Managing Workplace Conflicts: A Case Study In The City Of Johannesburg

Regenesys etd – Ravhutulu, V (2011)

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MANAGING WORKPLACE CONFLICTS:

A CASE STUDY IN THE CITY OF

JOHANNESBURG

by

VULEDZANI RAVHUTULU

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

MASTER OF PUBLIC MANAGEMENT

At the

Department of Public Management

Regenesys Business School

Johannesburg: South Africa

2011


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DECLARATION

I declare that this dissertation on: ‗Managing Workplace Conflicts: A Case Study in

the City Of Johannesburg‘, submitted to the Regenesys University for the partial

fulfilment of requirements for the degree Masters in Public Management, is my own

work and that it has not been submitted for any degree at any university, nor has it

been submitted as part of the requirements for a degree, except as fully

acknowledged within the text.

Vuledzani Ravhutulu

2011


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I would like to thank God for giving me strength to do this research study. I

would also like to express thanks to all the people who have supported me in

completing this task; colleagues and friends who have always encouraged me to

work hard on accomplishing my goals and finishing the study.

Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Sylvia, and my two beautiful kids, Tsireledzo

and Khalirendwe, for their understanding, support and patience during the period I

was occupied with this study.

May God bless you all.


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ABSTRACT

The primary research objective of this study was to investigate the strategies for

managing workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg, so that appropriate

measures could be suggested to deal effectively with conflict related issues. The

secondary research objectives for this study, all focussed on and concerning

workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg, were: to determine the types of

conflicts occurring; to examine their causes; to establish the impact of workplace

conflicts on workers‘ performance; to assess the procedures for dealing with these

events; and to evaluate the effectiveness of measures for dealing with these

workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg.

The research questions for this study, all focussed on and pertaining to workplace

conflicts in the City of Johannesburg, were as follows:

What are the types of workplace conflicts occurring in the City of

Johannesburg?

What are their causes?

How do these workplace conflicts impact on workers‘ performance in the City

of Johannesburg?

What are the procedures for dealing with these conflicts and are they

appropriate?

Are the measures for dealing with workplace conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg effective?

This study was considered justifiable, in that it was anticipated to lead to a review of

the current approaches to managing workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg.

It was expected that, if such reviews were undertaken, they would lead to the

reduction of workplace conflicts, along with more effective remedies and their


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improved management. Other significant and positive impacts of the reduction of

workplace conflicts were also anticipated, including improved communication within

the organisation; increased job satisfaction, commitment and morale; subsequently

leading to enhanced employee performance and fulfilment. The expected overall

effects of this study anticipated an improved performance and a more efficient

functioning of the entire City of Johannesburg, as an organisation.

The study review consists of six chapters. These comprise:

Chapter One: Introduction.

Chapter Two: Literature Review.

Chapter Three: Research Design and Methodology.

Chapter Four: Findings.

Chapter Five: Discussions.

Chapter Six: Conclusions and Recommendations.

A quantitative research method was utilised for primary data collection – comprising

questionnaires based and designed on the Likert Scale, containing five options and

personally administered to 100 respondents. The options were: Strongly Agree – 1;

Agree – 2; Unsure – 3; Disagree – 4 and Strongly Disagree – 5. The respondents,

comprised of ordinary and senior employees of the City of Johannesburg, were

required to provide their responses according to these indicated scales. The raw

data obtained from the questionnaires was analysed using SPSS software. The

hypothesis analysis was conducted by implementing the formula:


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The correlation analysis of the relationship between two variables was achieved by

utilising Pearson‘s Co-efficient Correlation formula:

* ( ), ( )-+

√ * ( ) , ( ) √ ⌈ ⟨ ( ) ⟩⌉-+

The findings revealed the most common causes of workplace conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg relate to goal conflicts; conflicting roles; task inter-dependency;

competition among employees; communication failures; individual, personal and

personality clashes or differences; leadership and control issues; specialisation;

inequity; and external changes or threats. Although the secondary research revealed

that certain minor or nominal workplace conflicts may produce a positive impact, it

was clearly apparent that, in the majority of situations, conflicts have been

undesirable, irrespective of their significance or magnitude. The majority of conflicts

were found to have undesirable consequences, most frequently impacting with

detrimental and negative effects on motivation, job satisfaction, morale and

increased operational costs. Despite such adverse impacts, it was found that very

little had been undertaken by the Management of the City of Johannesburg to reduce

conflicts. Effectively, the study conclusions and outcomes advocate and advise that

the City of Johannesburg Management must make constructive policy changes and

take major steps to limit and reduce workplace conflicts.

Suggestions for practical and beneficial approaches to reducing and remedying

conflicts, for the Management of the City of Johannesburg include the adoption of

proper job design; improved communication; development of grievance discussion

forums; establishing union dispute resolution procedures and non-union conflict

management systems. The suggested area for further studies would be:

―Investigating the Causes of Workplace Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg.‖


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION .................................................................................................................................................. II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................................................III

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................................... IV

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................................... VII

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................................................... xii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 2

1.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 2

1.2 BACKGROUND INFORMATION .............................................................................................................. 3

1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM ............................................................................................................................. 3

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................................................... 4

1.4.1 Primary Research Objective ............................................................................................................. 4

1.4.2 Secondary Research Objectives ........................................................................................................ 5

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .......................................................................................................................... 5

1.6 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES ........................................................................................................................ 6

1.7 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................... 6

1.8 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................................................... 6

1.9 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................................... 9

2.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 9

2.2 THE CONCEPT OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT ............................................................................................. 9

2.3 TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS ...................................................................................................... 10

2.3.1 Vertical and Horizontal Conflicts .................................................................................................... 11

2.3.2 Organised and Un-Organised Conflicts .......................................................................................... 11

2.2.3 Rights and Interest Conflicts .......................................................................................................... 11

2.3.4 Group Conflicts ............................................................................................................................... 12

2.4 CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS ................................................................................................... 13

2.4.1 Goal Conflicts ................................................................................................................................. 13

2.4.2 Role Conflict ................................................................................................................................... 13

2.4.3 Task Inter-Dependency .................................................................................................................. 14

2.4.4 Competition.................................................................................................................................... 14

2.4.5 Communication Failures ................................................................................................................ 15

2.4.6 Individual and Personality Differences ........................................................................................... 15

2.4.7 Leadership and Control .................................................................................................................. 15

2.4.8 Specialisation ................................................................................................................................. 16

2.4.9 Inequity .......................................................................................................................................... 16

2.4.10 Violation of Territory .................................................................................................................. 16

2.4.11 External Changes or Threats ....................................................................................................... 16

2.5 THE IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS ON WORKER PERFORMANCE ........................................... 17

2.5.1 Negative Effects on Motivation ..................................................................................................... 17

2.5.2 Increased Job Dissatisfaction ......................................................................................................... 18

2.5.3 Declined Employee Morale ............................................................................................................ 18


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2.5.4 Employee Performance .................................................................................................................. 19

2.5.6 Increased Operational Costs .......................................................................................................... 21

2.6 STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CONFLICTS ............................................................................................ 22

2.6.1 Changing Situational Factors ......................................................................................................... 22

2.6.2 Promoting Subordinate Goals ........................................................................................................ 23

2.7 OTHER POSSIBLE APPROACHES FOR MANAGING CONFLICTS ............................................................. 24

2.7.1 Profit-Sharing ................................................................................................................................. 24

2.7.2 Co-Partnership ............................................................................................................................... 25

2.7.3 Inter-Personal Techniques .............................................................................................................. 25

2.8 PATTERNS OF UTILISATION OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT ............................................. 27

2.8.1 Union Dispute Resolution Procedures ............................................................................................ 27

2.8.2 Non-Union Conflict Management Systems .................................................................................... 28

2.9 INTERNAL CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS .................................................................................. 28

2.9.1 Open Door Policy Models ............................................................................................................... 29

2.9.2 Ombudsman ................................................................................................................................... 29

2.9.4 Managerial Mediation ................................................................................................................... 30

2.9.5 Peer Review Boards ........................................................................................................................ 30

2.9.6 Executive Panel .............................................................................................................................. 31

2.10 CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 31

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 32

3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 32

3.2 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH................................................................................................................... 32

3.3 SAMPLING STRATEGY .......................................................................................................................... 33 Table 3.1: Population Sample Sizes ........................................................................................................................... 34

3.4 DATA COLLECTION PROCESS ............................................................................................................... 35

3.4.1 A Mailed Questionnaire ................................................................................................................. 36

3.4.2 Pilot Testing ................................................................................................................................... 37

3.4.3 Data Collection Process .................................................................................................................. 38

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................................... 38

3.6 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY .................................................................................................................. 39

3.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................................ 41

3.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................................................. 41

3.9 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................... 42

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS .................................................................................................................................... 43

4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 43

4.2 SECTION A: .......................................................................................................................................... 43

THE TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG ..................................... 43

4.2.1 Question 1: ..................................................................................................................................... 44

Vertical and Horizontal Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg .................................................... 44 Figure 4.1:.................................................................................................................................................................. 44 Vertical and Horizontal Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg ................................................................. 44

4.2.2 Question 2: ..................................................................................................................................... 45

Organised and Un-Organised Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg .......................................... 45 Figure 4.2:.................................................................................................................................................................. 45 Organised and Un-Organised Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg ........................................................ 45

4.2.3 Question 3: ..................................................................................................................................... 46

Rights and Interest Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg ........................................................... 46 Figure 4.3:.................................................................................................................................................................. 46


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Rights and Interest Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg ........................................................................ 46 4.2.4 Question 4: ..................................................................................................................................... 47

Group Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg ............................................................................... 47

4.3 SECTION B:........................................................................................................................................... 48

THE CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG ..................................................... 48

4.3.1 Question 5: ..................................................................................................................................... 48

Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg are Due to Goal Conflicts .................................................................. 48

4.3.2 Question 6: ..................................................................................................................................... 49

Conflicting Roles are the Causes of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg ................................................... 49

4.3.3 Question 7: ..................................................................................................................................... 50

Task Inter-Dependency is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg .................................... 50

4.3.4 Question 8: ..................................................................................................................................... 51

Competition among Employees is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg ....................... 51

4.3.5 Question 9: ..................................................................................................................................... 52

Communication Failures are the Main Causes of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg .............................. 52

4.3.6 Question 10: ................................................................................................................................... 53

Individual and Personality Differences are the Main Causes of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg ........ 53

4.3.7 Question 11: ................................................................................................................................... 54

Leadership and Control are the Main Causes of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg ............................... 54

4.3.8 Question 12: ................................................................................................................................... 55

Specialisation is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg ................................................... 55

4.3.9 Question 13: ................................................................................................................................... 56

Inequity is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg ............................................................ 56

4.3.10 Question 14: ............................................................................................................................... 57

External Changes or Threats ........................................................................................................................ 57

4.4 SECTION C: ........................................................................................................................................... 58

THE IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS ON WORKERS PERFORMANCE IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG ... 58

4.4.1 Question 15: ................................................................................................................................... 58

Conflicts Have Led to Increased Negative Effects on Motivation ................................................................. 58

4.4.2 Question 16: ................................................................................................................................... 59

Conflicts Have Increased Job Dissatisfaction ............................................................................................... 59

4.4.3 Question 17: ................................................................................................................................... 60

Conflicts Have Led to Declined Employee Morale ........................................................................................ 60

4.4.4 Question 18: ................................................................................................................................... 61

Conflicts Have Negatively Affected Employee Performance ........................................................................ 61

4.4.5 Question 19: ................................................................................................................................... 62

Conflicts Have Led to Increased Operational Costs ...................................................................................... 62

4.4.6 Question 20: ................................................................................................................................... 63

Workplace Conflicts have led to Increased Labour Turnover in the City of Johannesburg........................... 63

4.5 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................... 63

4.5.1 SECTION A: ..................................................................................................................................... 64

THE TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG ............................... 64

4.5.2 SECTION B: ..................................................................................................................................... 65

THE CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG ............................ 65

4.5.3 SECTION C: ..................................................................................................................................... 66

THE IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG .......................... 66

4.5.4 SECTION D: ..................................................................................................................................... 67

AVAILABILITY OF RESOLUTION TECHNIQUES FOR RESOLVING WORKPLACE CONFLICTS IN THE CITY OF

JOHANNESBURG .......................................................................................................................................... 67


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4.6 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................... 68

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS .............................................................................................................................. 69

5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 69

5.2 SECTION A: .......................................................................................................................................... 69

THE TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG ..................................... 69

5.2.1 Question 1: ..................................................................................................................................... 70

Vertical and Horizontal Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg .................................................... 70

5.2.2 Question 2: ..................................................................................................................................... 71

Organised and Un-Organised Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg .......................................... 71

5.2.3 Question 3: ..................................................................................................................................... 72

Rights and Interest Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg ........................................................... 72

5.2.4 Question 4: ..................................................................................................................................... 72

Group Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg ............................................................................... 72

5.3 HYPOTHESIS ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................ 73

5.3.1 H0: Workplace Disputes in the City of Johannesburg are Characterised by Horizontal; Vertical;

Organised; and Un-Organised Conflicts ....................................................................................................... 73

5.3.2 H1: Workplace Disputes in the City of Johannesburg are Not Characterised by Horizontal;

Vertical; Organised; and Un-Organised Conflicts ......................................................................................... 73

5.4 SECTION B:........................................................................................................................................... 74

THE CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG ..................................................... 74

5.4.1 Question 5: ..................................................................................................................................... 75

The Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg are Due to Goal Conflicts ............................................................ 75

5.4.2 Question 6: ..................................................................................................................................... 75

Conflicting Roles are the Causes of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg ................................................... 75

5.4.3 Question 7: ..................................................................................................................................... 76

Task Inter-Dependency is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg .................................... 76

5.4.4 Question 8: ..................................................................................................................................... 76

Competition among Employees is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg ....................... 76

5.4.5 Question 9: ..................................................................................................................................... 77

Communication Failures are the Main Causes of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg .............................. 77

5.4.6 Question 10: ................................................................................................................................... 78

Individual and Personality Differences are the Main Causes of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg ........ 78

5.4.7 Question 11: ................................................................................................................................... 78

Leadership and Control are the Main Causes of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg ............................... 78

5.4.8 Question 12: ................................................................................................................................... 79

Specialisation is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg ................................................... 79

5.4.9 Question 13: ................................................................................................................................... 79

Inequity is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg ............................................................ 79

5.4.10 Question 14: ............................................................................................................................... 80

External Changes or Threats ........................................................................................................................ 80

5.5 CORRELATION BETWEEN THE CAUSES AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT ................. 80

5.6 HYPOTHESIS TESTING .......................................................................................................................... 82

5.6.1 H0: The Main Causes of Workplace Conflicts are Not Individual and Organisational Factors ....... 82

5.6.2 H1: The Main Causes of Workplace Conflicts are Individual and Organisational Factors ............. 82

5.7 SECTION C: ........................................................................................................................................... 84

THE IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS ON WORKER PERFORMANCE IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG..... 84

5.7.1 Question 15: ................................................................................................................................... 84

Conflicts Have Led to Increased Negative Effects on Motivation ................................................................. 84


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5.7.2 Question 16: ................................................................................................................................... 85

Conflicts Have Increased Job Dissatisfaction ............................................................................................... 85

5.7.3 Question 17: ................................................................................................................................... 85

Conflicts Have Led to Declined Employee Morale ........................................................................................ 85

5.7.4 Question 18: ................................................................................................................................... 86

Conflicts Have Negatively Affected Employee Performance ........................................................................ 86

5.7.5 Question 19: ................................................................................................................................... 86

Conflicts Have Led to Increased Operational Costs ...................................................................................... 86

5.7.6 Question 20: ................................................................................................................................... 87

Workplace Conflicts Have Led to Increased Labour Turnover in the City of Johannesburg ......................... 87

5.8 HYPOTHESIS TESTING .......................................................................................................................... 87

5.8.1 H0: Workplace Conflicts Impact Positively on Employee Performance .......................................... 87

5.8.2 H1: Workplace Conflicts Have Negative Impacts on Employee Performance. ............................... 87

5.9 CORRELATION BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT AND THE IMPACT ON

ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE .................................................................................................................. 89

5.10 CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 90

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................. 91

6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 91

6.2 THE STUDY FINDINGS .......................................................................................................................... 91

6.3 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................... 93

6.4 THE CONCEPT OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS ......................................................................................... 93

6.5 CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS ................................................................................................... 94

6.6 THE IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT ON WORKER PERFORMANCE ............................................. 95

6.7 STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CONFLICTS ............................................................................................ 95

6.8 PATTERNS OF UTILISATION OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT ............................................. 96

6.9 RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................................................................... 97

6.9.1 SECTION A: ..................................................................................................................................... 97

THE TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG ............................... 97 6.9.1.1 Adopt Proper Job Design and Improve Communication ........................................................................ 97 6.9.1.2 Develop Grievance Discussions Forum .................................................................................................. 97

6.9.2 SECTION B: ..................................................................................................................................... 98

THE CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG ................................................ 98 6.9.2.1 Promoting Subordinate Goals ................................................................................................................ 98 6.9.2.2 Profit-Sharing ......................................................................................................................................... 98 6.9.2.3 Co-Partnership ....................................................................................................................................... 99 6.9.2.4 Inter-Personal Techniques ..................................................................................................................... 99 6.9.2.5 Union Dispute Resolution Procedures ................................................................................................. 100 6.9.2.6 Non-Union Conflict Management Systems .......................................................................................... 100

6.10 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 101

LIST OF REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 102

QUESTIONNAIRE .......................................................................................................................................... 108

APPENDIX 1: ................................................................................................................................................ 111

DATA ANALYSIS SPSS OUTPUT ........................................................................................................................ 111

