Madagascar Before the Conquest - Forgotten Books

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE

CONQUEST

THE ISLAND,THE COUNTRY

,AND THE PEOPLE

WITH CHAPTERS ON TRAVEL AND TOPOGRAPHY

,FOLK-LORE

,STRANGE CUSTOMS

AND SUPERSTITIONS , THE ANIMAL L I FEOF THE ISLAND ,

AND MISSION WORKAND PROGRESS AMONG THE INHABITANTS

BY THE

REV . JAMES SIBREE,

fllz'

ssionary of the LJLS .

AUTHOR OF“THE GREAT AFRICAN ISLAND,

"A MADAGASCAR BIBLIOGRAPHY,

"THE BIRDS OF MADAGASCAR,

”ETC .

WITH MAPS AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATI ONS

FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

LONDON

T . F IS HER UNW IN

PATERNOSTER SQUARE

1 896

07“

HLMMM 455

PREFACE.

THIS is my third book on Madagascar,and probably some o f

my readers may be disp osed to ask what mo re I can have to

say about the country or the people. The fo l lowing pages fo rm

a reply to such a question,and i t may be further said in explana

tion that it is now twenty-Six years S ince the publ ication of my

fi rst book I and s ixteen s ince the second 2 was issued and that

S ince the latter o f those dates much new info rmation has been

accumulating with regard to the physi cal geography, geo logy,fauna and flo ra

,and ethno logy o f Madagascar.

During the thi rty-two years that I have been connected with

this great island , I have been continual ly co l lecting info rmation

and writing about i t,chiefly in the Antmzdnarz

‘

vo Annual,a pub

lication issued every year in the capital,as wel l as in the

Proceedings o f various Engl ish societies ; but as these papers

are only known to a l im i ted C lass o f readers , I have thought

that at this time, when public attention is being again cal led to

Madagascar, the info rmation given in the fo l lowing pages would

be interesting to the publ ic general ly. They wil l , I trust, give

to many a clearer no tion o f what kind o f place this country is,and what so rt o f people they are who inhabit it.

I here express my obligations to my friend , M . A lfred

Grandidier, for perm iss ion to translate and reproduce much

that is valuable from his numerous publ ications referring'

to

Madagascar in the French language.

Madagascar and its People2 The GreatAfrican Island (Triibner,

PREFACE .

I have also to thank my friends, Mr. J . Parrett and D r. S . B .

Fenn,for being able to reproduce several pho tographs which

ado rn these pages.

And , lastly, my grateful thanks are due to the Rev. W .

E. Cousins for his great kindness in co rrecting the proofs , so

far at least as Malagasy wo rds are employed . I t has,of course,

been a disadvantage that I could not personal ly revise the

proofs when the wo rk was passing through the press, and I

must plead that in excuse for any faults that may be dis

covered by the cri tical reader. The publisher haS done his

best to m inim ise the difficulties necessari ly invo lved in writing

a book in Madagascar and publishing i t in England .

LONDON M ISSIONARY SOC IETY’

S COLLEGE,

ANTANANAR‘

IVO ,MADAGASCAR.

November 30, 1 895.

NOTE— Allthrough this book Malagasy wo rds are accented

on the syllables which Should be emphasised . And if i t is

bo rne In m ind that the vowels have as nearly as possible the

same sound as in I tal ian,and that the consonants do not differ

much in sound from those in Engl ish , except that <g is always

hard,3 always a s ibi lant and not l ike 3

,and j is l ike (If, there

need be no difficulty in pronouncing Malagasy wo rds with a fair

amount of accuracy.

CONTENTS .

CHAPTER LPAGE

FROM COAST TO CAP ITAL : NOTES OF A JOURNEY FROM MA

HANORO TO ANTANANARivo

Various routes to interior—MahanOrO—Madagascar travel l ingFilanjanaor palanquin—Native bearers—Native vi l lages—Betsim isarakaCemetery—Canoe travelling— Canoe songs—Tropical vegetationThe Travel lers’

-tree— Scenery—Native houses and arrangements—Atiring Sunday ’

s journey—Butterflies and birds—A vi llage congregation— Forest scenery and luxuriance—Romantic glens and gladesUplands and extensive prospects— In Imerina at last—Over Old

haunts in forest—MitntasOa and its workshops—Native bridgesWar preparations—A hearty welcome to the capital .

CHAPTER H.

IMER INA THE CENTRAL PROVINCE ITS PHYS ICAL FEATURES ANDVILLAGE LI FE

Recent advances in know ledge of Madagascar g eography—Recen tjourneys—Tamatave—Mode of travel l ing—Coast lagoons—SceneryForest and c l imbing plants—Ankay Plain—Upper forest belt—Imerina or Ankova Home of the Hova ”—Mountains and prom inentpeaks—Bare uplands—Geo logy and co lour of so i l—Extinct vo lcanoes—Watershed of island—Lakes—Population— Sacred towns—Vi l lagefortifications—Maps of Imerina—An Imerina village- Anc ient vi l lageson high hi l ls—Hova houses and arrangements—Ox-fattening pitsNative tombs—Trees—Hova chi ldren and games—Vi l lage chapelsand schoo ls.

CHAPTER HL

ANTANANARIVO,THE CAPITAL 1 ITS PUBLIC BUILD INGS

,MEMORIAL

AND OTHER CHURCHES,AND RELIGIOUS AND CHAR ITABLE

INSTITUTIONS

Scenery around the capital—Its picturesque situation—Rugged streetsand paths—Houses and oth er bui ldings—Recent introduction o f

CONTENTS.

PAGEbricks—Royal palaces—Férat itra—Ancient gateway—Sacred stones

—'

Weekly market of Zomz‘

I—Amusements churches and

religious institutions—Ambi1tonakfmga Church— Other memorialchurches M other churches and districts—Chapel Royal— Sundayobservance—Co l leges and schoo l-buildings—Dispensaries and hos

p itals—Other m issions—Extent of Christian work carried on—C ivi

lising work of L .M .S . m ission— Population— Plans Of the capitalAntanz

‘

marivo the heart of Madagascar.

CHAPTER IV.

THE CHANG ING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR NOTES ON THE

CL IMATES,AGR ICULTURE

,SOC IAL CUSTOMS OF THE PEOPLE

,

AND VAR I ED ASPECTS OF THE MONTUS

The seasons in Mad agascar—Their significant names—Prospect fromsumm it of Antananarivo—The great rice-plain— Springtime September to October—Rice-planting and rice-fields—First crop—Trees andfo liage Burning the Downs — B irds— Summer : November to February

—Thunderstorms and tropical rains— Effects on roads—Rainfall—Hai l—Magniflcent l ightning effects—Malagasy New YearNative calendar—Royal bathing—Conspicuous flowers—Aloes and

agaves—Christmas Day Observances—Uniform ity in length of daysNative words and phrases for divisions of time—and for naturalphenomena—Effects of heavy rains—Wild flowers of ImerinaAutumn : March and Apri l—Rice harvest—Harvest thanksgiving ser

vices—M ist effects on w inter mornings— Spiders’

webs—Winter Mayto August- Winter the dry season—Ancient vil lages and fosses

Hova tombs—Great markets—Aspects of nightly Sky- Epidem ics in

co ld season—Vegetation.

CHAPTER V.

THE CRATER LAKE OF TR ITRIVA : ITS PHYS ICAL FEATURES AND

LEGENDARY H ISTORY AND THE VOLCAN IC REG IONS OF THE

INTER IOR

Ancient vo lcanoes of Central Madagascar—Hot Springs—Fossi l re

mains in l imestone deposits—Crater lake of AndrfIikiba—TritrivaLake— Co lour of water—Remarkable appearance of lake—View fromcrater wal ls -Mr. Baron on vo lcanic phenomena—Ankhratra Mountain—Ancient crater—Lava streams—Vo lcanic rocks—Recent characterof vo lcanic action.

CHAPTER VI.

AMBATOVORY ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS IN MADAGASCARW ITH NATURAL H ISTORY AND OTHER NOTES

The rest-house—Ambbnit a Hill—A deserted vi l lage—AmbétovOryrock—Woodland paths—B irds— Lizards and chameleons— Grass

CONTENTS ix

PAGEhoppers—Protective co louring—Warring co lours—Beetles—Ants and

ant-nests—Ball insects— Spiders—ButterflieS—King butterfly— So l itarywasps—Wasp nests—Ang z

‘

lvokély Mountain—Extensive prospect.

CHAPTER VII.

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES

M ixed nomenc lature of coast and interior places—Early Europeaninfluence—Arab and Portuguese names— Influence of fc

‘

zdy or taboo—Name of Madagascar—M ountain names—The name-

p refixes An

and Am -Height and prom inence—Mystery and dread— S iz e—Wordsmeaning rock and stone—Animals and birds—Personal names for

hi l ls—Grandeur of mountain scenery— River names— Descriptiveepithets- Lake names—Town and village names—Dual namesNames of capital and its divisions—Town names from naturalfeatures—forests river banks from animals Personal TribalProvince names—Appendix on Betsi leo place-names.

CHAPTER VIII.

CUR IOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS CONNECTED WITH CH I EFTAINSH IP '

AND ROYALTY AMONG THE MALAGASY ; AND NOTES OF THE

S IGN AND GESTURE LANGUAGE 149

The Betsi leo—Special words, or“chief’s language -in Malayo

Po lynesian languages—for Malagasy sovereigns— Illness and death—Burial Mourning Diseases Royal servants Royal housesChief’s words among Betsi leo—for family of chiefs— for elderlychiefs— for chiefs Old and young—Extreme honour paid to chiefs—F¢

‘

1dy or taboo in words—Tabooed animals—Royal names— Sacredcharacter of—Veneration for royalty—Siikalava chiefs—Po sthumousnames—Rel ics of the Si gn and gesture language— Salutations—Symbo l ie acts—Royalty Licking the so le —The taboo .

CHAPTER IX.

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS

Animals—The ox—B irds— Insects— Fabulous animals—Pam‘

my, or

seven-headed serpent—Footprints o f giants—Trees and plantsOrdeals—Fo lk-lore of l ife—Lucky and unlucky actions—S ickness and

death—Witchcraft and charms— Food and fi zdy of the S ihanakaSnakes and lemurs—Tabooed days—in clans—and villages—Goodomens—for food—and wealth—Evi l omens—as to famine—Trade— Poverty

,and death—Weather prognostics— Various portents

dreams.

x CONTENTS.

CHAPTER X .

MALAGASY ORATORY,ORNAMENTS OF SPEECH , SYMBOL IC ACTIONS

AND CONUNDRUMS

PAGE

Introductory historical Sketch Fo lk-lore Fo lk-tales ProverbsKabr

‘

Iry—Oratory and figures of Sp eech

—The deso late one—M utuallove—The bird—A divorced w ife—Transitoriness of l ife—Bereavement—Death— Imagination—Boasting—The crocodile—A place for

everything—Fi l ial love—Friendship—Thanksgiving—Evi l SpeechSymbol ic acts—The two kings—The heir to the throne—Riddlesand conundrums .

CHAPTER XI.

MALAGASY SONGS,POETRY

,CH ILDREN ’

S GAMES,AND MYTH ICAL

CREATURES

Songs to the sovereign—Dirges—Sih:21naka laments -Bal lad of

Benandro Friendship Chi ldren’

s games - Rasarindm—S oc‘

zmiditm—Sakc

‘

zda Leper game Star kill ing -New Year’s gamesCounting games—Marvel lous creatures—S ongbmby—Fanc

‘

my, or sevenheaded serpent—Tbkandia, or Singlefoot

—Kinbly—Dc‘

ma, or Pily

(serpent)—Lc‘

zloména (H ippopotamus —Angal¢‘

1pona—Siona.

CHAPTER XII.

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES

Bonia— Crocodi le and dog—Three Sisters and Itrimobé—The membersof the body—The l ittle bird—Rapeto—The lost Son of God—The

five fingers—The earth and the skies—The birds choosing a king

The l izards—Hawk and hen—Vaz imba— Chameleon and l izardSerpent and frog—The rice and sugar-cane—Two rogues—Wildhog and rat.

CHAPTER XIII.

D IVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY,TOGETHER WITH NATIVE

IDEAS AS TO FATE AND DESTINY

The Sikidy— Subject investigated by Mr. Dahle—Little organised

ido latry among the Malagasy—Diviners—Divination and fate— Invocation of the Sikidy

—S ixteen figures of the Sikidy—S ixteen co lumns of

the S ikidy—Erecting the S ikidy

—Working of the Sikidy— Identical

figures—Uni que figures— Combined figures —M iscel laneous Sikidy

Gun charm s—Trade charms—Medicinal charms—Fortunate placesand days—Ati—pr

‘

iko— Fate as to ld by z odiac and moon—Lucky andunlucky days—House divinations— Fate as to ld by the planets—Daysof the week—Decreas ing influence of the S ikidy.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIV.

FUNERAL CEREMON I ES AMONG THE MALAGASY

TWO great divisions of the people—Idea of impurity in connectionw ith death- A revo lting custom—Funeral feasts—Tankarana—Theircarved coffins—Analogies to those of Phi l ippine Islanders—BetsimiSaraka—Ranomena—Tambahoaka, Taimoro and Tanosy—The Fanano—Tandroy and Mahafély—Sakaléva—The Zomba, or sacred houseThe Vaz imba—Behisotra and TandrOna—S ihanaka—BezanozanoTanfila—Vorimo—Ikongo—Hova—Betsileo—Bara—Funeral ofRadamaI.—Enormous wealth p ut in tomb—S i lver coffin.

CHAPTER XV.

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD,ESPEC IALLY ON THE BUR IAL

MEMOR IALS OF THE BETS ILEO MALAGASY TOGETHER W ITHNOTES ONTHE HAND ICRAFTS OF THE MALAGASY AND NATIVEPRODUCTS

Absence of artistic feel ing among the Hova—The Betsi leo— Carvedmemorial posts—Various forms of tombs— Character of the carvingVe

‘

zto le‘

zky, or memorial stones—Graves of great depths— Carving inhouses—Co l lection of rubbings—General style of ornamentationSymbo l ic meaning —Malagasy handicrafts— Spinning and weaving—Different kinds of c loth—Straw-work—Bark-cloth—Metal-workPottery—Bui lding—Canoes and boats—Cultivated products of country—Exports.

CHAPTER XVI.

ODD AND CUR IOUS EXPER IENCES OF L I FE IN MADAGASCAR

The comic element everywhere present— First experiences—Nativedress—Borrowed garments—Christmas Day exhibition— Interruptionsto Divine service—A nation of bald-heads—Native houses and theirinmates— Receptions by Hova governors— Native feasts— Queerarticles of food— First attempts at speaking Malagasy Try a relative ”—Transformations of English names—B ibl ical names—Oddnames—English m istakes—The“southern ”

s ide of his moustacheFuneral presents—Church decoration—Offertory boxes—Deacon’

s

duties.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR IN CONNECTION WITHTHE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE ISLAND ; WITH NOTICESOF THE EXTINCT FORMS OF AN IMAL LI FE OF THE COUNTRY

General characteristics of mammal ian fauna—Remarkable differenceto that of Africa—An ancient island—Wallace’

s“Island Life —Ori

ental and Austral ian affinities—Vegetable productions—Botanising in

xi i CONTENTS .

Madagascar—Three-fourths of the flora endem ic in the island—Threedifferent regions descri bed by Mr. Baron— Floral beauty—OrchidsThe eastern region—The central region—The western regionExtinct forms of animal l ife—Grandidier’

s discoveries—Geo logyHuge lemuro id—Link between apes and lemurs— Smal l hip p op otamus—The [Epyornis— Crocodiles—Enormous terrestrial l izardPrimaeval Madagascar.

I .

2.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .

CENTRAL PORTION OF ANTANANAR‘

IVO

HOW WE TRAVEL IN MADAGASCAR

CANOES ON R IVER NEAR COAST

VILLAGE ON COAST

STONE GATEWAY OF ANC I ENT TOWNS IN IMER INA

NORTHERN PART OF ANTANANARIVO

VIEW FROM ANDOHALO

ANTANANARIVO FROM THE WEST. SOUTH END OF C ITY

A SARALAVA WARR IOR

BETS IM ISARAKA WOMEN

TAISAKA CH IEFS

BETSIM ISARARA CEMETERY

MALAGASY LOOM , AND WEAVING A LAMBA

A HOVA OFFICER,MALAGASY ARMY

TRAVELLERS ’ TREES,LOWER FOREST

R IVER SCENE IN FOREST

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CHAPTER I.

FROM/CO

AST TO CAPITAL NOTES OF A 3‘

OURNEY FROM

MAHANORO TO ANTANANARIVO .

Various routes to interior—MéhanOro—Madagascar travel l ing—Filanjana or

Palanquin—Native bearers—Native vil lages—Betsimiséraka cemeteryCanoe travel l ing—Canoe songs—Tropical vegetation—The Travel ler's-treeScenery—Native houses and arrangements—A tiring Sunday

’

s journeyButterflies and birds—Avillage congregation—Forestscenery and luxurianceRomantic glens and glades—Upland and extensive prospects—In Imerina atlast—Over Old haunts in forest—Mantasoa and its workshops—Nativebridges—War preparations—A hearty welcome to the capital .

T the time of the Fra‘

nco -Malagasy war of 1883- 1885, the

route to the capital from the East Coast, by way of

Tamatave, was closed for many months, and the roads from

MahanOro and Mémanjéra became the usual route o f foreigners

coming into the interio r. I t was my good fo rtune to be able

to come up to Imerina by the MéhanOro route in the month

of November, 1883 ; and i t may perhaps not be uninteresting

to give here the substance o f my dai ly notes describing our

journey.

We found ourselves , early in the afternoon of Thursday,

November 8 th , fai r ly on our way towards the interior. Our

carriages were the o rdinary native filanj dfl a, or l ight, open

palanquin ; our mo tive power, strong Malagasy bearers, eight

to each person , in two sets of fou r each the roads we traversed,

the paths made S imply by the bare feet o f the natives, generation

after generation , mounting hil ls, floundering through bogs, and

wading through streams, just as they happened to come ; our

2 I

2 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

i nns,the huts o f rush or wood , innocent al ike o f doo rs or

windows, table or chairs or beds, and boasting only a clean mat

spread for us over many dirty ones ; our cu isine, the rice and

fowls always to be got on the way, supplemented by a few

sto res taken i n tin boxes ; and our accommodation for the

night,l ight

,po rtable “stretchers carried by our men,

with the

bedding secured in s im i lar watertight contrivances . O ur party

consisted of my wife and l i ttle girl , two years old ,and myself,

together with our friend M r. Houlder.

I Should perhaps add a few wo rds here in answer to a

possible question as to What k ind of vehicle we travel in in

Madagascar. This contrivance, general ly cal led“palanquin ”

by Europeans, but filanj dna by the Malagasy (from the verb

mz'

ldnj a,to carry on the shoulder), cons ists o f a couple o f

l ight,strong po les, about IO feet long ,

kept together by two

stout iron rods, and with a seat framed o f i ron and cove red

with leather, hung from the po les. Ladies ’ filanj dna are a kind

o f Oblong basket, made o f fine strips o f Sheepskin plai ted

together, and carried on two po les made of the strong but l ight

m idrib o f the leaves of the rofia palm . When travel l ing long

distances , a hood o f rofia clo th is fixed over ladies’

filanj dna

as a pro tection from the sun and rain . The “bearers ”are,

as a rule, strong, active, and cheerful fel lows, general ly very

kind and helpful , and most careful o f the safety of those

whom they carry, hour after hour and day after day, on thei r

Shoulders.

The fi rst stage of our journey was no rthwards,along a sandy

breadth o f land , between the bel t o f trees which l ine the coast

and the lagoons. Beyond these trees, to the left, extends some

wooded country, w i th a range o f low hi l ls west o f i t, gradual ly

approaching the lagoons, and then showing l ine after l ine o f

higher hi l ls towards the interio r. The Travel ler’s- tree is very

plentiful , as wel l as several species o f Pandanus, and large

Arums in the shal low waters. After fou r hours and a quarter’s

s teady march we came to a V i l lage cal led Bep arésy,with

FROM COAST TO CAP ITAL. 3

nearly one hundred houses. This afternoon we passed a smal l

Betsimiséraka cemetery,where we saw at a l i ttle distance

the curious fashion they have o f wrapping up the co rpses in

mats and enclos ing them in planks, and then fixing them on a

s tage, 4 or 5 feet above the ground .

I Near the Vi l lage were

tombs of a different description , resembl ing a house- roof, en

closed by a double l ine o f po inted stakes . In the centre o f the

Vi l lage is fixed a post, whose top is sharpened into two long

ho rns, and on this are the mouldering remains o f an ox - skul l .

This,they to ld us, was a ci rcumcis ion memo rial .

Friday ,Nov. otiz.— We were up soon after four O ’clock

, got

o ur things packed , had a good breakfast, took our quinine,and were all clear away befo re six o

’clo ck. Go ing down to

the foo t o f the rising ground on which the vi l lage 15 built, we

came to a narrow creek,where a canoe was awai ting us. Go ing

along this creek we came to a broader reach o f the lagoon,and

were soon adm i ring the great Villa arums , 9 or 10 feet h igh,

j ust flowering, and one o f the various species o f Pandanus,which

has an almost gro tesque but withal a very graceful and slender

outl ine. After passing through ano ther sho rt, narrow channel ,we came out on a broad , widespreading lake.

Few experiences are mo re pleasant in Madagascar travel l ing

than to gl ide rapidly down or across one o f the large rivers in

the early mo rning— the time when the eastern rivers , at least, are

the smoothest— and in a large canoe, with plenty o f paddlers,

to l isten to the rowers’ songs , which are o ften bo th amus ing and

musi cal . They wil l frequently improvise a song, one o f them

keeping up a recitative, in which ci rcumstances which have

occurred on the journey are introduced , while the o thers chime

in with a cho rus at regular intervals, a favourite one be ing“He mz

’

sy vetP Oh ! is there some ?” This question refers

to various good things they hope to get at the end of the day’

s

journey, such as plenty o f rice, beef, sweet-po tatoes, &c., these

See subsequent chapter on Funeral Ceremonies, for ful ler information on

tombs and burial customs .


articles of food being mentioned one after ano ther by the leader

o f the song. A l i ttle del i cate flattery of their employer, the

Englishman they are rowing, is often introduced , and praises of

his hoped-for generosi ty in providing these luxuries for them ;

someth ing in this style

E,.misy vii

E,m isy ré

E, ny vorontsiloza, zalahy éE , m isy réE

,ny g isy matavy, zalithy éE,m isy ré

E, ny akoho manatody, zaléhy éE,m isy ré

E, ny Vazaha bé vola,

'

zaliihy éE,m isy ré

and'

so on,ad lz

'

éz'

tam.

In ano ther song heard by the writer on the Métiténana river

(south- east coast), the cho rus was M ana’dny vatsy ,

Toamdsz'

na

maldz a e’

I”

zie., Consumes provis ions for the way, famous

Tamatave while the recitative brought in all the different

vi l lages on the journey from Tamatave to the capital , ending

with Andohélo (the central space), and Avéra-drOva (the northern

and chief entrance to the palace).

The lagoons of the eastern coast form a very marked feature

i n the phys i cal geography of the island . They extend for more

than three hundred m i les, that is, from no rth o f Tamatave to

south of M énanjéra, fo rming an almost continuous l ine at least

the cutting of about thirty mi les o f canal would make them into

an uninterrupted waterway between all the chief po rts o f the

eastern coast. During the reign Of the enl ightened Radéma I .

(1 8 19—1828) the wo rk o f uni ting these lagoons was commenced,but was soon stop ped by his death . I t may be hoped that i t

wi l l not be long befo re this work wi l l be again taken in hand .

I t would,doubtless, be of great value to the commerce and

i nter-communication of the eastern coast."

These coast lagoons sometimes take the fo rm of a river,

Oh , is there any0yes, there

’

s some

Oh the turkeys , lads, O0yes, there

’

s some !

Oh the plump- looking geese, lads, O0yes, there

’

s some I

Oh the egg-laying fow ls, lads, O0yes, there

’

s some

Oh the very rich foreigner, lads, O 7’

0yes, here he is l


coast than'

on the Tamatave route. On reaching the end o f a

ridge,we caught s ight o f a r iver roaring over rapids be low us

,

a m i le or two away,and flowing to the sea (at Mérosiky). We

had a long ride o f (including stoppages for canoes) five hours

and twenty m inutes . Many of the ascents,

and descents were

very steep, and the paths narrow. There appears to be a con

siderable number o f smal l vi l lages on the road . Our after

noon ’

s r ide was much Sho rter than that o f the mo rn ing,two

hours and a half only,but general ly fo l low ing the val ley of the

pretty river M énampOtsy,which flows westwards and southward

,

frequently foaming over rocky bars and rapids. We passed

large masses of pinkish quartz , and in some places the rocks

in the bed of the r iver were ti lted , w i th their strata almost

perpendicular. A l l over this country the air was thick with the ,

smoke from the burning of the trees and grass on the hi l lsides,i n o rder to plant rice i n the ashes— a most wasteful and bar

barous custom ,whi ch causes a great destruction not only of the

secondary woods and j ungle, but also o f the vi rgin fo rest.

Befo re four O ’clo ck we stopped at a vi l lage cal led AmbOdiménga,bui lt on ris ing ground some 200feet or so above the r iver, which

here flows nearly north and south. On bo th s ides o f the river

val ley rise high hil ls to a height of several hundred feet, and

covered with patches o f old fo rest on thei r summ i ts .

Saturday ,Nov. IOt/z .

—We must now have ascended to

between I,ooo and feet above the sea

,and a thick

rug became a very comfo rtable covering towards the smal l

hours o f the mo rn ing. We were off befo re six o’clock , and

immediately commenced a steep ascent of several hundred

feet. Our road lay along a ridge, and then west and north

west, up and down,over some very rough paths . The river

MénampOtsy is sti l l our companion to the right, flow ing along

due east. Here there is no continuous fo rest, but only patches

of i t left on the summ i ts and s ides o f the hi l ls. We made a

sho rt mo rning’

s ride o f two and a half hours, and stopped at

a vi l lage cal led Anta’

mambé. I n the house where we rested were

FROM COAST TO CAPITAL. 7

a number Of pretty l ittle mats cal led ldkatra, about 1 8

inches square, with a variety of patterns in brown straw. These,

they to ld us,were for o rnamenting the house, and were here

fixed on the wal ls. We tried to buy some, but they had none

new enough to sel l us. In these Betsimiséraka houses the

arrangement of the s ingle room is thus : doo r at the left-hand

S ide ; another facing it on the Opposi te s ide ; on the right-hand

nearest co rner, as you enter, is the hearth, with four mass ive

posts suppo rting two stages, and cal led saldz ana. Near the

doo r is fixed a large cyl indrical box,ho l lowed out o f a tree

trunk, 3 feet high and 1 8 inches wide

,and used for sto ring

ri ce. As in Hova houses, the soo t is al lowed to accumulate,and to hang in long strings from the roof.

Our second stage, of between six and seven hours, was very

hot and wearisome. We crossed a lovely glen , with rocks and

stream overhung by fo rest, and here the men enjoyed a bathe.

During the afternoon we crossed the higher waters o f the

MémampOtsy,here flowing from the south . We stayed for

nearly an hour,about half way,

under some trees, to rest a l ittle

from the great heat. The hil ls around are very high , and are

covered with Vi rgin fo rest. The house in which we stayed for

the night was the smal lest in which we have yet put up i t was

only about 12 feet by 10feet, and had about as much room as

we should have had in the cabin of a ship. This was the

co ldest n ight we have yet had . We fai rly entered the great

fo rest befo re getting to our hal ting-place.

S unday ,Nov . I I I/L— This day’

s march , Of mo re than six

hours,was through a part o f the old fo rest ; some o f the trees

were o f great height,but none were o f considerable bulk . I

was struck by the variety Of l i chens and mosses on the tree

trunks ; on some s ingle trees there must have been do z ens o f

different species , but not being on foo t one could co l lect only by

making a snatch at some of the aerial l i chens , which were

within reach o f one’

s hand. I noticed that the fo rest was by no

means so s i lent as I had remarked at other times. Fo rmer


journeys were made, however, in the co lder winter months of

the year, but now that the warm weather is approaching, some

bird or o ther was almost always heard . Every quarter of a

mile or so we heard the no isy cal l Of the Kankdfotra Cuckoo ,kow-kow,

kow-kow,repeated ; then the flute- cal l o f ano ther

cuckoo, the Tolo

‘

lzo,whose notes were heard all the way from

MéhanOro also the chirp and whistle o f the Raz’

lo‘

vy or K ing

crow,as wel l as the incessant twitter o f many smal ler birds.

Then came, now and then , the melancho ly cries of the Lemurs

high up among the trees . Numerous butterfl ies crossed our

path, seven or eight different species at least : the rather common

green one with yel low spots,the blackish brown with two large

blue spo ts, the widely distributed brown one with black -edged

wings, the pure white one, the white with o range edges, white

with black edges, white with crimped edges, the smal l yel low

species, the smal l buff,the m inute brown and blue, and many

o thers. We have now lost the Travel ler’

s- tree the rofia palm ,

however, i s seen in the damp ho l lows, but not so large as lower

down the country. The Bamboo , a slender graceful species ,growing s ingly and bending over in an arched fo rm

,is plentiful

in some of the val leys and on the hi l ls ides. Here and there,

high up on the hil ls,I caught the blaz e o f co lours of one of

those cal led F lamboyant. But the most plentiful tree with

bright- co loured flowers is one bearing pinkish-red flowers, on

some o f which there i s a mass of yel low stamens.

A t last we came up to a Vi l lage, cal led Antenimbe, where

we got a much larger house than on the previous evening.

We were glad to throw ourselves on the mats and lie down

unti l dinner was ready. The heat was very great and stifling

in the houses with their s ingle doo r. But by five O’clock I was

ready to take part in our l i ttle service, which we held out of

doo rs . Most of our bearers came, and some of the people of

the vi l lage. We sang three or four hymns ; one o f our bearers

prayed, and H . and I both read a portion of Scripture and gave

a short expos i tion .

FROM COAST To CAP ITAL. 9

Ilflonday ,Nov. 12tlz. —We have to -day been travel l ing more

than nine hours. Our road lay first to the south, so as to get

round a towering height, and then turned westward through

deep val leys , with a sparkling river, which we repeatedly crossed .

Again we no ticed the destruction of the fo rest and the wanton

waste of the trees. We stopped at a smal l vi l lage o f some

S ixteen ho uses , after nearly three and a half hours’

ride.

We now ascended to the pass between the ridge of mountains

which bounds the eastern s ide o f the MangOro val ley, and must

have risen 500or 700feet befo re gain ing the summit. On our

r ight a river, broken by many rocks and fal ls,poured eastward.

In the smal l Space al lowed by the river-bed the trees rose to an

unusual height, and on either s ide o f the go rge forest- clo thed

mountains towered to elevations Of at least feet above

us. The path was diflicult, but the deep c uttings we continual ly

passed through were fringed by ferns and o ther plants. I

no ticed , however, that all along the route we had come there

were no o rchids, at least none conspicuous by flowering, and

hardly any palms. At one po in t I no ticed a nest suspended

from a twig over the water, in shape exactly resembl ing that

Of an inverted chemical reto rt, and made by the Fo‘

d zfe‘

tsy ,

or C rafty Weaver ” (Ploeezes

At last we reached the highest po int o f the pass, and began

to descend by a path mo re steep and rugged than the one

we had mounted by. G radual ly we g ot clear Of the fo rest,and the view would have been magnificent had i t no t been

dimmed by the clouds Of smoke r ising in every direction from

the burning fo rest. At one place we were almost suffo cated

by the blaz ing wood and j ungle close to our path, and narrowly

escaped being stopped by the flames . Presently we caught

a glimpse o f the MangOro far below,and we could hardly have

descended less than feet from the summit o f the pass to

the river level. Beyond the river the western range o f moun

tains rose in great grandeur, l ine after l ine —all fo rest- clad ;these form the eastern edge o f the upper plateau ; and I do

IO MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

not remember to have seen anywhere else i n Madagascar such

a mag nificent mountain scene. At a l i ttle before two O’clock

we got down to the Mangoro , here a smoo th rapid stream from

200to 300 feet wide, and i n a few m inutes were'

ferried across

in a large new la/zaua (canoe). I t was easy to see that at this

po in t the physi cal geography o f the country is very different

from that o f the same river val ley on the Tamatave route.

There— between MOraménga and the Id y hi l ls— it widens out

into an extens ive plain,but here the river val ley is very narrow,

the mountains descending by steep s lopes, and r is ing on the

western S ide, as al ready remarked , into ridges of great height.

Our road lay along the val ley,general ly fo l lowing the course

o f the stream . I t can be traversed by canoes for no great

distance, s ince i t is broken up repeatedly by rocky bars and by

fal ls over ledges of rock ; at one po int i t is contracted to a

narrow go rge,through which the water rushes w i th a tremendous

swirl and roar.

We were glad,after our long ride o f nine hours, to see

a smal l vi l lage,Andranotséra

,befo re us

,on a ris ing ground

80or 90feet above the river. We found two sufficiently decent

houses in the fifteen or s ixteen compos ing the vi l lage. Here

abouts the we! culture of ri ce beg ins I and here the people

brought us smal l presents.

Tuesday ,Nov. n th— We left Andrénotse

‘

rra at five o’clock ,

and for two hours went no rthward,fo l lowing the course of

the MangOro , which is beset with ro cks,and fo rms rapids

and fal ls in several places . A bright,clear river, the Mané

kona, fal ls into the larger one clo se to a vi l lage of the same

name. After this we left the river, and began a long, stiff

ascent up the hil ls on the west s ide o f the river val ley. Our

road then turned west and no rth-west over rugged ground

hi l l and val ley,through patches of Old fo rest, with difficult

paths . Then the road cut diagonal ly across the spu rs of a

For fuller information as to rice culture in Madagascar, see subsequentchapter on The Changing Year.

FROM COAST TO CAP ITAL. I I

rock-capped and fo rest- covered hi l l , cal led Marivolénitra.

Rounding one shoulder o f this,we now saw part o f the Ankay

plain, the Moraménga hil ls on the east

,the great mass o f Id y

standing out l ike an o utwo rk of the wal ls o f the central plateau,

and then Ang z‘

lvo and the l ine o f hi l ls which fo rm the edge

of the interio r highland . The Ankay plain appears to end here,southwards

,rather abruptly. The Angévo chain o f heights

seems to curve round in crescent-shaped masses, and then jo ins

the mountains which bound the Mangoro val ley. Near Fari

himaz éva we found a flourishing rice val ley cultivated after the

Hova fashion,

'

and the appearance o f the country and the

methods o f cultivation to ld us that we were getting near Imerina.

After four and a half hours ’ ride we came to the vi l lage

o f Bep arésy,quite a Hova- looking place, w i th the houses made

o f thick planking,

“ho rns ”to the gables, and a native chapel .

Here the people brought us ri ce and eggs for our entertainment.

Leaving again after noon,we had a weary journey over

ano ther great mass of hil l,and then over the plain , sti l l go ing

no rth-west, and approaching the blue,fo rest- covered S lopes o f

the wal l o f the plateau . We were glad at a li ttle befo re five

o’

clock to stop at a poor l ittle ham let, cal led AmbOdimivOng o ,where, however, we bo th got to lerably good houses ; but the

bearers o f our luggage only j ust managed to get in in time

to escape a heavy thundersto rm . Our house began to leak

a l i ttle ; but happily it rained heavi ly only for a sho rt time.

This is the beginning o f the rainy season in the interio r, but

thus far we have had no rain on our journey , and so our

things have kept dry. We have also had no annoyance from

rats, and hardly any from mosquitoes. The people Of the

houses here have been mo re intel l igent and conversable than

at most Of the places where we have stayed. They brought

us wild raspberries and blackberries as soon as they found we

appreciated these fruits. The fo rmer we have had as dessert

almost all the way up from the coast, and a very acceptable

addition to our fare they have proved .


Wednesday , Nov. 1 —There was a thick dri z z ly rain as

we commenced our ascent up the hil ls into the regions o f the

i nterio r. In a l ittle time we got up to Andrz‘

mgolOaka. A

great many trees and plants were i n flower, and the deep

cuttings through which the path winds were l ined with ferns

and o ther plants. For nearly two and a half hours we made

an uninterrupted ascent,very difficult in many places, and the

rain was sti l l fal l ing.

Then we came to a part o f the fo rest where we recog

nised some o f our favourite haunts during o ur ho l idays at

Andrz‘

mgolOaka, but when we came up to the house we

were grieved to see how i t was fal l ing into ruin through

neglect. The old house-keeper and his wife immediately

recognised us,and were the fi rst to welcome us to Imerina.

Then we descended the hi l l,and after an hour or mo re we came

to the s ingle-plank bridges over deep water, which had always

been a terro r i n the journey to or from AndréngolOaka, and

now seemed,

mo re difficul t than ever, but which we crossed

in safety. After nearly five hours’ ride we came to M éntasOa,

and its ruined wo rkshops and houses constructed by M . Laborde.

We stayed for lunch at the large house,and here fel t we were

getting back to civi l isation again,as we ate our meal o ff a table

and sat to i t on chai rs

M éntasOa was a remarkable place, for Madagascar, and

when I fi rst visi ted i t, in 1 872, was in a much mo re perfect

state of preservation than it was at the time o f this journey in

18 83 . I t was a large co l lection o f mass ively bui l t wo rkshops,

made for the manufacture Of cannon , pottery, glass, gunpowder,brass

,steel

,paints

,soap

,refined sugar

,bricks and ti les, &c.

These were erected during the reign of the Queen Rz‘

lnavélona I .

(1828 under the direction of M . Labo rde, a Frenchman

o f great ski l l and inventive genius. To supply power for the

various wo rkshops,a stream was diverted from the river C lose

by and brought by iron aqueducts into the bui ldings so as to

turn a number of large water-wheels. A t the time of my fi rst

I4 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

in their use. Go ing to the tomb on the rock above the town,

j ust befo re sunset, the great, bare hil ls, with thei r bones Of ro ck

showing through the skin of turf ; the bright, fresh green o f the

newly planted rice-fields ; the red clay roads on'

the brownish

g reen hi l ls , allto ld us we were again in the heart o f Madagascar.

I t is needless to describe our five hours ’ ride into Antanénarivo

o n the fo l lowing day,or the hearty wel come from our friends

,

bo th English and Malagasy, on our arrival . This was all the

m ore hearty, as we had come up when war was go ing on, and

when some had feared to come at all at such a time. But we

never doubted then or afterwards that we did the right thing,for our wo rk suffered li ttle interruption during the war, and our

help was needed after six years ’

absence from the country and

the people whom we wished to serve.

IMERINA,THE CENTRAL PROVINCE ; ITS PHYSICAL

FEATURES AND VILLAGE LIFE.

Recent advances in knowledge of Madagascar geography—Recent journeysTamatave—Mode of travelling— Coast lagoons4 c

’

enery— Forest and cl imb

ing plants—Ankay P lain—Upper forest belt—Imerina or Ankova,

“Home of

the Hova"—M ountains and prom inent peaks—Bare uplands—Geo logy andco lour of so i l—Extinct vo lcanoes—Watershed of island—Lakes— Population—Sacred towns—Vi l lage fortifications—Maps of Imerina—An Imerinavil lage—Ancient vi llages on high hills -Hova houses and arrangements—Oxfattening pits—Native tombs—Trees—Hova children and games—Vi l lagechapels and schoo ls .

INCE 1 86 1 , when the reign Of terror under the Queen

Rénavélona I . came to an end , great advances have

been made in our knowledge of the topography and phys ical

geography of the is land , and of its geo logy,botany

,and natural

histo ry ; much has also been ascertained as to its people,thei r

d ivis ions,language, customs

, traditions , and fo lk - lo re ; and every

year sees additions made to a fuller understanding both of

Madagascar and of the Malagasy. Papers on the geography of

the island, and describing various explo rato ry journeys,have

appeared in the P roceeding s of the Royal Geographical Society

and in those Of the Scottish Geographical Society ; and we owe

much to the late Rev. D r. Mul lens, the Rev. W. Deans Cowan ,Mr. Will iam Johnson , Captain S . P. O l iver, and o thers

,for thus

giving the results either of their own researches, or for sum15


marising the jou rneys of o ther travellers .

I Comparatively l ittle,however, has been made known as to the central province o f

Imerina,the heart o f Madagascar, the home Of the dom inant

tribe, the Hova, and the centre of government ; or about the

capital ci ty, Antanénarivo , where civi l isation , education, and

Christianity have made the greatest progress.

Befo re, however, describing Im‘

erina,I wi l l give a very br ief

summary o f what has been done du ring the last few years to fi l l

up the blanks on the map of the great island. I n 1879 I con

tributed a paper to the P roc. Roy . Geog r. S ea, entitled ,“The

H istory and Present Condition of our Geographical Knowledge

of Madagascar,” in which I po inted out what had been done

up to that date 2 and s ince then several journeys have been

made in various directions into regions ei ther previously al to

gether unknown or only very superficial ly explo red.

I n the years 1877 and 1878 journeys Were made in the

no rthern and no rth-western parts of the island, as wel l as from

thence to the capital , by a German natu ral ist,D r. Chr. Ruten

berg. H is researches added a good deal to bo tany and naturalhisto ry, but not much to geography, al though probably we

should have learnt mo re on this po in t but for his murder by

his treacherous native fo l lowers. I t was not unti l 1 880 that

detai led accounts were publ ished of his co l lections and dis

coveries.

A valuable addition was made in 1 882 to our knowledge of

the southern central provinces of Betsi l‘

eo,B z

‘

ira, and Tanéla,

by a paper contributed to the P roc. Roy . Geog r. S oc. by the

Rev. W. D . Cowan , giving a very ful l map of those po rtions

of Madagascar from personal su rvey. M r. Cowan was a mis

sionary Of the London M issionary Society in the Betsi leo for

several years, and uti l ised his numerous journeys for teaching

1 I would remark here that I must not be understood as ignoring the valuablework of several French cartographers, as MM . Laillet and Suberbie, Pere Roblet,and especial ly M . Alfred Grandidier. In the above paragraph I am Special lynoticing the work ofEnglish labourers in the field Of Madagascar geography .

2 This paper forms the first chapter of The GreatAfrican Island .

IMERINA,THE CENTRAL PROVINCE . I 7

and evangel ising by do ing useful geographical wo rk,as wel l

as by contributing to ful ler knowledge of the natural histo ry

of the island.

During the progress Of the Franco -Malagasy war in 1 884 ,

an American naval Officer, Lieut. Mason Shufeldt, made a

j ourney from MOrondzltva,on the west coast

, to Antane‘

marlvo .

I have, however, been unable to Obtain any account of Lieut.

Shufeldt’

s travels, al though, no doubt, ful l repo rts have been

presented to the Uni ted S tates Government.

In 1 8 86 my friend , the Rev. R. Baron, made a long

journey through the Antsihénaka province no rthwards, and

crossing to the no rth-west coast,by the districts cal led Androna

and Befandriana, to the Hova garrison town of AnOrontsa‘

mga.

The most interesting d iscovery was the fo rmer existence of a

large lake, running north and south for mo re than two hundred

m i les, with a breadth o f from fifteen to twenty m i les. Of this

lake,the present lake o fAlao tra, in Antsihénaka, about twenty

five m i les long, is the smal l and sti l l slowly dim inishing remnant.

M r. Baron traced indubitable proo fs of the fo rmer height Of

the waters of this ancient lake at no less than feet above

the present level of the Alaotra, and he was enabled to make

impo rtant additions to our knowledge of the geo logy o f

Madagascar, which he communicated in a paper to the Geo

logical So ciety in 1 889 .

During 1887 Mr. Nei lsen-Lund visi ted a part of the B z‘

Ira

province, and also the district inhabited by the“em igrant

Tanosy,” being for some time in no l i ttle peri l from the un

friendly Béra people. He then turned to the south-east, over

mountainous and desert country, eventual ly reaching the Hova

m i l i tary post o f Fo rt Dauphin , at the south-eastern co rner Of

the island . Unfo rtunately his journey, al though very interest

ing,added l i ttle to the map of Madagascar.

The same must be also said about two journeys made in

1 888 by the Rev. E. O . MacMahon,Of the Anglican m ission,

to the west of the island into the Sékaléva country, to the

1 8 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST .

district o ccupied by the Bétsirlry tribe. I n 18 88 also the

Anténambélana river, flowing into Antongil Bay, was sur

veyed by M r. L . H . Ransome, and a detai led map o f its course,wi th descriptive paper, appeared in the P roc. Roy. Geog r. S oc.

for May o f the fo l lowing year.

A ful ly equipped expedition , under MM . Catat and Maistre,arrived in Madagascar in 18 89 , and explo red po rtions of

the eastern s ide o f the island,and crossed the previously un

mapped region of the extreme south. Excurs ions were made

in various directions from the capital,and then the Old route

from Imerina to Tamatave was explo red ; this proved to be

difficul t to traverse, taking about three times as many days as

the usual route. The principal journey was through the Betsiléo

province into the Béra country, and then into that o f the

emigrant Tanosy. The sources Of the river Oniléhy were

discovered , and impo rtant co rrections made in the mapping of

its course. The region to Fo rt Dauphin was crossed,and the

ferti le val ley o f AmbOlo Visi ted ; and the expedition returned

to Betsiléo through the Antaiséka country. The botanical and

natural histo ry co l lections made by MM . Catat and Maistre are

extensive and valuable, as wel l as those relative to anthropo logy

and ethno logy ; and these have now been described in French ,English

,and German geographical and o ther scientific journals .

In 189 1 ano ther long journey, covering mo re than a thousand

m i les of country, was made by M r. Baron along the no rth-east

and no rth-west coasts o f Madagascar, as far as the extreme

no rtherly po in t of the island . Detai led accounts of this journey

have been publ ished : two ,giving info rmation as to topography

,

ethno logy, and philo logy, in the Antananarivo Annual for 1892

and 189 3, under the title Of “Twelve Hundred M i les in a

Palanquin and ano ther,with maps

,in Quart. j ourn. Geol.

S oc. 1 895, giving the geo logical results o f the journey. (This

is reproduced in the last number of the Annual,xix .

,

In concluding this brief sketch of the most impo rtant

j ourneys made in Madagascar during the last few years,I


or waggon for the use Of travel lers. Europeans, therefo re, as

wel l as allwel l -to -do Malagasy,make use of the l ight palanquin

orfilanj a‘

na,carried on the shoulders o f four stout bearers

,who

mostly belong to the tribes fo rmerly conquered by the Hova.

On long journeys a double set Of men is usual ly taken with

each palanquin , whi le bed and bedding,sto res and clo thing

,

and allo ther necessaries, must also be carried by o ther bearers.

Travel l ing is tedious as wel l as expens ive.

The road from Tamatave to Antananarivo passes first

for about s ixty m i les, or two days’ journey, southward,along

the coast, general ly between the l ine o f lagoons and the sea.

The path is perfectly level, along greensward,do tted with

clumps of trees and patches of fo rest, with the lagoons on one

s ide,o ften expanding into broad lakes o f calm water

,while on

the o ther we have the I ndian O cean,with the never- ceasing

surf,driven by the south-east trade winds.

At AndOvorz‘

m to , canoes are hired for a half-day’

s voyage

up the river Ihéroka and one o f its tributaries. The palanquin

has, however, soon to be resumed , and we begin to traverse

hi l ly country. Here, for about a day’

s journey, we are in the

region o f the Travel ler ’s- tree, the Bamboo ,and the rofia palm ,

which fill every ho l low,and give a Special character to the

scenery. We gradual ly get higher unti l , as we approach the out

ski rts Of the fo rest-bel t, we are about feet above sea- level .

The comparatively easy travel l ing is now succeeded by

three days’ very hard wo rk for our bearers, as we cross the

forest which extends round so large a po rtion o f the coast

regions of Madagascar. The path goes up and down the hi l l s

at very steep gradients and these ascents and descents are,

after two or three days rain , j ust l peS of adhesive s l ippery

clay,up and down which our men to i l heavily with their loads .

The path,al though apparently descending as o ften as i t

ascends,is real ly ris ing to a higher level , and by the time we

g et clear o f forest, we have ascended the fi rst great step upwards

to the interio r highland .

IMER INA,THE CENTRAL PROVINCE . 2 1

Half a day’s journey over the Ankay plain , and then across

the Mangoro river, brings us to the foo t of the second step o f

our road . Then comes the narrow bel t o f upper fo rest, very

beautiful,but with as difficul t a-path through it as on any part

of the route and then we emerge on the bare hil ls of the upper

region,and are in the province of Imérina.

This central region o f Madagascar is sometimes termed by

the people themselves Ankova, that is,“The place of the Hova

,

the dom inant tribe of the island , who , advancing from the East

Coast, drove out the abo riginal inhabitants,the Vaz imba

,and

made i t thei r home, probably many hundred years ago . I t

is,however , usual ly cal led Imerina, a name as to whose o rigin

there have been many conjectures the most l ikely one of these

appears to be that i t is from a Malagasy roo t,e‘

re'

na,meaning

“elevated

,

”“prom inent,”“conspicuous.

” I t is difficult to give

the exact boundaries or extent of Imerina, as Malagasy p ro

vinces are not defined as m inutely as Engl ish counties. On

the east i t is marked by the l ine of upper fo rest ; on the

no rth and west i t shades off into the uninhabited region which

there divides the Hova from o ther tribes ; while on the south

it ends at the southern s lopes o f the Ankz‘

Iratra mountains,and

the thinly peopled region which separates the Hova territo ry

from that of the no rthern Bétsiléo . Roughly speaking, Imerina

fo rms an i rregular paral lelogram ,extending about one hundred

mi les no rth and south,and about seventy m i les from east to

west, with an area o f about square m i les— in o ther wo rds,

i t is cons iderably larger than the county ofYo rk .

Imerina is a mountainous country, with but l ittle level

ground except on the western s ide of Antanénarivo,where

the dried-up bed of an extensive ancient lake fo rms the great

ri ce-plain known as Betsimitétatra. This is the granary o f the

capital , and doubtless accounts for its posi tion , and for the

comparatively dense population around i t to the no rth, west ,

and south . But there are innumerable val leys where the s lopes

are terraced with rice-plo ts,l ike great green stai rcases, where

22 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST .

the grain is fi rst sown broadcast,and from which the young

plants are taken up and transplanted in the larger fields along

the banks of the rivers, and in the beds o f smal l dried-up

lakes of ancient date. There are numerous lofty—

hil ls, o fwhich

Angévokely to the east, AmbOhimiangéra in the extreme west,I haranandriana to the south

, M ilangéna, AmbohimanOa, and

Andrlngitra mo re central, and AmbOhipaniry and Vohi lena

to the no rth, are the most prom inent,all form ing capital

landmarks and po ints from which angles can be taken in fi l l ing

up detai ls of the map . Then on the south-west the who le

province is dom inated by the central mass of Ankératra, the

peaks of which fo rm the highest po ints in the island , al though

they are a l i ttle under feet above the sea. Mr. Baron

cal ls i t“the wreck of a huge but ancient sub-aerial vo l cano .

”

I t covers an area of from fifty to s ixty square m i les, and i ts

highest peaks , cal led Tsiéfakéfo , Tsiafajévon'

a,and AmbOhimi

réndrina, are vis ible for an immense distance, especial ly to the

west. Imerina is from to feet above the sea level ,so that, al though wel l within the tropics, i t enjoys a temperate

cl imate, made coo l and bracing in the coo ler season by the

south-east trade winds which come fresh and mo ist over the

fo rest bel t and the wooded eastern plains. The atmosphere

is wonderful ly clear, so that hi l ls many m i les away stand out

with a distinct outl ine that is very deceptive to those newly come

from our mo re misty air and our grey Engl ish skies. The

aspect Of this region is bare, as i t is desti tute o f wood, except

in the ho l lows , al though there are patches of fo rest sti l l left in

the no rthern parts of the province. There is a great extent Of

moo r- l ike hil ls,so that but for the bri l l iant sunshine and the

general ly clear skies , Imerina would , l ike much of the o ther

central po rtions of Madagascar, be somewhat dreary, especial ly

as the grass gets brown and parched towards the m iddle o f the

dry season .

The geo logical nature o f the central region i s shown by the

numerous masses o f granite or gneiss ro ck which fo rm the

IMERINA,THE CENTRAL PROVINCE . 23

summ i ts Of all the hi l ls. In many cases these take the fo rm o f

eno rmous“bosses,” or rounded hi l ls Of rock in o thers they have

the appearance Of Titani c castles whi le o thers,again

,m ight be

taken,in certain aspects, to be stupendous cathedrals. Over

l ying the primary rocks there is an immense extent o f what I

must cal l c lay,although it is not true clay, but appears to be

decomposed granite. This is usual ly deep red in co lour,from

the large amount of i ron oxide,although it is occasional ly

brown,and sometimes white

,l ike China clay. I ron is abundant

,

and go ld has recently been discovered in many places. Quartz

in many varieties,quartz i te

,graphite

,galena, copper, saltpetre

,

tourmal ine, and some o ther minerals,are also found in Imerina.

Two groups o f ancient and extinct vo lcanoes which were

described by the late Rev. D r. Mul lens hardly come into any

description of Imerina proper,as one of them is j ust outside its

western boundary and the o ther group is beyond the Ankaratra

mountains,to the south-west. There are

,however

,within the

distri ct some detached hi l ls which appear to be old vo lcanic

vents ; and these, with occasional lava flows,as wel l as basal tic

dykes in several places,give evidence o f ancient subterranean

fo rces,now shown only by s l ight earthquake shocks

,and by hot

Spr ings in certain local i ties .

The water-parting Of the who le island lies much nearer its

eastern than its western s ide,so that all the largest rivers flow

across Madagascar and fal l into the Mo zambique Channel . The

head -waters o f the two chief rivers of Imerina, the IkOp a, and

the BétsibOka, and Of thei r numerous affluents , are therefo re on

the eastern s ide of the province. The IkOpa, fed by the Sisaony,the Andromba, the Mémba, and o ther streams

,flow through

the ferti le plain o f Betsimitétatra, go ing no rth-west, and is

jo ined by the Betsiboka further no rth ; the united streams,now

known by the latter name,fal l ing into the head o f the Bay of

BembatOka. The province is thus wel l watered by numerous

rivers,al though the annual rainfal l only averages about 53

i nches at Antanénarivo .


The only lake Of any s iz e in Im‘

erina is that of Itésy, on its

extreme western l im i ts ; close to i t,on the west, are numerous

extinct craters indeed, the lake i tself has probably been fo rmed

by the s inking of the ground , consequent on‘ the discharge o f so

much matter from these old vo l canoes .

The name Imerina is used by the Malagasy in two senses

one, wi th a wider meaning, including the distri cts of Ime‘

Imo to

the west, and Valz‘

IlafOtsy to the no rth-west,and including allthe

Hova people ; and then i t is also used more restri ctedly for the

part which is exclus ive Of these two divis ions o f the country.

This narrower Imerina is divided into six sections,known as

Inee‘

rz

'

na-e‘

nz'

n-Zéko,

”and compris ing Avéradre

‘

mo,which includes

the capital (to the no rth-east), Vékintsisaony (south -east),M érovétana (no rth -west), AmbOdirz

‘

m o (south -west), VOnizOngo

(further no rth-west), and Ve‘

ikinankératra (further south-west),which last division is named from the mountain mass which i t

includes, and which cuts i t off from the o thers .

These divis ions are largely tribal , and are used by the native

government in arranging the different shares Of m i l i tary levies ;taxation,

and all the various unpaid and fo rced service due by

the people to thei r sovereign.

There are no means o f ascertaining with certainty the p op ula

tion of Imerina, as no census has ever been taken. But from

cal culations which have been made as to the number o f villages

and houses,and the average occupants o f a house, i t is bel ieved

that the population of the province is about 1,100

,000.

I Antana

narivo is by far the largest town in Imerina or in Madagascar.

There is hardly any o ther town Of great s iz e, al though there is

a cons iderable number of large vi l lages,and these are rather

closely crowded together in some parts, especial ly to the north

and no rth-west o f the capital . Several of these places were

fo rmerly of greater relative impo rtance,as they were the capitals

Of the many smal l states,or“kingdoms

,into which Im

‘

erina

I The recent census—March , I 896—gives only souls as the populationof the province Imerina.

—ED.

IMER INA ,THE CENTRAL PROVINCE . 25

was anciently divided, befo re the supreme autho rity became

centred in the chief of Antananarivo . O f these fo rmer chief

towns the fo l lowing are the mo st no tewo rthy : AmbOhim z‘

Inga,

a place which sti l l retains a nom inal equal ity in royal speeches

with Antanénarivo a picturesque old town bui lt on a lo fty hi l l

surrounded with woods, about eleven m i les no rth of the modern

capital ; also Ambohidratrimo,Ambohidrabiby

,I lafy

,Alasora

,

and some others . In fo rmer times, every royal speech men

tioned twelve old towns or hi l ls Ny Te‘

ndronzbélzz'

tra rba ambin’

ny each of which had a sem i - sacred character as being

the seat of ancient chiefs ; the places j ust mentioned were in

cluded in these twelve, but o thers are now mere ham lets,if not

as much deserted vil lages as Old Sarum was in p re-Refo rm days

in England .

All the ancient towns and vil lages in the interior of Mada

gascar were bui lt on the top of hi l ls,sometimes of considerable

height. This was Of course for securi ty against enem ies in the

fo rmer warl ike times,when every petty state was frequently

fighting with its neighbours, l ike the barons Of European castles

in the mediaeval period . Pro tection was further given by deep

fosses dug out of the hard red clay,and surrounding the towns.

These are frequently double,or even treble, one outs ide the

o ther,and must have fo rmed a very effectual defence in the days

when fi rearms were unknown,and especial ly when helped by the

earthen ramparts Often added inside the ditches from the material

dug out. Some Of these fosses look like a rai lway cutting

through red sandstone,and although they are in many cases

probably two or three hundred years old,the s ides are general ly

as perpendicular and unbroken as when fi rst excavated . A

narrow bridge of the red earth leads to the gateway, which is

formed Of massive blocks of rock . Two different fo rms o f gate

way are found in these old towns : one kind is defended by a

great ci rcular slab of stone 10or 12 feet in diameter, which, in

time o f war, was ro l led between upright stones , so as to effec

tually block up the entrance. Another kind o f gateway was


fo rmed by massive upright mono l iths, between which heavywooden gates were fixed . In many cases there is a treble gate

way o f this kind,with a narrow passage between each gate, so

that the enemy could be Speared from above, if the fi rst or even

the second l ine o f defence had been broken through . Many o f

these old towns are now deserted , but thei r ancient defences fo rm

the chiefantiquities of Madagascar, and are interesting memo rials

of a state of society now passed away in the central provinces.

The ancient graves of the Vaz imba, the aboriginal inhabi

tants of the interio r, are found scattered over the central province.

These are shap eless heaps o f stone, general ly overshadowed

by a fano tree, a Species of acacia,which has a sem i-sacred

character, its seeds being used in divination. Could these graves,l ike our ancient English barrows , be Opened , doubtless much

l ight would be thrown on the rather difficult question of the affi

nities of these Vaz imba ; but to meddle with any tomb, much mo re

one of these ancient ones, is one Of the most heinous Offences

among the Malagasy ! A cons iderable number of upright

stones, termed vatolalzy (l i t.“male huge undressed

blocks o f grani te,are also found on the hil ls and downs. These

are memo rials of fo rmer Chieftains, or of battles of the old times.

AS regards maps of Imerina,I be l ieve that I was the fi rst (in

1867) to make a sketch -map of the country round Antanz‘

marivo .

This was,however, made chiefly to show the m iss ion stations o f

the London M iss ionary Society. Parts of the province to the

south-west were subsequently given much mo re ful ly by M r.

J . S . Sewel l and Mr. W. Johnson ; but the fi rst detai led mapOf Imerina and the surrounding regions was published by the

Rev. D r. Mullens in 1 875, as the result of a large number o f

observations taken by himself,and founded on pos i tions fixed

by Mr. James Cameron. A map to a much larger scale

(I was published by M . Grandidier in 18 80; and he

issued mo re recently (18 83) a beautiful hypsometrical map o f

the province,showing by graduated tints the heights o f every

For fuller information as to the Vaz imba,see subsequent chapter.

IMERINA,THE CENTRAL PROVINCE . 27

part of the country from the r iver-beds to the summ its of

Ankératra.

“This,says M . Grandidier,

“iS,I bel ieve

,the fi rst

and only contour map which has been made of an uncivi l ised

country on such a large scale. This map enables one to see at

a glance the z ones o f al ti tude characteristi c of this province,

which is so mountainous and deso late beyond the great plain

west of Antananarivo and i t shows clearly the manner in which

the waters part themselves.

”

A few wo rds may be here added as to the external aspects

of an Imérina vi l lage. As al ready mentioned , all the ancient

vi l lages and towns were buil t on the tops o f high hi l ls, and are

consequently rather diflicult to approach and al though a great

many of them are now deserted, and the mo re modern vi l lages

are bui lt ei ther on the plains or on the lower ris ing grounds,numbers of the old places sti l l remain inhabited and the people

who l ive in them must have a weary cl imb every evening as

they go home from thei r wo rk in the rice-fields, or return from

a neighbouring vi l lage or market. Even the capital city,Antanz

‘

inarivo,is buil t on the top and the s ides of a long, narrow

ridge rising about 600 feet above the plain below. The old

capital, AmbOhime

‘

mga, is on an equal ly high hi l l , and so are

most o f the ancient and famous towns and vi l lages . Some of

these hi l ls rise to 700or 800feet in height ; and a few years ago

I had to cl imb up to a vi l lage cal led VOhiléna, which is buil t on

a tremendous hi l l no less than feet above the val ley at its

foo t. Never shal l I fo rget my ascent up its steep s ide in the

darkness, without a guide, and unable to find any path in the

woods that cover its s lopes !

The deep fosses which surround these old Vi l lages have already

been al luded to . Most o f them are from 20to 30feet wide and

as many feet deep,al though sometimes they are much deeper.

But al though so deep,these trenches are not ful l of water, for

this is always drawn off by ano ther trench leading down the

hi l lside. They are, however, of course damp , and good so i l

gradual ly increases there, so that ferns and wild plants grow


l uxuriantly ; and the bo ttom o f the fosse therefo re fo rms a

plantation,in which peach

,banana

,guava

,and other fruit- trees

are cultivated , as wel l as coffee, arum s,and a variety o f vege

tables. Tal l trees o f o ther kinds also grow there,

’

so that these

Eddy ,as they are cal led

,are often by far the prettiest feature Of

the V i l lage. On many hi l l - tops in Imerina,where no vi l lages

now exist, the lzady may be seen from a great distance, sco ring

the hi l lsides,and Showing that in fo rmer times a vi l lage crowned

the summ i t.

In some parts o f the central provinces of Madagascar there

is no deep fosse, such as those j ust described , but the vil lage is

pro tected by a dense and w ide plantation of prickly-pear . l This

shrub is armed all over wi th spines and prickles 2 inches

long,sharp as a needle and somewhat po isonous . The thick ,

fleshy,twisted stems

, the gai ly- tinted flowers , and even the

pear-shaped fru its, are allarmed with spines and stinging hairs

and i t is no easy matter to get rid of the m inute l i ttle needles if

they once get into one’

s skin. SO i t is easy to see that a hedge

Ofi thls prickly-pear, several feet wide and 8 or IO feet high,

is a very effectual defence against enem ies or robbers,especial ly

when i t is remembered that themajo rity of people wear no Shoes

and so have no pro tection for their bare legs and feet. I n

many places, instead of prickly-pear,the fence round the vi l lage

is made o f Zs za‘

falebneby (“impassable by a shrub with

bright yel low flowers and ful l Of hook- l ike prickles.

