to increase the sense of o t t t rar ' .

: t r l : t i r t s t T r i l r t o r t i t t Hu r rqa ry . ' -

So, the Yugos lav s ta te lnoved sonre roo,ooo South S lav rvar veter : rns, co lon is ts ,

refugees ar-rd South Slavs nrigrat ins from Huneary and Bulearia and sett led thettr in

the regicrn rvit l -r the nrost Hungarians, Vojvocl ina, rn rgrg-29. 'n [n retLrrn, further

r r ' cake t t i t r q t hc i r r r r l l .

i n t he k i nq t - l on r . t ' \ i ' l

i l r t 9 3 t . ' e

I t t Ron r : t r t i . t t l t c l . r : :

l t t he l oca l l c r - c1 . \ t r l l l

cLlstonl b,v thc . i l t ' . ' . t . i ' ,

I n a l l , son rc I oo . t , '

t ook t he i r co tn l ' , 1 . t t t t t .

I9- j2 ; but ther - \ \ c l ' c : .

l r . r r . { bce r r t ake l t t l ' r r t t l

The Hur l { f l l l - i . l l l ' r '

r runrbered. Thc lc \ ' , i

\ \ ' . ls arottnd 3.+ 1.,, ' tYtr gosl:rvia's Hlt t i g.t t ' l

. . r i the coL ln t r \ ' . l111rr i :

:o111e 23._5 per Cc l l I r r

Yt rgos iav $o\ rc t - t ) l l ) t '1 .

r cv i s i on i s t speech o r

( ) rqa l l iza t io t - rs . l ) l -c . . t l :

re la t ionsh ip u ' i th l l r r .

r ' r l t r t i c H t r r r g . l r - i . r l t l l

t tr her forciblc t icl ' ' , '1.

\o l l re t in les re tur l lc \ l

n . r s he ld by onc K . i ,

, . lcported back e:tch r

Hungari:rn-l :r t i g t , t . i

on. Unt i l Novct t t l . . ' t

. o - c : r l l ed na l t l e : t t i . t l r '

I ) . l l l ) c s , J l l d \ ( ) l l ) ( ' . l l l

r r reaning Croat an( l \

\ \ -ere then p laccc l in t , '

r he l ack o f oppo r t ru :

rcqu lar ly t rave l lc t l t . . '

. tbus ive o f those u l t , '

. t u r l c n t s r e t u n ) i r r g I l

t l rc r isk o l t t ' l c l t t l t - t . r r t ,

r ) o t t o t nake CO l l l t l l i '

t ' t l t t t i c H t r r r q . t r - i . t l t ( ) l :

\peak ing Ht tn g . t r t . t r t

W h i l e H t t t t q : t t ' t . t l ,

t n t c r t t . t t i t l t l : t l t l t i t t , ' t - :

so. I l r t t th incs on l r .

K ine Aleranc le l - . l r l r

Marse i l les by r rqet t t . ' '

t l r r o t r q h o l t t t h c u t ' t .

H u N c n n r a N M r N c t R r r r E S r N T H E I N r E n w a R p t n r < t o

$-cakenitrg their concentrat ion in Vojvodina, some Hungarians nroved elsewhererrt the kingdonl, even to Kosovo, where 426 Hunearians were recorded as l ivins1 n r 9 3 I . I 9

Ir l Romania the land refornr of r92r wirs carr ied out in : i part icularly cynical way' r t the loca l leve l . Some of the forest and meadorv lanc ls he ld in co lnnror by anc ientt-trstol l l by the already intpoverished Hungarian (Sekler) vi l lases were co'f iscated.I r r a l l , son le Ioo,ooo were depr ived of the i r cor l r l lon ho ld ings. to The agur ievec ltook the i r conrp la in ts to the Leaeue of Nat ions, rvh ich dec ic led in the i r favour i 'I t )32: but they were nevcr s iven sat is factory conrpensat ion. In sonre cases properryh.rcl been taken fronr Hungarian vi l lasers who were el igible to receive lald.

The Hungariarts of Yusoslavi:r were lnost heavi ly clntrol led, and ereatly out-: l t r t r t be red . The re we re 468 , r l l - 5 Hunsa r i ans l i v i r r e i n Yusos lav ia i n r 93 r .Tha t\ \ ' . l s : r round 3.4 per cent o f the to ta l popt r la t ion o f t : ,934,o3g. . ' The nrass o fYt rqos lav ia 's Hungar ians, j9 r ,7)o o f then i , l i vec i in a b loc in the nor th-eastern area'rt- the col lntry adjoining Hutrgarv know'n as Vo.;vodina, r,vhere they colrprisecl' t ) l l l c 23. -5 per cent o f t l - re ree ion 's popul : r t ion. t t They were never t rus ted bv the\-trqoslav F overnntent, which rvatchecl thenr careful ly. There rvas no ,o.. . f tr ,^: i ' r ' i s ion is t speech or act iv is ' r , and the yugos lav po l ice s t r ic t lv c . r t ro l lcd ' r ino ' tv, , rg . t t r iza t ions. Pressure on ethn ic Hung: r r i :u ls rose anc l fe l l c lepending on l le leracJe,s: . ' l . t t ionsh ip wi th Budapest . t3 A, rv s isn o f rev is ion isn l or po l i i i ca l oppos i t io r , 'by . , ,I ' th r l ic Hungar ian in Yugos lav ia cou lc i resn l t in prosecut ion . , r .1 , 'n ight lead to h is' ' r her forcible deportat iolt to Htttre:rry - l f ter rvl ' r ich t l-re F1-rlg1rian a'thori t ies. ( ) l l le t i l t tes re turned those depor ted to yuqos l : rv ia . The record for depor ta t ions' '"rs l ield by one Kiznrer Floosz, 'expel led

f l-onr Ytrgoslav r2r z(-t t i ' res, o' ly to be. iepor ted back each t inre by the Hungar ian author i t ies ' . .+

Htrnsar ian- lansuage schools in Yusos lav ia \ \ere s teac l i ly c losec l as the years went' r r ' Unt i l Novenrbet ry36 (when the resu la t ion was repealed) author i t ies usec- l the

. , ' -c ; r l led nanle analys is law to dec lare that Hungar ian ch i lc i ren rv i th S lav ic soundins: : ' l l l les , a t rd son ie s i rnp ly ca l led Horv : i th or l { lcz (con inron Hungar ian su l r . . r1res: : tc ' t t t ing Croat and Serb) , were actua l ly c le-n : r t iona l izec l South S lavs. These c6 i lc l re '" '" cl 'c then placed into South Slav schools, req:rrcl less of their parepts' , ,vishes.t, j 6rve': : rc lack o f opporrun i ty to cot r t i t iue the i r edt rcat ion in Hung; r r ia1, 1ru1v s t t rc le l ts: . 'gu lar ly t rave l lec l to Hungary for the i r ec juc: r t ion. . t , yuqos lav author i t ies cou lc l be' i ' ' t ts ive o f those who re turned. A po l ice ch ie f in Sent : r (Hurr . Zenta) ca l lec i co l leee. :Lr ( lents re turn ing f rorn Hungary 'Hor thy

c logs, . Becat rse o f s inr i l ; r r inc idents . anc j: : r . ' r isk o f depor ta t ion, the Hunsar i : rn fore isn n i in is t ry erp l ic i t ly rv : r rnec l s tuc le l t ts: ' r ) t fs tnake conl l l lents that r r r ight i r r i ta te the Yr , rgos lav author i t ies . tT E lservherc ,r . : l i t t i c F lungar ian ofT ic ia ls in the Yugos lav publ ic achnin is t ra t io l were c l is r - ' i ssec l for. : .c . rk ing Hungar ian wi t l - r one another a t work .

\V i l i le Ht rngar ia t rs f ro t t r o ther count r ics cou lcJ : r t tenc i the Least rc o f Nat i . ' s ,: : l rc r t t : l t iona l n l inor i ty conferences, those of Yueos lav ia were bannec l f ro ' r do i r rs" ' ' l j t t t th ines on ly got worse for Yugos lav ia 's Hungar ians lvhen, in October 1934,Krr lq A lexander ar ld the French Fore ign Min is ter lJar thou were ass: rss i 'a tecJ r '\ l ' t rse i l les by ager t ts r ,vho had been t ra ined in Hungary; the re : rc t ion was o 'e o f shock: l t t 'o r tghoLl t the wor ld , and er ie f and out rage in Yugos lav ia . Ip n i id-Nove ' rber , the

3 9

40 Enrc BEcrEr r -WEavEn

Yugoslav authorit ies announced that they would begin deporting ethnic Hunp5ariansfrom Vojvodina, creating a wave of refugees on a scale Hungary had not experiencedsince the Trianon Treaty had come to force.tn On 13 December, the Hungarianauthorit ies reported that 3,oo4 individuals, including unaccompanied children, hadbeen forcibiy expelled from Yugoslavia. The expuision of innocent civil ians evokeddisgust in the international press, and so revolted public opinion in Britain that theissue was brought up twice in parliament, on tz and 19 December, in questions putto the Foreign Secretary. F{e assured the House that he had 'made representationsto the Yugoslav governnlent' to end the expulsions.'e The last expulsions occurredon r5 December. In the meanwhile this was not ail the authorit ies in Yugoslaviahad done to the Hungarian minority. After the assassination Hungarian periodicalsin Vojvodrna had been forced to issue statenlents of

grief, deeper and more upsetting than any the planet has never knorvn, evokedthroughout the world, as an expression of the inconrparable respect which theglorious nlenlory of our King radiated, the homage of all of humanity, and thedeep horror of the outrage of the assassination, condemned without exceptionby public opinion in the world of universal culture. Arnongst the planet's deeplyrnournins nlasses stand the Hungarians of Yugoslavia, in unbroken unity, theirpain f i l led with gratitude to him.3o

The authorit ies forced Hungarian newspapers in Vojvodina to publish a textaccusing Hungary of complicity in the assassination of the Yugoslav king, and(prior to the expulsions) declaring that the Hungarians would have to pay a penaltyfor their crimes.3t Hungarian clubs and societies in Yugoslavia were then closed,and a ban was placed on the distribution of all periodicals printed in Hungary.

The expulsion of innocent civil ians rrray have strengthened the case for revisionin one way, but it was also a disaster for those who argued that Hungarian minorit ieswere a reason for boundary revision, and who regarded them as potential assistantsin the future reconquest of Hungarian lands. Repressive measures against nrinorit iesin the successor states might have been useful for propaganda purposes, and formaintaining the desire for revision among Hungarian minorit ies, but expulsion wasquite another thins. It was vital to keep Hungarians in place.

'While conditions in Romania were generally more l iberal than those in Yugo-

slavia, the status of Hungarian minorit ies there was the source of much friction.There were approxirnately I,556,000 Hungarians l iving in Romania accordingto the census of r93o. The vast nrajority. r,353,276 of them lived in the formerHungarian lands of Transylvania (including the Partium). They comprised thelargest population of Hungarians outside Hungary. While in Romania they wereonly 8.6 per cent of the cit izenry, in Transylvania they comprised z+.+ per cent ofthe population.3'

The grievances of Hungarians in Romania and the pressures put on them toassimilate were great, and only grew greater as time passed. In ry37 the Brit ishhistorian C. A. Macartney noticed that Romania's treatment of minorit ies had'become in every way worse since about r93r or rg32'.33 Expropriation of property,particularly of properties owned by the Catholic Church that contributed rents tothe maintenance of Hungarian schools, continued in the I93os. Since education in

Hungarian \\ ' ; ls lr()t .

(297 schools) , C-.r l r r r 'schools (6 school . ineducat ion in HtrrrS.rrover the sanre pcr rinc reascd. Appr r ' ' p r r .that had been ou'nc. lNaeyvarad) r'vere c..,r'W'arsaw, ' the

re:r :o l iRonanian spir i t . . rn.

Assimi lat ionist l . rimpover ished : rn , ,1 , , ,taxes than peop lc l r rmajor i ty in threc e . . , rHun. Csik 87.,1: pcr 'were put under hc. [they were in f:rcr l{U r r d c r t h e R o n r . r r r r . ,ch i ld 's e thn ic i tv u . r .l r w t o b e R o r r r . l r ) l . u lthe authorit ies to ,. lr 'rchi ld 's parents:

C i t i zens o f I { ( ) : :s e n d t h e i r - c h r 1 . : : .t I A dec l . r r . rn , 'indicat ion: t i r ' . .such cases t() ! i r ' : .under the corn i . -

The wording oi th,. 'one Sek le r d is t r i c r . r .using Romani:u) () r ' i

equivalent.3eThere were c()unr

on the Hunqar i . rn nniade the Llse ot- l{Hungar ian per ior l re.rthe rules of the Htrnthese per iod ica ls c , ' ' .reports had been rrr . r .\\ 'ere charged u-it lr rl3udapest was cl t r ick :trrernber Tulip Oii lr, .