DATA ANALYSIS - DESCRIPTIVES ..................................................................................................................... 119


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LIST OF TABLES

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Table 3.1 Population Sample Sizes 34

Table 4.1 Prevalent Types Of Workplace Conflicts in Johannesburg City

64

Table 4.2 Major Causes of Workplace Conflicts in Johannesburg City 65

Table 4.3 Main Impacts of Workplace Conflicts in Johannesburg City 66

Table 4.4 Availability of Resolution Mechanisms to Resolve Workplace Conflicts 67

Table 5.1 Hypothesis Analysis 74

Table 5.2 Correlation between the Causes and Different Types of Workplace Conflicts 81



Table 5.5 Correlation Assessment 89


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LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE

Figure 4.1: Vertical and Horizontal Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg 44

Figure 4.2: Organised and Un-Organised Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg 45

Figure 4.3: Rights and Interest Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg 46

Figure 4.4: Group Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg 47

Figure 4.5: Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg are Due to Goal Conflicts 48

Figure 4.6: Conflicting Roles are the Causes of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg 49

Figure 4.7: Task Inter-Dependency is the Main Cause of Conflicts 50

Figure 4.8: Competition among Employees is the Main Cause of Conflicts

51

Figure 4.9: Communication Failures are the Main Causes of Conflicts

52

Figure 4.10: Individual and Personality Differences are the Main Causes of Conflicts 53

Figure 4.11: Leadership and Control are the Main Causes of Conflicts 54

Figure 4.12: Specialisation is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg 55

Figure 4.13: Inequity is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg 56

Figure 4.14: External Changes or Threats 57

Figure 4.15: Conflicts Have Led to Increased Negative Effects on Motivation 58

Figure 4.16: Conflicts Have Increased Job Dissatisfaction 59

Figure 4.17: Conflicts Have Led to Declined Employee Morale 60

Figure 4.18: Conflicts Have Negatively Affected Employee Performance 61

Figure 4.19: Conflicts Have Led to Increased Operational Costs 62

Figure 4.20: Workplace Conflicts Have Led to Increased Labour Turnover 63

Figure 4.21: Prevalent Types Of Workplace Conflicts 64

Figure 4.22: Major Causes of Workplace Conflicts 66

Figure 4.23: Main Impacts of Workplace Conflicts 67

Figure 4.24: Availability of Resolution Mechanisms to Resolve Workplace Conflicts 68


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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Simmons and Peterson (2000) argue that workplace conflicts can prove to be

productive and augment team performance. This premise posits that, through

workplace conflicts, employees are able to engage in the best decision making

processes. Passos and Caetano (2005) suggest that disagreements over resource

distribution; procedures; guidelines and the interpretation of facts are the keys to the

best decision making and organisational success. Dipaola and Hoy (2001) note,

however, that studies have shown that there is no ideal relationship between

workplace conflict and organisational performance. Workplace conflicts often have

negative impacts leading to low job satisfaction, inhibiting commitment and morale,

and subsequently, to poor general organisational performance. Passos and Caetano

(2005) add that there must be a balance between conflicts with positive effects and

the need to avoid conflicts, which may have serious negative effects on

performance. Obtaining and maintaining such a balance is a major difficulty most

organisations face. Organisations may go to extremes - management may over-

react, avoiding conflicts completely; or completely neglect conflict management

measures, justifying the adoption of this policy by emphasising the fact that

workplace conflicts may breed positive results.

In the City of Johannesburg there has been a complete neglect of workplace conflict

management strategies, leading, consequently, to increased negative feelings

among employees. The effect of these negative perceptions often culminates in

distrust between employees, physical violence, job dissatisfaction, low morale and

reduced motivation. This study, therefore, investigates strategies for managing

workplace conflicts. This chapter includes discussions relating to the context of the

research; background information; the research problem; the research objectives

and questions. This chapter also encompasses the research hypothesis, the

significance and the overview of the study.


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1.2 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The present day City of Johannesburg Municipal Council was created from eleven

existing local authorities, seven of which were ‗White‘ and the remaining four ‗Black

or Coloured‘. The first post-apartheid City Council was created in 1995. In order to

highlight its primary goal of addressing unequal tax revenue distribution the council

adopted the slogan ―One City, One Taxpayer‖. The City Council was divided into four

regions, each with a substantially autonomous local regional authority, overseen by a

Central Metropolitan Council. The municipal boundaries were also expanded to

incorporate wealthy satellite towns, including Sandton and Randburg; along with

poorer neighbouring townships, such as Soweto, Alexandra, and Orange Farm.

In 1999 Johannesburg appointed a City Manager to reshape the city‘s ailing financial

situation. The City Manager, together with the Municipal Council, drew up a blueprint

called iGoli 2002. This was a three year plan, which called for the government to sell

non-core assets, restructure certain utilities and required that the others became

self-sufficient. This plan took the City of Johannesburg from near insolvency to an

operating surplus of R153 million. This restructuring also meant the City of

Johannesburg would have to increase its workforce, in order to serve its population

effectively. Johannesburg is a multi-cultural society, which is reflected in the

demographic profile of its municipal workforce. The diversity of the municipal

workforce could lead to an increased potential for high workplace conflict. Despite

this likelihood for conflict, efforts to develop effective conflict management strategies

have been minimal, as reflected in the following problem statement.

1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM

The City of Johannesburg has no proper mechanisms for dealing with workplace

conflicts. Once a dispute occurs it frequently persists until it becomes a grudge,

regardless of whether it transpires between managers, employees or a combination

thereof. These disputes may escalate to a level where employees refuse to speak to


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each other, thereby affecting communication, which is usually essential for effective

work performance. Increased feelings of resentment may lead to malicious gossip,

rancour and work hours being wasted. Retaliations and repercussions may result in

physical violence. The embarrassment, remorse and other adverse consequences of

physical or verbal hostility often leads to increased job dissatisfaction, low

commitment and decaying morale among employees. Employees may resort to

fabricating sickness, to avoid contact in the workplace or may leave the organisation

for other employment opportunities. This places an additional burden on the City of

Johannesburg, as constantly recruiting and training new employees to acclimatise to

the job, is inefficient and a waste of resources. Additionally, where conflicts have

escalated into grudges and severe hostility, employees have also resorted to acts of

sabotage against their antagonist. The Employment Equity Plan of the City of

Johannesburg (2008) only prescribes for a disciplinary process, which is rarely used.

Counter-measures and techniques for resolving disputes, including educating

employees on how to deal with workplace conflicts; arbitration; or mediation are

lacking. Workplace conflicts are, therefore, seemingly considered an intrinsic

element of employment in the City of Johannesburg. This study seeks to assess the

current measures being used, and to evaluate and suggest appropriate means and

methods for dealing with this problem.

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The primary and secondary research objectives for this study are outlined below, as

follows:

1.4.1 Primary Research Objective


workplace conflict management in the City of Johannesburg, so that appropriate

measures could be suggested to deal effectively with conflict related issues.


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1.4.2 Secondary Research Objectives

The secondary research objectives for this study were:

To determine the types of workplace conflicts occurring in the City of

Johannesburg.

To examine the causes of workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg.

To establish the impact of these conflicts on workers‘ performance in the City

of Johannesburg.

To assess the procedures for dealing with workplace conflicts and their

consequences in the City of Johannesburg.

To assess the effectiveness of measures for dealing with workplace conflicts

in the City of Johannesburg.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The research questions for this study were:


Johannesburg?

What are the causes of workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg?


of Johannesburg?

Are the procedures for dealing with workplace conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg appropriate?




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1.6 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

The research hypotheses for this study were:

The main causes of workplace conflicts are:

H0: Not individual and organisational factors.

H1: Individual and Organisational factors.

Workplace conflicts impact:

H0: Positively on employees‘ performance.

H1: Negatively on employees‘ performance.

1.7 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

This study is justifiable in that it will lead to the review of the current approaches to

managing workplace conflicts at Johannesburg City. It is anticipated that if such

reviews are undertaken, they may reduce workplace conflicts. Reduction of

workplace conflicts may also significantly and positively impact on improved

communication within the organisation, job satisfaction, commitment, morale and

subsequently enhance employee performance. The overall effect would be improved

performance of the entire City of Johannesburg as an organisation.

1.8 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

This research report is divided into six chapters.

Chapter One: Introduction

This chapter contains discussions about the research context; background

information; research problem; research objectives and questions. The research


7

hypothesis; the justifications of the study and an overview of the study are also

covered.

Chapter Two: Literature Review

This chapter reviews several theories relevant to workplace conflict resolution. The

discussions are structured according to the issues outlined in the research questions

and objectives for the study. These include: types of workplace conflicts; the causes

of workplace conflicts; the impact of workplace conflicts on workers‘ performance;

procedures for dealing with workplace conflicts; and the effectiveness of measures

for dealing with these conflicts.

Chapter Three: Research Design and Methodology

The research design and methodology used for primary data collection in this study

is discussed in this chapter. The chapter contents include: quantitative research;

sample population; questionnaire; pilot study; collection process; validity and

reliability.

Chapter Four: Findings

The findings of the primary research are presented in this chapter. The presentation

of the findings is according to the issues outlined the research questions, objectives

and hypothesis. These are:

Section A: The types of workplace conflicts occurring in the City of Johannesburg.

Section B: The causes of workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg.

Section C: The impact of workplace conflicts on workers‘ performance in the City

of Johannesburg.

Section D: The procedures for dealing with workplace conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg.

Section E: The effectiveness of measures for dealing with workplace conflicts in

the City of Johannesburg


8

Chapter Five: Discussions

The findings of the primary research, indicated above, are discussed in this chapter.

The discussions followed similar sections to the previous chapter.

Chapter Six: Conclusions and Recommendations

The conclusions and recommendations of the study are discussed in this chapter.

1.9 CONCLUSION

This chapter explains the nature, necessity and purpose of this research. Chapter

Two, which follows, contains the literature review.


9

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Managing workplace conflict is an essential elemental prerequisite for improving

employee productivity and general organisational performance. Effective conflict

management strategies creates a more favourable work environment and is

conducive to improving employee job satisfaction, morale, motivation, and

commitment to the allocated job (Dipaola and Hoy, 2001:238). The City of

Johannesburg has been shown to have inadequate or insufficient dispute resolution

mechanisms and despite the increase of discord among the workforce, has not

undertaken the development of a system to control, manage and resolve conflicts.

Several studies, conducted within Johannesburg City, concentrated on employee

participation, pay and performance management. None of these studies featured

specific discussions relating to the implications and consequences of workplace

conflicts, especially regarding employee performance. To address these deficiencies

this study, therefore, accentuates and highlights the importance of having effective

workplace management strategies. Several theories relevant to workplace conflict

resolutions are reviewed within this chapter. Discussions are structured according to

the issues outlined within the study research questions and objectives. These

incorporate the types and causes of workplace conflicts; their impact on workers‘

performance; and procedures for dealing with these disputes, along with the

effectiveness of the suggested measures.

2.2 THE CONCEPT OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT

The Association of Business Executives (ABE) (2008:254) describes a conflict as a

condition arising whenever the perceived interests of an individual or group clash

with those of another individual, or group, in such a way that strong emotions are

aroused and compromise is not considered an option. Disputes and conflicts arise

when one or more people attempt to ensure the achievement of their favoured


10

outcome, to the detriment or loss of the outcome preferred by the other involved

participants. Devine (2008:1) posits that workplace conflicts involve the perceived, or

actual, clash of expectations between individuals or groups. These expectations may

involve issues concerning how people should behave, how and when they should

work or how much they should be paid and for what. The expectations of all parties

in the workplace are interrelated and associated, and the extent to which these

expectations differ, clash or combine may impact on or cause conflicts.

These expectations, regardless of where the power lies in the relationship between

people, must be factored into the design of any strategy to minimise the risks and

maximise the opportunities associated with workplace conflict. ABE (2008:254)

reiterates that all organisations, individuals and groups experience conflict at some

time during the day-to-day business activities. ABE (2008:254) indicates that studies

have shown that dealing with conflict can take as much as 20% of management‘s

time. The study elaborated that some experts argue that conflict is good, because it

challenges the status quo and encourages individuals and groups to air their views.

Despite this, dangerous and counterproductive conflicts should not be allowed to

arise in the first place. The latter is considered the traditional view and assumes that

all conflict is bad, inefficient and dysfunctional. Devine (2008:1) and Lewin

(2004:403) reveal that workplace conflicts may be categorised as inter-personal

conflicts between individuals and groups, as well as alleged breaches of human

rights protected by law – which include freedom from racial, sex, disability, age,

sexual-preference and marital status discrimination. Workplace conflicts may also

include alleged breaches of other rights protected by law, including issues like terms

and conditions of employment, awards, workplace agreements and regulations.

These different forms of workplace conflicts are discussed below.

2.3 TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS

The following are some of the specific types of workplace conflicts:


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2.3.1 Vertical and Horizontal Conflicts

Gosline, Stallworth, Adams, Brand, Hallberin, and Honk (2001:119) note that

conflicts in organisations may also be classified according to the organisational

structure - i.e. vertical and horizontal structures. Vertical conflicts refer to disputes

between people at different levels of authority. Horizontal conflicts deal with the

disputes between people of approximately equal status. A classic case of vertical

conflict is a dispute between management and labour, because it involves a division

between those who make the decisions and those who have to carry them out.

Vertical conflict may, however, also arise between one level of employee and

another, or between different levels of management. Horizontal conflicts arise

between individuals and groups at similar levels within an organisation.

2.3.2 Organised and Un-Organised Conflicts

Conflicts classification may also based on how the dispute takes place. Organised

conflict refers to actions of one group, which express collective dissatisfaction

against another (Estreicher, 2001:70). These conflicts are usually undertaken via

recognised channels for complaints or disputes. Examples may include disputes

between employees and employer. Unorganised conflict takes place on an informal,

usually individual basis, though in certain instances groups may be involved. These

tend to focus around areas of dissatisfaction(s) in the workplace, and may be

expressed as grievances or inappropriate behaviour, possibly giving rise to

disciplinary problems.

2.2.3 Rights and Interest Conflicts

Lipsky, Seeber, Avgar and Scanza (2007:129) reveal that an alternative approach to

workplace conflict is to distinguish between the issues on which the conflict may be

based i.e. rights or interests. A conflict of right arises from alleged violations of rights


12

which have been established by a contract of employment. These are not considered

as being questions of right or wrong, and therefore, resolving these involves

bargaining, not adjudication. In circumstances where bargaining cannot resolve the

issue a recourse to adjudication may be necessary. According to Stone (1996:50),

this distinction is important, since it has implications for the way in which the conflict

is handled. Where a grievance is about rights, such as being required to undertake a

job which is allegedly outside of a person‘s job description, it may be settled by

management at a relatively low level, by referencing the relevant rules or contract

agreement. Grievances may also be about interests, an example of an interest

dispute could occur if individuals or groups consider that their rate of pay is unfair,

compared to what others in the organisation receive for the same or similar work.

2.3.4 Group Conflicts

Wheeler, Klaas and Mahony (2004) note that conflicts within, or between, groups are

also quite common. In any situation where roles and powers are allocated to

individuals, or in which different rights and expectations are identified with different

groups, there is the potential for opposition, resistance and conflict. This usually

occurs where competition is often rewarded, within and between groups. Such

incentives may comprise rewards of power and prestige, or appropriate proportions

of the profits or total remuneration package offered by the organisation. Zack

(1999:94) state that group conflicts may be destructive, as they may generate poor

working relationships, lack of communication, delays and disaffection. They may also

be positive, however, by revealing problems and, thus, leading to innovation and

change, in pursuit of effective methods of resolution. These conflicts may enhance

group cooperation and cohesion, where the group itself is in conflict with other

groups. A degree of conflict is, therefore, considered desirable. Reasons for these

different conflicts emerging in an organisation are discussed below.


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2.4 CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS

According to Schmedemann (1987:523) and ABE 92008:166), the following are the

most common causes of conflicts within organisations:

2.4.1 Goal Conflicts

Shafritz (2001:90) notes that goal conflicts arise when individuals or groups pursue

different or conflicting goals from other individuals, or groups. Individuals and groups

commonly have their own goals, which are distinct from those of the organisation.

Where the pursuit of the latter does not result in the satisfaction of personal or group

goals, these individual goals may take precedence. Work conflict is also brought

about by competition, whereby at least one party loses, or suffers the frustration of,

their goals. These can arise on at individual, team or group level and may have their

roots in the organisational practices or the informal organisation.

2.4.2 Role Conflict

Mossier (1990: 63) indicates that role conflict is defined as an expected pattern of

behaviours associated with individuals occupying a particular position within an

organisational structure. Role conflict may arise when it is unclear what an

individual‘s role is, or from a lack of understanding of the role, or where two or more

people perceive themselves as carrying out the same role. In theory this should not

arise in the formal structure of organisations. In actuality, however, these conflicts

occur in practice, particularly in times of change, and are more common in informal

group relationships. There may even be competition between individuals for

particular roles, where the potential for conflict increases with the desirability of the

rewards attached to those roles, and the differences in perceptions of how those

roles should be carried out. The most significant of these roles is that of leader, but


14

other group roles may also be particularly important at different times, especially

during work on group tasks.

2.4.3 Task Inter-Dependency

Colvin (2003:375) reveals that all organisations involve people working together and

relying on each other to fulfil their tasks. Where this is frustrated, conflict may arise

between the inter-dependent workers. There are two types of conflicts in this

situation: Sequential Inter-dependence and Reciprocal Inter-dependence. Sequential

inter-dependence occurs when an individual or group is dependent upon the

performance of tasks by another individual or group. Examples of this would be an

assembly line where the pace of work is dedicated by the slowest member; or a

building site where the bricklayer is dependent upon the supply of mortar from the

person mixing the cement. Reciprocal inter-dependence occurs when both parties

rely on each other to get to the task completed. An example of this is when a

purchasing department needs to receive a specification of goods required, but the

practitioner needs the purchasing department to supply details of the goods

available.