2

Now let us get up into the vi l lage and see what i t looks l ike.

C ross ing the deep Addy by a kind o f bridge Of earth,we come

to the entrance or vava/cady (“mouth o f the This is

general ly a narrow gateway fo rmed of roughly-bui l t stonewo rk

and on its inner s ide, in a groove,is a great circular s lab of

grani te,for ro l l ing across the Opening, so as to quite close i t up.

But for many years past, in most vi l lages,these great S labs of

stone have been unused , and the grooves are fi l led up with dust

Opuntia Dillenii, Haw .

2 The Mysore thorn, Ccesalpz'

nz'

a sepiaria, Roxb .

IMER INA,THE CENTRAL PROVINCE . 29

and dirt, so that i t is not very easy to move the stone out of its

place. I n many vi l lages the great stone l ies on the ground, and

the chi ldren play games upon i t, Showing that for a long time

there has been no war in the interio r o f the island,but people

have been able to l ive in security and peace,

“none daring to

make them afraid. In some cases,instead Of a doo r at the

gateway, a number of sho rt po les are hung from a cross-piece at

the top ,which passes through a ho le in each o f them and one

has to ho ld up two or three o f them in o rder to pass through .

This kind of gate is chiefly for the purpose o f preventing the

pigs and sheep from getting in and out o f the Vi l lage. I n some

parts of Imerina,to the west and no rth

,where there is frequent

danger from roving parties o f robbers,the vil lages are sti l l care

ful ly guarded , and many of them have a treble gateway,with

three pai rs o f thick wooden doo rs,and connected by a kind o f

tunneL

Here, however, we are at last inside the vi l lage, and we see at

once that there are no streets intersecting it. The houses are

buil t wi thout any o rder or regularity, except in one po int,namely

,that all the old -fashioned houses are bui lt no rth and

south,and that they have thei r S ingle doo r and window always

on the west s ide, so as to be pro tected from the co ld and keen

south -east trade-winds,which blow over Imerina during the

greater part of the year. The houses are mostly made of the

hard red earth,laid in courses o f a foo t or so high. They are

chiefly of one sto rey and of one room ,but they general ly have a

floo r in the roof, which is used for cooking, and are sometimes

divided into two or three rooms by rush and mat partitions.

On the east of Imerina, near the fo rest, the houses are made o f

rough wooden fram ing, fi l led up with bamboo or rush , and Often

plastered w ith cow-dung ; and in the neighbourhood of the

capital a great many houses are now buil t of sun-dried bricks

in two sto reys, with several rooms and o ften with ti led roofs.

These, however, belong to the ri cher people.

AmbOhitritankz‘

tdy, one of the vi l lages in my m ission district,

30 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST

is on a high hi l l , and in the centre of the vi l lage are ten largehouses o f massive timber fram ing and with very high-pitched

roofs, with long“ho rns ”

at the gables , arranged five on each

s ide of a long Oblong space sunk a couple o f feet below the

ground . Here, in fo rmer times, bul l -fights took place , and

various games and amusements were carried on. One o f the

houses, where the chief himself resided,is much larger than the

rest,and the corner posts, as wel l as the three great central

posts suppo rting the ridge, are very large, massive pieces of

timber. I t was all in one great room without any parti tions,the who lebeing wel l floo red with wood, and the wal ls covered

with neat mats . Such fine old houses are now,however

, be

com ing very rare, and are being fast superseded by m uch less

picturesque, but perhaps mo re comfo rtable, as we l l as cheaper,houses of sun-dried or burnt brick .

The houses Of most vi l lages are scattered about the place in

a very i rregular fashion . There is no privacy or reti rement

about them ,no backyard or outbui ldings, al though o ccasional ly

low wal ls do make a kind of enclosure round some of them .

Here and there among the houses are square pits, 5 or 6

feet deep and 8 or IO feet square, cal led These

are pens for the oxen , Often very fine animals,with eno rmous

ho rns and humps , which are kept in them to be fattened,mostly

for the national feast Of the Fandroana (“the bathing at the

New Year. A l l so rts of rubbish and fi l th accumulate there are

no sanitary arrangements ; frequently the cattle are penned for

the night in a part of the enclosure, and the cow-dung makes“i t

very muddy in wet weather, and raises clouds of dust when it is

dry. Frequently the cow- dung is carefully co l lected and made

into circular cakes Of 6 or 8 inches diameter, which are then

stuck on the wal ls o f the houses to dry. I t is afterwards used

as fuel for burning Off large s labs of the hard gneiss rock,which

are employed by the people in making their tombs .

The pits in which the people sto re their ri ce are bo ttle

shaped ho les, from 8 to IO feet deep, dug out of the hard red

IMER INA,THE CENTRAL PROVINCE . 3 1

earth,and wil l contain a large quanti ty o f grain . They are

closed up by a flat stone and covered with earth,so i t is not

easy for a stranger to know where the rice-sto re is. In fo rmer

times these pits were now and then used as places o f refuge,and

even of wo rship, by Christian people in the time Of persecution ;and occasional ly those who had o ffended the sovereign were

placed in the pits, which were partly fi l led up with earth,bo i l ing

water being then poured over them unti l they were ki l led .

In the centre of the vi l lage may Often be seen the large

fam i ly tomb of the chief man o f the place, the owner of the

land and the ri ce-fields in the neighbourhood . This is a struc

ture Of dressed or of rough stonewo rk,from 12 to 20 feet

square, and about 6 to 8 feet high . General ly i t has two or

mo re stages dim inishing in area, and frequently at the east

end is a kind of headstone, in modern tombs sometimes w i th a

name and date cut upon it. These tombs are vaults made of

great undressed s labs of blue ro ck , partly sunk under ground,

and wi th stone shelves on which the co rpses,wrapped in S i lk

clo ths,are laid . The steps down to the vault are always on the

west s ide, and the doo r is a mass ive stone slab turning on pivo ts

at the top and bottom . In the case of people who are Andrlana,

or of noble birth,the stonewo rk is surmounted by a smal l wooden

house, wi th thatched or shingled roof and a doo r,but no window.

This is cal led crane nedsz'

na (“sacred house ”

) or trano manara

(“co ld because i t has no hearth orfire. In some vi l lages

,

where the people are almo st all o f high rank,a l ine o f these

tombs,w ith thei r l i ttle wooden houses, may be observed .

Seen from a distance, these Malagasy vil lages Often look

very pretty and picturesque,for distance lends enchantment to

the View . Round some o f them tal l trees,cal led s

'

avy ,

I a

Species of fig- tree

,grow

,which are something l ike an English

elm in appearance. In o thers one or two great Anzbnz‘ana 2 trees

may be seen these are also a species o f fig - tree,and have large

and glossy leaves . A beautiful tree cal led Z dfiana 3 is also

Ficus mcda 0c Baker. 2 F . Baroni, Baker. 3 Pl: llarthron Bocrianum DC .I) I I


common , with hundreds Of large pink flowers and in the fosses

theAnez‘

ana,

1 a tal l tree nettle with large, deeply- cut,and velvety

leaves, with stinging hai rs,frequently grows. Many kinds of

shrubs often make the place gay with flowers ; but these all

grow w i ld,and the people have not yet learned to plant flowers

in beds and gardens for thei r own pleasure.

The Hova chi ldren are brown- skinned,some very l ight O l ive

in co lour,and some very dark . As a rule

,they have l i ttle

clo thing,and no caps

,shoes

, or stockings, and are usual ly very

dirty and uncared for. On Sundays and on special occas ions

the girls are Often dressed in print frocks,and the boys in

jackets o f s im i lar material,and w i th c lean white cal i co ldrnéa

over all but on week - days a smal l lamba,of so i led and coarse

hemp clo th,o ften fo rms almost thei r only clo thing. O f course

the chi ldren of wel l- to -do people are sometimes very n i cely

dressed , al though they too often go about in a rather dirty

fashion . I am here,however

,speaking Of the majo ri ty o f the

chi ldren one sees,those Of the poo rer people of the vi l lage.

One day some o f us went for a ride to a Vi l lage about two miles

away from AmbOhimz‘

m ga A number of chi ldren fo l lowed us

about as we co l lected ferns in the Eddy ,and as a group o f seven

or eight of them sat near u s,we cal cu lated that the value of all

they had on would not amount to one shi l l ing

Poo r chi ldren ! they have few amusements. They some

t imes play at a game which is very l ike our fox and geese

the boys spin p eg - tops the l i ttle chi ldren make figures o f oxen

and birds,&c.

,out Of clay ; and the big boys have a rough and

vio lent game cal led marne’

ly dz’

amdng a,in which they kick back

ward at each o ther, with their feet l ifted almost as high as thei r

heads . Perhaps the most favourite amusement o f Malagasy

children is to sit in parties out o f doo rs on fine moonl ight n ights,and s ing away for hours some o f the mono tonous native chants,accompanying them with regular clapping o f hands .

One thing mo re may be no ticed about our Malagasy vi l lage,1 Urora Sp . and Obetia Sp .

CHAPTER III .

ANTANANARIVO ,THE CAPITAL : ITS PUBLIC BUILDINGS,

MEMORIAL AND OTHER CHURCHES,AND RELIGIOUS

AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS .

Scenery around the capital— Its picturesque situation— Rugged streets and paths—Houses and other bui ldings—Recent introduction of bricks—Royal palaces—Farat itra —Ancient gateway— Sacred stones— Absence of wheeledvehic les and of gas and water supply— Street scenes—Weekly market of

Zoma—Amusements churches and rel igious institutions—AmbatonakangaChurch—Other memorial churches M other churches ”

and districts-

.

Ch,

apel Royal— Sunday observance— Co l leges and schoo l bui ldings—Disp ensaries and hospitals—Other m issions—Extent of Christian work carriedon—C ivi l ising work of L .M .S . M ission— Population—P lans of the capitalAntananarivo , the heart of Madagascar.

’

HE chief city of Madagascar is s i tuated nearly in the

' centre of the island,as regards its length from no rth to

south , but is much nearer the eastern than the western S ide o f

the country. I t is about one hundred m i les from the Indian

Ocean to the east,whi le the Mo z ambique Channel is nearly

twi ce that distance from i t to the west.

I

Let us Suppose that we have just come up from Tamatave,and

, by the route described in the fi rst chapter, have passed

through the two bel ts o f fo rest, and are now on the open,breez y

moo rland of eastern Imerina. Antanénarivo is sti l l about thirty

m i les distant, a good day’

s journey from the upper l ine o f fo rest.

We see s igns Of a denser population as we advance : wel l

By the latest and most rel iable Observations, the fo l low ing has been settled asthe position of Antanimarivo Lat. , 1 8

°

55’

S . long , 47°

3 1’

22”E.

34

ANTANANARIVO,THE CAP ITAL . 35

cultivated rice-fields in every val ley, plantations on the hi l lsides ,numerous vi l lages, and scattered homesteads , the houses being

bui l t o f the hard red clay o r decomposed granite, while the wal ls

enclos ing the compounds are also of this material . We pass the

long mountain o f Angévokely,wi th its double summ i t

,one peak

having a remarkable resemblance to a media valcastle ; and then

the rounded , dome- l ike mass o f AmbétovOry,with its woods— a

remnant o f the primeval fo rest— nestl ing in the val ley at its

base and then a long,gradual ascent brings us to a high moo r,

from which a very extensive prospect is unfo lded ; the greater

part of Imérina l ies befo re us,and most o f its prom inent hi l ls

and its chief towns can be clearly seen. Befo re us, at nine or

:

ten m i les ’ distance, is a long and lofty ridge,stretching no rth

and south,on which buildings can be plainly discerned , cutting

the sky- l ine in the centre are the lofty white roofs Of the group

o f royal palaces ; to the no rth are the towers o f the Prime

M inister’s house,its glass dome shining in the sunl ight ; while

the spi res and towers of churches can also be distinguished ,especial ly at each extrem i ty o f the long l ine of hi l l . From this

lofty po int wedescend into deep river val leys , and ascend again

several times befo re the two hours ’ ride sti l l to be accomplished

is completed we lose s ight of the city again and again,

unti l ano ther long ascent brings us up to the last hi l l befo re

we descend into the val ley which surrounds Antanénarivo

and at last the capital o f the island stands befo re us,at

a distance o f three-quarters of a m i le or so acro ss the rice

fields.

It is certainly a very picturesquely S i tuated town the rocky

ridge, on the summ i t and s lopes of which the houses are built,

rises at its highest po int, near the centre, to from 500to 600feet

above the surrounding val leys and the western plain , and its

length,no rth and south, is not far sho rt o f two m i les. At the

Southern extrem ity it s lopes down abruptly to the val ley, but at

the no rthern end the descent is mo re gradual . At about two

thirds o f its length from the south , a large branch or Spur of the


hi l l separates from the main ridge and curves round to the

no rth-west w ith a to lerably easy gradient ; so that the actual

extent of the city is no t real ised from the eastern s ide,and one

must ride round to the west to see how large a’

place i t real ly

is. The ridge, though long, is narrow,so that there is l i ttle

level ground on the summ i t and the majo ri ty of the houses are

bui lt on terraces , cut away on one s ide and bui l t up with retain

ing wal ls on the o ther. A t the j unction o f the two no rthern

branches of the hil l there is a large triangular Open space cal led

Andohalo,where a market is held , and where great publ i c

assemblies are convened , as at the promulgation of any new

law,or the reception of the sovereign on her return to the

capital , &c.

East and west, the s ides o f the hi l l are very steep indeed , on

the western s ide they are precipitous. On this S ide is the p re

cip ice of Ampamarinana (“the place of the Tarpeian

o fAntananarivo ,where those accused of so rcery were fo rmerly

ki l led by being hurled from the summ i t ; and where also,in

1849 , many Malagasy Christians suffered death,being supposed

to have been enabled , by some powerful charm, to be dis

obedient to thei r heathen sovereign’

s wi l l .

Antananarivo ,or“C i ty o f a thousand

,that is

,probably

,a

thousand settlers or m i l i tary co lonists,is certainly“a city set

on a hi l l which canno t be bid .

”As al ready remarked

,i t is by

far the largest town in Madagascar,only two or three places

reaching a tenth o f its extent or population. Its ancient name

was Ialamanga,“At the blue (or famous) wood ,

” probably

from the fo rest fo rmerly covering its summ i t and l p eS, as is

sti l l the case with Ambohimanga, the ancient capital . Antanana

rivo has attained its present impo rtant pos i tion in the is land

only within the last hundred years,greatly increasing in s iz e

and population S ince i t became no longer merely the chief town

o f one Malagasy tribe— the Hova— but also the capital of the

country through the Hova making themselves the dom inant

tribe of Madagascar.

ANTANANARIVO,THE CAP ITAL. 37

I t need hard ly be said that road -making is very diffi cult in a

place l ike Antananarivo . The naked ro ck comes to the surface

almost everywhere ; and the gradients, east and west at least,would be almo st imposs ible for a carriage, even could the path

be paved smoo th . There are,in fact, only about two main

roads in the city, one go ing no rth and south,and the o ther east

and west. These are roughly paved in some parts ; but i t

requi res care even to ride on ho rseback along Antananarivo

streets. The houses are no t bui l t adjo ining each o ther,as in

European towns ; each one stands in its own compound ; al

though certainly in the centre of the city they are packed pretty

closely together, and often the only path to large and respectable

houses is by cl imbing low wal ls and struggl ing up and down

narrow and steep ro cky stai rs .

No twithstanding these drawbacks , Antananarivo now p os

sesses a large number of substantial and often handsome houses,

as wel l as many publ ic bui ldings which would not disgrace a

European town. A great change has come about S ince I fi rst

knew the place in 1863. Then i t was a town bui l t enti rely,

within the city proper, o f wood or rush and bamboo . By an

Old law,or rather custom,

no bui lding of stone or clay was

al lowed to be erected w i thin these l im its ; and there was a

S im i lar custom in many o f the o ther ancient towns. The houses

of the nobles and the weal thier people were all o f mass ive

timber fram ing, fi tted in with thick upright planking, and the

roof o f extremely high pitch , with long crossed gable- timbers or

“ho rns .

” These houses were sometimes roofed w i th wooden

shingles, but mo re frequently with thatch of a Species Of sedge.

I t w i l l be easi ly seen that w i th such combustible materials fi res

were o f frequent o ccurrence,especial ly at the end of the dry

season and twenty, thi rty, or even a hundred houses were no t

unfrequently burnt down at one time. The acceptance o f

Christianity by the Queen and Government in 1868 put an end

to this foo l ish custom ,as wel l as to many o ther sti l l mo re harm

ful things ; and the Old timber houses have now almost dis


appeared from the city. An interesting rel i c of the past is sti l l

preserved with re l igious care in the palace yard among mo re

modern bui ldings. This is the ancient royal house cal led

Bésékana, where the co rpse o f a deceased sovereign l ies in state ,the building being draped enti rely in scarlet clo th .

The introduction of sun- dried brick and ti les by Mr. James

Cameron and M r. W . Poo l,Of the London M iss ionary Society

,

as wel l as the erection of the stone Martyr Memo rial Churches,o f which I was the architect

,has completely revo lutionised the

bui lding art in Im’

erina and in B’

etsiléo . And Antananarivo,

instead of being a town of wooden and rush houses, as I knew

it thi rty- two years ago ,has become a city contain ing hundreds

of good two and three- sto ried brick houses, with many publ ic

bui ldings of stone. Within the last ten or twelve years burnt

brick has come into much mo re general use ; and many sub

stantialhouses and some churches are now to be seen erected of

this mo re durable material . Sco res of houses have thei r verandah

pi l lars o f moulded brick , or o f stone with carved capitals. There

are, i t must be confessed , some drawbacks to the o therwise

pleasant picture. There are too many houses unfinished , and a

general aspect of disrepai r vis ible, and a want o f neatness and

tidiness.

Among the most prom inent bui ld ings o f the capital are the

group of royal palaces , the largest of which , an immense three

sto ried timber structure,has been surrounded with triple stone

verandah and arches,and strengthened with co rner towers.

This largest o f the royal bui ldings is known by the name o f

M anj dkarnz'

adana,

“Reigning peaceful ly ”

; i t is about 120

feet in height to the ridge of the high-pitched roof, which is

surmounted at each end by tal l l ightning- conducto rs, and in the

centre by an eno rmous gi lt copper figure Of an eagle— a bird

which is used as a kind Of national emblem,much as is the case

w ith the eagles of Ameri ca and several European states. C lose

to this largest palace stands the Tranovala or S i lver house,”

about two - thi rds the S iz e of its larger neighbour, but enti relyof


al though the city has now extended far beyond this Spo t.

Thirty years ago this part of the ridge was a desolate~looking

place, with hardly a house upon it ; a number of ancient tombs

s tretched along the rough foo tpath i t was one of the places o f

execution,and no one would walk along it after nightfal l . Now,

however, and for many years past , i t is a favourite part of the

city, the majo rity o f the English m iss ion fam i l ies res iding there

while amongst them is seen the square tower of the Faravohitra

Memo rial Church , and many of the educational establishments

o f the L .M .S . and Friends’ M iss ions .

The most ancient structure in Antananarivo is the old gate

way to the east of the city,the only one now remaining o f

several gates fo rmerly guarding the Chief approaches to the

capital . This interesting rel i c o f the o lden time is a mass Of

rude masonry of thin,flat stones laid without mo rtar

,with large

upright slabs o f blue gneiss at the angles . The Opening is a

square doo rway several feet deep,and in time Of war was closed

by a huge flat circu lar stone which was ro l led out of a groove

ins ide the gateway. The name of this ancient gate is Ankadi

bevava,

At the Fosse w i th the great Mouth,

”o r opening

but i t is also as o ften cal led Ambavahadim i tafo ,“At the

Roofed Gateway,because i t is covered with a rush roof.

The“sacred stones of Antananarivo are objects which are

onnected with royal ty among the Hova and mark it— amongst

many o ther things— as a different place from European cities .

One of these is s ituated in Andohalo ,a spacious triangular Open

space in the centre of the capital , where a large dai ly market is

held , where publ ic assemblies take place, and where some of the

sovereigns have been crowned . The sacred stone here is nothing

but the underlying gneiss rock,which in one spo t comes to the

surface ; but upon i t the sovereign must always stand on special

o ccasions,as when returning from a vis i t to Ambohimanga or

mo re distant places,and is there saluted by the army and by

the people general ly. The o ther sacred stone is a much mo re

prom inent object,and appears to be a boulder- l ike mass o f

ANTANANARIVO,THE CAP ITAL . 4 1

gneiss which has at some remo te time tumbled down from the

precipitous western s ide of the city hi l l,and stands nearly in the

centre of a large square plain on that s ide of Antananar ivo .

This open space is cal led Imahamasina,

“Place o f making

sacred (or establishing or confi rm ing). Some Hova sovereigns

have been crowned here (or rather, fi rst appeared in state for the

homage o f thei r subjects), and the throne is always placed on

the sacred stone. One is here rem inded of the sacred stones on

which the kings o f o ther nations have been enthroned in ancient

times,and especial ly o f our own

“S tone of Destiny from Scone

now and for so many centuries past placed under the chai r of

Edward the Confesso r inWestm inster Abbey.

From whatever S ide one goes up into Antananarivo,the

ascent is steep,in most places exceedingly so

,and most rugged

and uneven. I t is immediately evident that no carriage could

traverse these roughly—paved roads ; such things are in fact

unknown in this large city,and so the streets are singularly

quiet,wi th no rush of wheels or tramp Of ho rses

,while the great

majo rity o f human feet are shoeless and SO almost no iseless in

thei r tread . There are only two or three streets,in our sense Of

the term,in this capital o f Madagascar

,that is where a to lerably

good pavement has been laid down w ith s ide gutters,&C . The

greater part of the houses are reached by narrow paths winding

in and out among the compounds,and sometimes there is no

access to a house but by cross ing the yards of o thers , and often

only by cl imbing over the low C lay wal ls which surround them .

As we pass along we see how diflficult and costly i t would be to

make roads and streets in Antananarivo ,for each compound is

a terrace cut out o f the steep hi l ls ide, buil t up on one s ide by

the so i l and ro ck removed from the o ther. Of course drainage

is all surface, and in the heavy rains of the wet season

each street and path is swept by a furious to rrent,often

fo rm ing a series o f rapids and waterfal ls,and constantly

cutting deep trenches in the red so i l,so that every path no t

pro tected by some kind of rough paving is being constantly


lowered,some streets being many feet below the compounds

on ei ther hand .

I t need hardly be said that there are no water-pipes or gas

mains in the streets Of Antananarivo . The want Of the fo rmer

is supplied by the prim i tive plan o f allwater being fetched from

Springs at the foo t of the city hi l l by the women and girls

s lave or free— O f every househo ld . Long l ines of these may be

seen in the evenings go ing up and down the rough paths w ith

thei r water-po ts on thei r heads . At n ights the streets are dark

and almost deserted,but for the lantern carried by an o ccas ional

passenger. Few Europeans or respectable natives care to risk

thei r l imbs by go ing without a l ight over these breakneck

paths .

A prom inent feature in the l ife o f Antananarivo is the great

weekly market held every Friday on a place in the no rth-west

S ide o f the city. This is cal led Zoma(Friday), from the day on

which i t is held,and although a large dai ly market is also held

there,on Fridays an immense concourse Of people from the

surrounding country,as wel l as from the city itself, is gathered

together. A l l the chief roads are thronged with people bringing

in thei r goods for sale,and by an early hour in the fo renoon

probably o r persons are assembled , and the hum

o f vo ices can be heard from a cons iderable distance. Here

everything that is grown or manufactured in the interio r

province can be procured,and in no place can a better idea of

the productions of the country or o f the handicraft Ski l l o f the

Malagasy be obtained than in this great Zomamarket. There

is,o f course

,a rough division o f the various objects for sale in

different sections o f the market-ground . Here is a fo rest of

timber, rafters , jo ists, and boards ; here are doo rs, bedsteads ,and chai rs here are eno rmous piles o f ke

’

rana rush for roofing

and long dry grass for fuel ; here is the grain,fruit

,and vegetable

divis ion Of the market,with heaps o f sal t and chi l l ies for condi

ments ; here is the cattle market, and not far Off the beef and

mutton,and the poultry Section

,with hundreds O f fowls

,ducks,


turkeys,and geese ; here is the “dry goods divis ion

,with

English cal icoes,American sheeting

, gay prints, and native

clo ths of hemp, co tton, and rofia fibre here are pi les o f snowy

cocoons Of raw s i lk for weaving into fine laruba ; here is i ron

wo rk Of allkinds,nai ls and hinges

,bo l ts and screws and here

is\

native po ttery, water-jars , and cooking-po ts,and so on. The

Zomamarket is certainly one of the most interesting s ights o f

Antananarivo,and is wi thout doubt one o f the chief del ights of

l ife to the native res idents in the capital .

To Europeans there is a great absence in Antananarivo of

anything l ike entertainments or amusements. A French gentle

man,newly arrived in the city

,truly observed Iln

’

y ap as des

distractions ici .’ And doubtless he fel t the want ofthe cafe

’

and

theatre and boulevarde of his beloved Paris . Probably the

Malagasy themselves do not feel this need , and are sufficiently

amused and entertained by the m i ld excitement of thei r New

Year’s festival , by an o ccas ional leaéary or publ ic assembly,by

the return of the queen from a vis i t to some o ther part of the

country,with the state and ceremony attending it

,by a review

o f troops, and perhaps sti l l mo re by the frequent markets and

thei r goss ip , together with the del ights o f bargaining and seeing

o thers buy and sel l . Of late years these purely native amuse

ments have been added to by the introduction of o ccas ional

lectures, concerts, and o ther entertainments , chiefly held in the

educational bui ldings or the different m iss ions ; the schoo l

chi ldren also Often have thei r treats,when they Spo rt thei r

gayest dresses and are feasted in some garden or mango

o rchard in the suburbs of the city ; and i t may be added that

the Lo‘

leavo‘

lana, or service held at one of the larger Antanana

rivo churches in ro tation on the fi rst Monday mo rning o f every

month , is also a time Of great enjoyment to the younger people

from the new sacred musi c introduced on'

many of these o cca

s ions .

On referring to the map i t wi l l be seen that there are in

Antananarivo and its suburbs,no fewer than thi rty- five churches

,


twenty-seven of which are connected w i th the London M is

sionary So ciety. And when the p Op ulationI o f the capital is

remembered— probably from to — it wil l be

evident that these thi rty-five churches provide by no means

too large an accommodation for those who should attend publ ic

wo rship,indeed it is sti l l greatly inadequate to the needs of the

ci ty.

I t w i l l be no ticed that l i ttle attempt has been made in the

map to Show the remarkably i rregular and very picturesque si te

of Antananarivo,as this would have interfered wi th its main

purpose. This has been al ready sufficiently described in the

earl ier portion of the chapter.

The fi rst bui lding erected for Chr istian wo rship in Antanana

rivo was at AmbOdin’ Andohalo

,on the spo t where the London

M iss ionary Society G i rls ’

Central S choo l stood unti l very lately

(see map ). For some time the schoo l -house adjo ining Mr.

Griffiths’ residence on this s i te appears to have been used for

wo rship,and this continued for several years to be the so le place

of meeting. I n 183 1 , however, as the number Of wo rshippers

increased , a second bui lding was erected at Ambatonakanga (1 ) 2

and , as the fi rst s ite at Andohalo was not,in this later period of

the M iss ion , used again for wo rship, the congregation meeting

in the Memo rial Church there may be j ustly regarded as the

“mo ther church of Madagascar. Ambatonakanga is certainly

the most interesting spo t in the is land as regards its rel igious

histo ry. I t is a commanding pos i tion at the j unction of the two

Chief roads in the city— it m ight almost be said in the is land

and the s i te was o riginal ly granted for a wo rkshop to the L .M .S .

On this spo t the fi rst printing- press was erected and set to wo rk ;subsequently the second place in the country ever erected for

Christian wo rship was bui l t here ; on the outbreak of persecution

this bui lding was turned into a stable and afterwards into a

x The population of Antananarivo has recently been ascertained—March , 1896—not to exceed souls—E1) .

3 The numbers fo l low ing the names of Churches are those by which they aremarked on the map and in the l ist at the end of this chapter.


prison for the punishment o f the praying people and final ly,

the fi rst o f the four Martyr Memo rial Churches was commenced

here in 1864 and opened in 1 867 . This is a substantial stone

structure with tower and spire, bui lt in a S imple No rman style,

the fi rst stone bui lding ever erected in the country.

When M r. El l is arrived in Antananarivo in June, 1 862, soon

after the country was re- Opened to Christian effo rt,he found three

large congregations al ready gathered together, and all meeting

in the same quarter o f the city, the no rth-west— one at Amba

tonakanga ; ano ther at Analakely (2) and the third at Ampa

ribé These congregations met in very rough and unattractive

bui ldings— one being an old stable ; ano ther several native houses

patched together ; and the o ther an Old wo rkshop . For many

years past, however, these congregations have been housed in

large bui ldings ; and these three sti l l continue in the front

rank as regards numbers and influence, Amparibé probably

containing the largest congregation to be seen in any part o f

the island . During the twelve years or so fo l lowing the year

1862 numerous o ffshoots sprang from the three j ust named ,unti l the city churches reached the number shown on the map .

Ten of these are re‘

ni-fianganana (“mo ther having

large districts connected wi th each , which stretch for many m i les

in all directions , and contain in all no fewer than six lzundred

cong reg ations. The largest o f these distri cts includes 1 20

churches and is wo rked most efficiently by the Friends’ M ission ,in complete harmony wi th the London M iss ionary Society

, and

has its mother church at AmbOhitantelyO f these ten,

four are the Memo rial Churches at Ambatona

kanga AmbOhipOtsy Ampamarinana and ParavO

hitra The fi rst o f these has al ready been described . The

second o ccupies a most commanding posi tion at the southern

extrem ity Of the city ridge, and is vis ible for many m i les in

every direction . I t is buil t in a S imple Early Engl ish style Of

Gothic,and has a tower and Spire. Ambohipotsy is the S t.

Albans of Madagascar, for i t is the spo t where the hero ic


Rasalama,the fi rst Christian martyr, was Speared in the year

18 37. The thi rd church is bui l t on the edge of the“precipice of

hurl ing,as its name s ignifies, and commemo rates thi rteen brave

confesso rs who were, in 1 849 , dashed down the steep cl iffs for

refusing to deny thei r Saviour. The bui lding is designed in

a S imple Romanesque style, and has a lofty campani le the

interio r, w i th its gal leries all round , looking very much l ike an

Engl ish Nonconfo rm ist chapel . The fourth of these Martyr

Memo rial bui ldings o ccupies a very prom inent pos i tion at the

no rthern end'

of the city ridge. Farat itra Church is a very

plain stone structure,"

w i th low . square tower, and marks the

exact spo t where, in 1 849 , four'

Christian Malagasy were burnt

to death, together with the mangled remains o f those thi rteen

who had been hurled over the precipices at Ampamarinana on

the same day.

The Queen’

s Church in the palace courtyard is attended by

Her Majesty and her Court, as wel l as by many o f the chief

people o f the city. The congregation here gives l iberal ly towards

the suppo rt o f native evangel ists and teachers in the different

distri cts, and i t is distinctly a Congregational church . The o ther

churches in the city and suburbs are mostly of sun- dried brick

and stone,but some Of the mo re recently-erected Ones are of

burnt brick , and are handsome bui ldings . On Sunday mo rnings

they are all wel l fi l led , especial ly on the fi rst Sunday in the

month , the congregations numbering in several instances over

a thousand people. The afternoon congregations are not quite

SO large. Some of the surburban churches are j ust as largely

attended as those in the city proper.

The Observance of Sunday is a marked feature in the l ife

/ Of Antananarivo . No markets are held , allGovernment bus iness

is stopped , and large numbers of p eople' in clean white dresses

and larnba crowd the roads go ing to and from the various places

Of wo rship. The sound o f bel ls is heard from many towers,and

as one passes by the churches, the fam i l iar strains of many wel l

known Engl ish tunes may be'

heard sung accompanied by the

ANTANANARivo ,THE CAP ITAL. 47

notes o f American o rgans or harmoniums. A Sabbath quiet

and calm is over the who le city ; no t only is divine wo rship

attended by thousands , but hundreds o f chi ldren are learning

in Sunday schoo ls ; and i t may be said that in Antananarivo,

as wel l as in many o ther Madagascar towns and vi l lages,the

Day Of Rest is as wel l observed as in most parts of England,

or even of Sco tland .

In addition to the Churches o f Antananarivo,o ther institu

tions connected wi th the London M issionary Society and the

Friends’ and o ther M iss ions are also shown on the map . O f

these,the largest bui lding, and one seen most prom inently on

approaching the capital from Tamatave, is the L .M .S . Co l lege,

a mass ive and substantial structure o f brick and stone. The

Co l lege teaching was commenced in 1 869 , and the present

bui lding was opened in 188 1 . The accommodation includes,

bes ides spacious class- rooms and tuto rs ’ res idences, a lecture hal l ,

arranged in theatre fashion,where lectures are del ivered and

meetings of all kinds are constantly held , there being room

for about five hundred audito rs . About seventy to eighty

students o f different grades are usual ly under training, the

majo rity Of these being educated for the Christian m inistry,

whi le some are secular students.

A l i ttle below the Co l lege, to the no rth , is the L .M .S . No rmal

Schoo l,also housed in a substantial stone and brick bui lding ;

and here teachers for the town and country schoo ls receive a

tho rough course of instruction for thei r wo rk . The G i rls ’

Central

Schoo l is in Ambodin’ Andohalo,nearer the centre of the city.

Not far from this is the L .M .S . Press , from which a large

number of books and o ther publ ications are constantly being

issued .

I

Lower down , to the no rth -west, at Analakely is the Disp en

sary, under the management of a jo int comm ittee o f the London

M iss ionary Society and Friends’

M issions . Within the last four

or five years a new,larger, and very complete Hospital has been

About books of various kinds yearly .


erected at Isoavinandriana, a place about a m i le from the

no rthern extrem ity o f the capital . This is also under the jo int

contro l o f the two so cieties,al though the Friends take the larger

Share o f the expenses o f all medical wo rk . Here'

the s i ck are

nursed and attended to and young men are trained as docto rs

and surgeons, and women for the wo rk o f nurs ing and mid

wifery. A Medical M ission Board gives diplomas of efficiency

in surgery and medicine,and a cons iderable number Of young

Malagasy are now qual ified medical practi tioners.

The Friends’ M iss ion Central G i rls ’ Schoo l and thei r press

are on the Farat itra hi l l close to the Co l lege ; and their

excel lent upper Boys ’ Schoo l is at AmbohijatOvo ,nearer the

centre o f the city. So clo se is the connection between the two

M iss ions,that for all practical purposes they may be regarded

as one ; all plans o f wo rk,church government

,and wo rship

being the same in almost every respect in the churches o f the

London M iss ionary Society and those in charge o f the Friends.

A wo rd or two must also be said about the o ther churches

o f Antananarivo .

Those Of the Society for the P ropagation o f the Go spel

Episcopal M iss ion are four in number, the chief being the stately

stone Cathedral , which o ccupies a most commanding pos ition

on the north s ide Of Andohalo in the centre Of the city. This

is a crucifo rm . structure with three towers, which wi l l eventual ly

be crowned w i th Spires. This M iss ion has also good H igh

Schoo ls for boys and gi rls in the city,whi le their co l lege

,with

some elegant stone buildings , is s i tuated about twelve m i les to

the no rth.

The No rwegian Lutheran M iss ion has a representative church

in Antananarivo ,as wel l as a train ing insti tution

,o rphanage,

schoo ls, and hospital. Its chief wo rk is south o f Imérina and

in the Bétsileo province, where there are a large number of

stations.

The Roman Catho l i c Jesuit M ission has four churches in the

capital . Of these, the largest one, or cathedral , close to Ando

ANTANANAR‘

IVO,THE CAP ITAL. 49

halo,is a handsome stone structure w ith towers crowned by

octagonal lanterns. There are also large buildings as res idences

for priests, lay bro thers, and s isters of mercy, and for schoo ls

and p ress.

I

I t wi l l be seen from the above sketch that Antananarivo is

the centre o f a large amount of Christian wo rk and activity.

Its twenty- seven L .M .S . town and suburban churches and

schoo ls, although they all have thei r own native pasto rs and

preachers, sti l l , however, need the help and guidance and teaching

of Engl ish m issionaries and for a long time to come its co l lege,

schoo ls, presses, hospitals, &c.,wi l l requi re the same oversight.

And when i t is remembered that,in addition to the above

churches and thei r large districts, there are also five out-stations

o f the L .M .S . at a few m i les’ distance from the capital,with about

three hundred mo re congregations,i t is evident that Engl ish

m iss ionaries in the central province of Madagascar have unusual

oppo rtunities of service for Christ. The greater part o f all

these n ine hundred congregations have only come out of

heathenism within the last twenty-five years,and numbers o f

the people are sti l l (can we wonder at i t ?) very igno rant and

superstitious. The claims o f the sti l l completely heathen

districts of Madagascar are,i t is true, very urgent ; but whi le

mo re ought to be done for these, we canno t affo rd at present

a s ingle man from the wide field close to our hands and Open,“

to our teaching with hardly any external hindrance. I t may'

safely be said that in no o ther part of the wo rld are there such

favourable oppo rtunities o f service for our Master. I n almost

every other m iss ion-field the people have with difficulty to be

drawn out of heathenism to hear the sound of the Gospel kere

they are al ready gathered into hundreds of congregations, thei r

ido ls destroyed , and are wi l l ing to l isten to the Wo rd of Life.

A new French Protestant Church has been establ ished under theauspices of the French Resident-General , M . H ippolyte Laroche, at Ambatonakanga

,where Services are conducted by the Pasteurs , MM . Logat and Kruger .

ED.


In concluding this description Of Antananar ivo i t wi l l be

evident from what has been said that this capital of the Hova

Malagasy is no mere co l lection of huts,nor is i t l ike a Kaffi r

kraal,but is gradual ly becom ing a respectable C ity and i t is

only fai r to add that the advances in civi l isation , enl ightenment,

and intel l igence, which are so manifest in the capital, and

also,in fair propo rtion,

in other towns throughout the central

p rovinces, are the di rect results o f the labour of Christian

m issionaries, chiefly those of the London M iss ionary Society.

This so ciety, mo re than s ixty years ago ,sent to Madagascar

artisan m iss ionaries, as wel l as those whose wo rk was mo re

di rectly educational and rel igious ; and to their united effo rts

the Malagasy chiefly owe the material progress they have

al ready made, as wel l as the Christian teaching which has

broken down the Old ido latry of the people,which has covered

the central provinces wi th hundreds Of churches, which is teaching

a hundred thousand children in its schoo ls,and is gradual ly

raising up a fo rmerly igno rant and sem i -barbarous tribe to the

po si tion o f an enlightened and Christian people.

The population Of Antananarivo is difficult to estimate

exactly. NO census appears to have been taken by the native

Government,but the houses have been counted by some of my

friends,and careful inquiries made as to the average number of

o ccupants, and from these i t is bel ieved by some that the p op u

lation o f the city is much over I Should be incl ined to

put it at from to 70,000.

I There is frequently a large

number of strangers in the capital, as people come constantly

from all parts o f the is land on Government bus iness,bringing

tribute,and receiving o rders from the Sovereign and on special

o ccasions, as when levies of troops are being made, &C., the

o rdinary population of the city must be swel led by many

thousands.

Many years ago , during the time of the early mission Of the

London M issionary Society, a plan of Antananarivo was madeI Vidaante, p . 44 . Population is only —EU.

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAP ITAL. 51

by M r. Cameron (whose name has al ready been mentioned in

this chapter), and was published in ElliS ’s History of M ada

g asear The city has o f course greatly increased since

then ; and within the last six or seven years a new detai led

plan to a large scale has been made from surveys by French

Officers.

Antananarivo may justly be cons idered the heart of Mada

gascar. There is the seat o f government and of the most

advanced civi l isation o f the country ; from i t go out the Hova

Officers and so ldiers who garrison every po rt on the coast and

every impo rtant town in the interio r ; from i t go out weekly

thousands Of books and copies of the Sacred Scriptu res ; and

there are trained the native do cto rs and surgeons and nurses,

the schoo lmasters and evangel ists and teachers , who are sent to

distant places to labour together with thei r European teachers in

various ways to benefit thei r fel low- countrymen,and to hasten

that day when,as we hope, the who le Of Madagascar shal l Share

in the advance and enl ightenment which is al ready so marked

in the central province of Imérina and in the capital ci ty,

Antananarivo .

INDEX TO NUMBERS ON MAP .

Commenced .

Palace Church 1 869 13 . Ambatom itsangana1 83 1 14 . Fiadanana, E.

1 ' Ambatonakanga { 1861 15. Fiadanana,W.

2. Analakély 186 1 16 . IsOanierana

3 . Amparibe 186 1 17 .

4 . Ambohipotsy 1 863 18 .

5. Ankadibevava 1 863 19 . Mahaz oarivo6 . Ampamarinana 1864 20. AmbOhimiandra

7 . Andohalo 1864 21 .

8 . AmbOhitantély 1 864 22. Ambatoroka9 . Farat itra 1868 23 . Ankadifotsy10. Imahamasina 1867 24 . Tanimena1 1 . IsOtry 1867 25. Anjanahary12. Ambanid ia 1868 26 . Manjakaray

CHAPTER I V.

THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR : NOTES

ON THE CLIMATE,AGRICULTURE

,SOCIAL CUSTOMS OF

THE PEOPLE, AND VARIED ASPECTS OF THEMONTHS.

The seasons in Madagascar—Their S ignificant names— Prospect from summ it ofAntananarivo—The great rice-plain— Springtime September and OctoberRice-planting and rice-field s— First crop—Trees and fol iage Burning theDowns ”— B irds— Summer : November to February—Thunderstorm s and

tropical rains— Effects on roads—Rainfal l—Hail—Magnificent l ightningeffects— Malagasy New Year—Native calendar— Royal bathing— Conspicuousflowers—Aloes and agaves— Christmas Day Observances—Uniform ity inlength of days—Native words and phrases for divisions of time—And fornatural phenomena—Effects of heavy rains—Wild flowers Of ImerinaAutumn March and Apri l—Rice harvest—Harvest Thanksgiving ServicesM ist effects on w inter mornings— Spiders’

webs—Winter May to AugustWinter the dry season—Great markets—Aspects of n ightly sky— Epidem icsin co ld season—Vegetation.

Y object,

in this chapter is to describe the varied aspects-Of the different months throughout the year i n this

central province o f Imérin'

a,as they present themselves to

any one who liVeS In the capital Ci ty Of Antananarivo , and is

frequently travel ling In the country,

around it. I want to Show

the variety ofNature during the changing seasons, as the resul t

o f“the

‘ heat or co ld, and of the mo isture or drought of the

c l imate,and to

.

po int out the changes resulting from the

d ifferent pro cesses Of agriculture carried on by the Malagasy.

And i t must be remembered that al though this central province

Of Madagascar is by several degrees wel l within the tropics, our

c l imate for some months of the year is by no means the

THE CHANG ING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR . 53

tropical one supposed in our o rdinary Engl ish use of that

wo rd. On these interio r highlands, from to feet,

above the sea level , the south-easterly winds blow from June to

August with a keenness and fo rce which i t needs thick clo thing

to wi thstand , and makes a wood fire during the long evening s

a very pleasant addition to the comfo rts of home l ife.

The seasons in the central regions of the island are p racti

cal ly only two the hot and rainy period, from the beginning o f

November to the end of Apri l ; and the coo l and dry period,

during the o ther months,from May to October. The Malagasy

are,however, accustomed to speak of four seasons o f thei r year

,

viz ., the Lo

’

lzataona, z1a,

“head of the year,” during September

and October, when the planting of rice is go ing on everywhere ,

and a few showers give prom ise o f the com ing rains ; the

Fd/zavdm tm,

thunder- time,” when severe sto rms o f thunder

and l ightning are frequent, with heavy downpours of rain,from

the early part of November to the end of February or into

March ; the d rdno,“last rains

,

”from the beginning of

March and through Apri l ; and lastly, the time

of bareness , when the grass becomes dry and w i thered,from

June to August.

Taking, therefo re, the seasons in o rder, from the beginning,not of January, which gives no natural d ivis ion o f the year, but

from the early part o f September, when the blossoms on the

trees speak of the“good time com ing ”of renewed verdure, I

shal l no te down,in their success ion

,the varying aspects of the

country, in cl imate, vegetation,and cultu re of the so i l

,through

out the changingyear.”

Befo re, however, proceeding to do this, i t may give greater

distinctness to the mental picture I want to draw for tho se who

have never been in Madagascar , if I try to describe in a few

wo rds the appearance of this central province o f the island ,especial ly of that po rtion of i t which is in the neighbourhood o f

the capital . Let us go up to the highest po int o f the long

rocky ridge on and around which Antananarivo is bui lt, from


which we can view the landscape o’

er, and try and gain a

clear no tion o f this“heart o f Imerina,” as i t is often cal led by

the Malagasy. The city hi l l reaches its greatest elevation at a

po in t cal led Ambohim i tsimbina, H i l l o f regarding,” which

is 700feet above the general level of the ri ce-plains around it.

From this co ign o fvantage there is of course a very extens ive

view in every direction,and we see at once that the surrounding

country is very mountainous. East and south there is l i ttle but

hi l ls of allshapes and s iz es to be seen, except along the val leys

o f the river Ikopa and i ts tributaries,which come from the edge

o f the upper fo rest, thi rty mi les or so away to the east. To the

no rth the country is mo re undulating, but at ten or twelve m i les

away high hil ls and moors close in the view. Some o f the hi l ls

r ise into mountains,as in the case of Angavokely to the east

,

M ilangana, Andringitra, and Lohavohitra to the north and

no rth-west, and Iharanandriana to the south . The country is

everywhere in these directions, except in the river val leys,covered w i th red so i l

,through which the granite and gneiss

foundations pro trude at almost every elevated po int in huge

boulder- l ike ro cks.

There is l i ttle fo l iage to be seen,except on the top of some

of the hi l ls, where the ancient towns and vi l lages were bui l t,

and in such places a ci rcle of old Aw’

dw/ trees, with an occa

sionalAmbw‘ana I tree

,gives a pleasant rel ief to the prevai l ing

red and o chre tints of the bare hi l ls. The largest mass o f green is

at the old capital , Ambohimanga, eleven m i les away to the no rth,where the steep s ides o f the hi l l are sti l l covered with a remnant

o f the o riginal forest, which fo rmerly was doubtless much mo re

extens ive in this part of Imerina

To the west, from no rth to south,the prospect differs con

siderably from that to the east. To the south-west there rises

by very gradual s lopes, at some thirty-five m i les’ distance, the

mass of Ankaratra,the highest po in t in the is land, its three or

fou r crowning peaks reaching an elevation of nearly feet

I Ficus Barom’

,Baker, and Ficus trichosphazm ,

Baker.


above the sea, and something mo re than half that height above

the general level of the country. Due west and no rth—west is a

cons iderable extent of level country, beyond which the mountain

o f Ambohimiangara, s ixty m i les away,is seen on the ho ri z on,

as wel l as many o ther hi l ls . In the fo reground, stretching away

many m i les,is the great rice- plain of B

‘

etsimitatatra, from which

numbers of low red hi l ls, most of them with vi l lages, rise l ike

islands out o f a green sea when the rice is growing ; along the

plain the river Ikop a can be seen,winding its way no rth -west

wards to jo in the Bets iboka ; the uni ted streams, with many

tributaries,flowing into the sea at the Bay o f Bembatoka. This

great plain,

“the granary o f Antananarivo , was fo rmerly an

immense marsh,and earl ier sti l l a lake but s ince the embank

ing of the river by some o f the early kings o f Imerina, i t has

become the finest ri ce-plain in the is land , and , with its con

nected val leys, furnishes the bulk o f the food of the people of

the central province.

From this elevated po int at least a hundred smal l towns and

vil lages can be recognised,many of them marked by the ti led

roof o f the vi l lage church,which shines o ut distinctly in the

sunshine am id the brown thatched roo fs of mo st of the ho uses ,

and can be easi ly distinguished at distances o f ten or twelve

m i les away. This View from the summ i t of the capital is

certainly in its way unrival led for variety and extent, as wel l as

for the human interest of its different parts , as shown by the

large population,the great area of cultivated land , the embanked

rivers,and the streams and water- channels for i rrigation seen in

every di rection.

SPR INGTIME SEPTEMBER AND O CTOBER— With the early

days of September we may usual ly say that springtime in

Imerina fai rly sets in,and that the year in its natural aspects

properly commences. By a true instinct, arising doubtless from

long observation of the change o f the seasons, the Malagasy cal l

this time Lélzataona,

“the head

,or beginning, o f the year,

when nature seems to awake from the comparative deadness of


the co ld and dry winter months,during which the country has

looked bare and uninvi ting, but now begins again to give

prom ise of ferti l i ty and verdure. The keen co ld winds and

driz z ly showers o f the past few weeks give place to warmer air

and clearer skies, and al though usual ly there is but l i ttle rain

during September, the deciduous trees begin to put fo rth thei r

leaves, and flower-buds appear as heralds of the fuller dis

play of vegetable l ife which wil l be seen after the rains have

fal len.

The great rice-plain to the west looks,during the early days

of the Lo‘

lzamona,bare and brown ; but we shal l see that in various

places,where the plain bo rders the low rising grounds on which

the vi l lages are buil t, there are bright patches o f vivid green.

These are the Iee‘

tsa grounds , or smal ler ri ce-fields,where the

ri ce is fi rst sown thick and broadcast,and where i t grows for a

month or two befo re being planted out in the larger fields.

These ée‘

tsa patches begin to be very numerous also in the

smal ler val leys which are found in every part o f the province ;and as soon as the young plants are 4 or 5 inches high

they are frequently strewn over with long dry grass to pro tect

them from the hot sun by day as wel l as from the co l d w inds by

night . I n o ther rice-patches large fronds of bracken fern are

used for the same purpose,and smal l branches of trees are also

stuck along the edges o f the enclosures,which are divided from

each o ther by a low bank of earth, a few inches broad and only

a foo t or two in height.

As the season advances the people begin to be busy digging

up thei r ri ce-fields, the clods being pi led up in heaps and rows

in o rder to give the so i l the benefit of exposure to the sun and

air. A l l this wo rk is done by the native long-handled and long

and narrow-bladed spade,driven into the ground by the weight

of the handle,as the Malagasy wear no shoes, and so could not

drive down the spade by the foo t in European fashion,whi le the

plough is sti l l an unknown implement to them . The water

courses,by which water is brought to every rice-plo t, are now


being repai red in all directions . The chief supply of water is

from the springs found at the head of almost every val ley,which

is careful ly led by channels cut and embanked round the curves

of the hi l ls ides,being often taken thus fora cons iderable distance

from its source. Eventual ly this l i ttle canal reso lves i tself into

a smal l stream traversing the val ley, from which smal ler channels

convey the water to every field , so as to mo isten the clods after

they have been dug over.

The water- supply for the great Betsimitatatra plain is derived

from the Ikopa river and its tributaries the Andromba, the

Sisaony,the Mamba, and o ther streams. Canals tap these rivers

at various po ints, in o rder to i rrigate the fields at lower levels

further down thei r course. A large quantity of water is thus

diverted from the rivers during September and O ctober, so that

the smal ler streams are almost dry,and even° the Ikopa and its

affluents , good - s iz ed rivers at o ther times of the year,then

become shal low and easi ly fo rdable.

Before the end o f October a large extent of the great plain,

especial ly to the no rth and no rth-west,is completely planted

with rice ; and a green level , looking l ike one vast lawn ,stretches away for many m i les in this direction

,without any

break or visible divisions. This green is\the wiry alo

‘

lza,or

fo rmer rice,

”the fi rst crop

,which wi l l become ripe in the month

o f January, o r early in February. Smal ler expanses of bright

green appear in o ther directions also , especial ly along the courses

of the r ivers, but a considerable extent of the plain directly to

the west of the capital is sti l l russet brown in co lour,and wil l

not be planted unti l a month or two later. From this wi l l come

the later ri ce crop, or, as i t is cal led , the (wiry ) vdky ambidty ,

which is planted in November or December,and becomes fi t for

cutting about Apri l . This latter crop is so cal led because the

flowering o f the Ambz’

dty shrub,

I about November, gives no tice

to the people that planting- time has come. This shrub is very

conspicuous about this time o f the year from its masses o f white

flowers.

Vernonia append iculata,Less .


The lee’

tsa grounds are covered befo re sowing with a layer

o f wood and straw ashes,so that they have qui te a black

appearance. Befo re this , however, the clods have been broken

up and wo rked by the spade into a soft mud,wi th an inch or

two of water over all, and on this the grain is sown broadcast,

springing up in two or three weeks’ time and looking like a

bri l l iant emerald carpet.

There are usual ly a few heavy showers about the end of

September or the early part o f O ctober, which are cal led ra’

no

no’

m na ma’

mp z’

sdra—z‘aona,

“rain dividing the year ”

; but

o ccasional ly no rain fal ls unti l the rainy season regularly com

mences,so i t is dry and dusty everywhere, the ground cracks,

and everything seems thi rsting for mo isture. The heat increases

as the sun gets mo re nearly vertical with the advancing season,

al though the nights are pleasantly coo l . Yet no twithstanding

the dry so i l,the trees are beginn ing to blossom . Most con

sp icuous among them is the Cape-lilac,I a tree introduced from

South Afri ca “about seventy years ago by the fi rst L .M .S .

m iss ionaries,and now tho roughly natural ised. I t grows to be

a good- s iz ed tree,and many hundreds o f them are to be seen

in allthe suburbs o f Antananarivo,making them gay wi th the

profusion o f l i lac flowers which cover the trees, and fragrant

with thei r strong perfume.

There are many large o rchards in Im’

erina, thickly planted

with mango - trees,and about this time the green o f the leaves

is largely m ingled with a tinting of reddish brown,which is

caused by the masses o f flowers in the upper part o f the trees .

The low banks o f earth which fo rm the boundary wal ls of

plantations are largely planted with a species o fEup koréz'

afi o f

which there are two varieties— one w i th bri l l iant scarlet bracts,and the o ther o f pale yel low tint

,the leaves appearing on the

pr ick ly stem s later on.

As the season advances,the people burn the grass over the

hil ls ides and the open moo r country, so as to get rid o f the

Malia Az edcm ch,L .

2 Euphorbia splendens, Bojer.


ground,with a no te somewhat l ike that Of herEuropean cousin ’

s,

but not so ful l and sweet.

As the end o f October draws near, the people are busi ly at

wo rk,not only in the ri ce-fields , but also repai ring thei r

“houses ,

mending their grass or rush roofs,and hurrying on their sun

dried brick or clay building befo re the heavy‘

rains fal l . A l though

a large number o f burnt-brick houses, with ti led roo fs, have now

been erected,the majo ri ty o f native dwel l ings are sti l l of the

cheaper materials and everything of the kind must be finished ,or at least wel l pro tected from the weather, befo re the rainy

season comes on. The watercourses, too , need attention,and

the river banks must be repai red,lest a success ion Of heavy

rains should swel l the streams, break through the embankments ,and flood the ri ce-plains.

SUMMER : NOVEMBER , DECEMBER , JANUARY, AND FEB

RUARY.— Summer is not only the hot season,

but i t is also the

rainy season,very l i ttle rain fal l ing at any o ther time of the

year. I t is acco rdingly cal led by the Malagasy Fd/zava‘

m tm ,“thunder- time, s ince almost all heavy rain is accompanied

by a thundersto rm ; and taking the average of a good many

years,this season may be said to commence at the beginning of

November.

As the sun gets every day mo re nearly verti cal at noon , on

his passage towards the southern tropic, the heat increases, and

the electri c tens ion of the air becomes mo re Oppress ive. For a

week or mo re previous to the actual commencement of the rains,

the clouds gather towards evening, and the heavens are l ighted

up at night by constant flashes of l ightn ing. But at length,after a few days o f this sultry weather, towards mid-day the

huge cumul i gather thickly over the sky and gradual ly unite

into a dense mass, purple black in co lour, and soon the thunder

is heard . I t rapid ly approaches nearer and nearer, the clouds

touching the lower hi l ls, then down darts the fo rked l ightning,

fo l lowed by the roar o f the thunder, and presently a wild rush

of wind , as if i t came from allquarters at once, tel ls u s that the

THE CHANG ING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 6 !

sto rm is upon us,and then comes the rain in big, heavy drops

for a few seconds and soon in to rrents , as if the s lu ice-gates o f

the clouds were opened. The l ightning is almost incessant,and

for half an hour or so there is o ften hardly any interval between

the crashing and reverberations of the thunder peals,the hil ls

around the capital echo ing back the roar from the clouds.

Certain ly a heavy thundersto rm in Madagascar is not without

a considerable element o f danger, especial ly for any one caught

in a sto rm in the open,or in a house unpro tected by a l ightning

conducto r. Every house o f any pretens ions in the central

provinces has this safeguard , for every year many people are

ki l led by l ightning— some while walking in the road,and Others

in houses unpro tected by a conducto r ; for instance, one of our

co l lege students, travel l ing wi th wife and chi ldren to the

B ’

etsi leo , was ki l led instantaneously, as wel l as a slave near him,

when s itting in a native house, whi le a chi ld he was nursing at

the time escaped with a few burns only.

A large quantity of rain sometimes fal ls during such sto rms

in a very sho rt time. On the lgth o f January,1892, 3, inches

fel l in less than half an hour ; and as the streets and paths

through the capital are all very steep,and from the rocky

nature o f the who le hil l there can be no underground drainage,

i t may be imagined what a roar of water there is all over the

city after such a sto rm . The three or four chief tho roughfares

are transfo rmed into the beds of rushing to rrents and series o f

cascades, and i t is no wonder that most o f the highways of the

capital get deeper and deeper every year. Even where there

is an attempt at a rough paving, a s ingle sto rm wi l l often tear

i t up and pi le the stones together in a big ho le,with no mo re

o rder than obtains in the bed o f a cataract. After the rains are

over, the red so i l is dug away from the s ides to fi l l up the

channel cut by the to rrent, and so the road gradual ly s inks

below the wal ls o f the compounds on ei ther s ide of i t.

Taking the average o f eleven years (188 1 the annual

rainfal l o f Antananarivo was 52 inches ; and o f this, om i tting


decimals, 512» inches fel l in O ctober, 5% inches in November, Iofiinches in December, I I inches in January, 9 inches in February,8 inches in March, and 2 inches in Apri l ; so that December

and January are the wettest months,during which rain fal ls

usual ly on two days out o f every three.

I t is very unusual for thundersto rms to o ccu r in the mo rn ing,

they mostly come on in the afternoon and after the fi rst heavy

downpour, a steady rain wil l often continue for three or four

hours , and occasional ly far into the night. I t is general ly bright

and fine in the early mo rn ing ; all vegetation is refreshed by

the plentiful mo isture and the people are busy in thei r planta

tions on the sloping hi l ls ides, digging up the softened earth for

planting manio c , sweet po tatoes, the edible arum, and many

o ther vegetables .

Hai l also very frequently fal ls during these thundersto rms,

and should i t be late in the season, when the rice is in ear

,great

damage is often done to the growing crop. A large extent of

rice-field wil l sometimes be stripped o f every grain,the stal ks

standing up l ike bare sticks . Charms against hai l had therefo re

in the old heathen times a prom inent place in the popu lar

bel iefs and ,there can be l i ttle doubt, are sti l l trusted in and

used by many of the mo re igno rant people. Occasional ly the

hai lstones are of very large s iz e and ki l l sheep and smal l

animals, if they are left unshel tered . I remember a sto rm of

this kind (Oct. 22, when the hai lstones were as large as

good - s iz ed nuts , while somewere cushion - shaped and hexagonal

with a ho l low in the centre, and nearly 1 ; inches in diameter.

In o ther cases they have been seen as jagged lumps of ice and

i t may be easi ly imagined that i t is very unpleasant and some

what dangerous to be exposed to such a fusi lade.

Besides the thundersto rms l ike those j ust described , which

come so close and are o ften so awful in thei r results , there is

ano ther kind of sto rm we frequently see in the rainy season

which is an unm ixed source of del ight. This is when, for two

or three hours together in the evening, a large po rtion of the

THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 63

sky is l ighted up by an almost incessant shimmer o f l ightning.

A l l the time no thunder is heard from this celestial display,but

it is most fascinating to watch the infinitely varied effects of

l ight and darkness.

As the Malagasy New Year ’s Day now comes in the month

of November, i t may be fi tting to say something here about the

native divis ion of time. The Malagasy months are lunar ones

and therefo re their year, reckoning by the months,is eleven

days sho rter than our own,the fi rst day o f thei r year com ing

consequently at different times, from the fi rst to the twelfth

month,unti l the cycle is complete. When I fi rst came to

Madagascar (in the Malagasy New Year’s Day, that is,the fi rst o f Alahamady,

was in the month of March, and in this

year , 1894 , the fi rst of that Malagasy month fel l on the 6 th of

Apri l,the cycle of thirty- three years being thus nearly finished .

But s ince the access ion of the present Sovereign,Queen Rana

valona I I I ., in 188 3, the 22nd of November,which is her

Majesty’

s birthday, has been fixed as the invariable New Year ’s

Day and most of the old ceremonies always observed previous

to the year 18 83 on the fi rst day of the fi rst month (Alahamady)are now kept up on the eve of November 22nd . The old New

Year’s Day,the birthday o f the father of Radama I.

,is sti l l

,

however, held in remembrance by the fi ring of cannon on the

fi rst of Alahamady. The Malagasy appear never to have

made any attempt, by the insertion o f intercalary days or any

o ther contrivance, to fi l l up thei r sho rter year to the true time

occupied in the earth’

s annual revo lution round the sun for of

course they must have no ticed that thei r months came at quite

different periods after a very few years. The names of the

Malagasy months in use in the central province and in most

other parts of the island are all Arabic in o rigin,as indeed are

the names of the days of the week . In some districts,however

,

o ther names are employed , which mostly appear to be purely

Malagasy wo rds. I t may be no ticed here that the Malagasy

month-names are not the Arabic names for the months,but are


the A rabic wo rds for the twelve constel lations o f the Zodiac.

Thus,Alahamady is the Ram ,

Adaoro is the Bul l (ch oral—taun ts),

Adiz ao zais the Twins, and so on. This appears to havearisen

from the connection between astro logy and the divination

introduced by the Arabs several centuries ago .

A ful l account o f the Fafl a’ro‘

ana or“Bathing

, as the New

Year’s festival is cal led , canno t be given here, as a complete

description would fo rm a separate chapter of some length. I t

must suffice to say that al though some o f the ancient customs

have fal len and are s ti l l fal l ing into disuse,most of them are

sti l l kept up. The mo st prom inent of these are the fo l lowing

(I ) The l ighting of l ittle bundles of dried grass at dusk on the

evenings of the 20th and the 215t of November, the latter, the

eve of the 22nd , being considered as the commencement of the

New Year’s Day i tself, for the Malagasy,l ike o ther O rientals,

reckon“the evening and the mo rn ing ”as the proper o rder o f

the day. These fi res, poss ibly a rel i c of the old fire-wo rship,

are cal led and fo rm one of the most pleasing features

of the festival in the gathering darkness of the evening. (2)The ceremonial Royal Bathing at the great Palace, when all

the principal people of the kingdom are present, as wel l as

representative fo reigners, is perhaps the most prom inent o f all

the ceremonies, giving, as i t does, the name to thewho le festival .