.rnd fined for l 'rrvrngThe prosecr l tor in IHungar ia i l SCou t n - t r t

HuNcan raN MTNORTTTES rN T I IE IN rEnwan Pnn to r> +r

I-{::r igariar} was not supported by the state, it was restricted to private and Catholic: , ; - schools) , Calv in ist (483 schools) , lJni tar ian (36 schools) , and Lutheran church

r. i i . . ro ls (6 schools in r93r) .3a The conf iscat ion of church property thus undernr ined

e. i r rc l r ion in Hungar ian, whi le weakenine Hungar ian congregat ions. By contrast ,r r \ . f r the sanle per iod the landholdings of the Romanian Orthodox Churchi : r . ' rc ' . rSed. Appropr iat ions went on r ight to the end of the r93os. In ry77 estates: i : . r r h;rd been owned since rSoz by the Premonstratensian Canons in Or:rde:r (FIun.\.rgr-r'arad) were confiscated. As a Polish vice-consul stationed in Clu; reported to\\ '.rr ' . lrv, ' the reason: "irredentisnl", the teaching of Hungarian youth itr atr anti-R()nr;ul ian spir i t , and sinr i lar such things' . l i

. \ss imi lat ionist pressures took nrore raw forms. People l iv ing in already::n|'r1-;1'svished and overwhehningly Hung:rrian Sekler counties had to pay higher:.:.\cs than people l iving elsewhere in Romania.3" Seklers fornred an overwhelming::r.rlority in three counties (Ordorheiu - Hun. Udvarhely 9r.43 per cent; Ciuc -

l { r r r r . Csik 87.42 per cent; and Trei Scaune - Hun. Hlrornszek 8o.25 per cent) , and\\.rc put under heavy pressure to become Ronranian because of the theory thati i icv rvere in fact Ronranians who had been hungar ianized over the centur ies. lTL'nricr the l{omanian narne analysis law, as rvith the regulation in Yusoslavia, a-hr l . l 's ethnic i ty was deternr ined by i ts surname. Chi ldren who were declared by..in to be Romanian were forcibly placed in Ronranian schools. The larv allowed:irc .ruthorit ies to deternrir-re the nationalitrr of the child against the obiections the. i r i l d ' s paren ts :

Cit izens of Ronranian backgrouud, rvho have lost their nrother tonque, l l r l rstsend their chi ldren to schools lvhcre t l-re language of education is Ronranian.

t . ] A dec larat ion [o f nat ion: r l i ty ] by the parents cannot bc taken as a s l r reind icat ion; for cheat ing is possrb le f . . .1 the school author i t ies have no r ight insuch cases to deternrine which natior-ral i ty the chi ld belongs to. These issr-res fal lr-rnder the competence of state authorit ies.3d

fhe wording of the law permitted even nlore arbitrary acts by local authorit ies. In

, 'ne Sekler distr ict a judge ruled that al l the nanres of ne'uvborns nrlrst be registered' . r : i11s Ronranian or thography and, when poss ib le , t rans la ted in to the i r Ronran ian

c.1t r iva lent .39

There were countless opportunit ies for national ists in Ronrania to ptrt pressrlre

r rn the Hungar ian minor i t ies . In 1936 the Senate in Bucharest passed a larv that

r r r lde the use of Ronran ian p lace nanles compulsorv in a l l pr in ted rnater ia ls .

Ht rngar ian per iod ica ls were then p laced in an absurd pos i t ion, forced to v io la te

rhc ru les o f the Hungar ian lansuage. Uniess they knew Ronranian, subscr ibers to

these per iod ica ls cou id not be sure rvhat Transy lvan ian town ( req ion. r iver , c tc . )

rc1'rorts had been made from.4o And throughout the period Hun{-rarians in Ronrania

\ \ ' e r e c h a r s e d w i t h i r r e d e r r t i s n 1 o n t h e n r o s t f l i n r s y o f e v i d e r

l ludapest was qu ick to po in t out . The unfor tunateJ6zsef Wi l len ' r in and h is twelve-

rrrerrrber Ti l ip Orchestra of Timi;oara were found gui l ty of propaeatins irredentism

.rnd f ined for hav ing tu l ips - a Hungar ian fo lk mot i f - sewn on the i r costumes.+ '

The prosecutor in T imi ;oara, who was par t ic r - r lar ly act ive, even banned ethn ic

Hungar ian scout t roops.4 '

4 2 EHrc ; Brc ; rg l l WnavrH

The arbitrariness of nreasures r-rpheld by the cottrts was sr-rrely infuriat ing to

Hunsar ian c i t izens of l {on i : rn ia : for exanrp le , the bannin{ r o f the t tse o f the conunol l

I hlngari:rn nicknanre ()yr-rrka, :rnd a reference to L:rke -Balaton i t i :r coni ic play

stagecl irr Clu.1 tn 1937.+3 It 'nvas as i f Ronranian prosecl l tors were doine everythine

in the i r power to n iake Hnngar ian nr inor i t ies long for a re t t l rn to Ht tnqar iar t ru le .

E lectora l f rauc l w: ls co l l r l r lon in l \onran ia throughout the rg3os.Just l i ke the i r

ethnic l torr-ranialr coul l tr) 'nrcn in ot l ' rer regiorts, Htttrgarian voters i t t Trausvlvani.r

were often prevented f l-onr erercisine their r ight to vote; that is, ulrt i l the roy:r l

d ic ta torsh ip r ,vas estab l ished and a l l par t ies banned in r93 lJ . In the e lect ions o f ry37,as a Pol ish v ice-consul repor ted to

-Warsaw, appror inra te ly 4o,ooo Hur tgar iar - rs had

been kept f i -onr thc ba l lo t boxes by a var ie tv o f nre thoc ls , : rnc l in the: r re : rs borcJer i r rg

Hung:r ry there h : rd been 'b loody

inc idents ' r 'vhere three F lungar ians hac l been k i l led

and rn ; rnv n . . l t r r r . i e . l . l l

Anc l Ronl : ln i : r 's r lns \ \ ,er to Hnngary 's rev is ion is t l l lovenrent , the Ant i - rev is ion is t

Leaque, he lc l ra l l ies n ,h ich sonret inres tnrnec l in to r io ts in rvh ich Hunqar ians were

: r t t r ckc t l . . r r r t l H ru rq ru ' i . l n p r - ( ) l ) c r - t v t l ; r r r r . r qed . T l r i . se r - ved . i r r t t r r r r . t o i r t c r c . t se rev i -

s ion is t sent inrents in l l t rc l : rpest , : rnc l sure ly d ic- l noth i r rg to conv ince the Hungar ians

of Tr l r rsv lvan ia that the i r f i r ture l : rv in l {onr : rn ia . So, in Mav r933, the Hungar ian

press repor tec l that fo l lo rv ing an ln t i - rcv is ion is t r : r l l y in Turc la , nrobs; r t tacked

Hung:r r i : rns , 'snrashed '

the Uni tar ian paroch ia l o f f ices (a church rssoc i : r tec l rv i th

Hunqar i : rns) , looted ter - r houses be lor rq ing to Hunear ians, anc l set severa l on f l re .+ j

Th is inev i tab lv brought l {onran ia a bad press. In another case, rvhen Hungar i : rn

speakers \ \ rere har : rssed on the s t reets o f l luch: r rest dur i r lg an ant i - rev is ion is t ra l ly

and a Hungar ian jor - r rna l is t rvas beaten, the in ternat iona l press en ibe l l ished the s tory .

I l r i t i sh papers ancJ l {euters incorrect ly c la inred the journa l is t hac l beer t lyuchec l .+r '

C) ther ant i - rev is ion is t . rc t iv i t ies \ \ rere a lso repuls ive. The leagr , re v is i ted fac tor ies

and other vn'orkplaces to have ni inori t ics siqn a decl:rr:r t ion that they support the

leasue 's act iv i ty . A conf ider - r t ia l repor t to the Ht rngar ian Fore ign Min is t ry noted

th:rt the league thre: i tened to have rvorkers f ired i f they refused to sisn the state-

nlerl t . In the encl the Hunsarian Party of l l .onrania issr,red instrtrct ions that ethnic

Hunsar i : r r - rs s l iou lcJ s ign to save the i r jobs.+7

The Hunqar i r in conr lnun i ty in Clzechos lovak ia rvas v ibrant , and of a l l the L i t t le

Entente s ta tes, C lzechos lovak ia was n lost l ibera l in i ts t reatnrent o f n i inor i t ies .

Nonethe less, n l :u)v o f thc conrp la in ts o f d iscr inr in . r t ion were jus t i f ied. The

6o3,7( t4 Hungar ians of Czechos lov: rk ia nr : rde up 4.3r per cent o f the count ry 's to t : r l

popt r la t ion, and 17.79 per cent o f the popula t ion o f S lovak ia , rvhere the nra jor i ty o f

thenr l ived in e thn ica l l ,v so l id b locs jus t across the border f ronr Huneary .+n Since

Tr ianon, Hungar ian- lungur iqe schools had been c losed. S lovak : r r rd Czec l - r schools

were opened in vi l laees with harcl ly any Slovaks or Czechs, rvhere the lai.v cJid not

requi re thenr , whi le son le f i f ty Hungar ian v i l l : rees were le f t lv i thout Hunsar ian

schools , desp i te the law's prescr ip t ion.4e The percentase of F lungar i : rns enro l led in

second: r ry schools in S lovak ia had fa l len f ronr I r .o9 to 3 .3 per cent in the per iod

I920-3S. ' jo Hungar ian-owned bus inesses : rnd banks were d iscr iminated against ,

rv l - r i l s t S lovak ones rece ived s ta tc subs id ies. j 'As one conlnrentator angr i ly noted,

r lrany Hunsarians fronr Czechoslovakia preferrecl to continue their studies at

un ivers i t ies in Huns: r rv . The author observed:

The tenc lency o idei i l reratcly lorvericlata suppliecJ bv ru l r i . ' ' l r I ) ) t l r t q i t ' r ' .

E thn ic Hut rgar ian qr

nrost adanrant Br i t ish

Czechoslovak ofTici.r I s

years passed; i t r sonrc

placecl on the i t- t tport t

i v i t l r r hc c r ccp t i o t t o t

And Czechos lovak bo

borde r.'j ' j

The problenr for HLrr

condi t ions were conl l

Rotrtatr i ;r , or - cs1'r. ' , .

: rnd soc ia l ly incon:c ,

Hungary, rvhere thc r

The cont rast n ' i t l t .

ians there coulcl ;u)t l r

svstenr rvas scrtt icl ;r1olr '

Throueh thre; t ts . l .

: r t id the jud ic ia l . r1 .1 '

quaranteed to the F{ r

par l ianrentary se: t t \ \ \

e lec torate had tc t s l t . . , r

nra jor nrun ic ipa l ecnt

I n p rac t i ce t h i s n r c . r i

b : r l l o t ) . t h r t vo t c l r t i r :

coa l i t ion, ancJ thosc r '

c l is t r ic t in the hot ' t tn '

were al lorved to \ ' () t( .

the gover l t l le r t t \up l '

l r l l o r vcd t o vo t c . l t r r ) l

a l thoueh not a l l t ) f ' rp t r

were c losed acc( ) r - r l r r l

peasants rvho clrrrc. l t

con t ras t , i t r Czec l l o . l ,

e lec t ions.

Moreover , cet ) \ ( ) l ' . ]

vague gene ra l CJ t cg r '

were cons iderecJ :c . l t t

the censor rev ieu c . l

f ound t o be o t i c t t . t r

book dealers . Hot r ' . ' , , ,

H u x c ; a n r n N M r N o * r r r r s r N T H L l N r E n w a n p l n r , n

i" "':k cleaters However, unress recorcis l.rad bee' ilir',::rT;T i:'#iji,, ;::" i::;:

lF J:ilry il": i, ifi iJ r 1, : [,,.J l' :ii. ] : l3:: :, :::,1, :; #.j,,-,r i i,i: : i h .i Iclata suppl ied bv of l : ic ia l c lzcch,rs lo". t r" . , , . . ' , t I rn i , i r . ,u ide' t r r , ,a rcstrrrrvhich t l l t ' ts t s i 'c s;r t is f ' rct ior t to the ' rost rabid of crzcchosrov:rk chu'r , . i r is tsr i .Erh' ic Hungar iatr sr icvat ices i t czechoslovakia were so u,eishtv t r rat eve' therrost adanranr tsr i t ish opponent ro rreary . . , r i r io,r , ' * r ; ; . ; ' i . r " , ,_uu:r tson,

askecJ(.zecl-roslovak of l ic ia ls t . ' " t tk" co'cessio 's. j i Brt co'di t ions dic l ,ot l r l lprove ;rs the" cJrs passed; in some

Y'yt they deter ioratecl . Fro.r zo r)ece.rLrer t9 j ( t ; rbarr rvas:' i ' tcec-l on the ir 'port of ali printe.l publications fro.r Hungary (i 'clucli 'e the press),"r i rh the excepr io ' -of i te ' rs expressry pernr i r tecl by the czech i

.ll]ffrTchoslovak borcJer g.,rrl, 'vould occasio'airy shoot ,,r.,#;T::JlJiil I;

13

* * * * *

I he probre'i fbr H,'garian authorit ies, however, r,vas that' 'rrrclitiotts were co'lpitratively worse i,r H.,,rg,,ry.than ,,r.ntti"ltiltll YiiJ;r;ffi:]I { . l l lat i ia ' of - especial ly - czechoslovakia. wi th th" "r . -pt ion

of sonre nr inor' t ) t l t o c i r l l y i r t c o n s c q u ' " r i t l e x p e r i r r c n t s . t l r c r c h . r c r b . , " n , , , , r r r r r d r e f o r r r r i r rI Iurq:rry, where th. , ' . r , of rhe. ; . r r . ; ; ; ; " r . , . , r r"r ly i ' rpover ished.Tire contrast wi th condi t ions i ' ( lzechoslovaki . ,u. , g. i*"r , , for whi le Hunsar_: t r t ' there co t r ld and d ic l vo te fo r . , r . . i ; ; ; -o i i . r r i . r , in Hunsary i t se l f the erec t ion. , . rcrr t r ,v:rs scandalously undenrocrat lc.Through threats' britery, chic-a'cry (the clead arways votec-r for the uoverr're.t),' r l t l the - ludic ia l appl icat i . ' of for ie ' r . rh.r , d. . r r r"d nec-essary, e lect ions were:t t ' l r ' t t t teed to the Hungar ian {rover l r l r ler t . one hundred and ' inety- ' i 'e of z4_5: ' . r ' l iat t tentary seats were col t tested i . d istr icts 'v i th open bal lots, that is , rvhere the

'- '. i 'rfol-ate had to shorv for whortr they were voting. The ballot was only secret in: : l ' l lor t r t t t ' ic ipal cetr t res; peasants a 'd inhabi tar ts of snralr towrs votecJ operry.I : r p13c-6ice th is l r leant ( in distr icts where the opposi t io, w: ls abre to set o, theI l',??;,ITJT::.T; i:Hi::: l.l;xfu .::*: :.,"':i" ro -h e .qo u.,.,, i,, g'i';'1v16s in the hor sn'rnrer orie3r sove',rent rili::;:lil;3ir',ll;lu::::*" \ I ' t 'c ; r l lowed to vote f i rst ' The opposi t io ' had to stancl i , t r re blazi 'c strrr . o 'ce:i: ' ' qovern'ent supporrers had t*.0, g.";;; of twenty opp.sirio, vorers were:.1;]:];$':J:T::l::::rill "iz-3 hou^ b.,,.,".,r batches d; th" .,,d or rrre day,,, c c l o s e d . .. :lj'::' :"" ;'ffJ.",T:", 1' l,Tr : : f#: ; i :;.i:, LlTj rT il.x :: 'r"l\ ' t l l ts 'vho dared vote for the opposition were attacked by the se'cl:rr,rc,rie.j6 l3y' ' ' )rlr l-rlst ' i ' czechoslovakia' evell the co'r 'runist party was ailorvecr to take part i 'r ' . r ' . - t iotrs.