2.4.4 Competition

Cochan, Katz and Mckersie (1994:68) contend that competition can take many forms

in organisations. Competition may involve individuals or groups, and can arise from

multiple factors, including scarce resources; promotions; and rewards - in terms of

recognition or monetary incentives. If the outcome of competition is unfavourable to

a particular party, conflict may develop from the perceived injustice or sense of

grievance. Competition may lead to the frustration of organisational goals, as a result

of inappropriate rewards systems and lack of cooperation. An illustration of this is the

tying of bonuses to individual performance, rather than the accomplishments of the

group, or organisation, as a whole.


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2.4.5 Communication Failures

A breakdown of communication processes, or a lack of communication, may lead to

a variety of problems in organisations. Unclear instructions or directives, to an

individual or group, may result in frustration in task inter-dependency; a lack of clarity

or understanding of goals and objectives; and feelings of alienation. Individuals may

perceive events or situations in different ways and without comprehensible and

unambiguous communication different perceptions may lead to conflicting

interpretation and reactions, resulting in conflicts or disputes (Bryans and Smith,

2000:34).

2.4.6 Individual and Personality Differences

Dipaola and Hoy (2001:238) assert that when people work closely together

personality clashes, jealousies and other personal animosities - either permanent or

transitory - are inevitable. When people don‘t know each other these issues tend to

be more severe or abrasive, but tolerance, understanding and acceptance increases

as working relationships are built over time. Personality conflicts may also occur from

clashes due to different styles of interactions or differing values or beliefs.

2.4.7 Leadership and Control

Poor or inappropriate leadership of individuals and groups may result in a lack of

direction, causing goal and role conflicts where a lack of organisation or group

consensus leaves a void which individual perceptions may fill. Leadership and

control conflicts may occur within the formal and informal organisations, due to

indecisive or poor management (Lira, Ripoll and Gonzalez, 2006).


16

2.4.8 Specialisation

A highly specialised departmental structure tends to lead to inward-looking attitudes,

which hinder inter-departmental cooperation and cause conflicts (Colvin, 2004b:581).

2.4.9 Inequity

An individual's perception of discriminatory, unjust or unfair treatment may result in

conflict, as they will feel motivated to restore the balance (Colvin, 2004a:95).

2.4.10 Violation of Territory

According to Colvin (2003:375), individuals tend to establish ‗property rights‘ over

their work areas, parking spaces and perks. They tend to respond with conflict when

they perceive these areas are being violated or invaded. Poor organisational

structures may cause other forms of this type of conflict, especially where people feel

alienated or isolated, leading to a climate of intense competitiveness and a lack of

cooperation.

2.4.11 External Changes or Threats

Block, Beck and Olson (1996:54) state that the business environment is subject to

constant changes, whether from competitors in the marketplace, or more generally

from technological changes or government policies. A lot of poorly managed

changes within the organisation may lead to frustration and anger, which in turn

affects employee willingness, mood and cooperation.


17

Workplace conflicts, irrespective of the cause can have a serious impact on

organisational performance. These consequence and impacts are discussed in the

next section.

2.5 THE IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS ON WORKER PERFORMANCE

Klein (2003:90), McCraken and Wallace (2000: 467), along with and Moller,

Benscoter and Rohrer-Murphy (2000: 95), suggest that workplace conflicts can

impact on the organisation in the following ways:

2.5.1 Negative Effects on Motivation

McCraken and Wallace (2000: 467) state that conflicts among employees, or

between management and employees, can have significant negative effects on

employee motivation. Ghosh (2007:131) defines motivation as the act of stimulating

someone to take a desired course of action, by ‗pushing the right button‘ in order to

get a sought reaction. Motivation concerns itself with the will to work and includes a

stimulus and desired result. Effective motivation involves discovering the reasons for

performance and work behaviour, and creating measures and channels to help and

encourage the realisation of organisational, or other, goals. Every manager is thus

responsible for motivating his immediate direct sub-ordinates, as well as all indirect

sub-ordinates, down the organisational supervisory tree. It is widely believed that

workplace conflicts may affect employee job satisfaction, productivity and

commitment (Bhatti and Qureshi 2007:54). In the Association of Business Executives

(ABE) (2008:246), Abraham Maslow indicates that the satisfaction of the need for

affiliation is an important element of generating employee motivation. Conflict

between employees destroys the potential for such need fulfilment, resulting in low

levels of commitment and motivation.


18

2.5.2 Increased Job Dissatisfaction

Low motivation and limited or lacking rewards are bound to result in job

dissatisfaction, with subsequently increased labour turnover. ABE (2008:47) defines

job satisfaction as positive feelings an employee has about their employment and job

dissatisfaction as negative feelings which stem from employee perceptions

concerning their occupation or position. Drafke and Kossen (2002:315) suggest that

the causes of such positive or negative feelings regarding employment are often

linked to multiple factors. These dynamics include: the nature of job design; work

environment; nature of management style; nature of employee participation in

organisational decision-making; and conflict amid employees, or between staff and

manager. Issues originating from the nature of management style can relate to lack

of dispute resolution mechanisms or deficits in managemental objectivity when

resolving problems. All of these elements can instigate employee dissatisfaction.

Cushway (2004:356) indicates that conflict resolution and its effect on employee job

dissatisfaction or satisfaction is usually reflected in specific ways. Conflict resolution

effectiveness and the consequences thereof include: increased or decreased labour

turnover; conflict or absence of conflict between staff; underperformance or effective

performance; and declining or increasing staff productivity, with subsequent declined

or improved product or service quality. Swanepoel, Erasmus, Van Wyk, and Schenk

(2003:175), along with ABE (2008:120), reveal that measures for dealing with job

dissatisfaction in organisations may constitute the undertaking of decentralisation

and the delegation of authority, to ensure that conflicts are resolved at the lowest

level possible.

2.5.3 Declined Employee Morale

Bhattacharyya (2002:409) and Ghauri (2005:68) note that workplace conflict in an

organisation is linked directly to employee morale. Ghauri (2005:68) defines


19

employee morale as positive attitudes and feelings which drive employees to

accomplish their allocated tasks. The factors which usually influence employee

morale are associated with the degree of employee participation in decision making;

remuneration; work conditions; nature of leadership styles; and the effectiveness of

communication in organisations, along with the existence of conflict resolution

mechanisms. Dessler (2002:315) notes, however, that lack of dispute resolution

mechanisms usually leads to an increase of unresolved conflicts and subsequent low

morale, resulting in low productivity and generally poor organisational performance.

ABE (2008:76) contends that the ‗morale of the workforce‘ is a concept often

discussed, but is difficult to measure objectively. The level of morale and the

individual attitudes which personnel bring to bear on workplace performance and

relationships affect the functioning of the entire organisation, as well as their

particular section or department. Short, Bing, and Kehrhahn (2003: 239) state that

when low morale is present, in conjunction with a general sense of frustration and

dissatisfaction, management must initiate immediate measures to identify and

eliminate the causes. A primary goal of staff motivation is to build morale, by

maximising job satisfaction and minimising workplace frustration and stress. Gerber,

Van Dyk, Haasbroek, Schultz, Sono, and Werner, (2001:390) indicate that an

important method of building motivation and morale stems from appropriate job

design and progressively, more attention is being concentrated on alternative

patterns of working. These unconventional options concentrate on increased

personal responsibility, personnel development and participation in the organisation.

The most critical element significantly affecting employee morale is, however,

notably the manner in which disputes, divergence and disagreements are resolved.

2.5.4 Employee Performance

Khan, Afzal and Rehman (2009:480) propose that task conflict can prove to be

productive, augmenting team performance and leading to better decisions. Simons

and Peterson (2000) contend that task conflict promotes and enhances team


20

member ability and perceptions, especially concerning decision-making efficacy and

value. There seems to be no perfect ratio or relationship between task conflict and

performance. Stephen and Julia (1995:56), along with Bingham (2007:104), agree

that task conflict tends to reduce team member satisfaction and commitment. Task

conflict and performance may constitute a positive relationship aspect, however,

when all team members possess a superior cognitive understanding of the issue

being discussed, making it probable that all participants may, potentially, voice their

individual perspectives.

Khan, et al (2009:480) added that workplace conflict is major global organisational

expense. Some of these costs are obvious, and continue to rise, especially when

employees react angrily instead of cooperatively and other costs are implicit, hidden

and affect decision making. Three different points are advanced in the study of

conflicts in organisations - viz. the traditional; human relation and international views

of conflict. The traditional view of conflict, as Dipaola and Hoy (2001:238) contend, is

that conflicts must always be avoided. The human relation view asserts that conflict

is a natural and inevitable outcome of normal operation and function within an

organisation. It may inflict negative effects, but also has the potential to be a positive

force, leading to effective performance. The international perspective illuminates

conflict as being a positive force necessary for effective performance. Newstrom and

Davis (1993) noted that organisations, when competitively challenged, try to improve

their goods and services, along with consumer satisfaction. Large stakeholders may

benefit from, and affect, the transfer of human resources from one institution to the

other, allowing for better opportunity and services. This is becoming a common

practice, driving organisations to operate with improved performance, however,

these transfers, changes and stresses may create tension among employees,

culminating in organisational performance being compromised by destructive

elements.


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2.5.6 Increased Operational Costs

ABE (2008:259), along with Medina, Munduate, Dorado and Guerra (2005:219),

suggest that conflicts are often perceived as having an extremely negative impact on

organisations. Undesirable outcomes indisputably and invariably transpire, often

resulting in the frustration of organisational goals, with individuals and groups

performing ineffectively and inefficiently.

The problems and impacts of workplace conflicts include:

Inter-personal or inter-group hostility, arguments, aggression and lack of

cooperation.

Not attaining performance targets or goals.

Stress among individuals.

Low morale, with a lack of commitment and involvement, leading to

absenteeism, high labour turnover, poor performance, alienation and

dissatisfaction.

Withholding information and procedures.

Increasing costs and delays.

Positive aspects of conflicts, as Lira, Ripoll and Gonzalez (2006) and Lusch and

Serkenci (1990:85) note, may include:

Better decision-making or problem solving, arising from a team or individual

questioning the status quo or established method.

Stimulation of creative solutions, along with resourceful and ingenious

thinking.

Tension being released and issues being aired - elements which could

otherwise fester and result in a reduction enthusiasm and motivation.


22

Individuals being prompted to assess their own feelings and choose between

options.

Challenging familiar and accepted situations, perhaps leading to a change in

the existing power base within the team, acting as a catalyst for

transformation.

Creation of competition and acting as a motivator for improved performance.

Despite the positive effects of workplace disputes, several theories have been

designed to deal with the negative impacts of workplace conflicts. The following

section discusses these strategies.

2.6 STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CONFLICTS

Jehn and Mannix (2001:238), and Jehn, Thatcher, and Zanutoo (2003:241) observe

that when conflict occurs various strategies exist for its resolution. Two major

approaches and solutions are discussed below, they encompass changing the

situation from which the conflict arises or deflecting the conflict by re-orientating the

goals of the participants.

2.6.1 Changing Situational Factors

According to Amazon and Sapienza (1997:495) there is a large potential for action

by management to affect and change the factors which give rise to conflict situations.

Management action and procedure may include:

Increasing resources to reduce perceived inequities in their allocation.

Re-organising the rewards system to ensure a more consistent, clear

relationship with performance or other indicators of value.


23

Re-designing tasks and roles to ensure compatibility with staff aptitudes and

abilities, and to reduce task inter-dependencies.

Re-deploying staff, including managers, to new jobs more compatible with

their aptitude and abilities.

Training and development of managers to improve their ability to lead and

motivate staff through appropriate non-monetary rewards and improved

communication.

Training and development of staff to enable them to perform more effectively

and meet their objectives, as well as to provide them with opportunities for

advancement.

Improving communication systems by removing barriers to effective

communication and increasing information flow.

2.6.2 Promoting Subordinate Goals

Guetzkow and Gyr (1954:81) describe this technique as being designed to reduce or

resolve goal conflict by refocusing the goals that individuals, or groups, pursue. The

aim is to promote the organisational goals ahead of those of the individual or group.

It may not be appropriate to specifically emphasise these goals themselves,

however, since it is possible that they have already been rejected or superseded by

the individual or group goals. Jehn (1994:39) and Jehn (1995:82) note it is necessary

to establish agreement on specific goals, perceived as being more important than

those currently being pursued and which require the support and effort of all parties.

An example of this approach is when an organisation or group is under threat from

outside. The danger may stem from increasing competition or changes in the

environment with possible risk to the organisation or group‘s survival. This would

generally unite individuals with the common goal of protecting the organisation or

group, resulting in improved performance in the pursuit of the objectives required for

survival.


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2.7 OTHER POSSIBLE APPROACHES FOR MANAGING CONFLICTS

Amason (1996:123) comments on the developments of reward systems which

emphasis company, rather than individual, performance - principally profit-sharing

and co-partnership schemes. The study also mentions the development of

participative management and empowerment processes throughout the organisation.

These approaches are discussed below.

2.7.1 Profit-Sharing

Amazon and Sapienza (1997:495) note that some organisations in the business

sector give their staff a share in the profits of the company, in addition to their normal

wages, in order to blur the distinction between the two sides to the industry. The firm

usually pays its staff a fixed share of the profits, which is divided among the

employees on the basis of seniority, length of service and other agreed criteria.

Profit-sharing schemes aim to bridge the gap between capital and labour, and tend

to increase morale in the organisation. These may reduce labour turnover as

employees have an incentive to stay, building a long service record in order to

increase their share of profits. Ayoko and Hartel (2006:345) add that such schemes

give an incentive to increase output and cut costs and wastes. The principle of those

who have helped to create profits being given a share of them allows workers to feel

they are an important part of the firm. There are certain drawbacks to profit-sharing,

including the following scenarios: Should employees have to pay towards deficit if

the firm makes a loss? Does some of the incentive value from profit-sharing get lost

due to the time lag between effort put into work and the reward from the profits?

What percentage of the profit-share should each employee receive?


25

2.7.2 Co-Partnership

De Dreu and Weingart (2003:741) observe that in cooperation schemes shares in

the company are distributed, instead of a cash portion of the profits. There is often a

clause which forbids the sale of these shares while the worker remains in the

company‘s employ. Some of the most advanced co-partnership schemes allow the

share-holding employees to elect representatives to the board of directors. This

gives the employees similar advantages to profit-sharing and adds a sense of

ownership in the organisation. Where worker directors are elected, the employees,

additionally, have some say in the running of the business. However, De Dreu and

Weingart (2003:741) note that the actual extent of employee share ownership may

constitute so minimal a proportion of the total shares of the firm as to be negligible in

terms of share ownership power. The income from the shares held by each worker

may be very small. Some workers resent not being able to sell their shares

whenever they wish. There may be so few worker representatives on the board that

they comprise only a token presence and can be outvoted by other board members

on any major issue. Some critics of co-partnership schemes argue that having

employees on the board of directors complicates union negotiations.

2.7.3 Inter-Personal Techniques

Friedman, Tidd, Currall and Tsai (2003:32) stress that managers need to have the

skills to reduce or resolve conflicts at an inter-personal level, both between

themselves and sub-ordinates, and between individuals and groups, within their

purview. The basis of such techniques is an assessment of the causes and

outcomes of the conflict and, for successful resolution, managers are required to be

both involved and detached. Involvement requires managers to listen and explore

the views of all parties involved. Detachment necessitates managers to undertake an

objective assessment of the causes and positions taken.

Thomas (1997) identified five conflict handling modes, which may be used by

managers:


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Avoidance:

This assumes that the conflict can be solved or reduced by ignoring the

problem, presuming that the problem will disappear or not be too disruptive.

This is an assertive response, as one party is avoided, preventing immediate

or direct conflict, but is also creates a lack of collaboration and teamwork

between the two parties, resulting in a win - lose or lose - lose situation. This

mode can be used when the issue is trivial or time is needed for the issue to

cool or diminish.

Accommodation:

This involves allowing the other party to win, and have their own way. This is

unassertive and cooperative since self-interest is sacrificed to appease the

other party. This mode may be used when one party is in the wrong or the

issue is more important to one side.

Competition:

This entails allowing the participants to ‗battle the conflict out‘ in an attempt to

win it, though each party must accept the risk that they may be lose. This is

assertive, uncooperative and uses power to win. This mode can be used

because decisive resolution is required or the consequences of losing are

unpalatable.

Compromise:

This entails seeking a midpoint between both desired outcomes by bargaining

and both parties giving up specific objectives to achieve the satisfaction of

others, resulting in two winners or losers. This mode can be used where time

is short and the parties are equally wrong.

Collaboration:

This requires seeking to satisfy the desired outcomes of both parties, by being

assertive and cooperative, often by changing the situation itself. Both parties

must, however, want to participate. This mode can be used where future


27

relationships are deemed important or both parties are needed for successful

implementation.

However, not all approaches are appropriate in every situation. The managers must

assess the situation before applying a chosen approach. Organisations have also

been known to deploy different patterns for managing workplace conflicts, these are

examined below.

2.8 PATTERNS OF UTILISATION OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

The common approaches to managing workplace conflicts are outlined and

discussed below.