This is fo l lowed by a ceremonial bathing, or at least sprinkling

of water, by all househo lds . (3) On the fo l lowing day comes

the ki l l ing o f oxen, doubtless the most impo rtant of all Fan

drOana Observances in the estimation of the people general ly,at

any rate of the poo rer classes , who then get, for once a year at

least , a plentiful supply o f beef. Presents of the newly- ki l led

meat are sent about in alldirections to relatives and friends,and

feasting and merrymaking prevai l for several days among all

classes . (4) For some time previous to the actual festival,i t is

customary for the Malagasy to vis i t thei r elders and superio rs

in rank , bringing presents o f money,fowls

,fru it

, &c .,us ing

certain complimentary fo rmulae and express ions of good wishes .


The abundant rains which usual ly fal l in November soon

make the hil ls and downs, which have got so brown and dry

during the co ld season , to become green again, and although

wild flowers are certainly not plentiful,there are several kinds

which now make their appearance. Among these are the

Voném’

na,

1 wi th large pink flowers the Avakofi bright crimson

the Nz‘

finakdng a,3 deep blue ; several smal l vetch- l ike plants

with yel low flowers many o thers with minute yel low compoundflowers, and some few o ther kinds.

Besides flowers growing on the ground , there are many shrubs

and smal l trees now in blossom , al though some are by no means

confined in floral display to the warm and rainy season . A long

the hedges in one or two local i ties is a smal l bush,wi th clusters

of purple flowers , cal led Famdmo branches of these shrubs

are sometimes placed in a poo l o r stream,so as to stupefy

,and

thus easi ly obtain, any fish present in the water. Very con

sp icuous are the bright yel low flowers o f the Taz’

naké/zo 5and the

and the o range yel low spikes o f the S et/a] Mo re

showy and handsome sti l l perhaps are the abundant large yel low

flowers o f the prick ly-pear, which is so largely used for hedges

and for the defences o f the old towns and vil lages. A species

of ITIz'

bz'

scus,8 is not uncommon,

w i th yel low flowers, which have

deep red in the centre ; yel low seems indeed the most common

co lour in the flo ra o f Imerina. A t this time o f the year also

three or four species of aloe come into flower. The larger of

these, cal led Vd/zomw by the Malagasy, is much used for plant

ing as a hedge,from its fleshy leaves being armed with sharp

prickles its tal l flower-spike shoo ts up very rapidly to a height

o f 4 or 6 feet. Ano ther and smal ler one, cal led S czlzo’

mz’m

,I o has

its flowers branching at the top o f the stal k something l ike a

candelabrum. The numerous flowers attract, as they expand ,

Vinca rosea, L .

2 Vigna angivcnsis, Baker.3 Commclyna madagascarica ,

C . B . C larke.4 Mundulca suberosa, Benth .

5 Cassia lcevigata, Wil ld .

6 Cazsalpmia sepiaria, Roxb .

7 Buddleia madagascariensis, Lam .

8 Hibiscus d z'

vcrsifolius, Jacq .

9 Aloemacroclada, Baker. Aloe capitata, Baker.


swarms o f bees. Ano ther plant, l ike an aloe in appearance,

cal led Tare’

tm l by the natives,has long leaves

,with a sharp

spine at the ends only ; and its flower-stalk shoo ts up l ike a

smal l mast to a height o f 20feet, with widely- spreading branch

lets and an immense number of l ight- co loured flowers . S trong

fibre used as thread is obtained from the leaves,the name o f the

plant being indeed that used for thread. The tal l flower- stalks

of these aloes and agaves fo rm qu ite a no ticeable feature in

the Imerina landscape in the early summer. I n the o rchards,

soon after the mango has finished flowering, we may see the

cur ious whitish flowers of the Rose-apple,2 a so rt o f bal l of long

s tamens , showing conspicuous ly among the fo l iage.

Towards the beginning of December the earl ier crop of ri ce

comes into ear ; and should the rains fal l as usual during

November, the remaining po rtions o f the great rice-plain wil l

be allplanted out with the later crop, the who le o f the level and

its branching val leys presenting an unbroken expanse o f green .

Of this, the early rice shows distinctly as a darker shade o f

co lour, al though it wi l l soon begin to turn yel low,as the grain

r ipens under the steady heat and the plentiful rainfal l . Perhaps

this is the time when Betsimitatatra is seen in its most attractive

and beautiful aspect, for every part of i t is covered with rice in

some stage or o ther o f growth and cultivation.

S ince the reception of Christianity byr the people of the

central provinces of Madagascar, Christmas Day has become a

very general ly observed festival . As far as can be ascertained,the fi rst Pro testant miss ionaries (1820—1836) do not appear to

have enjo ined its observance upon thei r converts ; i t seems to

have become customary to keep it as a festival at some time

during the suppress ion o f open Chr istian wo rship, probably

during the latter years of Ranavalona I.,when severe measures

against the“praying people ” became less common . However

this may be, on the re-establ ishment of the L.M .S . M iss ion in

1 862, the observance of Christmas became very general with the

Agave Ixtli, Karw . Eugenia malaccensis, L .


About Christmas- time also many congregations have a feast

together,general ly in some mango o rchard , for the sake o f the

shade. Here the people are arranged in rows on ei ther s ide o f

prim i tive tableclo ths cons isting o f fresh banana- leaves. Great

pi les of bo i led rice are brought in huge wooden platters,

general ly the sakdfa or rice-winnowing dish while the [d o/mor

accompaniments,cons isting of stewed beef or geese or fowls,

with gravy and green vegetables,is brought in any and every

kind of crockery that can be borrowed for the feast. The repast

is concluded by a dessert o f s l iced pineapple,peaches

,and

bananas,allo f which fruits are cheap and plentiful and i t is a

pleasant s ight to see the people enjoy themselves in this

inno cent fashion.

In Im’

erina there is only about two hours’ difference in the

length of the longest day,about Christmas, and the sho rtest

day,early in July. I t is dark at about seven o

’clock on the I st

o f January, and at about six o’clock on the I st o f July. Thus

we have no long evenings ; but, on the o ther hand,we escape

the long nights and the sho rt days of the Engl ish winter. We

lose also the long twi l ights of the temperate z one,al though I

have never seen the almost instantaneous darkness one some

times reads about in books as fo l lowing the sunset. There is

a twi l ight o f from fifteen to twenty m inutes’ duration in this

part of Madagascar. Very seldom have we a wet mo rning in

any part of the year, and the heat is not mo re oppressive than

i t o ften is in hot summers in England .

I t may be interesting to no tice at this po int the numerous

wo rds used by the Malagasy to indicate the different times of

the day,from mo rning to evening. C locks and watches are

comparatively a recent introduction into Madagascar, nor do

the people ever seem to have contrived any kind of sun-dial,

al though , as wil l be seen,they did use something else as a kind

of substi tute for such a timekeeper. I t should be remembered

that the hours given (counting in European fashion) as equiva

lents for these native divis ions o f the night and the day are


only approximations,and must be taken as the mean of the

year, or,in o ther wo rds, at about the time o f equal day and

n ight,towards the end of March or of September. They are as

fo l lows

Mamc‘

zton’

Ellina,or about

M isa'

saka illina, m idnightManéno sa

'

hona, a.m .

Manc'

no aka/to,Mam ina t

‘

zliim ko’

a,

Manéno goaika,M £1nga vbdih

‘

m itm ,

Mangoun’

atsina’

nana,

Ma fig2m n-dm‘

xtsy,

Ahitim-tsbm tr’(in:by,

Maz t‘

wa rc‘

ztsy

M iféha blo-mazbto,

M am ina kba,

V211:y masofmdro,Vizky r

’

mdro,

Piakimd ro,

Antoc‘

mdro be m‘

mahc‘

zry, Broad dayl ight,}Efa bi

‘

ma fly fmdro,M ilu

'

ntsmm a’

ndo,

Dew-falls,M ivéaka bmby, Cattle go out (to pasture) ,M aim-bo

’

ho11 Leaves are dry (from dew) ,Afa-dnhwm-panc

‘

zla,

Hoar-frost disappears,

Mmu‘

im we‘

wa fly Elmira, The day chi l ls the mouth,

M isc‘

m dm tm £111dro,

Advance of the day,

M itatao he atm,

Over (at a right ang le w ith) thepurl in

,

M itatao vovo’

nana,

Over the ridge of the roof,

Mandmy tokénmm fly c‘

mdro, Day taking ho ld of the thres

ho ld, p m .

(M itsid ika 21min)

,Peep ing~in of the day,

Lt

‘

ztsaka fray dia ny r

‘

mdro,

Day less one step P) , ic

‘

mdro,

Slipping of the day,Tizflzh

‘

ztsaka fly [unimplDecl ine of the day

M ihz’

lana ny c‘

zrzd i'o, J afternoon

,

Am-pitotbam-biiry, At the rice-pounding place,(M by amin

’

11y {andry ny izndro, At the house-post,lAill-[Santatdm n-j c

‘

mak’

bmby, At the place of tying the calf,M by ant-pisbko fly r

‘

zmiro, At the sheep or poultry p en,M o

'

dy c‘

mzby téra~bao, The -cow newly calved comes

home,

These only refer to the two or three winter months.

Centre of night,or

Halving of night,

Frog -croaking,

Cock-crow ing,M orning also night

,

Crow croaking,

B righthoriz on,

Reddish eastG l immer of day,Co lours of cattle can be

Dusk,

Diligent people awake,

Early morning,

Sunrise,Daybreak

70

Tsapc‘

zka fly c‘

mdro,

Mody Omby,

Mc'

na mc‘

zsoc‘

mdro,

M city mc‘

zsoc‘

mdro,

M l'

d itm akoko,

Sonzc‘

mzbisrimby,

Maz’

z im-bc‘

wa-vilc‘

my,

Mandkom-bc‘

zry blond ,

Ho'

mam-be‘

lfy (310ml,

p i—mihinana,

M21 1s blona,

Tapi-mandry blona,M ipOa-tafbndro,Mann

‘

itan’

c

‘

zlina,

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST .

Sun touching the easternwal l) , aboutCattle come home

,

Sunset flush,

Sunset (lit. Sun deadFow ls come in

,

Dusk, twi l ight,

Edge of rice-cooking pan

obscure,People begin to cook rice,People eat rice,!Finished eating,People go to sleep

,

Every one in bed ,Gun-fire

,

M idnight,

This l ist is,I think

, a very interesting one and shows the

prim i tive pasto ral and agricu ltural habits of the Hova Malagasy

befo re they were influenced by European civi l isation. Previous

to their knowledge of clo cks and watches (which are sti l l

unknown to the majo rity of people away from the capital), the

native houses thus served as a rude kind of dial . As,unti l

recent times,these were always buil t with their length runn ing

no rth and south, and with the single doo r and window facing

the west, the sunl ight coming in after mid-day at the open door

gave, by its gradual progress along the floo r,a fai r ly accurate

measure o f time to people amongst whom time was not o f very

much account. I n the fo renoon,the pos i tion o f the sun

,nearly

square with the eastern purl in of the roof,marked about

9 o’clock ; and as noon approached its vertical pos ition,

about

the ridge-po le, or at least its reaching the meridian,clearly

showed 12 o’clock . Then,

as the sunl ight gradual ly passed

westward and began to peer in at the doo r, at about 1 o’clock

,

i t announced“the peeping-in of the day”

(mz’

tsldz'

ka

and then,as success ive po ints on the floo r were reached by the

advancing rays,several o f the hours of the afternoon were

sufficiently clearly marked off the place of rice-pounding ”

(am-p itoto’

am-bdfy), as the l ight fel l on the ri ce-mo rtar,further

into the house “the calf-fastening place (am-p amatém n-j dfl ak’


batteries,

as they are termed,are o ften badly constructed

and o f very insufficient strength and thickness ; the constant

mo isture soaks in , and down come hundreds o f stones and tons

o f earth,blo cking up the narrow paths and making locomo tion

mo re diffi cult than ever. The enclos ing wal ls of compounds

and gardens, made o f several layers of the hard red so i l,

are also apt to be brought down in ruin at such times,

although it . is wonderful to see for how many years such

structures wi l l endure the sto rms and heavy rains o f success ive

seasons.

The pro longed mo isture combined with the heat of this time

o f the year natural ly makes everything grow luxuriantly. Our

gardens are gay with flowers ; and in many places the open

downs display a cons iderable amount of flo ral beauty. I have

never seen elsewhere so beautiful a display o f wild flowers as

that which met our view when travel l ing from Antsirabe in

vakinankaratra to Antananarivo in the middle of December,

1 887 . Leaving Antsirabe and proceeding for several m i les

towards the north-east, the level country up to the foo t of the

long ridge running no rth and so uth,which is ascended about

four hours after leaving Antsirab’

e,was gay with flowers, which

covered the downs, and in places gave a bright co lour to the

surface o f the ground. Among these the most prom inent was

a pale pink flower on stems from a foo t to eighteen iinches

high (cal led by the people Ifba‘osay), I and also the lovely

deep-blue flower cal led IVz’

fina/edng a (l i t.“guinea-fowl ’s too th,

see p. 65ante), which latter o ccurred abundantly among the

grass.

I n many places, especial ly near vi l lages, a plant with smal l

pale-blue flowers,2 almost exactly l ike our Engl ish“fo rget-me

not,” grew in dense masses

,but on stems a foo t or two feet high,

showing a blue- tinted surface even at a cons iderable distance.

The Vone‘

m'

mz (see p. with a pale-pink flower,was very

frequent,as wel l as several species o f bright yel low flowers .

Sopubia triplzylla, Baker. 9 Various species of Cynoglosszmz.


Three or four species of white-flowered plants,one o f which was

a clematis, I were very frequent ; and here a few late examples

o f terrestrial o rchids were seen.

We reckoned that there were from twenty to thirty different

species of wild flowers then in bloom on these downs of

Vakinankaratra, gladdening our eyes by thei r varied beauty

and abundance as we travel led no rthwards on that glo rious

mo rn ing. As we go t to the higher ground,however, I no ticed

that the blue Nz‘

finakring a became very scarce. The pale-pink

Ko‘

tosay was also much less abundant on the heights,but the

white o rchids were sti l l in flower in many places. Seven weeks

previously these upper downs had been also gay with great

masses o f a bri l l iant crimson flower,a legum inous plant

,

probably an Indzigofizm ,which grew in clusters of many sco res

of spikes growing close together. But in December only here

and there was there a flower left, and hardly a seed-

p od , the

great majori ty having been scattered by the w inds.

Not only do flowers and verdure del ight our eyes at this

time o f the year, but this is the season when the greatest variety

o f fruit comes in . Bananas, pine-apples, and two or three o ther

fruits may be had all the year round , but in the rainy season

we also get grapes, peaches , mangoes, plums, quinces , and

o ranges,and latterly apples are also becom ing plentiful.

AUTUMN : MARCH AND APRIL — General ly,bo th crops o f

ri ce— the earl ier and the later— are all cut by the end of Apri l,

al though in the no rthern parts of the province harvest is usual ly

five or six weeks after that date. But if the rains are late and

should happen to be scanty in February and March,as was the

case this year harvest wo rk is sti l l go ing on at the end

o f May. I n fact, owing to there being these two crops o f rice,with no very exactly marked division between the two , autumn ,

in the sense of ri ce-harvest,is go ing on for about four months ,

and sometimes longer,as j ust mentioned , and extends over the

later months o f summer as wel l as the two months of autumn

Clematis Boj cri, Hook .


or Frim rdno (March and Apri l). I n January those po rtions of

the great rice-plain which lie no rth-west o f the capital become

go lden yel low in hue, and after a few days, patches o f water

covered field may be no ticed in different places, showing where

the crop has been cut, and the few inches of water in which i t

was growing Show conspicuously in the prospect. As the weeks

advance,this water- covered area extends over larger po rtions

of the ri ce plain,unti l the who le of the early crop has been

gathered in,so that in many directions there appear to be

extens ive sheets o f water. I wel l remember, when once at

Ambohimanarina,a large vi l lage to the no rth-west of Antana

narivo,how strange i t appeared to see people setting out to

cro ss what seemed a cons iderable lake. But of course there

was no danger,as the water was on ly a few inches deep .

As there are channels to conduct water to every r i ce-field,

smal l canoes are largely used to bring the ri ce,bo th before and

after i t has been threshed , to the margin of the higher grounds

and nearer to the roads. At the vi l lage j ust mentioned , which

is l ike a large island surrounded by a sea of ri ce-plain,there is

one po int where a number o f these channels meet and fo rm

quite a po rt and a very animated scene i t presents at harvest

t ime,as canoe after canoe, pi led up with heaps of rice in the

husk, or with sheaves of i t sti l l unthreshed , comes up to the

landing-place to discharge its cargo .

I n a few weeks’ time the watery covering of the plain is

hidden by another green crop,but not of so bright and vivid

a tint as the fresh -planted and growing ri ce. This is the

ké/z'

éo’

ly or after- crop, which sprouts from the roo ts of the old

plants. This is much sho rter in stalk and smal ler in ear than

the fi rst crop,and is o ften wo rth very l ittle but if the rains are

late,so that there is plenty o f mo isture, i t sometimes yields a

fai r quantity,but it is said to be rather bitter in taste.

In cutting the ri ce the Malagasy use a straight-bladed knife

and as the wo rk proceeds,the stalks are laid in long cu rving

narrow l ines along the field , the heads of one sheaf being


same purpose on the top o f the clay boundary wal ls of the

compounds.

O f late years i t has become rather common for the Christian

congregations to have a Harvest Thanksgiving - service in thei r

churches. The church is often elabo rately deco rated with rice

and fruits o f all descriptions,sometimes i n fact to an absurd

extent,so that the building looks l ike a greengro cer ’s sto re

,as

indeed may be occas ional ly seen even in churches in England .

A much more commendable feature o f these thanksgiving

services is the bringing of Offerings of ri ce and various kinds

o f produce for the support o f the evangel ists and schoo l

teachers .

As the co lder weather advances, the mo rn ings are often

foggy, at least a thick white m ist covers the plains and val leys

soon after the sun rises,and remains for an hour or two unti l

his increas ing power disperses i t. Seen from the higher

g rounds, and from the most elevated parts o f the capital,this

m ist o ften presents a very beautiful appearance : a bil lowy

white Sea of vapour is bri l l iantly l i t up by the sunl ight,and

out of this sea the hi l l- tops rise up l ike islands. But these m isty

mo rn ings also reveal many things which can only be seen by

very close observation , in clear sunshine, especial ly the webs

o f various species o f spider. Many kinds of bush are seen to

be almost covered by geometrical webs : one species seems to

choose the extremities of the branches of the S éng oséng o} but

the most common is a web averaging five or six inches in

diameter, vhich is spread ho riz ontal ly on tufts of grass,and

may be seen by thousands , half a do z en or so in a square yard .

The aspect of vegetation,except in the rice-fields, can

hardly be said to change much during the autumn months.

A plant with pale yel low flowers 2 may be no ticed by thousands

in marshy grounds,giving qui te a mass of co lour in many

places. A s ignificant name given to autumn is M ind/222m ,

the grass is red,

” that is,turning brown .

Euphorbia splendens, Bojer. 2 Grangca madcrasfiatazm ,Po ir .


W INTER : MAY, JUNE , J ULY, AND AUGUST.—We have

no snow,nor is there any native wo rd for i t

,for even the

highest peaks of Ankaratra are too low for snow to fal l on

them ; we never see ice (al though adventurous fo reigners have

once or twice seen a thin film of i t on poo ls on the highest

hi l lsides) hoar- frost, however, is not uncommon,and o ccasion

al ly the leaves of some species of vegetables,as wel l as those

of the banana, turn black with the keen night air. And s ince

there is no rain during our Imerina winter,the paths are dry

,

and i t is the best time for making long journeys,especial ly

,as

there is l i ttle to be feared from fever. Winter is therefo re a

pleasant time ; the Skies are general ly clear,the air is fresh and

invigo rating,and to the coo l and bracing temperature o f the

winter months is doubtless largely due the heal th and strength

which many Europeans enjoy for years together in the central

provinces of Madagascar.

The long period without rain at this season natural ly dries

up the grass, and the hi l ls and downs become parched and

brown. M az'

m‘dny ,

“the earth is dry

,is one of the native

names for this season,and i t is very appropriate to the con

dition of things in general. I The ri ce-fields lie fal low,affo rding

a scanty supply o f grass for the cattle ; and many sho rt cuts

can be made across them in various directions,for the beaten

track over embankments,great and smal l

,may be safely left

for the dry and level plain.

The winter months are a favourite time for the native

custom offamadz’

lzana,that is

,o f wrapping the co rpses o f their

deceased relatives in fresh s i lk clo ths,as wel l as removing some

of them to a new tomb as soon as this is finished . These are quite

ho l iday occasions and times o f feasting, and , not unfrequently,of much that is evil in the way o f drinking and l icentiousness .

Ano ther very prom inent feature of the social l ife o f the

Hova Malagasy is the system of ho ld ing large open -air markets

Another curious native name for the end of the dry season is Mirharbm

m‘

wy inititm ,i.e. ,

“making the old women spit

7 8 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

allover the central province on the various days o f the week .

The largest o f these is that held in the capital every Friday

(Zoma), at which probably people are densely crowded

together, and where almost everything that is grown o r manu

factured in the province can be purchased . But two or three

o f the o ther markets held within four or five m i les of Anta

nanarivo do no t fal l far Sho rt o f the Zoma market in S iz e,

especial ly those at Asabotsy (Saturday) to the no rth, and at

A lats inainy (Monday) to the no rth-east. To a stranger these

g reat markets present a very novel and interesting scene,and

a good idea may be obtained as to what can be purchased here

by taking a stro l l through thei r crowded al leys and no ticing

what is o ffered for sale. The market is roughly divided into

sections, acco rding to the kind o f goods so ld . I n one part

are oxen and sheep, many of which are ki l led in the mo rning,

while the meat is cut up and so ld during the day. Here are

turkeys, geese, ducks, and fowls by the hundred here are great

heaps o f ri ce,both in the husk and ei ther partial ly cleaned , as

red ri ce,”or perfectly so

,as“white rice here are piles o f

grey locusts, heaps of m inute red Shrimps,and baskets o f snai ls,

allused as rel ishes for the ri ce here is ma’

ng a/zziz o or manioc

roo t, bo th cooked and raw,as wel l as sweet-po tatoes

,earth-nuts

,

arum roo ts (saonj o), and o ther vegetables. I n ano ther quarter

are the stal ls for co ttons and prints. American sheetings and

Lancashire cal icoes , as wel l as native-made clo ths of hemp,

rofia palm fibre, co tton , and s i lk ; and not far away are

basketfuls and piles o f snowy cocoons o f native s i lk for weaving.

Here is the i ronmongery section, where good native-made nai ls,

rough hinges, and locks and bo l ts can be bought ; and near

them are the sel lers of the neat l i ttle scales o f brass or i ron,

w i th thei r weights for weighing the“cut money which fo rms

the smal l change o f the Malagasy. There we come to the

vendo rs o f the strong and cheap native mats and baskets,made from the tough peel o f the Z az a

’

ra papyrus,I and from

Cyperus imerinensis, Boeckl.


country for astronom i cal observation, and good wo rk may be

expected from the Observatory establ ished five years ago by

the Jesuit M ission.

The month of August, the clos ing one in this review o f the

year,is often the co l dest month of all, co ld , that is , for a country

wi thin the tropics . A l l through August the keen south-eastern

trades general ly blow strong,and al though in Shel tered places

the afternoon sun may be quite warm,the mo rnings and

evenings are very co ld , and du ring the night the mercury wi l l

o ften descend to very near the freez ing po int . The mo rnings

are frequently misty on some days there are constant showers

o f érz’

lm or driz z ly rain , al ternating with bright sunny days and

clear skies ; these latter seem the very perfection o f weather,

bracing and heal th-giving. But this co l d weather o ften brings

malarial fever, which attacks great numbers o f Malagasy,and

also brings affections of the throat and chest, to which many

fal l victims. At such times thei r thin co tton clothing seems i l l

adapted for pro tection against the cl imate. This ci rcumstance

has Often struck me as Showing how difficul t i t is to change the

habits of a people ; for centuries past the Hova have l ived in

this coo l highland region , yet, unti l very lately, few o f them

have made any change in thei r dress , which was wel l enough

adapted for the purely tropical region from which they o rigin

al ly came, but quite unfitted for the keen coo l air o f the winter

months in a country nearly feet above the level of the sea.

The great ri ce- plain to the west of the capital and all the

broader val leys sti l l lie fal low,al though in various places exten

s ive Sheets o f water Show that i rrigation is commencing. Many

of the fields are now being dug up, and water is _

allowed to flow

over them to prepare the so i l for planting. I n the lesser val leys

and at the edges o f the larger rice-plains the landscape is en

l ivened by the bright green o f the ke’

z‘

sa grounds,the smal ler

rice-fields or nurseries, where, as already described , the rice is

sown broadcast befo re transplanting into the larger fields.

There are not many deciduous trees in Im‘

erina, SO the

THE CHANG ING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 8 1

numerous o rchards , chiefly of mangoes,look green throughout

the year. Several prom inent trees , however, do cast thei r

leaves, no tably theAw'

zivy} the Cape- l i lac} and the Vo‘

afzénolea}

a large tree very l ike an oak . But the Cape- l i lac is beginning

to put out its green buds ; the peach- trees are a mass o f

blossom ,and the Sang asang a 3 in the hedges is beginning to

Show its bri l l iant scarlet or pale yel low bracts. Wild flowers

are sti l l scarce, but the l i lac flowers of the Sévabe‘

4 bloom all

through the year . The go lden- o range panic les of the Se’

va s

now come into bloom . Nature is arous ing from the inaction o f

the co ld season , and the few trees now flowering give prom ise of

the com ing spring and summer.

Towards the end of this month the people begin to burn the

dry and withered grass on the hi l ls ides,as previously described .

This time o f the year is that during which,as wel l as in

the earl ier months o f the co ld season,the Malagasy are busy

wi th house bui lding and house repai ring. Many of thei r houses

are sti l l bui l t o f the hard red clay which covers most of the

country,although sun-dried brick is rapidly superseding this ;

and now is the time when bo th clay and bricks can be made as

wel l as bui l t into houses . There being no heavy rain,there is

no risk o f the wo rk being inj ured if finished befo re the rainy

season comes on.

But it is time that I conclude these Sketches o f Imerina, and

of the varied aspects of Nature, as wel l as of some of the social

aspects o f the people, which may be observed throughout the

year. Much mo re m ight be reco rded , but what has been now

no ted down must suffice. My principal object in writing this

chapter has been to endeavour to give,if po ss ible

,to people in

England some c lear notion of that part o f the country where

we l ive,and of the cl imate and conditions surrounding us here

as wel l as some aspects o f the social l ife of the people amongst

whom we wo rk day by day.

See pp . 54 , 58 , auto.

2 FicusMellcri, Baker . 3 See p . 76 .

4 Solamm z auriculatzm z,Ait. 5 Buddleia madagascaricnsis. Lam .

CHAPTER V.

THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA ITS PHYSICAL FEA

TURES AND LEGENDARY HISTORY ; AND THE VOL

CANIO REGIONS OF THE INTERIOR.

Ancient vo lcanoes of Central Madagascar—Hot springs— Fossi l remains in l ime

stone depos its—Crater- lake of Andraikiba—Tritriva Lake— Co lour of water—Remarkable appearance of lake— Legends—M ythical monsters—Depth oflake— View from crater wal ls—Mr. Baron on vo lcanic phenomena—Ankaratra Mountain—Ancient craters—Lava streams—Vo lcanic rocks—Recentcharacter of vo lcanic action.

ADAGASCAR is not at present one of those regions

of the earth where vo l cani c disturbances occur ; but

there is ample evidence, from the numerous extinct craters

found in various parts of the island, that at a very recent period ,geo logical ly cons idered— poss ibly even within the o ccupation

o f the country by its present inhabitants— it was the theatre

of very extens ive outbursts of subterranean energy. The who le

island has not yet been exam ined with sufficient m inuteness to

determ ine the exact extent o f these old vo l canoes , but they

have been observed from near the south -east coast in S . Lat.

and in various parts of the centre of the island up to the no rth

west and extreme no rth, a distance of 680m i les and probably

a mo re careful survey would reveal o ther l inks connecting mo re

closely What is at present known as only a series of iso lated

groups of extinct craters. In the central provinces o f Mada

gascar there are two large clusters of old vo l canic cones and

vents ; one o f them in and about the same latitude as the

82


water o f France. A l l over the val ley the water oo z es up in

various places ; and about half a m i le farther no rth are several

o ther springs , somewhat ho tter than that j ust described,to

which the natives largely reso rt for curative bathing.

During the excavations for the foundations o f the bath

house, the Skeletons of several examples of an extinct Species

o f hippopo tamus were discovered , the crania and tusks being

in very perfect preservation. Some o f these are now in the

Museum at Berl in the finest specimen was sent to the Museum

o f the Univers i ty o f Christiania in No rway. This Madagascar

hippopo tamus was a smal ler species than that now l iving in

Africa,and is probably nearly al l ied to

,if not identical with

,

ano ther hippopo tamus (H o f which remains were

found in 1 868 by M . Grandidier, in the plains o f the south-west

coast. I was info rmed by the people that,wherever in these

val leys the black mud is dug into for a depth of three or four

feet,bones are sure to be met wi th. Probably a series o f

excavations would reveal the remains o f animals,birds

,and

repti les fo rmerly inhabiting Madagascar. From the internal

structure o f the teeth and bones of the hippopotam i d iscovered

at Antsirab’

e,traces o f the gelatine being sti l l visible

,i t is

evident that the animals had been l iving at a comparatively

recent period . There have been o ccas ional vague repo rts o f

the existence of some large animal in the southern parts of the

is land po ss ibly the hippopo tamus is not yet abso lutely extinct

there ; and perhaps the half-mythical sto ries o f the S ong o’

may ,

Takana’ia, La‘

lome’

fza,and o ther strange creatures current among

the Malagasy are traditions of the period when these huge

pachyderms were sti l l to be seen in the lakes and streams and

marshes o f Madagascar.

Within a few m i les o f Antsirabe are two crater lakes. The

nearer and larger o f these is cal led Andraikiba, which l ies

distant about four m i les due west. This is a beautiful Sheet

o f water,blue as the heavens in co lour, in shape an i rregular

square,but curving round to the no rth-west

,where i t shal lows

THE CRATER LAKE OF TR ITR IVA. 85

into a marsh,which is final ly abso rbed in rice—fields. The lake

is said to be o f profound depth, but the hil ls surrounding it are

not very lofty, rising only about 200 feet above the surface o f

the water,from which they rise steeply. Fish and water-fowl

and crocodiles also are said to be very abundant in and on its

waters.

But the most interesting natural curios i ty to be seen in the

neighbourhood of Antsirabe is the crater- lake of Tritriva. This

is s i tuated about ten m i les to the south -west,and is a pleasant

ride o f two hours by palanquin . Travel l ing at fi rst in a westerly

di rection,the road then turns mo re to the south-west

,and skirts

the southern foo t of the old vo lcano of VOhitra (al ready men

tioned). Pass ing some m i le or two south o f the high ground

round the southern sho res of the Andraikiba lake,the road

gradual ly ascends to a higher level o f country, so that in about

an hour and a half’s time we are about as high as the top o f

VOhitra— probably about 500 feet. Reaching a ridge between

two prom inent hi lls,we catch our fi rst sight of Tritriva

,now

about two or three m i les distant in front of us . From this po int

i t Shows very distinctly as an oval - shaped hi l l,its longest axis

lying no rth and south,and with a great depression in its centre ;

the no rth-eastern edge o f the crater wal l being the lowest part

of i t,from which po int i t rises gradual ly southwards and west

wards,the western edge being, at the centre, from two to three

times the height of the eastern s ide. To the no rth are two

much smal ler cup- l ike hi l ls

,looking as if the vo l cani c fo rces

,

after the main crater had been fo rmed,had become weaker and

so been unable to discharge any longer by the old vent,and

had therefo re fo rmed two newer outlets at a lower level .

Descending a l i ttle from the ridge j ust mentioned , we cross

a val ley with a good many scattered ham lets,and in less than

half an hour reach the foo t of the hi l l . A few m inutes’ pul l up

a to lerably easy S lope, perhaps 200 feet in height, brings us to

the top , at the lowest part of the crater edge ; and on reaching

the ridge the crater of the old vo l cano and its lake is befo re us,


or, rather, below us . I t is certainly an extrao rdinary scene, and

unique of its kind . The inner s ides of the crater d ip down very

steeply on all S ides to a deep gulf,and here, sharply defined

by perpendicular cl iffs all round i t, except just at the southern

po int,is a rather wei rd - looking dark green lake far below us

,

the water surface being probably from 200 to 300 feet lower

than the po int we are standing upon,and consequently below

the level of the surrounding country. The lake,exactly shut

in by the cl iffs of the crater surrounding it,is not blue in co lour,

l ike Andraikiba, al though under a bright and cloud less Sky,but

a deep and somewhat blackish green. I t is undoubtedly an

old vo l cano we are now looking down into the Spot on which

we rest is only a few feet in breadth, and we can see that this

narrow knife- edge is the same all round the crater. O utside

of i t the slope is pretty easy, but inside i t descends steeply, here

and there precipitously, to the edge of the cl iffs which so sharply

define the actual vent and , as distinctly, the lake which they

enclose. Looking southwards,the crater edge gradual ly

ascends, winding round the southern S ide,and sti l l ascending

as the eye fo l lows i t to the western,the oppos ite s ide, where

the crater wal l towers steeply up from 200 to 300 feet higher

than i t does on the east, where we are standing. The lake we

j udge to be about 800to 900feet long and 200to 250feet wide,

fo rm ing a long oval,with po inted ends . The cl iffs which

enclose i t appear to be from 40to 50 feet in height, whitish in

co lour , but with black streaks where the rain,charged with

carboni c acid , has poured more plentiful ly down thei r faces.

These cl iffs are vertical and in some places overhang the water,and from thei r apparently ho ri z ontal stratification are no doubt

of gneiss rock . In com ing up the hi l l I no ticed a few smal l

lumps of gneiss among the basal tic lava pebbles. The strongest

feature of this Tritriva is the sharply defined vertical opening

o f the vent, looking as if the rocks had been cut clean t/zroug /z

with an enormous chisel,and as if they must dip down— as is

doubtless the case— to unknown depths below the dusky -green


and in proo f o f the truth of this sto ry, he said that if you pinch

o r break the branches o f these trees,i t is not sap which exudes,

but blood . He appeared to bel ieve fi rm ly in the truth o f this

story.

He also to ld us that the people of a clan cal led zanatsara,

who l ive in the neighbourhood , claim some special rights in the

Tritriva lake ; and when any one o f thei r number is i l l,they

send to see if the usual ly clear dark green of the water is

becom ing brown and turbid . If this i s the case they bel ieve i t

to be a presage of death to the s i ck person.

Ano ther legend makes the lake the fo rmer home of one o f

the mythical monsters of Malagasy fo lk- lo re,the Fanam

'

ra-p z‘

to

lo‘

ka,or“sevenlheaded serpent.” But for some reason or o ther

he grew tired o f his res idence,and Shifted his quarters to the

mo re spacious and brighter lodgings for seven-headed creatures

affo rded by the o ther vo lcanic lake ofAndraikiba,

This same bearer assured us that in the rainy season

contrary to what one would have supposed— the water of the

lake dim in ishes,but increases again in the dry season . He

to ld us that there is an outlet to the water, which fo rms a Spring

to the no rth o f the mountain . I no ti ced a white l ine a foo t

o r two above the surface o f the water all round the foo t of the

c l iffs,showing a probably higher level than at the time of our

visi t.

Walk ing round to the southern end of the crater edge,I

proceeded up the far higher saddle-back ridge on the western

s ide. Here the lake seems much dim inished in s iz e,and lying

far down at an awful depth . But a magnificent and extens ive

view is gained of the surrounding country ; the long flat- topped

l ines of hi l l to the east running many m i les no rth and south,

and surrounded di rectly east by two perfect cones (old

vo lcanoes,VOtovOrona and Ihankiana) ; the peaked and j agged

range of VOambOrona to the south-east ; the eno rmous mass

of I bity to the south ; and then west,a flat region broken by

abrupt hi l ls to the no rth-west are the thi ckly populated val leys

THE CRATER LAKE OF TR ITR‘

IVA . 89

towards Betafo , with many a cup- shaped hil l and mountain

marking old vo lcanic vents ; and beyond this a high mass o f

country, wi th serrated outline against the sky, Showing the

district o f Vavavato and the peaks of Iavohaika and final ly,

com ing to due no rth is the varied grouping of the hi l ls which

fo rm the no rthern term ination of the central mountain mass

o f Ankaratra. Between us and these again is the extens ive

plain of Antsirabe, with the white wal ls and gables of the

church and the m ission bui ldings plainly vis ible in the bright

sunshine, al though ten or eleven m i les distant— altogether a

pano rama long to be remembered . From this po int also the

s ign ificance and appropriateness of the name given to the old

vo l cano is clearly seen : Tri triva is a combination o f the wo rds

trz‘

try, a wo rd used to describe the ridge on the back o f a

chameleon or a fish,and z

‘

va,low

,deep ; so that the name very

happily describes the long steep western ridge or crater wal l,

and the deep chasm sweeping down from it

I t may be added in conclus ion,that the slopes of the crater

both ins ide and out are covered over with turf,which grows on

a dark brown vo lcani c so i l,m ingled with rounded pebbles o f

greenish or purple lava,very compact and close in structure,

and containing m inute crystals scattered sparingly through it.

Occasional blocks o f this are found round the edge of the crater

wal l,and the same ro ck crops out at many places on the steep

inner S lopes . I did not no tice any ves icu lar lava or sco ria and

at a l i ttle homestead not far from the no rth-eastern foo t of

Tritriva,I was surprised to find the Izaa’y or fosse dug to 12 or

I4 feet deep almost enti rely through the red clay found all

through the central regions of the island . The dark brown

vo lcanic so i l,here seen in section,

appeared to be only 18 inches

deep, with layers of smal l pebbles . So that the discharge of

the vo lcanic dust and ash appears to have extended only a

sho rt d istance from the mountain,at least i t does not appear

to have been very deep,unless

,indeed , there has been much

denudation. I t must be remembered , however, that this po int


is to the windward s ide of the hi l l ; probably the vo lcani c so i l

is deeper to the west o f i t. The much greater height of the

western wal l of the crater is no doubt due to the prevai l ing

easterly winds carrying the bulk of the ejected matter to the

west, and pi l ing it up to two or three times the height of the

eastern S ide. After seeing the amount o f gneiss ro ck which

must have been blown out of the vent, I expected to have found

much greater quantities o f i t, and in larger blocks, than the very

few and smal l fragments actual ly seen on the outer s lopes . The

greater po rtion ,however, is probably covered up under the

quantities of vo lcanic dust and Iap z'

I/z'

which were subsequently

ejected .

The Rev. Johannes Johnson,o f the No rwegian M iss ionary

Society, says :“I t wi l l interest you to hear that the depth o f

the Vo l cani c Lake o f Tri triva has been measured . Here is a

rough diagram show ing the places where soundings were made,S<T F > N . At I i t was found to be 328 feet deep , at 2 i t

was 44 3 feet, and at 3 i t was 474 feet in depth . The natives

expected it would prove to be much deeper than this .

” Thus i t

appears that al though not, as popularly supposed,unfathomable,

the depth of this remarkable Sheet o f water is sti l l very consider

able for its smal l area, and is quite sufficiently profound to have

given rise to the many weird legends connected with i t in the

popular imagination .

The two best known vo lcani c regions o f Central Madagascar

have al ready been referred to in this chapter, and as some of the

readers o f these pages may l ike to have ful ler info rmation as

to these interesting parts of the country, I wi l l not attempt to

describe them myself,but wi l l quo te half a do z en paragraphs

from a paper by my friend and bro ther m issionary, the Rev. R.

Baron,

contributed to the Quarterly/ j ournalof tire

Gealog z’

cal S ociety ,for May,

1 889 , and entitled “No tes on the

Geo logy of Madagascar.” M r. Baron is the chief autho rity on

the geo logy o f the island and has made a special study of the

petro logy ; and all that he describes is from personal observa


I t wou ld be interesting to know at what period Ankaratra

was in a state of eruption but our knowledge o f the mountain

and the surrounding district is,as yet, too scanty to help us to

any conclusion on the matter. There is evidence suffi cient,how

ever,to Show that the vo l cano is of comparatively ancient date

for,in the fi rst place, allS igns o f craters or cones seem to have been

effaced through denudation,though the presence o f fragmentary

materials (which, however, have largely disappeared) manifest

thei r fo rmer existence. Then,again

,numerous deep val leys

have been excavated out o f the hard basal tic covering by the

many streams that come down from the mountain,leaving long

tongues of lava diverging from the central mass . Many of these

st reams have cut clean through the beds of lava,bringing into

view the gneiss upon which they are superimposed .

Some thirty or fo rty m i les to the south of Ankaratra there

are to be seen about a doz en remarkably conical hi l ls without

craters . Whether they are the co res of fo rmer vo l canoes or

eruptive bosses or remnants of a fo rmer lava sheet,i t would be

difficult to say, though I am incl ined to regard them as the last.

VOtovOrona and Iakiana (or Ihankiana are probably the

highest of these cones,though even these are of no great height.

VOtovOrona is 350 feet high , and has been protruded through

granite. The angle o f its s lope is over The rock is

nephel ine-ho rnblende- phono l ite. A few s im i lar cones exist on

the south-east o f Vavavato mountain. About twenty or twenty

five m i les N .N .E . of Ankaratra,and some seven or eight m i les

W .S .W. o f Antananarivo,there is another o f these probably

eruptive bosses . I t is a low conical knob of perhaps 150 or

200feet high,and is also known by the name of VOtovOrona.

It cons ists of o l ivine-basal t. There seem to have been a few

smal l outflows of lava from the hi l l,and i t not improbably fo rms

the co re o f an old vo l cano .

I n Mandridrano district, on the western side of Lake I tasy,

and in the neighbourhood of Betafo,in Vakinankaratra (the

fo rmer being fifty-five m i les west

,and the latter seventy-five

THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRiVA. 9 3

m i les of the capital), there are numerous vo l cani c cones,

which are undoubtedly much mo re recent than the vo l cani c pi le

o f Ankaratra. Both lo cal i ties are about 1 30m i les from the east

coast o f the is land,and 170 from the west coast . It is hardly

necessary to say that all these vo l canoes are extinct,and that

there are none in activity at the present time in any part o f

M adagascar. On the west s ide of Lake I tasy the vo l cani c

cones exist in great numbers,and these therefo re shal l be fi rst

described .

“The extinct vo lcanoes o f the district of M andridrano

extend for a distance o f about twenty m i les no rth and south,

and perhaps three or four east and west. The cones are thickly

studded over the district, in some parts clustering together mo re

thickly than in o thers . Occasional ly there is a series o f cones

which have evidently been heaped up by the s imultaneous ejec

tion o f sco ria from different vents s i tuated on the same l ine o f

fissure,but so that the cones have run one into the o ther

,leaving

a ridge,general ly curvi l inear, at the summ i t. None o f these

extinct vo l canoes reach the height o f feet. Kasige, which

is probably the highest, I found by anero id to be 863 feet above

the plain. This is a remarkably perfect and fresh—looking

vo lcano,whose s ides slope at an angle of 32

° or The sco riae

on the s ides have become sufficiently dis integrated to fo rm a

so i l,on which is found a by no means scanty flo ra. On its top

is an unbreached funnel - shaped crater, which measures,from the

highest po int o f its rim,243 feet in depth . Contiguous w i th

Kasig’

e,and adjo in ing its south side

,though not so high

,there is

another vo l cano,AmbOhimalala

,and many o thers are to be seen

near by.

“One thing with regard to these vo l cani c pi les soon strikes

the observer ; this is , that in the majo rity of the cones one s ide o f

the crater is higher than the o ther. Not only so,but the higher

s ide is situated in most instances on the no rth,no rth -west

,or

west o f the crater . This is accounted for by the direction of the

wind during the eruption, caus ing the ejected fragments to


accumulate on the leeward s ide o f the vent. Now we know

that the south-east trades blow during the greater part of the

year in Madagascar,hence the unequal development o f the sides

of the cones. The same thing may also be observed in the

vo lcan ic pi les in the neighbourhood of Betafo .

A very large number o f the cones have breached craters,whence lava has flowed in numerous streams and flooded the

plains around . These streams and floods consist,in most

instances,o f black basaltic lava ; a sheet o f this lava

,the m ingled

streams of which have flowed from AmbOhimalala and some

o ther vents, has covered the plain at the foo t o f Kasigeto such

an extent as almost to surround the mountain. S im i lar sheets are

to be seen in o ther parts o f the district,but they are so much

al ike,that a description o f one wil l suffice for all. AmbOditai

mamo is a smal l vo l cani c cone at the south-west end o f I fanja

marsh,and at the no rthern confines of the volcanic district. I t

possesses a breached crater turned towards the east. From this

has issued a stream of lava which,fo l lowing the direction of the

lowest level of the ground,has swept through a smal l val ley

round the no rthern end of the cone,and spread out at its

western foo t. This sheet o f lava,which is extremely rough on

the surface, ,occup ies but a smal l area of some two or three

square m i les . I t has been arrested in its flow in front by the

fo rm o f the ground . I t is cut through in one part by a stream

(IkOtombOlo) which, in some places , has wo rn a channel to the

depth o f eighty or ninety feet . Its surface,which is S l ightly

cel lu lar,18 covered by hundreds of mamm ifo rm hil locks

,which

must have been fo rmed during the coo l ing of the l iquid mass .

The hil locks are mostly from twenty to thirty feet high,and

apparently are heaped -up masses o f lava,and not ho l low blisters .

The lava i tself is black , heavy , and compact, being po rphyriti c

with r somewhat large crystals o f augite. As yet i t is scarcely

decomposed sufficiently to fo rm much of a so i l , though grass and

a few o ther plants grow on i t abundantly.

As to the nature of the vo l cani c rocks of the district, i t may

CHAPTER VI .

AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS IN MADA

GASGAR,

‘ WITH NATURAL HISTORY AND OTHER

NOTES.

The Rest-house—AmbOnit a H i l l—A deserted vil lage—Ambatovory rockVVoodland paths—B irds—Lizards and chameleons— Grasshoppers—Protective co louring—Waning co lours—Beetles—Ants and ant-nests—Ballinsects— Spiders— B utterflies—King Butterfly— So l itary wasps—Wasp-nests—Angavokely M ountain—Extensive prospect.

Y the kind consideration of the D i recto rs of the London

M issionary Society for the comfo rt and heal th of thei r

m issionaries in the central province of Imerina,we have had

for some years past a pleasant Country-house or Sanato rium,to

which,after a year or so of steady labour in co l lege

,or schoo l

,

or hospital,or church and distri ct

,we can go for a fo rtn ight or

a month’s quiet ho l iday. This peacefu l resting-place is s i tuated

about twelve m i les east o f Antananarivo,on the Tamatave road

,

a m i le and a half beyond the m iss ion station of I soavina,and a

m i le or less west of a great rounded mass o f grani te rising

about 400 feet above the ri ce-val leys,and known as Ambato

vory,

“Round rock .

”On the summ i t and eastern and

western slopes o f this huge boss of rock are numerous trees,

much mo re plentiful on the western s ide, where they stretch

down into a deep val ley and fo rm an amphitheatre of wood and

bush . This vegetation is probably a remnant of the o riginal

fo rest, which once covered a much larger area of this mostly

bare and treeless Imerina, and i t fo rms a refreshing contrast to96

AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS . 97

the moory hi l ls and rocky mountains which are seen in every

direction. The M iss ion Rest-house is a good Six - roomed

dwel l ing on the slope o f the hil l facing the south,and from it

the ground fal ls rapidly down to the rice-val leys a couple of

hundred feet below,the large piece o f ground belonging to the

house jo ining on to the bush and scattered trees o f the Amba

tovOry fo rest, so that in two m inutes’ time one can stro l l into

the woods, through which a number of paths have recently

been cut, or, turning in the Oppos ite direction

, can walk over

the breez y downs towards Isoavina. Here is the pleasant

miss ion-house of M r. Peake, with its long row of cottages for

the wo rkmen in the industrial schoo l which he has carried on

for several years, its schoo l and class- rooms and its pretty

church and schoo l -house, fo rm ing al together a model m ission

station .

Behind the Rest-house r ises for several hundred feet above

i t a rounded hi l l cal led AmbOnit a, Over-head , a not

inappropriate name. Like sco res o f hi l ls throughout Imerina,a number o f deeply-cut l ines round the summ i t show that this

place was fo rmerly the s i te of a wel l - fortified town. These

l ines,which can be seen for m i les away

,prove on closer

inspection to be deep fosses cut in the hard red earth, a

treble l ine o f defence one within the o ther, the innermost

rampart being strengthened by a low wal l of mass ive stones.

No bui lding now remains in this“deserted vil lage,” but manysquares o f grass -grown stones can be traced

,showing the

fo rmer outl ine o f the wooden framewo rk o f the houses ; and

on the highest Spo t there is an ancient tomb, where doubtless

some of“the rude fo refathers of the ham let ” s leep their last

sleep.

I n front of the house looking south-west, the view is partly

shut in,at a m i le or two s distance, by lofty rocky hil ls rising

high above the rice-val leys far below but to the south-east one

gets a peep into a distant prospect o f l ines o f hil ls , some o f the

nearer ones being enormous masses of bare rock whi le to the

8


east the V iew is closed by the smoo th,rounded S lopes of Amba

tovOry i tself, with the woods around i t and stretching down into

the deep val ley at its base.

There are many pleasant walks in the neighbourhood of the

Sanato rium. One o f these is to the top of the Ambatovory

rock , from which there is an extens ive view,and around which

,

to east and south,are fine trees and pleasant shady spo ts

,where

a'

picn ic party can be improvised , and where ferns and o ther

plants can be gathered. A few years ago there was a smal l

vi l lage on the Spo t ; four or five years ago there were about

that number of houses ; while now there is not one left, the

people, as is usual throughout Im’

erina,deserting these incon

venient heights for the plains. But a row o f half-a-do zen old

tombs,with smal l timber houses on their tops, shows that this

was a vi l lage of one of the noble clans orAna’

rz‘

ana,who alone

are al lowed to make such wooden houses, Tra‘

no marina or

Tra‘

no mana‘

ra,as they are cal led (Zia,

Sacred houses,”or

Co ld houses I ). These are,however, now tumbling to pieces ,

and after two or three mo re rainy seasons heaps of ro tting wood

wil l be allthat is left over the tombs o f these departed great

ones of the district.

Ano ther easi ly reached spot is a detached rock , something

l’

ike a miniature Ambatovory, but a sho rt distance to the south

o f i t. Here a scramble over a great S loping surface of gneiss

brings us to a rough ascent leading to an ancient gateway. The

top of this rock was evidently a fo rt of the old times, for,except where we cl imb up, there is no approaching the summ i t

and no need of fosses or ramparts,as the smoo th rock s lopes

away perpendicularly all around,and in the days befo re guns

and gunpowder a doz en reso lute men could have barred the

narrow approach against a hundred assai lants.

The paths through the woods are, however, among the most

pleasant places for a wal k in the neighbourhood of Ambato

vory ; and al though the smal l remnant of old fo rest is too

1 “Co ld,

” because they are houses having no hearth or fire to warm them.

loo MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST .

fables connected with him . I n the Old times of i do latry,if one

o f these sto rks crossed the path along which any of the chief

ido ls was being carried , i t was immediately taken back , and i t

was thought equal ly unlucky if i t crossed the road in front of

the sovereign.

The repti les to be found near Ambatovory are smal l and

inconspicuous. Two or three Species o f l izard are frequently

seen : the pretty l i ttle Antsz'

antsy, with brown coat and white

l ines and dark spots along its S ides,eight or ten inches long

,

darts about l ike an arrow on rocks and sunny banks,while a

smal ler species, about four inches long, is of an exquisite green

co lour above,with black and white l ines along its s ides, and pale

grey underneath. I t is o ften seen running around the fleshy

leaves of the aloes, its tinting fo rm ing a pro tective resemblance

among its surroundings. Equal ly beautiful are the bright tints

of some o f the smal l chameleons— black and yel low, and red

and green— and equal ly pro tective also , in case of need,is their

power of changing into dul l grey or brown when alarmed.

Smal l p retty brown snakes may be often seen,from eighteen

inches to two feet long, and happily they are perfectly harm less,as

,indeed, are all the serpents of this great is land— at least,

there are none whose bite is dangerous. And yet i t is amus ing

to see how the Malagasy leap out of their way with the greatest

alarm . We found on one o ccasion a very large earthwo rm,

three times as long and bulky as any we had ever seen in

England .

But perhaps i t is the insects which attract one’

s attention

most constantly. On the open downs, and when the sun is

shining, the air is fi l led with the hum of chirping insect l ife

from the many species of grasshoppers,crickets, and smal l

locusts which cover the ground . Every step among the long

dry grass disturbs a sco re o f these insects, which leap in all

directions from one’

s path as we proceed,sometimes dashing on

one’

s face w i th a smart blow. The majo rity of these are o f

various Shades o f brown and green , and some of the larger

AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS . 101

species o f grasshopper are remarkable for thei r pro tective

co louring. Here is one whose legs and wings are exactly l ike

dry grass the body is l i ke a broad blade o f some green plant,

the antenna: are two l ittle tufts l ike yel low grass, and the eyes

are j ust l ike two smal l brown seeds. But,curiously enough

,

when it fl ies a pai r of bright scarlet wings make its fl ight very

conspicuous. You pursue i t,to catch such a brightly co loured

insect, when i t settles, and 10! i t has vanished ; only something

resembl ing green or dry grass remains,which it requires sharp

eyes to distinguish from the surrounding herbage. O ther grass

hoppers are enti rely l ike green grass blades and stalks,and

o thers, again,resemble equal ly closely dried grass

,and unless

the insects move under one’

s eyes i t is almost imposs ible to

detect them . One is puz z led to guess where the vital o rgans

can be placed in such dry- looking l ittle sticks. There is one

species of mantis also,which

,i n the shape and co lour of its

wings,legs, antennae, and body, presents as close a resemblance

to its environment as do the grasshoppers. Thei r curious heads,

however, which turn round and look at one in quite an uncanny

manner, and thei r fo rm idably serrated fo re- legs or arms,put up

in mock pious fashion , give them a distinctly different appearance

from the o ther insects. In the dry and coo ler season, on almost

every square foo t o f ground is a large brown caterpi l lar,o ften

many o f them close together, feeding on the young blades of grass.

But the most handsome insect one sees on the downs is the

Valalanambo'

a,or dog

- locust. This is large and is go rgeously

co loured , the body being barred with stripes o f yel low and black ,whi le the head and tho rax are green and blue and go ld , with

Shades o f crimson,and the wings are bright scarlet. I t seems a

mo st des i rable insect for a cabinet, but i t is imposs ible to keep

one, fo r i t has a most abom inable smel l , and this, as wel l as its

probable possession o f a nauseous taste,appears to be its p ro

tection,so that no bird or o ther creature feeds upon i t. This

insect seems,therefo re, a good example o f

“warn ing co lours ”

i t has no need o f“protective resemblance ” lest i t should be


devoured by enem ies ; i t can flaunt its gay l ivery w i thout fear,indeed this seems exaggerated in o rder to say to outsiders“Hands o ff “Nemo me z

'

mp z me Zacess z'

t. The Malagasy

have a proverb which runs thus : Valalanambo'

a fly comp any

az a try tz'

a The dog- locust

,even its owner d isl ikes i t.”

There are many species o f beetles to be seen,al though none

of them are very handsome or conspicuous. The mo st common

kind is a broad flat insect,about an inch long

,and dul l dark

brown in co lour,which crosses one’

s path at every step.

Ano ther is seen chiefly on the bushes,a smal ler insect

,but

bright shining jet-black . Ano ther,which appears as if i t

m im i cked a wasp in its habit of fl ight,is sho t with brown and

green,with very long legs

,and is constantly taking sho rt flights

or running rapidly. Ano ther one,but much m o re rare, has

go lden green and metal l i c tints on its w ing- cases. But the

insect which has pu z z led us mo st is one that I have never seen

but on one Spo t,viz .

,on a large bush of a plant with

acacia- l ike leaves,w i th prickles along the leaf- stalks, and on

only one bush of this,which is within a few yards o f the Rest

house at Ambatovory. I t is l ike a beetle about five- eighths of

an inch long,and almost hem ispheri cal in shape. I t is warm

reddish - brown in co lour,with a l ine o f black and then of yel low

next the head,and is perfectly flat below. These insects cluster

closely,as thick as they can lie

,in groups of from a do z en to

mo re than a hundred together,all round the thicker stems

,so

that they look at a l i ttle distance l ike strings of large brown

beads ; and in some o f the topmost branches they fo rm a con

tinuous mass for two or three feet . Amongst these shining

brown insects are a few o thers of quite a different co lour and

shape,perfectly flat, l ike a m inute to rto ise

,and of a unifo rm

grey,exactly resembling the l i chen on the bark of the tree, and

the edges of the carapace sco l loped } These grey insects are in

M r. Baron tel ls me that both kinds are certainl y species of bug, and thatthey are common on other kinds of trees . They have a very bad smell. Nearerthe forest are other kinds of bugs but of the most brilliant co lours, and also evilsmel l ing.


watch the busy industry of these l i ttle creatures,the s ides of

the shafts being covered with their shining black bodies,those

com ing up be ing laden with a l i ttle pel let of earth, which they

depos i t outs ide the s lope,and then hurry back down below.

A l l round the mouth o f the entrance is a considerable mound

o f earth, all brought up grain by grain by the busy wo rkers.

The ants are the scavengers o f the country. No beetle, or

wo rm ,or grub

,or animal matter of any kind, can be many

m inutes on the ground befo re i t i s detected by some ant, who

communicates the fact forthwi th to its fel lows, and they imme

diately fal l on the spo i l,cut i t in pieces, and convey it to their

strongho ld. I t is astonishing to see the heavy loads— pieces of

sugar- cane,or yam,

or o ther food— that two or three ants wil l

stagger along with for the common weal Truly,al though they

are smal l fo l k,they are“exceeding wise. The thinking power

i n that minute po int, an ant’s head,is certainly one of the most

marvel lous things in animated nature.

Whi le speaking of W ingless insects, I may no tice here a very

different kind o f one from the ants, viz .,the bal l - insect (Sp /zero

t/zerz'

am o f which there are several species in Madagascar.

These insects,cal led not very elegantly by the Malagasy Tain

kz’

ntana, or star-droppings,

” have the power of instantaneous ly

ro l l ing themselves into an almost perfect sphere,which form

they retain as long as any danger threatens them ,and no fo rce

sho rt o f pull ing them to pieces can make them unro l l . The

an imal i s fo rmed of n ine or ten segments, each with a pair of

legs, and covered with a plate of armour ; whi le the head and

tai l are defended by large plates, each of which fits into the

o ther and makes a mo re perfectly fi tting suit of armour than

was ever wo rn by medieval knight. There are several species

of these pretty and curious creatures . The most common kind

here is one which forms a bal l barely an inch in diameter, and

Shining black in co lour. Ano ther, mo re rarely seen here, but

common enough in the upper bel t of fo rest, is of a beautiful

brown co lour l ike Russ ia leather, and is quite double the s iz e o f

AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS. 105

the first-mentioned one. In passing through the main fo rest in

1 892, we came suddenly one day to a part o f the road which

was so thickly covered by such a great number of these

creatures that our bearers could not avo id trampling on them .

These were of a bronze-green tint and are probably a third

species.

I n allparts of Madagascar the spiders are very conspicuous

members of the insect-wo rld. The most common kind is a

species of Ep ez'

ra, which spins large webs and may be seen by

sco res between the branches of trees and the angles o f buildings .

These are large insects, thei r legs stretching over four or five

inches,and their bodies being handsomely co loured with red and

go ld and s i lver markings. From the way in which these spiders

cross w i th thei r great webs the fosses round the old vi l lages they

are cal led by the Malagasy M amp z’

taIzaa’y ,

“fosse- cro ssers .

The main“guys ”or stays of thei r webs are strong and thick

yel low S i lk co rds,which requi re an effo rt to break. Ano ther

Species,also common,

is somewhat crab- l ike in shape,with

curious spiny processes on the abdomen and tho rax. O ther

smal ler Species of spider,found on leaves and in flowers

,are

co loured exactly l ike thei r surroundings, some being o f various

Shades of green,and o thers pure white

,apparently that, with

these pro tective resemblances, they may mo re eas i ly pounce

upon the smal ler fl ies and o ther insects attracted to the flowers .

I n these bare upper highlands o f Madagascar butterflies are

not found in as great variety as in the warmer regions of the

island. S ti l l there are a few species which are common enough ,the most plentiful being one which is satiny-blue above

,and

spotted with brown and grey underneath. This is to be seen all

the year round , especial ly hovering over the Euphorbia hedges

which divide plantations from the roads . Another, also to ler

ably common,is a large reddish-brown butterfly, the wings

edged with black and white. Much mo re rare is an insect with

four large round white spots on dark choco late-brown wings ;and another

,dark -brown in co lour

,with eye

- l ike Spo ts o f blue

Io6 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST .

and red . Several smal l species,yel low,

white,or brown

,or

s i lvery-grey and blue,are found hovering over, or settl ing

on, damp places ; and there are two or three white Species,with black spots or l ines on the edges o f the wings. In

the warmer season a handsome large Pap z'

lz'

o is rather common

i n our gardens, with dark -green and sulphur-yel low spots and

markings . And lastly,but rather scarce, is one o f the hand

somest butterflies in the wo rld (mo re stri ctly speaking,i t is a

diurnal mo th), the Uram'

a rip /area. This insect, with its co lour

ing o f green and go ld , and scarlet and black , and its del i cate

fringing of pure white on the edges of the w ings,is indeed one

of the most lovely productions of Nature. The Malagasy cal l i t

Andriafl a’alo, king butterfly (or mo th).

We do not see many bees in this AmbatovOry wood, but

there are several species o f so l itary wasps,whose habits are very

interesting. One Species excavates a ho le in the ground or on

the S ide o f a bank,and then

,capturing some unfo rtunate spider

or caterpi l lar,which she benumbs with her sting, carries i t into

the ho le and lays an egg in its body,so that the l i ttle grub,

when hatched,finds i tself surrounded by food

,and then eats its

way out into the daylight. The ho le is, after being fi l led up,so carefully concealed that i t is quite impossible to discover i t.

Ano ther spec ies o f wasp bui lds a series of cel ls o f clay, which

the busywo rker brings in pel lets and builds up layer by layer,fixing them to the s ides of houses and rocks

,and sto ring each

cel l with l iving food for its progeny in the same fashion as its

m ining cousin }

Our longest excurs ion was one to the grand mountain of

Angavokely,which is two or three hours ’ ride to the east, to the

south of the Tamatave road . Angavokely is one of the highest

and most conspicuous mountains in Imerina, ris ing or

feet above the general level of the province ; and i t

I For a very full and illustrated account of these insects, see a paper by theRev. C . P . Cory ,“Notes on the Habits of the Solitary Wasps of Madagascar,Annualxiv.