\lclreover' censorship in Hungary nrade conditions abroacJ see,', jess awf,r. A" tsllc seneral cate€lory of ofTe.c.: ,o. the Regent, the cou'try, :rnd the natiorr' 'r ' r 'r 'c co'sidered seditious' as were books d".,rr!. i to be ,.r,rt.r i ionary. Untir r93r,i,: ir. ' ccnsor revierved books orrty after public;rt i,on ancJ distribution. If a work was" illiooll,.T ;f..::'.1: :'],::oli'

*:.: connscated rror' the ptrbrisrrer ancl rror,,

+4 Entc Becr r r r -WERven

books already sold could not be retr ieved. So pubi ishers ensased in sel f -censorshipto :tvoid having stocks of unsold books confisc:rted. If they thought a questionablebook worth the risk, they would publish it in a snrall run and hope to sell :r l1 copiesbefore the censor orderecl its cor-rfiscation.5T This was riskv. for t l-re old joke heldtrue - you were free to publish rvhatever you wanted; you just might not be freeafter you did so. [f a work was found to be particularly pernicious, its author andpublisher could find thenrselves in very serious trouble indeed. They could face aternl in prison and the revocation for lnanv long years of civil r iehts: to vote, toteach or work i r - r any state-owned enterpr ise, and denied access to publ ic funds.

While l-Iungarians in Czechoslovakia could expect police attention for openlysupport ing boundary revis ion, they could openly discuss certain l iberai and lef t isrideas that were dangerous to nrention in Huneary. The Hungarian governnlerltwas greatly irritated by the fact that rtrany Hunearian leftists had for-rnd a safehaven in Czechoslovakia.

-When President Masaryk set aside 6o,oo0 crowns

annually to establish and nraintain a Czechoslovak Hungarian Scientif ic Society,the organizat ion was inrmediately denounced in Hungary. ' jn Most infr , r r iat ins werestatentents that had been made by sonre Hunsar i : rns in exi le that the Tr ianonboundar ies should not be chansed unt i l there was : l chanse in resinie in Budapest.The Hungarian governnlent declared that solre Flungar ian- l : rnguaee journals, suchas the Hungarian Didry (Magyar rvap/ci) fior-n Czechoslovakia and the Trans1,ly611iapMessengcr (Erdtlyi Futdr) fronr Ronrania, were 'anti-Hunearian',

banr-red theirdistribr-rt ion in Hr-rngary, and save notice to Hr,rngarian cit izens rvho dared topublish articles in thenr.je Hungarian ofl icials were upset by leftist ideas and conr-munist propaganda inrported to Hungary froni Czechoslovakia."o A situation reportof r93-5 frorn the anti-cspionaec service of the Hungarian Military FIigh Conrnranddecriecl propaganda in Hungarian radio broadcasts fronr Czechoslovakia that 'con-

stant ly cr i t ic ize our domest ic and foreign pol ic ies ' .6 ' Hunqar ian nr inor i t ies wcreengaged in worse activit ies: 'unfortunately

a great nunrber of our blood brethren,whether utrder pressure or for nraterial advantages, become participants (oftenunknowingly) in the work goine on to underniine Lls'. Some 'g3"/u of the Czechspies we have uncovered working lgainst us are ethnic Hungar ians' . t ' '

Authorit ies in Budapest were sensitive to crit icisnr from Hungrrian nrinorit iesbeyond Huns:rry 's borders, part icular ly f ronr lef t - leanins Hunsar ians ofCzechoslovakia, whotn they could not censor. Such crit icisrr-r seenred not onlyunpatriotic, but ttngrateful, i ls it canre despite the energy and attention thegovernnlent expended on protesting against, and dissenrinating infontration :rbout,the insul ts and in jur ies str f tered by Hunuar ian nr inor i t ies in the neishbour ins states.And yet such cr i t ic isnr kept conr ing f ronr Hungar ians abroad. For erample, in1937, when a lecturer in Httnsary rvished to speak about the revolutionary ideals ofSandor Pet6f i , the patr iot ic ronrant ic poet of r848, the pol ice banned the reading off ive verses, and censored parts of a s ixth. This broueht the nunrber of Pet5f i poemsthat had been censored by the Hungarian police at that t inre to forty.( '3 In protesr,t l ie Pet5fi Circle of Prasue wrote an open letter call ing on rhe Pet5fi Circle rnIludapest to defend Pet6fi 's legacy in its entirety. In his response, the president ofthe Hunear ian Circ le laconical ly explained that the pol ice had acted correct ly.r '4

In Hungrrv tho.faced prosecut ior) .c h a r g e d w i t h i r r e r r rstudies descr ibtngdescribed horv hc lrl seminar o rg . l r ) rz ( ,Pr ime Min is te r . ( . t r

t r ia l he had a iso u ,Istvin Bethlen, an.' i

Desp i te the i r r r1 .obv ious pa t r io r i : r r r .,o b.nf;Tsecurcrl t i)state." ' They h.rd , . Iby the rise of ne\\ .rlTlrc Silcnt Rt't;tr1rrlr, 'rrv i th in the so t r l : o t 'br ing chi ldren intoresuit in the slou cr

Kovlcs wrS prorrrepresentat iOn ot- t ' ,the successor st : l tc \debate on the tr r . r1.had accompanieci hrrmpressions frorrr .r .l-rad come fronr ber,

O u r H u n g . r r i . r ra re on ly u ' r l lu rrepresentecl bi .I l ly6s, Pll Sz.r[., '

Honour:rLrl. 't ha t havc . r r r r r t . .suppor t inq thr . . ,The [Transr 'h .uan outs t : rnd ing Ithe dock, th.rr r .Rornania l s ' r l l .t oo ! ' ) l t i s t ' l r ' . r r r :books has ha.1 r . . :have been i i rh .

Matolcsy's speech .rr( t ( ) t r

l l ) v a l n . K o v : l ( ' \ \ \ .

These cases did . ir h e g o v e r n n l c n t i r revoked revulsion l l 'by Upton Sinclarr . iaqainst the mistre. i r r

HuNcRnraN MTNORIT IES IN THE IN rEnwan Pnn t r i o 45

I:: []r.rnqary those who publishedbooks on the misery of the peasantry regularly

Err.l l .rcrsecution. In :1937 the sociographers Imre Kov6cs and G6za F6ja were

rh"rr:cJ s'ith incitement to class hatred and denigrating the nation for publishingi:c. t lescribing the desperation of Hungary's landless peasants. Kovics later

Je- rrl ' 'c.l how he had been trained to carry out research amongst the peasantry tn

l l<:nu).ir organized for older boy scouts by students and assistants of the former

hnr:rc \, l inister, Count Teleki, under the aegis of a Lutheran seminary.t 's Prior to his

ru. irc had also worked for a journal edited by the former Prime Minister, Countl*rr-in lJethlen, and had published on the conditions of the peasantry [here."t '

[ )c.Fire the impeccable academic credentials of the sociographers and their

sir:.. ir.rs patriotism, authors who described the misery of the peasantry continuedrn

':.c prosecuted for incitement of class hatred and sedition against the nation and

r^rr.. -

They had claimed that peasants had lost all hope in this world, as witnessed

br :irc rise of new apocalyptic and evangelical Christian cults. Kovics's book, calledF:, .\r/crrl Reuolution, suggested that the next revolution in Hungary was happeningr: t i r rn the souls of the peasantry, whose despair was so great that they refused to

t*r:r:S children into the world. He argued that this revolutionary loss of hope wouldre.;.: lr in the slow extinction of the nation.

Kor': ics was prosecuted in part because the authorit ies feared that his negative

rtr:c\crltation of conditions in the motherland might cause Hungarians l ivrng inthe .trccessor states to turn away from the motherland. In a heated parliamentaryci<'i..rtc on the trial, opposition MP Mity6s Matolcsy friend of Kovics's whoh;.i .rccornpanied him on visits to vil lages - refuted the charges by recounting hisrc:prcssions from a summer camp where he had met young Hungarian leaders whoh;.i conre from beyond Hungary's borders:

Or-rr Hungarian youth from the occupied territories have stressed that they.rre only wil l ing and able to accept association with us through the spiritrepresented by such writers lwho describe the misery of the peasantry] as GyulaI l ly6s, P6l Szab6, Gtza F6ja and Imre Kovics.

Honourable House! I could read out the rnasses of letters and newspapersthat have arrived from the far-right Hungarian youth of the Uplands fSlovakia]supporting these Hungarian writers who are to be condemned and silenced.The [Transylvanian newspaper] Brass6i Lapok, whose editor is well known asan outstanding Hungarian, writes (he read$: 'And if they truly set G6za F6.1a inthe dock, that writer wil l not sit alone, because the Hungarian youth here finRornania] wil l sit there with him.' (MP Tibor Rakovszky: 'Not just theirs, ourstoo!') It is clear that in the successor countries the prosecution ofthese authors andbooks has had terrible effects, and even greater damage has been done than wouldhave been if these oppressive charges had not been brought in the first place.n*

\lrtolcsy's speech and the protests arriving from Hungarian rninorit ies were made::i r-Ain.t '9 Kovics was sentenced to three months in prison.To

These cases did do damage to Hungary's reputation abroad, but not in the wayihc qovernment in Budapest claimed. The prosecution of writers in Hungarye voked revulsion abroad. The League of American Writers fi led a petit ion, signed'nr

Upton Sinclair (amongst others), with the Hungarian Embassy in Washington.rS.rinst the mistreatment of the sociographers.Tt

46 E n t c B E c x e r r ' W n a v n n

All of this sinrply served to strencthen another fear of the l lovernlnent in Budapest- t l - rat Hungar ians in the successor states were sonrehorv beconr ing less Hungar ian.Evidence that this was so crnle also from the nlovelnent to learn nlore :rbor-rt thepeasantry. One of the socioeraphers in Yusoslavia, rvho were tryine to record thetrue folk nature of being Hungarian, and to plunrb the depths of the national soulin the vil lages, was Lrpset by the apparent ease and easenress rvith rvhich sonreimpover ished youns Hungar ians were shedding their ident i t ies, nrovinq to c i t iesin search of easier l ives, and beconr ing Yugoslavs. He recorded: ' for thenr i t 's : i l1the satne rvhether they are Hunsar ian or Serb, or s ins popular songs picked up inthe ci ty ' .7t There was a general fear in Bud:rpest about the changes takine placeattronqst Hungar ians in the successor states, ref lected in studies on their soci : r l : rndi n re l l cc t t ra l dcve lopn)er ) r .71

So while a nrovenlent amonest Hungarians in Ronrania, Transylvanianisnr (theidea that the people of Tr:rnsylvania, reeardless of ethnicity, should take a differentl ine of developn-rent from Hungary and Ronrania) held revisior"rist potential -

and was semi-of f ic ia l ly endorsed by Count Bethlen - i t a lso had the potent ia lto deepen div is ions betrveen Hungarians.T{ Metrv Trar-rsylval ia l is ts - such as thenlovelttent's le;rder, Kiroly K6s - s:r 'rv the governltlent of Hune:rry as a traitor tothenr because i t had abandoned Transylvania 'uvhen i t s iened t l - re Treatv of Tr ianon.K6s saw no use in hoping for boundary revisior-r, and felt the tir-ne had conre forTransylvanians to conle together aqain i r r e l ) aLl tononlous ent i ty.Tj In r933 K6swrote a fellow Transylvanianist, who r'vas upset by the negative reception he hadbeen given by the l lovernnlent in Huneary: ' 'We11, rveren't l.ou and I both in ourtinte (today too), in one way or another, f i l thy traitors to the nation, l\onr:rnianhirelings, for-rl conrrttunists, etc.? I truly 'uvonder that you are bitter'.7t'

I ly contrast, Transylvanianists r,vho toed lludapest's otTicial l ine were treatedas heroes in the nrotherland. Here, as elser,vhere, l i ter:rture :rnd cultnre were themedi:i of revision - and profit. I look salesnren sugeested to potential buyersin Hungary th:r t they ' rvere support inq starvirrq Tr;rnsylvanian ar l thors. Patr iot icconservat ives tnay have had reservat ions about Transylvanianisnr, but af ter thehistor ian Clyula Szekf i i had, in pr int , pointed out that leadins nrenrbers of societyhad rather ttnpatriotically failed to visit stalls run by Hnns:rri:u'r publishers fronrSlovakia and Ronrani : r at the annual book fair in Budapest, Pr inre Minister Gyr-r laGor-nbos personal ly conrpl : r ined to Bethlen. In return, IJethlen defended Szekf i isaying this was not alr insul t to the col lntry 's leadership, but recosni t ion of theel i te 's inrportance, and a sLlgsest ion of rvhat they should do in the f t r ture. Thepoint was taketr . The cre: lnr of Hungar ian society - Gontbcjs, Count Teleki , MrsIstv in Bethlen, and the rv i fe of the Minister for Cul ture Mrs Bi l int H6nralr -

subsequently purchased books fi 'orn Transylvania :rt the sta11s.77Ref lect ing on his t re;r tnrent in l3ud:rpest, Bishop Makkai rvrote: ' l shook nry

l iead in shatne. There's no heroisnr in i t at a l l , not a drop of i t ' .7s Szekf i i qtr icklyrespctnded rvith an article called 'And yet they are the heroes'. Szekfti explained thatHltttgariarts l iving across Huneary's borders were 'a given r-nass of people r,vhoseterr i tor ia l s i tuat ion cannot be cl- ranqed for the nronrent ' . I lut the nrass of peoplewere in spir i t : r t one'nvi th the rest of the nat io i l , as M:rkkai 's art ic le hacl a lso sho'nvn.