2.8.1 Union Dispute Resolution Procedures

Goldberg (2005) comments that grievance mediation, as a prelude to arbitration, can

serve as an effective means of resolving many workplace disputes in a unionised

setting. Although labour arbitration has been widely used since the 1940s, it has

been the subject of criticism for many years. It was intended to be fast, inexpensive

and informal, especially when compared to the traditional court litigation. However,

according to Goldberg (2005), over time much arbitration has grown into a slow,

expensive and formal process. Many labour management professionals feel that the

decision and outcome from arbitration is often irrelevant to the problem that caused

the grievance to be filed in the first place. Goldberg adds that many labour

management professionals consider that the arbitration process is abused at times,

by both management and labour.

Goldberg (2005) reiterates that mediation, as an alternative to arbitration, has the

potential to overcome many problems and limitations imposed in the process of

arbitration. Studies of the grievance mediation process in various labour


28

management relationships over past years have proven this potential. Studies

indicate that cost savings can be achieved in a grievance mediation process, since

there is no need for extensive preparation and presentation by attorneys. Nor is

there any need for transcripts, post-hearing briefs or written decision. Studies also

demonstrate that mediation is quicker than arbitration, due to the informality of the

process. There is no need for the use of subpoenas and discovery or the elaborate

development of strategies by counsel. Neither is a protracted selection process an

issue, as there is no perceived bias in mediators, as opposed to arbitrators.

2.8.2 Non-Union Conflict Management Systems

Colvin (2006) and Lewin (2004) put forward that over half of non-union organisations

have some type of formal dispute resolution and/or conflict management process.

They added, however, that contrary to the rather limited forms found in union

settings, these mechanisms are diverse and fluid with a variety of forms and

structures. Before embarking on an analysis of these processes, it is important to

make a critical distinction in their respective functions. One category of procedures is

known as determination procedures and involves an Alternative Dispute Resolution

actor who facilitates the resolution of a dispute. Arbitration is a typical determination

procedure, whereas mediation involves a facilitation procedure. According to Lipsky

(2003), there are two main conflict management systems - viz. internal and external

processes. Internal processes include: open door policies; ombudsmen; managerial

mediation; and peer review boards. The main external processes encompass

external mediation and arbitration. External processes are more expensive and are

usually utilised later in a dispute.

2.9 INTERNAL CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

The common internal conflict management systems are:


29

2.9.1 Open Door Policy Models

Goldberg (2005) states that the open door policy is probably one of the most

common features of workplace systems, however, Lipsky (2003) notes that the

concept has become almost stale in many organisational cultures. It implies that the

supervisor or manager believes in open dialogue with employees and encourages

them to talk through their differences or issues that may arise. In order to be

effective, an open door policy must be broadly disseminated and reinforced as a

core element of the organisational culture. The arguments surrounding the success

of open door policies are mixed. Some observers suggest open door policy is

overrated as an appropriate mechanism for conflict resolution, because supervisors

are not properly trained to problem-solve with employees and are too busy to

effectively deal with these issues. Employees also perceive a high risk of retaliation

when utilising the process. Many experts believe that, despite these obstacles, the

open door model still resolves about 90% of all employee issues and complaints. As

in most employment policies, the key to a successful open door policy requires the

provision of sufficient training to supervisors, who must receive coaching in conflict

resolution and communication skills.

2.9.2 Ombudsman

According to Friedman et al (2003:32) another option in the design of the ADR

programmes, especially for larger organisations, is the organisational ombudsman.

An ombudsman is a neutral or impartial official within an organisation who facilitates

informal and confidential assistance for employees to address work related

concerns, and who may also recommend systematic organisational changes based

upon issues which arise. In order to be effective, the ombudsman‘s position must be

located outside the ordinary line management structures. Studies from several large

organisations have found that the ombudsman process is cost effective in reducing

employee litigation and turnover.


30

2.9.4 Managerial Mediation

Lipsky (2003) states that many organisations are beginning to provide basic

mediation training to managers and line supervisors, designing conflict resolution as

a key supervisory competency. In managerial mediation, the manager convenes

disputing employees and attempts to explore mutually acceptable solutions to all

forms of workplace conflicts. An increasing range of progressive organisations are

providing basic conflict resolution training to supervisors and managers as part of

their toolkit.

2.9.5 Peer Review Boards

Lewin (2004) describes this process as being used for a number of years in many

blue collar manufacturing organisations, often for union avoidance purposes.

Depending on how the process is structured, decisions of the peer tribunal may be

final and binding, or only advise employees or management. Participating employees

are pre-selected and trained by human resource personnel or an outside consultant.

The basic assumption in peer review is that employee disputes should be resolved

through internal mechanisms, not litigation. Another assumption is that resolution of

disputes by peers is a more credible and acceptable process for the aggrieved

employee. This model assumes that peers can be capably trained as fact-finders

and decision makers. Opponents of this process argue that due to the increased

complexity of workplace disputes, it is no longer feasible. It can also be viewed as

difficult to administer, due to employee turnover and resultant retaining. It requires

staff resources to manage the process and many claimants desire an external forum.

Nevertheless, it remains a valid problem solving model.


31

2.9.6 Executive Panel

Friedman et al (2003:32) further notes that executive panels provide opportunities for

employees to present their disputes to a panel of the organisation's senior

executives and managers. The assumption is that employees feel the upper

executives will be objective and potentially sympathetic to their claims. These panels

typically have three to five executives, usually at vice presidential level, not directly

connected to the employee whose claim is being presented either operationally or

geographically. It has been found to be effective in a variety of settings, but is most

common in smaller organisations with accessible executives.

2.10 CONCLUSIONS

This chapter reviewed the literature relevant to this study. The discussions were

structured according to the issues contained in the research questions and

objectives for the study. These included: types; causes; and impacts of workplace

conflicts on workers‘ performance; procedures for dealing with workplace conflicts;

and the effectiveness of measures for dealing with these conflicts. The next chapter

discusses the research design and methodology used in the primary data collection

process for the study.


32

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND

METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes the research design and methodology used in the primary

data collection process for this study. The principal research method used was a

quantitative approach. Other details contained in the chapter include: sampling

strategies; questionnaire; pilot study; data collection process; validity and reliability;

and ethical considerations.

3.2 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Because of the large amount of raw data involved, this study opted for a quantitative

approach during the primary data collection. Abawi (2008:19) defines a quantitative

research method as a process of inquiry based on testing a theory composed of

variables, measured with numbers and analysed using statistical techniques. The

goal of the quantitative research method is to determine whether the predictive

generalisation of a theory hold true.

The assumptions underlying quantitative research methods are:

Truth is objective and independent of the researcher, and therefore,

actualities can be studied objectively.

The researcher must remain detached and independent of what is being

researched.

The research is based primarily on deductive forms of logic; theories and

hypotheses are tested in a cause - effect order.

The goal is to develop generalisations that contribute to the theory, which

enables the researcher to predict, explain, and understand a phenomenon.


33

Qualitative research is concerned with what and why? Abawi (2008:19) further states

the common methods of a quantitative research are: randomised; cohort; and case

control study. Quantitative research collects numerical data in order to explain,

predict and/or control the phenomena of interest. Quantitative research is concerned

with numbers and quantifiable data, asking statistical questions, which include: How

much? How many? How often? To what extent? It is categorised with descriptive

research; correlational research; causal comparative research; and experimental

research. The results of quantitative research are presented in numerical form or a

series of numbers, displayed and laid out in tables, graphs or other forms of

statistics. In this study, a questionnaire was designed based on the Likert Scale, and

containing five options comprising of: Strongly Agree — 1; Agree — 2; Unsure — 3;

Disagree — 4; Strongly Disagree — 5. The questionnaires were personally

administered to the respondents in the City of Johannesburg. The respondents were

required to provide answers according to the indicated scales. When data collection

was complete, it was analysed using SPSS and presented in tables containing

percentages, the mean and the standard deviation. The researcher also performed

validity and reliability tests using Cronbach Alpha. Using the findings the researcher

tested hypotheses and performed the correlation analysis to determine the link

between variables. In this regard, it is manifestly clear that this study was

quantitative. Quantitative research was preferable, as it allows for greater precision

in analysis, summarizing data and making inferences. It is also objective and

controlled. The details are presented below.

3.3 SAMPLING STRATEGY

The target population for this study was 6500 employees comprising of: senior

managers; ordinary managers; and employees of the City of Johannesburg. In order

to determine a valid sample, simple random sampling was used. Yamane

(1967:886)‘s formulae:

( ) was used. In the formulae; n is the sample size, N

is the population size and e is the level of precision.


34

Using this formula, where N = 6500, the target population for this study, n = the

desired sample size and e = ±10%, the level of precision, the calculation for the

study is:

( ) .

Israel (2007:14) states that the same formula was used in the calculation of the

sample sizes, contained in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Population Sample Sizes

Sample Size for ±3%, ±5%, ±7% and ±10% Precision Levels where

Confidence Level is 95% and P = .5

Size of Population Sample Size (n) for Precision (e) of:

±3% ±5% ±7% ±10%

500 A 222 145 83

600 A 240 152 86

700 A 255 158 88

800 A 267 163 89

900 A 277 166 90

1,000 A 286 169 91

2,000 714 333 185 95

3,000 811 353 191 97

4,000 870 364 194 98

5,000 909 370 196 98

6,000 938 375 197 98

7,000 959 378 198 99

8,000 976 381 199 99

9,000 989 383 200 99

10,000 1,000 385 200 99

15,000 1,034 390 201 99

20,000 1,053 392 204 100

25,000 1,064 394 204 100

50,000 1,087 397 204 100

100,000 1,099 398 204 100

>100,000 1,111 400 204 100

A = Assumption of the normal population is poor (Yamane, 1967), ∴ the entire population should be sampled.

Source: Adopted from Yamane (1976) as cited in Israel (2007:14)


35

In observing Yamane‘s (1975) Table, the desired sample size, for a population falling

between 6000 and 7000, is 98 respondents. The population for this study is 6500 -

between 6000 and 7000, obtaining n = 99.9, proving the sample sufficient and valid.

This is confirmed and validated using an alternative formula from Cochran

(1963:75):

. This is valid where n0 is the sample size, Z2 is the abscissa of

the normal curve that cuts off an area at the tails - 1 is equivalent to the desired

confidence level e.g. 95% 1; e is the desired level of precision; p is the estimated

proportion of an attribute that is present in the population; and q is 1- p. The value of

Z is found in statistical tables, which contain the area under the normal curve. P is

assumed = .5 and q = 1- .5; resulting in Z = 95% confidence level and e = ±10%

precision. Using these figures the calculation for this study is: ( ) ( )( )

( ) = 96.

It is demonstrated above that using the two formulas and table produce similar

figures for the sample size. However, according to Israel (2007:14), the sample size

formulas only provide the number of responses that need to be obtained. Many

researchers commonly add 10% to the sample size to compensate for un-

contactable respondents. The sample size also is often increased by 30% to

compensate for non-response. Thus, the number of mailed surveys or planned

interviews can be substantially larger than the number required for a desired level of

confidence and precision. In this study a round up of 100 respondents is used to

compensate for non-responses.

In order also to ensure that the sample size chosen is representative of the total

population, respondents of different race, age, positions, experience and gender

were also included.

3.4 DATA COLLECTION PROCESS

Data collection was by use of a questionnaire and the process explained below.


36

3.4.1 A Mailed Questionnaire

A questionnaire was used in this study because it is cheaper and easier to have

primary data collected as quickly and efficiently as possible. The questionnaire was

designed along Likert Scale and containing five options: Strongly Agree — 1; Agree

— 2; Unsure — 3; Disagree — 4; Strongly Disagree — 5. The respondents were

therefore merely required to indicate their opinion according to the provided

responses, without explaining anything. This rendered the data collection process

easier, as respondents are usually known for being less inclined to participate in

research that demands lengthy explanations. The researcher took into consideration

the research questions and objectives of the study during the design of the

questionnaire. Consequently, the questionnaire contained 20 items presented under

five sections, aligned with the research questions and objectives of the study. These

five divisions were:

Section A - which examined the types of workplace conflicts occurring in the

City of Johannesburg.

Section B – which assessed the causes of workplace conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg.

Section C - which assessed the impact of workplace conflicts on workers‘

performance in the City of Johannesburg.

Section D - which examined the procedures for dealing with workplace

conflicts in the City of Johannesburg.

Section E - which assessed the effectiveness of measures for dealing with


The set hypotheses of the study were also taken into consideration during

questionnaire design. A Cronbach Alpha test was carried out to determine the

validity and reliability of the instrument. Gliem and Gliem (2003:87) describe the

Cronbach Alpha reliability co-efficient as normally ranging between 0 and 1. There is


37

usually no lower limit to the co-efficient. The closer the Cronbach Alpha co-efficient is

to 1.0, the greater the internal consistency of the items in the scale. Based upon the

formula:

, ( ) , where k is the number of items considered and r is the mean

of the inter-item correlations, the size of alpha is determined by both the number of

items in the scale and inter-item correlations. The result was .8, which indicates a

strong validity and reliability of the research instrument used for this study. George

and Mallery (2003) state that if the result is:

>.9 >.8 >.7 >.6 >.5 <.5

excellent good acceptable questionable poor unacceptable

Since the result, which was also confirmed by SPSS calculation, was .8, it is

concluded that the research instrument is valid and reliable in testing the elements

that the researcher intended to.

3.4.2 Pilot Testing

Prior to the actual data collection, a pilot study was conducted utilising 10

respondents from the City of Johannesburg, in order to determine whether the

research was feasible and enough respondents were interested. This pilot

programme was to enable the researcher to put in place the necessary measures to

ensure that the research is a success, fortunately the results of the pilot study

indicated that the researcher would not face any difficulty during the data collection

process. The pilot study was also intended to examine whether the research

instrument was properly structured, and whether the statements contained therein

could easily be understood by the majority of the respondents. As a result problem

areas were identified as most of the respondents could not understand the meaning

of certain words or phrases, viz. Question 17 - ‗concerted effort‘; Question 18 - the

word ‗configure‘; and Question 20 - ‗performance measurement‘. The researcher

then had to review these elements to make them more understandable to the

respondents. The pilot study, also allowed the researcher to assess whether


38

personal administration, as a data collection method, would be a success, which was

confirmed.

3.4.3 Data Collection Process

After the management of the City of Johannesburg had consented that a research

project could be conducted, the researcher personally administered the

questionnaire, going from one office to another. During the exercise, the researcher

explained to the respondents the purpose of the study, stating that it was merely an

academic exercise. The researcher also explained to the respondents how the

questionnaires were to be completed. The researcher asked the respondents

whether there was anything that needed clarification or explanation before

completing the questionnaire could be commenced. When they said nothing,

questionnaires were handed over to them for completion. It was also explained to the

respondents that they need not fill in their names, as the required anonymity would

be guaranteed. The respondents were informed that they could take their time to

complete the questionnaire, but requested them to avoid consulting each other about

any issue therein. The respondents were also cautioned against fabricating. Within

two weeks in the month of March 2011, all questionnaires had been returned.

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS

When all the questionnaires had been received back, the researcher checked if all

questionnaires had been properly completed. It was discovered that five

questionnaires were incorrectly completed as the respondents marked ‗Unsure — 3‘

and ‗Disagree – 4‘, another had three questions uncompleted, another marked only

one question, leaving the rest of the questions unanswered, and a final two marked

each and every option. In order to remedy this defect, the researcher sent five more

questionnaires out, which were returned within four days. Once all were in order, the

raw data was captured into a Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet. The number running

vertically on the left hand side of the sheet represented the number of the


39

respondents and the alphabetical labels running horizontally on top of the sheet

represented the questions. A Cronbach Alpha was first performed with a result of .8,

which, as shown above, indicated validity and reliability of the research instrument

for this study. The frequency analysis resulted in percentages for each variable

contained in each question and is presented in Tables 1 - 20. Descriptive statistical

analysis gave the mean and the standard deviation for the variables. (See attached

appendix 3 and 4.) The percentage mean and standard deviations were used in

making necessary interpretations. A hypothesis analysis was also performed using

SPSS and confirmed manually, using the formula test statistic:

√

.

The result was used in the analysis of assumptions made. In order to determine

correlation between variables and different data sets, the researcher utilised the

Pearson Correlation Co-efficient formula: * ( ), ( )-+

√ * ( ) , ( ) √ ⌈ ⟨ ( ) ⟩⌉-+ .

The measures used to ensure the validity and reliability of this study are discussed

below.

3.6 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

Burns and Grove (2001) highlight several types of validity that contribute to the

overall application and use of the study. The two main dimensions are internal and

external validity. Internal validity is concerned with the degree of certainty that

observed effects in an experiment are actually the result of the experimental

treatment or condition (cause), rather than intervening, extraneous or confounding

variables. Internal validity in this study was enhanced by increasing the control of

variables. External validity is concerned with the degree to which the research

findings can be applied to the real world, beyond the controlled setting of the

research. This is the issue of ‗generalisability‘. There are many forms of reliability, all

of which have effects on the overall dependability of the instrument, and therefore,

the data collected. Reliability is a prerequisite for validity. It is possible to have a

reliable measure which is not valid.

Different forms of validity include:


40

Inter-Rater or Inter-Observer Reliability – is used to assess the degree to

which different ‗raters‘ or observers agree, when measuring the same

phenomenon simultaneously.

Test - Retest Reliability – compares results from an initial test, with

subsequent repeated measures; the assumption being that if the instrument is

reliable there will be close agreement over repeated tests if the variables

being measured remain unchanged.

Parallel Forms or Alternative Forms Reliability – used to assess the

consistency of the results of two similar types of test or measure the same

variable at the same time.