,1890, pp . 163

—170.


sti l l beyond and bounding the view, 50, 60, or 70miles in the

blue distance, is the larger and lower fo rest, and ridges and

peaks which we can see clearly from Tamatave. Only due west

is the view interrupted , for we are not yet on the topmost

pinnacle, there being sti l l a mass o f rock 100feet higher sti l l,

up to which our bearers scramble,but which we are quite

content to leave them the honour of scal ing, as the ascent

appears somewhat d ifficult. S ti l l,by go ing round the edges of

the platfo rm ,we can catch allthe more prom inent po ints to the

south and south-west : I haranandriana,on the road to Betsi leo

many fam i l iar- looking hil ls west of the capital ; Antananarivo

on its long rocky ridge, crowned by the group of royal palaces

and two o f the memo rial chu rches ; and , ris ing gradual ly bu t

unm istakably far above all, the mass of Ankaratra,the highest

po int of the island, 40m i les away,and its three or four central

peaks near ly feet above the sea, and about half as much

as that from the general level of Imerina. Truly a grand

prospect, for, except from Ankaratra i tself, there is hardly any

po int where we could command such an extens ive view as this .

S teep down below us to the east is a pretty rice-val ley stretching

in a remarkably straight l ine for several m i les bo th to no rth-east

and south-west. The houses and ham lets below loo k as if a

stone could be thrown upon them from this or feet

of elevation and as our eyes fo l low the green rice-fields,vi l lage

after vi l lage appears on the promontory- l ike lane’

ly or gentle

rising grounds, so that we think what a fine field o f wo rk there

would be in this val ley alone for a resident missionary.

CHAPTER VII .

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES .

M ixed nomenclature of coast and interior places—Early European influence

Arab and Portuguese names—Influence of Fady or Taboo—Name of Madagascar

—Mountain names—The name-

p refixes An and Am -Height andprom inence—M ystery and dread— S ize—Words meaning rock and stone

Animals and birds—Personal names for hi l ls—Grandeur of mountain scenery—River names—Descriptive epithets—Lake names—Town and vil lage names—Dual names—Names of capital and its divisions—Town names from naturalfeatures—Forests—River banks from animals— Personal—Tribal—Provincenames—Appendix on Betsi leo place-names.

LACE-NAMES ,i t is now acknowledged , form one of the

most rel iable sources o f info rmation as to ancient and

prehisto ric times,and are among the most enduring and un

al tering reco rds o f the past. In all the o lder countries of the

world the names of the mountains and rivers , of the fields and

the val leys, o f the farms and vi l lages and towns,as wel l as of all

o ther geographical features, reveal the existence and success ive

o ccupation o f the so i l from remo te epochs by many different

races of mankind . And in the newer countries the names given

to places tel l in the plainest terms o f their discoverers, and often

fix the date o f their becom ing known to the civi l ised wo rld.

An inspection of a map of the is land of Madagascar Shows a

curious difference between the nomenclature of the coast and

that o f the interio r. I n the latter the names are enti rely native,

for no European power has ever succeeded in establishing itself

in the country for any lengthened period ; but the coast is

fringed with a variety o f European wo rds—English,French ,

109

I IO MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

and Po rtuguese— as wel l as w i th Malagasy names. Thus we

find“Will iam Pitt ” Bay, Chatham Island,and Po rt L iver

poo l,commemo rating the leading English statesmen o f the time

when the fi rst complete survey was made of the coast by Capt.

W . F. W . Owen,R.N. , whose ships’ names are also perpetuated

in“Leven ”Po rt and “Barracouta ” Island. The treachery of

the native population is remembered in“Murder ” and“GraveIslands, where some of Owen ’s crews were kil led by the people

Engl ish Adm i ral ty and o ther officials ’

names were given to Po rt“C roker,

” Po in t Barrow,

” Dartmouth” R iver,Po int M cClure,

”

Dal rymple ”Bay, and

“Barlow ” I s land ; and British surveys

o f the western coast have also left thei r mark in “Barren ”

Isles,and in

“Crab,” “Coffin,

”and “Sandy ” I slands

,i n the

Mo z ambique Channel and at the no rthern extrem i ty o f

Madagascar we find “British Sound (mo re properly D iego

Suarez Bay), with four deep inlets cal led respectively by

the names of “English,” “Welsh ,” “Sco tch

,

”and “I rish

Bays.

The earl ier French intercourse is marked by the names o f

Fo rt Dauphin , Po rt Cho iseul , Foule Po inte, and Louisbourg,a reco rd of the monarchical times, nearly two centuries ag o ,

when so many disastrous attempts were made by the French

to establ ish themselves on the eastern S ide of the island .

I And

go ing back further, to the discovery of Madagascar by Europeans,

the maritime enterprise of the Po rtuguese three hundred and

seventy or eighty years ago is marked indel ibly on the map ,

together w i th thei r rel igious fervour, by the names o f various

saints which they gave to the chief capes all round its sho res

S t. Mary, S t. Andrew, S t. V incent, and S t. Sebastian 2— as wel l

as the I sle of S t. Mary, the Bay and R iver o f S t. Augustine,the

Bay of S t. Luce, the Shoal o f S t. Bonaventura, the town of S t.

1 In certain old French maps Madagascar was cal led Ile Dauphine,but this

name did not obtain any permanence.

2 The most northerly cape of Madagascar, now known as Cape Ambro or

Amber,was formerly cal led Cape Natal , from its being discovered on Christmas

Day (diesNatalis Domini) .


observation ; to po in t out some few histo ri cal facts which are

probably preserved in certain names ; and to no te a number of

wo rds o f obscure or doubtful meaning which are embodied in

many of the names o f places,and which are possibly rel ics of an

o ccupation o f the island anterio r to the arrival of the present

prom inent Malayo -Po lynesian element in the population . Our

knowledge o f the various dialects of the Malagasy language is

sti l l too fragmentary and imperfect to al low o f much being done

at present in the direction indicated in this last po int ; but one

chief result aimed at in noting down here some of these par

ticulars 15 to provoke inqui ry and research on the subject.

Madagascarwil l prove an exception to almost every o ther

country if a careful analys is of the names of its mountains

and rivers, val leys and plains, towns and vi l lages, and o ther

geographical features, does not throw some l ight upon the

earl iest o ccupation of the island, and the successive waves o f

population which have passed over its surface. There are

several reasons for bel ieving that an earl ier and less civi l ised

race than the present inhabitants once o ccupied the interio r o f

Madagascar, and i t is possible that some of the obscurer wo rds

embodied in certain place- names are rel i cs o f this abo riginal

people.

There is , unfo rtunately, a pecul iari ty in the habits of the

Malagasy, in common with allthe Po lynesian races,with regard

to names, which introduces an element of uncertainty into

geographical nomenclature, viz .,the practice of taboo ing words

or particles which enter into the compos i tion of the names o f

their chiefs. As allpersonal names have some distinct meaning,

and are largely composed o f commonly-used nouns,verbs

,and

adjectives, as wel l as the names o f animals, plants, &c., i t con

stantly o ccu rs t hat the names o f most farriiliar objects and

actions have to be changed through fo rm ing part of their

sovereign’

s or chief’s names. From this cause, wri tes M r.

Hastie, British Agent at the Cou rt of Radama I . (1 8 17the names of rivers , places, and things have suffered so many

MALAGASY PLACE - NAMES . I I 3

changes on the western coast that frequent confus ion o ccurs ;for

,after being prohibited by thei r chieftains from applying any

particular terms to the accustomed s ignification, the natives wil l

not acknowledge to have ever known them in thei r fo rmer sense

(Tyerman ana’B ennet

’

s Voyag es , p . 276 , 2nd There is

reason to bel ieve, however, that this cause o f change and un

certainty applies much less to . the place-names o f the central

and eastern districts of the country, and that the taboo (Malag.

faa’

y) there mo re affects the names o f objects and actions than

tho se of places .

Befo re cons idering the names of places in Madagascar,a

word or two may be said about the name o f the country itself.

There seems much reason to bel ieve that the wow /[adagas

car is not a native name, but is one that has been given i t by

fo reigners . There appears to be no Malagasy roo t in the wo rd,

and the combination of the consonants sc, or sé

, is one not

al lowed by the genius o f the language. The is land used to be

termed by the people Iz ao rehétra z'

z ao,This who le

,

” in acco rd

ance wi th the bel ief of many insular nations that thei r own

island is the principal part of the wo rld ; and in the time o f

Radama I.,and subsequently, i t was also described as Ny

anivan’

fly rz’

aka,

“The [land] in the m idst of the flood .

”

Acco rding to some accounts, an old des ignation of the country

was Nasz'

n-a’amba

,

“I sland o f wild -boars , these animals being

the largest wild creatures Of the fo rests . The only attempt at

explaining the derivation o f the wo rd “M adagascar ” which I

have seen is that given in one o f the earl iest books upon the

is land,a German wo rk publ ished at Altenbourg ,

in Meissen , in

1609 ,and entitled Besc/zrez

'

aung a’er M ec/ztzgefz z ma

’ Weitaer

Izz mzbten Insul M adag ascar, by Jerome M eg iser, in which it is

affi rmed that tife African kings of Madagascar and Adel

conquered the coast region of the island that“’the inhabitantshave also been fo rced to swear to recognise no o ther for thei r

king,and the island also is to be cal led no thing else but

Magadax o . This wo rd was afterwards co rrup ted into Maga

9

I I4 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

dascar, and at last became Madagascar, which name i t kept

unti l the Po rtuguese afterwards gave i t ano ther name, as has

been mentioned befo re.

” Whether or not this contains any

histo rical fact i t is now difficult to decide.

I Bes ides the names

for the island al ready mentioned,this German wo rk also gives

many o thers, most of them appl ied by the Arabic geographers ,

one being“The Island o f the Moon ”

; they wro te the n‘

ame

either Kamar or Komr,the same word which enters into the

name o f the Como ro Group, to the no rth -west of Madagascar.

These is lands are cal led by the Arabs Komair,or the Lesser

Komr. The name as appl ied to the who le island survived unti l

the arrival o f the Po rtuguese, for on one o f the o ldest maps , the

Ckarta M arina P ortug alensz'

u fn,o f the fi rst decade of the six

teenth century, the name Komortina occurs for the island in

addition to those o f Madagascar and San Lourengo .

Com ing now to the place-names in Madagascar,we may first

look at those o fM ountains , the most prom inent and awe- inspiring

o f all natural features, and to which the imagination of s imple

peoples soon affixes descriptive epithets. The inter io r provinces

of the is land (from which regions almost all these i l lustrations

are taken) consti tute an extens ive elevated mountainous region ,occupying rather mo re than a thi rd of the to tal area of the

1 The Rev. Canon Isaac Taylor (author ofWords and Places) offers the fo l lowing suggestion as to the meaning of the word“My guess is that the name Madagascar, which we got from Marco Po lo , didnot apply to the island

,but to the Somal i coast. He got the name from Malay

sources. The question is whether Mala-gosse or Mada-gosse is its earl ier formgosse meant

‘men (z‘ Bantu in the old Swahi l i . Ma (5) a gosse would be

Ma(, -men,the -ar being the Malay suffix in Zanz ib-ar

,Nicoba-ar,Malab-ar

,&c.,

and meaning ‘ land ’

or‘ island .

’

“The Hova language is aMalay dialect Malay ’

means‘mountains.

’ HenceMala-gosc-ar m ight be

‘The land of the (A1

25? men,

’

whi le Mada-gasc-ar wouldbe ‘The island of the Mada or Madai men

,

’

either the present Madai tribe southeast of the Victoria Nyanza, or else the land of the coast people in the presentSomali Land , formerly cal led Madun or Madain . On this hypothesis, Po lo

’

s

name would apply to the Somal i Land . He describes Madagascar as Mohammedan and ful l of elephants

,plainly not the island .“We have another old form in one of the Po lo M SS ., Magaster,where theMa

would be the Bantu plural prefix .

”

I I6 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST .

no rthern extrem i ty of the is land , i s‘ cal led AmbO

’

hitra and is

said to be mo re than feet high. The usual wo rd formoun

tain,

“po int o f the town ”or“hil l

,

”also con

fi rms this ; the old towns i n the centre o f the island were always

bui l t for security on the tops o f hil ls,so that the names of hi l l

and town seem quite interchangeable }

Befo re proceeding to po int out some of the most interesting

characteristics of Malagasy place- names,I wi l l ventu re to trans

late a rather long extract from an essay by M . A lfred Grandidier

on this subject, which fo rms an appendix to the vo lume treating

of the H isto ri cal Geography of the is land (vol. fo rm ing part

of his monumental wo rk H z'

stoz'

re P /zysz'

gue,Nature/[eet P olz'

tz'

gue

de M adag ascar (Paris M . Grandidier says

At a fi rst glance at a l ist o f Malagasy place-names,one is

struck by the fact that a larger number, mo re than half of them,

commence with the syl lable AM or AN,which is combined with

one, two ,and sometimes even three wo rds

,the sum of which

very o ften describes, as we are about to Show,some pecul iari ty

characteristic o f the place. This syl lable AM or AN is a con

traction of the demonstrat ive adverb ANY,which s ignifi es

waere t/eere z'

s,waere one isfound ,

near to,up on. The fi rst wo rd

which comes after this adverb is usual ly one of the fo l low ing

ba/zz'

,aato

,badz

'

,ala

,ledg e

,tuna

,tsa/za

,drano

, pasz,and , kadz'

,Fara

,

or da/ea,but the most frequent of all these is the fi rst ; about a

quarter of these place-names in fact begin w i th AMBOHI,which

is a contraction of Any oblz z'

tra, l i t. , Where there is the moun

tain which ’ ‘Where there is the vi l lage which ’ Then

come,approximately in the o rder of frequency AMBATO (from

Any oato,l i t.

,

‘Where there is a ro ck which ’

AM BODI

(from Any wady ,l i t .

,At the foo t of ’

ANALA (from Any

a/a,l it.

,Where there is the fo rest which ANKAZO (from

Any Izaz o, l i t . , Where the trees are’

ANTANA (from Any

tanana,l i t .

,Where there is the vi l lage which ’

ANTSAHA

1 A hi l l is havéana, lit a“height.

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. I I 7

(from Any sa‘

ha,l it.

,Where there is the val ley, the water- course,

which ANDRANO (from Any rano,l i t.

,Where the water

is’

AMPASI (from Any fasi/ea [Hova], fasy or fasina

l i t.,Where the sand is AMBALA (from Any vala

,

l i t.,Where there is an enclosure, a compound ANKADI

(from Any hady,lit ,

‘Where there is a fosse, a trench which’

ANKARA (from Any harana,l i t.

,Where there is a rock

which ’

&c.

This fi rst syl lable Am,An

,And

,Ant often disappears, and

in this case the meaning o f the name s l ightly changes onemay,

in fact,say indifferently AMBOHIBE and VOHIBE (which s ignify

respectively : At the g reat mountain,and The g reat mountain) ;

ANALASORA (Where there is the wood of hedg ehog s) and ALA

SORA (The wood of hedg ehog s) ANDRANOMAMY (Near the sweet

water) and RANOMAMY (The sweet water) ; ANTSAHAONDRY

(In the valley of sheep ) ; AMPAS IMENA (On the red sand ) and

FASIMENA (The red sand ) ; AMBALANOSY (Where there is an

enclosure for g oats) and VALANOSY (The enclosure for g oats) ;ANKAD IVORY (Where there is a circular fosse) and HADIVORY

(The circularfosse) ANKARANANDRIANA (Near the reel: of the

noble) and HARANANDRIANA (The roch of the noble), &c. But

in the second fo rm o f these names,the Malagasy o ften prefix to

the wo rd the article deno ting a proper name,which is a s imple I

,

and they say ; IVOHIBE , IALASORA,IFASIMENA,

IVALANOSY,

IHARANANDR IANA,&c.“Leaving out o f consideration

,amongst the wo rds which

commence with any o ther letter than A ,those whose ini tial

roo t is VOHI, VATO ,VOD I

,HAz o

,ALA

,TANA

, SAHA , RANO , FASI ,VALA

,HARA

,or IHARA

,and which

,as we have said

,are to some

extent identical wi th those which have the prefix,we find that

the greater number commence with BE (large, numerous),FARA (the last), MAHA (that which is able to which is

proper to which becomes MAN (a verbal prefix

which,jo ined to the roo t

,fo rms the verbs), MANJAKA (he who

reigns, who governs), MARO (much of NOSI (island),


SARA SARO (by contraction from SAROTRA,difficult

,

dangerous, dear), SOA or TSARA (beautiful , good, pleasant),TS I (that which is not

, or which has not TSIAFAK (that

which canno t be attained by V INAN (the mouth of a

river) , &c . A l l these wo rds are o ften preceded by an I , which

is,as we have observed , the article deno ting a proper name ;

thus,Imanakana, InOsifito , Ivinanimalaza, are the same names

as Manakona, NOsifito ,Vinanimalaza.

”

As might be supposed,the ideaof height andp rominence is one

Of the most frequently o ccurring in mountain- names in Mada

gasear. Thus we find several cal led Angavo,

“The lofty,” andone o f the grandest mountains in eastern Imerina is Angavokely ,Little- lo fty,

”to distinguish i t from the Angavo which fo rms a

magn ificent tower or outwo rk , so to speak , of the mountain wal l

on the eastern s ide of the upper plateau . There is also Avoma

s ina, the“Sacred-high (place) and one o f the loftiest peaks in

the Vavavato distri ct in southern Imerina is Iavohaika,

“Thelofty- defying- one

,

”-

a mountain nearly feet high . The

wo rd ambany ,

“above

,

”also o ccurs in Several names

,as Ambo

nit a, Overhead ,

”AmbOnit itra

,

“Above- the- town”

(or hil l)as wel l as lbha

,

“head,

”in Iavot a

,

“Lofty-headed,

”LOhat itra

,

Head- o f- the-hil l ” (or town), one of the highest mountains in

VOnizOngO . Asa‘

ndratra,

“raised,

”“exal ted

,fo rms part of several

names,as NaSandratany ; as also does arina“set up

,

”“l iftedup

,

" in such wo rds as Ambohim iarina. There are numerous

mountain-names in which the roo t ringy , meaning“lo ftiness,

conspicuousness,

” comes in thus we find Andringiringy,

Mahakiringy ,and Andring itra, a very prom inent ridge fourteen

m i les no rth of the capital,and closely connected wi th the old

ido latry ; a cave in its steep southern slopes being a Malagasy

Delphi,the fo rmer abode o f the g od Ranakandriana. The same

meaning of height and em inence is found in M ilangana (from

the roo t lang a,

“tal l,

a lofty po int no rth of the old

capital Ambohimanga. Much the same idea is implied in the


and Manélo zavona,M ist-shaded (P), and Tsiafajavona, Not

free- from -m ist,

”the name o f one of the highest peaks o f Anka

ratra. Inaccessibility is invo lved in several o ther names ; as

Tsiafabalala, Tsiafakalika, and Ts iafakafo (ano ther Ankaratra

peak), which three names mean respectively Impassable by a

lo cust,

” “by a dog ,”and “by fire.

” A lmost exactly the same

meaning is giving in the names Tsraz ombOrona, Tsiaz onambOa,and Tsiaz ompapango , which mean

“Unattainable by a bird,

”

by a dog ,

”and by a hawk.

”The Sharp cutting wind o f these

elevated po ints gives a name to one hil l,Sarodrivo tra, D ifficult

(through) wind whi le the variety o f blasts has p robabls ug

gested ano ther Many-winds .

”Possiblyfithe

howling of the wind round the top gives the name o f ano ther

hi l l,AmbOhimitréna

,Bel lowing-hi l l .

Somewhat poetical names o ccur in AmbOt anamasoandro ,

H i l l -of- chi ldren -Of-the-Sun,

” i n FOnovaratra,Thunderbo l t

cover ing,

” in TOmp ombOhitra, Lo rd-o f-the-hil ls,in Andria

nambo,

K ing-of- the-heights (or K ingly and in

Malakial ina,Quickly-night

,

”the name o f a hi l l no rth o fAmbO

himanga,whose height causes a deep go rge to the east of i t to

be soon in darkness after sundown .

As height also invo lves siz e,the wo rd be’

,

“big,is found in

many names, as Ambohibeand It ibe

,Big-mountain,

” Anta

nambe, Big - town,

” Mangabe, Big-blue (probably referring to

the co lou r of the basal t rock), Ivatobé, Big- ro ck,and Bongabe,

Big-hi l l .” The fi rst part of the last- named wo rd also enters

in to several hi l l-names i t means a clod,a turf

,and also a round

hi l l , so we find BOnga, Bongabe, and Bongakely, i.e.

,hi l ls

,big

and little.

I

I t has al ready been no ticed that the primary ro cks fo rm most

o f the highest po ints o f Madagascar, and the wo rd ua

‘

to (euphoni

Ously changed after um to bato), stone, is therefo re a very fre

I Probably the same ideaof rounded convexity comes in,somewhat indel icately

to our English notions,in Bét oka

,

“Pregnant (lit.,“Large and

KitrOka,

“Bel ly,” both names of hi lls in Imerina.

MALAGASY PLACE- NAMES. I 2 I

quently o ccurring one in these mountain-names, and in one

connection or another forms part of about a fourth o f all the

names o f hil ls in which natural features are referred to . Thus

we find i t in its S implest fo rms o f Ambato and Ivato , and then

in combination with the wo rds for the co lours blue, black , white,red , and speckled

,as Ambatomanga, Ambatomainty, Ambato

fOtsy, Ambatomena, and Ambatovandana ; with those for s iz e

l i ttle,big

,and immense, as Ambatokely, Ambatobe, and Amba

tovaventy and with those for height, length , roundness, steep

ness, bareness (l i t. , baldness and wooded outl ine (l i t. , hairi

as Ambatoavo,Ambato lava

,Ambatovory

,Ambatomi

bantona, AmbatosOla I and AmbatovalOina. Bes ides these are

K ing’s -stones,Prince s - stones , many Famous- stones

,as wel l as

some Level - topped- stones, Sharply-po inted stones, and Double

peaked- stones.

2 Some hi l ls which term inate in a so l i tary

co lumn of rock,have the same name as that given to the

memo rial erected stones,so common in Central Madagascar,

vato lahy (l i t., Male- stone one with a double-head is cal led

Baka, that is, V -shaped , a term applied to the ho rns o f cattle ;o thers, with three po ints, are the

“Three- S isters’- rock ” -Ambato

telomirahavavy (a hi l l with a grand mass of ro ck o f this name is

conspicuous near the eastern edge o f Im’

erina,and looks from

some po ints l ike a Titanic cathedral) ; whi le o thers again are

the Three-men- rock (Ambatotelolahy) ; and one is cal led

Ambatomandrindry,probably from a roo t meaning“thick ly

studded ,” here

,o f course, wi th boulder rocks. O thers , so l itari ly

conspicuous,are cal led AmbatotOkana

,Separated-stone and

the idea o f an upright co lumn gives ano ther name, Mahitsy,S traight or

“Upright ” ; and we also find Antanjombato ,

Ro cky promontory.

” A very remarkable ro cky region south

west of Ankaratra is termed Vavavato,Stone-mouth ”

another

hi l l is Ambatofidirana,Entrance- stone,

” while both in No rthern

Also simply as AntsOla,Bald-one.

2 Ambatomanjaka,Ambatomandriana,Ambatomalaza, Ambatomarina, Ambato

fisaka,Ambatosampana.


Imerina and in Southern Bets i leo are Varavarambato , S tone

gateway,”names given to mountain -passes i n those provinces .

But i t would be tedious to particu larise all the varied combina

tions into which vato enters in Malagasy mountain -names, the

mo re so as many are now obscure i n meaning }

Ano ther wo rd for ro ck , harana,is also found in many names

for hi l ls. Ankarana is the name o f the most no rtherly province

in the is land,and is so cal led on account of its famous rocky

fastness (see Antan. Annual,No . III. p. 27) and this wo rd is

probably the roo t of the wo rd Ankaratra, the name, as already

mentioned,of the loftiest mountain -mass in Madagascar . We

also find Haranambé,

“Big- rock,

” Ankarankely,

“Li ttle - ro ck,

”

I harana,Iharanarivo

,Thousand- rocks

,

” Ankaramena,

“Redrock ,

” Iharanandriana,

Prince’

s - rock,

Ankaramaina and

Iharandava,D ry- ro ck and “Long- rock

,and several names

include bo th the wo rds for stone and rock,as Ambatoharanana .

While mountain summ i ts in Central Madagascar are usual ly

o f bare rock,here and there thei r names Show that wood, mo re

or less extensive, once covered thei r heights, and in many names

ala,

“fo rest,

” comes into combination. Thus we find IalarOa,

Two -woods,Analabe

,Great-wood

,It ialabé

,H i l l -of

much-wood,

”Analamanantona

,

“Hanging-wood,

”Analamira

viravy, Overhanging-wood,

”Analamanara

, Co ld -wood,”Ana

lamahitsy, Upright-wood , Analambano,

Heron’

s -woo d ,”

Analambato , and also IsOmotra,

“Beard,” probably a fancifu l

al lusion to wo ods ; and several o thers, including wo rds o f

obscure meaning. Haeo,“tree,” also occurs in several hi l l

names, as Ankaz otOkana, So l i tary- tree, Ankaz obe,“Big- tree,

and Ankaz omirOhitra (perhaps mirohotra, which would mean

a company o f The names o f separate trees or grasses

distinguish o ther hi l ls, as Amberobe (uero is a long grass) ,

Inatobé,Much - nato

,

”the name o f a tree whose bark yields a

red dye, Ambolobe, Much-bamboo , Ivoara,“Fig- tree,

”and

1 One of the tri bal d ivisions of the Hova Malagasy bears the name of Mandiavato , Treaders-of—the-rock .


is mo re stri ctly and frequently,as m ight be supposed

,a town

name.

From a large number o f extinct vo l cani c cones in the

interio r provinces of Madagascar, extending probably almost in

an unbroken l ine from the south to the no rth and north-west,one m ight suppose that in the names of some of them at least

we should find some reference to fire or heat. I can,however ,

find only two or three instances where poss ibly some remem

brance o f igneous fo rces i s preserved,viz .

,in Ambatomay

,

Burnt- rock,

”and Iamboafo

,

“Lo fty-fire,

”the names o f two

mountains in the Tanala province,and in ano ther named

KitrOka,a wo rd which means“lava.

”

A cons iderable number o f mountains are designated after the

names o fAnimals and B irds. Most numerous are those cal led

after the guinea-fowl , ahanga,there being probably at leas t

a doz en named Ambatonakanga,S tone-o f-the-guinea- fowl .”

Then come several cal led after the co ck , AmbOhitrakOholahy ;the large hawk , AmbatombOromahery ; the kestrel , Ikitsikitsika ;the kite, Masiapapango , i.e., Fierce-with-k ites the dove,AmbOhibOromailala ; the cardinal-bird , Id y ; the peacock ,VOrombOla ; and there is one cal led Feather,

”VOlombOrona.

(As al ready mentioned also in speaking of names deno ting

height,there are numerous hil ls cal led “Impassable ” by birds

hawks, kites , &c.) The largest and most valuable animal of the

country, the humped ox,o‘

mby ,gives names to a good many

hlIlS ‘ in its s implest fo rm,Ambohitromby

,

“Ox -hil l,

”and

AmbohitrOmbalahy,Bul l-hi l l

,

”and in AndraokOmby,

L icked

up-by

-oxen ,”AntandrokOmby, Ox -ho rn,

” AntrafonOmby,“Ox

hump,

”and in AmbOhimanOto

,

“Butting-hi l l.” The wo rds for

sheep goat (asy), and wi ld -hog (lambo), are found in

several hi l l -names as AmbatonOndrilahy,AntsahanOndry,

AmbOhitrOndry,Ambatonosy

,and Lohalambo ,

“Hog’

s—head .

”

Even the cro codi le also appears i n these mountain-names, as in

Mamba,although, as m ight be supposed , i t is mo re frequently

found in river-names and also the hedgehog, in AmbOhitsOkina.

MALAGASY PLACE - NAMES . I 25

We also find Many- rats , MarovOalavo ; Many-fleas,Maro

parasy (a rather frequent and uncomfo rtably appropriate name

for many vil lages): “Many-ants,

” Marovits ika ; and two or

three Honey-hi l ls,Ambohitantely.

A smal ler number of mountains have received names

which may almost be termed Personal, and are derived ei ther

from some renowned king or chief, or have some obscure refer

ence to people, thei r numbers, relationships , &c. Thus we find

the “mountains ”of Ratrimo ,

RasOmotra, Razaka and Rafilo

the“cattle—fo ld ” (fahitra) of AndriamandrOso ; and the“hi l l ” o f

the renowned chief who founded the Hova monarchy and

supremacy, in the unconscionably long name o f BOnganandrian

imp binime‘

rina .’ The name of the supposed abo riginal tribe o f

the interio r is contained in Soaoaez’

mba,and that of the Hovas

in Famohilanhbva. An O riental exaggeration of numbers comes

in in AmbOhitrarivobé,“H i l l - o f-many- thousands

, and in

AmbOhipOloalina, H i l l - of-ten- ten- thousands ”

; we find also“People’

s -hi ll,

” “Son-of-men

’

s -hi l l,

” “H i l l - o f- the- old,

”“S lave’

s

hi l l,

” Prince’

s -hi l l,

”K ing’

s-hi ll (in M anjakabé, Great- king,

simply) and the hi l ls o f the Good -father,

”the Grandchi ld

,

and o f “Sacred- chanting ”

(Ambohim i rary). Two or three

Imerina hi lls have a strictly personal name, as Ramanarivo and

Rantoandro .

A very numerous class o f mountain -names I have grouped

as of doubtful s ignification,mean ing thereby not that the wo rds

themselves are obscure in meaning,but that the reason for

giving such names is doubtful . They comprise verbs,adjectives

,

and nouns, and while in some cases an exam ination Of the

particular hi l l , or inqui ry among the nearest inhabitants,m ight

very l ikely affo rd some clue to the o rigin of the name given,in

many cases the reason is probably hopelessly lo st . A few

examples may now be given ; and o f nouns used as names

we find the fo l lowing : AnjOmba,“Conch - shel l

,

”AmbOhibOla

,“Money-hil l,Amperifery , Pepper-place

,

”BétOngotra,

“Bigfoo ted

,

” Antem itra,

“Matted ,”

SOmp itra, Ri ce-basket,

”V inany


A Guess Ambi lany,

“At-the-

p ot, AmbOhimizana, Money

scales-hi l l , Ankafo tra, At-the-hafotra ”

(tree), Laona,“R ice

mo rtar,”&c.

O f aay'

ectives employed as hi l l -names there are only a few,

as Mangidy, Bitter,”MOra

,Easy

,

”and Maneva

,

“Beautiful ”but a large number o f verbs are used as hi l l-names ; e.g .

,

AmbOhitsimiOz a, Not-bathing-hi l l,

” Manana,Having

,

”AmbO

himanahy,D isquieting-hil l ,

”AmbOhimanOa, Tribute-paying

hi l l,

”AmbOhimahalala, Knowing-hil l

,

”Mahasarotra

,Making

difficult,”AmbOhimandray,

“Receiving - hi ll,

” AmbOhitsiléo ,

Unconquered hi l l ,” Manadala

,Making- foo l ish

,ManalalOndo ,

(perhaps)“Throwing-off- drows iness

,and MahasOa

,

“Benefiting ” A curious name o ccurs in Mantsihoaiz a

,which is

,

l i teral ly,

“Say, where to ?”

I t w i l l be thus seen from these examples,from a few groups

of Madagascar mountain-names,chiefly taken in the centre o f

the is land, that there is much variety in them ; and that some

of them give evidence of considerable imaginative power on

the part o f the early inhabitants of the country. I do not

here attempt to speculate on the facts possibly embodied

(fossi l ised, so to speak) in ano ther large group o f names whose

meanings are obscure,and which may probably in some cases

prove to be archaic wo rds,and may in o thers preserve Obso lete

fo rms o f the verbs and o ther parts of speech.

The River-names in Madagascar next Claim a l i ttle no tice,

al though they are less striking in thei r descriptive character

than we have seen the hil l -names to be. A glance at a map

o f the is land shows that the largest rivers flow to the west ,

the watershed being comparatively near the eastern coast,so

that,except the Mangoro

,few very large rivers flow into the

Indian Ocean ; but there are a great number of smal l streams,

many of which have cut deep go rges in the chains of bills,and

are broken by numerous cataracts and fal ls. Two wo rds are

used for “river ” in’

Malagasy : re’

nirano, which is l i teral ly“mo ther of waters,” and any ,

a wo rd which, i t wi l l be seen,is


foo t (l i t. ,“hand Sahalambo ,

“Wild -hog’

s -field and Sahan

amalona,“Eel’S -field .

” This wo rd saha,

“field,is found in

some o ther river-names, as Sahasarotra,“Difficult-field

,

” Saha

Omby,

“Spacious-(P) field ,”or perhaps“Ox -field

,

”and IsahanOnja,“The-field (or place) o f-waves also Sahafilo ,filo z

“needle

,

”

or po ss iblyfilao, name o f a fish.

Ambato ,

“At- the- stone,is found in several river-names

, as

wel l as in those (as al ready seen) of mountains and towns ;in these cases i t probably refers to some hi l l or ro ck where the

stream takes its rise or near which i t flows , or possibly from

its rock- impeded channel. Thus we find,Ambato lampy

,

“Atthe—rock ,

” Ambatom iady,“At - the - fighting

- stone,” Ambato

mainty,“At-the-black - stone,

”and Ambatotsipahina,

“At-thekicked - stone (probably with some reference to giant legends).

One river is cal led Ankaz o tsip ihina“At- the- ruled - (or straight

ened) tree,”ano ther is cal led Fantara, a name also given to

meteo ri c stones, and ano ther is Varahina,

“Copper.”

As w i th mountains , so also a few r ivers have names referring

to persons ; two or three have the personal prefix Andrian as

Andriambilany, and Andriamenakely, Prince- of- the-estate.

”

One is curious ly cal led IkOtoratsy,“Bad -boy,

”ano ther

,zana

kOlona, Son-of-men,

”and ano ther, Andranonandriana, At- the

prince’

s-stream .

I t must be said , howeverfthat the above examples include

(excepting the Mania and the Onilahy) few of the largest

streams o f the island , such as the Betsiboka} with the IkiOp a,

the MangOro ,the Matsiatra, the Sofia, the Mananara

,and

Mananjara 2 (there are several examples of these two names),

the Mahajilo ,3 the S isaony,

and many o thers,the meaning o f

whose names is obscure. We probably need a fuller acquaint

ance with dialects o ther than the Hova to understand many

o f the names appl ied to rivers . In the name of the Mati tanana,

i.e.

“Dead-handed ,”a S .E. coast river, a piece o f legendary

I Lit.

,Many-not- lepers.

2 Lit., Having-a-share.

3 35270is sharp-pointed .

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES . I 29

histo ry of a giant,

having thrown his hand across the stream

at an enemy, is said to be preserved ; but it is probable that

the story has been invented to account for the name. I n some

po rtions of the east coast of Madagascar the names o f tribes

and of the rivers flowing through the terr ito ry are identical,

and i t is o ften difficul t to say whether the people took thei r

name from the river, or vice versa. Curious supersti tions cl ing

to some o f the rivers, e.g .,o f the M atsiatra in Betsi leo

,

M r. Shaw says, i t is“a splendid river, though on account of

the superstition o f the people deterring them from putting

a canoe upon it, i t“

is one o f the greatest obstacles in travel l ing

to and from the capital in the wet season . I n one i tinerating

journey, the only way of getting the wri ter’s goods across

was by balancing them upon the native water - pitchers,a

man swimm ing on each s ide propel l ing the cranky vessel

fo rward .

”

The Lahe-names in Madagascar wi l l not detain us long, as

they are very few in number for so large an is land . The largest

one,o f Alaotra, in the Antsihanaka province, has already been

mentioned as probably embodying one of the few A rabic wo rds

in Malagasy place-names . (I t wi l l be remembered that the

al l ied wo rd “Laut ” is largely used for “is land,

”i.e.

,

“sea

surrounded,

”in the Malayan archipelago ; as Timo r Laut

, &c .)The next in s iz e is I tasy, whose name at fi rst s ight would mean“Shal low

,

”the wo rd tasy being applied chiefly to plates and

dishes. I t is said that this lake is o f recent fo rmation, at least

tradition goes back to a time when it is said to have been

fo rmed by the breaking down of some embankment by a

Vaz imba chieftain. As,however, a cons iderable stream

,which

in the rainy season fo rms a grand waterfal l , always issues from

I tasy and fo rms the river Li l ia (a wo rd of unknown meaning,

to myself,at least), this seems a l i ttle mythical . In a map

o f the lake made by Mr. W . Johnson (see Antananarivo

Annual, No . I every bay and divis ion o f i t has a

separate name appl ied to i t, a proof of the minute distinction

IO


by the Malagasy of places by giving appropriate names.

I The

ful l name of the lake is Itasi-hanaka,the latter wo rd being

a roo t S ign ifying to run out as a l iqu id,

”as ink on blo tting

paper, for example ; the wo rd is also used as a synonym for

o thers meaning lake, poo l , &c .,but is not much employed .

This wo rd is also found in the name Of a no rthern central

tribe,the S ihanaka, probably from the character o f the country

they inhabit, with extens ive marshes,and the lake Alaotra,

j ust mentioned,in its no rth - eas t co rner. I t is wo rth notice

that the wo rd tasy is found in several o f the Malayan island

dialects, and there means sea.

” A lake in the province of

Pahang in the Malay peninsula is cal led Tasseh Bera, evi

dently the same wo rd as in the Malagasy. A smal l lake

south-west o f Ankaratra is cal led V inaniOny ; vinany is a

wo rd frequently used on the east coast for a river- opening

through the bars o f sand which partly block up the mouths

of mo st of them ,and means “breach

,

” “i rruption .

”On the

south-west coast are two lakes cal led HeOtry (or Hoétry) and

Tsimanamp étsOtse, but the meaning of nei ther of them is clear.

On the eastern coast o f Madagascar is a remarkable chain

of coast lakes or lagoons,into which the r ivers fal l . These

have doubtless been formed‘

by the incessant strife between

the rivers and the ocean,for there is a constant heavy surf

raised by the south- east trade-wind . So nearly continuous

are these lagoons that by cutting about thi rty m i les o f canal

to connect them ,an unbroken water-way of two hundred and

s ixty m i les in length could be fo rmed along the eastern coast.

These lagoons are distinguished by separate names,as NOsibé

,

Irangy,RasOabé

,&c.

There are two or three examples of smal l but profoundly

deep lakes fo rmed in the extinct craters o f some of the old

I These are : (I ) Taraz o ,“Hereditary (2) Ampefy, “At-the-embank

ment”

(3) Kavanta, possibly“Open ing,” as this is the po int where the river

issues from the lake (4) Ambavanandriana,“At-the-prince’

s-mouth,or Opening

,

”

a strait between broad reaches ; (5) Loholoka, meaning doubtful ; (6) Anjiva,d itto ; (7) Fitandambo ,

“Wild-hog’

s-ford .


mal ign influence exerted by the Spi rits of the departed , leads

them ,i t is said

,to break up their vi l lages when a death occurs

,

so that thei r settlements must be mo re l ike camps than vil lages,

properly SO cal led . The S ihanaka have the same supersti tion,

but they avo id most of the inconvenience by removing any

one who appears dangerous ly i l l out of the vi l lage and placing

him in a hasti ly- constructed hut,which is afterwards pulled

down and left to decay. We shal l therefo re probably find l i ttle

o f interest in the vi l lage—names o f the Sakalava. There is,how

ever, this no ti ceable po int in the principal names,whether o f

towns or geographical features, all round the island , that the

majo ri ty o f them are distinctly recognisable as containing roo ts

which are Malagasy as spoken by the Hova,and thus they

confi rm the fact,suppo rted also on o ther grounds

,o f the

essential unity o f the Malagasy language,no twithstanding

various dialectic differences.

One mo re po int may be here mentioned , viz .,that in many

places there o ccurs a rather perplexing dual i ty of names,

arising from the fact that the Hova,when fo rm ing m i l i tary

posts for the maintenance o f thei r supremacy over various

parts of the island which they have conquered,have general ly

given them a name differing from that o f the native vil lage

on the same s i te or close to i t. These latter usual ly retain the

original appel lation,so that sometimes a stranger is pu z z led

to understand where he his go ing, or what place the people

are speaking about.

A wo rd or two may be said fi rst about the capital and chief

towns of Madagascar, befo re proceeding to classify the smal ler

towns and vi l lages acco rding to the divis ions al ready observed

in o ther place- names. The name of Antananarivo, the capital

c ity,s ignifies , somewhat in an O riental vein o f exaggeration

,“C i ty of a Thousand,

” that is,probably

,settlers or m i l i tary

co lonists, who were placed there after its conquest by the Hova

chieftains. Some have considered the name as referring rather

to the homesteads or compounds,which clustered probably for

MALAGASY PLACE -NAMES. 1 33

a long time as detached settlements round the S lopes of the

long steep ridge on which the city is built. There are no street

names in the city, indeed there are only three or four streets

or principal roads through the dense mass of houses, but the

posi tion o f most houses is ascertained to lerably exactly by

the numerous names which are given to different po rtions o f

the varied and broken ground over which the capital extends,every prominent ho l low or S lope or level po rtion having some

special and often very appropriate name. Thus we find Paravo

hitra,

“Last-vil lage ”

(or hil l), at the no rthern extrem i ty,and

AmbOhipOtsy, White-hi l l,

”from the white so i l of that part

,at

the southern end of the ridge ; while AmbOhimitsimbina, H i l l

Of- observation (or attention), is the highest po int. Then there

is Antsahatsiroa,Not- two -fields

”or val leys, a steep descent

near the centre ; the precipices of Ampamarinana, Hurl ing

place,”the Tarpeian Rock of the capital , on the west S ide of the

hil l ; the open triangular space of Andohalo,the co ronation

ground and place o f publ ic assembl ies, on the upper part of

the city ; and the level square plain of Imahamasina,“Place

o f- consecration,

at the foo t o f the hil l to the west, where

mil i tary reviews take place and where some o f the sovereigns

were publ icly recognised by thei r subjects. Near this is AnOsy,“At- the- island,

”an artificial lake with a smal l island in the

centre. (Each royal house has its proper name,as Manja

kamiadana, Reigning-peaceful ly,

” Trano -vOla,

“S i lver-house,”Masoandro

,

“Sun,

”Manamp isOa,

“Adding—good , &c.) I n o ther

parts of the city are AmbOhitantély, H i l l -of- honey,” Ambato

nakanga,

“Guinea-fowl - stone,” Amparibe,

“Much- sugar- cane,”

Analakely,

“L i ttle-wood,Zoma

,

“Friday,the great market

place,so cal led because the market is hel d on that day, &c., &c.

South-west of the city is a large timber palace which was buil t

by Radama I . on the S i te o f a hil l which he partly level led , and

cal led lsoanierana,“Good- for- inquiry,

”or consultation , i.e , a

convenient place where he might hear complaints and dispense

j ustice. To the east of the capital i sAmbatorOka,“Craggy-rocks,”

I 34 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

a rough piece o f ground covered wi th boulders , and a fo rmer

place of execution ; further south is Mahaz oarivo,

“Having-athousand ”

; while to the west is a rounded hil l cal led At

hijanahary, God’s-hil l and stretching for many m i les west,

no rth,and south is the immense r i ce-plain of Betsimitatatra,

Great- undivided ,”a name evidently given befo re its enclosure

and cultivation , for i t is now much divided by tatatra or water

channels.

AmbOhimanga,“Blue-hi l l or Famous- hi l l (or town), is the

ancient capital , eleven m i les no rth of Antananarivo ,and possibly

so cal led from the mass of bluish gneiss rock which fo rms the

highest po in t o f the triangular hi l l on which the town is bui lt.

The s lopes are enti rely covered with woods, which form a

refreshing contrast to the general ly bare and treeless character

of the greater po rtion of Imerina. AS at Antananarivo,various

parts of the more ancient capital are distinguished by Special

names,as Amboara,

“The fig - tree (voara), Ambatom i tsangana,“The s tanding- stone, Antsahamanitra “The fragrant-field ,”

Andakana,

“At-the- canoe,”&c. Ambohimanga is also the

name of the chief town of the northern Tanala, or fo rest

people, and is given to some o ther towns as wel l , bo th in this

fo rm and i n that of AmbOhimangake’

ly The

capital of the Betsiléo province has a name probably given

by the Hova on their conquest of the country— FianarantsOa,

Good- learn ing ” i t is a town with about or

inhabitants.

The chief po rt of the N .W. coast of Madagascar, the town

o f M ojanga (inco rrectly cal led by Europeans and on charts

Maj unga), derives its name from“a co lony o f Swahil i -speaking

Arabs , who were the fi rst o ccupants of the s i te. They found,so say their descendants, the Shore l ined with flowering Shrubs,which

,as the most remarkable thing about the place, led them

to cal l their vi l lage mj i-ang uia,‘the town of flowers.

’ This

was subsequently corrupted to M ojanga. The Bay of Bemba

tooka takes its name from a smal l vi l lage fo rmerly existing on


mena,

“At-the-red -sand,It iména,

“Red -hi l l, &c. We also

find Ambohidroa,Two - towns

,

”and IfitobOhitra

,

“Seven- towns.

”

Trees and woods give many town -names, as AmbOlobé

Much - bamboo ,”AnakakOndro , At- the - plantain - shoo ts

,

AmbOdirofia, At- the- foo t-of- the-rofia”

(palm ), Antap iabé,

Much- tap ia (a tree with edible fruit, and used for s i lkwo rm

culture), Ampangabe, Much-fern,

”It idrOy, B ramble- town

,

”

AmbOatavo,

“At-the-gourds,Ankaz omas ina,

“At- the-sacred

tree,Ialamalaza, Famous-wood

,

”Analamaiz ina

,At- the-dark

wood,Ambaniala

,Below-the-wood

,

” Beravina,Much- fo l iage,

”

Tamponala, Top- of-the-wood ,

”&c. The pleasant s i tuation o f

many vi l lages gives appropriate names to not a few of them,

which contain the wo rds tsara (good) and sba (pleasant), the

latter o f which is especial ly frequent, as Antanantsara, Ambo

hitSara,Itsarafidy,

“Wel l - chosen,

”Itsarahonénana,

“Good- for

dwel l ing- in,

” AmbOhitsOa,AmbatosOa, AmbalasOa, AntsahasOa,

IkianjasOa, ISOaririnina,“Pleasant- in—w inter,” and S OarriOnina,

Pleasant-to -dwel l -in.

”The latter wo rd also comes in frequently

in vi l lages cal led Soavina and Soamanana ; one is termed SOa

tsimanamp iovana, Unchangeably- pleasant, and the same idea

of securi ty is expressed in Fiadanana, Peace,”and Mahavelona,

Caus ing-to - l ive.

”I The open pos i tion o f many vi l lages ,

exposed to sunl ight,gives a name to several ; as , Masoandro ,

Bemasoandro , Much-sun,

”and AmbOhibemasoandro ; and the

extens ive prospect from o thers gives their names o f Mahatsinjo ,

Able- to -overlook, and Tsinjoarivo , Over looking-a- thousand.

”

New settlements,now probably very ancient (l ike our own

Newports and Newcastles), have left their traces in AmbOhibao ,“Newtown ,” a very common vi l lage name in Im‘

erina in AntOby,At- the- camp

,

”and Andranovao , At- the-new-house while

the advance o f settlers upon ground previous ly unoccupied

seems to have given a name to the many places cal led AmbO;

himandrOso,

“Progress ing- town,

”and MandrosOa,

“Advance ”

I remember this name, a rather common one, is thatof one of the filthiestvi l lages I ever stayed a night in the who le place being a foot deep in cowdung .

MALAGASY PLACE - NAMES. 1 37

(verb imp .) Many vi l lage-names include the Malagasy equiva

lents for our Anglo -Saxon wo rds ton,ham

,burg h, bury ,

&c.,and

the Danish by and thorp e, in the wo rds vala,

a homestead,

”as

AmbalavOtaka,Ambalatany

,AmbalavOla

,Ambalasakay,

and

Ambala,&c. in ha

‘

dy ,a fosse, one at least of which surrounds

every old vil lage (and homestead), and very frequently several

deep trenches are found one within the o ther ; as Ankadibe;Ankadisaro tra

,Ankadimainty

‘

,AnkadifOtsy, AmbOdihady,

and

AnkadivOribé,Big- round-fosse (the o rdinary name for a

country house is hadivbry) and in saha,

field ,”as Antsahap é

traka,Antsahafilo

,AntsaharOat a

,Two -headed -field ,

” I saba

fary,

“Sugar- cane- field,

”and Isahabato

,S tony- field

,

”&c. There

are a very few vil lage-names referring to roads, or rather paths,as Antsampanimahaz o

,freely trans lated

, You may choose your

path,

”applied to two or three places at the j unction o f cross

roads ano ther bears the (probably o ften too appropriate) name

of AmpOtaka, I n - the-mud .

”

From the s i tuation o f many Malagasy -vi l lages on the banks

of rivers are derived several descriptive names,as Antsam

p andrano ,“At-the-branching- of- the-waters

,

” Ambodi riana and

Amboni riana, At- the- foo t-o f and Upon-the- cataract,”Ifara

hantsana,Last- rapids (on the river IkiOpa), IsarahanOny,

(perhaps)“At- the- separating- of- the- streams,

” Andranomandry,“By- sti l l -waters,

” Amparihy,

“At-the- lake,

”AndOhatanjona,

“Atthe-head-o f- the-promonto ry, and Imavorano ,

“B rown -water ”

;

while we find an exact equivalent of Oxfo rd ”in Amp itanOmby,

and an approach to Cambridge in Tetezambato ,

“S tonebridge.

”One name seems to complain of a lack o f mo isture,

Itsimisirano,There’

s-no -water On the sea- coast several

vi l lage-names include the wo rd vina‘

ny , riveramouth,”as Ivinany,

and also Masondrano,a wo rd of s im i lar meaning,

found both in this fo rm and in that of Masondranokély.

A considerable number of vi l lage-names include the wo rd

no’

sy ,which is general ly translated

“island ”

; i t appears, how

ever,in many cases to mean,

mo re exactly,a rising ground

I 38 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

standing up from marshes and rice-fields , and more or less sur

rounded by them ,a very near paral lel to our Anglo -Saxon ea

or ey ,

“an island ,

”as in the names Chelsea, Tho rney, Putney,

Chertsey, &c } Thus we find NOsivato,

“Rocky- island,NOsi

manjaka, K ing’s - island,NOSiSOa

,NOsivOla, NOsipatrana,

NOsikély, AnOsivarika, NOsizato ,“Hundred - is les

,NOsiarivo ,“Thousand - isles,

”and , s imply

, NOsy or Anosy.

I n the central d istri ct of Imerina a number of vi l lage- names

include that o f the province, with some additional descriptive

word ; these are probably, i n some cases at least, memorials of

certain additions of terri tory or change o f boundary ; thus we

find ImerimandrOso , Imerinavaratra, Imerintsiadino , Soavini

merina,and Imerinarivo . The western divis ion of Imerina

,the

Imamo distri ct,also gives a name to a few vi l lages, as Arivoni

mamo and TsinjOvinimamo . The habit o f the central Malagasy

o f assembling at large Open -air markets for the sale and pur

chase of every kind of native product gives a name to many

vi l lages near such markets, acco rding to the days of the week

on which they are held . So we find numerous places cal led

Alahady (although markets are no longer held on Sunday in

the central provinces), A lats inainy, Talata, A larobia, A lakamisy,Zoma

, and AsabOtsy.

As with mountain -names, so also in those of some towns and

vi l lages, the words for various animals enter into their formation ;the wo rds mamba and votiy ,

crocodi le,dinta

,

“leech,” ambba,“dog ,” asy ,goat

,

”

s a,

“crab, hala, spider,”and many o thers

,

all o ccurring ; thus, Mambazato ,

“Hundred-crocodi les ”

(no

exaggeration this in numberless places) ; less definite, but very

suggestive,i s Marovoay, Many-cro codi les,

”a Hova po st and

A rab settlement near the mouth of the Betsiboka river Masom

boay,Antsahadinta

,AmbOatany, AmbohitrOsy, Antsahamaro

foza,and AntOhokala. Most frequent are those compounded

with amby ,

“ox

,

”as Mam iomby

,Sweet-to -oxen

,

” probably

referring to good pastures (SOaronOno ,“Good- (for) milk,

”is

Cf. Words and Places, p . 367 ci seq.


AmbOhidratrimo,Ambohidrapeto} AmbOhidratamo , AmbOhi

dramijay, and Ambatondrazaka.

2

Some tribal d ivis ions or boundaries are probably preserved

in the many vi l lage-names which include the wo rd ariuo, thou

sand,

”zato

,

“hundred,

”and j ala,

“ten,

”as

,It itrarivo

,Ambo

hipOloarivo Soavinarivo,Iharinarivo

,AmbOhijato and

Ambijato , and AmpOlo . Tribal names are given to some

vi l lages, which were fo rmerly perhaps their chief settlement ;as , Anj anadralambo (the z anadralambo are the s ixth and

lowest rank o f andriana,the noble or royal c lans ; Ralambo ,

thei r ancesto r, was the same as the Rabiby j ust mentioned , and

was'

so cal led from his s laying the w i ld-boar or lambo) ; and

Ampahidralambo ,“Ralambo ’

s-ox - fattening pi t” and AmbOdila

langina (the Lalangina are the easternmost divis ion of the

Bets i leo people). Bits of local and tr ibal or fam i ly history are

probably foss i l ised in such names as Itélolahy,“Three-men,

”

It idraivo,

Raivo’

s - town,

”Imarovavy,

Many-women ,Imaro zaz a,

“Many- chi ldren,

Fierénana,“D ividing- place,

Fierena,“Refuge,” IsOanierana, “Good- for- inquiry ”

(an Open

air court), Ampihaonana, Meeting-place,”Ambéhidray,“Father ’s-vi l lage

,

”AmbOhijatOvo ,

“Youth’s-vi l lage,

”AmbOhi

j anaka, Chi ldren ’s -vi l lage,”IfénovahOaka

,

“Ful l -of-people,”Tsarahavana,

“Good -(by) relations,”Itsiaz ombazaha

,Not

taken -by-fo reigners,

”&c ., &c. Old sacred places and shrines

are indicated by many an AmbOhimasina and Ambatomas ina,

(masina, sacred), and perhaps In AmbOhijanahary and Am

bOhitrandriamanitra,“Creato r’s and “God ’

s - town.

” Sacred

and venerated trees (ha‘

eo) also give a few vi l lage names,as

.Ankaz omasina and Ankaz obe.

About the o ther two divis ions in which Malagasy town and

vi l lage names may be classed , viz .,those o f“doubtful ” or

“Obscu re ”

meaning,i t is unnecessary to speak here, for the

reasons given in speaking of the names o f mountains and rivers .

I Rap éto is said to have been a giant, and to have perform ed marvel lous featsof strength .

2 The chief town of the S ihanaka province.

MALAGASY PLACE - NAMES . 14 1

Some local al lus ions, obvious enough on the spo t,would p ro

bably explain many of the fi rst class o f names ; while fuller

know ledge of old and obso lete or provincial Malagasy,and

careful inquiry among the natives, w i l l be required to elucidate

the meaning o f many of the second of these classes .

Befo re concluding, a few wo rds must be added upon one

o ther class o f Malagasy place-names yet unno ticed , viz .,tho se

of P rovinces and Districts. Here, however, a diffi culty o ccurs

in distinguishing many of them from those of the tribes who

inhabit these various regions s ince in many cases i t is difficu lt

to say whether the people take thei r name from the country

they l ive in , or whether the country is cal led after the people.

So that here the study o f place-names is almost inseparable

from that of personal , or rather, tribal , names. I n other cases,

as on the coast plains, river-names and tribal-names are equal ly

diflicult o f exact discrim ination,that is, as regards the prio rity

o f the two . These po ints cannot be now ful ly discussed,but a

few examples may be given.

The meaning of the name o f the central and leading p ro

vince of Imerina is obscure (to myself at least) ; the distri ct is

also o ccas ional ly termed Ankova, from its Hova inhabitants .

Among the subdivis ions o f Imerina are Vakinankaratra,the

district Cut- off—(l i t.“broken by

-Ankaratra ”

(mountains),V

’

akintsisaony,Cut-o ff- by

- (the river) Sisaony,

”Imamo

,Voni

zOngo , ValalafOtsy, White- lo custs a (tribal name), and to the

no rth , Avaradrano ,No rth- of- the-water

,

”AnativOlo

,

“Among

the-bamboo s, &c . But the smal ler distri ct names are very

numerous, and would require a separate arti cle for their ful l

treatment.

South o f Vakinankaratra is the Manandriana distri ct,the

no rthernmost divis ion o f the populous Bets i leo province,home

o f the Unconquered tribe (so named , al though they have

been overcome by the dom inant Hova) ; with the o ther sub

divisions Of Isandra, so cal led from the river flowing through its

centre, and this, again , traditional ly said to -be named after a


Hova, one Andriantsandra ; Ilalangina (l iteral ly,“Quiet- road ,

but there is probably some o ther meaning) ; and Iarindrano“There-is-water,

”1 probably from the numerous streams . Further

south sti l l is the Bara country. I n this province, with its

widely scattered population , there appears to be necessari ly a

good deal o f change in . its place-names, s ince the numerous

petty kingdoms or chieftaincies are,l ike many African king

doms,

2 cal led after the names of the reigning chief.

On the eastern s ide of the island , beginning at the northern

po int, is the Ankarana, the Ro cky province, poss ibly taking

its name from a remarkable rock fo rtress where the inhabitants

have often held their own against an invading fo rce.3 Com ing

south, are the districts of VOhimarina, Level -hi l l ,”the p romon

to ry shel tering Antong il Bay and cal led MarOa (in Hova this

wo rd is an imperative fo rm meaning Be many,” i t is said t o be

so cal led from a smal l river o f the same name,possibly thus

named from its sudden increase in the heavy rains of the wet

season) ; and south o f this , again,are a number of distri cts

,

some cal led after the principal town in them , some after

the chief r iver, and inhabited by numerous tribes general ly

termed “Bets im isaraka, the “Many- unseparated. I n land

from these is the Betanimena country,“Much- red- earth

,while

the great marsh district— the Malagasy fen- country— around,

but chiefly south of the chief lake, Alaotra, is cal led Antsi

hanaka, the Lake South o f this i s the

long open plain between the two eastern l ines of forest, and

cal led Ankay,the C learing,

”from i ts comparative absence

o f wood . Its inhabitants are cal led the Antankay, and also

the Bezano zano ,

“Bush people.

”The south -eastern fo rest

region is cal led the Tanala country, home o f the Fo resters .

”

East of this again,on the coast plains south of the B ‘

ets i

misaraka district, are the regions occupied by the Taimoro

I See Rev. G . A. Shaw ’

s paper, “The Betsi leo Country and People,

Antananarivo Annual, No . I I I . pp . 74, 76.

2 E.g.,Urambo , after M irambo .

3 See Antananarivo Annual, No . I I I . p . 27.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST .

APPENDIX .

BETS ILEO PLACE -NAMES .

I

Among the most common and characteristic p lace-names amongst

the Betsiléo are the fo l low ingTowns.

—I vohibe, Ambohibe, Ambohimandroso ,Mahaz oarivo,VOhitrarlvo ,real lyVOhitsarivo , It itrOmby, real ly It itsaOmbe, Ambohitromby, real l yAmbOhitsaOmbe. The comp ounds with -arivo are very frequent as names of towns e.g .

,It itsarivo , Mahaz oarivo (the anc ient capital

of the Isandrap rovince,whereAndriamanalina lived at the time ofhis famousnegotiations with AndrianampOinimerina), Akarinarivo , Ambohimanar i vo ,Andr‘ainarivo , Ilanj

‘

ainarivo, TOmbora‘

ivo . As far as my own experience

goes, towns with this noun of number (ind icating great quantity of wealth

of cattle, s laves, subj ects, & c .) are or were invariab l y the seat of rathersuperior tempo-ménakély feudal land p roprietors), never, so far as Ihave seen,

mere vi l lages inc l uded in but not the cap ital of the menakély(estate). Fenoarivo appears to b e an Ambaniandro (a name given to the

Hova by the Bétsiléo and southern tribes) name. There is one Fenoarivoin the Manandr iana province, but not in the Bétsiléo proper, i.e. , south of theMatsiatra river and that one Fenoar i vo is a Government town

,probab ly

named , as undoubted l y many Government towns in the south were namedFanjakana and Fianarantsoa), not by the aborigines, but by the

co lonists from the capital . There is another between Ikalamavony and

Modbngy but there are too many runaway slaves and Hova there to

make it a real Bétsil’

eo vil lage . The compounds w ith -ony are alsocharacter istic . Guy in these words is not used as the equivalent for riverand , indeed, it is doubtfu l whether 1ano (water) is not a more correcttranslation for that word at alltimes, the any being simp ly the confluence

2 This paper on the place-names of the southern-central province of Mada

gascar, the Betsiléo , is from the p en of my friend and brother m issionary, the

Rev .Charles T. Price, form erly for several years resident in that part of the

island , and which he kindly al low s me to add to my own paper.This chapter was written thirteen years ago ,

and first publ ished in the

yournalof the RoyalAsiatic Society, Apri l , 1 873 . S ince that time M . Grandidier

has publ ished the vo lume on the H istorical Geography of Madagascar,in his

’

great work on this country and in his very elaborate tables of all the knownplace-names both on the coast and the interior he has g iven themeanings of manyhundreds of these. He has also added an essay on the place-names

,from which

I have extracted paragraphs as to the prefixes An and Anz in the early part of

this chapter. The only other paper I know of on the subject is an amusing one

by V ice- Consul W . C . P ickersgi ll , in Antananarivo Annual, No . XI I .,1888

,

entitled , “Revision of North-West P lace-Names ; some Curios ities of Topo

graphical Nomenclature. He show s how Europeans, ignorant of Malagasy ,and Hovas, ignorant of provincial dialects, have al ike corrupted the coast names.

MALAGASY PLACE -NAMES . 145

of the tatto . At any rate, in p lace-names any means the confl uence of

the peop le, a large gathering , profanam vulgus of Rome, or oi n oM o.’

of Athens. Thus, Nasandratsoi'

iy (corrupted by Hova and Europeans intoNasandratony) is the p lace that was raised up , or built, by the mu ltitude— a name easily understood by any one who has seen the large gatheringsof peop le in this comparative ly smal l vil lage assemb led by Ramavo , a

descendant of AndriamanaIina, and chieftainess there. Other instancesare AmbOhitsoaOny, AmbalamisaOnyz the homestead where there is a

gathering of peop le), and TondrOinOny. Either by the -o’

ny or

-ariuo,”

or some other such add ition,important towns general l y have

names far removed from the mean or commonp lace. One m ight beto lerab l y sure, for instance, that such a p lace as Amboasary or ItaOlana

was not ancientl y of great importance.

Villages and homesteads— Frequently such names beg in with the con

tracte‘d p lace—form of voltitra or vala, as Ambohibary, or Amb ‘

alabe.

‘

Valtitra is a vil lage or town, and although mm is often used of a col

lection of houses numerous enough to be cal led a vil lage, yet strictlySpeaking a vala is a homestead, the equivalent in Imérina being tamboho.