Szekfi i admitted that th.

1-r inr and others who ' t- t ,

so r t o f i t t t p rove t l l c l l t t l ' t '

of rvhich ' in

the enti t l r

I in Transy lvan ia l r r r iqht

Th is e t t to t ioua l . t t l t l

began i nnocen t l y c t l o t t :

ln:rny Hr-inqarian attt i t , . '

Flt tngarians i t t the sttct ' . '

n r inor i t ies . C)ne at l t i l ( )1 .

c i l se , M6r i cz v i s i t cd ( ' ;

art icle tuentictt- l i t lq l l i '

beg:rn rvith atr att l tck t '

par t icu lar ly educatot ' : . t

1

l r l : l l l ( ) l ) l ) i l s l l ( t t r : l

r ve l co t t te i t . be c . t t t ' .

c : ' l t t L lse the t l tc t t t t '

f r eedo t t t o f t houS i r

s i r tq : r r t i t l c i r r l so t r J 'o f t hc Pub l i c l r l ' r ' . i r

M6ricz rvould hlvc l ' . ' . .

Mor icz wrote that t i l

parents) hacl le:rnlctl t ir

cot t rpel lcc l to (1r ' \ -

socia l at tc l t t t t l t -e . . .

r to lot tger s. tv t i l , ' ' : ' '

l i f e . Thev sce th . i : :

o f H u n g a r i . l t l s . ' -

Mor icz rv ls bor r - ( ) \ \ r r : .

u l ) ) ( ) l t t r t h c r r l s c l v q ' r . l ' t i

ent i re n:r t iot . l f t -c l t l l t l l .

expressed, in rP l i c i t l r

cor-rld not possiblv l ' . ' . ,

M o r i c z ' s S t l { { t ' r t i . t :

seen by l t t a t t y i t l H t r r .

he hac l c la in rec i t h . r t ' : l

h t tn ' t ane l i f b tha r t t h . ' r

t h : r t t hc boy sco r . r [ : , : i r -

I t c locs t ' t o t h t t l t \

[ -s ic l saic l t t t tnr '

a r t i f l c i a l so l l q \? I )

s ing r .v i th thc 1 ' . ' '

s c e . p e a s a l l t \ ( ) l l : '

t o s i t t t t a t l v t h l t l g :

HuNc ;an rnN MTNoRI ' I ' IES IN T I {E IN rnnwan Pp .n t c to +7

r r rkrr i adrni t ted that the Transylvanianisnr Makkai had helped establ ish had rvorr iedl : : : r . r r rc l others who 'could not knorv i f our brethren over there real ly expected anyq,: t r ) i i rnprovement f iont an extrenr isf concept ion of Transylvanianis ln ' , as:r resul t. . r \ \ l ) ich ' in the end the Hungar ians here [ in Hungaryl and nr inor i ty Httnqar ians

::. fr ' .rnsylvanial r-night h:rve faced each other as foreigners'.7eI hi: emotional atmosphere fornred the backdrop to several sc:tuc1als. One

i ' . ' j . r r r innocent ly enough when the popular author Zsisn-rond M6ricz did rvhat so: . ,nv Hungar ian authors did at the t inre - he went on toLrr to read his rvork tcri { : ing.rr iar-rs in the successor states. This was seen as rr petr iot ic rv:ry to help Hutrsar iatr: : . :nor i t ies . C)ne au thordescr ibedh is t r ip to Transy lvan ia as a 'p i le r in laqe ' .nu In th is- , . . ' . M6r icz v is i ted Czechos lovak ia . In r93r , a f te r the t r ip , Mor icz pub l i shed: rn. : : re lc nrent ioning his exper iences rv i th Hungar ians in Czechoslovakia, ivhichi'.- ' i l . in rvith an attack on the outnroded style of thought anrons the est:rblishtnent,

: ' , r t icular ly educators at tenrpt ing to fornr the val t tes of youth:

Tr ianon has not ch: rngec l anvth inq in the v iervs o f thcsc tc : rchcrs . I r r fac t , thevn'elconre i t , bec:rusc thev can use i t as :r st ick to pursl le thcir o'nvn intcrests. The1,c: lr) use the fact of nrut i l :r tecl Hungary to tr inr b:rck evcn l l rore thoronghlv theireedonr of t l -rought of thosc rvl-ro think lor thcnrselves, to h:rve the bo,v scoutss ing ar t i f ic ia l songs, to create a b looc l less i r redent is rn , to ccnsor the cat : rk rguc, r f t h e p r r b l i c I i b r , r r i e s . ' '

\ l t i r icz rvould have been attacked sinrply for sayine this nruch, but he rvent furt l-rer.

\ lor icz wrote that the Htrngarian yol l th of Czechoslov:rki:r rvho (r-rnl ike their

: . .rrcnts) had learned the S1:rvic state 1:urgLl:rqe hacJ been

conipel led to develop a r)c\\ ' typc of Hunqariar) orl t of thenrsclvcs, a nroresoc ia l : , rnc l nrore cu l turec l Hungar i . t r t . A nrore European Ht t t tqar ian. [ . . . ] Thc,vno lonqcr say thcrc is no l i fe or-rtsrcle of Hunq:rrr ' , or th:rt i f t l -rcre is l i fe. i t is nol i fc. Thcy sce that there is a nrore intel l iscnt ancl hunranc l i lc bcvoncl the rvorlcJoF Hur tq . t r i : t l t r . t '

\1 ( r r icz w: rs borrowing s losans youns Hungar ian c i t izens of Czechos lovak ia used

rnrons t l - renrse lves, re f lec t ing the i r be l ie f in the i r superhunran ab i l i ty to re fornr the

i 'n t i re nat ion f ronr the i r pr iv i leged pos i t ion outs ide Huneary. ts These ideas, openly

. ' rpressed, inrp l ic i t ly cha l leneed the be l ie f in Hungary that e thn ic Hunqar ians

. 'o t r ld not poss ib ly bear l i fe outs ide the nrother land.

M6r icz 's suggest ion that so l l re Hunq: i r i : rns in Czechos lovak ia were thr iv inq rvas

.cen by l l1any in Hungary as nat ion: r l t re2 lson. M6r icz re jected the acct rs : r t ion that

hc had c la in iec l that ' the Hur- rgar ians of Czechos lovak ia and Ronr : rn i l c ruov J n lore

hunrane l i fe than they clo here'. To the rhetoric:r l cluestion '-Whv

cJoes i t hurt M(rr icz

rh. r t t l - re bov scouts s inq pat r io t ic songs? ' Mor icz rcspondcd:

I t does not h l r r t Mt i r icz . What hur ts is lvhr r t a Hunqar i rn bov f i 'onr S lovcnsko

[ .s ic l sa id to nrc - ' l l skcc l the bov scouts [ f r 'onr Hunuarv l r l 'hv thev j t rs t s inuar t i f lc ia l songs? l )on ' t yon knorv Hungar ian fb lk songs? IJec:urse thet 's u ,hat rvcsinc rvith the peasarrt lacls.

'We learn t l ' reir songs :rncl te:rch thenr ncw tLlncs vou

st:e, peasar)t songs that thev clon't knorv. Ancl they tolcl nrc thev rveren't :r l lolveclto s inq anvth ins th : r t 's l ro t in the scor , r t book. ' - That hur ts .n4

48 Enrc BEcrEr r -WEavEn

M6ricz concluded by saying that drastic changes were needed in rump Hungaryto save the Hungarians from extinction, and to make a new type of Hungarian. Itseerns probable that M6rrcz got his ideas from Czechoslovak Hungarians, for theyseem to have been very confident about the role they could play in Flungariannational l i fe. A Hungarian scout leader from Slovakia boasted:

The soil of Slovakia is, practically speaking, the hr-rmus of Hungarian culture

[...] Slovakia's Hungarians are more European than those in Hungary t I TheseIndo-German [-sic] Hungarians of Slovakia are by no rneans brighter than thosein Hungary but [ .] i f Hungarian culture should wither anywhere it might bebrought back to its feet with a transfusion of blood from the uniqr-re Hungariannr icro-cosrnos l iv ing in Slovakia.o5

M6rrcz, who had become the most popular author among young Hungarians inSlovakia, calmed his crit ics in Hungary by making his views on Trianon, andthe role of Hungarian nrinorit ies, clear: '-W'e must call into being a nation ofconstructive Hungarians, and put them to work so that this nation can attack againfronr the ruins ' .86

In a similar turn, in r935, the author Laszl6 N6rneth published a travelogue ofhis visit to Hungarian communities in Romania. In it he mentioned the powerand dynamism of the Romanians and the fading away of the Hungarians there.nTN6meth was roundly crit icized for daring to suggest that the Hungarian nation wasweak in Transylvania. A Calvinist Bishop from Hungary, Liszl6 Ravasz, decriedN6meth's inabil ity to see the depth and strength of Hungarians' thousand-year-oldroots in Romania. Instead, according to Ravasz, N6meth 'wailed out a bitter cry:being Hungar ian means death' .E8

People such as Makkai, who had served as a Senator in Bucharest, provided livingproof that N6meth was wrong. So the scandal only erew when Makkai added hisvoice to N6meth's. Makkai had moved to Budapest that very year, rg35, out offear that he would be arrested by the Romanian police who had iearned - fromMakkai's nrother-in-law - that he was an agent of the Hungarian government.seln exile, Makkai wrote an article called ' l t 's not Possible' (Nem lehet), declaring thatit was impossible to l ive as a Hungarian nrinority, and simultaneously impossible forHungarians in Hungary to survive in Trianon's borders.eo A Transylvanianist wroteMakkai that he had read the articie 'with deathly terror in my heart [...] and as Iread it, the only thing that ran through my mind was: how many new enrigrationsto Hungary can an article l ike this cause!'et The author of the 'w'orm' poem, SindorRem6nyik, responded more simply with an article called ' l t is possible, because wentust'.9'

* * * * *

Although conditions differed for rninorit ies l iving in Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia,and Romania, in nlany ways the problems the Hungarian government facedin r-ipholding the hope for boundary revision amongst Hungarians abroad wereuniversal to all the successor countries. But authorit ies in Budapest were caughtin their own misconception of the effects of oppression. Hungary's traditionalassimilationist policies and an unwill ingness to accept that many non-Hungarians

hacl r,velconrecl Tt ' t . i : .

.ruthori t ies i tr 13tt.1.r1' . '

t o i nc rease H t tnq . r r t . r :

r ( r - los incrc ; rsc . . l t i ' . r r ' . :

that the nuurber i o f - I

t 9 ro , when the l . r ' t I

f here wcre ' ( l - i . I ( r l 1 r . " .

. r r rd t o4. ( r_5 l { tcu c t ' t r :

l I r v e t ] t l I t o t t . ' : .

I i . e . C z e c l ] ( ) ' l t r ' , ,

and s istcrs . ] r 'e i

i n te res t the re r r ' .

M o r i c z a n d N e n r e t l r

Hungar ians in thc \

ren ta ined were q r ( ) \ \

though not as \ \ ' .1\ r - ' \

s ; lnre, only the ic lc . r . r

1937 a c r i t i c o f qovc r

I f lve keep on r i r :

be ab le to o rq . l l r l

[ i . e . S lovak r . r ]

i n te l l ec tu : i l . ru r , . , :

There was intel lecrrr . ,back to Hungrrrr . r l r r. rnd outside the nrot l :

In this rvay, ;tt lr ' .part of a s ingle conlrs nr inor i t ies did u rrl i terature. Ancl tht ' rcensorship f ronr Hrrr :on the transfer ;urrl r-'n ' r i t ten in the sLlccr ' .