Tests for homogeneity or internal consistency, where individual items in an

instrument measuring a single construct, should give highly correlated results, which

would reflect the homogeneity of the items. This was tested by splitting the items in

half and a calculation using the Spearman-Brown formula:

( ) ( )

Replicate the source response if its value is 1 and omit the source response pattern

if its value is 0. In the case of the logical functions of tautologies, the rectifying

function will contain only the 1 true value, and thus, replicate the source plenum. In

order to analyse the plenum for all possible responses the researcher used the

rectifying logical function: ( )

The next step involved analysing the plenum of the responses by a rectified logical

function of catenated implications: ( )

The alternative formula used was:

or


41

This provides the basic postulate of the true and error scores theory, where obtained

Xo scores consist of the true Xt and error Xe scores, their means and variances are

additive, the internal consistency reliability is defined as the proportion of the true

variance in the obtained test scores and can be estimated by the Spearman-Brown

formula, from a test split into two halves. For this study the co-efficient of the internal

consistency reliability was less than 1 and the co-efficient of homogeneity is equal to

1, results further confirmed by SPSS analysis. All results demonstrate and confirm

the validity and reliability of this study instrument. This was further corroborated by

the Cronbach Alpha analysis, which resulted in a score of .8.

3.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The researcher faced the impediment of employees being fearful during the process

of this study. The employees showed a lack of trust as to why the study was being

conducted, which meant that most felt uncomfortable in participating. This was

subsequently eliminated when the researcher told them that no names were required

on the questionnaires and that on completion the questionnaire should not be

delivered personally, but placed in a designated place. The researcher also

explained that though the study was purely academic, it could lead to review of the

current systems pertaining to conflict management in the City of Johannesburg. All

these enabled the clearing of such hurdles.

3.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

During the study the researcher eliminated all possibility of engaging in certain

unethical practices, which would have affected the validity and reliability of this study.

The researcher, at the beginning of the study, signed the research ethics forms

containing different codes, along with wanted and unwanted practices in the

research process. The researcher, in addition, undertook certain readings in order to

avoid getting trapped in unethical conduct. During the selection of the sample the

researcher included respondents without segregation on race, age or disability. The


42

respondents forced the removal of the biographical information section on the

questionnaire. The researcher complied, as the respondents felt insulted by the

demand for such information. The researcher acknowledged all sources cited in the

research, to avoid falling victim of plagiarism, which is an unethical practice in a

research process. The researcher also avoided fabrications or practices which could

have been unethical.

3.9 CONCLUSION

As reflected above, this chapter outlines the research design and methodology which

were used in the primary data collection for this study. The next chapter presents

and discusses the findings of the primary study.


43

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The findings of the primary research are presented in this chapter. The presentations

are structured according to sections aligned with the issues contained in both the

research questions and objectives for the study. Such sections are:

Section A - which examined the types of workplace conflicts occurring in the

City of Johannesburg.

Section B – which assessed the causes of workplace conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg.

Section C - which assessed the impact of workplace conflicts on workers‘

performance in the City of Johannesburg.

Section D - which examined the procedures for dealing with workplace

conflicts in the City of Johannesburg.

Section E - which assessed the effectiveness of measures for dealing with


In order to facilitate easier interpretations of data, options Strongly Agree — 1 and

Agree — 2 are combined under Agree; Unsure categories are isolated, while the

Disagree — 4 and Strongly Disagree — 5 categories are combined under Disagree.

This process was done for all questions and is presented in Figures 4.1 to 4.20

below.

4.2 SECTION A: THE TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG

This section consisted of four questions; the findings are reflected in Figures 4.1 to

4.4 and discussed below.


44

4.2.1 Question 1:

Vertical and Horizontal Conflicts Characterise the City of

Johannesburg

Figure 4.1 indicates the responses to this question, resulting in a mean of 3 and

standard deviation of 1.3.

Figure 4.1:

Vertical and Horizontal Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg

As shown in Figure 4.1, 42% concurred that conflicts in the City of Johannesburg are

vertical and horizontal, with 28% disagreeing and 30% unsure.

42%

30% 28%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

AGREE UNSURE DISAGREE


45

4.2.2 Question 2:

Organised and Un-Organised Conflicts Characterise the City

of Johannesburg

Figure 4.2 illustrates the proportion of responses to this question, which had a mean

of 2.6 and standard deviation of 1.3.

Figure 4.2:

Organised and Un-Organised Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg

59% of the respondents feel organised and un-organised conflicts characterise the

City of Johannesburg, 22% opposed the premise, with 19% uncertain.

59%

19% 22%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%



46

4.2.3 Question 3:

Rights and Interest Conflicts Characterise the City of

Johannesburg

A mean of 3.4 and standard deviation of 1.5 were obtained for this question, with

responses illustrated in Figure 4.3 below.

Figure 4.3:

Rights and Interest Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg

The results highlighted in Figure 4.3 show that 37% of the respondents agreed that

rights and interest conflicts characterise the City of Johannesburg, 46% differed, with

the remaining 17% uncertain.

37%

17%

46%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%



47

4.2.4 Question 4:

Group Conflicts Characterise the City of Johannesburg

The responses obtained for this question resulted in a mean of 2, standard deviation

of 1.2 and are contained in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4:


Figure 4.4 illustrates that 49% of the respondents concur that group conflicts

characterise the City of Johannesburg, 37% were undecided and 14% disagreed.

49%

37%

14%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%



48

4.3 SECTION B: THE CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG

This section contained 10 items, with the findings are presented in Figure 4.5 to

4.12.

4.3.1 Question 5:

Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg are Due to Goal

Conflicts

The mean for this question was 4, the standard deviation 1.5, with the percentages

for each option illustrated in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5:

Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg are Due to Goal Conflicts

As Figure 4.5 indicates, 28% felt that disputes in the City of Johannesburg are due to

goal conflicts, 2% were unsure and 70% hold opposing views.

28%

2%

70%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%



49

4.3.2 Question 6:

Conflicting Roles are the Causes of Conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg

The responses to this question are contained in Figure 4.6 and resulted in a mean

was 3.4 and standard deviation 1.7.

Figure 4.6:

Conflicting Roles are the Causes of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

Figure 4.6 indicates that 69% of the respondents did not feel that conflicting roles are

the causes of conflicts in the City of Johannesburg, however, 12% agreed with the

statement and 19% were unsure.

12% 19%

69%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%



50

4.3.3 Question 7:

Task Inter-Dependency is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the

City of Johannesburg

The mean obtained for this question was 3.6 and the standard deviation 1.8, with the

opinion spread indicated in Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7:

Task Inter-Dependency is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

Figure 4.7 displays results which reflect that only 19% of the respondents are of the

opinion that the main cause of conflict in the City of Johannesburg is task inter-

dependency, a majority of 73% disputed this and 8% were uncertain.

19%

8%

73%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%



51

4.3.4 Question 8:

Competition among Employees is the Main Cause of Conflicts

in the City of Johannesburg

The obtained mean for this question was 4.5 and the standard deviation was 1. The

percentages are as illustrated below in Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.8:

Competition among Employees is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg

Figure 4.8 highlights that 82% of the respondents do not correspond with the view

that the main cause of conflict in the City of Johannesburg is competition among

employees, with an even distribution of 9% each, going to both the uncertain and

assenting groups.

9% 9%

82%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%



52

4.3.5 Question 9:

Communication Failures are the Main Causes of Conflicts in


The findings obtained in this question are contained in Figure 4.9, and shows a

mean of 3 and standard deviation of 1.9.

Figure 4.9:

Communication Failures are the Main Causes of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

82% of the respondents oppose the opinion of communication failures as the main

causes of conflict in the City of Johannesburg, only 1% were undecided, with 17%

agreeing.

17%

1%

82%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%



53

4.3.6 Question 10:

Individual and Personality Differences are the Main Causes of

Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

The standard deviation for this question was 1.6 and the mean 2.7, with the obtained

opinion spread shown in Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.10:

Individual and Personality Differences are the Main Causes of Conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg

Figure 4.10 shows a fairly even split between the respondents who agreed - 43%

and the respondents who disagreed - 55% with the idea of individual and personality

differences being the main causes of conflicts in the City of Johannesburg, with only

2% uncertain.

43%

2%

55%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%



54

4.3.7 Question 11:

Leadership and Control are the Main Causes of Conflicts in


The mean for this question was 3.2 and standard deviation 1.8, with Figure 4.11

showing the percentages obtained.

Figure 4.11:

Leadership and Control are the Main Causes of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

As reflected in Figure 4.11, 71% of the respondents oppose the idea that, in

Johannesburg City, the main causes of conflict relate to leadership and control, 16%

accept this view and 13% are undefined.

16% 13%

71%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%



55

4.3.8 Question 12:

Specialisation is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg

The findings for this question are contained in Figure 4.12 and resulted in a mean of

3.9 and standard deviation of 1.3.

Figure 4.12:

Specialisation is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

Figure 4.12 exhibits that 64% of the respondents disagreed with the statement

proposing specialisation as a main cause of conflict in Johannesburg City, whereas

17% were unsure and 19% are in accord with the premise.

19% 17%

64%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%



56

4.3.9 Question 13:

Inequity is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg

This question had a mean of 2.6 and standard deviation of 1.7, with the response

results contained in Figure 4.13.

Figure 4.13:

Inequity is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

Figure 4.13 illustrates that a large proportion, 43% of respondents, were uncertain as

to whether inequity is a main cause of conflict in Johannesburg City, with 22%

concurring with, and 35% disallowing, the supposition.

22%

43%

35%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%



57

4.3.10 Question 14:

External Changes or Threats

Figure 4.14 demonstrates the findings for this question, which had a mean of 3.5 and

standard deviation of 1.

Figure 4.14:


52% of the respondents did not feel external changes or threats are the main causes

of conflict in the City of Johannesburg, 32% had undefined opinions and 16% agreed

with the statement.

16%

32%

52%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%



58

4.4 SECTION C: THE IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS ON WORKERS PERFORMANCE IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG

This section had five items, with the findings illustrated in Figure 4.15 to 4.20.

4.4.1 Question 15:

Conflicts Have Led to Increased Negative Effects on

Motivation

This question showed a mean of 2.3 and standard deviation of 1.2, with the

proportions for each option displayed in Figure 4.15.

Figure 4.15:

Conflicts Have Led to Increased Negative Effects on Motivation

Figure 4.15 evinces the responses to the suggestion that conflicts have led to

increased negative effects on motivation, with 42% of the respondents differing from

the idea, 56% concurring and 2% unsure.

56%

2%

42%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%



59

4.4.2 Question 16:

Conflicts Have Increased Job Dissatisfaction

The question results are contained in Figure 4.16, with a mean of 3 and standard

deviation of 1.3.

Figure 4.16:


Figure 4.16 indicates that while 13% of respondents were uncertain, results show a

fairly even distribution of decided opinions to the concept of conflicts having

increased job dissatisfaction in Johannesburg City, with 47% concurring and 40%

opposing.

47%

13%

40%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%



60

4.4.3 Question 17:

Conflicts Have Led to Declined Employee Morale

Figure 4.17 reflects the response findings for this question, which evinced a mean of

2.2 and standard deviation of 1.2.

Figure 4.17:


Figure 4.17 illustrates that 44% of the respondents hold the opinion that conflicts

have led to declined Johannesburg City employee morale, 32% disagree with the

statement and 24% were unsure.

44%

24%

32%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%



61

4.4.4 Question 18:

Conflicts Have Negatively Affected Employee Performance

The mean was 3 and standard deviation 1.3, with the divisional distribution for each

option reflected in Figure 4.18.

Figure 4.18:


Figure 4.18 iterates that 48% of the respondents allowed that conflicts have

negatively affected employee performance, 29% opposed the idea and 23% were

unsure.

48%

23% 29%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%



62

4.4.5 Question 19:

Conflicts Have Led to Increased Operational Costs

The details of the findings for this question are contained in Figure 4.19. The mean

score was 2 and standard deviation was .7.

Figure 4.19:


77% of the respondents were of the opinion that conflicts have led to increased

operational costs, 5% disagreed and 18% were uncertain.

77%

18%

5% 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%



63

4.4.6 Question 20:

Workplace Conflicts have led to Increased Labour Turnover in


The details of the question opinion spread are provided in Figure 4.20, with a mean

of 2.3 and standard deviation of .9 for this question.

Figure 4.20:

Workplace Conflicts Have Led to Increased Labour Turnover in the City of

Johannesburg

Illustrated in Figure 4.20 are the responses to the concept of workplace conflicts

having led to increased labour turnover in Johannesburg City, with 68% of the

respondents corresponding with the notion, 15% diverging from the idea and 17%

were unsure.

4.5 SUMMARY

The following tables and figures supply an overall view of the data collected.

68%

17% 15%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%



64

4.5.1 SECTION A:

THE TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN

THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG

. Table 4.1: Prevalent Types of Workplace Conflicts in Johannesburg City

QUESTION

NUMBER

WHICH CONFLICTS ARE

CHARACTERISTIC

STRONGLY

AGREE AGREE UNSURE DISAGREE

STRONGLY

DISAGREE

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

1 Vertical and Horizontal 7 7% 35 35% 30 30% 0 0% 28 28%

2 Organised & Un-

Organised 18 18% 41 41% 19 19% 4 4% 18 18%

3 Rights & Interest 11 11% 26 26% 17 17% 3 3% 43 43%

4 Group 13 13% 36 36% 37 37% 5 5% 9 9%

Figure 4.21:

Prevalent Types of Workplace Conflicts in Johannesburg City

0

20

40

60

80

100

Vertical andHorizontal

Organised &Un-Organised

Rights &Interest

Group STRONGLY DISAGREE

DISAGREE

UNSURE

AGREE

STRONGLY AGREE


65

4.5.2 SECTION B:

THE CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN


. Table 4.2: Major Causes of Workplace Conflicts in Johannesburg City

QUESTION

NUMBER CAUSE OF DISPUTES

STRONGLY


STRONGLY

DISAGREE

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

5 Goal Conflicts 8 8% 20 20% 2 2% 1 1% 69 69%

6 Conflicting Roles 2 2% 10 10% 19 19% 2 2% 67 67%

7 Task Inter-Dependency 11 11% 8 8% 8 8% 3 3% 70 70%

8 Competition among

Employees 1 1% 8 8% 9 9% 5 5% 77 77%

9 Communication Failures 4 4% 13 13% 0 0% 1 1% 82 82%

10 Individual & Personality

Differences 12 12% 31 31% 2 2% 17 17% 38 38%

11 Leadership and Control 3 3% 13 13% 13 13% 6 6% 65 65%

12 Specialisation 5 5% 14 14% 17 17% 12 12% 52 52%

13 Inequity 0 0% 7 7% 15 15% 43 43% 35 35%

14 External Changes/ Threats

2 2% 14 14% 32 32% 38 38% 14 14%


66

Figure 4.22:

Major Causes of Workplace Conflicts in Johannesburg City

4.5.3 SECTION C:

THE IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN


. Table 4.3: Main Impacts of Workplace Conflicts in Johannesburg City

QUESTION

NUMBER IMPACT OF DISPUTES

STRONGLY


STRONGLY

DISAGREE

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

15 Increased Negative Effects

on Motivation 12 12% 44 44% 2 2% 10 10% 32 32%

16 Increased Job

Dissatisfaction 11 11% 36 36% 13 13% 21 21% 19 19%

17 Declined Employee Morale 10 10% 34 34% 24 24% 27 27% 5 5%

18 Negatively Affected

Employee Performance 6 6% 42 42% 23 23% 5 5% 24 24%

19 Increased Operational Costs 16 16% 61 61% 18 18% 4 4% 1 1%

20 Increased Labour Turnover 14 14% 54 54% 17 17% 14 14% 1 1%

0

20

40

60

80

100

STRONGLYDISAGREE

DISAGREE


67

Figure 4.23:

Main Impacts of Workplace Conflicts in Johannesburg City

4.5.4 SECTION D:

AVAILABILITY OF RESOLUTION TECHNIQUES FOR

RESOLVING WORKPLACE CONFLICTS IN THE CITY OF

JOHANNESBURG

. Table 4.4: Availability of Resolution Mechanisms to Resolve Workplace Conflicts in Johannesburg City

QUESTION

NUMBER

AVAILABILITY OF

RESOLUTION

TECHNIQUES

STRONGLY

AGREE

AGREE UNSURE DISAGREE STRONGLY

DISAGREE No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

21 Inter-Personal Techniques 1 1% 34 34% 38 38% 10 10% 17 17%

22 Union Dispute Resolution

Procedures

9 9% 20 20% 31 31% 21 21% 19 19%

23 Non-Union Conflict

Management Systems

1 1% 20 20% 25 25% 39 39% 15 15%

24 Internal Conflict

Management Systems

1 1% 36 36% 43 43% 20 20% 1 1%

0102030405060708090

100

Incr

eas

ed

Neg

ativ

e E

ffec

ts o

nM

oti

vati

on

Incr

eas

ed

Jo

b D

issa

tisf

acti

on

De

clin

ed E

mp

loye

e M

ora

le

Neg

ativ

ely

Aff

ect

ed E

mp

loye

eP

erf

orm

ance

Incr

eas

ed

Op

era

tio

nal

Co

sts

Incr

eas

ed

Lab

ou

r Tu

rno

ver

STRONGLY DISAGREE

DISAGREE

UNSURE

AGREE

STRONGLY AGREE


68

Figure 4.24:

Availability of Resolution Mechanisms to Resolve Workplace Conflicts in Johannesburg City

4.6 CONCLUSION

This chapter presented the findings of the primary research, outlining and illustrating

the respondent opinions for each question. The next chapter contains detailed

discussions.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Inter-PersonalTechniques

Union DisputeResolutionProcedures

Non-UnionConflict

ManagementSystems

InternalConflict

ManagementSystems

STRONGLY DISAGREEDISAGREEUNSUREAGREESTRONGLY AGREE


69

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The findings of the primary research presented above, are discussed, in more depth

and detail, in this chapter. The discussions are structured along similar sections to

those contained in the previous chapter. During the discussions the researcher

endeavoured to determine the extent to which the primary findings were consistent,

or inconsistent, with the secondary findings. During the discussions attempts were

also made to assess the degree to which the information obtained, from both primary

and secondary findings, corresponded and provided accurate reactions to the issues

contained in the research questions and objectives. Hypotheses analysis was

utilised to test the assumptions for the study, as set in Chapter One. Finally, the

chapter also contains the correlation analysis, which sought to assess the degree of

inter-relationship between variables.