Our p lace at Fanjakana, with its house and outbuild ings, inc l ud ing kitchen,

schoo l-room, scho lars’ dwel lings, &c . , standing in a large garden, was

correctl y named AmbatolahinandrianiSiahana=“At - Andrianisiahana’

s

vatolalzy,”or monument (not grave), which stood at the very gateway of

the premises. But the p lace was usual ly spoken of as a voila, occasional ly

as a vblzitra, and once I heard a native speak of going outside the com

pound , as going outside the tanana. This seems to ind icate that there isno fixed law for the use of either word in forming p lace-names of vil lagesor towns. Not so , however, with the prefixes I and Am orAn I amnot referring to the simp le omission of the I as in Fianarantsoa forIfianarantsOa, which is a mere matter of habit and fashion ; but to the

non- interchangeability of the simp le form w ith or without the I and the

form with the Am or An Vohibe or It ibe, for instance, is not the

same as Ambohibe, nor It ipOtsy as Ambohipotsy . VOdisandra is the

mouth of the sandra river ; AmbOdisandra is the name of the adjacentvil lage. vatolahinandrianisiahana is the name of the deceased j udge

’

s

monument ; but it wou ld have been incorrect to cal l our p lace Ivatolahinandrlanisiahana it was Ambatolahinandrianisiahana. I have heardténdrombalzitra used for voltitra is it not possib le that the true voltitra was

situated at the téndrombolzitra I that It ip’

otsy, for instance, was the vil lageat the top of the hil l It ipOtsy, and AmbOhipOtsy the vil lage on the hil lside ? 2

Physicalfeatures— The compounds with In‘

zrana, a precipice, are very

common in the more precipitous parts of the Betsiléo province. Names

w ith this compound invariab l y represent faithful ly the nature of the p lace.

Instances are, Ankaramalaza (at least two in the Iarindrano, and one in

2 Ambalavao is one of the most common, wearisomely so .

2 On this point, cf. p . 133 ante.

I I


the Ilalangina), AnkaranOsy (the ascent to which m ight wel l be termed a

goat-tract,

”osy goat) and Ankaratsinanana. M ore common sti l l are names

recording other physical features of the locality , as Ivatoavo , Amb‘

atorény,

Ambatosoa, vatomitatana, Ambatoména,AndranovOrivato , vatofotsy , AnjOlobato , Ambatomainty, Ambatofinandrahana (

“the chisel led Ambo

himiarina (wh ich is perched up near the crest of a high h i l l), M idongy

(on a h i l l in the south), and ModOngy (in the west a c loud seems to balways sullenly 2 frowning round its overhang ing brow), IlamOsina, AmpasinaAmpasika), V inany and its numerous compounds. There are at least

three p laces in the Betsiléo named Andrainjato , one in each of the threep rovinces, and each of them rocky hil ls. That in the Isandra is a p ro

minent rather than lofty ridge, on which are many rocks curiousl y p i ledtogether . It is, and I believe always has been, uninhabited ; but thereare many other named places quite deso late. In the Sandra there is

a current proverb , as follows :“Andrainjato ro avo-lany,

nasandralsa ny

bitsika : ko ny bitsika ro be-lolta, sasatsa ny nitao-tane, i.e. ,

“Andrainjato islofty ground because raised by the ants ; and the ants have big headsbecause they are weary w ith carrying earth .

The plants most p lentifu l or pecu liar to the neighbourhood ap pear trequently to g ive the name to a vil lage or uninhabited hill , e.g . Ikando (wherethe wild p lant kando freely grows), Amboasary , Ankaz osOaravina, Silkaviroa transposition of Sakarivo ginger), Beanana, AndranorOndrona, Anka

fotsa (hafotra), Anahimalemy , Vahambe, Ankafina, saha, Sahamalaz a,BésakOana. There are two towns, both in the heart of the sweet- scentedforest, named It imanitra (maniira= fragrant) but one at least of thesemust be in the Tanala (forest region).Animals are rep resented in such names asAlambomandrévo

,IavonOmby

Vohitromby, Maroparasy , Bevoalavo , Iarinomby , Itaolana, Kalalao , AnkaranOsy. AmbOhitsandraz animamba is not such an instance. The mamba

or w hy, w ith the Bétsiléo , is not on l y the crocodile, but the b ig , awe

inspiring man—king , ch ief, or governor— in any p lace ; and AmbOhi

tsandrazanimamba was so named when old Andriamanalina, in divid inghis inheritance among his sons, directed that one of them— probab l y thee ldest— shou ld leave the old Isandra capitalof Mahaz oarivo and reside at

AmbOhitsandrazana. The mamba was to miandry fanj akana (guard thekingdom) there, and hence the name. When any of the famil y die, thebody , in the course of the funeral ceremonies, invo lving a p i lgrimageround the province lasting some weeks ormonths, is sure to lie in state for

a time at AmbOhitsandraz ana. The family tomb and favourite residenceof RajOaka, the present prince and descendant of Andriamanalina, is at

It itsasaky (It itsasaky the“tim id vil lage so named because it l iescomp letel y hidden in a smal l wood at the base of the range of bills at the

end of which stands AmbOhitsandrazana.

Farther on,under the same range of hil ls, is IsOrana, a vil lage most of

whose houses are built each on a separate bou lder of rock of immense

2 Dongy sulky, morose.


east, who places his cattle in these roomy p lains under the charge of

herdsmen .

The tendency of the fo regoing ramb l ing notes, as wil l be seen,is to

Show that the p lace-names have an intimate connection with the characteristics of the p laces themselves . Even now

,with our comparativel y

Sl ight knowledge of Betsileo history , the connection between the names

and the pecu liarities ordistinctive features of the p laces named is traceab lein most cases.

[Photograph by Dr. FENN.

A SAKALAVA WARRIOR (HEATHEN) .


of the dark and l ight Pacific islanders they are also tal ler and

perhaps stronger than thei r no rthern neighbours,al though

,

owing to the superio r discipl ine o f the Hova so ld iers,they were

subdued by them about eighty years ago ,and have ever S ince

been obedient subjects to the sovereign at Antananarivo . They

appear to me,as wel l as to o thers who have l ived both . in

Im‘

erina and in the Betsiléo province,to be less intel l igent than

the Hova,but poss ibly this may be because thei r advantages

have been less . Among them,however

,very satisfacto ry progress

is being made,and bo th the London M iss ionary Society and the

No rwegian Lutheran M iss ion have a large number o f congre

gations and many thousands of chi ldren in thei r schoo ls .

I t is a fact wel l known to all phi lo logists that in several

groups of language there are found classes of wo rds which are

only used by the people when speaking of their sovereigns o r

chiefs,w i th regard to thei r persons

,thei r actions

,and thei r sur

roundings , as wel l as to the honours paid to them both when

they are l iving and after death . And for a long time past i t has

been known that in the central province of Im‘

erina there are a

number of such special ised wo rds which are employed with

regard to the sovereign , and these have probably been in use for

centuries as applied to the chiefs of the central province. I t wi l l

be seen that these are no t wo rds which are no t also employed

w ith regard to o rdinary persons or things o r actions,but are

almost all o f them commonly used wo rds which have gained a

special and different meaning when appl ied to the sovereign.

The mo re no ticeable o f these wo rds are connected with the

i l lness,decease

,and burial ceremonies o f a Malagasy sovereign,

al though there are also two or three which are appl ied to the

l iving king or queen. (Perhaps, however, these are mo re o f the

nature of honorific ti tles than stri ctly com ing wi thin the class

o f wo rds we are here discuss ing.) Thus,an old wo rd for a

sovereign is Amp ingara-bo’

lamena,l iteral ly“go lden gun , the

fi rst part of the phrase being taken from the Po rtuguese esp in

g arda,so that this term is not o f mo re ancient origin than about

CUR IOUS WORDS AND CUSTOM S AMONG THE MALAGASY. 151

three centuries ago ,or

,at most, three centuries and a half.

Ano ther term appl ied to the sovereign is Fa’

hiray ,

“fi rst,

”a wo rd

which is not used w i th regard to things general ly, al though it is

fo rmed strictly acco rding to the rule for making o rdinal from

cardinal numbers second , from ro’

a, two ; fahate

’

lo,

thi rd,from te

’

lo,three), the wo rd vo

’

albhany (vo’

a,fruit

,lo

’

ha,head)

being always used for“first.” I A term sometimes applied to

the queen by elderly officers in publi c speeches seems to our

notions somewhat impertinently fam i l iar, viz .

,[ halatb/eana ; in

o rdinary talk by the people this means our only lass,

”and the

wo rd ihtila is o ften appl ied also to hens . If one m ight venture

on such a free trans lation , i t seems to mean (not“cock of the

walk,

” but)“hen of the roosting-place.

” I t is,however, very

l ike,in its free fam i l iarity, the use of the wo rd Ialahy (

“you

fel low ”

) to the fo rmer kings by some of thei r most privi leged

counci l lo rs . The members of the royal fam i ly are termed

Atinandrz‘

ana (l it.“the l iver,

”or ins ide,

”of the sovereign or

chief). And among some tribes the chiefs are termed M ason

drano,i.e.

,water channels,

” through whom all benefits are

supposed to be derived,as the water flows along the bed o f a

river.

Returning, however, to the mo re exact i l lustrations of the

subject, a Malagasy king or queen is not said to be

“i l l ”(marary ), but

“rather warm ”

(mafanafana) And they do not

“die ”

(nutty ), but are said to “reti re,” or to turn the back ”

In parts of Madagascar distant from Imerina, the

wo rd fo’

laha (bent, broken,weakened) is employed in speaking

o f a deceased chief. (With regard to people general ly, among

the Tanala and o ther tribes, the phrase fo’

la-manta [manta, raw]A curious word for chiefs and their w ives is used by the Bara, sakalava and

some other Malagasy tribes , viz .,biby which in Imérina usual ly means animal ,“beast, or

,as an adjective

,sensual

,

” “brutal although it is also used hereo f chi ldren as wel l , probably much in the same way as words of an unpleasant(and even nasty) meaning are often applied to children and infants from fear ofsome envious and mal ign influence, such as the“evi l eye. Perhaps , however,it is really a word of entirely different orig in,

from the Swahi l i biby,

“my lady ,"mym istress.

"


i s used for sudden death ; fo’

laha an-dantony [lantony ,the fo re

arm ?J, for dying young while trano fo’

laha is the house [trano]where a co rpse l ies in state ) Then the dead body of a sovereign

i s not termed “a co rpse (faty), but“the sacred thing ”

(nymasina). The late Queen Ranavalona I I . , who died in 1 883 , is

always spoken o f as Ny M a‘

sina in the government gaz ette and

in proclamations , as wel l as by the people general ly in o rdinary

conversation. There is among the Hova,as wel l as among the

o ther Malagasy tribes, a deep sense o f“the divini ty that dothhedge a king ”

and unti l the acceptance of Christianity by the

late queen and her government, the Hova sovereigns were

termed “the vis ible God ”

(Andriamanitra hi’

ta maso) ; o ther

terms o f S im i lar impo rt were also appl ied to them . In acco rd

ance also with this same bel ief, upon the stone structure covering

the chamber fo rmed of S labs of undressed rock , where the royal

co rpse is depos ited , a smal l timber- framed bui lding is erected ,which is cal led the“sacred house ”

(trano masina). This is in

appearance exactly l ike the Old style o f native house, made o f

t imber fram ing, the wal ls o f thick upright planking,and high

pitched roof covered with wooden shingles. This distinction o f

having a timber house bui lt upon the stone tomb is also Shared

by the higher ranks of nobles, who ,i t should be remembered , are

descended from ancient k ings in Imerina.

When the co rpse of a sovereign is lying in state, the women

in thei r various divisions or tribes are expected to come in relays

to mourn ; but this ceremonial mourn ing 15 not cal led by its

usual name (misaona), but the people are said to“present ” or

Offer tears (mititi-drtinomaso). Then again, a sovereign is no t

said to be “buried but is “hidden ”and

the mass ive s i lver coffin made of do l lars hammered into plates,in which most of the Hova kings or queens in mo re recent

times have been buried , is cal led the“s i lver canoe (la/eam

a wo rd in which a l i ttle bit o f history is doubtless preserved : a

remembrance o f a fo rmer period when the Hova were no t,as

they are now,an inland people, but a coast-dwel l ing or an is land


abandoned , such as the ti l l ing of the so i l,sowing and planting

rice,&c . but such wo rk was not cal led by the usual terms

,but

was mentioned as mila’

tsaha an- tsa’

ha,i.e.

,go ing into the

country,

”or“settl ing down in the fields .

”

So also,the usual

wo rd for“market ” (tse‘na) is not employed during the time o f

publ ic mourning,but these great concourses o f people are cal led

s imply meetings,”or places of reso rt (fihaonana). They are

also cal led tse’

namalahe‘

lo,

“so rrowful markets.

”In speaking of the

death of relatives o f the sovereign,they are not said to be dead ,

but“absent,” or“m iss ing ”

(diso). The same figurative phrase

as is used by ourselves in speaking of friends or relatives who

are dead as departed,

”is also employed by the Malagasy

,who

say thei r friends are lasa,

“gone they also speak o f them as

re‘

raha, i.e.,

“faint,

”“exhausted

,

”and as latsaha

,i.e.

,fal len,

”or

laid down while the su rviving members o f a family of which

some are dead are spoken of as not up to the r ight number

(latsah’

isa).I With regard to the o rdinary people also,thei r

dead relatives are said to be “lost ” (very), and“finished , or

done (vita) and also lasan-ho raz ana, i.e.

,gone to become

ancesto rs .

”

A lthough not strictly included in the present subject, i t maybe remarked that the same use o f euphem istic express ions as

those j ust mentioned with regard to death is also seen in those

used by the Malagasy in speaking of things they have a great

dread of, especial ly smal l -p ox ,

which,befo re the introduction of

vaccination,Often made fearful ravages in Imerina, as i t sti l l

o ccasional ly does among the coast tribes . This terrible disease

is cal led be’

le’

mby , i.e.,greatly deserted ,

”no doubt from the con

dition o f the vi l lages where i t had appeared . I t is also cal led

lavira,an imperative or optative fo rmed from the adjective

lavitra,

“far off,” and thus meaning“be far away !” or avauntl”

A feel ing of del i cacy causes o ther euphem isms,such as the

2 A very poetical expression, in which the word latsaka also occurs, is used inspeaking of the dead , who are said to be as Salt fal len into water which cannotbe salt again S t

'

ra lafsaka an-dn‘

mo ka tsy himpo’

dy iniso’

ny

CUR IOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AM ONG THE MALAGASY. 155

phrase didiam -

p o‘

itra,l i teral ly,

“cutting the navel,instead o f

fo’

ra and o ther terms deno ting the circumcision ceremonies .

The use o f some special wo rds , as applied to certain classes

of royal servants or attendants,may here be no ticed al though

poss ibly these also are not, speaking exactly,o f the c lass of

the euphem istic expressions l ike the majo rity Of those described

above. Thus the royal cooks are termed the “clean-handed

ones”

(madio tanana) describing, no doubt, what they should

be,even if they o ccasional ly are not exactly what thei r name

impl ies. Then some compan ies o f royal guards a few years ago

were termed the “sharp ones”

(martinitra ; cf . Eng .

“Sharp

The government couriers in the provinces are

cal led heli-lohaliha,l i t.

,l i ttle- kneed ”

while a class o f palace

servants in constant attendance on the sovereign,and from

whom the queen’

s messengers are chosen,are the tsimando

’

,or

tsimandao, i.e.

,

“never fo rsaking

,

” because some of them are

always in attendance, day and night,upon the sovereign. The

queen’

s representatives at distant places are cal led masoivbho,i.e.

,eyes behind but thiswo rd is also now used in the mo re

general sense of an“agent ” of o ther persons bes ides the

sovereign.

I t is an ancient custom that members o f the royal fam i ly,

and of the next highest class o f andriana,or nobles (the z anak

’

Andriamasinavalona), who happen to have comm i tted serious

o ffences , are not put into iron fetters,but are bound with cords .

And when any subject o f high position is accused o f crime,a

spear with si lver blade, engraved with the name o f the sove

reign,is carried by government officers and fixed in the ground

opposi te the doo r o f the accused person ’

s house. This spear is

cal led Tsitialaing a,i.e.

,

“hater o f l ies and whi le i t remains so

fixed,no inmate of the house can leave i t. Among the TaimOro

chiefs , a house set apart for thei r w ives who are o f noble birth is

cal led Fe’

novo‘

la,i.e.,

“ful l o f money.

”

The rapacious character of the upper classes among the

Malagasy is significantly shown by a provincial name given to


the chief people, viz .,Araralahy ,

i.e.,gluttonous, eager to take

one’

s share befo re o thers.

”The despo tic nature of Malagasy

sovereigns is clearly shown in many native proverbs e.g . ,Ny

manj tiha toy ny ltinitra,ha tsy az o ref e

’

sina ; toy ny masotindro, ha

tsy ag o tohaina,i.e.

,The sovereign is l ike the sky, and canno t

be measured l ike the sun,and canno t be contended wi th.

”

Ano ther fact w i th regard to royal ty may be reco rded .

During the reign o f Queen Rasoherina (1863—1868) a new

royal house was erected in the palace yard at Antananarivo ,as is

customary when a new sovereign comes to the throne. But in

this case the standard for allthe chief dimensions o f the build

ing was the refi t,or fathom

,as measured by the queen herself,

between the tips of her fingers when the arms were stretched to

thei r fu l l extent— ln her majesty’

s case, about five feet eight

inches in length . And it was a matter o f no smal l trouble and

annoyance to M r. J . Cameron,who designed and superintended

the building, to make allhis dimens ions in acco rdance with the

s tandard. He had , in fact,to make a new scale

,for all the

principal dimens ions o f the palace,and of its verandahs, doo rs,

windows,&c . ,were multiples or fractions o f the queen’

s personal

re’

j y ,as measured by herself.

One of the students in the London M iss ionary Society’

s

Co l lege at Antananarivo,

named Rajaonary, from No rth

Bets i leo,to ld me that such special wo rds

,as applied to the

chiefs,were a very marked featu re in the speech o f the Bétsiléo

people,and that in fact there were a much larger number of

these wo rds employed in the southern province than were in

use among the Hova. He gave me at the same time a number

o f examples and I then asked him to no te down these wo rds ,which he acco rdingly did in a few days

,wri ting quite a smal l

essay on the subject. He enti tles it

SPECIAL WORDS EMPLOYED AMONG THE BETSILEO WITH

REFERENCE To THE IR CHIEFS .

The Bétsileo are a people Who p ay extrao rdinary respect to


birth unti l maturity, but whi le thei r parents are sti l l l iving. See

the fo l lowing

r lVortl 1156 11 or heO’dm

go’

grfc

Clu ldren ofC/tiijfis.

LiteralM eaning .

Anakbva Chi ld Of the Hova.

"

M isba Sba,in Hova, good , plea

sant.

Fisoavana Verbal noun from above.

Mahazoa no'

no Lit. ,

‘May you get a sacrednzasina nipple.

’ 2

M ite'

raka To bear offspring Manid ina To cause to descend .

Dead Fblaka Bent, broken, weakened ,see p . 151 , ante.

Corpse Vblafblaka Broken or bent money .

“2. Words sp ecially app lied to Elderly Chiefs— that is, those

who are too old to have their father and mo ther sti l l l iving.

When that is the case, there is a considerable change made in

the names given to the parts o f the body,as wel l as in certain

wo rds describing their actions and thei r condition . This wil l be

seen by the fo l lowing l ist

Ord inary Béisiléo

word .

English. LiteralM caning.

Antitra Sacred, establ ished , &c . ,see

p . 152.

Anakandriana An adult man Hbva,or ny an Hova (sec ante) , or the

(lit.

,

‘child of driantlahy prince.

the chiefAndninobé (w ife An adult woman Hova

,or ny an Hova, or the princess .

of above) (lit. , at the (lriambavygreat house ’

)Head BrainsEye Torch .

4

Ear The l istening (or l istener).Hand The taker.

2 The word Hova seems to convey the idea of“noble,”“princely, in many ofthe non-Hova tribes. So when the Betsileo salute any of their own chiefs

, theysay, Manao akary ny Hova (

52 How is the Hova ?

2 Cf. Isa. 1x . 16 “Thou shalt also suck the mi lk o f the Gentiles, and shalt suckthe breasts of kings .

3 This phrase is customary in publ ic speaking as a mark of respect to thechief’s children,

w hen deprecating blame (as is always done in the Opening sen

tenoes of a kabary or public speech) .

4 Cf.

“The lamp of the body is the eye.

CUR IOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 159

Ord inarv 8 61517601 Ii It.

word .

E’ g S

To'

ngolm

M ihlnana

Flfanjaro11a

To Sit M ia'

r1na

To g o Mantindra

To lie down, to M irbtrasleepBedstead Filimana

Husband or w ife Fita'

na

DeadCorp se Havcre

'

zana

Velania Farewell (lit. , Masina

m a y y o ulive Manao akbr i ny

Altar) angharéo .

22 How are you rbtana 2 How did you S leep ? (seeabove, 111iral‘ra.)

[ I t wi l l be seen from the above l ist that several o f the wo rds

for the parts of the body— the eye, the ear,the hand

,the foo t

are simply wo rds describing the actual office of those members,

as l ight-giving,means o f hearing, taking, treading, &c . Probably

the very general practice o f taboo ing (makingfady) wo rds which

fo rm the names or parts of the names o f chiefs (which we shal l

no tice again further on) has had influence in producing some o f

these special ised wo rds ]

3. Words sp ecially app lied to Chiefs , whether Old or Young .

Ord inary Betsileo DVord used forword .

English. LiteralM eaning .

House Lapa Also used in Imerina.

Ill,unwel l Mane

’

lo To shade, to Shelter.To nurse (the M itrambo

S ick)

2 Sometimes thi s salutation of the common people is substituted by thephrase Akary ny nand rianghare

’

o .9 a phrase of the same meaning as the one

addressed to the chief, only that the ordinary word nu‘

zn dry is here kept insteado f the special one nn

'

rbfra.

LiteralMeaning .

The treader.A flag (lit. , the hoverer) .

Safo is‘ rubbing

,

’ ‘caress

ing .

’

Verbal noun from p re

ceding word .

To be erect (in Hova) .

To remove (do ).

P lace of desireA ford (in Hova) .Lost.The losing

, from very,lost,

see p . 154 .

Be sacred , establi shed , &c .


Ord inary Betsileo Word used forword .

English . LiteralMeaning .

M iand iavana To sing at a Mam/aibtraka2

funeralTra

’

novérona B ier (lit. , ‘ bird Triznovitana The finished househouse ’

)Mlaky TO lie in state

The po les on which a chief s co rpse is carried to burial are

termed haz omasina,sacred wood and the water into which

they are cast away after the funeral is cal led ranoaritra,water

of endurance’

? (aritra,endurance, patience, When the

dead from among the common people are spoken of,the wo rds

Raive’

lona (‘ L iving father ’) or Re

’

nive’

lona (‘ Living mo ther ’

)are prefixed to thei r names but in the case o f deceased chiefs

the wo rd Zanahary (God , l i t. C reato r) is prefixed to thei r names

when they are Spoken of ; in the same way as the wo rd Rabe

vo‘

ina (‘The one overtaken by much is employed

by the Hova in speaking of the departed , or s imply,Itbmp oho

lahy S i r,

’

or‘my or Itbmp ohovavy (Madam

,

’

or my

The chiefs of the Bets i leo are considered as far above the

common people, and are looked upon almost as if they were

gods. If anything angers a chief and he curses,the people

cons ider the wo rds he speaks as unal terable and must surely be

fulfi l led ; so the persons whom he may chance to curse are

2 In Hova libtraka means“bo i l ing, but perhaps there is no connection

between the two w ords .

2 Scarlet is the royal co lour in Madagascar at the funeral of Radama I.,one

of the large palaces in which he lay in state was draped from the ridge of the

roof to the ground w ith scarlet cloth ; the sovereign alone has a large scarletumbrel la carried over her, and dresses in a scarlet lamba or robe.

3 See Mr.Richardson’

s description of Bétsileo funeral ceremonies, Antanananarivo Annual, 1. p . 7 1 , Reprint p . 74 .

To cause to go roundabout 2

Red house.3

To plunge, to dive ; in

Imerina the phrase ah

iritra is used to describethe temporary burial of

a corpse unti l the propertomb is completed .


oxen and made suppl ication with outstretched hands to the

deceased .

”

A few remarks may be here made about the practice of

taboo ing— o r making fady— the wo rds or parts o f wo rds which

happen to fo rm the names of chiefs . This appears to be

prevalent all over Madagascar, and is a custom the Malagasy

have in common with many of the Oceani c races with which

they are so closely connected . There are no fam i ly names in

Madagascar (al though there are tribal ones,and al though also

one name or part o f a name is o ften seen in a variety of com

bination among members of the same fam i ly)} and almost every

personal name has some distinct meaning,being part of the

l iving and sti l l spoken language,ei ther as names of things

bi rds,beasts , plants, trees , inanimate objects

,or names describing

co lour, qual i ty, &c.,or wo rds which deno te actions of various

kinds. So that the names of the chiefs almost always contain

some wo rd which is in common use by the people. In such a

case,however, the o rdinary wo rd by which such thing or action

has hitherto been known must be changed for ano ther,which

hencefo rth takes its place in dai ly speech. Thus,when the

Princess RabOdo became queen in 1863 , at the decease o f

Radama I I . , she took a new name,Rasohérina (or, in ful ler

fo rm ,Rasoheri-manjaka). Now sohe

’

rina is the wo rd for

chrysal is,especial ly for that o f the s i lkwo rm mo th ; but having

been dignified by being chosen as the royal name,i t became

sacred (fady) and must no longer be employed for common

use ; and the chrysal is thencefo rth was termed eana- dandy ,“o ffspring o f S i lk .

”So again

,if a chief had or took the name

o f an animal , say of the dog and was known as

RambOa, the an imal would be hencefo rth cal led by ano ther

name,probably a descriptive one

,such as fandro

’

aha,i.e.

,

“the

driver away,”orfambvo,

“the barker

,

”&c .

2 Thus,a friend of m ine atAmbOhimanga, who is called Rainizaivelo , has four

daughters named respectivel y Raz aivelo , Raovélo , RavelonOro , and RanOrovelo .

CUR IOUS WORDS AND CUSTOM S AMONG THE MALAGASY. 16 3

Among certain -Sakalava tribes certain bi rds and animals are

fady ,or sacred or tabooed by the chiefs and thei r fam i l ies .

Thus the grey or sooty Parro t I isfa‘

dy to one o f the Vaz o royal

fam i l ies ,2 and the Tolo‘

ho or lark -heeled Cuckoo 3 is sacred to

one o f the chief fam i l ies o f Menabé,further no rth. Some have

thought that we have here a rel i c o f the system o f to tem,but

the subject needs further investigation. A very curious super

stition among the Betsi leo and some o ther tribes is,that from

the putrid l iquid exuding from the co rpses Of thei r chiefs a

serpent cal ledfanany is produced , and that this is an embodi

ment o f the spiri t o f the departed . I t is supposed to take up its

abode near the tribe and to act as thei r pro tec to r.4

This taboo ing o f wo rds in the names of chiefs seems hardly

to have been carried out by the Hova to such an extent as i t is,

o r has been,by the o ther Malagasy tribes. With one sovereign,

i nstead o f a number o f petty chiefs or kings,the changes would

be m inute and would leave no great impress ion on the language.

For we can easi ly conceive what an annoying uncertainty would

be introduced into a language by a wide extens ion o f such

tabooed wo rds,aris ing from a multipl ic ity o f chiefs . I t is as if

we in England had had to avo id,and make substitutes for

,all

such wo rds as“g eology,”“g eography, &c . ,because they fo rmed

part o f the name o f K ing Geo rge ; and such wo rds as“will

,“willing,

”wilful

,

”&c .

,because they were part o f the name o f

K ing Wil l iam ; or had now to taboo wo rds l ike “victo ry,

”

“victim ,

” “convict

,

”&c .

,because these syl lables fo rm part o f

the name of Q ueen V i cto ria. It can hardly be doubted that

this fashion in language has done very much to differentiate the

various dialects found in Madagascar ; and i t is a matter for

some surprise that there is not a much greater diversi ty among

them than we find to be actual ly the case.

Among the western tribes o f the country, on account o f the

large number o f petty but independent and abso lute kings,a

great deal o f change in the spoken language does take place.

2 Coracopsis obscura .

2 South-west coast.3 Ccnlropus ioulon. Vide infra, Chapter lX . , p . 176 .


The chieftains of the Sakalava are averse that any name or

term should approach in sound ei ther the name o f themselves or

any part o f thei r fam i ly. Hence,when i t was determ ined that

the mo ther o f Rataratsa,who came unexpectedly into the wo rld

,

should be named Ravahiny [vahiny ,a stranger], i t was for

bidden that the term vahz‘

ny Should be applied to any o ther

person excep t herself, and the wo rd amp ainsich 2 was instituted

to denom inate (See also Chapter V II. pp . 1 12—1

I t may be here no ti ced that it is cons idered highly improper

to use the name of the sovereign frequently or l ightly in o rdinary

conversation ; and Europeans happening to do this,through

igno rance o f native customs,have been requested to des ist by

Malagasy officers who chanced to be present. The royal name

has a kind o f sancti ty,and must no t be taken in vain . This

reverence for royal ty extends also to royal property. For

instance,i t is a gro ss breach o f propriety to sit or step upon a

box or case contain ing anything belonging to or being sent to

the sovereign. And when anything belonging to the queen is

being carried or driven along the high road,whether cases

,or

waterpo ts,or bul lo cks

,allpassers -by must turn o ut of the road

,

o r stop close to the side o f the path,and remove thei r hats unti l

the royal property has passed by. Further,i t is improper to

compare any o ther bui lding to the royal palaces,or to use i t as

a standard of height and s i z e and i t is l i ttle Sho rt of a c rime to

fire off a gun in the direction of the palace,as this wou ld be a

so rt of threatening or defying its august owner. The sovereign

must sit in the highest place in any publ ic assembly, and acco rd

ingly the queen’

s p ew in the Chapel Royal at Antananarivo,

her majesty’

s seat is higher than the pulpi t ; while at the

opening o f one of our Memo rial Churches at the capital a few

years ago the late queen’

s seat was placed in the gal lery o f the

transept,so that no subject m ight sit higher than thei r sovereign .

2 In Dalmond’

s Vocabulaire Malgache-Francaise pour les Iangues Sakalave ct

Befsimitsara ,p . 5, I find this word thus given “Amp entz ek, s . Neuf

,nouveau

,

nouvel arrive.

”


also used,with or without the bending o f the body

,&c .

,when

walking along a public path,and pass ing any one s i tting at a doo r,

or W indow,or on thefij ere

’

na,or elevated seat above a boundary

wal l . I have not heard any explanation from a native of the

meaning or o rigin of this parti cu lar gesture possibly i t may be

now lost . But the Hovas look with sco rn upon those who

neglect such acts of po l i teness,saying of them ,

contemptuous ly,

He passes on l ike an ox,and does not say,

Let me pass .

’

2. Ano ther express ive gesture among the Hova Malagasy is

that which is used in presenting hasina (the do l lar of

or any o ther present to the sovereign,or to the representative of

royal ty. At the close of the speech o f formal complimentary

phrases the speaker stretches o ut both outspread hands, with

the palms outward,and

,bending downward and fo rward , raises

his hands towards the great person addressed unti l they are

about level w i th his head . This appears a very natural and

s ignificant gesture when making an o ffering.

3 . A S ign of sti l l mo re profound respect than is Shown in the

fo rego ing gestures is preserved in the phrase for abject sub

m iss ion sti l l in common use,viz .

,77tz

'

ltfla-p aladia. The l iteral

meaning of this is to“l i ck the so le ”

(of the foot). Among the

Hovas this is now only a phrase,but up to a comparatively

recent period the act i t described was one in common use as a

token o f respect from s laves to masters,w ives to husbands, and

from interiors general ly to superio rs . Robert D rury (referred

to in the previous page) describes himself as frequently p er

fo rm ing this act o f homage,and seeing it constantly rendered

by o thers . Scriptural paral lels (cf . Isa. xl ix . 23 , 1x . 14 ;

Luke vii. 38) wi l l o ccu r to all readers o f the Bible, as wel l

as the homage paid by Roman Catho l i cs to the Pope by

kiss ing (not his toe,as commonly said

,but) the cross on his

s l ipper.

4. There are several Malagasy customs connected w ith

royalty which are S ignificant outward acts,although

,perhaps ,

no t strictly to be reckoned as po rtions o f the gesture language.

CUR IOUS WORDS AND CUSTOM S AMONG THE MALAGASY. 167

Among these are the shaving of the head by the who le p Op u

lation at the death o f the sovereign ; the wearing at royal

funerals o f the lamba, or o uter loose robe, below the armpits

instead o f over the shoulders, so as to leave the upper part of

the body uncovered ; and the turning out of the way and

baring the head when any royal property is carried along. The

bent o fm ind among the Malagasy leads them to use symbo l i c

acts} as wel l as to the pro fuse employment of figure and meta

pho r and parable in thei r publ i c speeches and mo re fo rmal

addresses .

5. One can hardly be long in Madagascar without observing

that the people use a different mo tion o f the hand in beckoning

ano ther to come near from that which we employ in s im i lar

cases . They do this by stretching out the hand with the

palm downwards,moving the fingers toward them

,instead o f

turning the palm up wards , as we should do .

6 . Again,in po inting out the pos i tion of anything near to

them ,the Hovas wi l l not always trouble themselves to do so

with the hand , as we usual ly do ,but mo tion towards i t with

the mou th, stretching out the head , and pro truding— in an

ugly enough fashion certain ly— the lower l ip in the required

direction.

7 . Ano ther po int to be here no ted is the act which takes the

place which hissing o ccupies among Western peoples. The kiss

seems almost unknown among the Malagasy,except as intro

duced by Arabs and Europeans , and its place is taken by nose

rubbing,or rather of nose-p ressing ,

a custom , as is wel l known,

widely used by uncivi l ised peoples , and apparently a rel i c of a

very prim i tive habit o f recognising another person by scent or

smel l . The native wo rd for this is manbroha, a verb derived

probably from the roo t o‘

rona,no se (Javanese, irong Celebes ,

urong ), the term inals na and ha being o ften interchangeable.

The shaking of hands is not a native custom , but is being

large ly adopted where fo reign influence prevai ls.

2 See GreatAfrican Island , pp . 332—334.


8 . In a recently publ ished jo urnal of a m iss ionary tour along

the east coast o f Madagascar,M r. G. A . Shaw says : “Only a

sho rt time s ince, in a vi l lage in the south,pressure from the

Hova being brought to bear on some Bétsimisaraka to send

thei r chi ldren to a schoo l which was in the same vi l lage,the

women went about with thei r hands clasped on their heads (a

Bets im isaraka S ign o f grief), bewai l ing the loss of thei r chi ldren.

”

I n thei r igno rance o f the m i lder Hova rule of recent times,

they supposed that schoo l train ing was only a prel im inary to

government service, as in the time of the fi rst Radama (18 10

1 828 )

9 . A piece o f gesture language seems to be preserved in the

Malagasy wo rd for “bless ing,” or“benediction

,

” which is tso’

drano,l i teral ly

,

“blowing water.” This act appears now to be

almost,if not qu ite, Obso lete among the Hova ; but the wo rd

sti l l commonly employed doubtless preserves the remembrance

o f an act fo rmerly used by them in pronouncing a blessing.

Some l ight seem s to be thrown upon this custom by a very

s imilar one described by the Rev. D r. Turner, for mo re than

fo rty- two years a m iss ionary in the Samoan Islands,in his

Nineteen Years in P olynesia (Snow,London,

186 1 , p. I n

case of disease attacking a Samoan , the high priest o f the vil lage

sometimes to ld the S ick man ’s friends“to assemble the fam i ly,‘ confess and throw out.

’ I n this ceremony,each member o f

the fam i ly confessed his crimes,and any j udgment which

,in

anger, he had invoked on the fam i ly, or on the parti cular

member o f i t then i l l and,as a proof that he revoked allsuch

imprecations, he took a l i ttle water in his mouth and spurted i t

out towards the person who was S i ck . The custom is sti l l kept

up by many. I am much indebted to several Madagascar

m iss ionaries for the fo l lowing additional facts connected w i th

S ign and gesture language amongst the Malagasy.

In the o rdinary salutation o f the Hova,M anao ahbry hiantio P

How do st thou do ? the head is usual ly thrown up instead

o f bending it down. I n expressing astonishment, usual ly w i th


is scarcely true that i t is now merely a phrase among the Hova,

as I have seen it actual ly done. Queen’

s messengers sent out

to a certain vi l lage were no t,as they thought

,received with

proper respect ; they therefo re left the vi l lage without having

del ivered the royal message. The chiefs o f the vi l lage were

dreadfully afraid, and fo l lowed after the queen’

s messengers

wi th thei r hai r alldown (that is, with the numerous smal l plai ts

and kno ts unloosed) over thei r shoulders , dishevel led , and their

lambas down below thei r shoulders.

I When they reached the

royal messengers they at once fel l at the feet of the principal

one of them , a j udge, and actual ly kissed or l i cked his feet, at

the same time humbly begging his acceptance of thei r repent

ance. He yielded to thei r request, and returned w i th them . I

have no doubt that whi le much less frequent than fo rmerly was

the case,the custom is sti l l o ccasional ly observed.

”

M r. Price further remarks : “For what purpo se do all the

people,

sometimes when there is a great haba‘

rry (public

assembly), and the queen appears , put down thei r umbrel las ?

I t has been said that they do so whenever the queen spits, but

whether that is a joke or not I canno t tel l . Mo re ridiculous

customs are quite credible.

”The use o f the fingers in to tting

o ff’

a number of heads or po ints in a discourse o f private con

versation is very remarkable. They do not merely touch the

left-hand fingers on the side with the right fo refinger, but ho ld

ing the left hand out palm upwards, they pul l up and lay over

flat on the open palm the fingers one by one.

”2 “In descrip

tions o f persons,things

,events, &c .

,they often take up l ittle bits

of stone or sti ck,or anything that is to hand, and lay them out

in o rder to represent the different people, things, events, ideas,heads , &c .

,abo ut which they are speaking. Frequently they

2 These two acts are done not only at the death of a sovereign, but also at

those of relatives and friends, and occasional ly even the head is shaved . The

hair is dishevel led for a long time,and children in the schoo ls, and adults in the

cong regation, refuse to sing at allfor a long time after the death of a relative.

2 Malagasy children very frequently count on their toes, instead of theirfingers .

CUR IOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 17 1

make the talk much -mo re emphatic by these means. A loose

woman may sometimes be known when she is plying her

trade) by her go ing about the streets with her face covered wi th

her lamba. I remember one case in which i t was made a

reproach to a woman that she,a stranger

,walked through a

certain town to the house at which She was to stay,

‘w i th face

covered l ike a harlo t ’ ”

(cf . Gen. xxxvi i i . The lamba is

also used to deno te o ther feel ings : “No te the covering o f the

lower half or mo re o f the face w i th the lamba when a person is

sulky or sul len,squatting on the ground in s i lence. Here they

may do this when they are s imply lazy and no t sulky,but they

always do i t when they are sulky. The covering of the mouth

is also indicative o f modesty or shame,o ften further shown by

uncovering the feet and lower part o f the legs. I n giving

assurances o f loyal ty and obedience at a publ ic assembly the

speaker often dances, flourishing his Spear or swo rd,and throw

ing o ff the lamba.

“This is intended to express rage at and

defiance of an imaginary enemy.

” M r. Pei l i adds “At the end

o f a period o f a publ ic speech) they jump clean from the

ground,and com ing down stamp with bo th feet together on the

ground,in o rder to emphasise what they are saying.

” I n

walking together,friends do not go arm - in-arm

,but hand- im

hand,or the hand o f one may be thrown round the o ther ’s

Shoulder or round the waist.” “The Bétsileo in saluting a

superio r do no t make the same gestu re as the Hova. They

bend fo rward and make a so rt o f scrape, at the same time

laying ho ld of the fo relo ck and tugging at i t.

M r. Peill remarks “I n po inting to an object some distance

away,I have o ften no ticed that the Malagasy po int the finger

far higher than Europeans under l ike ci rcumstances wou ld do .

They po int in the direction o f the thing to which they wish to

cal l attention,o f course

,but up to the heavens in that direction ,

not towards the earth .

“Ano ther custom i l lustrating this

subject is the nuimp ittiha,one wife im itating another to Show

that she is equal ly clever, bo th wi th her hands and feet. I have


watched young girls engaged in this game with great interest

and amusement,and I imagine that apart from the general

o bject o f the elder wife showing that she is equal ly clever with

the younger, each gesture conveys some definite idea to the

natives,i l lustrating the things in which the one

'

is supposed

to equal or excel the o ther.” I have seen Malagasy women,

on receiving news of the death of a near relative,throw them

selves flat on thei r faces on the ground,and creep towards the

bearer o f the message,at the same time ro l l ing in the dust

,and

tearing thei r hai r in thei r grief.”

M r. Tho rne po ints o ut that there are many symbo l i c acts

used by the Malagasy,which are somewhat connected with

s igns and gestures. Among these are the hitidy ,or s ign o f

ownership,o r possess ion

,or pro tection. This is

,in fact

,a mark

o f tabu, or tap u ,

and is usual ly a tal l , upright stick , with a bunch

o f grass fastened at the top ,and stuck into the ground al though

how this came to signify possess ion needs further inqui ry.

Something sim i lar to this is practised by bearers , who often

come befo re a journey is made and tie a piece of grass round

one end o f the palanquin po le to s ignify that they are engaged

for i t and w i l l c laim to carry. A road or path is also tabu - ed by

putting a stick or sticks across i t to s ignify that those in the

rear are to avo id i t. M r. Tho rne further remarks : “Symbo l i cacts must at one time have been much mo re numerous among

the Malagasy than at present. One natural ly thinks of the

piece o f wood sent by Andriamanalinao f Bets i leo to Andria

nimpOina (K ing o f Imerina), as his refy measure (about 5feet

8 inches to 6 feet,a measure fo rmed by stretching out the arms

and hands as far as they wil l reach) and o f the large lamba on

which AndrianimpOina ki l led the bullo ck , no t one drop of Who se

blood fel l o uts ide i t,and of the ltimba afterwards sent by him

with a ho le cu t out of the m iddle. A lso of Andriamampandry’

s

symbo l i c teaching of Andriamasinavalona.

I Among symbo l i c

acts sti l l customary I have thought of the fo l lowing z— Spitting2 See Chapter X . for fuller description of these symbo l ic acts.

CHAPTER IX .

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS .

Animals— The ox—B irds— Insects— Fabulous animals—Fanany or Seven-headedSerpent—Footprints of g iants— Trees and plants—Ordeals— Fo lk- lore of

home-life—Lucky and unlucky actions— S ickness and death—Witchcraftand charms— Food and Fady of the S ihanaka— Snakes‘

and lemurs—Tabooeddays

,in clans

,and vil lages— Good omens

,for food , and wealth—Evi l omens

,

as to fam ine, trade, poverty, and death—Weather prognostics— Variousportents—Dreams .

N one of the chapters o f The Great African Island a number

of particulars were given as to the popular supersti tions o f

Madagascar . I shal l not repeat these here, but give instead

fresh facts of the same kind which have been co l lected S ince

that paper was written. The fi rst o f these additional contri

butions to the subject is a reproduction o f a sho rt paper of myown contributed to the Folh-lore Record

,18 8 1 .

I The second

is a paper by M rs . Mackay, of the L .M .S . M iss ion in Antsiha

naka,on“The Food and Eddy o f the S ihanaka.

”And the

third is a paper by the Rev. S . E. Jo rgensen,o f the No rwegian

Lutheran M iss ion in Madagascar, on“Some Popular Malagasy

S uperstitions .

”These two latter papers were all contributed

to the Antananarz‘

vo Annual, and by the kind perm iss ion o f the

autho rs I am al lowed to reproduce them in this vo lume as a part

o f the present chapter.

SOME ADD ITIONAL FOLK-LORE .

Animals — Many curious customs and superstitions,i t may

be remembered by readers o f the paper mentioned in the fi rst

paragraph , are connected with the largest animal found in

2“Some Additional Fo lk- lore from Madagascar.x74

MALAGASY FOLK- LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS . 175

M adagascar, the humped and long-ho rned ox . The Sakalava

o f Manabe, on the west coast, not only seldom ki l l red oxen for

fo od,but at their ci rcumcis ion festivals , and then only

,they ki l l

a bull,instead o f an ox ; and the chi ld to be Operated on is

seated on the animal ’s back during the customary invocation.

The royal tribes o f Maroseranana and Andrévola,in the Fiheré

nana province (south-west coast), used sometimes to employ

human sacrifices instead o f those of oxen.

The tribe or clan o f the south- eastern provinces,cal led zafy

Raminia,w i l l .

no t eat flesh unless the animal has been kil led by

the hand o f one o f thei r own tribe.

The Ref . F. Moss relates that a place cal led AnalavOry

[between the capital and the no rth-west coast]was described to

us as the burial -place of an extinct race of kings and i t is said

that every year , at the feast of the Fandro’

ana [the New Year’

s

festival , a very great occas ion with the Malagasy], a herd of

cattle gather o f thei r own acco rd at the spo t,whereupon the fat

ones die of themselves without wai ting for the butcher ; whi le

the lean ones , led by an ancient cow,run away

,to return to the

same spo t and go through the same course o f procedure the

fo l lowing year. We were also assured that if we stood there

and shouted , no matter how dry the day, rain would surely come.

”

Omby or ombe’

,the native wo rd for ox

,is an equivalent for

chief,

” head ,”and the bul l is held as Sacred among the Saka

lavas . In digging out the foundations for a new gateway to the

royal courtyard at Antananarivo , a few years ago , the remains

o f one o f the fo rmer queen’

s fighting bulls were discovered,

careful ly wrapped in a red lamba, the ample clo th fo rm ing the

o uter arti cle of native dress.

I

Among the S ihanaka tribe any one who sees a large black

2 The close connection o f the native name for the ox w ith many Malagasywords may be seen from the fo llow ing examplesOmbalahinlfi'

,eyetooth lit. , bull-tooth .

”

Ontbali‘

thintbngotra,heel lit. ,

“bull of foot.Ombalahi-f anato , lit. , bull-pounder, a name given to the rice-pounder when

u sed in the c ircumcision ceremonies.


mo th cal led hahabe’

mtiso “the enemy with many eyes

,

al luding to the eye- l ike Spo ts on its wings) is bel ieved to be

l iable to an attack of a disease cal led so’

ratra or tro’

mba. The

same consequence also fo l lows seeing the bi rd cal led vbrondre’o.

A native evangel ist l iving among the same’

people had a

hare- l ipped cow and two rabbits . These animals caused much

anxiety to the superstitious fo lks, a number o f whom wai ted

upon him,and requested him ei ther to remove or kil l them

,

as such creatures were tabooed amongst them,and would bring

s ickness and o ther calam i ties if al lowed to remain.

Among the Hovas a bit o f fo lk - lo re was connected with the

whale. When an earthquake shock o ccurred they used to say,“M ivtidiha ny trbz ona”

(“The whales are turning over ”) and

M ampandro ny zanany ny trbeona”

The whales are bathing

thei r chi ldren

Fabulous animals .— Some account was given in the chapter

al ready referred to of a curious bel ief of the B’

etsi l’

eo (central

southern Madagascar) in a kind o f transm igration of souls the

spirits o f those of noble blood being supposed to enter a creature

cal led fanany ,variously described as a l izard , a wo rm ,

and a

serpent, which is regarded with ido latrous reverence by the

people } My friend M r . G . A . Shaw,who has res ided for many

years in the Bétsil’

eo province, has kindly given me some

additional particulars as to this curious superstition. He says

thefanany is supposed to be the result of the life of the princes,

and to come from below the left armpit ; for the body, when

dead , is bound tightly to one of the posts of the house, and the

creature that appears in the l iquid exuding from the body by

the pressure appl ied is, they say,

the l ife. This creature is

carried to the nearest water, river or o therwise, which from that

Onzbalahi-vola, si lver-bul ls , are smal l ornaments of si lver about an inchlong , in the rude shape of an ox , worn about the w rist or chest as charms.

Ontbalahin’

Andrianu‘

znitra,God ’

s bull , is the name of a bead .

Ombivblavita,“oxen finished money ,

”are speckled cattle, frequently used

for sacrifices and as presents to the sovereign or chief.2 Vide ante, Chapter VI I I .

, p . 163 .


londrt‘

ana in thei r hands to ensure victo ry. Concerning a hard

wooded tree cal led haz otbhana, the Malagasy used to bel ieve

that if any part o f i t were brought into the house the rice- pans

would be broken. And fo rmerly, the roo t of a plant cal led

varihitia was brought by the father o f a newly- born chi ld (if the

first-bo rn), who held i t over his head outs ide the house,then

dashed it on the ground westwards , with the idea that the chi ld

was in some way or o ther benefi ted thereby.

In addition to what was said about Malagasy Ordeals i t maybe no ted that in the tang e

’

na o rdeal the po ison was occasional ly

given to dogs or fowls , instead of to the culpri t personal ly,its

effect upon these being the test o f gui l t or innocence. I t was

bel ieved that certain charms could make the animals die ; in

the case o f a dog these were cal led tblahambbandrano.

A l though the use o f the tang e’

na o rdeal was abo l ished in

Madagascar by an article in the Anglo -Malagasy treaty of 1865,

there can be no doubt that i t is sti l l bel ieved in by numbers of

the people. This was shown unm istakably in Apri l,1 878 for

the prevalence of a very fatal epidemic fever led many o f the

people in a vi l lage only a few m i les distant from the capital

to reso rt to the tang e’

na,several dying from the effects . The

Government, however , promptly interfered and punished severely

all the inhabitants o f the place. S ti l l mo re recently attempts

have been made to revive the custom .

Folh-lore of home and family li e.—Among the Bara there

are no m idwives, or rather, the m idwives are men,the husbands

and el der sons do ing all that is required at a birth. After

giving birth to a chi ld the mo ther remains in the house four

days.

At the commencement o f the new year red earth used to be

taken from some specified spo t and put at the foo t o f the middle

post suppo rting the roo f o f the house ; this was cal led santata‘

ona,

i.e.,

“fi rst fruits o f the year.On certain o ccas ions a co rd is di rected by the diviners to be

fastened from the south-west co rner o f the house to the no rth

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS . 179

east (the sacred) co rner o f i t this is done as a sbrona or means

o f obtaining bless ing, and is cal led tadivita,i.e.,

“finished ”or

perfected co rd .

”

The Tanala (fo rest) people, as regards thei r way o f eating,

may be divided into two classes : from the boundaries of the

r iver Rianany, go ing southwards,they eat wi th wooden spoons

but go ing no rthwards , they eat with leaves . The zafimanélo

tribe lo ck thei r doo rs when at their meals,and hardly any one

ever sees them eating.

Luchy and unluchy actions , & c.— O f the river Fanindrona,

in Betsi leo,M r. Shaw says that

,al though it is a splendid river ,“

on account o f the superstition o f the people deterring them

from putting a canoe on i t,i t is one o f the greatest Obstacles

to travel l ing to and from the capital in the wet season. I n one

i tinerating journey the only way o f getting the writer ’s goods

across was by balancing them upon the native water pitchers,

and a man swimm ing on each s ide propel l ing the cranky vessel

fo rward ; and al though scarcely a year passes without some

being drowned , yet 110 inducement is sufficiently strong to over

come thei r superstitious dread o f al lowing a canoe to be used .

”

S ichness and death — Among the Hovas the rough bier on

which a co rpse is carried is cal led tranovbrona, i.e.,

“bird ’

s house,

”

possibly from the idea o f the spirit o f the departed having flown

away, l ike a bi rd from its cage. A whirlwind (tadio‘

) is supposed

to consist o f the ghosts o f the dead .

The sacredness attached to royal names among the Hovas

is extended after the death o f the sovereign to everything

connected with thei r tombs and funeral ceremonies } Thus,

they do not say o f a king that he has died,but has “reti red

,

”

miambbho,l i t.

,turned his back upon his subjects

,or has gone

home to lie down ,”mo

‘

dimandry . His co rpse is not cal ledfaty ,

the usual wo rd for that o f a subject, but ny masina,

“the sacred ”

(thing) and i t is not buried but“hidden (afo’

nina)and his tomb is not a fa

‘

sana,but tra

’

no masina,

“the sacred

2 Vidc ante, Chap . VI I I . , pp . 151 , 152.


house,in which is hidden the S i lver coffin,

which is termed

ltihambbla,“the S i lver canoe.

” Everything, in Sho rt,is special ised

by a name different from that appl ied to the same thing in con

nection wi th the people general ly, whether nobles or o therwise.

The Rev. W . D . Cowan,in speaking of the epidem i c of

malarial fever in the Betsi leo province in 1878—79 , says :

“One

curious co incidence may be mentioned . The town and its

suburbs were vis i ted by an epidem i c of catarrh . The natives

at once said that locusts were near at hand . At this time we

had heard of no locusts being in the neighbourhood , but, strange

to say,they appeared in great numbers within the week .

”

Witchcraf t and charms — By m ixing charms w ith the dust

a person had trodden upon i t was supposed that a disease cal led

rabdia (rao raoha,gathered

,co l lected

,dia

,foo tstep) would be

caused to that person.

O f the Betsi leo charms,M r. Shaw says they cons ist for the

most part of pieces o f wood about a Span in length , cut from

various trees, some growing only, i t is said,in distant places,

and hence costing cons iderable sums of money ;”and that he

had in his possess ion between twenty and thi rty ady ,o f each

o f which he had ascertained the use. Some are bel ieved in

s imply as medicine, the s ticks being rubbed on a stone, and the

dust thus grated o ff eaten by the s i ck . One is used as an anti

do te to any po ison an enemy may have placed in the food ;while o thers are efficacious for cu ring cuts and open wounds

,

del i rium ,sudden i l lness, and as pro tection from thieves

,l ightning

,

cro codiles, &c .

O f the S ihanaha,the Rev. J . Pearse says : “In 1 877 large

numbers of the people wo re a s ingle grain of Indian co rn around

thei r neck as a tal isman against a disease which, i t was affirmed ,a Tenrec (one of the Centetidw, hedgehog- l ike animals) had

announced would appear. During this year a s im i lar sto ry

agitated the people. I n the month of February a repo rt was

ci rcu lated that a dog had spoken,and announced that a hurri

cane causing grievous fam ine would devastate the distri ct,that


The crocodi le was no t o riginal ly used as food,as to eat its flesh

seemed a too near approach to cannibal ism but o f later years

some have come to cons ider i t waste not to consume what is to

hand in such abundance. With regard to snakes,thei r resem

blance to eels is the attraction. Rats and owls are only very

o ccasional d ishes , and not by any means general ly appreciated ,but the S ihanaka seem to have something o f Radama Il.

’

s turn

of m ind when he wished to know the distinctive meri ts of things

o f allso rts as food,and caused them to be tasted .

Bes ides these very striking articles o f diet,there are o thers

which , to most of us,would be l ittle mo re inviting, but which are

eaten by most Malagasy,viz .

,the various animals

,&c .

,found in

the fo rest,including the different kinds of lemur

,the j bsa, the

wi ld boar, and many o ther creatures . Final ly,and in common

with the Europeans in its neighbourhood,the S ihanaka find a

never- fai l ing source o f appetis ing food in the fish and wild fow l

of Lake’

Alaotra,and thei r free indulgence in the fo rmer may

prove evidence for the fish theo ry in leprosy, as lepers are

plentiful in the neighbourhood of the lake.

The fi rst d ivis ion o f the title of this paper is a very fam i l iar

subject to us all,but as to the wo rdfady ,

i t may be necessary to

explain that i t s ignifies t hat which is tabooed . Malagasyfadyis a large subject

,as may be seen from M r . S tanding’

s interest

ing account o f i t in the Antananarivo Annual(Vol. II., NO . vii.,

1 88 3)I t is a pleasing fact, however, that whi le writing on thefady

o f the S ihanaka one is treating of a subject which is certainly

los ing weight wi th those whom i t most concerns,for supersti tion

in Antsihanaka is being gradual ly cleared away by Christianity

and civi l isation.

As far as I can ascertain there are comparatively few things

which are fady common to all the S ihanaka ; of these few,to

wo rk their rice-fields on a Thursday seems to be the most im

po rtant as this may in no case be done. To build brick or mud

houses is no t perm i tted , death being the supposed penal ty in

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 18 3

case o f transgress ion. To use hemp, either in the fo rm o f clo th

or for smoking,is also universal ly tabooed . The last-named

fady is remarkable from the fact that i t is very unusual for the

Malagasy to mifady (verb from fady) anything which is real ly

inj urious,and no doubt to smoke hemp is so for instance, rum

is never refrained from on the same grounds that o ther things

are tabooed,that is by enti re fam i l ies and tribes. Many S iha

naka abstain most rigidly from po rk,objecting to use o intment

which they fear may be prepared with lard , and even refusing to

carry a load which they suspect to contain i t nei ther may thei r

food be cooked in po ts or pans previously used for cooking po rk

nevertheless they may eat the flesh o f the wild boar, which seems

rather incons istent.

Besides thefady common to allS ihanaka, each fam i ly or clan

has inheri ted a set o f fady o f its own so in addition to the uni

versal fady for Thursday, there wil l be another day of the week

on which no thing may be taken out of the house, the mats maynot be swept

,&c . , &c . Some fam i l ies may not sel l eggs, and

o thers may not sel l anything which they have inherited , except

ing cattle. Various foods too numerous to mention are included

in this class o f fady . O thers , again,abstain from tobacco , and

there are some insects and birds which may no t be ki l led , and

certain woods which may not be used for fuel . The fo rego ing

are fam i lyfady ,but there are some which pertain to individuals

only ; and then again there are thefady of places orfadin- tany .

Separate vi l lages, again , have thei r fady ,and certain things

may not be taken into them . At ImerimandrOso water-pots

w i th broken rims,and rushes which have not lain overnight to

dry after being cu t down,are fady ,

and may not be taken into

the town ; also the pad of grass which a woman wears on her

head when carrying her water-p ot must be perfect, i.e.,wi thout .a

ho le in i t,or i t comes under the same ban. At o ther places

these things would be cons idered harm less,while o ther equal ly

innocent practices would bring down all manner of evi l on the

heads o f the inhabitants. Water also has its fady , and to carry


lard across Lake Alaotra is to ensure rough weather, to pour oil

on the troubled waters m ight then prove a curse,i t being too

near a relation of the lard .

Besides the universal fady , thefady o f fam i l ies,of individuals

,

and o f places,we have fady for particu lar ci rcumstances and for

certain classes , and final ly the fa‘

din- o‘

dy ,i.e.

, the fady of medi

cines . I n s i ckness i t is usual to abstain from eating chicken even

befo re taking the medicine,which wi l l requi re abstinence from a

great variety o f things . Nursing mo thers must mifady the flesh

o f calves if they have not been separated from thei r mo thers,

lest they should have to mourn thei r chi ldren as the cows do

thei r calves mo reover they may not eat a certain so rt o f banana

unti l the baby can pronounce the name of i t,neither may they

look at a chi ld ’s co rpse. Young women must refrain from eating

rice on a certain day every year.

O f allthefa‘

dy ,however

,the fadin-ady seem to be the most

onerous,no t to mention the preparation o f the medicine i tself,

which sometimes invo lves twelve or mo re po ts contain ing many

and various leaves, roo ts, &c .,being kept bo i l ing at the same

time. The fo l lowing are a few o f the f tidt'

n-ady : the eating of

anything in the fo rm o f herbs or vegetables,fresh beef

,fresh fish,

chicken,eggs and o ther who lesome foods al lowing any one to

enter the house Of the s i ck wearing a garment not made all in

one piece, or with freshly plai ted hai r ; or answering any one

speaking outs ide the house. I t is also fady for the S ick to look

at the sun ris ing o r setting, or at anything red , or to lie down at

sunset. The traders from Imérina have introduced new fridy in

connection with fo reign medicines, such as iodide o f potassium

sal t,rum

,and cayenne pepper the people are to ld to refrain from .

The traders do this,no doubt

,to secure a better sale for thei r

wares , for the S ihanaka have l i ttle fai th in a medicine which has

no fa’

dy in connection with it. The very latest fady which has

come under my no tice, and one I should think of recent inven

tion,is very pecul iar a child is not al lowed to accept a picture,

lest i t should be fo l lowed by European ghosts !


very valued arti cle of food,we find o ther tokens for obtaining

i t,for

W hen one stumbles on go ing out, he w i l l eatmeat and so also willhe do,IVhen a fly comes into one

’

s mouth , andWhen one treads on an animal go ing out.

The Malagasy are very fond of money ,and i t is quite in

acco rdance with what we should expect to find that they have

several S igns betokening that they wi l l become ri ch . Some such

lucky omens w ith regard to getting weal th are the fo l lowing

\Vhen the ri ce, while being cooked , makes a border.When the rice

,while being cooked

, swel ls in the m iddle.

When one has a bo i l on the shoulder.If any one finds fifteen maiz e stalks standing in a row .

If any one has red hair on the top of the head or on the nape of the neck .

If any one does not arrive in time for the meal.

Some omens refer to obtaining a certain hind o f riches,as

abundance o f ri ce,as do the fo l lowing

Wh en a hedgehog (Trimdraka) is not properly buried , the rice w i l l growwel l and this willalso be the case

\Vhen one gets sore eyes .

O ther events,the o ccurrence o f which must be cons idered as

fo rtunate,and for which omens are found , are the fo l lowing

When one has w hite hairs appearing while sti l l young, he w i l l l ive to be old .

If,when go ing on a journey, one is met by a crow (Goaika), the journey w i l lbe a lucky one and so itwillalso be

If one is met by the kestrel -haw k (Hitsikitsika 2

)

2. Evil Omens,or Tohens of Calamity — Many o f these are

s igns o f calam i ty (lo’

z a) in general , as are the fo l lowing

When a Takatra 2

(the tufted-umber) crosses the vi l lage, some calam ity w i l l

happen as also

When the walls of a house crack in two p laceS IOp p osite to each other also

When a hen crows ; and

When a hen lays smal l eggs and

When a hen eats her own eggs and

When one sees an Andro’

ngo (a smal l l izard) w ith two tai ls .

2 TinnunculusNewtonii, Guru .

2 Seopus unzbrelta, Gurn.

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 1 87

Some omens have relation to famine, as the fo l lowing

When the dogs eat unbo iled manioc.

When the dogs dig up earth-nuts (voanjo) .2When the opening in the Tsihirity

'

s2nest turns another way than is usual ly

the case and

When the cry of the cuckoo (Kankt'

zfotra is heard,the rice w i l l not grow .

Some bad omens refer to trade and travelling ,as do the

fo l lowing

the

When a trader on his way out is met by a ceItain hawk (fihiaka 4) he w i l lhave no success and

W hen a travel ler is met by a Takatra on the road,he w i l l meet w ith some

thing unfortunate during his journey .

Certain things are regarded as s igns o f coming p overty, as

fo l lowing

When some one comes in unexpectedly to a meal and

When one has Speckled finger nai ls .

Several are S igns o f death,as the fo l lowing

When the eyelashes quiver,o ne w ill hear of death as also

When one’

s left ear tingles,one w ill hear about death being near and

When one’

s ri ght ear tingles, one w illhear about death being far off.

When the antamba’

s 5cry is heard near the house, somebody w i l l die and

When one is met by a snake,one w i l l hear about death .