I f one viervs onlrseenr less color.rrf ir l rr . rk ing a la rger r i r - ' r irhat cul tural ly thc n.in diversi ty also . t r ' , ' 'regardless of the 1. , , , r

l ,o l i t i ca l v ieu ' l ' rour r .Jl1 organic rvhole.

M o r i c z w l s r i S l r rlpparent ly n 'or th l r r. rnd decr ied t l - r i : l i r .. r inrs in the nr.rrc l r r ,brought a bourr t i t i r l i '

F IUNc ;an raN MTNORTTTES rN THE lN r rnwan PERroo 49

: : .1 u .c lconred Tr ianon as l iberat ion prec ise ly because of these po i ic ies , b l inded

: ' . : : i to r r t ies in Budapest to the fact that oppress ion in the L i t t le Entente nr ight serve

: , ' :ncrc ; tse Hungar ian nr inor i t ies ' long ine for the i r nro ther land. The censuses of the

. , .r \ increased fears in Budapest that nrinori t ies were assimilat ing, for they sholved

: l : , : r i re numbers o f Hunear ians in ne ighbour ing s ta tes had fa l len dran-ra t ica l ly s ince

- , , . , . n 'hen the las t Hungar ian census had been taken. Accord inq to o l le est i r l r : t te ,

: i : . - ' rc \ \ 'e re 265, t63 fewer Hungar ians in Romania, 35o,4o9 fewer in Czechos lovak i l ,

i : . .1 ro-1,6-5l l ferver in Yugoslavia.e3 Bethlen wrote:

I iu re do not take carc that in Tr : rnsy lvan i : r , in nor thern and southern Hungarv

lr.c. Czechoslovakia :rncl Yugoslavia], the secr-rr i ty of our Hunq:rr ian brothers.rncl sisters are guaranteed, there nrav not be any FIung:rr ians left in rvhosernterest the revision of borders nt i{rht take place.e+

\loricz and N6nreth had touched upon the trvin fears of ofTicial Hunsary - thati { . :nq. t r ians in the successor s ta tes were be ing ass i rn i la ted, and that those r ,vho: ' : :r t . t i t red were growing distant fronr Hungary. Ir-r a way these fears were just i f ied,

: : : , ,uqh t ro t as was expected. The Hungar i : rn language spoken everywhere rvas the- . : : t r - ' . on ly the ideas represented, the concerns outs ide Huneary, seented fore ign. In: / : - r r c r i t ic o f government po l icy worr ied:

If rve keep on r.vi th our pol icy of st ickinq our heacJs in the sand Transylvania rvi l lbc ab le to orgat r ize i ts own independent in te l lec t t ra l l i fe , jus t : rs in the Uplands

l i .e . S lovak ia ] - w i th Czech suppor t - we can a l ready detect syr l lp tonrs o fi r r t c l l ec tua l l t r t ono r r r y . " j

I l . ' rc rvas intel lectual autononry indeed, and the erpression of this antononry canle

i . , . ' k to Hungary through deep and nru l t ip le cont : rc ts between Hung:r r ians ins ide. : . .1 outs ide the mother land.

Irr this way, at least, l i terate Hungarians beyond Hr-rngary's borders rvere st i l l

: ' . , r t o f a s ine le cor l ln run i ty ' . regard less o f s ta te borders . Hungar ian authors l iv ing- r . r t t i t ror i t ies d id wr i te on top ics that had h i ther to been l i t t le knorvn in Hunsar ian- : : r ' r . t t t t re . And they wrote in new tones. But despi te censorsh ip ( inc lud i r re

- r ' :rrorship frorn Hungary), visa requirements (also fronr Hungary), and restr ict ions' : : the t ransfer and exchrr rge of cur rency, there was a very so l id t rade in l i te ra tnre

' . , ,n t ten in the successor s ta tes and sent to F{ungary - and v ice u . r r . .9n

I ione v iews on ly the cu l tura l output created in l i t t le Hungary , the r93os n lay.r ' i 'nr less colourful than the cultural f lowering before the First

-World War. I3r-rt

: ik t r tg a larger v iew - the v iew taken bv rev is ion is ts themselves - one can see: l . r t c t t l tu ra l ly the nat ion was as d iverse and v i ta l as i t had ever been. Th is v i ta l i ty-: : . l i r .ersity also arose frout the inescapable feel ing of unity alnong Hunsarians,:r 'g.trdless of the borders now dividing thenr, or the quite natural cl i f tbrences in

: ' , r1 i11. .1 v iewpoints . In cu l tura l tern ls the Hungar ian conr ln l ln i t ,v s t i l l worked asi : : orqanic whoie .

\ lor icz was r ight. There was l i fe outside the l i t t le motherland, and l i fe quite: l \p. i1stt,1y worth l iving. Conservative and radical revisionists ir-r Hungary feared.:r. l decried this lush diversity, preferr ing a nronochrome unit l ' of thoueht and' i t t ts in the march to re-estab l ish the los t nro ther land. But sep: r ra t ion o f roots had: ' r ( )Lrqht a bount i fu l b lossomine of thought and express ion. A l though the author i t ies

_5o Entc B t ,c ; rn r r WEavEn

in Budapest lray h:rve feared i t , al though i t w:rs apparentlv threateni l lg to t l l l l ty

: i1d rev is ion, th is co lour fu l d ivers i ty in the nat ion: r l nr i l ieu wts the l l los t v ibrant

refutat ion of Triatron.

Notes to Chapter 3

r . An ove rv ieu , : Va lc l i s ( ) . Lun rans . 'A l \ c . r ssc \sn lc l r t , r i t l - r c I ) r csun tcc l F i f t l t ( l o l t t t t t t r I {o l c t l f t hc

6crr1a1 N.r t iopal Minor i t ics of Europc' . in E-r- i , r1, . r in Et t r ( )p(dtr Histor l ' ,5-c/r ' r ' r t ' r i Fror t r t l rc '4rr r r t ra l

Mccr i l .q. r o l ' t l t t Sot t t l t t , r r r Histor icrr l l . r . roci r r l icr l lg ,J, { - tg8g. t t , cc1. bvJtrne K. IJ t r r t t l l l . t l lc l C.r t r t l lVr l W.

Wh i t c (L r r r rhanr . M l ) : Un ive rs in ' l ) r css O f Anrc r i c r r . r t 196 ) . pp . l 9 l -1o9 .

z. (1. E. l \ . ( lcdve. Hcirs t t t t l rL 'Hdtsbtu 'g.r (Lonclor t : Arr t t r t 's t r l i t l - r . t93-z) . 1t . t -26 '

3 . E le r t re r Szgc lv , ' pe l r cc i n thc l )anube V . r l l e r " , D , r r t t t l t i , t r r R t ' t ' i t ' t t ' (Auu t rs t I 9 -3 j ) . i - 7 (p .Z )

-1 . Spccch < t f : 8 May r<11(> , Doc t tn t ( ,n t s 0n In t ( ' n t t l t i ( )nd l , 1 .1 ' l a i r s l g . ;6 (Lo r ldo r r : ( ) x fb r t l Un ivc rs i tV l ) r css .

r937) , pp . 3 : f i - . 38 (p . . t . t s ) . ( l f - . l ) . r r i r r v i ' s spee-ch . : r ( ) c tobe l r9 -16 . i b id . . pp . i 3s - -19

-5 . l {epor t ep the co l \ , e rs l l t i on be ts ' cen K ju rv l t r t t t d Mt t ss t t l rn i o i :o ( ) c tobc l ' I 9 - l+ . i r t . - l I l i l , t : : t r

C/riqr /. i

k , i ban ) rq l z_ rq . t6 , cc l . b r ' ( i v t i r -g ,v l { c t i ( l } udapcs t : F i sc l - re r ( l v i i r g r ' . : oo -3 ) . pp ' - r , : , - r : . 1 (p . : : 3 ) .

6. ( ) l r iqrr l )9p i1 ,4dL,r ,cr t r l , : l J t r ly ' 193-1. as qLlotccl in - \ , f , tq1 ' , r1 'Ki-st ' | | . , t iq . l ( r Atrq. I93- l ' pp.- l7f i f to (p.+Zq).

7. In Hglqrrr i r r r r : 'Lcszck i j r l ( j szg rz ic lcqe n f ib: rn ' , pr , rb l ishccl in l {cr t rcnvik 's I r igt ' , i r i t ' t ' r . r r ' f r

(Buc lapcs t : I {e r t csz , f i r zse t . r9 r f i - : r ) .

t i . Lr ' rsz i ( r I {avrrsz, . \ Iqqdrrrr t i l ( l )cbrccer i : ( l< letr . ts Si l rozi t t . 1r . ,1-11). p. . t . i .

9. Ninclor l l i rd i , " 'A l {c let i Akci( t " : A rOnrhni l i i nraq\ ' : r r intcztr rcr lvck ar lVrt t l rszr tg i t r t r l togat isrr r rz

r92o-1s [ . r ,ckben' , in - \ l rgyarur i .q kutnr , is 1gg5-g6. cc] . b i , 'L : isz l6 l ) i i rszcgi ( l ]uc l lpest : Telcki L i isz l<r

A lap i t r , r i nv , t 996 ) , pp . r .+3 9o (csp . p . r t i r ) .

ro. See thc c locurpel t 'A Tr i rsrrc la lnr i Szc' rvczetek Kozport t j r inak I93: / - l l . 6r ' i k i i l tscgl 'c tL lse ' (Aug.

r93:) , in Nlnclor l l i rc l i . ' l ratok i t bLrc l ; lpcst i kornrr i t tvz. t tok hat i t ro l t t i r l i n l r igVirrok: l t t i t r l r t lqrr r t l

te v6kcnvs6g6r( i l ' , , \1r1g' r r r . Ki -sc1; | . i1 'g. nc\ \ ' ser . 1:oo: /+) . S-3-r( r6 (pp r : '=27) '

r r . F iqr-r res f }o1r ( ] t rsztr rv ( l ratz, Thc Hrrrqq, t r i ( ln L i (ot t ( ) t r r ic YL' , t rbt tofr (Lor lc lon: Sin lpki r l Mlrshal l '

r 939 ) , pp . t . 1 -5 anc l t 49 .

rz, .Vct ls o iEestcr l t Act ior t rcports at OL unclcr Pro77, E.r tc l re lJrr r . rbr is ar lc- l t l thcrs,- lc lL ' t t t t is r l "Kt '1t ' I i

Acr io" . . . Iv i nr i ik i ;d{s(r , i l .

r3. l l i r rc l i , 'Thrsacla lnr i Szcrvezctek ' , p. f i ,3.

r4. Szt i l l i i to 13trc lapest , l )cc. r93r, in Doktnrrctr t t l r rok rr : On:, iqo-r Kcrc- i : ' I l l1 , - ' ' : t r r ' i r t l i - r r r l P, i r t t t i r t ( r r t t t : l t t ' : ,

cc ' l . b , v B61a Angya l ( l ) t rnqsk r i S t reda - Sanro r in : L r l i i un r Aur t t t r r . : oo4 ) . pp . +o r -o i (p 4o : )( l zechos lo r . ' : r k po l i cc repor t , 3o Oc tobc r - t93 l , i b id . . pp - -399-+o t .

r_5 . Czechos lov rk po l i ce r cpo r t s r rnc l Hungr r r i an so r . ' . c locs , i b i c l . , pp .4o f i - r5 .

r6 . I )an ie l E . M i l l c r . ' ( l o lon iz ins the Hr :ng r r r i an r rnc l ( i e rn ra r t l l o rc le r A rc r rs t l t r r i ns thc ( l zccho-

s l< rvak La ld I { c f i> rn r , l 9 r8 - r93 f i ' , , 4 t t s t r i (1 t t H is to r l , } ' i ' r l r ' 60o4 ,3 .1 ( :oo3) , l 03 -17 : I { r r r l ko M.