5.2 SECTION A: THE TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG

This section intended to assess the nature of the types of conflicts taking place in the

City of Johannesburg and was aligned to Research Question, Objective and

Hypothesis One. The questions in this section deal with some of the specific types of

workplace conflicts.


70

5.2.1 Question 1:

Vertical and Horizontal Conflicts Characterise the City of

Johannesburg

Gosline, Stallworth, Adams, Brand, Hallberin, and Honk (2001:119) note that

conflicts in organisations may also be classified according to the organisational

structure, whether vertical or horizontal. Vertical conflict refers to disputes between

people at different levels of authority, while horizontal conflict deals with disputes

between people of approximately equal status. As demonstrated in Figure 4.1, 42%

of the respondents concurred that conflicts in Johannesburg City are vertical and

horizontal, with 28% disputing this and 30% unsure. That 28% disagreed does not

expunge that the current nature of conflicts in the City of Johannesburg are likely

vertical or horizontal. The mean for this question was 3 and the standard deviation

1.3. A mean of 3 is positioned neutrally and does not support either the respondents

agreeing or disagreeing. If the mean was below 3, it would have been operating in

favour of the respondents agreeing or if the mean was above 3, it would have

supported the respondents disagreeing. In this regard, therefore, the mean of 3 does

not support either side. However a standard deviation of 1.3 does not indicate a high

variation in respondents choosing other options. This level of standard deviation

backs the respondents disagreeing and it can be concluded that the nature of conflict

in the City of Johannesburg is both vertical and horizontal.

A significant number, 30% of the respondents, could have chosen to remain unsure,

primarily due to the need to remain impartial. In organisations there are certainly

some people who are not usually affected, and do not want to be affected, by

conflicts at their workplaces. Such people undertake all means available to ensure

that they do not cause conflicts or if a dispute happens, it must be resolved as soon

as possible. 30% of the respondents stating that they are not sure whether vertical

and horizontal conflicts characterise the City of Johannesburg as an organisation, it

is, therefore, certainly not surprising. However, this does not mean that there are no



71

5.2.2 Question 2:

Organised and Un-Organised Conflicts Characterise the City

of Johannesburg

This question evinced a mean of 2.6 and standard deviation of 1.3. 59% of the

respondents concur that organised and un-organised conflicts characterise City of

Johannesburg. 22% of the respondents disagreed and 19% were unsure. According

to Estreicher (2001:70) conflict may also be distinguished on the basis of how it

takes place. Organised conflict refers to the action of one group expressing collective

dissatisfaction against another. Unorganised conflict takes place on an informal,

usually individual basis, though in certain cases groups may be involved. This tends

to focus on dissatisfactions in the workplace and may be expressed as grievances or

inappropriate behaviour, possibly giving rise to disciplinary problems. These

secondary research findings are not contrary to the findings of the primary research.

It is indicated that a larger number, 59%of respondents, agreed that the nature of

conflict in the City of Johannesburg is both un-organised and organised.

The mean of 2.6 and standard deviation of 1.3 supports the majority of respondents

agreeing with the premise. When a Likert five point scale research instrument is

implemented, as in this study, a mean which falls below the norm of 3 would be in

favour of the respondents agreeing and if it is over 3 it is in favour of the respondents

disagreeing. The mean of 2.6 falls within the scale of the respondents agreeing.

When assessing the standard deviation, the higher the obtained figure, the more

scattered the respondents were on the five point scale. A lower standard deviation

indicates that most of the respondents have chosen certain options. The obtained

standard deviation was 1.3 for this question, and therefore signifies that the

respondents were scattered on the five point scale, most of them not choosing only

certain options. This interpretation indicates that the standard deviation is not in

favour of the 59% of the respondents who were considered to have agreed. The City

of Johannesburg management still has to be cognisant of the fact that while not all

respondents disagreed, a significant number, 59% of respondents, were in accord

with the statement, illustrating that the problem of organised and un-organised

conflict is a serious one, for which appropriate solutions need to be developed.


72

5.2.3 Question 3:

Rights and Interest Conflicts Characterise the City of

Johannesburg

Lipsky, Seeber, Avgar and Scanza (2007:129) reveal that an alternative approach to

workplace conflict is to distinguish between the issues on which conflict may be

based i.e. rights or interests. A conflict of right arises from alleged violations of rights,

which have been established by a contract of employment. It is not a question of

right or wrong. This type of dispute results, therefore, not in adjudication but in

bargaining. Where bargaining cannot resolve the issue, recourse to adjudication may

be necessary. According to Stone (1996:50) grievances may also be about interest.

This type of dispute could occur if individuals or groups consider that their rate of pay

is unfair, compared to others in the organisation, for the same or similar work. The

primary findings showed a mean of 3.4 and standard deviation of 1.5 were obtained

for this question. Figure 4.3 highlighted 37% of the respondents agreed that rights

and interest conflicts characterise the City of Johannesburg. 46% of the respondents

disagreed, while 17% were unsure. This indicated the respondents were divided.

The higher proportion of the respondents disagreeing does not necessarily indicate

that these types of conflicts do take place in the City of Johannesburg. The

difference between the 37% who concurred, compared to the 46% who dissented, is

not significant – resulting in the outcome being considered as ‗unrated‘. However,

the result findings may not be significant, as the mean of 3.4 skews towards

disagree. The standard deviation of 1.5 indicates a high variation in respondent

option choices. The overall conclusion indicates that in the City of Johannesburg

rights and interest conflicts do not exist, or are infrequent.

5.2.4 Question 4:


The mean for this question was 2, and falls within the agree portion of the scale. The

standard deviation of 1.2 indicates a low variation in the number of respondent


73

option choices. Overall, both the standard deviation and the mean support the 49%

of the respondents who agreed that group conflicts do characterise the City of

Johannesburg. The 37% who were unsure and the 14% who disagreed are

considered less significant, as compared to the greater number of respondents who

agreed. These primary findings are consistent with the secondary findings. Wheeler,

Klaas and Mahony (2004) note that conflicts within, or between, groups are quite

common. In any situation which allocates roles and power to individuals, or in which

different rights and expectations are identified with different groups, there is the

potential for opposition, resistance and conflict. Although some respondents

disagreed, the overall scenario is not different from what primary findings in the City

of Johannesburg revealed. Those who disagreed may have done so because they

may perceive that not all conflict is group conflict, it may fall into a different category

viz. organised conflict, un-organised conflict or any other conflict.

When considered as a whole, the average for all the variables in this section are

seemingly confirmed by the results of the hypothesis analysis, which validate the

findings that 47% of respondents agreed workplace disputes in Johannesburg City

are characterised by horizontal, vertical, organised and un-organised conflicts.

5.3 HYPOTHESIS ANALYSIS

5.3.1 H0: Workplace Disputes in the City of Johannesburg are

Characterised by Horizontal; Vertical; Organised; and Un-

Organised Conflicts

5.3.2 H1: Workplace Disputes in the City of Johannesburg are

Not Characterised by Horizontal; Vertical; Organised; and Un-

Organised Conflicts


74

Table 5.1: Hypothesis Analysis

QUESTION AGREE UNSURE DISAGREE MEAN STANDARD

DEVIATION

Q1. 42% 30% 28% 3 1.3

Q2. 59% 19% 22% 2.6 1.3

Q3. 39% 17% 46% 3.4 1.5

Q4. 49% 37% 14% 2 1.2

AVERAGES 47% 26% 27% 3 1.3

Standard Error: S =

√ =

√ = 0.13.

Therefore: from then 1.96 = 3 + 1.96 (0.13) = 0.6448

or 3 – 1.96 (0.13) = 0.1352.

At 95% confidence level, the population means fall between the range of 0.6448 and

0.1352. Either of the two boundaries may, therefore, be chosen.

Z =

=

= 1.81

Decision: Since the calculated Z-score of 1.81 is lower than 1.96, the null

hypothesis (H0) is accepted and the alternative hypothesis (H1) is rejected. The

hypothesis analysis concludes that workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

are characterised by horizontal, vertical, organised and un-organised conflicts.

Nevertheless, there are several factors that can lead to conflicts in organisations.

The primary findings on the causes of conflicts in the City of Johannesburg, and the

extent to which they are consistent with the secondary findings are discussed in the

next section.

5.4 SECTION B: THE CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG


75

5.4.1 Question 5:

The Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg are Due to Goal

Conflicts

According to the primary findings, 28% of respondents agreed that disputes in the

City of Johannesburg are due to goal conflicts; 2% were unsure and 70% disagreed.

Although a larger proportion of respondents disagreed, goal conflict could still be one

of the causes of workplace disputes in Johannesburg City. Shafritz (2001:90) notes

that conflicts arise when individuals or groups pursue different or conflicting goals

from other individuals or groups. Individuals and groups commonly have their own

goals, which are distinct from those of the organisation, and where the pursuit of the

latter does not result in satisfaction of personal or group goals, these may take

precedence. 70% of the respondents disagreed with the hypothesis could be

attributed to this, as they could have been revealing that work conflict is also brought

about by competition, whereby at least one party loses or suffers frustration of their

goals. The greater percentage respondents who disagreed, 70% as opposed to the

28% who allowed that causes of workplace disputes are linked to such issues,

clearly indicates that these factors are a minor cause of conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg. The mean was 4, falling within the disagree range, with a standard

deviation of 1.5, again supporting the disagreeing respondents.

5.4.2 Question 6:

Conflicting Roles are the Causes of Conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg

According to Mossier (1990: 63) one of the causes of disputes in organisations are

goal conflicts. These may arise when an employee does not understand or finds it

unclear what their role is or where two or more people perceive themselves as

carrying out the same role. In theory this should not arise in the formal structuring of

organisations. The primary findings reveal 69% of the respondents opposed the idea

of conflicting roles being the causes of disputes in the City of Johannesburg. 12% of


76

participants agreed with the statement, with 19% remaining uncertain. The mean of

3.4, and standard deviation of 1.7, unequivocally supports the disagreeing

respondents. Management should not, however, use these results to relax, as the

12% of the respondents who stated that some disputes are goal conflict related

could be the tip of an iceberg - symptomatic or indicative of a greater underlying

problem.

5.4.3 Question 7:

Task Inter-Dependency is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the


Colvin (2003:375) notes that organisational work conflict may also arise from task

inter-dependency. As Figure 4.7 illustrated 19% of the respondents agreed that task

inter-dependency is a main cause of conflict in the City of Johannesburg, with 73%

opposing the statement and 8% unsure. The obtained mean of 3.6, skews towards

disagree, supporting the 73% of respondents who differed. The 19% who agreed

correspond with Colvin‘s (2003:375) assertion that workplace conflicts can arise from

task inter-dependency. Colvin (2003:375) cites examples of this, including reciprocal

inter-dependence, where two parties rely upon each other to get to the task

completed. An illustration of this could be a purchasing department needing the

specification of goods required, but the practitioner requiring the purchasing

department to supply details of the goods available.

5.4.4 Question 8:

Competition among Employees is the Main Cause of Conflicts


In addition to the above elements, workplace disputes may arise from other factors.

Cochan, Katz and Mckersie (1994:68) state that conflicts may also arise out of

competition and contend that in organisations this competition can take many forms.


77

Competition may be related to scarce resources; promotion; rewards - in terms of

recognition or money; and may involve both individuals and groups. If the outcome of

the competition is unfavourable to a particular party, or is perceived as such, the

sense of grievance may result in conflict. Competition may also result in frustration of

organisational goals, where it replaces cooperation and may arise from inappropriate

rewards systems. 82% of respondents disagreed with the concept of competition as

a main cause of conflict, backed by a mean of 4.5 and standard deviation of 1.

Despite the much greater percentage who disagreed, compared to the 9% who

concurred, it still remains, as Cochan, Katz and Mckersie (1994:68) reiterate, that

competition is considered one of the main causes of conflicts in organisations, so

this research question is considered unresolved or unsettled.

5.4.5 Question 9:

Communication Failures are the Main Causes of Conflicts in


Bryans and Smith (2000:34) contend that breakdowns in communication processes

or lack of communication may lead to a variety of problems in organisations. These

may cause obstruction in task inter-dependency; a lack of clarity or understanding of

goals and objectives; and significantly, feelings of alienation on the part of the

individual or group. The primary findings are in accord with this concept, although

only 17% of the respondents agreed that communication failures are the main

causes of disputes within Johannesburg City. The result of 82% of respondents

disagreeing and 1 % being uncertain could be attributed to increased conflicts within

Johannesburg City being associated with alternative factors, other than to poor

communication. The mean of 3 is neutral, supporting neither side, although the

standard deviation of 1.9 indicates a high variation in option choice by respondents.


78

5.4.6 Question 10:

Individual and Personality Differences are the Main Causes of

Conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

Dipaola and Hoy (2001:238) cite personality clashes, jealousies and other personal

animosities, either permanent or transitory, as being inevitable when people work

closely together. When people are newly acquainted, or don‘t know each other well,

these tend to be more abrasive and are inclined to lessen and de-escalate over time

tolerance, understanding and acceptable working relationships develop. Personality

conflicts may also happen from clashes due to different styles of interaction, or

differing values or beliefs. 55% of the respondents disagreed, backed by the

standard deviation of 1.6 and mean of 2.7. 2% were unsure and a fairly high

proportion, 43% of respondents, agreed individual and personality differences are a

main cause of conflict in the City of Johannesburg echoing the assertions from

Dipaola and Hoy (2001:238).

5.4.7 Question 11:

Leadership and Control are the Main Causes of Conflicts in


Figure 4.11 reflects that 71% of the respondents disagreed that leadership and

control are the main causes of conflicts in the City of Johannesburg, while 16% of

the respondents agreed and 13% were uncertain. The mean of 3.2 is too weak to

support the respondents disagreeing, being only two units away from neutral,

similarly the standard deviation of 1.8, is too close to neutral to be significant.

Despite the primary findings assertions by Lira, et al (2006), that poor or

inappropriate leadership can result in a lack of direction for individuals and groups,

causing goal and role conflicts, are still valid. This is common where individual

perceptions are allowed to step into a void, left by a lack of organisational or group

consensus. This can arise within both the informal and the formal organisation, due

to indecisive or poor management. The overall results suggest that this could be a


79

minor issue, with little effect on the causes of workplace conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg.

5.4.8 Question 12:

Specialisation is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg

Figure 4.12 shows 64% of the respondents disagreed with the idea that

specialisation is a main cause of conflict in the City of Johannesburg. 17% were

unsure and 19% agreed with the statement. Irregardless of these results, it still

remains that specialisation is one of the causes of conflicts in organisations. It is

considered likely that those respondents who disagreed are possibly stating that if

there is high specialisation, it can lead to conflicts, but as far as the City of

Johannesburg is concerned, this is not yet a significant factor. Such views coincide

with the opinion of Colvin (2004b:581), who stated that highly specialised

departmental structure will tend to lead to inward looking attitudes that hinder inter-

departmental cooperation and cause conflicts. In the City of Johannesburg such

highly specialised departments are Water, Accounting and Legal and it is considered

likely that the agreeing 19% of respondents were considering and referring to these

departments.

5.4.9 Question 13:

Inequity is the Main Cause of Conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg

Inequity can also cause workplace conflicts. 43% of the respondents were uncertain

as to whether inequity is a main cause of conflicts within Johannesburg City, with

22% in accord with the idea and 35% dissenting. The mean of 2.6 and standard

deviation of 1.7, seem to support the respondents who agreed. Such views of

respondents in the primary findings support Colvin (2004a:95) asserting that if


80

individuals consider their treatment to be unjust or unfair, then conflict will arise and

they will feel motivated to restore the balance.

5.4.10 Question 14:


Block, Beck and Olson (1996:54) state that the business environment is subject to

constant changes, whether in the market place from competitors, or more generally,

from technological changes or government policies. A lot of badly handled changes

within a poorly managed organisation may lead to frustration and anger, which in

turn affects how people deal with one another at work. 52% of the respondents

disputed the idea that external changes or threats are the main causes of conflicts in

the City of Johannesburg, while 32% were unsure and 16% agreed. The mean was

3.5 and standard deviation 1, both supporting the disagreeing category. This could

suggest that external changes or threats are not some of the major causes of the

current conflicts in the City of Johannesburg.

To test whether these different factors have a significant bearing on the different

types of workplace conflicts that organisations face, a correlation analysis was

undertaken, using the Pearson Formula, as indicated below.

5.5 CORRELATION BETWEEN THE CAUSES AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT

An analysis of the between the various causes and types of conflict was undertaken

and involved summarising the percentages obtained for the variables in Section A

and B, subsequently adding and dividing by the number, in order to find the

averages. The averages for each of the data sets were then utilised in the correlation

analysis. The variables in Section B which deal with the causes of workplace

conflicts were classified as independent variables X, and the variables in Section A


81

as dependent variables Y. Without the factors in Section B, it is not possible to have

the situation outlined in Section A. The correlation process was as indicated in Table

5.1 below.