The superstition about the cry o f the antamba rem inds us o f the

evi l s ignificance o f the cry of the owl,bel ieved in in European

countries.

6

3 . LVeather P rog nostics .

— Of these there are probably many,

but I have only co l lected a few,as fo l lows

x

3

4

S

Voana'

z cia su blerranea , Thouars .

A species of VVeaver-finch,Spermestes nana ,

Pucher.Cucnlus Rochii

,Hartl .

A species of Long- legged Hawk , Polyboroides rad ialns, Scop .

A mythicalanimal.6 The screech of some of the Madagascar ow ls at night has probably given

rise to this superstition. It is certainly fearfulenough to suggest evil.

1 8 8 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

\Vhen the swal low (Sidm tsiclina 2

) flies low ,there w i l l be rain.

When the screech of the owl (Katbroka2

) is heard , driz z l ing rain (e’

rika)w ill fal l .

\Vhen the lark (Sorbhitra 3) makes a deep nest, heavy rain w ill fal l .When the rain beats on the south-west corner of the house, there w i l l beheavy rain and

When it beats on the south-east corner, only a l ittle rain wil l fal l .

4 . Other P ortents of Various Kinds — There are some

p o rtents where a remarkable l ikeness between the thing which

is regarded as a S ign and the thing or event s ignified seems to

be the main idea. Thus we are to ld that

When a hen crows,there w i l l be a female sovereign and

When any one having teeth set apart (maka’

ka nijy) plants maiz e, the plantswillagrow far apart while

, on the other hand , if those who plant maiz ecarry a chi ld on their back

,they w i l l have produce “w ith many

chi ldren,i.e.

,an abundant harvest.

N0 less strange than these is the no tion that

If a woman maintains a crooked or bending posture when arranging eggs ina nest to be hatched , the chickens w ill have crooked necks.

The Malagasy are a very hospitable people, and they have

some s igns which deno te the arrival o f strangers,for

When the hens cackle at the door, strangers are coming as also

When any one is digging manioc, and the root is struck by the spade and

When people get sleepy in the m iddle Of the day and

When a Spider fal ls down in the house.

Two very amusing ones relating to household afiairs are as

fo l lows

If the walls of the house (w hen not wel l bui lt) incline towards the south , thew ife w ill be the stronger one in the house whereas

If the wal ls incl ine towards the north , the husband w i l l have the best of it.

5. Dreams .

— The Malagasy o f course,as is the case with

all o ther nations,no tice thei r d reams and regard them as s igns

o f what wi l l happen to them . They are also troubled by thei r2 More exactly

,the Edible-nest-bui lding Sw iftlet

,Collocaliafrancica, Gon .

2 A name given to two species of this bird : the Madagascar Scops Owl,S cops ru tilis

,Pucher and a Hairy-footed Owl, Ninox superciliaris, Vieill.

3 Alauda hova,Hartl.


IVhen one dreams about a tomb .

When one has lost anything and dreams that it w i l l be found,he w i l l not

find it whereas

If he dreams that he does not find it, he w i l l find it very soon.

If one dreams about a green tree, some one wi l l die.

If any one is i l l , and some one else dreams that he is getting better,he w i l l

be i l l for a long time.

If one dreams that he is crossing a river where there are many crocodi les,he w i l l prosper in the business he is undertaking.

If any one who is far from home dreams that he has returned home,he w i l l

die on the road .

I n the o ther dreams which I have no ticed there seems to be

nothing indicating any co rrespondence between the thing dream t

o f and that which is supposed to be s ignified by it. Some

examples are as fo l lows

When one dreams that he is flying,he w i l l die.

When one dreams that he is out catching fish,he w i l l meet w ith some

calam ity.

When one dreams about a fight between red oxen,or

When one dreams about fire, he w i l l be conquered by his enem ies .

When one dreams about red soi l (the so i l here in the interior is mainly darkred in co lour), he w i l l come to poverty .

When one dreams that he is falling down from a precipice (the dream of

young people everywhere), he w i l l be taken ill as also

If one dreams that he is crossing dirty water.When one dreams that he is drinking brandy, he w i l l getwel l .When one dreams about fog , he w i l l lose his oxen.

When one dreams that m ice are pursuing him ,somebody w i l l take away

his w ife.

BETSIM ISARAKA WOMEN.


In the year 1 87 1 the Rev. W . E. Cousins and Mr. J . Parrett

publ ished a smal l vo lume o f 76 p p .,containing Malagasy

Proverbs, a branch Of native traditional wisdom in which the

language is very rich . A second and much enlarged edition

o f this wo rk was published in 1 8 85, containing proverbs

arranged in alphabetical o rder, so as to be easi ly found . And in

the year 18 82 the Rev. J . A. Houlder completed a wo rk upon

Malagasy proverbs, arranging them acco rding to thei r subjects

under a number o f heads, giving also racy Engl ish translations

and numerous i l lustrative no tes . After a long delay this care

ful ly arranged book is now in course of publ ication in the

Antananarivo Annual.

I n 1873, M r. Cous ins publ ished ano ther smal l vo lume con

taining twenty- Six Kabary or royal and o ther speeches and p ro

clamations , dating from 1787 to 1 872. These publ ic addresses

are not only o f considerable interest as histo ri cal documents,

but they have a great value as preserving archai c wo rds and

Obso lete or Obso lescent fo rms o f conversation , and thus throwing

impo rtant l ight upon the language.

Three years later sti l l (in M r. Cousins issued ano ther

smal l vo lume contain ing native accounts of Malagasy customs,

including the ci rcumcision Observances , the adm inistration o f

the Tangéna po ison- o rdeal , marriage and burial ceremonies ,

and tho se connected with the New Year’

s festival , &c . Use has

been made of many o f these in some o f the chapters in the

writer’s book , The Great African Island (Triibner,Mention must also be made of a wo rk in Malagasy

,which

was printed at the Jesui t M ission Press in Antananarivo at

intervals between the years 1 873 and 1 8 8 1 . This is a publ ication

in three crown octavo vo lumes containing al together about

pages , and is a H istory of the King s of Ime‘

rina (the

central province), derived from native sources , that is, manu

scripts wri tten d uring the last few years,and traditions. This

wo rk gives, in addition to the po l i tical h isto ry,a considerable

amount of info rmation about the native customs, as they are

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. 19 3

supposed to have success ively arisen from the earl iest times,

including not a l i ttle fo lk- lo re,and native bel iefs as to supposed

supernatural beings, divination, witchcraft, the ido ls , &c .

Several arti cles containing info rmation on fo lk- lo re are also

included in the contents o f a Malagasy wo rk enti tled Isan-he‘

rin

taona,or“Annual ,” but o f which only two vo l umes (for 1 876

and 1 877) were published at the press of the Friends ’ M ission in

Antananarivo .

The substance o f this chapter was given in various numbers

of the Polh-lore j ournalfor 18 83 and 1 884 , as wel l as a selection

from Malagasy fo lk - tales. But as the proceedings of learned

societies are but l ittle known to the general reader, I have

thought it wel l to produce in this vo lume most of the info rma

tion there given .

Ful ler particulars as to m ino r papers and articles referring

to Malagasy fo l k- lo re, fo lk- tales, songs , and popular superstitions

may be found by those interested in the subject in an article in

the Antancinarivo Annual for 1 889 (No . X III. pp. 29 under

the same ti tle as this chapter.

SECTION I. : ORATORY AND FIGURES OF SPEECH — The

fi rst of the nine sections into which Mr. Dahle ’

s book is divided

treats o f Hain- te’

ny ldvalciva, l i t. ,“Somewhat lengthy . clever

speeches, i.e., O rato rical Flou rishes and O rnaments o f Speech

,

which are o ccasional ly expanded into an al lego ry. As with

many peoples of l ively imagination,but who have had no

l i terature, the Malagasy are, as a rule, ready and fluent Speakers,

and many o f them have considerable o rato ri cal powers. The

native language is pleasant and musi cal in its sounds, ful l o f

vowels and l iquids , and free from all harsh and guttural utter

auces ; and the mental habits o f the people induce a great

amount of i l lustration in their o rdinary Speech , which is ful l of

proverbs and similes. I n thei r mo re fo rmal and publ ic addresses

these are also found in abundance, as wel l as al lego ries, fables,and figures derived largely from natural objects .

14


Here is one o f the fi rst examples , which is entitled ,

The Desolate (one) forsaken by Friends.

I (am) a stragg ling piece of pee l from the young shoots of the p lantaintree but when I sti l l had possessions, while I stil l was in happy circumstances, then 1 was loved by both father

’

s and mother’s relations. W hen I

spake, they were shamefaced ; when I admonished , they submitted ; so

that I was to father ’s relatives their protection 2and g lory , and to mother

’

s

relatives the wide-sheltering sunshade and was to them (as) the calf bornin the summer,2 both amusement and wealth,

'

of whom they said Thisone is the great voara (a species of fi cus), ornament of the field this the

great house, adornment of the town this is protection, this is g lory , this isSp lendour, this is boasting this wil l p reserve the memory of the dead , for

(he is as) wide-spreading grass in the deserted vil lage, and succeeding hisfathers. Yes, they thought me a memorial stone set up , and I was

(received) both with shoutings and acc lamation.3

Nevertheless I am (but) a stragg l ing piece of peel from the shoots of

the p lantain tree ; and now I am left spent and deso late and havingnothing , and hated by father

’

s famil y, and cast off by mother’s relationsand considered by them but a stone on which things are dried in the sun,

and , when the day becomes c loudy , k icked away . Yes, 0peop le, 0goodfo lks, for wh i le I admonish you I also reproach myself, for I am both re

p roached and Open l y ashamed . Wherefore, hark ye, take good care of

p roperty for when property is gone, gone is adornment and the lean ox

is not licked by its fel lows, and the deso late person is not loved . So do not

waste the rice, for those whose p lanting -rice is gone, and who have to

enter into the fel low-wife’

s house, are in sad case. Do not tramp le on

my c loth , for I cannot arrange the cotton to weave another, and it is illhaving rags to wear in the winter.

I t wi l l be observed how large a number o f figures there i s in

these few sentences some o f the al lus ions are explained in

foo t-no tes, but o ther po ints are somewhat obscure to those un

acquainted w i th the habits and customs o f the Malagasy.

Many o f the sho rter o f‘

these flowers o f o rato ry ” have the

2 The word thus translated means, l iteral ly, a post set up as a protection to

taboo a house or piece of ground .

2 That is,in the rainy season, when there is plenty of fresh pasture.

3 Memorial stones are largely used in the central provinces, and consist of

massive mono l iths erected w ith immense labour and expense.


divo rce,and to the attempts o ften made to bring back to the

husband a wife who had been p ut away. This faci l ity is one o f

the least pleasing features o f M alagasy society ; the power o f

divo rce being usual ly in the husband ’

s hands,and being o ften

exercised for mo st trivial reasons,and effected in an absurdly

easy fashion. I t w i l l be seen, however, in the fo l lowing piece,

that the woman was sometimes quite equal to her husband in

power o f repartee, and could speak w i th stinging sarcasm o f his

fickle conduct and heartlessness

Sending home a divorced Wife.

Where away , 0pair of b l uebirds are you go ing east, or going west?

If to the west, I wil l bind you hand and foot to tel l to Rabarimc‘

zso that for

a who le year and throughout seven months thy friend has not bathed inwarm water, but tears long ing for thee have been his bath . Thereforesay May you live, says Ratsarahbbiisz

'

mbalzofaty [that is, the husband], forthou art not forgotten by him , though the d istance be great and thoughthe streams be in flood . And when Rafaraélanandeférana [M rs. Long

enduring], heard that, she said U pon my word , I am astonished at thee,Andriamatba [a term of respect to

'

an elderl y man or eldest son] when

you marriedme, you thought the road was not big enough forme, but when

you d ivorced me, you considered me a mere nothing when you asked forme, you spread out l ike the broad roof of the house, but when you p ut me

away , you fo lded up like its gab le. So enough of that, Andriamatoa, &c .

And so she proceeds to pile up figure upon figure to i l lustrate

his i l l - treatment o f her tel l ing him

Perhaps you think me a poor little locust left by its companions,which can be caught by any one having la hand . A protection (shetel ls him) can be found from the rain by sewing together the mat

umbrella, but it is love that is spent, and love that is scattered, and lovethat has removed, and the cut ends of the threads are not to be joinedtogether .

2

To allthis the husband rejo ins

Unfortunate that I am ,Rafara, w ife beloved, I sent unfit persons to

1 There is some s ignificance in ‘

th is long name,but it is not quite clear to me

from its literal meaning.

2 Referr ing to the threads used in weaving cloth .

ORATORY,SYM BOLIC ACTIONS

,AND CONUNDRUM S . 197

get you home were they sent,nevertheless to keep us separate is what they

have accomp l ished so come home then, Rafara, for our chi ldren are sad ,

the house is deso late, the r ice-fields are turned into a marsh , &c .

Whether these effo rts were successful is left to conjecture ; one

may hope that after such moving appeals the inj ured and indignant wife came back to her fam i ly ; especial ly s ince they are

fo l lowed by this additional address by the husband to the people

at large to help him out of his difficulty

Second speech of Raisarahoby.

Hel p me, good fo lks, for the fow l I had all but caught has flown off

into the long g rass, and the b ird I had almost obtained for rear ing hasbeen carr ied off by the flood , and the bu l l I shou ld have obtained forfighting has escaped to the top of the high mountain. So hel p me

, good

p eop le, and say thus to Rafara : I w i l l be humb le in sp ir it w ithoutobstinacy, and wil l agree to what you have done ; for if thou art as thestorm destroying the r ice, let me be the tree trunk p lucked up . And if

thou art as hail destroying the rice, let me be the wide field on which it isscattered . And if thou art as the thunderbo lt fal l ing to the earth , letme be

the rock on which it dances. And if thou art as the whir lwind b l ind ingthe eyes, let me be the lake, substitute for eyes. Because gone is my

obstinacy, for gentleness on l y remains, for there is no support of l ife, sinceRafara is the support of life so send me home Rafara, le

‘

st I become a foo l .

In Malagasy phi lo sophy,as in that o f all nations, there

o ccurs frequent mention o f l ife and its sho rtness ; and in the

absence o f any certainty as to a future l ife, a sentiment some

what paral lel to the old heathen saying,Let us eat and drink

,

for to -mo rrow we die.

”For example

Take your fill of Pleasure while you live.

0ye prosperous peop le, O ye wel l to do fo lks, take your fi l l of p leasurew hile you live ; for when dead and come to the

“stone with the little

mouth [the native tombs, among the Hova, are made of large undresseds labs of b l ue granite, in one of which a smal l entrance is cut], it is not toreturn the same day, but to stop there to s leep 1 it is not to visit only , but

1 Here is a play upon native w ords (mOd z- nu‘

mdry) which are used al ike forsleeping away from home for a night, and also for dying.


to remain. The covering stone is what p resses down over one, the red

earth is above the breast, a temporary roof and tent walls surround one ; 2

no turning round , no rising up .

Amother piece speaks of

Things here on Earth not enduring

and after referr ing to the different leaves , fru it, and flowers o f

various trees,proceeds to mo ral ise thus

Thou dost not perhap s remember the sayings of the ancestors : Con

sider, 0young fo lks, your stay here on the earth , for the trees grow only ,but are not jo ined together, for if they were they wou ld reach the skies.

But it is not thus, for they have their time of springing and of grow ing ,and of being cut down. And j ust so w ith men to them come prosperousdays, and days of misfortune ; they have their days of youth , and of old

age, and of death but those who die happ y and in heaven fo llow Imp oina 3

and Radama,3 they are the fortunate ones.

A characteristi c feature in native ideas is shown by ano ther

piece,which enfo rces the doctrine that I t is better to die than

to suffer affl i ction.

”

Many o f the compositions in this section of the book are in

praise o f w isdom and denunciation, of fo l ly ; in fact, perhaps no

people are more ready to give and receive good advice than are

the Malagasy. I t is universal ly recognised as the privi lege o f all

to give admoni tion to o thers, even to those highest in rank , if i t

is adm inistered in the fo rm o f advice or dnaZra.

There are a great many references to animals in these

admoni tions almost every bi rd known to the Malagasy is used

as a sim i le,and its habits are described w i th great accuracy ; so

that a complete co l lection o f all the references to the animal l ife

o f Madagascar found in the proverbs and fables would throw no

l i ttle l ight upon the fauna o f the island .

1 The four stones form ing the sides of the Hova tombs are covered in by onehuge slab , called the raugolizhy.

2 Referring to the native customs at a funeral,and in making a new tomb .

3 Hova sovereigns the first of whom , also cal led Andrianampoinimerina, diedin 1 8 10

,the second in 1 828 .


The Far-reaching Power of the Imagination.

The sun is indeed my father, the moon is my mother, the stars are butmy subjects Betsimitatatra [the great rice-p lain west of Antananar i vo]ismy rice-p lot, the meteors are my guns, and the thunderbo lts are my

cannon,with which I wil l fire at those who hate me.

Here is ano ther example of the same habit of boasting o f

one’

s own power, in the fo rm o f a dialogue between two men

Each Boasting .

Says Rafaralahy last male, or youngest son]“Art thou Andria

naivo,who art child of Namehana rising up , eating the c

'

zviz‘

wy’

(fruit), andwhen stooping , eating amontana 1

(fruit) at evening p laying with citrons,and in the morn ing bow ling lemons Just so .

”

Then says Andrian‘

aivo [midd le male] Art thou Rafaralahy, who art

child of Iarivo when p oor, having money sought for by creditors ridingon horseback yet not calumn iated, and carried in a palanquin, yet not

abused ?” “Just so .

A careful study of these Malagasy sayings,together with the

native proverbs, throws considerable l ight upon the no tions of

the people as regards mo rals . Many of them contain much good

counsel as to the avo idance of various vices and fo l l ies,together

w i th rebukes of the loo se native habits with regard to marriage

for example, there is one against fo rsaking one’

s wife to marry

a richer one ! Then we have warnings against bad company,gluttony

,dishonesty

,and prodigal i ty

,and very many against

lying and l iars. The good and the evi l man are compared ,patience under m isfo rtune is commended

,and we are cautioned

against trusting in appearances in the fo l lowing al lusion to the

habits of the crocodi le the most feared of all the animals

inhabiting Madagascar

The Slow-going one is to be Feared .

A red male crocod i le going down the Ikbpa with the stream ,its sly

advance unheard, its movements unobserved, lying stil l in the poo ls with

I These are both fine trees, very common in the central parts of Madagascarthey are species of Ficus, both bearing edible, though not very palatable, fruit.

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUM S . 201

out d iv ing , and ly ing in the water without padd ling . So then, say I , goodfo lks, perhaps the old fel low [lit. ,

“your sen ior is dead and thereforedoes not show up ,

or is somehow prevented and so does not return .

But the peop le say : Thou art indeed child ish and dost not perhapsconsider that the crocod i le, when he lies in the deep poo ls and does not

dive, there is the warm p lace where he sleeps and when he l ies sti l l in

the water,not moving a foot, that there is the p lace where he obtains his

food . 80let that teach you that the old fel low is not dead by any means,

but has stil l an eye to business .

This reference to the crocodile is but one out o f sco res o f pas

sages no ticing the habits of animals in these pieces, and which

reveal,as al ready remarked

,mo st accurate knowledge o f thei r

habits. I n one o f them the eels in the Lake I tasy are rep re

sented as in counci l,expressing thei r disappo intment that a stone

breakwater,made to prevent a too great rush o f water out of the

lake,has not proved a place for thei r greater enjoyment

,but

where they may mo re easi ly be caught. In another piece 0the

different cries and habits of various bi rds are compared,and the

unfitness of allfor carrying a message,one, the Vo

‘

rond’re

‘

o (Leptosonza discolor

,a pecul iar species o f ro l ler), which has a loud

distinct cry while as to o thers,Fz

’

tatra (a species of warbler,the

P rantz'

eola sybi'

lla) would be always looking for food the Soy (a

species o f Nectarz'

nz'

a) would be too melancho ly ; and the Fo’

a’

y

(the cardinal -bird , Foua’z

'

a madag ascariensis), which goes in flocks,would always be flying o ffwi th its companions .

This observation of bi rd l ife is also i l lustrated in a sho rt piece

which enfo rces the fam i l iar English househo ld maxim that

Everything has its Place.

The whitebird (a species of egret [Ardea bubulcus], which feeds on theflies and parasites of cattle) does not leave the oxen, the sandp iper does notforsake the ford , the hawk does not depart from the tree, the val ley is thedwel ling of the mosqu ito , the mountain is the home of the mist, the waterho les are the lair of the crocod i le. And the sovereign is the depositary

(lit. ,“resting-p lace of the law , and the peop le the depositary of good

sense.


Equal ly numerous are the al lus ions to the various trees and

plants and thei r qual ities,and the way in which they i l lustrate

human weaknesses and fo l l ies .

Love of chi ldren is a marked feature in these native sayings.

They are cal led the fat (that is, the best) of one,

’

s l ife ”

(me‘

nahy

ny az’

na), and are said to be“loved l ike one’

s self,

”&c. Equal ly

distinct is the love o f home and o f one’

s native place : Yonder

road,

”says one piece

,

“is dreary and difficult,twisting about here

and there,but for allthat i t is the way leading to the doo r of the

house o f father and mo ther .

S ti l l mo re ful ly and pathetical ly is this warm fam i ly affection

expressed in the fo l lowing lament of a captive taken in war,with

which we may conclude this divis ion of the subject

Oh that I could see Father and M other !

Where away yonder, O bird, art thou speeding away by night Hast

thou lost in the game, or art thou fined, that thou thus hastest awayNeither in gaming have I lost, nor a fine do I dread but the road to

be travel led I sweep over, and in the p lace of enjoyment do I rest.Ah, j ust so, O bird wou ld that I also were a bird and cou ld fly , that I

might go yonder to the top of the high tree to look over and see father andmother, lest they shou ld be dead, lest they shou ld be ill; long have webeen separated for we are held in bondage by the p eop le, and they are

p ersecuted with gun and spear . We are slaves here in Imerina (thecentral p rovince and home of the dominant Hova tribe) ; manure is our

friend, the Spade is our brother by b lood, and the basket is our companion, I

Our necks wait for the wooden co l lar, our backs await the irons, and our

feet the fetters. And father and mother sigh out their lives at Vohibe so

salutation (lit., maythey live until we meet again,for long has been our

separation.

Mo st o f the principal towns and vil lages in Imerina are no ted

for some ci rcumstance or o ther,ei ther in thei r natural pos ition,

or thei r productions,or the disposi tion of the people

,as clever,

covetous,or brave, &c. This is sometimes expressed in stinging

proverbs,which are quo ted by thei r neighbours with great gusto ,

I Al luding to the constantwork in the rice-fields done by the slaves , in digg ing ,carrying manure in baskets , &c .

204 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST ;

an-one is become Not-overtaken-by-another (or Not-indebted-to

strangers

4 . Therefo re as for thee, 0Senior like to a father, thou art an ambbra

tree for ho lding fast, and the thick forest for hiding , and the hoof for feasting , and the sun and moon, and the sky to cover over, and the earth fortread ing upon.

5. Thou art the breast join ing on to the w ings, and palm of the handj oin ing to the forefinger, and knee joining the musc les.

6 . Thou art the so le voanzc‘z intilauy (seed) remaining , and the tree, sap lingof the forest, and the bird substitute for meat, and thou art Chief of the

p lace, and Such -an-one sti ll l i v ing (amongst us).

Thanksgiving Speech.

P leasing , friends swal lowed acceptab le), friends sweet, friends

g reat and cannot be swallowed are ye. Sweet indeed is honey, but thereare dregs savou ry (lit. , sweet) indeed is salt, but it is like a stone sweet

indeed the sugar- cane, but it is like wood but the good done by you isincomparab le. Nevertheless, friends, be of good cheer, for the good youhave donewillnot be p leasing (onl y) on the day of doing it, like the feet ofthe cattle treading the rice ground , I but will be p leasing taken home to

s leep on, for it shall be rewarded when awaking for that is water bathedin to remove grease, and fat anointing to cause to shine, and c loth to wearto keep off shame. For money is soon Spent

,and other things come to an

end ,but fr iendsh ip

,that is enduring .

Ano ther speech is an admoni tion to companions who Shirk

thei r share o f government (unpaid) service

Short is our word,Sirs, a Speech of the old , and if long , yet height

without bu lk, and if too short, then ro l led about ; so let it be l ike the

trench for sweet potatoes made by Ikarijovola, and the germs (fig . topic)extracted .

W ith regard to yourself, Such -an-one the peop le (lit. ,“the under the

day”

) go upon the Queen’

s service, but thou h idest away in secret, andd ost not go to do thy share, bu t on l y j ust now puttest in an appearance.

So that here now thou actest l ike the little butterfly by the water ab le toc lose up its wings, ab le to expand them thou dost like the water-fow lblack when diving , b lack when emerging for if thou dost l ike the little

1 Cattle are employed to trample over the softened mud of the rice fieldsbefore planting.

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS , AND CONUNDRUM S . 205

crab in the ho le : grasped by the hand and yet not got, sprinkled w ithwater, and not coming out— then we detest that

, Sir ! And now if it

appears that what is under the eye is not seen,or is under the tongue and

is not chewed, or near the nose and not smelt, or looked at and not known— then we utter ly detest that, Sir ! So , although your feet even may go ,and although your knees even may

“sku l l; along , and although your ch in

may touch the ground , we wil l not let you off unless you perform the

service for the honour of the sovereign.

Here is ano ther piece, the subject o f which is

Do not use Evil Speech.

1 . It is not wel l that men shou ld make a hammer with two headsboth Speak ing good and speak ing evil . For it is an evil thing , friends, toact like the tongue of the ox

,l ick ing carefu l ly the hump and l icking also

the feet ab le to enter into the nostrils, ab le to enter also the mouth .

2 . Take heed to the mouth , friends, for the mouth is a compartment

(or room), the mouth is j ust like a p iece of c loth—tearing this way, andtearing that way the mouth is like Alakaosy (the unl ucky month), and if

one does not butt another, one butts one’

s self. For the good (speaking)mouth is, they say, as a meal ; but the evi l mouth is

, they say, a thingc leaving to one.

The evi l mouth is j ust l i ke the lo in- clo th,binding its only

owner. For there is no one guil ty in body,they say, but they

who are gui lty in mouth are gui lty. For the unguarded mouth,

they say,is cause of calam i ty, and those who are free o f speech

,

they say,reveal secrets ; so that what is done by the mouth

,

they say,endangers the neck .

3 . Take heed , friends, to the mouth , and do what is r ight, for that on l ybrings lasting good . For if one does good when young , they say, theyhave something to take to old age, yea, even to take with them in death .

For that has given rise to the popu lar saying , Do good that you be notforgotten , even when you have mou ldered away .

”

For the good done,they say, is a memorial (lit. ,

“a set-up stone and the good done is good

packed up for a journey .

I t wil l be noticed in this speech what a frequent repetition

there is o f the wo rd hone,“they say, or

“i t is said ”

; appar

z oo MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

ently guarding a speaker from personal responsibi l i ty for much

o f his counsel , and shel tering him under the autho rity o f o thers.

This is quite characteristic of the native m ind,which shrinks

from very di rect assertion or accusation,and always prefers an

indirect mode o f statement.

The symbo ls and figures which i t wi l l have been seen in the

preceding pages to be a marked characteristic o f Malagasy

speech are not,however, confined to wo rds, but are sometimes

extended to actions . Every reader of the Old Testament

scriptures is aware of the frequent use made of such methods

o f teaching by the Hebrew prophets, as seen in the Book of

Ez ekiel (i i i . 1—3 ; iv. ; V i i . 23 ; xxiv. 1—4 ; xxxvi i . 15 and in

1 K ings xxii . I I .

In Malagasy histo ry there are some interesting examples

o f a sim i lar employment o f symbo l i c acts,especial ly befo re

the general use o f writing had made written letters common.

Towards the close of the last century, Andrianimpoina, K ing

o f Imerina, had reduced under his autho r ity a great part o f

the interio r of the is land , and , confident o f his own power,sent

a messenger to the principal chief of the southern central

p rovince,Betsi leo

,tel l ing him that he was“his son (a common

M alagasy express ion implying that one person is subo rdinate

to ano ther), and requi ring him to come and acknowledge his

father. The Bets i leo chief, however , repl ied that he was no son

o f the Hova king, but that they were brothers , each possessing

his own territo ry . The Hova returned for answer,

“I have a

large clo th (to cover me), but thou hast a smal l one ; so that

if you are far from me you are co ld ; for I am the is land to

which allthe l i ttle ones reso rt, therefo re come to me,thy father,

for thou art my son.

” When the Betsi leo chief received this

message be measured a piece o f wood between his extended

arm s (the re’

fy or standard measure o f the Malagasy,between

the tips of the fingers when the arms are stretched apart to the

utmost), and sent i t to the king,w ith the wo rds

,This wood is

my measure ; bid Andrianimp oina equal i t ; if he can span i t,

208 MADADASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST .

great so lemni ty, within the palace,when she announced her

intention of making a valuable present to each of the two

princes. Two fine vases or covered vessels were placed on the

table,and the two young men were cal led in ; the elder was

fi rst di rected to choose which he would have. He did so,and

on Opening the vase i t was found to contain some beautiful

gems and valuable o rnaments. The younger, her own son,

then opened his vase, and found i t contained only a handful

of earth . The queen then addressed the assembly, saying that

the elder prince was to be advanced to high honour and riches

in the land but,as the land could not be divided

,the younger

prince,who had received from God the handful of earth ,

shou ld be her successo r. (He eventual ly became king under

the name o f Radama I I . , but only reigned about eighteen

months.)

SECTION I I . : R IDDLES AND CONUNDRUMS— The second

division o f M r. Dahle’

s book consists o f about three hundred

Malagasy proverbs, here cal led“Sho rter clever Speeches re

sembl ing Proverbs” ; but, as this branch of native w isdom and

observation real ly requires a separate paper in o rder to do i t

j ustice, we shal l not here give extracts from this part of the

book . Bes ides which , i t wi l l be necessary to take i l lustrations

from larger co l lections than this supplementary one from the

wo rk we are chiefly us ing as a text-book .

The third and fourth sections of the book comprise a smal l

co l lection of Malagasy riddles and conundrums,Famp dnono

‘

nana

and Saf ia’

y , the latter meaning “choosing s,” two somewhat

s im i lar things being o ffered for cho i ce in enigmatical language .

Such playing upon wo rds is a favourite amusement o f the

people ; and ,as some of them show cons iderable shrewdness a

few examples may be given , all o f them beginning with the

question,[ nana dry z

'

zany ? (“What then is

1 . At night they come without being fetched, and by day they are lostwithout being sto len

ORATORY, SYM BOLIC ACTIONS , AND CONUNDRUM S. 209

The stars ; for, acco rding to the common bel ief, they go

completely away from their places by day.

2. Cut down,and yet not withering

Hair,when cut off.

3 . Six legs and two feet (lit., so les

M oney scales,which have always three strings (legs) for each

p an,which is cal led in native id iom its“tongue,” but in the

r iddle is compared to a foo t.

4 . Lying on the same p il low, but not on the same bed

The rafters of a roof; which lean on the same ridge-piece (or

pi l low), but rest (that is, the opposi te s ides) on different wal l

plates (or beds).

5. Coarse rofia c loth outside and white robe inside

The maniac root,which has a brown skin

,but very white

floury substance,here contrasted

.

with the o rdinary native habit

of wearing coarse and o ften dirty clo thing below,and a fine

white clo th or ldrnha over all.

6 . If boiled , never cooked but if roasted, ready directly

Hair.

7 . Cannot be carried, but can easi ly be removed

Thep uhlie roaa’for

,unti l quite recently, there have been no

r ights o fway in Madagascar, and any one can divert a path as

he may please.

8 . Fetch the dead on which to p lace the l iving

Ashes and fi re,al luding to the common native practice o f

fetching a l ive coal or two in a handful of ashes .

15


9 . Standing erect he gaz es on heaven (lit.,“the Creator stooping

down he gaz es on the oxen’

s footprints ?

Rice,which whi le growing stands erect

,but when ripe bends

downwards.

10. Its mother says, Let us Sp read out our hands, but its children say,

Let u s doub le u p our fists ?

Thefull-g rownfern and theyoung fern shoots,al luding to the

rounded knobs at the heads o f the latter,compared with the

outspread fronds o f the plant when ful l grown .

1 1 . The foot above the leg

The leaves of the horz‘

riha, an edible arum,whose broad leaf is

compared to a foo t and i ts stalk to a leg .

12. Cut, and yet no wound seen

A shadow and water.

13 . The mother says, Let us stand up , but the children say, Let us lie

across

A ladder and its rung s ; the latter are cal led“chi ldren of the

ladder (z dna

14 . Has a mouth to eat with , but has no stomach to retain food ?

A p air of scissors. A cutting edge is cal led in native i diom

its tongue

15. God’

s little bag , whose stitching is invisib le

16 . Living on dainties, yet never fat

A lafnp stand , which is continual ly fed with fat.


a safe refuge from the flood ? Antandnarivo. The lofty place

good for Shel tering ? Amhrihimdng a.

I R is ing up and not

questioned ? The roof -p osts of a house : for a native, when

ris ing up from the mat, would invariably be asked,Ho aiz a

moa hianao P (“Where are you go ing ?

1 Because of the woods which c lothe the slopes of the hil l .

CHAP TER X].

MALAGASY SONGS, POETRY, CHILDREN’S GAMES, AND

M YTHICAL CREATURES.

S ongs to the Sovereign—Dirges— S ihanaka laments—Bal lad of BenandroFriendship Children ’

s games Rasarindra SOamiditra SakodaLeper game Star-ki l l ing ”—New Year’s games—Counting games

Marvellous creatures — Songomby—Fanany, or Seven- headed SerpentTokand ia, or

“S ingle-foot”

-Kinc‘

) Iy—Dona or Pily (serpent)—Lalomeua

(H ippopotamus —Augalapona—Siona.

ECTION I. : SONGS— Next in o rder in this co l lection o f

fo lk - lo re we find a number of native songs or Hiran’

ny

Ntaolo Songs Of the Ancients The Malagasy people are

very fond of s inging and Of musi c , and have a very co rrect ear

for harmony. They l ike s inging in parts,and when they hear a

new tune wil l often improvise a teno r,al to

,or bass accompani

ment. The native tunes are somewhat plaintive, and are Often

accompanied with the regular clapping of hands and the twang

ing o f a rude guitar or o ther instrument. On moonl ight n ights

the chi ldren and young people wi l l stay out o f doo rs unti l the

smal l hours o f the mo rning,S inging the native songs , in which

they take immense del ight. I t wi l l be seen from the fo l lowing

specimens that although these songs are not rhymed or metrical,

they have nevertheless a certain rhythm i cal “swing ”or flow

,

and a paral lel ism o f structure, and are arranged in somewhat

regular fo rm as regards couplets and stanz as.

Several of these songs are in praise of the sovereign,and

were chiefly composed in honour o f the persecuting Queen

Ranavalona I.,who reigned from 1828 to 186 1 . In heathen


times , that is , unti l the access ion of Queen Ranavalona I I .,

in 1868 , i t was customary to salute the sovereign as the“God seen by the eye,”the visible divin ity (Andriamdnitra

hita mdso). Here is one of these laudato ry effusions addressed

to the fo rmer queens

I . Salutation,RabOdonz

’

mdrianimpOinaI

Suns (there are) not two

Suns but one only (namely),RabOdonandrianimpOina

2. Go ing to Imanga,2 she’

s no strangerCom ing to Iarivo ,2 sovereign of the land .

3 . A shield of beaten go ldRising up (she is) l ight of the heavenStooping down,

lamp of the earth .

Ano ther song is in more regular fo rm,consisting of six

stanz as of five l ines each

I . RabOdonandrianimpOina.

South of Ambatonafandrana,3North of AmbOhimitSimbina,West of Imandroséza,East of Ambohi janahary .

2. May you l ive, Rabodo ,And RambOasalama-Razaka

,4

And Rakoto (son of) Radama ; 5

And the who le (royal) fam i ly ,Not to be counted up .

Some of these songs are wo rdy and ful l of repetitions ,especial ly in the cho ruses, which are very much in what we

Should cal l , in Engl ish, the“tra-la-la

”style ; but several are

composed in a grave and serious strain,some enfo rcing the

This was the official and sem i - sacred name of the queen .

Shortened forms of AmbOhimfinga and Antananarivo,the ancient and

present capitals.

3 This and the three fo l low ing words are the names of the northern, southern ,

eastern,and western portions of the capital c ity, the royal palaces being in the

centre,and on the summ it of the long rocky ridge on and around whi ch the

c ity is bui lt.4 The queen’

s nephew,and heir to the throne unti l the birth of her son see

p . 207 .

5 Her son,afterwards king as Radama I I . (1861- 1863) see p . 208 .


The fo l lowing description of the burial customs and chants

o f the S ihanaka tribe is translated from the account given by

an intel l igent young Hova evangel ist who l ived among them for

three years (1 867- 1 870)“Thei r customs when watching a co rpse are as fo l lows : A

number of women,both young and old

,sit in the house con

tain ing the co rpse, and the chief mourners weep , but the rest

s ing and beat drums. There is no cessation in the funeral

customs and s inging day or night unti l the burial , al though that

sometimes does not take place for a week , in the caseo f weal thy

people. The di rges sung on these o ccas ions are distressing and

strange to hear, and Show plainly thei r igno rance of the future

state and of what is beyond the grave ; for the dead are termed‘ lost ’ lost as people who are left by thei r compan ions

,

and do not see the way to go home again and death they look

upon as the messenger Of some hard -hearted power,who drives

hard bargains which cannot be al tered , and puts one in extreme

peri l (l i t. , in the grip o f a where no entreaties

prevai l . The dead they cal l the gentle (or pleasant) person

and they wil l not al low his wife and chi ldren and allhis relatives

to think o f anything but thei r bereavement,and the evi l they

have to expect from the want o f the pro tection they had from

the dead ; for now the pi l lar o f the house on which they leaned

is broken, and the house which shel tered them is pulled down

and the town they l ived in is destroyed,and the strong one they

fo l lowed is overcome.

’

And after that they declare that the

l iving are in trouble, and seem to agree that it had been better

not to have been bo rn.

While they are yet S inging in the manner j ust described ,a man goes round the house and s ings a dirge in a melancho ly

tone, upon hearing which those in the house stop suddenly and

are perfectly sti l l . Then the one outs ide the house proceeds

rapidly with his chant,as fo l lows

O gone away O gone away, ohIs the gentle one

, 0the gentle one, oh

SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTH ICAL CREATURES . 217

Ah,farewell , ah , farewell , oh

Farewell,oh farewel l to his house

Farewell, oh farewel l to his friends !

Farewell , oh farewel l to his w ifeFarewel l , oh farewel l to his children

Then those within doo rs answer, Haie as if to say,Amen.

Then they inquire and reply as fo l lows,those outs ide

asking,and the o thers in the house answering

What is that sound of.rushing feet

The cattle.

What is that rattl ing chinking soundThe money .

What ismaking such a no iseThe people

referring to the property o f the deceased . Then one

outs ide chants again

0 distressed and sad are the manyO l the plantation is overgrown w ith weedsO scattered are the calvesO si lent are the fieldsO weeping are the children

Then those in the house answer again,Haie

Then the one o utside the house again S ings

O gone away , gone away , is the gentle one

Farewel l , oh farewel l,

”&c .

,&c.

The longest piece in M r. Dahle’

s co l lection of songs is a

kind o f bal lad , in fo rty-four stanzas of three l ines each. I t

relates the fo rtunes o f an only son cal led Benandro,who would

go off to the wars , no twithstanding the entreaties of his father

and mo ther. O f course he at last overcomes thei r opposi tion,

and goes away with a confidential s lave, but soon comes to

grief, for he is taken i l l , dies on the road , and the slave has,acco rding to native custom

,to bring back his bones to his

disconso late parents, who are ready to die with so rrow at

their loss. A lthough ful l of repetitions i t has a swinging,


almost rhythm i cal , flow,very l ike some of the old Engl ish

bal lads, as wil l be seen by a few specimen verses

I . Benandro a darl ing son,

Bénandro a darl ing son ,

Bénandro a dearly loved one.

2. Then rose,say I , Benz

‘

mdro O

Besought his mother 0Besought his father O l

O pray do letme go ,0pray do letme go

For gone are allthe young men, 0

DJ

12. Then answered back his father, OThen spake to him his mother,Stay here, 0piece of my l ife.

13 . The road you go is difficult,Diseases dire w i l l cut you off,

Stay here,do thou stay here.

14. The insects too are numerous ,The fever too is dangerous,Stay here, 0piece of my l ife.

However,he goes away under the charge o f Tsaramainty

(“The Good who is charged to nurse him if i l l , to

feed him when hungry,to be

,in fact, in the place o f his father

and mo ther. But fal l ing i l l he remembers with so rrow his self

wil ledness,gives directions to Tsaramainty to take his “eight

bones,” that is

,the principal bones o f the four l imbs, to his

parents . Their grief at hearing o f his death is pathetical ly

describedGone indeed is Bénandro OGone

,and w i l l return no more

Take me to thee,Bénandro O

I grieve for thee, Bénandro O l1 long for thee

,Benandro O

Take me w ith thee,Benandro O

Here is one of those mo ral exhortations in which the Hova

Malagasy del ight

Exhortation to Friendship .

1 . Let the living love each other ; for the others (the dead) cannotattain it ; for the others are gone home.


are saluted with shouts o f “S tuffed with gravy, Ikalovy 'S tuffed with gravy, Ikalovy and also

,

“Keep by yourselves

l ike lepers, O

The fi rst play on the l ist is cal led Rasarindra, the meaning

o f which wo rd is not very clear,but the game seems very l ike

the common game o f English chi ldren cal led Fox and

(Eeesef’

Rasarindra.

They allstand in a row, every one with his or her ’ lamba (the outer

c loth) tightl y girded round the waist, the tal lest in front, and the youngerand weaker behind them ,

each taking hold of the tightly-bound dress ofthe one in front. Then one who is biggest is chosen to catch the rest,and this one is cal led “the robber . And another of the big ones is

chosen to be children’

s mother, to take care of the little ones. AS soon

as all are arranged , the“robber cal ls out,

“W here is Such -an-one for

us ?”mentioning first those who are hindmost. Cal ling out thus she

comes near to the mother,who answers, “We won

’

t give up Such-an

one.

”Then touc hing the biggest one, she says, W here is the children’

s

mother for us Then they all shout out,“We won

’

t give up children’

s

mother . Then the catcher cal ls out again,“W here then is our l ittle

lamb So the youngest at the end of the line answers Meh (imitatingthe b leat of a lamb). Then the catc her rep lies, Here’

s our little lamb ,and does her best to catch the youngest and last of the row . Havingcaught this one, she then tries to catch those next in the line, one afteranother, until they are all caught, the children’

s mother meanwhi le p ro

tecting them allin her power .

Then fo l low descriptions o f two games somewhat resembling

what is known in England as“O ranges and Lemons,

”and

ending with “Here comes a l ight to l ight you to bed ; here

comes a chopper to chop off the last man ’s head .

”They are

cal led

S o‘

amiditra (l i t., Good entering No. 1 .

Two o f the tal lest in the party stand up,and face each

These games are chiefly practised by g irls, or by girls and very young

SONGS,POETRY, AND MYTH ICAL CREATURES . 221

o ther, leaving a space between them for a gateway ; and

clapping their hands together they s ing

SOamiditra é, miditra é, é miditra éGood entering O , entering O , entering O

Then the lesser ones fo rm a l ine and take fast ho ld of each

o ther, and stooping down,s ing out

Valalamanjoko a Locusts stooping OKitraotrao 1 Fight, fight !Valalamandry a Locusts lying down0Mandriaria Lie down

,down

Aud so they go on, entering the gateway fo rmed by the two

tal l ones,and when the least come up to them then these two

turn round also .

S o‘

amz’

ditra No. 2.

The second variation of the above game has mo re s ingingin i t ; but the chi ldren arrange themselves in the same way,

the two tal lest ones and the rest s inging alternately as

fo l lows

Manasa, relahy, manasa e

Tsy ho any, relahy, tsy ho any e

Nahoana,relahy, nahoana e

Tsy ho vary, relahy, tsy ho vary eHo vary, relahy, ho vary eTsy ho hena, relahy, tsy ho hena é

Ho hena,relahy, ho hena é l

Tsy ho akobo, relahy, tsy ho akobo éHo akobo , relahy, ho akobo e

And so they go on,mentioning o ther kinds o f food , and then

all the different fruits . When this is finished , the l i ttle ones

go fo rward to enter, making at the same time a loud no ise and

s inging

Varavaran’

Andriambolamena,

Ka intelo miditra toy ny akanjo ,M pandrafi

traarivo toy ny fantanana.

We bid (you) , friends, we bid youWe won

’

t go there, friends, we won'

t

go thereWhy not then, friends, why notNot for rice

,friends

,not for rice

For rice, friends, for riceNot for meat, friends, not formeat

For meat, friends, formeat

Not for fow ls , friends , not for fow lsFor fow ls

,friends , for fow ls


Doorway of Go lden Prince,Entering three times l ike the dress

,

Carpenters a thousand l ike the weaving staff.’

Ano ther variant of this song is given by my friend , the

Rev. J . Ri chardson,Principal o f the L.M .S . Normal Schoo l at

Antananarivo ,who has done much for the musi cal progress

o f the Malagasy by instructing them in the Toni c Sol- fa system ,

and has also written numerous excel lent hymns as wel l as some

capital schoo l songs. As he also suppl ies the Sol- fa notation

o f the tune, I venture to extract a paragraph or two from a

paper o f his on“Malagasy TOnon- kira (songs) and Hymno

logy ”in the Antandnarz

‘

vo Annual,No . I I ., 1876 , p . 24 . He

says,“The only one (song, that is) where an approach to

rhythm can be found is a l ittle chi ldren’s play song. The

children jo in hands, and the fi rst two take up the strain,

sayingWe bid you come

,we bid you .

Then they are answered by the who le body,

wennot go there, we’ l l not go .

The leaders again s ing out,

And why (not come) , and why (not)

The who le body then reply again,

It’

s neither rice nor saonj o (an edible arum ?

)

The leaders cry out,and l ift up their arms with hands jo ined

in a country dance,It

’

s the Cardinal-bird ’

s house.

To which the who le troop of chi ldren cry out as they pass

undenIt

’

s a red house.

i This is the literaltranslation,but the al lusions are obscure.

2 Colocasia antiquorum.


And when that is finished they allrise and leap about l ike frogs,

at the same time slapping thei r chests and those who are ti red

fi rst and stop are considered as beaten.

The Saho‘

da No . 2 is much the same kind of game, but with

different wo rds.

Another game is cal led Dian- trdndraha,I i.e.

,Hedgehog

steps,”and is played by all the party arranging themselves in

rows,those behind taking ho ld of those in front, alls inging and

bending down in imitation of the movements of the animal

which gives its name to the play.

Ano ther game, resembl ing our Engl ish children ’

s play o f

Tig”and“Touching wood , is cal led Kiho

’

haho‘

ha (and is the

Malagasy wo rd for a leper) i t is played thus

The chi ldren alltake fast ho ld o f hands and fo rm a large

ring, and put one of the number to stand in the m iddle of the

ci rcle. Then they go round and from s ide to s ide, s inging,

Those who touch this one are lepersThose who touch this one are lepers.

And those who touch the one in the centre they cal l ho‘

ha (a

leper) and place in the m iddle as wel l,not stopping the game

unti l every one has been touched . And when that is finished,

every one bows down to the ground and says : “Listen , 0grandfather beneath the earth, for I am no leper, for the lepers

at Name’

hana 2 only are lepers . Then they spit,saying“Poa.

”3

In the second fo rm of this game the chi ldren assemble in

some numbers,and one o f them hides a smal l stone

,conceal ing

i t inside the palm o f the hand , putting it Opposite one or o ther

of his fingers. He then bids his companions choose,and when

one guesses right the finger where the l i ttle stone is, that one

is cal led hbha,and they all ru sh away to save themselves upon

The Trana’

raka is a smal l animal al l ied to the hedgehogs, belonging to thefamily Centetidae, of the order Insecti vora.

2 This is one of the old towns in Imerina,where those affl icted w ith this

disease l ive separate from other people.

3 It is a common practice w ith the Malagasy to spit if they smel l anythingoffensive. See Folk-Lore Record , vol. i i . p . 37 .

SONGS , POETRY, AND MYTH ICAL CREATURES. 25

some stone. But when they come down on the ground they

are chased by the one cal led ho‘

ha,and if he touches any one

then his lepro sy removes to the one touched . And so they g o

on unti l all have had thei r turn. At the end they allSpit, and

say Poa,for i t is not I who am a leper.

Ano ther game is cal led M ifdmp ibdhy,i.e.

, Carrying each

o ther on the back,”the l i ttle ones being carried by the big ones

round the house, with the fo l lowing ditty

Carry me on your back, 0big one

Where shal l I carry you , ehCarry me to fo l low a clod , ohWhat sort of c lod is that, eh

The Takatra’

s2nest

,1 mean, oh

ThatTakatra whose mate is dead , ehTake me home, 0big one.

S tar-ki l l ing (M amono hintana) is the name of another

chi ldren ’s play, also a favourite one on moonl ight nights . A

number of them s i tting together get a l i ttle Sheep’s dung ; and

then,looking at the stars

,they choose one o f the brightest

,and

say,“We

’l l ki l l (or put out) that one.

” Then one of them who

has a good vo i ce s ings the fo l lowing, the rest taking up the

strainRubbed w ith sheep 's dung,Tomato seed

,gourd seed

Cucumbers ful l of flattery,Flattered by that deceiver,Shal l he die whose fate is evi l &c . &c .

A somewhat mo re elabo rate game is cal led Pe’

tap e’

taha

[ ne’

nihe’

(pe’

taha means adhering to,

”sticking to

,

”and [ ne

’

nihe’

is A number of chi ldren being gathered together

they all choose one about whom they say,“Dead is Granny

M rs. Moon -dead -by-day

-but- l iving-by-n ight” (or

“Extinguishedby

-day-but- l ighted-by

-night,"Ravélanamdti-dndro-ha

This one they place in the m iddle and cover her up with a

1 The Takatra (Scopus umbrella) is a stork which bui lds a very large and con

sp icuous nest in the trees , carrying up a great quantity of dry grass and sticks, &c.

16


quantity of clo thes. Then they all pretend to weep,and s ing

o ut

Oh granny O oh grannyDeso late

,desolate, say I , O

Your grandchi ldren young locusts passing .

And so wake up , wake up , say I , OFor m iserable are the many chi ldrenAnd so come back

,come back

,say I , O

For starving are the many l ittle ones

Then they cal l out for some time,tel l ing the calam ity which

has befal len them. Then they keep quite sti l l for a l ittle while,

which they cal l the night for s leeping,and for the old lady to

appear to them all in thei r dreams (l i teral ly, for“press ing

,

”o r

“squeez ing,

”a wo rd used to express the suppo sed inspi ration

o f people by the Vaz imba I or by the spiri t o f thei r ancesto rs).

During this time the one they cal l the dead old lady pretends

to inspire (or appear in dreams to) them all,and cal ls out

so ftlyOh l ittle children

, 0Oh little chi ldren, 0Cross over allof you ,For on return of thisSunday w illbe here.

And I shal l rise up then.

After a l i ttle pause they allspeak , saying : Granny pressed me

(or appeared to me) that she’l l be al ive (again). Wai ting a

l i ttle longer sti l l , they say,

“The time’

s come.

” Then granny

g ets up , and they p at her with thei r hands, saying

Pétap étaka Inénibé,Pétap étaka Inénibé.

Then they all rejo i ce very much, dancing and beating thei r

These are bel ieved to be the inhabitants of the central provinces of Madagascar, and unacquainted with the use of iron and are said to have been drivenwestward by a Hova king

,named Andriamanélo . See Chapter I I . p . 26, ante. A

remnant of this tribe is said to be sti l l existing in the western part of Madagascar. Their tombs are regarded w ith superstitious dread

,and they are sup

p osed to appear to people in their dreams. They are mostly malevolent Spirits,

according to the popular bel ief.


amusement may be mentioned,al though it is by no means

confined to chi ldren , viz ., songs and ditties intended to help in

learning to count. M r. R i chardson, in the second number o f

the P ublications of the M alag asy Folh-lore S ociety,gives ten

specimens o f these productions, one o f them being a song o f

ten verses of four l ines each, but mo st having only ten l ines ,and some only four. I n some o f these ditties there is a punning

on the fo rm o f the different wo rds for the numbers up to ten,

some wo rd of s im i lar sound being brought in to help the

memory. This is much the same as if we, to help to remember

the number“one,” brought in the wo rd “won ”in connection

with i t ; or with“four,” befo re ”

; or with“eight,

” “abate,

”

&c. Here is a specimen verse or two

1 . E , Andriantsa ! e Andrianisa I . O M ister One O M ister OneAz amanisa ny efa tsy nety e Do not count (lit. , do one

”

) the un

E,homba anao aho re I W i l l ing, OE,ry izy aroy e 0, I

’ l l go along w ith youO ,he

'

s yonder there

6 . E,Andrianenina ! e Andrianenina 6 . O M ister S ix O M ister S ix

Azamanenina 1alohan

’

ny, o lona e Do not regret before people0lE

,homba anao aho re 0,

I ’l l go along w ith youE

,ry izy aroy e O ,

he'

s yonder there

8 . E , Andriambato, e Andriambalo 8 . O M ister E ight O M ister E ightM ivalo 2 fanahy tsy haditra e Begging pardon,w i l l notbe obstinate,E,homba anao aho re O

E,ry izy aroy e 0, I

’ l l go along w ith youO , he

’

s yonder there

I n the fo l lowing the numbers are S imply appl ied to different

objects

Isa ny amontana, One the amontana (tree) .Roa ny aviavy, Two the aviavy (trees) .

Telo fangady, Three spades.

Efa-drofia, Four rofia (palms) .

Dimy emboka,

Five gums.

Playing on the simi larity of sound between the words e'

nina,six

,and

mane’

nina, to regret. The words are shown by ital ics.

2 A play on the words balo valo,eight, and mivalo, to abjectly beg pardon

on account of these sim i larities in sound to unpleasant ideas , both six and eightare considered unlucky numbers. See Folk-LoreRecord , vol. i i . p . 38 .

SONGS , POETRY, AND MYTH ICAL CREATURES. 229

Eni-mang‘ amanga, S ix blues.

Fito p araky, Seven tobacco (plants) .

Valo tanantanana,

Eight castor-oil(shrubs) .

Sivy rongony, N ine hemp (plants) .Fo lo fanolehana Ten tw istings

I n ano ther, wo rds are chosen in each o f the ten l ines that con

tain the wo rds for the“

numbers from one to ten ; they are

mostly names o f plants,grasses

,&c

Hisatra (the peel of rushes) .

Tsindroadroatra (a grass, Sporobolus indicus,Telorirana (CyperusEfaninaDingadingana (a shrub

,Ps-ladia dodonce cefolia, St.)

Voninenina (a herb , Epallage dentata, D .C .)Fitatra (a bird , Sp . ofWarbler

,Pratincola sybilla, L.)

Kimbalombalontandroka (the core of a horn) .

S ivana (Eng . a sieve) .

Tsipolopolotra (the seeds of B idens

Some seem merely nonsense rhymes ; and o thers carry on the

last syl lables o f one l ine to the fi rst of the next

Aingisa,Aingoa,Talonga,’Ndratanga,Diminga,Aiminga,Tsitonga,

Valonga,

Tsivaz a,

Aigo

Roa ah -jaz aTelo am-behivavy

Efatra ah—dehilahyRaika tsy tiabe

SECTION I I I . : MARVELLOUS CREATURES, OR BOGEY

STORIES.— The Malagasy,l ike most uncivi l ised peoples, are

fond of the marvel lous, and many are the wonderful stor ies

to ld of strange creatures and unearthly appearances some o f

them have seen . Several o f the extrao rdinary creatures are

Voamanisa,

Voamanap ily,P i ly maka

,

Maka ity,Ity koa,

Tabarasily,S i ly kely

,

Tangorom - bo la,Haz on-dandy

,

Tsy fo lo va izao e (Isn'

t that ten

Two for the chi ldThree for the woman

Four for the manOne

’

s not l iked much


described in M r. Dahle’

s book,and I shal l therefo re give a

translation o f what is said about each of them,only om i tting a

few sentences which are merely wo rdy repetitions . I n a note

to the heading of Sdmp ony’

dvatra Sdsany M dhag dg a, or“Sundry Marvel lous S to ries,

” i t is said that these sto ries come

from the Betsi leo distri ct, the southern- central province of

Madagascar. I t wi l l be seen that some o f the strange creatures

here described are not animals,but have some connection with

humani ty : the hinoly being a grisly reappearance o f men after

death ; the ang aldp ona being a kind of water- Sprite ; while the

siona is a dim inutive elf o f pi lfering propensi ties.

1 . The S ong o‘

mhy .

I— The S ong o‘

mhy ,they say,

is an animal

as big as an ox and fleet o f foo t, and is said to eat men. I n

fo rmer times (not very long ago ) the people in the south thought

the ho rse 2 was a S ong émhy come from abroad . The way i t is

caught,they say,

is thus A chi ld is fastened at the entrance o f

the S ongomhy’

s den,so that i t cries, and a net is Spread at the

entrance, whereupon the creatu re comes and is snared . Near

our town (says the autho r o f this account) is a ho le in the rock

where the people think there is a S ong o‘

mhy . When i t sees anyone i t attacks them fiercely

,but the female, i t is said

,does not

fight much,but only encourages the male

,so that they always

go together. I t once happened , they say, that a certain man

was go ing about by night,and met with the S ong omhy . He

fought most bravely all night,and, being a very strong man

,

was not hurt. Ano ther sto ry about i t is that a naughty chi ld

was put by its father and mo ther outs ide the house, and would

have been devoured by one of these creatures had i t not been

quickly rescued. And ano ther day,the tale goes, a chi ld was

pun ished in the same way, the parents cal l ing out,Here’

s your

share,Mr. SongOmby Then the beast real ly came up, where

2 The two words apparently composing this namemean respectively as fo l lowssonga,“having the upper l ip turned upward , uncovered ,” and (imby, an ox. Son

gamby means, figuratively,“l ion-hearted .

2 The horse 18 of quite modern introduction into Madagascar ; it is Cal led , by ac orruption of the French word

, soavaly _ cheval.


n ight, and each fought hard . And during the confl ict the Fandny

did not bite with its mouth, but fought with its seven ho rns ;each o f these was success ively broken , unti l at last i t was ki l led

by the bul l . Just before death it d rew itself up and swel led out

to the s iz e o f a mountain , so that all the vil lages in the neigh

bourhood could not be inhabited on account of the effluvium . I t

was a man from Imamo (the western part o f Imérina, the central

province) who to ld me this, and i t was there, he said , that i t

happened.

There is also ano ther sto ry about the Fandny as fo l lows

When it becomes big, they say i t enci rcles a mountain (ItritrlvaI

is said to be one o f such mountains) and when its head and tai l

meet and there is anything to spare bes ides what goes round the

mountain , the creature eats i t ; and when that is done, some say

that i t sticks its tai l into the earth and mounts up to the sky ;

but o thers say that i t goes into some great piece o f water

suffi cient for its s iz e. I t remained in the lake of Itritriva, they

say,but when i t became too big for the lake i t removed to

Andraikiba (a lake west of Antsirabe, in the same neighbour

hood), and there i t remains up to the present time.

I have seen the animal cal led the Fandny (says the native

narrato r), but I have no t seen ei ther its seven heads or any

appearance o f them ; and on asking the people the reason of

this,they repl ied that it was yet too young. The s iz e o f the

creature they po inted out to me was about that of an adult

mdnditra, or somewhat less.

3 . The Téhantong otra or To‘

handia (“S ingle- foo t or

“S inglestep —This is a large white animal (but smal ler than the

S ongomby), and, as its name impl ies,its feet are not cloven , and

i t does not mean that the animal has a s ingle leg in front and a

S ingle one behind , as several European wri ters have described .

I t is an exceedingly swift animal, so that no o ther creature has

a chance of escaping it. I t eats men,and goes about at night

I This is the name of an extinct vo lcano in the Northern Betsi leo country . The

crater is occupied by a lake of profound depth . See Chap . V.

SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTH ICAL CREATURES. 233

l ike the S ong o‘

mhy. There are people who say they have seen

i t,but few compared with tho se who testify to the existence o f

the S ong o‘

mhy .

I

4. The K indly— This creature is said to be human. When

any one dies who turns into a Kino‘

ly ,he is buried by the rela

tives, unti l the intestines and the Skin o f the stomach alldecay ;and when that is the case, they open up the tomb so that the

Kindly may go out ; so i t goes out. Thei r eyes are red and

thei r nai ls long,but they are no longer l ike the l iving ; yet the

who le body,except the po rtions al ready mentioned

,is l ike that

of a human being. They are said to be constantly thieving ;and when any one leaves out cooked rice or o ther food , they

take i t. Sometimes they also steal rice in the husk,but i t is

said they can hard ly carry any burden ; and a sto ry is to ld o f

some one who saw two Kindly steal ing rice,and hid himself to

observe thei r pro cedure. They fi l led with rice some vesse l they

carried , and the male one carried the burden,putting i t on his

Shoulder ; but as soon as i t rested there,he cried “I’m kil led ;

0my shoulder !” Then said the female, There s no carrying

it ; where is i t ? I ’l l carry it. Then She carried i t on her head

(that is their custom when bo th husband and wife die) ; but as

soon as i t was placed there,she cal led out

,

“I’m ki l led O my

head !” Another sto ry is to ld o f a person suddenly meeting a

Kinoly one day,and

,seeing the redness of its eyes and the

length o f its nai ls , said , How is i t your eyes are so red ? I t

replied , God passed by them.

”Then he asked again, How is

i t your nai ls are so long ? ” I t repl ied,

“That I may tear out

your l iver ” (or ins ide), upon which i t to re the man. I n the

B’

etsi l‘

eo province people say that there are Rine‘

ly up to the

present time, and this not long ago ,but quite recently. Among

the inhabitants there are many who bel ieve in the reappearance

of these bowel less people but they think i t is a cause of lamen

tation, bo th to the person himself and also to his relations

, to

become a Kinoly.

2 It is commonly said that those who even see the Tohandlu are immediatel ystruck dead or senseless.

234 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST..

5. TheDo’

na or P ily fi— This animal is one o f the fiercest of

creatures ; i t is big and long,and its skin is striped , so that

makers of ldmha take i t as a pattern for striped clo ths. During

the day i t is quite gentle, so that even an infant can play with i t

and take no harm ,but when night comes on there is hardly any

o ther creature so fierce. They say i t bel lows l ike a bul l . If any

animal or man meets i t at night,i t enci rcles him at the lo ins

and compresses him so tightly that in a very sho rt time the

object attacked is dead . I t has the power of making its body

big or l i ttle, something l ike indiarubber. I t is very crafty, so

that when i t meets with a serpent which is a creep

ing creature l ike i tself, i t appears to be afraid,and makes its

body smal l . Then comes the serpent and twines round i t, and

then raises its tai l to strike the .Do’

na (for the tai l of theM e’

nardna

is barbed,they say, l ike a spear

,and i t ki l ls its victims by this

means). Then the Do’

na swel ls its body suddenly, so that the

M e‘

nardna is broken,as if cut with a knife. Such is its power

that i t is said to be able to fo rce its way out of its ho le,al though

Opposed by the strength o f the strongest man stopping it up

with a cloth stuffed in at the entrance. Whistl ing,i t appears

,

makes the Déna angry,al though in the daytime it is usual ly

tame.