I l rashrch, Ltr rd Rclbr l t i1( l ( )utncrshi l t i r t l i tqrr .s / r l t , i r t , 1g1q_ tg5- l (Ncr. r ' York: Mlc l -Etrropcrt t l St t tc i ics

Ccl ter , t9- j4) , pp. 2: t -43; l )avic l Mi t ranv, Tht Lt t r t l (1nd P( ' (1s( l t t t i r r Rt t r t rar t i t t : T l rc l l 'hr urd '4.grar i , t t r

Rc. fbrnr , rg17, tg2t (Lonclon: ( ) r fbrd (Jnivers i tv I ) ress, l93o), pa-r-s i r r r ; At t i l r r Sinrot t , 'Lcsionrt r i r - rs

te lepi t6sek l )6]-sz lovik i i rban a k6t h ibor i r kozot t i ic l i iszakban' , S--r i :ar loA, I3 l l .6 ( :oo4), t16t-8o;

Lisz l6 l \chik, , ,1 k i -sc| | - i11gt ,k _ lu,qos: l , i r t i t ib tn, t r iu)s. b,v J. Kol l tn (Novi Sr. l : Fort t t r ) . l9r)7) . pp.

r - t2 - -54 , anc l r ,5 ( r - ( r r ; ; rnc l repor t on Yr . tgos lav ia s iq r tec l ' l ) r V i t cz Kov ich E le rn6 r ' , 7 Ma ,v r9 .1 t '

Huns:rr ian N:t t ional Archives (C)L) K : ' f i t ( r3 cs. f7 l t .

r7. Nic i ro las IMik16sl Mor icz, Tl r t ,Ft t t t 'o f t l tc Tyarrs)) l t , t ln idn Str i / ; I Br i tJ 'Atcorrrr t o. l ' t l tc Rorr t r t t r i t r r Larr t l

Rc l i t r rn o - f t qz r (Buc ' l apes t : T1 ' re Soc ie tv fo r T r : i nsv l v r rn i . r r I l t t t r r i s r r t t t \ . I 93+) .O f . La jos S te i c r ,

L,cqquyal t i ,qutr{ : Obcrulgdm untcr tsc l t t 'c l r isc l tcr Hcrrschi t - f i (Viennrt : At l t r r l t } re:r , t<1: '9) . pp- .153 96;

I ) ionvs I l )6nes] Sebess, Dic A,qrdrprr l i t iA Ncrr-Ruurdt t i t ' t ts i r r Si i l t ' r tbr i r .gcrr ( l ]udapcst : l )optr l ; r r

L i terary Socicty, rgzr) , p. r68; Elcnr6rJakabffy ancl ( iy i r rg,v I )111, A b, i r rs, i .q i t t t (1.q))dt 's( i ,q h i ls : i l t

Rotn, i r r i i l tarr , tgtS- tg.1E ( I luc lapest : St t rd i r - r t r r , I939), pp. 196-213; Lajos Kot is , 'A f i j lc l refbnrr

( lsc i rsz lovi rk i lban' , Cotrdolot , r . ,1 (Ma,v I935), :96-1ot ; Inrre I ) rokopv, A . i r t .qos:- l , iu t t ,gr t i r r t ' l i t r r r t ,

offprint r>f l,Io,gyar Kisc66-t119 (Lugq, t933).

r8. Zel jko l3. le l jac and Vesn:r Luki i - , 'Misrat ions on the Tcrr i torv of Vojvocl i t ta bcf iveetr t9t9 : rncl

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Fiqt t rc ot t Kosc>vcl f rorr i Krr t iq 'c 1to1t is , r S{/ . ( )n n 'ht ' Htrngrrr ians \ \ 'crc l l lovcr l , see : Fcrcnc Mirk.'Thc I c le t l l oq i ce l l 3 ias o f the Sou the r t t S lav As ra r ian l l c f i r rn r . r9 r9 r9 -1 r ' . i n Hr r r1q t r i u t , \ l i r ro r i t i t , s

t r rL l Ctr t t r t t l Eur( tp( ' : Rt 'g io l , l / i -s t t t , , \ ' , l r io la l t r td Rt ' l i ,q i t t t ts l t l t ' r r t i t1, , ed. b l .Fcrcpc ( icrcbep ( l ) i l rscsebr i :I ) iznr in,v Pi ' t6r Univers i rv, :oo-u), pp. - :49-(r-5 (p : ' - ; , ; ) ( )n Sourh Slav nr isrur)rs ro volvot l ina, sec:Er r i k i j Sa .1 t i , H r r r rg ( t t ' i d t t s i r t t l t c I i t i t , od i t t , r t g tE_ tqq7 (BoLr l c le r - , CO: Soc ie l Sc icnce Monographs .:oo j ) , pp . r68 - ( r9 .Scc: Inrre Mikr i , Ht ts. r t t rk t t t t r , : ,4: t , rdt :11, i r / r r l { ) , r / i - r r i { pol i t ikai t i i r t t : r rct t tgt , \ . dt , t . t . - t , i l r f )+t t . ( / lq . - l ( ) - iq' r9+r; rcpr. cc l r r Buci : rpest : ( )pt int r . rur , rgf i f i ) , pp. l3-3, j ; r rncl Sr inclor lJ i r ( t . ' l 'hc \ ' , l r i r r l , r / i r i r ,s pro! i lurrr t r T ru r rsy lu l t r r i t tE67- tq r ro ( [ ] ou l c l c r , ( l ( ) : Soc ra i Sc icncc Mouosraphs , r99 : ) . pp . - jN . l -91 .I -he YLtgoslav census rccorc lcc l onlv nt<t thr ' r to l tqLlc rncl f r r i th. Kr i i iq ' r , y toprs,r SR/ rggr; , \ r rc i t r r r r r l r r i

r , i . i f r r I i s t ( t t t o t ) t t i i I t ) d B IH tqq t , H ruL r t skc tqq t , - l r t . qos l t r r l c tq -z r tqEz , ( ] l ) c t l n ( l ] e lg r i l c l c : S : rvez r r iz . r voc l z r l s ta t i s t i ku , r99 f i ) .5. r1tr puts t l lc t t t t t r tbe r of Huttg l r r ians i r r Vojr , 'or l ina in r9-3 r at - l6f i ,6:16 , tn Ht t r rg, t t ' i , r r rs i t t I b iyodi t t , t .p . e .J.rr ros ( ls t rk. t . A dt ly i t l t :k i r r ra.q7, ,1y; , i ,qt t i r t t t r rL, t t ' ( l luc l . rpesr: l r t isk i . r99- j ) , pp. -+o, i r r .S . r j t r , H l l qq 'a r id t t s i r t l . : o i t , t t d i t t , t , p . l . l , n . - l t ; anc l c . r c l . . ' Thc

Forn rc r " sou th lenc ls " i n Sc rb i . r :rg r f i - t 9 '17 ' ,

' l ' h t ,Hn t t .q t r i t t r r ( )ua r te r ' l ; r neu ' sc r . . -17 . r f i r (Sp r rnu too ( r ) , r r : . -2 -1 .f l r csc a rc l i ke thc s t t r t t r r t t t es F rcnch . Sco t t , I r i s l r , o r We lsh i r r Eng l i sh : S ; rnc lo r l ) r rpp , .1 l ra r , i ro r r t i t l in t t t .o l / i r r rL ' r t r -c l ip1)-- -1 i - ' ' - i (qcA t i lc t r , r . j : t r9 l<$-r9,1 ' l ' (Vcszp16rrr : Vcszprcl r r r i Ecvptcnr i Kiadr i . t t199).1- t . 79.S.r1t i , Hrr l .gt l t , i tutS i t t l . . i t iyodir t , r . p. I j3 .I b r d . . p . r - s r .Eekharc l t , Hur lg r r r v ' s r cp rescn t r r t i ve e t thc L .e r rg t r c o i Na t ions , r cca l l cd th l r t t hc c rp r r l s ions' . l . t t tgerc r t ts l l '

I t c igh tcnec l t l r c tcns ion ' . R t ' c t r /1 t ' c t r r l l . i t t f - ' I - ibor Eck l t t r t l t : R t ,q i r i r / r ' , r t ^ \ l t t rsL , i l l t , (Nc*I r . r r r l . u r \ r L r 5 t \ t r u l g . l l L L . n c u L i l e L C I t s l ( ) l l . t ( ( , 4 ( ) / l ( , a I l ( ) / / . { ( ) I I l l ) O f l : ( R l l t l f d I . . K ( , g l ( - l ( / ( ' r

\ "o rk : Anre r i can Hunsr r r i rn L ib r . r r v anc l H is to r i c r t l Soc ic r r . . , r9 ( r4 ) . p . r t9 ., ry6+) , p . r : ,9 .- , \ t ; t t c t t r e n t b , v S i r J o h n S i n t o t i t o t h e H o l r s c o i ( l o r r r n r c l n s . r r l ) e c . r 9 - 3 . 1 ; c i t c c l A r n o l c l J . T o v n b e e ,

. \ t t l ' r ' ( ' ) / of ' I r r t t ' r r rat i t t r td l Af l i t i rs rg-14 (Lonclon: ( ) r f i r rc l Uni l 'ers in. l ) rcss, rg j i ) . p. - i7a): on rc i rcr ionsr r r t he in te ' r t t a t i< ' r t t . t l p rcss , i b id . , p . -57 .5 . A lso sec : ' l l r i t i sh

l ) t rb l i c ' ( )p in ion r rnc l rhe Erpu ls ions ' .I ) t r r r r l t i a t r RL , t , i c t r , ( l ) cce rnbc r - r93 .1 ) , r r .

. I t t r r c V i rac l v , ' 1 . A lekszandr r r k r r r rh 'n r6 l ta t i r sa ' , K t r l a r t ,q l ,L t ( ( ) c tobc r r934) . o t i g 9o (p .089) .' . I . l r t T i r r r t ' s , t ( r Nove t t rbe r I93 ;1 . A lso sce l J . r l c lo r r i ( l l uc l r rpcs t ) ro Musso l i r r i , l - 5 Novernbc r r9 -3 ,1 ,

11r l r r : : 'o Chi .q i , ed. l l i ' t i , p. -z3f i .: : I ) . r t r r f r -onr Andr; is l { ( lnai , . 'Erc lc lv ne pcss[ .u i v iszonvrr i ' ( rq:q) . ptrb. , \1, lg1,rr i . Ki - i r ,1r1r-sq(, , nc\ \ .

.cr . ( :oo: , /4) , r r r t l \ : . tnd Ar ' ; r r i .1 E. Varga, ITt t t4q,rr i t r r Pol t t t lLr t i t t r t t t - l - ' l ' rdt rs1, l1, in in

l ) ( tu,( : ( , t r tSTotrrd tgq-5, ( )ccasional l )eper I : (13uclapcst : Tcleki Lr ' rsz l ( r Founcl . r r ior t , r t199), t r rb lc, p. _ j l . Arrc l r i rsl Jc rcczk r g i vcs s l i gh t l v c l i f l e rc r t t f l q t r r cs , such l i s h i s to ta l o i r . . 1 : .3 . .159 Hr rnq : r r i l ns i n l {on ran i : r .i r r ' l { o tn l i t t i a r tepcscdesenek he lvze tc a s ta t i sz t i ka i ac la tok t i i k r6ben ' , I : t . d t t l y i . \ l l i l . L , tu t r , t . : . ( t 9<17) .\ f i - 103 ( rab lc . p . 92 ) .

: I ( . . A. Macrrr t t tcV, Hrur,qor l , (1nd l t ( r Srrccr , - i -sor ' -s; T l r t ' ' l i 'cot1, o l ' [ ' r . i t t t torr

arr t l i ts ( :on ' (qu(,n(CS tqtq 1q. j7' [ , onc ]on : Ox fo rd [ Jn i ve rs i t y l ) ress , r937) , p . : 89 .

r . I lc la Ki tpcczi , 'K i tck int6s: Erc le l ,v i r t ja rgrE t r t r i r r ' , tn Erdt i l l , t t i r t t t t rL, t t , r ,9;o- t r i l r r , tp.1,r r r tk i ,q. ecl . by

Zol t ln Szr isz Ivol . n of l : r t l i l ) , t t i r t ( t r t , t t , , cd. I ]c la Kirpeczi l ( l ]urc iapcsr: Akacl( .nr ia i Kiacl i , rgf i ( r ) .

P ' I 7 '+ j '. i S t . i p i r r sk i ( (1111) to

'Wr r rsavu ' , t t Nov . t917 , i n A t t i l . r Se res , 'Masvar

k i scbbs fc cs l epgvc lJrplorrr i rc ia Erc l6 l ,vbcn i r

' - lo-as cvek r , 'csen' , Pr l r J l i r ror i t t tc (Autunrn Wintcr :ooo), : ,o6-r8

Lp. : t l ) . For a c lescr ipt ior i of t l " rc l iq t r ic lat ion of thc ( lenons, sce J/( rq) / ( l1 Ki .sr ' | | - , t iq , 7 Aprt l ry37,pp. :o3-o(r . Cf . Jakabffv ancl Pr i l l , , { b, i t rs , i .q i ntL1,q) , (1t 's( i ,q, pp. r t i r -87.

, Whi le Macartney dclcs not r r rent ion t l " re h iL lher tares charged lgrr inst St- .k lers, he c locs nrent ion() thcr taxcs c ' l i rccted against Hnngar ians. Macrrr tncv, Htr t r ,qtr ) ,dnd Ht ' r srrc ic-s-rorr , pp. - l r r -2, j .

r - Ftgr , r res f ronr t934 in ( )yc i ruy l l< jzocl i , S:r1Acl1, bt in. la (C. lu1, r93f i ; 3rc l cdn, [ ]uc1:rpcst : MEFH()SZ,r9 -13 ) , p . r ( r3 .Tcxt of the larv in Anclr is lJeclecsi , 'N6v joga l lonr in i i rbrur ' , . \ .1/o,111.rp . ( ro ) .

I b i d . , p . ( r r .

This larv u 'as uradc evelr nrorc absurcl by locel of l ic ia ls. Scc,v,rq1,arpp r . r ( r r -62 .

. \ - - r ' r / r / r ' (M , r1 r ( ) .17 ) . i 7 - r ' ) \

Ki-rc1r1l-s1,9 (:o Marcl-r ry37),

5 2 Enrc l ]Ecrprr Wtavnn

4r . Cv t r l a Z r r thu reczk l , , 'Magyar k i sebbs6g l {on r6n i j ban ' , I l qq l , t t r .S : . r , r r r l t , ( Jan . r93 l l ) , 9o -o3 (p .q : ).1: .Jakabfty ' and P6l l , A bt ins is i nt t ts1tay5, i . r , p. I39. See other cases I is ted bv: ( i1,u la Zarhureczky,

'Mauyarok nregf6lenr l i t6se Erci6 ivben' , . l /ag1,nr S:gulc (February r9 j7) . r94-zoo.

4-1. The incic lent w;rs reportecl b.v Stapinski (Cl lu3) to Warsar-" , , r r Nov. rc137. i t t Seres, 'Maqyar

k i sebbseg 6s lengve l d ip lon r . / r c ia ' , p . 2 r3 .