Table 5.2: Correlation between the Causes and Different Types of Workplace Conflicts

MEAN AVERAGE

FOR % IN

SECTION B (X)

MEAN AVERAGE

FOR % IN

SECTION A (Y)

xy x2 y2

20 47 940 400 2209

15 26 390 225 676

65 27 1755 4225 729

x=100 y=100 xy=3085 x2=4850 y2

=3614

Using Pearson co-efficient correlation formula:

* ( ), ( )-+

√ * ( ) , ( ) √ ⌈ ⟨ ( ) ⟩⌉-+

= ( )|( )( )

√ ( ) ( )√ ( ) ( )

=

√ √

=

= 0.4

Using SPSS and Pearson‘s co-efficient correlation formulae the result of the analysis

was 0.4. This result falls between 0 and 1, therefore demonstrating a strong positive

correlation between the different types of workplace conflicts, such as vertical and

horizontal conflicts; organised and un-organised conflicts; rights and interest

conflicts; and group conflicts as discussed in Section A and the causes of workplace

conflicts as outlined and examined in Section B, including goal conflicts; role conflict;

task inter-dependency; competition; communication failures; individual and

personality differences; leadership and control; specialisation; inequity; violation of


82

territory; and external changes or threats. The findings of the correlation analysis

reveals that the existence of these factors are most likely to lead to the existence of

such different types of conflicts in organisations. This finding supports the contention

of Gosline et al (2001:119) that these are the common causes of workplace conflicts

in organisations.

5.6 HYPOTHESIS TESTING

The hypothesis testing in this section was intended to establish whether the main

causes of workplace conflicts are individual and organisational factors. If the null

hypothesis is accepted, it may indicate these factors and other additional factors,

such as external changes and threats cause workplace conflict. The findings below

prove whether or not such an assumption is correct.

5.6.1 H0: The Main Causes of Workplace Conflicts are Not

Individual and Organisational Factors

5.6.2 H1: The Main Causes of Workplace Conflicts are

Individual and Organisational Factors


83


QUESTION AGREE UNSURE DISAGREE MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION

Q5. 28% 2% 70% 4 1.5

Q6. 12% 19% 69% 3.4 1.7

Q7. 19% 8% 73% 3.6 1.8

Q8. 9% 9% 82% 4.5 1

Q9. 17% 1% 82% 3 1.9

Q10. 43% 2% 55% 2.7 1.6

Q11. 16% 13% 71% 3.2 1.8

Q12. 19% 17% 64% 3.9 1.3

Q13. 22% 43% 35% 2.6 1.7

Q14. 16% 32% 52% 3.5 1

AVERAGE 20% 15% 65% 3.5 1.5

Standard Error of S =

√ =

√ = 0.15

Therefore: from then ±1.96 = 3.5 + 1.96 (0.15) = 0.8190

or 3.5 – 1.96 (0.15) = 0.2310


0.2310. Either of the two boundaries could, therefore, be chosen.

Z =

=

= 17.873

Decision: Since the calculated Z-score of 17.873 is greater than 1.96, the null

hypothesis (H0) is thus rejected and the alternative hypothesis (H1) is accepted. The

results of the hypothesis analysis indicate that most of the causes of workplace

conflict in organisations are individual and organisational related. According to

Cochan, Katz and Mckersie (1994:68), and Cochan, Katz and Mckersie (1994:68),

the main causes of workplace conflicts are: goal conflicts; role conflict; task inter-

dependency; competition; communication failures; individual and personality

differences; leadership and control; specialisation; inequity; and violation of territory.


84

A thorough analysis would reveal that most of these factors are either individual or

organisational. In effect, if the results of the hypothesis testing reveal the same, then

holding such assumptions is justifiable.

What is notable is that organisations that fail to address workplace conflicts at their

early stages are more prone to experience negative effects, than those that

undertake steps channelled at solving conflicts at their early stages. The discussions

of the primary findings, visa vis those of the secondary findings, are contained in the

section below.

5.7 SECTION C: THE IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS ON WORKER PERFORMANCE IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG

According to Klein (2003:90), McCraken, and Wallace (2000: 467), and Moller,

Benscoter, and Rohrer-Murphy (2000: 95) workplace conflicts can negatively affect

employee motivation; job satisfaction; morale; and performance. The findings

relating to motivation are discussed in this section.

5.7.1 Question 15:

Conflicts Have Led to Increased Negative Effects on

Motivation

Although 42% of the respondents disagreed that conflicts have led to increased

negative effects on motivation 56% agreed and 2% were unsure. The mean score

was 2.3 and standard deviation 1.2. The mean of 2.3 certainly indicates that on

average the majority agreed that the current workplace conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg do affect the employee motivation. The standard deviation of 1.2

indicates that a moderate variation in the number of respondents choosing other

options. The 56% who agreed are in sync with McCraken, and Wallace (2000: 467),

who state that conflicts among employees or between management and employees

can have a significant negative effects on employee motivation. It was to be


85

expected that the majority are in accord with the posited hypothesis. The

respondents who disagreed could have been those who are perhaps not involved in

any form of conflicts or have never experienced any disputes. They could not, thus,

be expected to know the negative effects arising from workplace conflicts.

5.7.2 Question 16:


Drafke and Kossen (2002:315) reveal that one of the negative effects of workplace

conflicts can be shown in job dissatisfaction. Although 47% of the respondents

agreed that conflicts have increased job dissatisfaction in the City of Johannesburg,

13% were unsure and 40% disagreed. A mean of 3 and standard deviation of1.3

remain fairly neutral. What was manifestly clear was the view of 47% who agreed

that workplace conflict leads to increased job dissatisfaction and management

should not be over-excited about the views of the 40% of respondents who

dissented.

5.7.3 Question 17:


Bhattacharyya (2002:409) and Ghauri (2005:68) note that the concept of workplace

conflict is also directly linked to improved employee morale in organisations. Ghauri

(2005:68) states that employee morale refers to the positive attitudes and feelings

which drive employees to accomplish their particular allocated tasks. Gerber et al

(2001:390) observe that employee morale can be significantly affected by workplace

conflicts. The situation in the City of Johannesburg does not differ, with 44% of the

respondents stating that conflicts have led to declined employee morale, compared

to 24% who were unsure and 32% who disagreed with the statement. The mean of

2.2 and standard deviation of 1.2 supports the agreeing respondents.


86

5.7.4 Question 18:


Figure 4.18 illustrates that 48% of the respondents agreed that conflicts have

negatively affected employee performance, 23% were unsure and 29% disagreed.

This is not contrary to the secondary findings. Khan, Afzal and Rehman (2009:480)

comment that task conflict can prove to be productive and augment team

performance, as it tends to lead to better decisions. Simons and Peterson (2000)

argue that task conflicts promote team member ability and perceptions about

decision-making effectiveness. There is no perfect relation between task conflict and

performance. Stephen and Julia (1995:56), and Bingham (2007:104) highlight that

task conflict tends to reduce member satisfaction and commitment, and

subsequently employee performance. It is certainly difficult to determine which side

had the greater weight, as the mean of 3 is neutral. The standard deviation of 1.3

reflects a more moderate and equal distribution in the number of option choices by

the respondents.

5.7.5 Question 19:


ABE (2008:259) and Medina, Munduate, Dorado and Guerra (2005:219) reveal that

workplace conflicts may have some unique consequences, such as increased

operational costs. These increased costs arise from the fact that the organisation

must recruit to replace those who are resigning as a result of workplace conflicts.

Costs may also be incurred in terms of time and expenses involved in mediation and

arbitrations. In the City of Johannesburg, despite the fact that 77% of the

respondents agreed that conflicts have led to increased operational costs, 5%

disagreed and 18% were unsure. The mean score was 2 and standard deviation .7,

which strongly supports the respondents agreeing. In effect, both the primary and

secondary findings confirm that workplace conflicts lead to increased operational

costs.


87

5.7.6 Question 20:

Workplace Conflicts Have Led to Increased Labour Turnover


Lira et al (2006) and Lusch and Serkenci (1990:85) agree that workplace conflicts, if

not checked, can lead to increased labour turnover. The findings in the City of

Johannesburg confirm this as 68% of the respondents agreed that workplace

conflicts have led to increased labour turnover, 17% were unsure and 15%

disagreed. A mean of 2.3 and standard deviation of .9 backs the respondents

agreeing. Since resignation of an employee is the last resort, may explain why some

of the respondents disagreed that workplace conflicts are causing increased labour

turnover.

The types, the causes and impacts of workplace conflicts have been discussed

above, and the assumption that workplace conflicts do or do not impact positively on

employees‘ performance will be tested by the hypothesis testing.

5.8 HYPOTHESIS TESTING 5.8.1 H0: Workplace Conflicts Impact Positively on Employee

Performance

5.8.2 H1: Workplace Conflicts Have Negative Impacts on

Employee Performance.


88


QUESTION AGREE UNSURE DISAGREE MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION

Q15. 56% 2% 42% 2.3 1.2

Q16. 47% 13% 40% 3 1.3

Q17. 44% 24% 32% 2.2 1.2

Q18. 48% 23% 29% 3 1.3

Q19. 77% 18% 5% 2 .7

Q20. 68% 17% 15% 2.3 .9

AVERAGE 57% 16% 27% 2.5 1.1

Z =

=

= 17.873.

Standard Error of S =

√ =

√ = 0.11

Therefore: from then ±1.96 = 2.5 + 1.96 (0.11) = 0.4906

or 2.5 – 1.96 (0.11) = 0.0594


0.0594, therefore either of the two boundaries could be selected.

Z =

=

= 18.267

Decision: Since the calculated Z-score of 18.267 is greater than 1.96, the null

hypothesis (H0) is thus rejected and the alternative hypothesis (H1) is accepted. The

results of the hypothesis analysis indicate that workplace conflicts have more

negative than positive impacts on employee performance. Such a finding syncs with

the views of Klein (2003:90); McCraken and Wallace (2000: 467) and Moller,

Benscoter and Rohrer-Murphy (2000: 95) that workplace conflicts are more often

associated with negative results, rather than positive effects.


89

The correlation analysis below outlines the relationship between the types and

impacts of workplace conflicts faced by organisations.

5.9 CORRELATION BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT AND THE IMPACT ON ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE

Table 5.5: Correlation Assessment

MEAN AVERAGE

FOR % IN

SECTION B (X)

MEAN AVERAGE

FOR % IN

SECTION A (Y)

xy x2 y2

47 57 2679 2209 3249

26 16 416 676 256

27 27 729 729 729

x=100 =100 xy=3824 x2=3614 2

=4234

Using Pearson co-efficient correlation formula:

* ( ), ( )-+

√ * ( ) , ( ) √ ⌈ ⟨ ( ) ⟩⌉-+

= ( )|( )( )

√ ( ) ( )√ ( ) ( )

=

√ √

=

= 0.9

Using SPSS and Pearson‘s co-efficient correlation formula, the result of the analysis

was 0.9. This correlation analysis was intended to assess the extent to which the

different types of workplace conflicts converge to impact negatively within an

organisation. To complete this analysis the variable set in Section A, which dealt with


90

the types of workplace conflicts and the variables in Section C, concerning the

impacts of workplace conflicts, were used. The finding, reflected above, was a 0.9

correlation factor, which falls between 0 and 1. This demonstrates a strong positive

correlation between the types of workplace conflicts existing within an organisation

and the negative impacts that it suffers. This conclusion corresponds with the

arguments, ideas and views of Klein (2003:90); McCraken and Wallace (2000: 467);

and Moller, Benscoter and Rohrer-Murphy (2000: 95) that workplace conflicts can

impact negatively on employee motivation, morale, satisfaction and performance.

5.10 CONCLUSIONS

This chapter revealed that the primary findings establish that workplace conflicts, in

the City of Johannesburg, are characterised by horizontal; vertical; organised; and

un-organised conflicts. The secondary research determined the causes of these

conflicts are, apparently, linked to goal conflicts; role conflict; task inter-dependency;

competition; communication failures; individual and personality differences;

leadership and control; specialisation; inequity; violation of territory; and external

changes or threats. The primary findings highlighted that these conflicts, additionally,

impact negatively on motivation; job satisfaction; morale; employee performance;

and operational costs. It was established during the primary research that the

management of Johannesburg City is quite adamant and inflexible in their stance

and conflict resolution mechanisms, despite experiencing the above negative

consequences of workplace conflicts. It is concluded, given the aim of this study to

assess and examine the types, causes and impacts of workplace conflict within the

City of Johannesburg, that the research questions have been satisfactorily answered

and the objectives of the study reached, considering especially the quality of the

information gleaned, assessed and discussed. The next, and final, chapter discusses

the conclusions and recommendations for the study.


91

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter reviews the general conclusions and recommendations of the study.

This includes discussion about the study findings; conclusions about the relationship,

and correlation, between the primary and secondary research results and the

recommendations of the study.

6.2 THE STUDY FINDINGS


managing workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg and to suggest

appropriate measures to deal effectively with conflict related issues. The secondary

research objectives, with relation to the City of Johannesburg, were to determine the

types; examine the causes and establish the impact of workplace conflict on worker

performance; along with assessing the procedures, and the effectiveness of these

measures, for dealing with these disputes.

The research questions for this study were:


Johannesburg?

What are the causes of workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg?


of Johannesburg?

Are the procedures for dealing with workplace conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg appropriate?


92



The research hypotheses, which the study sought to respond to, were:

The main causes of workplace conflicts are:

H0: Not individual and organisational factors.

H1: Individual and Organisational factors.

Workplace conflicts impact:

H0: Positively on employees‘ performance.

H1: Negatively on employees‘ performance.

This study is considered justifiable and necessary, in that it was anticipated to lead to

a review of the current approach to managing workplace conflict within

Johannesburg City. It is expected, that if such a review were undertaken, it would

lead to the reduction of workplace conflicts, which would be anticipated,

subsequently, to significantly impact on improved communication within the

organisation; job satisfaction; commitment; and morale, leading to enhanced

employee performance. This would in turn lead to an overall general increase and

improvement in organisational performance, efficiency and efficacy. The main target

of this research is to lead to an improved structure and function of the entire City of

Johannesburg establishment. This six chapter study comprised of: Chapter One -

Introduction; Chapter Two - Literature Review; Chapter Three - Research Design

and Methodology; Chapter Four – Findings; Chapter Five – Discussions; and

Chapter Six - Conclusions and Recommendations. The conclusions relating to the

secondary and primary findings are reflected below.


93

6.3 CONCLUSION

This section dealt with the correlation and correspondence between the primary and

secondary findings of the study. This section was aligned to the research questions

and objectives of the study, which considered, with relation to workplace disputes,

the types, causes and impacts on worker performance, along with control and

resolution measures and mechanisms. This section also considers the extent to

which the research questions have been answered and research objectives fulfilled.

6.4 THE CONCEPT OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS

According to the secondary research, managing workplace conflict is an essential

prerequisite for improving employee productivity and general organisational

performance. It was noted in the secondary research that effective conflict

management strategies create a favourable work environment and are conducive to

improving employee job satisfaction; morale; motivation; and commitment to the

allocated job. The secondary research established that a conflict refers to a

condition, which arises whenever the perceived interests of an individual or a group

clash with those of another individual or group, in such a way that strong emotions

are aroused and compromise is not considered as an option. The secondary

research highlighted that conflict arises when one or more person tries to ensure that

their preferred outcome is achieved, to the detriment of others, or the destruction or

obliteration of another‘s targeted ending. The secondary findings discussed different

types of workplace conflict, including: vertical and horizontal; organised and un-

organised; rights and interest; and group conflicts.

These secondary findings correlated to the primary findings, as shown in Chapter

Five‘s discussions, where most of the respondents were of the opinion that the

nature of the workplace conflict in the City of Johannesburg is both vertical and

horizontal. Certain respondents also allowed that organised and un-organised

conflicts feature in disputes occurring within the City of Johannesburg. 37% of the

respondents concurred that rights and interest conflicts also transpire within the City

of Johannesburg, however 46% of the respondents disagreed and 17% were unsure.


94

A significant number of respondents were found, in the primary research, to have

concurred that group conflicts are common within the City of Johannesburg.

6.5 CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS

It was established that the secondary and primary findings were in accord with each

other, when concerning the common causes of workplace conflicts. The secondary

research discussed the idea that the causes of workplace conflicts are usually

related. These causes include:

Goal Conflicts

Role Conflicts

Task Inter-Dependency

Competition

Communication Failures

Individual and Personality Differences

Leadership and Control

Specialisation

Inequity

Violation of Territory


The primary study established that the common causes of workplace conflicts, as

listed above, all play an elemental role in disputes that arise within the City of

Johannesburg. The secondary research discovered that if positive impacts from

workplace conflicts do occur, they are marginal or minimal; in most cases conflicts

have been found to be undesirable, irrespective of their magnitude.


95

6.6 THE IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT ON WORKER PERFORMANCE

The secondary findings isolated some of the negative effects of workplace conflicts,

these are:

Negative Effects on Motivation

Increased Job Dissatisfaction

Declined Employee Morale

Decreased Employee Performance

Increased Operational Costs

To combat such negative consequences arising from workplace conflicts, the

secondary research established that in most cases organisations use multiple

strategies, which range in approach from managemental to individual techniques.

6.7 STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CONFLICTS

The secondary findings determined that when conflicts occur, there are various

resolution strategies. Two major approaches are changing the situation from which

the conflict has arisen or deflecting the conflict by re-orientating the goals of the

parties. These and other possible approaches or strategies for managing conflicts

are mentioned below:

Changing Situational Factors

Promoting Subordinate Goals

Profit-Sharing

Co-partnership

Inter-Personal Techniques


96

6.8 PATTERNS OF UTILISATION OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

The secondary research included discussions of alternate measures used to contain

workplace conflicts. These covered the more common external and internal

processes.