6 . The Ldlome’

na or La‘

lime’

na.

— This animal is l ike the ox,

but l ives in the water. I t has two ho rns,and they are very red

,

and i t is said to be amongst the strongest of the animals which

l ive i n the water. I t is difficult to say exactly what its appear

ance and qual i ties are,for there is much of the fabulous m ixed

2 Pily is the name of a serpent. This account is,I think , hardly correctly p ut

under the heading of superstitious bel iefs ; except in two or three po ints, it israther a piece of natural history observation ,

for there is no question at allaboutthe existence in the western and warmer parts of Madagascar of one or morespecies of boa. These examples of the w idely-spread tropical pythons belong toa pecul iar genus

,Sanz inia ; hanging from the branches of the trees, these ser

pents are said to pounce suddenly on their victims, and , enveloping them in their

fo lds,speedi ly squeez e them to death . They are even said to kil l oxen, and

occasional ly man, but doubtless a good deal of sup erstition'

is m ixed up with thenative accounts of them .


Ang aldp ona,such as raw eels and cray-fish and the l ike. And

so because she would remain always at the doo rway, her clo thes

became covered with water-plants. So the Ang aldp ona and his

wife considered together what they should do with her,and they

agreed to send her back home. This they did after giving her

(power to wo rk) divination. And now she is appl ied to by the

people for that purpose.

And Rainitsimanahy’

s account is that he was in the unin

habited region,and at the time when every one is fast asleep an

Ang aldp ona came and des ired him to be its husband . But as he

wou ld not agree to this,i t fo l lowed him about perpetual ly.

Many o f the people say that they have seen this creature,especial ly those who are affl i cted with a disease cal led j ila.

8 . The S iona.— The creature so cal led has also something

human about i t, but it is different bo th from the Kindly and the

Ang aldp ona. I t is said to l ive away from men,and when any

one goes through the uninhabited co untry and does not take

care of his rice,or chopper

,these are taken by the S iona, they

say,and conveyed to its abode. When the woodmen go to

s leep,and leave a fire sti l l burning (for thei r custom is to place

a big log on the hearth befo re S leeping,so that they may be

kept warm ), then this creature comes and warms i tself. Its food

is a roo t cal led Ave’

ho (Vigna ang ivensis, Baker) and o ther sub

s tances. A l l over its body it is covered with l ichen growing

upon it,so that when i t l ies down on a ro ck it is not distinguish

able,although Seen close to the place. When any people are i l l

and out of thei r m ind , their friends are afraid lest they Shal l

become a S iona ; and very lately i t was repo rted that some

people narrowly escaped this fate,from which they were only

saved by the strenuous effo rts o f their friends.

CHAP TER X 1].

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES .

Bonia— Crocodi le and Dog— Three S isters and Itrimobé—The Members of the

Body—The Little B ird— Rap éto—The Lost Son of God— The Five Fingers— The Earth and the Skies—The B irds choos ing a King— The LizardsHawk and Hen—Vaz imba— Chameleon and Lizard—Serpent and FrogThe Rice and Sugar-cane—Two Rogues—“fi ld Hog and Rat.

E now come to the last divis ion of the subjects treated

of in our text-book (Rev. L . Dahle’

s M alag asy Falh-lore),

that of Fo l k- tales and Fables— or,as they are cal led in Mala

gasy, Ang dno or Arira ; i.e.,fables, tales , and legends . These

o ccupy nearly two - thirds o f M r. Dahle’

s book (294 and

include eighty- four separate pieces, some o ccupying only a

s ingle paragraph, while o thers extend to a cons iderable length .

The longest sto ry, that o f Bonia, o ccupies fo rty- seven pages ;another, twenty- three pages ano ther, thirteen pages, and so on

,

down to a page or two . About twenty of these sto ries are

fables chiefly referring to animals ; several relate passages in

the adventures of two Malagasy rogues, whose ful ler histo ry

had previously been publ ished in a separate fo rm some partake

o f the character o f nursery rhymes some are mythic,profess ing

to explain the o rigin o f man and nature ; and several are giant

sto ries, in which a monster cal led Itrimobé is a prom inent acto r.

I n various numbers o f the Folh-lore j ournal for 1883 and

1884 1 gave translations of thirty- eight of these composi tions,

and those who are interested in such studies wil l there find a

good variety of them . Here, however, we can only include237


a specimen or two o f each class o f fo lk - tale,but probably these

wil l indicate sufficiently clearly the character o f the who le.

The most favourite, as wel l as the longest Malagasy fo l k - tale,

is that o f Bonz‘

a,or

,as the name is given in some variants of the

story, Andrian -ari- saina-bonia-maso -bonla-manoro O f this

tale M r. R i chardson says : “I t could , with a l i ttle ‘ padding ’

and the additions contained in our various renderings, be

lengthened out into a good- s iz ed three-vo lume novel , so many

are the incidents and dramatis p ersona while the most concise

fo rm o f i t (18 pp .) is that publ ished in the fi rst number o f the

[Malagasy] Folh-lore S ociety’

s P ublications,and obtained by

the writer [M r. R.]from a teacher in the London M iss ionary

Society’

s No rmal Schoo l . Its length and weal th o f incident

certainly establ ish its claim for a fi rst place in all no tices of the

Malagasy tales.

” Several of the fo l lowing sto ries are trans lated

from Fol/e-lore and Fol/e—tales of M adag ascar.

The Crocodile and the Dog .

Once upon a time a cro codi le and a dog chanced to meet

suddenly on the road . Then said the crocodile,“Where are

you from ,my younger brother ?

” Just hereabouts,my elder

bro ther,”

said the dog . Upon that the dog also asked the

cro codi le,“Where are you from , elder bro ther ? ” “I’ve j ust

c ome from such a place, younger brother ,”said he.

And said the dog , What do you think about my proposal ?

do you agree or not ?” “What propo sal is that

,younger

bro ther ? ” Let us strike up a friendship together,”said the

dog . Yes, allright,”said the cro codi le “if a l i ttle fel low l ike

you knows what is right, much mo re a senio r l ike myself. Come

along then , young friend .

” “Agreed ,” said the dog . So the

two struck up a firm friendship,and went on talk ing thus !

“Whoever proves false, said the crocodile,“shal l be scouted .

Agreed,”said the dog .

Some l i ttle time afterwards the crocodi le said , Come,let

me give you a meal , young friend . So he supplied the dog


One day Ifara had a dream , and to ld it to her s isters ; said

she,

“I have had a dream , lasses , and I dreamt that the son of

the sun came from heaven to take a wife from among us,and i t

was I whom he took , for you“two he left behind.

”

Then the two s isters were very angry about it, and said,

“I tis true enough that she is prettier than we are

,and if a prince o r

noble Should seek a wife,he would choose her

,and not care for

us ; so let us cons ider what to do . Come,let us take her out

to play, and find out from people which o f us they consider the

best looking. So they cal led Ifara, and said,

“Come, Ifara, let

us go and play.

So they went away all dressed in thei r best, and soon met

an old woman. Granny, said they, which o f us three s isters

is the prettiest ?”

Ramatoa(the eldest) is good looking, Raivo

(the m iddle one) is good looking, but Ifara is better looking than

either.” Oh, dear, said they,“there’

s no doubt Ifara is prettier

than we are.

”So they took o ff Ifara

’

s ldmha (the outer native

dress, a large oblong piece o f clo th).

Presently they met an old man.

“Grandfather,they said

,

who is the prettiest of us three s isters Ramatoais good

looking, Raivo is good looking, but Ifara is better looking than

ei ther.” Dear me ! al though deprived o f her ldmha

,She is sti l l

prettier than we are. So they stripped her of her underclo thing.

Then they met with Itrimobé. (This was an immense

monster, half human and half beast , a man-eating creature,and

with a frightful ly Sharp tai l .)“Oh, clear, if here isn

’t Itrimobé '

“Who is the prettiest o f us three s isters ? But with a snarl he

answered just as the old woman and old man had answered .

So the s isters were bes ide themselves with anger because

Ifara was prettier than they were, and they said, If we were to

kil l Ifara, perhaps father and mo ther would hear of i t and ki l l

us,so let us go and get some o f Itrimobé

’

s vegetables,SO that

he may eat her.

”So the s isters said to her,

“Come

,Ifé ra, let

us see who can find the nicest vegetables.

” “Come along then

,

”

she said ,“let us take some o f those yonder (meaning those o f

MALAGASY FOLK -TALES AND FABLES . 24 1

Itrimobé).“Shal l we get the ripe or the young ones ? said

Ifara.

“Get those just sprouting,” said they. Then they went

to get them ,but the two s isters took the full -grown ones. So

when the three showed thei rs to each o ther Ifara’

s were the

wo rst. “Oh, dear !” cried she,

“why yours are the ful l -grown

,

you’ve cheated me.

“It’s yourself, girl , who would take the

unripe,”

said the two ; go along and fetch some full -grown

ones ”

So Ifara went o ff to get them but whi le she was gathering

them she was caught by Itrimobé.

“I’ve got you, my lass ,said he

,

“for you are taking my vegetables ; I’l l eat you , my

lass. Then Ifz‘

ira cried ,“I am so rry

,Itrimobé

,but take me for

your w ife.

”Come along, then,

”said he (but i t was that he

m ight take her home to be fattened , and after that eat her).

The sisters were exceedingly glad at this, and went away to

tel l their father and mother, saying, Ifara sto le Itrimobé’

s vege

tables,30he has eaten her.

”Then the old people wept profusely

for so rrow. So Itrimobé fed up Ifara at his house, and would

no t let her go out of doo rs , but covered her w i th mats, while he

went into the country hunting things to fatten her, so that Ifara

became very fat, and the time approached for Itrimobé to devou r

her.

But one day,when Itrimobé happened to have gone abroad

hunting,a l i ttle mouse wearing plantain fibre clo th j umped by

Ifh ra’

s S ide and said , G ive me a l i ttle white rice,Ifara

, and I’l l

give you advice.

” “What advice can you give me ?”said Iféra.

Wel l , then,let Itrimobé devour you to -mo rrow.

” “But whatis the advice you can give me ?

”said Ifara

,

“for I ’l l give youthe rice.

”So she gave some white rice to the l ittle mouse

clo thed in clo th of plantain fibre ; and i t said to her,

“Be o ff

with you ,and take an egg , a broom ,

a smal l cane, and a smoo th

round stone, and escape southwards.

”

So Ifara took the things and set off ; but she put a plantain

tree stem instead of herself in her bed , and locked up the house.

Presently Itrimobé came home from the fields bringing,with

17


him a spear for ki l l ing Ifara, and a cooking-

p ot so he knocked

at the doo r, but no one Opened. Said he, Dear me,Ifara

’

s got

so fat she can’t move.

”So he broke Open the doo r, and com ing

up to the bed thrust his spear through the mat, so that i t stuck

fast in the plantain- tree stem . Then he said , Oh dear, Ifara’

s

so fat the spear sticks fast into her. So he stuck i t in again

and l icked the spear. Why,

”said he, Ifara must be fat, for

her blood has no taste ! But when he had opened the mat to

take her for cooking, 10 and beho ld,the plantain- tree stem !

Oho ! the wo rthless wench has run o ff said he.

Then he snuffed the air to the east,but there was no thing

there he snuffed to the no rth,no thing there he snuffed to the

west,nothing there ; he snuffed to the south ,

“Ah,there She is !

”

O ff he sets,runs after her with all speed

,and at last overtakes

her ;“I’ve got you ,

Ifara So Ifara threw down her broom,

saying,“By my sacred father and mother

,let this become a

dense thicket which Itrimobé canno t pass through . Then a

very dense thicket grew up. But Itrimobé took his tai l and cut

away perseveringly at the thicket unti l i t was all cleared off.

“I’ve g ot you now,Ifz

‘

ira !

Then Ifara put down her egg , saying, By my sacred father

and mother, let this egg become a great poo l of water.” Then

a great poo l appeared . But Itrimobé began to drink up the

water and kept pouring it into the river. A t last the water was

dried up. I’

ve got you now,Ifara

Then Ifara put down her smal l cane,saying

,By my sacred

father and mo ther,let this cane become a dense fo rest.” Then

a dense impassable fo rest grew up. But Itrimobé w i th his tai l

hewed down the fo rest,and kept at wo rk unti l the who le was

fel led. I’

ve g ot you now,Ifara

Then Ifara put down her smoo th round stone, and said,

“Bymy sacred father and mo ther

,let this become an inaccess ible

precipice which Itrimobé canno t cl imb. SO i t became an

immense precipice. Then Itrimobé cut away with his tai l

incessantly, but at last his tai l became so blunt he could do


she washed her face, and seeing a reflection in the water, cried

out,“My wo rd to have a pretty face l ike m ine

,and yet carry

a waterpot on my head !” But it was the reflection o f Ife

‘

ira’

s

face She saw in the water and took it for her own. So she broke

the waterpo t in pieces . Then Ifara cal led out'

from the tree,

Father and mother are at expense to buy waterpots,and you

break them So the slave-girl,whose name was Itrétrikandévo

,

looked all about her and said ,“Wherever was that person

speaking ? ”So she went o ff home.

On the morrow She came again to fetch water, and washing

her face again , saw a reflection in the water,and breaking the

waterpo t said ,“A handsome face l ike m ine

,indeed

,and have

to carry water on my head !” But i t was Ifara’

s face she saw

there. And again Ifara spoke from up the tree,Father spends

money buying, and you break .

”And again Itrétrikandévo

looked about her, saying, Whoever was that speaking ?”

So she ran o ff to the vi l lage, saying to her master and

m istress,“There was somebody speaking yonder at the wel l

,

but I could not see who i t was, yet the vo i ce was l ike Ifara’

s

So the pai r went o ff to see,and when they g ot there Ifara came

down,and all three wept for joy. Then Ifara to ld them how

her S isters had deceived her so that she m ight be seiz ed by

Itrimobé. So they disowned the two daughters and kept Ifara

as thei r chi ld .

The Disp ute for S eniority among the M embers of the B ody .

Once upon a time,i t is said , the Ear, the Eye, the Mouth

,

the Hand, the Foot, and the Bel ly disputed together about

sen io rity, and in this manner went the dispute

Said the Ear,“I am the eldest of all

, because i t is I who

hear all things whatsoever.

And when the Eye heard that, he answered,

“I t isn’t you

who are the eldest, but I for al though you ,Ear

,may even hear,

if i t wasn ’t for me,the Eye, seeing, then you would see nothing

of the way you ought to tread.

”

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES . 245

And when the M outh heard that,he was angry

,and said

,

You fel lows here are talking nonsense,and disputing as to who

shal l be the head ; while nei ther o f you is the eldest,but it is

I myself ; for al though you ,Ear

,may hear, and you ,

Eye, even

may see,if i t was not for me

,Mouth

,speaking

, you would

remain s i lent as stone or wood .

”

And when the Hand heard that he was startled,and said

,

Why, you ought to be ashamed of yourselves for talking such

rubbish,and each o f you saying

,

‘ I t is I who am eldest. ’ Why

don’t you think a l i ttle befo re you Speak ? For al though you

allmay be here, ear and eye and mouth,if i t wasn’t for me

,the

hand,which takes ho ld and wo rks

,what could you all accom

p lish ? So let every one be sti l l,for there is no one of you

e ldest, for I , the hand , alone am the e ldest.”

And when the Foo t heard that, he burst out laughing, and

said,

“What a set of foo ls ! j ust look at the Shadow fi rst befo re

you peer into the glass. People l ike you ,indeed

,quarrel l ing

about sen io ri ty For what are you but maiz e hung up , so that

al though you ,Eye, may see

,and al though you ,

Mouth,may

Speak,and al though you ,

Hand,may take ho ld , if i t wasn

’t for

me,the foo t

,to go and carry you ,

what would you be better

than the bo ttom of the basket,to sit sti l l wi thout any o ther

bus iness than to be friends w ith the ashes ? I Don’t dispute any

mo re about senio rity, for none o f you is wo rthy to be senio r.

For i t is I , the foot, only who am senio r.”

And the Bel ly, when he heard all that, said,How is i t

these fel lows have a mouth that is never ti red,and l ips above

and below,and are not to rn to pieces l ike a rag ?

This Ear, fo rsoo th, making himself to be senio r ! The dog

has ears j ust as much as you ,and hears the abuse and evi l wo rds

spoken by o thers but its bel ly does no t know rest, and is happy

to bear the abuse of o thers .

And you ,Eye, making yourself to be senio r ! Every

l iving thing Sees the darkness and the l ight ; but the bel ly

2 Alluding to the ashes carried in baskets as manure for the rice-fields.


does not observe, for the eye looks upon the good and the

evi l

And you ,M outh, also ,

making yourself to be senio r The

pig, too ,

has a mouth the same as you ,but its bel ly is happy in

do ing evi l , and devours that which it had vom i ted .

“And you , Hand , also making yourself to be senio r ! The

crab has hands j ust as much as you ,but its bel ly has no thought

,

so its hands can do nothing o f themselves, ei ther separately or

altogether.

“And as for you ,Foo t

,making yourself to be senio r You

see that the ox has feet j ust as much as you ,but its bel ly is

foo l ish, and so i t is made a treader of rice- fields and a breaker

up of clods.

I So this is what I declare to you : Don’t dispute

any mo re about senio rity, for i t is I alone who am the eldest,because i t is I , the bel ly, who am thinker and observer, and

receptacle for the food which is to strengthen you all.”

So they allhumbled themselves to be junio rs,and the bel ly

only was agreed to as the eldest ; and they gathered together

there allthe emo tions expressed in such phrases as“My heartis troubled

,

” My l iver is troubled,

” My bowels are troubled ,”

My bel ly is troubled,

”&c.

The meaning o f this amus ing fable wi l l be clearer if i t is

remembered that the Malagasy use the wo rd for bel ly (hibo) i n

a very wide sense, as including heart, bowels, l iver, womb,stomach

,&c. ; and that in these o rgans they (l ike O rientals

general ly) place the seat of the emo tions and feel ings,and the

intel l igence also . The s im i larity of the main idea o f the fable

to that o f [Esop ’

s The Bel ly and the Members,”is obvious

,an

idea which is probably found in almost every nation , as is also

seen in its very ful l use as an i l lustration by S t. Paul in I Cor.

xi i . 12—25. I t wi l l be no ticed that senio rity is equivalent among

the Malagasy to headship or lo rdship.

Oxen are driven about on the soft mud of therice-fields,over which water

has been al lowed to flow,after they have been dug up by the spade.


the man did not answer and went on by himself, and presently

real ly began to cut. So the bird cal led out again

Is cooking indeed , is this man,Is cooking the l ittle antsalyIs cooking !”

And after a l i ttle while the bird was cooked and the man ate

but the people i n the house would not eat, for they were afraid .

Then the bird cal led out again

Is eating indeed,is this man,

Is eating the l ittle antsaly .’

Is eating

And after the man had eaten he sat down no rth o f the hearth,I

and his wife sat south o f i t,and the chi ldren east o f i t. And

after a l ittle time the man ’s stomach began to swel l, and the

bird also cal led out again in his stomach thus

Is ful l indeed , is this man,

Is ful l of the l ittle antsaly !Is ful l

Then his wife spoke again to him,

“Now you see what you ’ve

got ! for you were admonished and wouldn ’t take warning.

”

But the man could no t answer,but wept, and his tears flowed

apace. And then,wonderful to relate, the bird

’

s parents out in

the field cal led out

Gone where is the l ittle antshly .2

Gone where is the l ittle antsalyGone where P

And their chi ld there in the man ’

s stomach answered thus

Here indeed I am,father

,

Here indeed I am ,mother,

Here

2 Hova houses are always built north and south , and north of the hearth ,which is an open fireplace of earth and stones

,is the place of honour in the

house.

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 249

So the parent birds heard it and came near ; and com ing west

Of the compound cal led out thus

Gone where is the l ittle antsaly .9

Gone where is the l ittle autsaly .9

Gone where

S o the bird answered again

Here indeed I am,father

,

Here indeed I am,mother,

Here

And when the pair heard that,they came into the house and also

said,Was i t you (pl.) who ate our chi ld Then the chi ldren

in the house answered ,“I t was daddy who ate i t.” So the

birds.spoke again

,

“Why was i t that thou atest our chi ld ? ”

But the man answered no thing,but wept profusely. Then the

birds to re up the man’

s bel ly with thei r claws and go t thei r

chi ld ; and then the three went home into the woods,but the

man who would not be warned by wife and chi ldren died .

The sto ries which people relate o f this Rap éto are exceed

ingly puz z l ing sti l l, we may safely say that they are fabulous .

The town where he l ived , they say,is Ambohidrapeto , west

o fAntananarivo .

I And the fables related o f him are these

I . They say he was so tal l as to touch the skies. And

although it was at Ambohidrapeto that he ate ri ce, the rice he

cooked would be in the fo rest to the east [that is, twenty m i les

away].

2. They say he went to amuse himself at AmbOhitrarahaba,

2

and i t was only one step from there to AmbOhidrap éto . [The

places are about six m i les apart]

3 . Those rocks , with ho l lows l ike human feet in them ,on the

2 Ambohidrapeto , that is,“Town-of-Rap éto ,”

is a smal l town on a low hi l labout three m i les west o f the capital .

2 This is a large village about three m i les north of the capital.


roadside near AmbOhitrz‘

irahaba are,they say,

the impressions

of his legs and feet and knees,by which he showed his strength.

ll

4 . They say he fetched the moon as a plaything for his

chi ldren but he was struck by a meteo ro l i te, and so was ki l led .

The Lost S on of God (a Nature-myth).

(This piece was obtained from Fisakana.)

The fo l lowing is a fable related by the people o f old times

when they met together and talked

The son o f God, they say,came down here upon earth

, and

RakOriaho and Ravao were his nurses. And this son of God,

’

tis said,was lost

,and nei ther he or his nurses could be found.

And allthings of whatever kind sought for him ; whether the

stones which were below the earth,or the trees which covered

the earth,or the people which dwel t upon the earth, or the water

or the beasts. So that everything, whether l iving creatures or

things wi thout l ife,Sought him di l igently

,for the son of God

was lost. S ti l l,among them all not one found him . And so

they sent to inqui re of God . And when the messengers arrived

God said, Let everything stay in the place where i t went.” So

the stones went seeking below the earth ; and as for the trees,

the half part stuck fast in the ground,and so became fixed there

by the wo rd of God ,S tand sti l l ” ; and that, they say,

caused

some stones to be below the earth and the trees to have thei r

roo ts in the ground,and thei r branches standing above, so that

if the roo ts and the branches separate they die. And the people

also spread abroad,seeking no rthward and westward and south

ward,and lastly eastwards. (That, they say, is why prayer IS

made towards the east .2) And that is why people are spread

abroad in various countries .

2 There are certain rocks w ith some curious ho l lows in them in the placedescribed . They have probably been produced by rain-water and the unequalhardness of portions of the surface.

2 The sacred portion of a Hova house is the north-east corner, the zero

firarc‘

tzana,or corner of invocation (from the root rc‘Iry, a chant) .


thoughts, and they have no parti cu lar business to do,and no

wo rk they are skilful to perfo rm .

The Earth p rop osing to g ht with the Shies .

The people in fo rmer days,i t is said

,when

‘

they wanted to

pass away the time to ld a sto ry as fo l lows Once upon a

time the earth rose up and mounted alo ft in o rder to fight the

S ky. So all parts o f the earth agreed to set o ff at the same

time,and the rocks

,they say,

were to be the cannon bal ls to fire

at the sky. And ear ly mo rning was the time fixed to go up.

But i t is said that the plains and the val leys crept s lowly and

s luggishly,and i t was ful l day befo re they ate thei r breakfast,

and so they lagged behind ; and that is the reason o f the

inequal i ty o f the val leys and the plains and the mountains,for

they did not all keep step together. And so the heavens and

the earth d id no t m ingle,because all the earth did no t mount

u p at the same time.

The B irds ag reeing to mahe a King .

Once upon a time allthe birds on the earth agreed together

to choose one who should be thei r king and leader,but the Owl

d id not come,because it happened that his mate was S i tting

j ust then . So all the birds agreed that whoever saw the Owl

and did not beat him Should also be an outcast and be treated

as an enemy.

For this reason the Owl does not go about by day,but goes

by night ; for if any bi rds see him they all strive together to

beat him .

And the big Hawk also sought to be king,and appo inted

himself,but the o thers did not agree to i t, so he went away

from them all at enm i ty w i th them . And whatever bird this

Hawk sees he swoops down upon,because he is thei r enemy ;

and the rest chose one who Sho uld be thei r king. So they

chose the Railo‘

vy (a Shrike, Dicrurusforfi catus), because o f his

g ood pos i tion , and long top -kno t,and variety of no te.

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES . 253

And that is said to be why people cons ider theRailo‘

vy to be

king o f the bi rds .

The S itry and the Antszantsy .

(These are tw o smal l Species of Lizard .)

These creatures are bo th smal l animals, yet many people

pay them honour . They say that when a certain person cal led

RasOavOlovolOina has a chi ld bo rn,the S itiy went Off to V is it

her,but was stoned and ki l led .

Then came the Antsidntsy,and was also stoned by Rasoa

and ki l led .

And when RaSOa went out to feel the sun’

s warm th,then

came also the Tdhatrd I (the tufted umber) and the S itry and

the Antsidntsy went to the doo r o f RasOa’

s house .

And when evening came on,then the who le o f the animals

came and mourned at the doo r and devoured the chi ld o f RasOa,

and every one o f them,it is said

,lamented . And on account

of that,RasOavOlovolOina took an oath (or invoked a curse),

saying : “If any o f my descendants should ki l l a S itry or an

Antsidntsy they must wrap up its co rpse in S i lk .

There are sti l l many people who bel ieve this sto ry, and dare

not ki l l ei ther o f the l iz ards and should they accidental ly ki l l

them,they wrap the co rpse in a S i lk clo th .

“Those who ki llthem

,say some fo l ks

,

“w i l l die young.

”

The Hawh and the Hen.

A Hawk,they say,

had a son bo rn to her, and a Hen came

to nurse her. And after the Hawk had been nursed a week she

went to take exercise,and gave her son to the Hen to nurse.

Bu t when i t was broad day and the hawk did not come, the

Hen grew angry and ki l led the young one.

So when the Hawk came home and saw its young one dead ,1 M any native superstitions have co l lected about the bird . VideAntauimarivo

Annual, Vol. IV .

,189 1 , p . 295.

2 Malagasy corpses are wrapped in red S ilk Iii /films.


i t was enraged and beat the Hen,but the Hen held its ground

,

for they were equal in strength .

After some time,not seeing what to do

,the Hawk invoked

a curse, saying : “Whoever would be my true o ffspring must

ki l l the young o f this Hen,because she kil led myyoung one.

”

And that is said to be the reason why the hawk eats

chickens , but not hens.

The Vaz imba.

The Vaz imba, i t is said,l ived in this part of the i s land [that

is,in Imerina

,the central province of Madagascar]in former

times ; and as to thei r appearance they are said to have been

smal l people with l i ttle heads and i t is repo rted that they sti l l

exist on the western coast. (See Chap . p .

One day a Vaz imba went to play by the water and took

the animal cal led“the seven-headed Fandny (see p. 23 1) and

when the snake cal led To’

mp ondrdno (that is,“lo rd o f the

water ”

) passed by, the Vaz imba sent him with this message,

GO,

”said he, speak thus to father and mother

,This is the

wo rd o f thy son,Ravaz imba : I have gone under the water and

send you my farewel ls therefo re o ffer the blood o f some l iving

creature,and its feet, and hai r or feathers , and the fat, for if you

do thus you shal l be blessed .

’

SO the snake went,they say.

This is the reason some give for cal l ing certain snakes

To‘

mp ondrdno. They bel ieve that the Vaz imba gave them

power,and hardly any one wi l l k i l l these creatures and Should

any one dare ki l l one they wil l wrap it up in S i lk .

”I

And some time after that the Vaz imba sent the K ingfisher

to his father and mo ther w i th this message, Salutation to

father and mo ther,and say to them : Thus sai th Ravaz imba

,

send me fowls and sheep .

’ And when the K ingfisher had

thus spoken he returned to Vaz imba again,who said to him

,

Because you were di l igent and wise I wil l give you honour ;

2 Follow ing the same custom as when people are buried , corpses beingw rapped in red si lk lambas.


thus : “What a speckled appearance, and a blunt head,and

goggle eyes ! What ’s become o f your feet and hands ? ”So

the Serpent answered ,“My feet are wo rn off in pursuing you

frogs ; and my eyes stand out because dim with looking after

you and my Skin is speckled because I’m ful l Of your precious

father !”

So the Frog was angry and cursed the Serpent ; and that

is why i t is ho tly pursued by the serpents.

The Rice and the S ug ar- cane.

The Sugar- cane, they say, came to the R ice, to seek friend

ship with it, and spake thus to i t : “I say, 0S i r R i ce, come,

let us be relatives and friends together,and share together the

difficult and the bitter,making no difference

,for we have one

o rigin,for each is the produce of the ground bes ides that

,al ike

are the things befal l ing and the things obtained ; equal whi le

l iving,s im i lar in death . Why look

,our names even are almost

al ike,there’

s but a sl ight difference between vdry (rice) andfdry

(sugar- cane) so let us strike up a firm friendship .

”

The R i ce,however

,i t is said

,answered thus : “Your wo rds

are true enough when you relate and particularise our o rigin,

for we certainly are both the produce o f the ground,equal whi le

l iving,and s im i lar in death . But sti l l

,here’

s something which

prevents us agreeing, so it’

s no u se,for it

’

s a thing we can’t

agree about so let there not be that friendship,and do not you

blame us. For it’

s an exceedingly bad thing to agree without

thought ; for those who go along with fishermen,they say,

stink of fish ; tho se who make friends wi th vagabonds are

themselves vagrants and tho se who make friends with wo rkers

are wo rkers themselves . And so you see,my good fel low,

the

reason o f our decl ining friendship wi th you is your chang ing in

the end ; and that is why we can’t jo in together. For you see

that we have not that changing,whatever may befal l us . You

see that we are damped to become ro tten , and when we have

become so,we are soon put in the ground ; but after a l ittle

MALAGASY FOLK -TALES AND FABLES . 257

time we are sti l l r ice all the same. And when we have become

green on the earth again,then we are uproo ted and stuck in the

ground,where there is much water ; yet we do no t change

,but

sti l l remain rice. And after growing again unti l we are ripe,we

are then reaped with the knife yet we do not change,but sti l l

remain rice. And after stopping a l ittle while mo re,we are

then beaten on the stone ; yet we do no t change,but sti l l

remain rice. And not only so,but we are buried in the rice

pit ; we do not change, but sti l l remain rice. And also,we are

drawn out thence, and dried in the sun ; and when dry we are

pounded in the mo rtar and our skin stripped from us, yet we do

not change,but sti l l remain rice. And no t only so

,but we are

put into the cooking p ot and covered wi th water,and heated

with a fierce fire ; and unless wel l bo i led and tho roughly so ft,

we are not removed from i t. And when removed we are

chewed,and when masticated are swal lowed . And in allthese

calam ities which overtake and befal l us we do not change,but

sti l l remain rice. And the land where we are no t found is cal led

fam ine- stri cken , and the country where we are no t found is

cal led deso late.

“But as for you sugar- canes , on the o ther hand, you are

cut down and chopped up , and stuck about in the ground and

then you do not change at all,but are sti l l sugar- cane. And

after you have grown and become tal l , you are cut down with

the knife ; and sti l l you do not change,but are sti l l sugar- cane.

And '

afterwards you are chewed into fibres with the teeth and

crushed in the m i l l , but yet that does not change you ,for you

are sti l l sugar- cane.

But that is not all, for you are steeped in a great p o t and

after a l i ttle while you are put into a bo i l ing p o t and heated

intensely by the fire a long time, and after you thicken,they

stop . And upon that you change, and take another name,that

is, sug ar.

“And when you have been sent back to the bo i ler again,

then you no longer are a substance in a lump any mo re, but

18


become steam and disti l led drops,and go out along a bamboo

or a brass pipe,and emerging thence

, you become rum,making

wise men foo ls , and are no longer sugar- cane. So that we

canno t be friends w i th you sugar- cane,”said the R ice.

[ ho’

tofe’

tsy and lmdhahd.

2

One day, i t is said,IkOto fétsy and Imahakadisplayed an

ido l,but it was only a piece of manio c- roo t which they had

covered wi th scarlet clo th .

2 And the day was very cloudy,

and j ust as if heavy rain was com ing on ; the wind also blew

very hard . So they cal led the people together, and bade them

assemble in an open space ; and then they brought out the ido l ,but i t d id not move 3 (because i t was only manioc- roo t). So

IkOtOfétsy and Imahakét said ,“S ince we brought out the god , and

you did not bring tribute to him,he wil l not Show you his

glo ry,and is angry ; therefo re there w i l l be heavy rains to -day,

and the waters wi l l be flooded . (At the same time they knew

wel l that rain would fal l plentifully, and the streams be all

flooded .) Acco rdingly, the rain soon fel l heavily on that day,

and the waters were indeed allflooded and the people were all

exceedingly aston ished , and feared greatly.

Then IkOt’

ofétsy and Imahaka procured a serpent (called

M dnditra), and wrapped i t up in scarlet clo th as they had done

w i th the piece of manio c- root,and placed i t in a basket. And

the two fel lows spoke thus to the people :“This is the

word of our god : he was angry yesterday,but we besought

him,and so the heavy rain ceased ; so now look , for he wi l l

2 This is one of a number of short stories which are very popular w ith theMalagasy , g iving the adventures and various tricks of two c lever rogues. The

most complete co l lection of these was published atAntananarivo some years ago .

The meaning of IkOtofétsy is the“cunning lad that of Imahakais not quite

so c lear, it perhaps means“the l ight-fingered one

,or one able to carry off by

theft.2 Malagasy ido ls were of no great S ize, and were usual ly covered w ith red

c loth .

3 It was bel ieved that the ido ls had power to make their bearers move or stop ,according to the w i l l of the ido l .


water, and o ffered her a string o f co ral beads, but she happened

to be asleep when the bro thers came,and so did not talk with

them (l i t. ,“blew water on them ”

) and they were the ancesto rs

of all the people who have l ived S ince that time here in

Madagascar.

And there are sti l l many who bel ieve this fable, and who

come to the sto ry-tel lers to beg for chi ldren , but i t is only a

piece of fiction .

The Wild—hog and the Rat.

Once upon a time,’

tis said , a Wild -hog and a Rat chanced

to meet, and the Rat saluted the o ther,saying

,

“How do you

do ,

’

say I ?”So the Wild -hog replied, Oh,

I’

m to lerably wel l ,but how are you , young friend Oh, I

’

m very wel l,

”said the

Rat,saying at the same time

, Come, my elder bro ther, let us

have a game. The Wild -hog replied ,“Wel l

,all right

,young

friend ; but what so rt o f a game shal l we have ? ” “Let us

co l lect dry grass , and when we have got plenty, let us cover

ourselves w i th it and set i t on fire. Said the Wild-hog , Oh,

that’s a good idea, but perhaps you would not dare do it ? ”

Oh,I ’l l venture i t , but if I should Shirk it

,I ’l l never eat food

again ; and you also ,if you daren

’t venture i t,then you must

not eat from this time fo rth,”said the Rat. “Agreed

,

” repl ied

the Wild -hog . So they pledged each o ther to keep their

wo rd .

Then said the Wild -hog , Now you shal l go in fi rst,and

I ’l l go afterwards .

”Very wel l,

”said the Rat

,pushing himself

in to the m idst of the fuel ; but he burrowed rapidly into the

ground , and hid himself in the ho le. Presently the Wild-hog

cal led out,“Shal l I l ight i t now ? ” “Yes

,

”said the Rat. So

the Wild -hog set fire to the heap, but i t did not hurt the Rat, as

he was safe in the ho le. So as soon as i t was allburnt up, out

he came unhurt, and strutting about and looking very big, he

shouted out,“What do you say to that ? How’

s that ? ”

adding,“Come, you must go too

,M r. Wild -hog .

”

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES . 26 1

Entered,theWild-hog , ah

Pushed in,theWild-hog , ah

Is taken in,the Wild-hog , ah

IS snugly hid , theWild-hog , ahIs covered up , theWild-hog , ahIs choked

,the Wild-hog , ah

S leeps , the Wild-hog , ahTheWild-hog , ah

Breathes hard , the Wild-hog , ah

Endures, the Wild -hog , ah

So he set fire to the dry grass, and soon i t was in a blaz e

but alas for the poo r Wild-hog , who struggled and turned

about, for his back was sco rched ; so he cried out,

“Help me,

M r. Rat,I am bu rnt help me, younger bro ther, for I

’

m sco rch

ing ; help me, my friend , or I’

m consumed ; help me , you

wretch,or I ’m kil led .

”

But the Rat gave him no help for all that,for he was

spl i tting wi th laughter, but he danced about,and shouted out

thusBurn away , fireGo along

,fire

Consume him, 0fire

B laz e away , fireDie, Mr. Worn-out

Die, you old wretch

Die,old Spade-mouth

Die, old Fetch-what-you-see

Die,old Short-lo in-cloth

Die,old Snout-grubberHow do you l ike itHow are you now

Soon you are done for,Soon you squeal out,Soon you are shrivel led ,Soon you are doubled upSoon you won

’

tmove.

But after a l i ttle the Wild-hog made a desperate effo rt and

got out from among the fire,but his Skin and his fo re and hind

feet were terribly burnt, al though he was st i l l al ive . So the

Rat said,It was all a joke o f m ine, but go and bathe in the

water.” So the Wild -hog went and did so, but as soon as he

had bathed he was dead .

CHAP TER X II].

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY,TOGETHER WITH

NATIVE IDEAS AS TO FATE AND DESTINY.

The Sikidy—Subject investigated by Mr. Dahle—Little organised ido latry

among the Malagasy—Diviners—Divination and fate— Invocation of the

Sikidy— S ixteen figures of the Sikidy

—S ixteen co lumns of the Sikidy

Erecting the S ikidy—Working of the S ikidy

— Identical figures—Uniquefigures

— Combined figures—M iscel laneous Sikidy

—Gun charms—Tradecharms—Medicinal charms— Fortunate places and days—Ati-pako—Fateas to ld by z odiac and moon—Lucky and unlucky days—House divination- Fate as to ld by the planets—Days of the week—Decreasing influence of

the Sikidy.

OR mo re than two centuries past i t has been wel l known

to those Europeans who have res ided for any length o f

time in Madagascar, that a somewhat elabo rate system o f

divination,cal led S ihz

‘

dy or S ihily ,is practised by almo st allthe

various tribes inhabiting the island. Within the last five or six

years the subject has been investigated in a most complete

manner by the Rev. Lars Dahle,and I propo se to give in this

chapter a summary o f the info rmation Mr. Dahle has Obtained ,omitting many o f the m inuter po ints o f phi lo logy. Mr. Dahle

has brought to his researches a very accurate knowledge o f

A rabic,as wel l as of the Sem i tic languages general ly, and hence

he has thrown a flood of l ight upon what had previously been

hopeless ly obscure.

M r. Dahle thus descr ibes the native bel iefs in the efficacy o f

divination If you want to look into the future,‘

to detect

secret enem ies or dangers, to find o ut what is to be your lot o f

good or evi l,the sihz

‘

dy is the means of do ing i t. And the best262


power. In the outlying provinces— especial ly in the south and

west— they are general ly cal led ambidsa or ombidsy ,as they

were also cal led among the AntanOsy at Fo rt Dauphin as early

as the time o f F lacou rt, and this term is the A rabic ambia,

‘ prophet.’

“The wo rd sihidy (probably from the Arabic sichr,

‘ charm,

incantation ’

) has been general ly translated‘ divination

,

’ but

i t has a somewhat wider sense,as i t includes bo th the in

vestigation o f what is secret,and the art o f finding out the

remedy for i t, if i t proves to be o f such a nature that such a

remedy is requi red ; but the second depends on the fi rst . There

are three kinds o f sihz‘

dy which are employed almost exclusively

in finding out what is secret ; while the o ther k inds have mo re

to do with remedying the evi ls . The fi rst class,however, fo rms

sihidy p ar ex cellence, manipulated acco rding to a rather intricate

system the second class depends upon i t,and seem s to be o f a

somewhat mo re arbitrary character.”

Befo re pro ceeding further, a wo rd or two must be said as to

the Malagasy no tions o f vintana or fate,as the practice o f the

sihidy largely depends on these bel iefs . The wo rd vintana

M r. Dahle bel ieves to be an obso lete co l lateral fo rm o f the

Malagasy wo rd hintana,a star (Malayan bintang ), and , in its

restri cted meaning, deno tes the destiny o f a man as depending

on the times as declared by the stars at the time of birth,and

also the fitness (or the reverse) o f certain times for certain

actions for a burial). The fi rst o f these was the vintana

proper ; the second was mo re accurately styled S an-dndro

(l i teral ly,“the hours o f the day,

”from the A rabic sa’

a,

“hour,”but also used in a w i der sense o f

“any moment . As m ight be

inferred from its name (if the above explanation o f i t be

co rrect), the vintana in its turn rests upon astro logy. The

different days o f the month,and the month s throughout the

year , are each suppo sed to be connected with different constel

lations. M r. Dahle has shown that the native names of the

months are allA rabic in o rigin,and are the names of the twelve

DIV INATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 265

S igns o f the Zodiac, while the names for the separate days of

the months are the twenty-eight Moon- stations on which the

Malagasy (o riginal ly A rabic) chrono logy and astro logy depend .

In the san-dndro an impo rtant part is played by the “SevenPlanets ”

o f the ancients,that is

,including the sun and moon

,

not excluding the earth,and o f course also the mo re distant

planets,which were then not known at all. The astro logers

had ,however, a good deal to do outs ide the domain o f astro logy

and fate,for they had not only to find ou t

,and

,if necessary,

counteract the influences of nature, but also those o f bad spirits

and bad men,as wel l as o f the evi l eye.

I . THE AWAKEN ING OF THE S IKIDY.— The sihidy was

general ly manipulated wi th beans or certain seeds,especial ly

those o f thefdno tree, a species o f acacia.

2 When the mp isihz’

dy

had placed a heap o f these seeds or beans befo re him and was

about to begin,he inaugurated his pro ceedings w i th a so lemn

invo cation,cal l ing upon God to awaken nature and men

,that

these m ight awaken the sihidy to tel l the truth . The fo l lowing

is the fo rmula used

Awake, O God,to awaken the sun ! Awake

, 0sun,to

awaken the cock ! Awake, O cock

,to awaken mankind !

Awake, O mankind , to awaken the sihz

‘

dy— not to tel l l ies

,not

to deceive, not to play tricks, not to talk nonsense, no t to agree

to anything indiscrim inately ; but to search into the secret,to

look into what is beyond the hi l ls and on the o ther side o f the

fo rest , to see what no human eye can see.

“Wake up,for thou art from the long-hai red Silamo

(Moslem A rabs), from the high mountains, from RabOrobOaka

and o thers ”

(here fo l low nine long names).“Awake ! for we

have not got thee for no thing,thou art dear and expens ive.

We have hi red thee in exchange for a fat cow with a large

hump,and for money on which there was no dust. Awake ! for

thou art the trust o f the sovereign and the judgment o f the

people. If thou art a si/eidy that can tel l , that can see,and does

2 Piptmh'

nia chrysostachys.


not only speak o f the no ise of the people,the hen kil led by its

owner, the cattle slaughtered in the market,the dust c l inging

to the feet self-evident things), awake here on the mat !

But if thou art a sihz‘

dy that does not see,a sihz

‘

dy that

agrees to everything indiscrim inately, and makes‘

the dead l iving

and the l iving dead , then do not arise here on the mat.”

I t is evident that the sihidy was looked upon as the special

means used by God for making known His wil l to men ; and

i t is at the same time characteristi c enough that i t was thought

necessary to“awaken ”God (if 1 K ings xvi i i . In the long

l ist o f persons through whom the people are said to have got

the sihidy are the Silamo (from chiefly A rabs,who

are also cal led Kardny ,readers ,

”i.e.

,those who read the Ko ran .

Several o ther A rabic wo rds occu r in this invo cation,as wel l as

i n the who le term ino logy connected with the sihidy ,as wil l be

no ticed further on. Most o f the names given above,in the l ist

o f“autho ri ties ”from whom the Malagasy are said to have

received the practice of divination,are rather Obscure. Among

them is that o f the “Vaz imba,

”who are suppo sed to be the

abo riginal inhabitants o f the is land befo re the arrival o f its

present Malayo -Po lynes ian and Melanesian co lonists. They

may be mentioned ei ther because the diviners were anxious to

have the sihidy connected wi th everything that was mysterious

and po inted back to the mythical days o f old or,possibly

,

because the Vaz imba were real ly the people who first received

the sihz‘

dy from the Arabs, and that the o ther tribes in their

turn got i t from the Vaz imba.

I t may be added that individual mp isihidy of any repute

seem each to have had thei r own fo rm o f invocation,or at least

made cons iderable variations in the wo rding of i t,although its

general bearing seems to have been very much the same.

11. THE S IXTEEN F IGURES OF THE S IKIDY.— Having

finished his invo cation,the diviner began to wo rk the sihidy

(lit.,

“to raise i t up taking beans orfa

‘

no seeds,and arranging

them on a mat on the floo r acco rding to rules to be presently


constel lations V irgo,A ries

,Aquarius

,Sagittarius

,Pisces

, and

Caprico rnus seem to be deno ted .

I I I . THE S IXTEEN COLUMNS OF THE S IKIDY (l i t.,“The

S ixteen Mo thers o f Sikidy —To the six -teen figures,or various

combinations of the beans or seeds by ones and twos in the

si/eidy ,co rrespond the s ixteen co l umns (cal led by M r. Dahle

places, or rows,in which they are arranged in

wo rking the o racle ; one figure being placed in each co lumn,

not, however, that all the figures must necessari ly o ccur. The

same figure may o ccur mo re than once, and some of the s ixteen

figures may not o ccur at all in the s ixteen co lumns,as that is

purely a matter o f chance. If the co lumns are arranged in the

manner usual in the practice of sihidy ,we get the combination

of squares given on the next page.

I t wil l be seen at a glance, however, that we have got mo re

than s ixteen names here,al though the rows or co lumns are

real ly not mo re than twelve, co rresponding probably to the

twelve S igns of the Zodiac . If a ski lful diviner is asked for

Ny sihidy 1 6 re‘

ny ,he w i l l only enumerate the names given in

the fi rst (top ) row (Tale’

Vo‘

hitra), the four to the right o f i t

(Z atbvo— Fdhavdlo), and the eight below (Trdno— Fdhasivy),giving us the s ixteen complete. The o thers seem to be con

sidered as accesso ry and of secondary impo rtance. Some of

them are s imply repetitions, with this difference, that they refer

to things in another person ’s house, not in that o f the inqui rer

for whom the sihidy operation in question is undertaken .

O thers are placed to the left S ide o f the lower square, and o thers

at the six co rners .

M r. Dahle proceeds to investigate each of the thirty- four

wo rds Shown in the diagram ; and po ints out that whi le the

majo rity of them are Malagasy,about four or five are evidently

Arabic . The Malagasy wo rds are those in o rdinary everyday

u se,as those for weal th

,relations

,vi l lage, youth , woman,

enemy,

house,road

,inqui rer, God , diviner, wild- cat

,dog ,

sheep,goat

,

fow l,much bloodshed

,&c . O f the four or five derived from the


Arabic, the fi rst wo rd,Tale

’

,apparently meaning investigato r

o r“explo rer,

”always represents in the sihz

‘

dy the person or

thing concerning whom (or which) the inqu iry is made.

In reading or exam ining the co lumns,the fi rst four (Tale

’

Vo‘

hitra) and the eight below (Trdno— Fdhasz‘

vy) are read

from above downwards. The eight to the right (Z ato‘

vo— Firia

ridvana) are read from right to left. The four to the left

Olon

E2Q

Arrangemen t of Columns in the Divination.

ARRANGEMENT OF COLUMNS IN THE SIKIDY DIVINATION.

(Kororo’

sy— Tsinin

’

ny ve’

lena) are read from left to right, while

the names at the co rners are read diagonal ly.

IV . THE ERECTING OF THE S IKIDY the placing

o f the figures in the co lumns). - So far,we have only seen the

machinery, so to Speak , with which the divination is wo rked ;now let us try to understand how the diviner proceeded in o rder

to gain the info rmation desired in the great variety of inqui ries


made o f him . In the diagram here given,all the co lumns are

fi l led with figures, j ust as a veritable mp isihidy would do ,except

that do ts are used instead o f beans or seeds . The rules for“erecting the si/ez

‘

dy” wil l now be given .

1 . The fi rst four co lumns (Tale’

Vo‘

hitra)'

are fi l led with

figures in the fo l lowing manner. From the heap o f beans

befo re him the mp isihz’

dy takes a handful at random ,and from

this handful he takes o ut two and two unti l he has ei ther two

or one left. If two are left,he puts two beans, if one, one bean,

into the fi rst or upper square of Tale’

. In the same manner he

fi l ls the remaining three, Hare‘

na,Fdhate

‘

lo,and Vbhitra

,square

by square, from above downwards.

2. When these four co lumns— one of which represents the

person or thing regarding whom or which the sihidy is made

are fi l led in the manner described , the remain ing eight are fi l led

by a combination o f these fi rst four,or of o thers that have

al ready been fi l led by a combination of these. This is done in

such a manner that two figures are chosen and compared square

by square from above downwards . If this combination gives an

odd number if one of the two combined squares has one

bean,and the o ther two), only one bean is put in the corre

sp onding square o f the new figure to be fo rmed but if i t gives

an even number if the two combined squares bo th contain

one bean , or both two beans), two beans are put into the new

figure.

3 . These combinations are subjected to the followmg rules

(a) Talé and Hare‘

na a combination of the two in the mannerdescribed), form Lalana.

(b) Fahatelo and Vohitra form Asbrotény.

(c) Lalana and Asbrotany form Mpanontany.

(d) Zatovo and Marina form Nia.

(e) Vehivavy and Fahavalo form Falzasity.

(f ) Nia and Fa‘

hasivy form Masina.

(g) Masina and Mpanontany form Andriamanitra.

(h) Andriamanitra and Talé form Trano.


honour to God in putting a S lave in His co lumn, and canno t be

expected to tel l the truth in His name.

This po int, however, being successful ly arranged,the next

business is to choo se one of the f our fi rst co lumns (Tale’

Vo‘

hitra) to represent the question,or

,rather, the person or

thing it refers to . As Tale’

is to represent everything that

canno t be put under the headings “property,” “relations , or

“vi l lage,

”the cho ice canno t be very pu z z l ing ; but this being

settled , the proceedings branch out into the fo l lowing parts,

which Mr. Dahle terms : (A) The S ihz‘

dy o f I dentical Figures ;

(B) The S ihidy o f D ifferent F igures ; and (C) The S ihidy o f

Combined Figures .

A . The S ihz’

dy of Identical Figures .- Having settled which

o f the four fi rst co lumns is to represent the question,the next

thing is to exam ine which o f the S ixteen figures happens to be

in the co lumn representing it. This being found, we go on

exam ining all the o ther figures except the o thers of the fi rst

four (for these have no thing to do wi th the answer), that is to

say,tho se on the right S ide, those on the left, and those on the

two corners to the left.

If we, thus exam ining them , find that any of them is l i ke the

one representing the i nqui ry,this may o r may not settle the

question,or, in o ther wo rds

,give us the answer. This depends

on the nature (name) o f the co lumn in which i t is found . This

Mr. Dahle i l lustrates thus : “If I expect a ship,and am go ing

to inquire about its com ing by .means o f the sihidy ,the co lumn

Hare’

na (or property) w i l l o f course represent i t. If in this

co lumn I find ,for instance, the figure j amd and on further

exam ination find the same figure in the co lumn Trdno (house),this gives me no answer as there is no natural connection

between the two conceptions. If,on the contrary

,I find the

same figure in the co lumn cal led Ldlana (road), then o f course I

know that the ship is at any rate on the way . I have then got

an answer to the chief question ; but there may sti l l be good

reasons for a sharp look - out,for there may be difficulties in its


way. Suppose that I also find the same figure in the co lumn

named Fdhavdlo (enemy), my m ind wi l l immediately be fi l led

with gloomy apprehens ions of p irates Not a bit mo re cheerful

wil l be my prospects if I find the same figure under Ra be’ man

driaha (much bloodshed). Brit what a conso lation,on the o ther

hand,if the same figure reappears in the co lumn Nia (food) ;

for then I must certainly be a blockhead if I do not understand

that,although the Ship may have a long voyage

,there is no

scarcity of food on board and so on. I t is easy enough to see

that a man with much practice and a good deal of imagination

could produce much ‘ info rmation in this manner and I

suppose that in a good many cases the mp isihz‘

dy were able to

find an answer already in this fi rst act of their proceedings, even

if the means o f finding it m ight seem scanty enough to o rdinary

mo rtals.

”

But there is much mo re sti l l that may be done for,besides

the answers avai lable from the fact o f the identi ty o f the figure

representing the question with one or mo re of those in the o ther

co lumns,i t is’

of great impo rtance to find out whether any two

or mo re o f the o ther figures are al ike, and in how many co lumn s

the same figure o ccurs in a sihz‘

dy . The detai led particu lars

given by M r. Dahle on the po int may be put, for the sake o f

brevity, into a tabular fo rm

Columns with sameFigures. Meaning .

1 . Firhasivy and Masiua does not move or ag itate.

2. Nia two deaths this is,two w i l l

d ie,but two locusts may

be thrown away as a

fad itra or p iaculum.

3 . Fahatelo Harena Vahoaka a crowd of people.

4 . Trimo Mphnonthny= Tsindrilt‘

zsy enemy approaching.

5. Liliana Siznzpona hindrances expected .

6 Andro Asorotany =Lahi-antitra old man that is,the sick

w i l l recover, and reachold age.

Asorotany Raven/tony amouthful thrown out

Fahatelo =Fotoan- tsi-mzhatra= the fixed time w i l l not bekept.

9 . Lizlana Fe‘ hi- tsi-rbso the troopswi l l notadvance .


The fo l lowing five possibi l i ties refer to somewhat different

cases, thus

10. If the figure Alokola occurs three times in different co lumns, three

stones are to be thrown away as afad itra to avert evi l .I I . If Vanda mitsr

‘

mgana 5; occurs three times, the feathers of awhite henare to be afi zd itra.

12. If Alainzbra occurs tw ice, it means that the son of a m ighty man is

l ikely to be amighty man too .

13 . If Shka ) occurs in Trano and Vontsira in Tale'

,or AlaimOra

( 22) in Trano,and Ad zbij c

‘

idy ff) in Tale, the case w i l l fo l low the analogy of

the one preceding it e.g.

,if my chi ld , who was formerly i l l , was cured

,this one

w i l l be cured if it died,this one w i lld ie too .

14 . If a sikidy happens to contain eight Vontsira ) they are cal led“theeight healthy men,

and are considered an excel lent remedy against disease, asw i l l be shown later on.

I t is evident that many of these meanings can be con

strued into answers to questions, although the general tendency

o f many of them seem s to be rather to po in t out thefdditra to be

used against the evi l . But it m ight happen that the figures were

all unl ike one another, at any rate that those which were l ike

the one in the co lumn representing the question were so incon

gruous with i t that even the inventive imagination and the

greatest acuteness, sharpened by long practice, would prove

unequal to the task o f constru ing it into a reasonable answer to

the question. I n such cases the mp isihidy was obliged to have

recourse to o ther Operations, viz ., the S ihz’

dy tbhana and the

Lbfin- tsihidy ,of which the fi rst one is comparatively s imple

,

while the latter one was very complicated . Each of these wil l

now be briefly explained .

B . The S ihidy of Unique F igures — If i t happens that anyo f the twelve principal co lumns (Tale

’

Vo‘

hitra and Trdno

Fdhasivy) gets a figure which does not o ccur in any o f the

o ther co lumns, this is cal led S ihidy to‘

hana,

“a sihi

’

dy that stands

alone ”

; and consequently there are twelve possible kinds of

this species of sihidy . Often many of the co lumns may happen

to have unique figures ; in the diagram,for instance

,M dsina

,

Asbrotdny ,Trdno

,and Tale

’

have each one o ccurring in no o ther

co lumn . But it would be remarkable (al though it is possible) if


the same style as those al ready given under Andriamdnitra,it

would be tedious to give them in detai l . M r. Dahle observes

here :“I do no t intend the reader to practise the sihidy (this

secret I Shal l o f course keep for my own use but only wish to

give him an idea as to what i t is.

3 . UniqueF igures in the other Columns .—In the o ther fourteen

co lumns the number of figures having special meanings varies

from one to fourteen ou t o f the s ixteen possib il i ties ; b ut Space

and time do not al low any further detai ls, especial ly as thei r

general character is shown by the examples given under Andria

mdnitra. Most o f them s imply suggest an answer to a question,

frequently also giving a remedy against the evi l intimated by the

answer. As a specimen , however, it may be mentioned that when

the figu re Sdha occu rs in the co lumn Trdno,i t is considered as

an excel lent remedy for steri l i ty if the five beans of the figure

are m ixed w i th m i lk , which is then to be put into fourteen frag

ments o f pumpkin shel l , and given to fourteen chi ldren,who are

then to put some rice into a p ot, from which the steri le woman

eats i t. Many o f the rules in this kind o f sz'

hidy refer to steri l i ty,

s i ckness,or death .

Under this section of Unique F igures , M r. Dahle describes

two o ther k inds o f sihz‘

dy which are closely connected w i th the

preceding ones,and cal led respectively (I ) S ihidy mutually

corresp onding ,

”and (2) S ihidy p roviding a substitu tory sacri

hee.

”

It would , however, be tedious to go further into detai l on this

part of the subject but it may be remarked that in the o riginal

papers m inute particulars are given of these various fo rms o f

sihz‘

dy and o f the ways of wo rking them .

The same may be said o f (C .) The S ihidy of Combined

Figures , which Shows how further combinations o f the figures

in various co lumns are obtained by the observance of strict

rules in each case ; as many as eighty- one new co lumns con

tributing materials for as many new answers to questions. This

sihz‘

dy ,says M r. Dahle, rem inds him o f the Danish proverb


Decei t is a science,said the Devi l

,when he gave lectures at

Kiél.”

V I. MISCELLANEOUS S IKIDY.— In all the varieties o f

sihz’

dy hitherto deal t with , the chief object in view has been to

g et an answer to questions , while i t has been only a secondary

and subo rdinate object to find out the remedies ag ainst evils,

that is,if the answer info rmed us that some evi l m ight be

apprehended . But now we come to some si/ez‘

dy practices, the

chief object of which was to remedy the evils,or to pro cure a

p rop hylactic against them . In o ther fo rms o f this m iscel laneous

sihz‘

dy the object aimed at was to find times and directions

when and where something was to be found,o r was to take

place.

Rules are then given for the obtain ing by means o f the

sihidy of charm s for various purposes , especial ly (1 ) charms

against gun - sho t ; (2) trade charms ; (3) love charms ; (4)general charms ; (5) charms against vom i ting ; (6 ) charms

against d isl ike to food (7 ) charms against food having a gho st

in i t ; (8 ) and charms for bringing back a sem i -departed spirit.

I . Andron- tdny (l i t. ,“days o f the land

,

” but in the sense o f

the different quarters or di rections o f the compass,as expressed

by the place in the house assigned to each day). What is real ly

meant by this somewhat indefini te heading is,the art o f finding

out in what di rection you are to seek for a thing that is lost,s to len

,or strayed

, &c . And this is deno ted by the sihz‘

dy

bringing out a certain figure in a certain co lumn,Showing that

the thing wanted was to be looked for in a certain direction.

For in the old native houses,which are always built wi th the

length running no rth and south,and the s ingle doo r and w indow

on the west s ide, the names o f the twelve months are given to

twelve po ints of the compass, four at the co rners and two on

each s ide. For instance, if the si/az‘

dy brought out a figure which

po inted to the south-east, the diviner did not cal l it so, but said

i t po inted to AsOro tény,i.e.

,the constel lation Cancer and also

the name of a Malagasy month,which

,in the arrangement just


mentioned,has its place assigned to i t at the south-eastern

co rner o f the house.

J . Andro fb tsy (l i t. ,“white days

,i.e.

,the days on which

something expected or sought for was to happen). Suppose,

says M r. Dahle,

“I have lost a s lave. I t is Of the utmost

impo rtance to me to know on what day I Shal l find him ; for

then I do no t trouble myself about searching for him befo re the

day is come. Consequently I go to the diviner. He knows

that certain combinations in certain co lumns deno te the different

days o f the week ; and if, for instance, these co lumns prove to

be Harena and Fdhasivy ,then he knows that what he asks

about w i l l occu r on Wednesday (Alarobia). And so with theo ther days of the week .

”

The Bets im isaraka have,besides the systematic kind of

sihz‘

dy al ready described (S ihz‘

dy aldnana), at least six o ther

k inds . These are said to be much s impler than the o rdinary

kind of divination ; one,for instance, has only two co lumns or

rows ; ano ther kind can hardly be properly cal led sihz‘

dy at all.

The procedure is s imply the fo l lowing : You take an indefini te

number of grass stalks,and you then take out two and two

unti l you have only one or two left. But you must have settled

in your own m ind at the outset whether one left shal l mean

good luck , and two bad luck , or vice versd.

Ano ther kind o f sihidy ,the Ati-p dho, is thus described : A

mode o f recovering sto len property without detecting the thief ;all the servants or emp loye

’

s are requi red to bring something,as

a smal l bundle o f grass,&c.

,and to put it into a general heap.

This affo rds an oppo rtuni ty to the thief o f secretly returning the

thing sto len.

”

VII. We now come to the last d ivision of our subject, viz . ,

that of VINTANA and SAN -ANDRO,or

,as M r. Dahle thinks this

section m ight be termed , (I ) Z odiacaland Lunary Vintana,and

(2) P lanetary Vintana.

A . What,then

,is vintana ? If a man was i l l

,people o ften

said,

“Perhaps the vintana of his son is too strong for him ,or


Alahamady, Adaoro , and the rest. I (b) The Malagasy year

was a lunar one (345days). And (c) bo th the sun and the

moon take their place as governo rs of the days of the week .

Bes ides the divis ion o f the year into months, the Malagasy

have from time immemo rial known a hebdom’

adal unit,the

week,the days o f which have Arabic names. These days

were thought to be under the special influence of the“Seven

Planets ” what were by the ancients so cal led , viz .,the Sun,

the Moon, Mars,Mercury

,Jupiter, Venus, Saturn), as wil l be

noticed presently under San-dndro.“I t is easy to see,says M r. Dahle,

“that the who le l ife o f a

Malagasy would be thought to be under the influence o f these

heavenly bodies,and consequently at the mercy o f those who

are suppo sed to understand these often very intricate affai rs.

People are general ly under the spel l o f tho se who know thei r

destiny befo rehand (while they do not know it themselves), who

have the power o f remedying the evi ls o f i t,and are able to tel l

them both what they ought to do,and when they Should do i t.

When we remember the great influence that astro logers had over

empero rs, kings , and princes during the M iddle Ages, and even

far into the seventeenth century,we can easi ly understand what

powers they must have had (and sti l l have) in a country l ike

Madagascar.”