44 . S tap insk i (C lu . ; ) t o W 'a rs : r r v . r9Jan . r93s , i b id . , p .2 r4 .C f . Jakab fTv and P111 , A l t i r r s i . q i p td ,q ) ,d1sh ,g ,pp. r 2r-+7.

q5 . Pcs t i H i r l a l t , 3o Mav r9 l : .

16. Ddily Hcrdld, I[ontirt,q Po-sl, ancl Rcutcrs, T Nov. r932. Cf-. I)udapesti Hirtap,8 Nov. rgjz; ancl reporro f abuse o f Hunsar ian -speakers and a t tacks in I3uchares t ,6 Nov . r932 , : rnc l i n v i l l ascs in I ) cc .I932, i r r Barab: is and others, Jc lcnt ls A "Kclct i Act iLt" 1g- i2/1g- j -J. tu i rn i ik i i t l (s&| t , pp. r9-zo a1d+o-+7.

47 - ( )L KUM K( r ( r z ,3o cs . I -5 la t . , repor t by M iha lv t ) i v id to Bp . f ron r C lu .1 ,4 Apr i l r9 j4 ; anc l OLKUM K66 r934- l / a - r7 . pp . r t tT -262 .

.18. f )at : i on nr-rnrbcrs and percentages of Hungar ians according to the r93o Czechoslovak ccr . rsr_rsrcported b,v L isz l6 ( iyurgyik, Cl tan{es i r t t l tc Durro.gr t tp l t i t , Set t l t , r t rut t aud Socia/ Srr lc t r r r t , ; ,1 t f icHui l .qar i ( t t t XI i r ror i t l , i r r (C:c&tt - )Slouaki t t bt ' t r t ,ccrr tgtE_tggE, Occasional Papcr r3, Teleki L lsz l i rFounda t ion ( l 3udapes t : Te lek i L l sz l6 Foundar ion , r999) , p . 3g .

49. Clytr la Pop6lv, 'Maqvar n6piskola i oktat : ' rs Csehszlovakr: iban (r9r l t -1938) ' , in - \ , I ( rq) / ; i1s i ,qkutLt t t is

1gg0-tqq1: ,4 ) Iagyay5o,gkutr t t t i Int { :c t 1 i1,p;111y1t1, , ccJ. bv ClvulaJuhisz (Bud:rpest : A Macvarsiekut i rI n rcze t . r99 r ) , pp . 4 r - - j . 1 (p - ; r ) .

-5o. Orvcn V. Johnson, Sl t tuaki t r r9t6_tq- |6: Edtrct t t i t t r r dt r t l t l t t , ) lak in.q o l -a \n l ion ( l loulc lcr , CC): ElstEtrropcan Monour i rphs, r9! i -5) , p. 176.

-5t . See thc t ic lv st l l l l r l larv of abr, rse in: A Masvar Stat iszt ikai T i rsasie Al l : rnr tuclonr i rnvi Int6zete, I. f -c l t id(k i nt(1.q) , ( t rs( i .q h i ls : (uc tqtS_tg_1d (13udapest : Eqvercrnr i nvonrda, r93g), pa.s-s i r r . ( )n c l iscr inrr_Irat i t r t r see Stc ier , L lngams L'crcert ,a l t |qulq, i r r schools pp. u89-4o(r , : rsainst chr-r rches pp. , l42 ,52,ancl in l r rncl refcrrnr pp. 4-53-9(r .

-i:- Oclijrr T.rrj/rrr. T-ht LVa1,s of C:cclroslottdkitt ontl its IIo,q1,ar ),l irtorit), (Iluc'lapest: Odon T.rrj in, n.d.).-53. ( ) r ibor lJ i r tonvi . Br i t , t i t r t t r rd Cerr t r , t l Lt ropt , tgrE_t9.1- t (C)xford: ( l larenclon, 1999), p. 2r3.s4. Sec report of t9 At te. I9 j7 f rorrr the consul in Brat is lav:r , in l laqyr l r .oA Ai-scl l . i1 ,q l tL,r r ls s: t5r t , , i r r ) ,btr r t :

'-1 .\1,rq1tri ' ^\l irt is:tcrelnoft-s1'g \i 'rrr--cri-ittgi l-i Ki-sc/l1r-s(,qi Os.t,i ly,itrdk li ltt,q,tttttt iratni jgtg' 1q1J, ed. bvIsnr ic l {onrs ics atrc l others ( l }udapcst : Teleki L isz l6 Alapirv inr . . r99_j) , pp. ( r r - ( r : .

-s , i . Scc thc spccch in t l - re ( lzechoslovak par l i : rnrent i ronr r934 b1,- MP K;1rolv Hokkv i r r l ratok t tk i rp, i ta l . ld i / i r r tO/r lsr i ( t t i r t / r r t ' t ihe: tgt6- t9qq, ed. bt ' Cls i l la Feci i lec (Sa1ror i1: L i l l igpr Auru.r ,2 o o 4 ) . p p . 3 + r - + r .

56. Se e : Erv in l )ant lenvi , A Horth l , -korr . . -aA t , t i lds: t t is i l r i -s-s--- , l t l f t t -sc i ( l ludepest : Hazaf ias Ncpf i -ont , r95f t ) ,p ._Sar , ; rnc l ; . , , r - r - r i r r r . C l f . L i sz lo Hubar , 'Vo te rs and Sr . r f t rage in Hungarv ( r9 :o - t917) ' , anc i K i t ro l vIcnlcz. ' l ) t ls 'er Tools fbr "Clorrect ins" the Wi l l of t i re Voters ' , in Rcgi l l t , -s t t r r t l Trarrs l i t r r r r t r t ior ts:Ht t r t {dr ' , ' i t r t l t t ' Trrcrr t i t ' th Ot ' r r tur1, , ed. b,v Istvr in Fei t l and I la l : izs Sipos (Budapt:st : Napvr l ig,2ooJ), pp. I9--13 : rncl 4,5-7o; rnd Gvorgy Bors: iny i , 'Vals lg

cs valaszr i rs - r93 t ' , in por. lnrrrL,r t t ik(puiseltiu,i lrr-s--fri-rofr tq2()-tqq0, cd. by (iyorg.v Foldcs and L:iszici Hr-rbai (13r_rclapest: p.iri jrt. I ' t.,r99+) , pp . t29 -17 .

57. This lcd to a l ivc lv t r rc le i r t c l r rnclcst inc books. Sec: Inrrc Csc16pfalv i , Eqy pi i111,ypi61l( - l i , l . jc .qy: t tsc i(Budapes t : Gondo la r . rg f i : ) . i r . : o ,5 .

- s l l . One c r i t i c ca l l cc l n ren rbc rs o i t l r e soc ie t \ . ' t r a i to rs ' t o Hr . rngary : Lqos S te ie r , ,Magvar Masar l , k_

ak:rd6nr i i r ' , Ma,q1,ar S:r ' r r r1t , (Fcbnrarv r9 j : ) , r 7( t 87.;9. Even prot l r i l rent f igr- r res, st tch as ( luszt : rv Clratz and Elern6r Hantos, receivecl rvrrrn ings. See:

lct ter of r3 C)ctober I9 i3 to Kirnvrr . ( )L KUM K(r(r : r -2, cs. I -5 l : r r . . r r 34+09 / tg1 a,nd 3q3(tz/ : .47.For a cr i t ique of the 6nr iqr6s. see: Elenrcr Malyusz.

' fht , Fu,qi t iuc Bolshcuiks (Londor-r : ( ; .

l { i cha rds , r93 r ) . Fo r l ' o rc s , v 'pa t i re t i c desc r ip t i . ' s , sec : Lec - co rgc lo r , 'T r ia ro . a rc l t hc E ' r i g r6Irrtellccttlals', in E.s-sa;,s ort Wtrltl lfttr I:

' ftttal Lfttr attd Ptttr:t,rrrakin,q, a Casc Stutly 0n Triottott, ec1. by

l le la K. Kir l ly , Peter Pastor , and Ivan Sanders ( l l rooklvn: Socia l Scicnce Monouraphs, rg l lz) , pp.-39r-4o6. id. , Er i l t ,and St tc i t t l Thou,qht : Hurr{ t t r i t t r t I r r rc l lcr t r r t t ls i r r ( } t , rnranl t urd Austr i r r (pr inccton,NJ : I ) r i r r cc t i t n LJn ive rs i t y P ress , r99 r ) , p . z r4 ; :u t c i ( i 1 ,o rgv L i r v i rn , A ' l i uu r t i c th -Ot , t t t t r r1 , p ro l thL , t :O. ic, r i 'J , i .s : i tE7_5-rg_57 ( Isuclapest : CIEU l ) rcss, :oo(r) , pp. 123-24.

6 o . S e e t h e c o n r p l . r r n :Adu ise rs o f [ ' . . \ . 1 ) : :P ress , 2oo3) . f r . i + , ' , .i n UZhorod (Hur i Lmcnor ies o f : i H r r r : -(Budapes t : Kossur l r

6 r . C ) L K U M K r o r r r , r -i r r Eu rop t t , i g i+ - rL ) i .

( r z . I b id . , pp 6 f f . Fo r . , : .Spy : Advcn l r r r r , - i , r / , . , . . '

( r3. Gyula I l ly6s. 'A I . . . : : .

( r ,1. Reported in . \1, iq; . ; 'u t t i t le t lnek d t tk tu r t , t t : : '

( r -5 . Kov ics ' s a r t i c l c s . , .

-f-elj e.qy z isei, pp. I r j66 . Imre Kov ics . - - { . \ 1 . ; '67. ( )eza F6ja, 'Tal ; i ik , , , '

A Mirc iusi Frrr l t r lJ . : -r r X . F o r M l f o l c ' s r ' t . r r - : : . _

the wr i te rs \ \ ' c r c r r r , it ransc r ip r JS . - l r r r r r ; ;pe re , ed . by Zo l r i r : '

the fu l l text c leLr. r r r .C)rsziggii16s, r 9-r j- j

69 . P ro tes ts f ron r H t i r : , - ,szabad ' , Vd lds : . t c

7o. Macartr - rey fe l t rht ' .

Hungary 192g- tg l .< . :- l . S r l a n r o n , ' 4 . \ / , r l r : ,

7 : . V i k to r Thonrk . r . ' f : _

I s t v in Sze i i , , , 1 / i / . i i , . ;

73. For exarnple:- f r ino, t )

X,[a.qyar S.:clrlc. \ 1.rrkozo t t? ' . .Va1 ; , r r - ' , ,

( B u d a p e s t : P . r l l . r . . , . -

74. Stephen f ls tv ln] I ] . ' :r%+) , 3 ( t t -77 . On lRonr in i l b : rn ' . i r r I 1 : :r , 9 * 6 o ( p p . r r - r : :Triantttt (s a rrrqql,,tt : .pp . 46 -74 . ( l f . \ 1 . { . ,

- s . O r r K o s ' s l c c l i r ) g . r r - ,Zeid ler (Br, rc lapc' t : t t

- r , . K t t s (C l t r .1 ) to K . i r - , , .( t g z q - 4 q ) . : r o l r . t . . :M6r ia Berdc to \1 . i r , . ,r93 r , in Kr i -s K, in,1)

' , r

77 . Sce : ( ] vu la Szck t i i . i( p . z t to ) ; co r - r csp ( )n ! : iSzemle kr j r i i l ' : . rn. i . /Sz6 rn i ves C6h ' . 5 : . ; : ;

; l i . S i n d o r M a k k a r . ' H , ' .

u i t i . ja , ed. bv Pl tcr (-9 . Gyu la Szek f f i . ' \ 1 . ' : : .

Clseke and ly lo ln i r . : . :

HuNcan raN MTNORTTTES iN THE IN rERwan PEnro r { ?

' , - , . See the conrpla int about cornrnunist propaganda f ronr Czechoslovakia in Di-srrr -s- i i i l .g Hi t ler :

. l .duisers qf U.S. Diplomacy in Central Europe lq i l - l9q1, ed. by Tibor Frank (Budapest : CEU

Press, zoo3), p. r16; and report of r938 f ronr a consul in Brat is lava on cronrr l r r - rn ist Hungar ians

in Uihorod (Hun. Ungvir) , rn Magl ,ayl tk k isebbs(qben, ed. by Rornsics and others, pp. (13-69. For

rrrenror ies of a Hunsar ian communist f ronr Czechoslovakia, see: Sindor Nogr id i , Emltkeimb( i l

(Budapest : Kossuth, 196r) , pp. 70-98 and ( t r -7( t ., ' r . C)L KUM KroT 16r cs. XI I lCl t . Cf . Andrea Orzof f , Bat t le . for the Cast le: Tl rc M), th of Czccl toslovakid

i t t Eurt tpe, tgt4- t9 j8 (New York: Oxford lJnivers i ty Press, 2oo9), passim.' , : . Ib id. , pp.6f f . Foran exanlple, see the fanci fu l : Nicholas Snorvden [Mik los Sol t6szl , t r [cnrc i rs t t f a

Spy: Adventures along the Edstern Frt tnts (Nerv York: Char les Scr ibner 's Sons, r934), pp. 270-33o.' ' ; . Gyula I l ly6s, 'A bet i l tot t Pet6f i ' , Ix iyu.qar 3o.3 (r937), 238.. , -1. Reportedrn Magydr l {ap, zu February 1937, repr. inJdf 1 i )n e l a tc orsziQod.. . (Peto- f i Sindor pol i t ikai

t t t t l ( le t fuek dt tkumentumaih1l) , ed. by Istv in Marg6csy (Budapest : Szabad T6r, r988), pp. r84-85., 's . Kov6cs's ar t ic le was publ ished in Magyarsig ( ro Jan. r938). See: Cser6pfalv i , Eg), k i tuyvkidd( i

ti ' l j egy ztsei, pp. 2 | 3-r 4., , / r . Inrre Kovlcs, A Mdrciusi Frol t (New Brunswick, NJ: Magyar Orcgdiak Szovets6g, r98o), p.++., , - . G6za F6ja, 'Tal l lkoz6som

Clonrbos Gyul ival ' , Magyarorszl .g, 7 Nov. r937; c i ted Konr id Salarnon,

,4 Mdrciusi Front ( tsudapest : Akad6nr ia i Kiad6, r98o), p. ro9.' ' \ . Fo r Ma to l csy ' fa r - r i gh t 'was h igh p ra i se . In h i s speech he a l so fu r ious ly p ro tes ted tha t he and

the wr i ters were not lackeys of the Jews. Par l iamentary debate, 3 Nov. 1937, pub. wi th t r ia l

transcript as A ntma -f<trradalttnr a bir6sig (s a parlament el6tt: Kovics lmre izpatdsi (s nernzet,gyalizdsi

pere, ed. by ZokSn Szab6 (Budapest : Szolgl lat 6s I r is Munkist i rsasig, r%7), pp. 9 j -96. For

the full text debate, see: ,4.: tgj5. tui Orszigg\,fi lfu Ktpvisel(ihdzdnak naplt5.jd, zt vols (Budapest:

Orsziggi i l6s, r93 j -39), xv, zz6-29 and 236-38.