External Conflict Management Systems:

Union Dispute Resolution Procedures

Non-Union Conflict Management Systems

Internal Conflict Management Systems:

Open door policy models

Ombudsman

Managerial Mediation

Peer Review Boards

Executive Panel

The primary findings revealed that workplace conflicts have led to increased

negative effects on motivation; job dissatisfaction; declining employee morale and

performance; increased operational costs; and increased labour turnover in the City

of Johannesburg. Although the impacts of workplace conflict are more negative, it

was established in the primary study that the management of the City of

Johannesburg has not utilised the essential strategies for reducing such detrimental

effects.

With the findings ascertained by the undertaken research it has been established

that the research questions and objectives of the study, have been answered and


97

fulfilled respectively. Considering that there were some negative findings pertaining

to workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg, it is imperative that the

management takes into consideration the recommendations suggested below.

6.9 RECOMMENDATIONS

The following measures need to be undertaken by the management of the City of

Johannesburg in order to reduce the possibility of workplace conflicts and their

detrimental effects.

6.9.1 SECTION A:

THE TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN


6.9.1.1 Adopt Proper Job Design and Improve Communication

The findings which revealed that workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg are

vertical and horizontal can be addressed by having proper job specifications and

improving communication between the sub-ordinates and colleagues. Designing

appropriate company policy on issues of insubordination would help in reducing

vertical conflicts, which are fairly common between a boss and sub-ordinates.

6.9.1.2 Develop Grievance Discussions Forum

It was also revealed in the primary study that un-organised and organised conflicts

characterise the City of Johannesburg. These could be addressed by developing

proper forums, through which different groups or individuals in Johannesburg City

can meet to discuss and resolve their grievances. This may also reduce rights and

interest conflicts which also occur within the organisation.


98

6.9.2 SECTION B:

THE CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS IN THE CITY OF

JOHANNESBURG

With regard to the common workplace conflicts identified in the primary findings, the

following strategies for managing workplace conflicts could be adopted.

6.9.2.1 Promoting Subordinate Goals

Guetzkow and Gyr (1954:81) suggest that this technique is designed to reduce or

resolve goal conflict by refocusing the goals that individuals or groups pursue. The

aim is to promote the organisational goals over and above those of the individual or

group.

6.9.2.2 Profit-Sharing

Amazon and Sapienza (1997:495) propose that, in order to blur the distinction

between the two sides of the industry, some organisations in the business sector

give their staff a share in the profits of the company, in addition to their normal

wages. The firm usually pays its staff a fixed share of the profits, which is divided

among the employees on the basis of seniority; length of service; and other agreed

criteria. Profit-sharing schemes aim to bridge the gap between capital and labour,

and tend to increase morale within an organisation. These schemes may reduce

labour turnover, as employees have an incentive to stay on and build up a long

service record, in order to improve the size of their share of profits.


99

6.9.2.3 Co-Partnership

Co-partnership supplies the employees the advantage of profit-sharing and adds a

sense of ownership in the organisation. Where worker directors are elected, the

employees feel they have some say in the running of the business.

6.9.2.4 Inter-Personal Techniques

Friedman, Tidd, Currall and Tsai (2003:32) highlights that managers need to have

the skills to reduce or resolve conflicts at the inter-personal level, both between

themselves and sub-ordinates, and between the individual or groups within their

purview. The basis of such a technique is an assessment of the causes and required

outcomes of the conflict and this necessitates both involvement and detachment.

Involvement demands that managers must listen and explore the views of all parties

involved. Detachment provides that managers must undertake an objective

assessment of the causes and the positions taken. Thomas (1997) identifies five

conflict handling modes which may be used by managers, these are:

Avoidance

Accommodation

Competition

Compromise

Collaboration


100

6.9.2.5 Union Dispute Resolution Procedures

Goldberg (2005) reiterates that grievance mediation, as a prelude to arbitration, can

serve as an effective means of resolving many workplace disputes in a unionised

setting. Although labour arbitration has been widely used since the 1940s, it has

been the subject of criticism for many years. It was intended to be fast, inexpensive,

and informal, and it certainly meet those objectives when compared to the traditional

court litigation. Goldberg (2005) states, however, that over time, much arbitration has

grown into a slow, expensive and formal process. There is a sense among many

labour management professionals that the decision in arbitration is often irrelevant to

the problem that caused the initial grievance to be filed. Goldberg adds that there

also appears to be a sense among many labour management professionals that the

arbitration process is abused at times, by both management and labour.

6.9.2.6 Non-Union Conflict Management Systems

Colvin (2006) and Lewin (2004) state that over half of non-union organisations have

some type of formal dispute resolution and/or conflict management process. They

added, however, that contrary to the rather limited forms found in union settings,

these mechanisms are diverse and fluid, with a variety of forms and structures.

Before embarking on an analysis of these processes, it is important to make a critical

distinction in their respective functions. One category of actions is known as

determination procedures, and involves an Alternative Dispute Resolution actor, who

facilitates the resolution of a dispute. Arbitration is a typical determination procedure,

whereas mediation involves a facilitation technique. Lipsky (2003) puts forward two

main conflict management systems i.e. internal and external processes. Internal

processes include: open door policies; ombudsmen; managerial mediation; and peer

review boards. The main external processes are outside mediation and arbitration.

External processes are more expensive and are usually utilised later in the dispute.


101

6.10 CONCLUSIONS

This chapter discussed the overall, general conclusions and recommendations of the

study. A suggested area for further studies would be: ‗Investigating the causes of

workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg.‘


102

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108

QUESTIONNAIRE

ON MANANGING WORKPLACE CONFLICTS IN THE CITY OF

JOHANNESBURG

INSTRUCTIONS:

Kindly provide your opinion, according to the following codes:

Strongly Agree–1; Agree–2; Unsure–3; Disagree–4; Strongly Disagree–5

SECTION A:

THE TYPES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS PREVALENT IN THE CITY OF

JOHANNESBURG

ITEMS CODES

SA A U D SD

1. Vertical and horizontal conflicts characterise the City of

Johannesburg

2. Organised and un-organised conflicts characterise the


3. Rights and interest conflicts characterise the City of

Johannesburg

4. Group Conflicts characterise the City of Johannesburg


109

SECTION B:

THE CAUSES OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG

ITEMS CODES

SA A U D SD

5. The conflicts in the City of Johannesburg are due to goal

conflicts

6. Conflicting roles are the causes of conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg

7. Task inter-dependency is the main cause of conflicts in


8. Competition among employees is the main cause of

conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

9. Communication failures are the main causes of conflicts


10. Individual and personality differences are the main

causes of conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

11. Leadership and control are the main causes of conflicts


12. Specialisation is the main cause of conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg

13. Inequity is the main cause of conflicts in the City of

Johannesburg

14. External changes or threats are the main causes of

conflicts in the City of Johannesburg


110

SECTION C:

THE IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE CONFLICTS ON WORKERS’ PERFORMANCE

IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG

ITEMS CODES

SA A U D SD

15. Conflicts have led to increased negative effects on

motivation

16. Conflicts have increased job dissatisfaction

17. Conflicts have led to a declined employees‘ morale

18. Conflicts have negatively affected employee

performance

19. Conflicts have led to increased operational costs

SECTION D: THE MEASURES FOR REDUCING WORKPLACE CONFLICTS IN


ITEMS CODES

SA A U D SD

20. There exist inter-personal techniques to reduce

workplace conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

21. There exist Union Dispute Resolution Procedures for

effectively resolving conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

22. There exist Non Union Conflict Management Systems

for resolving conflicts in the City of Johannesburg

23. There exist Internal Conflict Management Systems for

resolving conflicts in the City of Johannesburg


111

APPENDIX 1:

DATA ANALYSIS SPSS OUTPUT

FREQUENCY VARIABLES = VAR00001 VAR00002 VAR00003 VAR00004 VAR00005

VAR00006 VAR00007 VAR00008 VAR00009 VAR00010 VAR00011 VAR00012 VAR00013


VAR00022 VAR00023 VAR00024

/ ORDER = ANALYSIS.

Frequencies:

Table A1: Notes

Output Created: 15-Apr-2011

22:16:55

Comments:

Input: Data:

Active Dataset: DataSet2

Filter: <none>

Weight: <none>

Split File: <none>

N of Rows in Working Data File: 104

Handling of Missing Values: Definition of Missing: User-defined missing values are treated as

missing.

Cases Used: Statistics are based on all cases with valid

data.

Syntax: FREQUENCY VARIABLES =

VAR00001 VAR00002 VAR00003

VAR00004 VAR00005 VAR00006

VAR00007 VAR00008 VAR00009

VAR00010 VAR00011 VAR00012

VAR00013 VAR00014 VAR00015

VAR00016 VAR00017 VAR00018

VAR00019 VAR00020 VAR00021

VAR00022 VAR00023 VAR00024

/ ORDER=ANALYSIS

Resources: Processor Time: 00:00:00.015

Elapsed Time: 00:00:00.017


112

Statistic Tables:

Tables A2 to A5: Statistics

Table A2: Statistics

VAR00001 VAR00002 VAR00003 VAR00004 VAR00005 VAR00006

N

Valid 100 100 100 100 100 100

Missing 4 4 4 4 4 4



N

Valid 100 100 100 100 100 100

Missing 4 4 4 4 4 4



N

Valid 100 100 100 100 100 100

Missing 4 4 4 4 4 4



N

Valid 100 100 100 100 100 100

Missing 4 4 4 4 4 4


113

Frequency Tables:

Tables A6 to A29: Variable Frequency Tables

Table A6: Frequency Table for Variable VAR00001 VAR00001

Frequency Percentage Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid: 1.00 7 6.7 7.0 7.0

2.00 35 33.7 35.0 42.0

3.00 30 28.8 30.0 72.0

5.00 28 26.9 28.0 100.0

Total 100 96.2 100.0 Missing: System 4 3.8 Total: 104 100.0



Valid 1.00 18 17.3 18.0 18.0

2.00 41 39.4 41.0 59.0

3.00 19 18.3 19.0 78.0

4.00 4 3.8 4.0 82.0

5.00 18 17.3 18.0 100.0

Total 100 96.2 100.0 Missing System 4 3.8 Total 104 100.0



Valid 1.00 11 10.6 11.0 11.0

2.00 26 25.0 26.0 37.0

3.00 17 16.3 17.0 54.0

4.00 3 2.9 3.0 57.0

5.00 43 41.3 43.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 13 12.5 13.0 13.0

2.00 36 34.6 36.0 49.0

3.00 37 35.6 37.0 86.0

4.00 5 4.8 5.0 91.0

5.00 9 8.7 9.0 100.0



114



Valid 1.00 8 7.7 8.0 8.0

2.00 20 19.2 20.0 28.0

3.00 2 1.9 2.0 30.0

4.00 1 1.0 1.0 31.0

5.00 69 66.3 69.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 2 1.9 2.0 2.0

2.00 10 9.6 10.0 12.0

3.00 19 18.3 19.0 31.0

4.00 2 1.9 2.0 33.0

5.00 67 64.4 67.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 11 10.6 11.0 11.0

2.00 8 7.7 8.0 19.0

3.00 8 7.7 8.0 27.0

4.00 3 2.9 3.0 30.0

5.00 70 67.3 70.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 1 1.0 1.0 1.0

2.00 8 7.7 8.0 9.0

3.00 9 8.7 9.0 18.0

4.00 5 4.8 5.0 23.0

5.00 77 74.0 77.0 100.0



115



Valid 1.00 4 3.8 4.0 4.0

2.00 13 12.5 13.0 17.0

4.00 1 1.0 1.0 18.0

5.00 82 78.8 82.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 12 11.5 12.0 12.0

2.00 31 29.8 31.0 43.0

3.00 2 1.9 2.0 45.0

4.00 17 16.3 17.0 62.0

5.00 38 36.5 38.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 3 2.9 3.0 3.0

2.00 13 12.5 13.0 16.0

3.00 13 12.5 13.0 29.0

4.00 6 5.8 6.0 35.0

5.00 65 62.5 65.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 5 4.8 5.0 5.0

2.00 14 13.5 14.0 19.0

3.00 17 16.3 17.0 36.0

4.00 12 11.5 12.0 48.0

5.00 52 50.0 52.0 100.0



116



Valid 2.00 7 6.7 7.0 7.0

3.00 15 14.4 15.0 22.0

4.00 43 41.3 43.0 65.0

5.00 35 33.7 35.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 2 1.9 2.0 2.0

2.00 14 13.5 14.0 16.0

3.00 32 30.8 32.0 48.0

4.00 38 36.5 38.0 86.0

5.00 14 13.5 14.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 12 11.5 12.0 12.0

2.00 44 42.3 44.0 56.0

3.00 2 1.9 2.0 58.0

4.00 10 9.6 10.0 68.0

5.00 32 30.8 32.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 11 10.6 11.0 11.0

2.00 36 34.6 36.0 47.0

3.00 13 12.5 13.0 60.0

4.00 21 20.2 21.0 81.0

5.00 19 18.3 19.0 100.0



117



Valid 1.00 10 9.6 10.0 10.0

2.00 34 32.7 34.0 44.0

3.00 24 23.1 24.0 68.0

4.00 27 26.0 27.0 95.0

5.00 5 4.8 5.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 6 5.8 6.0 6.0

2.00 42 40.4 42.0 48.0

3.00 23 22.1 23.0 71.0

4.00 5 4.8 5.0 76.0

5.00 24 23.1 24.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 16 15.4 16.0 16.0

2.00 61 58.7 61.0 77.0

3.00 18 17.3 18.0 95.0

4.00 4 3.8 4.0 99.0

5.00 1 1.0 1.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 14 13.5 14.0 14.0

2.00 54 51.9 54.0 68.0

3.00 17 16.3 17.0 85.0

4.00 14 13.5 14.0 99.0

5.00 1 1.0 1.0 100.0



118



Valid 1.00 1 1.0 1.0 1.0

2.00 34 32.7 34.0 35.0

3.00 38 36.5 38.0 73.0

4.00 10 9.6 10.0 83.0

5.00 17 16.3 17.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 9 8.7 9.0 9.0

2.00 20 19.2 20.0 29.0

3.00 31 29.8 31.0 60.0

4.00 21 20.2 21.0 81.0

5.00 19 18.3 19.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 1 1.0 1.0 1.0

2.00 20 19.2 20.0 21.0

3.00 25 24.0 25.0 46.0

4.00 39 37.5 39.0 85.0

5.00 15 14.4 15.0 100.0




Valid 1.00 1 1.0 1.0 1.0

2.00 36 34.6 36.0 37.0

3.00 43 41.3 43.0 80.0

4.00 20 19.2 20.0 100.0

5.00 1 1.0 1.0 1.0



119

DATA ANALYSIS - DESCRIPTIVES

DESCRIPTIVES VARIABLES = VAR00001 VAR00002 VAR00003 VAR00004 VAR00005



VAR00022 VAR00023 VAR00024

/ STATISTICS=MEAN STD DEV MIN-MAX.

Descriptives:

Table A30: Notes

Output Created: 15-Apr-2011

22:27:54

Comments:

Input: Data:

Active Dataset: DataSet2

Filter: <none>

Weight: <none>

Split File: <none>

N of Rows in Working Data File: 104

Handling of Missing Values: Definition of Missing: User-defined missing values are treated as

missing.

Cases Used: Statistics are based on all cases with valid

data. All valid supplied data is utilised.

Syntax: FREQUENCY VARIABLES =

VAR00001 VAR00002 VAR00003

VAR00004 VAR00005 VAR00006

VAR00007 VAR00008 VAR00009

VAR00010 VAR00011 VAR00012

VAR00013 VAR00014 VAR00015

VAR00016 VAR00017 VAR00018

VAR00019 VAR00020 VAR00021

VAR00022 VAR00023 VAR00024

/ STATISTICS=MEAN STDDEV MIN-MAX

Resources: Processor Time: 00:00:00.000

Elapsed Time: 00:00:00.031


120

Descriptive Table:

Table A31: Descriptive Statistics

Variable N Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation

VAR00001 100 1.00 5.00 3.0700 1.32768

VAR00002 100 1.00 5.00 2.6300 1.33072

VAR00003 100 1.00 5.00 3.4100 1.51821

VAR00004 100 1.00 5.00 2.0700 1.16563

VAR00005 100 1.00 5.00 4.0300 1.50054

VAR00006 100 1.00 5.00 3.3900 1.75749

VAR00007 100 1.00 5.00 3.5700 1.83818

VAR00008 100 1.00 5.00 4.4900 1.01995

VAR00009 100 1.00 5.00 3.1100 1.90637

VAR00010 100 1.00 5.00 2.7200 1.60856

VAR00011 100 1.00 5.00 3.1700 1.78691

VAR00012 100 1.00 5.00 3.9200 1.30794

VAR00013 100 1.00 5.00 2.6100 1.76895

VAR00014 100 1.00 5.00 3.4800 .96901

VAR00015 100 1.00 5.00 2.2700 1.22972

VAR00016 100 1.00 5.00 3.0100 1.33708

VAR00017 100 1.00 5.00 2.1500 1.20080

VAR00018 100 1.00 5.00 2.9900 1.29876

VAR00019 100 1.00 5.00 2.1300 .76085

VAR00020 100 1.00 5.00 2.3400 .92354

VAR00021 100 1.00 5.00 2.6200 1.12618

VAR00022 100 1.00 5.00 2.9300 1.32005

VAR00023 100 1.00 5.00 3.0200 .99473

VAR00024 100 1.00 5.00 3.1200 1.27351

Valid N (listwise)

100

Managing Workplace Conflicts: A Case Study In The City Of Johannesburg

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