Protests f rom Hungar ians in Romania and Czechoslovakia were publ ished in: 'Hazudni nenr

szabad', Vdlasz, ro (1937); and 'Antirevizt6s fegyver', Vdlas:, rz (tq7).

Macartney felt the sentence was rather lenient. See his Octobcr Fil icenth: A History ttf Modern

Hun,gdry 1929-1945, z vols (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univers i ty Press, r9_56), r , r84.

Salanron, A Mdrciusi Fr t tnt , pp. 94-ro9 (esp. p. ro7).

Viktor Thomka, 'Egy al -c lunai sz6kely kozs6g szociogr i f i i la ' , Tcstutr is{g,6 July 1939; c i ted

Istv ln Szeh, A mdgydr kul t i l rd i l t i t tJugos: l iu i ibtur (Bud:rpest : Kossuth, r983), p. zr .- - i . For exanrple:J inos Olvedi ,

'A szlovensk6i iU nraqyar gener lc io: A Sar i6t6 l a Proh6szka-korokig ' ,

) ' [agyar Szent le, May r93,5, +7-57; BenedekJancs6, 'Van-e szakadis az i t thoni 6s az erd6ly i l6 lek

kozott?', Maoyar Szemlc, Aug. 1928, z8g-gg; and Lajos Gyorgy, Az erd(lyi magydrsig szclluni (lctc

(Budapest : Pal las, ry26).- -1. Stephen [stv ln] Bethlen, 'The Transylvanian Problenr ' , Internat i t tnal Af fa i rs, r3.3 (May-Jr-rne

r93+), 36r-77. C)n Transylvanianism, sec: Eva Zlhony, 'A nragyar k isebbs6gi 6 let kezdete

Rom6ni lban' , in Hi te l , z vols, ed. by 'b. . Zenony (BLrdapest : Bethlen Gibor Konyvkiado, r99r) ,

r , 9 - 6 o ( p p . r r - r 3 ) ; a n d P i r o s k a B a l o g h , ' T r a n s z i l v a n i z n r u s : R e v i 6 v a g y r e g i o n a l i z n r u s ? ' , i n

Tr idnon is a magyar pol i t ikai .qondolkodds 1920-1951, ed. by Ignic Ronrsics (Budapest : C)s i r is , I998),

pp. 156-74. Cf. Macartnev, Hungary and hcr Srrrrc-s-sor-s, p. 339.- i . On K6s's feel ings about Tr ianon, see his 'Ki11t6 sz6' (ClLg, t9z. t ) , repr. in Tr iant t r r , ec1. bv Mik16s

Zeidler ( tsudapest : Osir is , zoo3), pp. 498--5o2.-rr. K6s (Cluj) to Klroly Molter, zo May r933, in A Helikon & Az Erdtlyi S:{pn'ivcs Clh lcutltslddild

( tgz+-++) , z vo l s , ed . by I l d i k6 Maros i (Buchares t : K r i t c r i on , 197q , t , 376 -7 , \ (pp .SZ6-17) .C f .

M: i r i a Berde to Makka i , zo Apr i l r933 , i b id . , pp . 37 r -74 ;anc1K6s to V i rg i l l l i e rbauer , zo Marcht93t , in K6s Kdroly levelez(se, ed. by P6ter Sas (Budapest : Mundus, zoo3), pp. z(r8-7: (pp. u ( r9-7o).

- - . See: Ciyula Szekf i i , 'Erd6ly iek 6s le lv ic l6kiek a pest i utc ln ' , XIa,qydr S. :crr lc (Ju11, r934), 279-8t(p. z8o); correspondence between Bethlen : rnd Gonrbos, October r93, t , in Huszir , 'A Magyar

Szenr le kort i l ' ; and Zsuzsa Fr isnyik, 'Az erd6ly i i iz let rn( ikod6se Magt,arorszison: Az Erd6ly i

Sz6rrr ives C6h' , S.-1. :ddt tk, rz6.z. ( tggz), ry3-2or (pp. r8o-f t : ) .- \ . Sindor Makkai , 'H5siess6g' , Buddpest i Hir lap, uo Jan. I93,5; repr. in Ncrr lehet : A Ai-scf6-s l .g i .sor ' -s

v i t i la , ed. by P6ter Clseke and Cluszt iv Molnl r (Budapest : H6t toronv, r9f i9) , pp. 23-27 (p. z: )-9. Gyula Szekf i i ,

'M6gis 6k a h6sok' , Budapcst i Hir ldp, :4 Febmary I93-5; repr. in Ni 'nr /c i rcr , ecJ.

Cseke and Molnl r , pp. z8-3o (p. zq).

- ) .

- t .

- : .

_54 Enr r ; I JEc ;xnr r 'WsavER

go. l )ezsi j Kosztol r inv i to L isz l i r S6n,v i . -5 I )ec. r933, in .1 r r t , t rosl is , i rht ly i KcrntrrT ' Zsi ,qrror td Tr i r ' - i r r - t r i {

lcycl t ,s l , id i j , t : Leut , l t 'k , i rcr t t tk , t tdat t tk ( t676-tqq6). cd. b1' I ld ik(r Marosi ( I lucharcst : I { r i tcr ion. t973),

p . r r 4 .

E t . Zs i sn ronc l M6r i cz , 'Az i roc la lo tn i ' s : r . . f l . 1 i - j c l l cg " ' . N ) ' , {q , t t : ' 1 . -5 ( t931) '

8 : . I b i c l .

f t j . See: Jcp6 Kralyrrcr , .4 . , : ' /opgrr-r : 'k , j i r t t , t .q1, ,1v scrdl i l6k ldk iu i l , i . ,4, t : S: t r r i r i t r - i - . i , - /1. r11iq i , t i t , r r r t r l r t t , i r r l '

(B r :dapcs t : Hav r t ' ( )d i i n . r9 - l j ) ' pp . t6 - : t .

84. Zsig l ropcl M(rr icz, 'A nrr tsvar 161ck v i lsr ' ig : r 6s I t ret t rzct i i rot la lonr kotc iessi 'uc" \ l ' r rg,r t '1 . ( t

( I 93 r . ) -

8s . P l l Szva tk i r i n ,4 . l | i L , r l t r l r k (March r93 r ) . c i t cc lbv I s t i . ' i r n V ig : i s , 'A M i Lap t rnk cs Sc l - r c re r La1os"

rn A rr ra.q1, , r1 1 ' .q31f t11- i : ' r , r . f i t r r , is , r i r t , . i l , ed. by Clr .u l : r Hoclossv ( l ) t rn.r . lskh strecl r t : L i l l iur l r Ar t r t t t l r ' t99, t ) ,

( r5 - r : ( r (p . t t - s ) .

lJ(r . Mirr icz, 'A sr : rsvrr l [ ' lck ' . On M6r icz 's popular i tv , see: Lr isz l i r Mik l i rs Mezcv,

'A "n6pi t r i r isz"

6s az " i r j a rc i r n raqv : r rok " : Ac lv . M i r r i cz cs Szab6 l )ezs i j ha t r t sa Sz love t t szk6n ' ( r9 f i ( r ) . r cp r . i n L -

M. Mczc r ' . S : l t r l c r r . s : ' k t , i Ha l i kon : ' f u r r l r t t L i r r y tLA (13udr rpes t : H t tng : t ro \ ' ox . I 999 ) .pp . i3 -7 t (p sZ )

()p M<ir icz 's t r ips to Czeciroslor . 'ak ia. sce: Kl t lnr : i r t Vargha, 'Acia lc lkok M(rr icz Zsigt t lor lc l

cscl rsz loyi rk i r r i i r t - ja ihoz 6s k.rpcsol . r t r r ihoz ' , I rot lo lornt i i r t t : r t t t . I9 i7/3, -3I3 3(r . ( ) r r t l - re i r t t i rck

r rg r r i ps t M i r r i cz sec Anc i r i s K t rb inv i . 'A v r inneqv i ' k t i n rec i l ' r sa M6r i cz Zs iqn ro t rc l c l l e r t I 93 r -bc r l ' .

I roda lo r r r t i t r t t : r r c t . 3 ( rqs 'Z ) . 137-+J .I t7. Lr isz l< i Ncrnct l - r ,

'Mns\ , : r rok l \onlur l i r ib ' tn ' . l 'nrr i r . -3-4 (193i) ' t t3-8: ' .

l i f i . Lr isz l t i l { r r r ' ; tsz. 'N[ ' r l le th L/rsz l ( r es r lz crc i6 l r ' i t r laqvlrsr is ' . ̂ \1{ l { ) ' {1r S: t ' r r t1c ' Apr i l r t4( t ' 361 6( t

(p iOs) ( )n thc c lcbate. sce: Intre Mot. tostor i , Nr j r r t t ' r / i L, is : l t i 7 '4\ ' { r -kor ' - i : , lA, i t i , lk f r , , r i r I r ' l i . l . lq , r -

d t t t , i s , r ( l l l c l apcs t : Magye t6 , r9 f i 9 ) , pp . r r7 -4 l i ; anc l l )o r t tonkos Sz i i kc . 'A Magvr r r Sze tn l c cs r t z

Erdclr ' -k l rc1[ 's ' . ip ' l ' , t r r r i lu t , i r r1,ok

I : , rdt : l ) , t i i r t ( r rct ( r t i l . ed. bv lsn ' i tn l { : icz ( l )ebrccen: ( ]sokonrt i , lg f i f i ) .

pp. I ( )o-() ( ) .

f i9 . Scc lc t tcrs to Makkl t r [ r< ' t t ' t ' t Z. Vargl of ( t t rnd r3 M.rv 1935, prcplr i r tg fbr h is t r l t lvc to Ht l t lgrr r r '

i p - fg1c . tp \ i , 1 r l t , / r c r . ed . bv Cscke anc l Mo ln r r r . pp . 3 t 37 . ( ) r t Makka i ' s r l ro thc r i t l - l au ' ' scc t l ) c

rcc6 t r l r i r rg o iE .Jakab f f r , " s reco l i cc t i ons in E r , ' r r ( l s . ( l v in i cs i , Hor t r ' , i . q1 ' t l r , t : , i ba r t (B l r c lepes t : l ) cs t r

S z r r l o r r . I 9 9 3 ) , p . r 9 5 .

9o. Srrpr ler M:rkkei . 'Nepr lehet ' . Lt i t l t t t , i r ' . z ( tq l l ) , +9-- i l ; repr. in \ i ' r r r 1t ' l r t ' t . c t l . ( lsekc ar tc l Mol t t r i r '

1 - rp . ro ( r r r (p . I o9 ) .

9 r . l {ep rcn r rk ( ( l l u j ) t o Makk r r i , - : , ( r Fcb r t t r r r y 1937 i r r . ' 1 H t ' l i f r t , r r t i . i . ' ' 1 , : E rd t : l f i .S - - .11 '111 i1 '1 . i l l , l +s -5 .1

( p . ' r o ) .

9 : , . S . l { c l r c r r y i k . ' Lehc t . rne r t ke l1 ' , E l l u t : l k , t 7 Febr r . ra r } , 1937 ; r cp r . N t ' t r t / r ' l r l r . cd . bv ( l scke anc l

Mo l r r ; r r . pp . I : 6 - : f i .

93 . Apc i r c l ' IApdr i s l l l ( r r ra i . A t l as o l OL ' r r t ra l I : r t rop t ( t9+ i ; l r t cs . ec l t r 13 t t c l r tpcs t : I ' } i i sk i , r99 j ) , p . r : 1 .

94. 13ct l r lc l ( ry- l+) t lgotcr l Ignr ' rc I \or t rs ics, Is ty, i r t BL' t l r l t ' r r : A Orc, t t Oorrst ' t ' r 'a t i t ' t 'S/ , t r t ' .sr t l r t r r o l .Htur . t lary,

tETq- t t1$ . r r r l s . by M. I ) . Fenvo ( l 3ou lc le r . ( l ( ) : Soc ie l Sc icncc Mot rou raph , I99 i ) , pp .3 l l l - t 9 .

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