2 The following lare the Malagasy month-names, w ith their Arabic derivationsand equivalent Zodiac S igns

Malagasy. Zodiac Signs.

1 . Alahamady Aries.

2. Adaoro Taurus.

3 . Adizaoz a Gemini.

4 . AsOrotany Cancer.

5. Alahasitty Leo maj or.

6 . AsombOla Spica in Virgo, which constel lationit represents here.

Libra.

Scorp io.

Sagittarius and arcus.

Capricornus.

Aquarius.

Pisces.

DIV INATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 28 1

With regard to lucky and unlucky days, the fo l lowing remarks

may be made

1 . A lthough the different months were thought to have thei r

p ecul iar character (acco rding to the constel lations they were

named from) and thei r special p iacula and o fferings , &c . , i t does

no t appear that one month was cons idered mo re unlucky than

ano ther. The difference in this respect was a difference between

the different days of the month which,i t must be remembered ,

were named after the month -names also,eight having two

,and

four three,days respectively al lo tted to each

,as I st

,z ud

,and

3rd o f Alahamady ; I st and z ud of Adaoro and so on,but

each o f the twenty-eight being also cal led by the names o f the

M anaz il- ul-hamari,or moon—stations.

2. The characters of the days evidently did not depend so

much on from what month—name i t took,as on what moon

s tation it represented . Therefo re we o ften find two successive

days with the same name common to both,of which one was con

sidered good,the other bad e.g .

,the I st and 2nd o f AsOro tany

were good,and were

,and are sti l l

,favourite days forfdmadz

‘

hana

(the ceremony of removing co rpses from an old fam i ly grave to

a new one) but the thi rd day was cons idered bad .

3. Some days were cons idered abso lutely bad ; e.g .

,the 3rd

o f AsOrotany,the z ud of AsombOla

,the z ud o f Alakaosy,

and

the I st o f Adijady ; o thers were abso lutely good,e.g .

,the three

days cal led Alahamady,and the z ud ofAlakarabo ; o thers again

were considered indifferent,e.g .

,the I st and z ud o fAlahaséty.

4 . Some days again were not cons idered good in general , but

s ti l l good enough for special purposes e.g .,the I st of Alakarabo

was excel lent for a house-warm ing the 2nd o f Adijady was

good for marking out the ground for a new town and the 3rd

o f Adimizana was a lucky day to be bo rn on,but a bad day for

business.

5. Some days had a special pecul iarity o f thei r own ; e.g .,

chi ldren bo rn on the 2nd o f Adalo general ly became dumb ! so

they said .


6 . Even the bad days were general ly so only in the sense of

having too strong a vintana. This was especial ly the reason

why chi ldren bo rn on these days were cons idered a very doubtful

gift. Hence the infanti cide in fo rmer times in the central p ro

vinces of Madagascar,and sti l l practised in most parts of the

country where Christiani ty has not yet been taught. Some

times,however, the diviner managed to remedy the evi l in

one way or ano ther ; and o ccasional ly no thing mo re was

required than to give the chi ld a name which intimated that

the chi ld would not do any harm ,no twi thstanding i ts strong

vintana. Hence such names as ItsimanOsika} Itsimandratra,2

Itsimaniho ,3 ItsimanOlaka,4 &c ., all express ing in a general waythat the chi ld would be harm less. Those bo rn on the z ud of

Adalo were often cal led ItsimarOfy One who is not to

avert the danger o f dumbness .

No t only were the twenty- eight days of the month cal led

after the month -names (and also after the moon- stations), but,as al ready mentioned

,a Hova house of the old style had also its

s ides and co rners named after the same fashion,beginning with

the fi rst month -name,Alahamz

‘

idy, at the no rth - eastern co rner,

that is,the sacred part of the house, where the fam i ly charm

was placed,and where prayers and invocations were offered .

The inmates, on each day ,had to take particular care not to

go to the co rner or s ide assigned to that particular day, or, at all

events, not to place a s i ck person there,for, by so do ing

,they

would provoke the spi ri t o f that region.

M r. Dahle says that the vintana is real ly the key to thewho le

system of ido latry in Madagascar,and to everything connected

w ith i t,at least so far as i t got any real ho ld on the people ;

while the si/eidy practice is also closelym ixed up with it, al though

many po ints sti l l need further investigation.

B . The last divis ion o f the subject,that of San-dndro or

Planetary Vintana,must be discussed very briefly. The wo rd

2 One who does not push .

2 One who does not hurt.3 One who does not el bow .

4 One who does not weaken.


from the different planets it is difficult to say but the no tion o f

lucky and unlucky days has been tenaciously held by the

c ommon people in the different countries of Europe,and sti l l

retains its ho ld in many places .

I t w i l l be observed that the last co lumn of the above l ist

g ives a certain number connected wi th each day-name,and that

these do no t fo l low the o rder in which the days o ccur in the week ,

except in the case o f the fi rst. These numbers have,however

,

great impo rtance in the practical part of san-dndro,as wil l be seen.

1 . The San- dndro of the Dead,or Direct San-dndro.

-This had

reference,apparently

,exclus ively to burials ; if a co rpse was to

be buried,i t would probably be done on a

“good ”day (Sunday,

Tuesday,orWednesday) but the proceedings depended greatly

o n the numbers characteristic o f the san-dndro of that day. If,

for instance,i t was on Wednesday

,the special number of which

is 6,they had to stop six times wi th the bier on the way to the

g rave, throw down a stone at each stopping-place,and carry the

co rpse six times round the grave befo re they buried it. And so,

mutatis mutandis,with the o ther days

,acco rding to thei r special

numbers.

2. The San-cindro of the Living ,or the San-dndro which was

counted Bachwards .

”— This appears to have had reference only

to sacrifices in o ffering these, the invocations made by the

priest referred,not to the san- dndro of the day the o ffering was

made, but to that of the day befo re yesterday, in o ther wo rds,two days backward . O fferings could only be brought on the three“good days but the sihidy could be perfo rmed on any day.

3 . The Character of the Seven Days of the Wee/e in relation to

Evils and the Foretelling of Evils — The fo l lowing rules were

g iven to M r . Dahle by his native“professo r ”

1 . S unday was the proper day for everything white

white- hai red people,white stones , &c.

2. M onday : the day for everything g reen and blackish

grass,fo rests

,greenish birds , people with blackish

Skin,&c .


3 . Tuesday : the day of people who have many scars

and are marked from smal l - p ox .

4 . Wednesday the day o f women and everything female

5. Thursday the day o f slaves .

6 . Friday : the day o f nobles and everything red (red or

scarlet clothes, characteristic of the higher

nobil i ty.

7 . Saturday : the day o f young people and everything

young .

So if a man suffering from some evi l came to a diviner on

a Sunday,he would be to ld that his complaint had been caused

by some white stone or by drinking m i lk,in which there were

some ghosts,or that he had been bewitched by somewhite-hai red

woman ; or, at any rate, that he was in danger o f some such

m ishap,and had better look out careful ly. If he came on Thurs

day, his trouble was almost sure to be attributed to some S lave

o r he was warned to beware o f his S laves,lest they should

murder or bew i tch him . And so on,for the o ther days

,acco rd

ing to the nature of the day.

4 . Foretelling of the Tdsih’

dndro,i.e.

,the day on which one

may be in special danger of getting i l l through the influence o f

the vintana.

—This division o f the san-dndro was a pecul iar com

pound o f vintana and sihidy subjected to certain rules , by which,beginning with Tuesday, different co lumns in the sihz

‘

dy po int to

the different days o f the week e.g .,if a combination o f the two

co lumns Trdno and Ldlana in the sihidy erected gives a figure

which is l ike Tale’ (which represents the man in question), he is

in danger o f being taken i l l on Tuesday. If the figures in

Lei/ah a and Mp dnontdny are l ike Tale’

,Wednesday is the unlucky

day for him and so on with o ther combinations .

As M r. Dahle says,the sihz

‘

dy and vintana were once the

most tremendous powers in Madagascar ; let us thank God

that thei r spel l is broken , and thei r influence passing away.

CHAP TER XI V.

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY.

2

Two great divisions of the people— Idea of impurity in connection w ith deathA revolting custom— Funeral feasts— Tankarana—Their carved coffins

Analogies to those of Phil ippine Islanders— Bétsimisaraka—RanoménaTambahoaka, Taimoro , and Tanosy— The Fanano— TandrOy and Mahafaly— Sakalava—The ZOmba or sacred house—Vaz imba—Béhisotra and Tan

drOna S ihanaka— Bezanozano — Tanala Vorimo Ikongo HovaBetsileo—Bara— Funeral of Radama I.

— Enormous wealth p ut in tombS i lver coffin .

UNERAL rites and ceremonies are not the same among

all the different races inhabiting Madagascar. Regarded

from this po int of view,the Malagasy may be divided into two

groups : fi rst, those whose cemeteries are hidden in the depths

o f the fo rests, or in the m idst of rocks,in so l i tary places, which

are held in great awe ; 2 and secondly,those who inter thei r

relatives by the roads ide,and o ften in the midst of thei r

dwel l ings .3

The majo rity Of these place the dead in the ho l lowed-out

trunk of'

a tree, which they cover with a l id in the Shape o f a

pent, or rounded roof ; the Hova,however

,s imply wrap the

co rpse in lamba,mo re or less numerous

‘

acco rding to the

wealth of the fam i ly ; and i t appears that the Bara content

2 Translated from an article by M . A. Grandidier in the Revue d’

Ethnographie.

Paris, 1 886, pp . 213—232.

2 These are,the Betsim isaraka and other tribes on the east (with the exception

of the Tambahoaka,the Taimoro and the Tanosy

,who have a considerable Arab

adm ixture) , and the TandrOy, the Mahafaly , the Sakalava, the Tankarana, andthe Bara.

3 These are the S ihanaka,the Taimoro , the Tambahoaka, the Tanosy, and

especially the Hova and the Betsi leo .

FUNERAL CEREMON IES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 287

themselves w ith placing the co rpse perfectly naked upon the

ground. Bes ides this, however, the Malagasy always im

mediately proceed with the to i let o f the deceased,the nearest

relatives o f the same sex washing the co rpse, dressing its hai r

and wrapping it in new clo ths.

The two principal eastern tribes, the Betsim isaraka and

the Tanala,as wel l as the Tankarana

,the Tankoala

,and

certain tribes o f the Bara, do not bury the coffin ; they place

i t either s imply on the ground,or on a l ittle framewo rk sur

rounded by a pal isade and covered wi th a pent roo f,or in a

fissure of rock ; but all the o thers,that is to say,

the greater

part o f the inhabitants of the is land,place i t in the ground and

cover i t w i th a heap of stones o f rectangular Shape. The head

o f the co rpse is turned towards the east} and they enclose in

the tomb various articles, such as earthen vessels,po ts of

incense, clo ths , &c .

A l l the Malagasy ho ld the no tion o f impurity in connection

w ith a co rpse. No funeral procession can pass near a sovereign,

or even near to his dwel l ing or the sacred stones ; those who

have fo l lowed i t are obliged to purify themselves,and in those

d istricts where the tombs are placed far from dwel l ings, every

person found in a cemetery is considered as a so rcerer and is

pun ished wi th death. It is further wo rthy o f notice that the

Malagasy have a great fear o f, but also a profound respect for,

the dead . They think it o f the fi rst impo rtance that they should

be buried in the ancestral cemetery or tomb ; and not only the

Hova,bu t the greater po rtion,

if not all,o f the native tribes

o ften bring from great distances the bones of thei r relatives

so that they may be depos i ted in thei r native so i l . When they

canno t recover the body o f a deceased relative, they inter in its

s tead his pil low and S leeping mat, and in any case they erect

a funeral monument in commemo ration o f the departed , con

2 I have,however, been told that the S ihanaka turn the head of the coffin

towards the north,and the Hova place in their graves the corpses of grand

parents at right angles to those of their descendants.


s isting o f a s lab of stone, a timber post or o ther structure.

A vow to the dead , to the lo’

lo,as the coast people term them ,

is sacred .

There is a custom ,as repugnant as i t is extrao rdinary

,which

is prevalent almost everywhere except among the Hova,by

which the co rpse is not interred immediately after death ;the relatives wai t unti l the body is decomposed

,and o ften

co l lect the putrid l iquid which flows out, setting it aside.

I t is needless to say that in such ci rcumstances the“waking ”

of the co rpse is far from agreeable, and i t is only by drinking

neat rum,by burning incense and suet and even hides

,that

the parents and friends are able to bear the nauseous odours

which po ison the air. During all this time many of the native

tribes o ffer food and drink to the co rpse. This custom is

essential ly Malagasy,for i t is not practised by the Hova

,who

are o f Malay o rigin,nor by the fam i l ies o f the chiefs o f the

east coast tribes, who are descended from A rabs orEuropeans ;i t seems to have for its object to prevent interring with the

bones the co rruptible matter which causes decomposi tion o f

the flesh,and which they cons ider impure.

Funerals are also all over Madagascar accompanied by real

feasts, at least in all fam i l ies who are rich or in easy ci rcum

stances. They ki l l oxen,often in considerable numbers

,they

drink rum to excess , they eat plenty of ri ce and meat,they

fire Off muskets the who le being interspersed with do leful

songs and weeping. The relatives never eat the flesh of the

oxen ki l led on the occasion of the death of one of their own

fam i ly. Mourning is always marked, ei ther by unbraided and

dishevel led hai r, or at the decease o f sovereigns,by the head

being shaved , coarse and dirty garments only being wo rn,the

people neither washing nor combing their hai r,nor al lowing

themselves to look in a m i rro r, Should they happen to possess

one.

Such are,in brief

,the principal funeral customs o f the

Malagasy. We shal l now proceed to po int out,in the briefest


o f the length and meeting at the ridge,and with four smal l

c i rcles with cross l ines cut in them . The l id fits in to a rebate

fo rmed all round the ho l low o f the coffin,and which fo rms a

projection of a l ittle mo re than 13, inch. The general fo rm o f

the coffin is in allrespects s im i lar to that Of thewooden sarco

phagi which M . Alfred Marche has discovered in the burial

caves o f Marinduque and o f Other smal l islands near Luz on

i n the Phi lippine Archipelago .

I ns ide the Coffin,the Skeleton

,which is that o f a young

person of twelve or fourteen years o f age, is very nearly in exact

posi tion , the head being seen at one end,and at the other the

bones of the legs and feet. The rest of the body,evidently

compressed transversely and mouldering in its wrappings, shows

some of the bones mo re or less displaced in the m idst of the

remains o f rofia and o ther clo ths, which are sti l l tightly bound

by rofia co rds. At the foo t of the co rpse are three smal l vessels

o f baked clay mounted on a stand , which must have served for

the burning of perfumes during the ceremonies preceding the

interment. I

2 It is not w ithout interest to notice here that this example,buried in a coffin

resembling the ancient sarcophagi used by certain tribes of the Philippines,

presents the exact characteristics of cranium common to the Indonesians . M .

Hamy,who has taken the principal measurements

,has stated

,indeed

, that thec ranium is very plainly brachycephal ic (diam . ant. post

, 168 m illim .

,.d transv.

max.,143 ind . ceph .

,

This exaggerated brachycephal ic character cannot, in his opinion,be attributed

,

except in a very smal l degree, to the age of the example,the cephal ic index

never rising, among the young negroes of Africa,above 78 This brachy

cephalism is,besides

,in harmony w ith the exi stence of a large occipito parietal

p late,such as one meets so frequently In crania from the Indian Archipelago .

The vertical diameter is,at the same time

,sens ibly inferior to the transverse

,a

cic mstance which 15not usual among true negroes .

Here are,in addition, the principal measurements given by M . Hamy as to

the crani um from the tomb at Nosy LOapas ana : C irc . horiz . 496 millim .

°

,diam

ant. post. 168 ; d . transv. max . 143 ; d . basi l . brcgm . 138 ; ind . ceph . 851 ; 82 1 ;

96 5 front min . 1 10millim . max . 120; biorb . ext. 102, _bizygom . 124 ; height

o f face, .76 breadth of orbit, 37 -height 36 length of nose, 46 breadth , 26 .

Three adult skul ls,co llected at the same time and at the same place by M .

Germ inet,give the fo l low ing means of the respective dimensions : Circ . horiz .

504 mm . ; diam . ant. post, 176 ; d . transv. max . 14 1 ; d . basil. brcgm . 136 ; ind .

ceph . 801 ; 77 2 ; 96 4 ; front. min. 100; max . 1 18 ; biorb . ext. 108 ; bizyg . 132

height of face , 90 orbit,breadth , 39 height, 36 nose

,length

, 54 breadth, 27 .


by night,without any no ti ce be ing given to the people o f the

event ; the news of the m isfo rtune which has happened to the

tribe is not, in fact, announced unti l much later. I t is wel l to

remark here that the Bétsimisaraka chiefs are o f fo reign ex

traction.

The Rdnoména.— Among the Ranomena, who at present

inhabit the distri ct between Fanantara and Marohita,and are

descended from the inhabitants of that part of the east coast

where, in ancient times,A rabs landed under the leadership o f

Raminia,i t is customary to place the co rpses on the roadside.

A ho le is fo rmed to receive the l iquids com ing from the de

composi tion of the body, and the place is marked by means o f

a piece o f ro ck , to which the Chi ldren of the deceased come to

o ffer thei r prayers. The cemeteries are relegated to the depths

o f the woods, and no one goes there except at the time o f

interment .

The Tdmbahbaha,Taimbro and Tanasy .

—The ROandriana,

o r chiefs o f the TambahOaka,the TaimOro and the TanOsy,

who are of A rab o rigin,are interred at night

, one or two days

after death . During the lying-in-state,which takes place in

the same chamber in which the person died,reddish-brown

lamba or clo ths are hung up , and a lamp is kept burning at the

head o f the co rpse unti l i t is removed for burial ; and , on the

fi rst day,food is placed at the side of the bed or bier. The

relatives fasten to the arms o f the deceased smal l strips o f paper

covered w i th cabal istic S igns and A rabic wo rds. During allthis

time the news o f the event is kept secret outside the royal

vi l lage, and i t is only after a month has elapsed that a white flagis ho isted at the summ i t of the house where the co rpse has lain,

info rm ing the people general ly o f the fact. After this the

funeral ceremonies are perfo rmed with great porno . White is

the co lour for mourning in (many parts o f) Madagascar, as in

the far East.

The tombs of these ROandrlana,which are cal led lbnaha,

exactly the same wo rd as that appl ied to the royal residences ,

FUNERAL CEREMON IES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 29 3

are fo rmed, among the Tanosy,o f two s labs o f stone, one at

the head , the o ther,no t so high as the fi rst

,at the foo t of the

tomb. A circular pal isading surrounds each tomb,and this is

kept in repai r by the fam i ly o f the Zafindrasara,who alone are

al lowed to enter i t. The bodies of the chiefs are not placed in

a coffi n,but s imply wrapped in a ldmba. In fo rmer times the

TaimOro chiefs were interred in a house s i tuated in the vil lage,

but this custom has been abandoned .

The commonalty, the vbhitra or free people, are interred in a

coffin which is e ither on the very edge o f the roads (in Antai

moro ), or in the m idst of the woods (in AntanOsy). The tombs,

which the people cal l ambnoha,cons ist of a trench l ined inside

with stones and closed by a slab of stone placed on the ground ,with a white flag floating from a po le ; and these are not

regarded with the same dread as they are among the o ther

coast peoples. Funerals take place, as in the case o f the chiefs ,very sho rtly after death. When a woman has become disgraced

among her fam i ly through vio lating some o f the requi rements

o f caste, she is placed at the feet o f her relatives , transversely,instead o f by thei r s ide

,acco rding to the usual custom . The

men are placed on the bier‘

on the right s ide,the women on the

left s ide,but the head is always turned towards the east. The

general bel ief is that the l iquids produced by the disso lution o f

the body give birth, at least in the case o f the chiefs, to a

co lossal sea- serpent, which they term Fana‘

nina or Fanano.

I

2 There seems a remarkable paral lel to this Malagasy bel ief in the transm igration of the souls of chiefs into some animal in the practice of the Samoans,as thus described by the Rev. Dr. Turner : “The unburied occasioned greatconcern. Nor were the Samoans

,l ike the ancient Romans , satisfied w ith a

mere tuumlus inanis at which to observe the usual so lemnities ; they thoughtit was poss ible to obtain the soul of the departed in some tangible transm igratedform . On the beach , near where a person had been drowned , and whose bodywas supposed to have become a porp o ise, or on the battlefield , where anotherfel l , might have been seen

,sitting in si lence, a group o f five or six , and one a few

yards before them w ith a sheet of native c loth spread out on the ground in fronto f him . Addressing some god of the fami ly, he said

,

‘Oh , be kind to us let u s

obtain w ithout difficulty the Spirit o f the young man !’ The first thing thathappened to l ight upon the sheet was supposed to be the spirit. If nothingcame

,it was supposed that the spirit had some i l l-will to the person praying.


The Tanosy who,not being wi l l ing to accept the Hova yoke

,

quitted the neighbourhood of Fo rt Dauphin andwent to settle

in the upper regions of the Onilahy or S t. Augustine river

are sti l l accustomed to bring their dead to the land

where they fo rmerly l ived . Having waited untilthe bones have

become divested of the flesh,they fo l low the custom of the

Sakalava and Mahafaly tribes,and place the coffins under a

heap o f stones arranged in an oblong fo rm . Some fam i l ies

erect near the vil lages,in remembrance of their dead , wooden

posts or pil lars bearing on the top a human fig ure, or one of a

bird,roughly carved , and on the different s ides patterns mo re

or less regular,and figures o f animals

,such as oxen , birds, and

especial ly crocodiles .

I A scrap,of white clo th flutters from the

end o f this post,to which are also fastened the skul ls and ho rns

of the oxen ki l led at the time of the funeral .

The Tandrby and M dhafdly .—The Tandrby and the Maha

faly wrap the dead in several lamba,and carry them to the

cemetery on the day fo l lowing the decease in a kind o f hand

barrow or bed fo rmed o f a framewo rk of wood with strips

o f leather interwoven. The co rpse,laid upon the ground

,is

covered over with earth,and over i t is constructed an oblong

heap of stones . The ri ch people have coffins.

The Sdhaldva.— The Sakalava bring the dead out of their

house immediately after decease,and place them ,

wrapped

in many ldmba (even,not odd

,in number), upon a stage about

six feet high cal led talatdla,the head being turned towards the

That person after a time retired,and another stepped forward , addressed some

other god , and waited the result. By and by something came ; grasshopper,butterfly

,ant

,or whatever else it might be

,it was carefully wrapped up , taken

to the family,the friends assembled

,and the bundle was buried w ith all

ceremony,as if it contained the real spirit of the departed (Samoa a Hu ndred

Years Ago and Long Before, p . I5O) . —J. S .

2 One may compare the figure of the cover of a coffin from Marinduque(Philippine Islands) , by which it appears that, in the further East, as in Madagasear

, cro codiles are carved on funeral memorials . This coffin l id , as wel l asthe two coffins which are previously descri bed , form part of the co llectionsbrought by M . Alfred Marche to the M useum of Ethnography at the Trocad ero(Paris) .


confess ion befo re their fam i ly o f t he crimes and principal il

deeds which they have committed during their l ife. 1

In o rder to o ffer their prayers to the lolo (spirits) o f thei r

relatives, the Sakalava do not go to the burial-place, which they

ho ld in great dread , but to the deceased’

s house, Which has been

al lowed to fal l into ruin.

For princes,the ceremonies are al together different. The

co rpse, enclosed in an ox -hide, remains exposed for two months,

ei ther in an encampment made for the purpo se, under a tent,where incense is burnt night and day, or, in the case o f a king

,

in the m idst of a fo rest,under the care o f a particular fam i ly.

Then i t is carried , with great ceremony and festivi ties, to a royal

cemetery,which

,in the south-west, is cal led M ahdbo (l i t., that

which and in the no rth-west Z o‘

mbavbla (l i t.,“s i lver

shrine But previously,if the body is that o f a deceased king,

the royal rel ics orj iny I are brought out these consist o f one o f

the vertebra: o f the neck , a nai l,and a lo ck o f hai r

,and which

,

placed in the ho l low o f a mo lar tooth o f a crocodile,2 are kept

with rel igious care by his successo r, together with those o f the

ancient kings,in a special house, which is held to be sacred .

The name which the kings bear during thei r l ife may no

longer be pronounced after thei r death ; ano ther is substituted

for i t,o ften of immoderate length

,for i t always commences with

the wo rd Andriana (lo rd) and finishes with the wo rd arivo (thou

sand), wi th one or several o ther wo rds placed between them .

Thus RabOky, who reigned at Baly,at no very long time past

,

is never named by his old subjects as o ther than Andrianaha

tantiarivo,or“The lo rd who can bear a thousand calam i ties ”

;

TsimanOmp o , the last Bara king o f the district o f Isantsa, is now

mentioned only under his surname o f AndriantOmp onarivo , or2 This word j iny is really the Arabic word (lj inu ,

which s ignifies,as is well

known, ademon or invisible Spirit,having supernaturalpower.

2 The tooth of the crocodi le intended to receive the j iny must be taken from a

l iving animal they choose one of the largest S iz e, and bind it firmly w ith strongcords then they insert between its jaws

,at the desired place

,a burning potato ,

and after a quarter of an hour, the coveted tooth can easi ly be extracted . The

animal is then set free.


The lo rd who is master o f a thousand. When a king bears a

name having the meaning o f something in common use,o r

approaching that o f some wo rd in the vernacular, this wo rd must

no longer be pronounced by any o f the inhabitants o f the

country. Thus,after the death o f V inany, king o f Menabé,

whose name recal ls a very commonly used wo rd allover Mada

gasear,vilany ,

which means a cooking-

p ot, the Antiména no

longer cal ls this indispensable article o f househo ld use by anyo ther name than by one made for the o ccasion

,viz .

,fihetrcihana

(l i t.,“the bo i l ing Any one al lowing himself to p ro

nounce the fo rmer name of a deceased king would be considered

as a so rcerer and punished as such,that is to say, by being put

to death .

The Vaz imba.-The Vaz imba, who inhabit M énabé on the

banks o f the ManambOlo,seem to be the last rel ics o f the

abo rigines of the island ; thei r funeral r ites therefo re possess a

very special interest.

After having washed the co rpse and clothed i t in its finest

garments,they place i t in a squatting posture upon a hibdny (a

bed o r couch), as if i t were sti l l l iving ; and the relatives or

friends attend it n ight and day,tal king to i t

,putting into its

hand a spoon,ful l o f ri ce or any o ther kind of food

, &c .

Fo rmerly the l iquids produced by the decompos i tion of the flesh

were taken to a special place, which was sprinkled with the

blood of an ox in o rder to nourish thefananina or snake,which

they bel ieve to be produced from these putrid l iquids. S ince the

conquest of the country by the Sakalava king LahifOtsy, these

customs have been to some extent abandoned , and as soon as

the effluvium becomes too o ffens ive,the co rpse is buried . But

,

at the end of about a year,they take i t o ut o f the ground and

wash the bones,which are placed in a new coffin,

and are then

buried for good and all.

The Béhisotra and Tandrbna or Tdnhod/a.

2 -The two tribes

2 Béhisotra is probably a mistake for Bémihisatra. The Tandrona l ive in the

north-centralpart of the island in the neighbourhood of Mandritsara, where they


who inhabit the no rth -west coast between Pasandava Bay and

the Bay o f BémbatOka have the same funeral customs as the

Tankarana. So we learn from a letter recently written by M .

V ian,a naval surgeon

,who was in the Bay of Mahajamba

,and

had the oppo rtuni ty o f vis i ting one of thei r cemeteries,which is

a natural cave,in which he found several coffins about 4 feet

long by 1 foot 2 inches w ide. I t is certain that the Sakalava

chiefs who have settled in the no rth -west and the no rth o f

Madagascar have not exerted on the habits o f the inhabitants

of that part of the is land (Ankoala and Ankarana) so great an

influence as they have in the west (Fiher‘

enana,M énabé and

Ambongo).

The S ihanaka.— The S ihanaka take secretly away, far from

thei r vi l lages , those who are i l l,and o f whose recovery they are

hopeless, and place them in a so l i tary spo t,where no one goes

but the person appo inted to attend them . After death,the

co rpse is brought into the house, where i t l ies in state for a

certain time,acco rding to the weal th o f the deceased and the

number o f oxen ki l led . After these ceremonies,the house is

abandoned,and the co rpse is interred . The fam i ly erect to

the memo ry of the deceased a tal l po le fo rked at the summ i t,

l ike a pai r o f ox -ho rns. This is cal led fire, and is placed on

the s ide o f a road near the place o f interment.

The B ez dnoz a‘

no.— The burial monuments of the Bezano zano

are composed o f a S ingle stone or s lab erected at the head and

to the east of the trench where the coffin is depos ited,and o f

o ther stones,to which are fixed

,on stakes

,the Skul ls of the oxen

ki l led during the funeral ceremonies. Sometimes tin boxes or

mats which belonged to the deceased are also placed on these

stones .

The Tanella.

2 —The free Tanala,cal led also Hova

,do not inter

first settled after leaving their original sakalava home in Menabé. Both theBemihisatra and the TandrOna are merely branches or sub-tri bes of the sakalava,the TandrOna having a certain amount of African blood in them . Anotherimportant branch of the sakalava in this partof the island is the Bemazava.

—J. S .

2 The word Tanala is merely a descriptive term ,there being no one tribe


Vorimo,l ike the Tanala

,prepare near thei r vi l lages a kind

o f al tar,fo rmed of three or four large stones, on which they

place thei r o fferings o f rice and o ther things.

Where a fam i ly has been unable to recover the co rpse of one

o f its members, or canno t bring it to its ancestral home, they

e rect to i ts memo ry a s lab or pi l lar o f stone,which is cal led

Tsdng ambdto, (l i t.,“standing stone They also place upright

s tones at the spo ts where,during the funeral ceremonies, the

c o rpse had been tempo rari ly deposi ted .

The [ ho‘

ng o.

2 —The IkOngo do not erect any tombs ; they

inter thei r dead in the fo rest, and are content wi th marking the

place by the help o f a no tch cut in the nearest tree. Thei r

funerals are unaccompanied with cries or weeping.

The Hova— The graves of the Hova differ in a very marked

way from those o f which we have spoken. They are,in fact

,

fam i ly caves Or vaults,large subterranean chambers , placed

east and west,o f which the so i l fo rms the base

,and whose s ides

cons ist o f large s labs of stone, clo sed over at the top by an

eno rmous one. They are entered by a doorway cut out of the

s tone wal l on the west s ide of the tomb. The co rpses are

d epo si ted, wrapped up in ldmba and mats,some upon the

g round , and o thers upon stone Shelves which are fixed ho ri

z ontally allround (or rather on the three s i des o f) the mo rtuary

chamber. Those o f the head of the fam i ly and o f his wife are

placed along the wal l oppos i te the entrance, i.e.,on the east

S ide whi le those of his fam i ly are laid on the s ides to the no rth

and south . Over the cave, the top o f which is always raised a

l i ttle above the surface o f the ground , there is a structure,almost

square in shape,fo rmed o f fou r wal ls of stones laid witho ut

m o rtar,the interio r o f which is fi l led wi th earth, whi le the top

is o ften covered with smal l pieces o f quartz,which are some

t imes fetched from a distance.

2 11:61n is really only the name of a mountain. The inhabitants living inits neighbourhood are cal led Séndrabe and are merely a sub-tribe of whatEuropeans call the Tanala—J. S .


The bui lding of their tombs is considered by the Hova as

a very impo rtant undertaking. A l l the relatives,friends

, and

s laves are cal led together and leave all their o ther o ccupations.

I t is indeed no easy matter to bring, often from a consider

able distance, the five eno rmous slabs which are to fo rm the

wal ls and roof o f the vault. I n o rder to detach these from the

bed o f rock,they commence by choos ing a mass o f granite

or gneiss (this stone being found extens ively throughout the

central parts of the island), which natural ly divides into layers

o f a few inches in thickness.

2 Here they mark out the shape

and dimensions of the s labs required by means o f straight l ines

o f dried cow-dung, which are set on fire. When the outl ine of

the s lab is tho roughly heated , co ld water is dashed over it,

producing a crack all along the l ines ; there is then no thing

further to do but to raise the stone by means of levers , and to

drag it to the place where the tomb is to be constructed ; this

is the longest and most difficult part o f the who le bus iness,for

i t may be several hundred , sometimes several thousand,yards

over which these heavy stones have to be dragged,across hil ls

and val leys. This wo rk is an o ccasion o f feasting and rejo i cing,

during which many oxen are ki l led , and o ther expenses incurred

in feeding those who assist. The Hova tombs are always

erected in such a po s i tion as to attract attention ; sometimes

they are even placed oppo s i te the house of the head of the

fam i ly.

Besides the tombs properly so cal led,throughout the who le

province o f Imérina there are to be seen pil lars or slabs of stone

erected in memory o f deceased relatives , and which are cal led

Tsdng ambdto (l it. ,“standing stone or Fdhatsiarbvana (l i t. ,“that which makes

The Hova do not keep the dead in thei r houses as long as

most of the o ther Malagasy, and they do no t usual ly place2 This has frequently been stated , but it is incorrect. The slabs are mostly

taken from rock masses which show no divisional planes whatsoever, and often

run directly across the grain (fo l iation) of the rock the splitting is due Simplyto.

contraction when co ld water is thrown upon them after heating —J. S .


them in coh’ins ; they wrap them in reddish-brown lamba,o ften

in cons iderable numbers and they carry them to the tomb on

afdrafdra, or kind o f bier. In fo rmer times they placed upon

the tomb or all round it— as is sti l l the practice o f the Betsiléo,

the Bezano zano ,the S ihanaka and o ther tribes— the skul ls o f

the oxen ki l led at the time o f funerals ; but this custom is now

abandoned .

On returning from a funeral,the relatives who have led the

m ourning wash themselves and purify the clo thes they wo re by

s teeping a S i lver co in in some water over which they have

invoked the bless ing o f God by prayers. A t the end of the

meal which term inates the funeral ceremonies,all those who

have taken part receive also the dfana,or sprinkling with this

same ho ly water.

The mourning Observances are rather strict. The nearest

relatives al low their hai r to be dishevel led . The women wear

no jacket (ahanfe) or ski rt, wrapping themselves only in the

lamba. The men go without hats and let thei r beards grow ;they wash only the tips o f thei r fingers

,and thei r clo thing

m ust be so i led and dirty. Dancing and s inging are fo rbidden .

At the close o f the mourn ing the relatives take part in a meal,

at which is observed the afana,or purification of all concerned ,

by the sprinkl ing upon them of the water consecrated to God .

The mourning ceremonies are much mo re severe at the

d ecease o f the sovereign. A l l the people, bo th male and

“female, must Shave thei r heads, with the exception o f the hei r

to the crown and a few favoured individuals. Throughout an

entire year no one can S leep upon a bed o r sit upon a chair ;they must s leep and sit upon the ground . A l l m i rro rs must be

turned with thei r face towards the wal l , for i t is no t al lowed

d uring allthe time o f mourning for any one to look at them

selves in a glass. A l l labour, except necessary agriculture, is

stopped .

From time to time the Hova fam i l ies practise a ceremony

which they cal l mamadiha (l i t. , turning and which con


banks of the Matsiatra a tree— hdsina or fdno (species o f

Draccena and P ip tadenia respectively), or some o ther kind— is

planted in the m iddle. Between the rivers Mania and Matsiatra

these funeral monuments are surrounded and surmounted by a

number o f wooden posts mo re or less o rnamented with patterns

cut in rel ief, and j o ined together with transverse bars also

carved ; the co rner posts are term inated by an o rnament in

the fo rm of a vase. In o ther cases,the memo rial is a s imple

pi l lar of dressed grani te, measuring from eighteen inches to two

feet square, and from six to nine feet high,and carrying on its

top a band of i ron,bristl ing with po ints

,to which are affixed

the skul ls and ho rns o f cattle or i t is surrounded at the angles

with carved wooden po sts, fixed together with transverse pieces

of wood . I n some cases i t is reduced to a s ingle post, o rna

mented wi th carving, and surmounted by the usual vase- shaped

finial , and with a wooden stage, to which are fixed the bleached

skul ls from the oxen kil led at the funeral ceremonies.

Some fam i l ies do not place thei r dead in the ground ; they

depos i t them in natural gro ttos, or in caves ho l lowed out by

hand,on the perpendicular faces of certain mountains

,places to

which no access can be gained except by very lofty scaffo lding.

The Andriana or nobles among the B‘

etsiléo are not interred

for some time after their death. About the thi rd day, when

the body is al ready swo l len,i t is ro l led upon planks so as to

tho roughly so ften the flesh ; and on the fo l lowing day the

relatives fasten i t t ightly to the central po st of the house with

thongs cut from the hides o f the oxen kil led for the funeral

ceremonies, and then make a large incis ion in each heel . Large

earthen po ts are then placed under the feet to receive the putrid

l iquid which escapes from the decompo s ition of the body.

These pots are exam ined w ith the greatest care,for the co rpse

canno t be removed from the house,and no one can wo rk in

the fields , unti l a certain smal l wo rm or maggo t has made its

appearance in one o f the vessels . They wai t sometimes for two

and even three months befo re being able to proceed with the


interment. The vessel is shut up in the grave together with the

body, and they arrange a long bamboo,one end of which is

plunged into the l iquid, the o ther being flush with the surface of

the ground , in o rder that the maggo t, after its transfo rmation

into a serpent or fandno, may be able to come out of the tomb

and go and vis it its relatives ; for the B’

ets i leo bel ieve that the

sou l of the departed reappears under the fo rm of a repti le.

Fo rmerly it was not in the case of the nobles only that these

repulsive ceremonies were observed , but now they are enti rely

confined to them .

The Bara— It appears that the Bara lay thei r dead enti rely

naked upon the ground and cover them over with stones thei r

tombs are not mo re than from a foo t to eighteen inches in

height. Certain fam i l ies , among o thers those who inhabit the

I salo chain of mountains,also place them quite naked , ei ther in

caverns, or among rocks,with the skul ls of the oxen ki l led

during the funeral ceremonies for a thi rd part,and often even

a half,of the oxen belonging to the deceased are kil led on these

o ccasions . The Rev. J . R ichardson found in the western part of

the Bara country posts of eight or n ine feet high, and bearing

at thei r summits rude female figures of the natural S i z e,which

were probably placed as memo rials of persons who had died at

a distant place.

Such are the principal funeral customs o f the Malagasy.

We can see from the sum of the facts I have brought together

that there is a close resemblance between the burial customs of

the Malagasy and those of the I ndonesians, which affo rd one

mo re proof, if any were necessary, of the em igration into

Madagascar of some of the peoples o f the extreme East.

Funeral Ceremonies at the B urial of a Hova King

(Raddma I .)

The forego ing paper, translated by perm iss ion from an

article by Mons. A . Grandidier, may, I think, be appropriately

concluded by the fo l lowing account,wri tten by an eye

21


wi tness, o f the remarkable ceremonial employed at the burial

of a Hova sovereign during the early part of the present

century

On Sunday, the thi rd day after the announcement of the

death of Radama (August 4 , there was a large habdry,or national assembly, held in a fine open space in the city

,on

the west S ide of the hil l on which Antananarivo stands . I n this

space were assembled from to , 3o,000persons, seated in

groups acco rding to the distri cts to which they belonged .

At the close o f this haba‘

ry i t was proclaimed that, acco rding

to the custom of the country, as a token o f mourning,every

person in the kingdom of every age must shave or cut off

closely the hai r of thei r heads, and whosoever should be found

with thei r heads unshaved , after three days from the proclama

tion,shou ld be l iable to be put to death . A lso

,that no person

whatsoever should do any kind of wo rk (except those who

should be employed in preparing the royal tomb,coffin

,

no one shou ld presume to s leep upon a bed,but on the floo r

only,during the time of mourning. No woman

,however high

her rank , the queen only excepted , should wear her la‘

mba or

c lo th above her Shoulders,but must

,during the same period

,

go always w i th her shoulders, chest, and head uncovered .

During the interval between this Sunday and the 12th

instant, the mournful ly S i lent appearance of the city,though

tens o f thousands of persons were constantly crowding through

the streets— some dragging huge pieces of granite or beams of

timber, or carrying red earth in baskets on their heads,for the

construction o f the tomb ; o thers, and tho se chiefly females ,go ing with naked heads and shoulders , to the palace to mourn

,

or else returning from that place after staying there as mourners

perhaps twelve hours , was exceedingly impressive. The air of

deep melancho ly on the countenances of all,and the audible

moanings o f the multitudes who fi l led the courts of the palace

and the adjo ining streets, quite affected us,and produced the

conviction that the grief was real and deep for one whom they


to the ridge is as great a distance as from the foundation to the

top o f the wal l suppo rting the roof. We found i t covered from

the roof to the ground w i th hangings of rich satins,velvets ,

S i lks,thei r native costly s i l k lambas

, &c.,and all the vast roof

was covered w i th the finest English scarlet broadclo th .

In front o f this palace had been erected a most Splendid

pavil ion,surrounded by highly-deco rated pil lars, which were

wrapped round w i th various co loured S i lks,satins

, &c. The

pavil ion was ten feet square, raised on pi l lars also richly o rna

mented . A platfo rm of wood was thrown over upon the

pil lars,and above this platfo rm hung

,supported by one trans

verse po le, an immense canopy or pal! o f the richest go l d

brocade, with str ipes of blue satin and scarlet clo th, the who le

bordered by a broad go ld lace and finished by a deep go ld

fringe. A l l the arrangements were in good taste, and fo rmed

together a most bri l l iant spectacle.

We had nearly reached the S i lver Palace when'

we were

stopped , i t being announced that the co rpse was at that moment

about to be brought out to be conveyed to the mo re Sacred

White Palace previous to its being entombed. We immediately

saw about s ixteen or twenty females brought o ut o f the apart

ment where the co rpse lay, each lady on the back of her stout

bearer, weeping and lamenting aloud ; these were the queens

and princesses of the royal fam i ly, and fo rmed the fi rst part of

the process ion from one to the o ther palace ; our place was

appo inted immediately after the queens,but it was with diffi

culty we could get along,many females having thrown them

selves on the path which was to have been kept open. The

mourners had done this that the co rpse might pass over them ,

and we in fact were many times under the necessity of treading

upon their prostrate persons . The co rpse was carried into the

White Palace that i t m ight,in this mo re sacred place, be

stripped of its old clo thes and clo thed with new,and also that i t

m ight be placed in a wooden coffin. I n this palace we were

honoured with a station not far from the corpse, which was


being fanned by about s ixteen or twenty young ladies,daughters

o f principal chiefs .

At eight,on the mo rn ing of Tuesday

,we were again at the

palace,and were conducted by General Brady and Prince

Correllere through the crowds of mourners, indeed over some of

them,as wel l as over ten fine favourite bul ls o f the late king ;

these lay directly in our path,and we could not help treading

on them . The paths were allcovered w i th blue or white clo th

o f the country. The Corpse had been transferred at the clo se

o f the day befo re to a huge coffin or chest,of thei r heaviest and

most valuable wood . The cohin was then carried from this

White Palace back to the S i lver Palace in so lemn pro cess ion,

the queens, &c .,fo l lowing next the coffin,

and we succeeded

them ; some o f the Europeans had accepted the honour o f

assisting to carry the coffin,which was a tremendous weight

judging from appearance. I decl ined the honour,charging

myself w i th the care o f our m iss ionary ladies .

On again reaching the S i lver Palace the coffin was not taken

in,but raised upon the wooden platfo rm over the pavi l ion

,over

which the splendid pal l or canopy of go ld was drawn,which

concealed i t enti rely from View. In this pavi l ion,under the

platfo rm (which was raised about seven feet), upon mats placed

on the ground , the royal females seated or threw themselves in

seem ing agonies of woe,which continued through the day ; and

at sunset, when the entombment was taking place, thei r lamen

tations were distressing in the extreme. All the day great

multitudes had been employed in preparing the tomb, which

was in the court and not far from the pavil ion. This tomb,at

which tens of thousands had been incessantly wo rking ever

S ince the announcement o f the king’

s death—ei ther in fetching

earth or granite stones or timber, or else in cutting or fi tting the

stones,timber, &c.

— consisted of a huge mound of a square

figure,bui l t up o f clods and earth , surrounded or faced by

masses o f granite, brought and cut and bui lt up by the people.

The height of this mound was upwards of twenty feet ;


about s ixty feet square at the base,gradual ly decreasing as i t

rose, unti l at the top i t was about twenty feet square. The

actual tomb,or place to receive the coffin and the treasures

destined to accompany the co rpse, was a square wel l or recess ,i n the upper part of this mound or pyram id, about ten feet

cube,buil t o f grani te and afterwards being l ined , floo red , and

cei led with thei r most valuable timbers .

At the foo t o f this mound had been standing most of the

day the large and massy silver cofi n,destined to receive the royal

co rpse. This coffin was about eight feet long, three feet and a

half deep , and the same in width i t was fo rmed of S i lver plates

strongly riveted together with nai ls o f the same metal ; all

made from Spanish do l lars : twelve thousand dollars were

employed in its construction. About six in the evening this

coffin was by the multi tude heaved up one o f the steep s ides of

the mound to the top and placed in the tomb or chamber.

Immense quantities o f treasures of various kinds were depos i ted

in or about the coffin,belonging to his late Majesty, cons isting

especial ly of such things as during his l ife he most priz ed . Ten

thousand hard dollars were laid in the S i lver cofl'

in for him to lie

upon ; and ei ther ins ide, or chiefly outs ide the coffin,were

placed or cast all his ri ch habi l iments, especial ly mi l itary.

There were eighty su its of very costly British unifo rms, hats

and feathers ; a go lden helmet,go rgets, epaulettes, sashes,

go ld spurs , very valuable swo rds,daggers

,spears (two of

go ld), beautiful pisto ls, muskets , fowling-pieces, watches, rings,brooches, and trinkets ; his who le superb . s ideboard of s i lver

plate, and large and Splendid so l id go l d cup, with many o thers

presented to him by the K ing of England ; great quantities o f

costly s i lks,satins

,fine clo thes, very valuable s i lk lambas of

Madagascar, &c .

We were fatigued and pained by the s ight of such quantities

o f precious things cons igned to a tomb. As ten of his fine

favourite bul ls had been slaughtered yesterday, so six of his

finest ho rses were Speared to -day and lay i n the courtyard near


During intervals cannon and musketry were fi red outs ide of

the courts o f the palace, and answered by musketry from the

numerous so ldiers i ns ide o f the courts.

On the who le, while this funeral o f Radama was the most

extravagant, i t was the most splendid and o rderly thing that

could be conceived amongst such an uncivi l ised people.

[Extracted from Voyages and Travels Round the World , by the Rev.

Daniel Tyerman and George Bennet, Esq. London, 1 840, z ud ed ., p p .

284- 286 ]

CHAP TER X V.

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD,ESPECIALLY ON THE

BURIAL MEMORIALS OF THE BETSILEO MALAGASY,

TOGETHER WITH NOTES ON THE HANDICRAFTS OF

THE MALAGASY AND NATIVE PRODUCTS .

Absence of artistic feel ing among the Hova—The Betsi leo—Carved memorialposts—Various forms of tombs— Character of the carving—Vatolahy or

memorial stones—Graves at great depths— Carving in houses— Co llection o f

rubbings— General style of ornamentation— Symbo l ic meaning —Malagasyhandicrafts— Spinning and weaving—Different kinds of c loth— Straw -work—Bark- cloth—Metal-work—Pottery Bui lding Canoes and boats Cultiyated products of country—Exports .

0 those who have paid attention to the indigenous art

developed amongst the uncivi l ised races of mankind,and

are acquainted with the elabo rate and varied o rnamentation

used by the Malayan,the Po lynesian,

and the Melanes ian tribes,there is something very surprising in the almost to tal absence o f

o rnamental art amongst the Hova and some of the o ther peoples

inhabiting Madagascar. If we look at any i l lustrated book

describing the inhabitants of the Pacific I slands, or, sti l l better,

if we carefully study the ethno logical gal leries o f our British

Museum,or the Pi tt-Rivers co l lection at Oxfo rd , we shal l find

that every group, and sometimes every so l i tary island , has each

its particular style of o rnament, special to i tself, and easi ly

distinguishable from that o f other groups or islands. Thei r

canoes and paddles, clubs and spears, houses and beds , dishes

and spoons,pipes and snuff-boxes

,gourds and bowls, are all

o rnamented , sometimes most elaborately and beautiful ly ; and3 13


this deco ration extends to thei r own persons, in the practice of

tattoo ing, and in the patterns woven into the clo th or matting

o f thei r dresses, or stamped upon the bark clo th they procure

from various trees. But we see hardly anything of all this in

Imérina, the central province o f Madagascar. I t is true that

many o f the large stone tombs bui lt o f late years have some

architectural pretensions, and deco rative carving is employed on

them ,but the detai ls are mostly copied from drawings of Euro

pean bui ldings,and canno t be properly considered as examples

o f indigenous art. I I was therefo re much interested during a

journey to the south o f Madagascar, made in the year 1 876 ,to discover that amongst the Bétsil

‘

eo there is a decided and

Special style of o rnament,which is used in thei r houses, thei r

tombs, and many o f thei r househo ld utensi ls, as spoons,gourds

,

dishes, &c. and that a kind o f tattoo ing is very common

amongst them,in which some of the same o rnamental detai ls

are also introduced . I t Should perhaps here be no ted that this

tribe of Malagasy occupy the southern central highlands o f

Madagascar. They are darker in co lour than the Hova, and

al though phys i cal ly bigger and stronger, were conquered by them

in the early part of the present century. They are variously

estimated as numbering from six hundred thousand to a m i l l ion

2 The only examples I can recal l of anything distinctively characteristic of

the HovaMalagasy as regards decoration are a S l ight ornamentation of the longgable timbers or“horns

,and also in the dormer w indow s

,of the old -fashioned

native houses,w hich sometimes have a chevron or dog

-tooth,

or smal l sem icircular ornament cut on their lower edge ; also the conventional ised squareflower and leaf pattern, used on their finer silk cloths or lambas ; and , perhaps,some of the patterns in the straw -work of their fine mats and baskets. In the

interior o rnamentation of some of the royal houses at Antananarivo thereseemed to me to be a certain distinct style prevalent. This is chiefly seen inthe painted decorations of the upper parts of the walls, and sometimes of the

ceilings,w hich , both in the colouring and large bo ld style of the patterns ,

always rem inded me somewhat of Assyrian ornament, as shown in the decorationof the palaces at Persepo l is . There is very l ittle that is decorative in Hovapottery

,but a Special kind of vessel made for cooking the beef at the New Year

’

s

festival is rather elegant in shape,much resembl ing some of the Anglo-Saxon

pottery . These vessels are circular and somewhat flattened , and are frequentlyornamented w ith a series of l ines and z igzags

,very c losely resembling those on

the early fictile productions of the Germanic races.


I have sometimes thought that this wo rd , and the shape of

the stone, may indicate some ancient connection with phal lus

wo rship.

On one o f the days o f my stay at AmbOsitra, I walked to

the top o f the ris ing ground on the western s lope of which the

town is principal ly bui lt. Here there was an old Ambntana I

tree, and memo rials to some of the early kings of the Betsiléo .

The chief of these was a piece of timber seven or eight inches

square and about ten feet high, having pieces o f wood p ro

jecting from a l ittle below the top , so as to fo rm a kind o f stage.

Each face of the timber was elabo rately carved with different

patterns arranged in squares. Some o f these were concentri c

ci rcles,a large one in the centre, w i th smal ler ones fi l l ing up

the angles o thers had a circle with a number o f l i ttle bosses

in them ; o thers had a kind o f leaf o rnament ; and in o thers

paral lel l ines were arranged in different di rections. The narrow

spaces dividing these squares from each o ther,had in some cases

an o rnament l ike the No rman chevron or z igz ag,and in o thers

,

something s im i lar to the G reek wave- l ike scro l l . The who le

erection with its o rnamentation bo re a strong resemblance to

the old runi c stones,or the memo rial cro sses in I reland and

parts o f the Sco ttish H ighlands. The no rth face of this

memo rial post was quite sharp and fresh,but the o thers were

wo rn by the weather,and the carving was fi l led up with l ichens.

I was greatly interested with this carving,as being almost the

fi rst specimen I had seen of indigenous Malagasy art ; and I

greatly regretted having no appliances with me for taking a

rubbing ”or a squeez e.

” Not very far from this memorial

there were some o thers , cons isting o f two pai rs of posts,each

with a l intel,l ike a gateway

,except that the opening was fi l led

up by a large flat upright stone. These posts were carved

much in the same style as the S ingle one just described, but

were not so mass ive, and were mo re weathered. The tops of

the posts were carved into a shape somewhat resembling a vase.

2 Ficus Baroni, Baker.

DECORATIVE CARV ING ON WOOD . 3 17

I then remembered that, two or three days befo re, we had

passed a newly set-up memo rial stone carved in three large

squares,with much the same kind of o rnament as these posts

had in wood .

I now regret sti l l mo re not having obtained some sketch o f

this group of burial memo rials, because, on vis i ting Ambos itra

again twelve years subsequently, I found that the who le had

been utterly swept away. The Hova governo r had appropri

ated the site for his official res idence and courtyard, and the

picturesque tombs o f the old Bétsileo chiefs and the fine trees

had been destroyed to make way for a great brick bui lding, raw

and commonplace, whose erection had been a heavy tax upon

the unpaid service of the people.

On our journey from Ambositra to Fianarantsoa, at abo ut

two hours’ distance from the fo rmer place, we passed a tomb

by the roads ide with a carved wooden post s im i lar to those at

Ambosi tra. I got down from the palanquin and exam ined it ;some o f the carving was sim i lar to what I had al ready seen

,but

there were o ther graceful fo rms which were new,and some of

the compartments were l ike the English Union-Jack . But it

was on the fo l lowing day, when passing over the elevated line

o f road between Zoma Nandihizana and AmbOhinamboarina,

that I was most astonished and interested by the profusion

with which the carved memo rials were scattered along the

roads ide, as wel l as in all directions over the tract o f country

vis ible on either hand. Leaving an elevated val ley— if one can

so describe it— a long, nearly level ho l low on high ground,with

hi l ls on either s ide not a m i le apart, and gently curving round

to the south -west— we came out at last to an uninterrupted

View,and in s ight o f a rounded green hi l l , about a quarter of a

m i le to the west o f the road . This place is cal led Ikangara, and

has a few houses and a l ittle church on the top . But between i t

and the road there was a large number of tombs and memo rial

posts,so my companion and I went to inspect them . They

were wel l wo rth a visi t, as in a smal l space there were grouped


together many different kinds o f monuments, with wood carving

in great variety. Within a sho rt d istance were some fo rty or

fifty tombs,and on exam ining them there appeared to be the

fo l lowing kinds

(I ) The largest tombs— there were two o f them— were o f

smal l flat stones,buil t in a square of some twenty to twenty-five

feet , and about five feet high . But around them was a rai l ing

of carved posts and rai ls, those at each co rner with the vase

shaped top al ready described ; these were connected by a

transverse rai l,and this again was suppo rted on each of the

four S ides by upright posts which finished under the rai l . All

the upright timbers were carved in patterns l ike those seen at

AmbOsitra and on the road the previous day.

(2) Ano ther kind o f tomb was fo rmed by a square structure

of smal l flat stones, four or five feet high,and perhaps a do z en

feet square ; but on the top was a square enclosure of four

carved posts with the vase- Shaped heads , connected by lintels,and with an intermediate upright. This structure was about

four feet square, by seven or eight feet high , and in the centre

was a s ingle carved post .

(3) A thi rd kind of monument was a massive block o f

granite,from eight to ten feet high, and from eighteen inches

to two feet square, with carved posts at the four co rners and

touching them . On the top these were connected by carved

cross pieces, and upon these the skulls o f the bul locks ki l led at

the funeral of the person the monument commemo rated were

placed . Many o f these ho rned Sku lls remained in thei r places.

(4) Ano ther k ind o f memo rial was a mass ive square post o f

wood , about twenty feet high and fifteen inches square,carved

on allfour s ides from top to bo ttom . There were four or five

of these eno rmous posts here. I n one case there was a pai r

of them,as if to fo rm a kind of gateway ; two or three were

Spl it nearly alldown thei r length by the action of the sun and

weather.

(5) S ti l l another kind was an oblong block of dressed


Ikangara. Many o f these memo rials were so re ly weathered

and defaced , and others were fal l ing, or had fal len , and were

ro tting away. But there was a great variety of pattern,many

of them being wel l worth preserving and Copying.

On the roadside, before we turned from the main path to

look at Ikangara, were a number of the mo re s imple tombs, of

a kind that seem peculiar to the Betsi l‘

eo . They cons ist of a

plain square,almost a cube, o f thin undressed stones laid very

evenly. I n some instances these had upright s labs at the

co rners and centres o f the s ides , so that they were not unl ike

Hova tombs, but the majo rity were of smal l stones only,laid

ho riz ontal ly. From the number of handsome tombs and

memorials near this l ittle town , we j udged that i t must have

been an important place in fo rmer days . We stayed some

considerable time exam in ing this ancient cemetery,and then

proceeded on our way southwards .

Our road lay along the top of a long ridge, with a val ley on

the west and an extens ive plain on the east, with numerous

hi l ls,and old fo rtifications on their tops. Over the plain were

dotted smal l vi l lages and numberless green vala, or homesteads

of the Bétsil‘

eo,enclosed in a ci rcular and impenetrable fence of

tho rny m imosa or Tsidfaho‘

mby ,i.e.,

“impassable by cattle ”

(Caesalp inia sep iaria, About a quarter of an hour after

leaving Ikangara, we came to an old fo rtification running along

the crest of the ridge, and cal led Ianjanonak‘

ely ; a low stone

rampart extended for a hundred yards or mo re along the hil l ,and there were many tombs. I ndeed we were struck by the

number of tombs and carved monuments on the roadside all

the way to AmbOhinamboarina. The most common fo rm is the

plain square tomb of thin , smal l, undressed stones, and the

upright vdtoldhy ,or block o f grani te, from eighteen inches to

two feet square, and eight to ten feet high. While the tsdng am

ba‘

to in Imérina are all o f rough undressed s labs of blue rock,

these i n Betsiléo are of fine-grained, hard white granite, in

mass ive blocks, and dressed to a beautiful ly smooth'

face. They

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD . 32 1

are often in couples,and in one instance there were two

stones , w i th an elabo rately carved post between them . But the

combinations of the different kinds of memo rial were very

numerous ; there was something new every few yards ; and

all over the plain , near every l i ttle cluster of houses, we could

see these white memo rial stones.

South o f the Matsiatra river,and nearer FianarantsOa

,I

no ticed that there were very few o f the upright square memo rial

stones compared wi th what we saw the previous day, and that

there were no carved wood pi l lars at all. Allthe tombs,which

hereabouts were very numerous,were the plain square or cube

o f undressed flat stones. The majo rity o f these,I was surprised

to find,were ho l low,

many having trees— Hasina,Fdno

,and

o thers— growing out o f the m iddle, which has a ci rcular opening,and overshadowing the who le tomb, a s ight never seen in

Imerina. From this i t was clear that the chamber in which !

the co rpses are deposi ted does not project at all above the

ground,as i t does in Hova tombs ; and I afterwards ascertained

that this chamber is excavated at cons iderable depth beneath

the square pi le o f stones, which is therefo re no t a grave,but

only marks the place of one far below the surface. I noticed

also that there was in most cases a long low mound of earth

extending from one S ide o f the tomb to a distance o f from

thi rty or fo rty to eighty feet and upwards. This,i t appears

,

marks the l ine of a long tunnel led passage gradual ly descending

from the surface to the deeply sunk burial chamber. M r.

R ichardson says that some of the Bétsiléo tombs are as much

as s ixty feet deep, and are approached by a gradual ly descending

passage Opening some fo rty or fifty feet distant from the burial

chamber. The tombs of the rich are sometimes 15or 16 feet

square, and are quite on the surface o f the ground ; and the

four wal ls and roof are fo rmed of five immense stone s labs,

which are brought from great distances, and invo lve almost

incredible labou r. I measured one slab o f grani te, which was

mo re than 18 feet long, 10 feet wide, and nearly 3 feet thick

22


i n some parts. I was once in a tomb 1 8 feet long, 14 feet

w ide,and 10feet high , fo rmed o f five stones

,in one o f which

,

to the west, had been cut an opening, and a rude stone doo r,

wo rking in stone sockets,had been fixed there. The finest

memo rial stone I saw was almost ci rcular, and was 4 feet in

diameter, and about 20feet high above the ground . Sometimes

these stones are covered w i th carved oxen and birds. The most

honourable superstructure is a so l id mass o f masonry erected

over the stone tombs j ust described . These are square in shape,

and about 6 feet high . A co rni ce is wo rked round the top , and

on this are laid the skul ls of all the oxen ki l led at the funeral

regularly arranged. I have seen one, now rapidly fal l ing into

decay, on which were no less than 500such Skul ls ! The most

symmetrical I ever saw was a new tomb,on which

,in the outer

square, were arranged 108 skul ls of oxen in most regular o rder,

every o ther skul l being that of an ox whose ho rns had grown

downwards . There were also two o ther squares of skul ls

arranged behind this one. I t was a strange s ight to see so

many skul ls of oxen with the horns, arranged thus, and bleach

ing in the sun.

A l l through the country south of the so -cal led“desert, or

uninhabited region , near IvOtovOrona, we were struck by the

tattoo ing on the chest, neck , and arms of many of the people.

In some cases the men had figures of oxen, and in o thers an

o rnament l ike a floriated Greek cross ; while the women had a

kind of tattooed co l lar, which looked l ike deep lace-wo rk or

vandyking on the neck and chest. But I have never seen

tattoo ing on the faces o f the people.

I regretted that, our journey being made chiefly for the

purpose of seeing distri cts further south than Bétsiléo, we were

unable to vis it some o f the larger Old Betsi l‘

eo towns,such as

Ifanjakana, Nandihiz ana, IkalamavOny, and o thers, where I

was to l d there is a great deal o f the pecul iar carving to be seen

not only in the tombs, but also in the dwel l ing houses and

furn iture. We did , however, see two specimens of this native


executed . The nearly square w indow shutters had each a

ci rcular o rnament carved upon them ,much l ike the conven

tional representations of the sun,with rays

,proceeding from a

centre,thi rteen in number. During a mo re recent vis i t to the

Bétsiléo province, I had oppo rtuni ties of seeing some o ther

interio rs ; and in these not only were the’

three po sts of the

house and the windows carved , but also the woodwo rk enclosing

the fixed bedstead— quite a l i ttle room of i tself— as wel l as

o ther timberwo rk about the bui lding. In a paper contributed

by M r. Shaw to the Antandnarivo Annual for 1 878 , he re

marks The most distinctive indigenous art o f the Betsiléo

is the carving, which is no ticed by every one travel l ing in any

part o f the province. There is an endless variety o f patterns,though a great number are fo rmed by combinations of three or

four s imple designs, that appear,in some fo rm or o ther, on

nearly every house-post or doo r,which are highly o rnamented .

”

One of the most perfect examples of the carved memo rial

post we saw the same day, in the mo rning, at the picturesquely

s i tuated vi l lage o f It itrambo . This place is perched l ike an

eagle’

s nest on the summ i t o f a lo fty cone of rock,on the edge

of the interio r plateau , and overlooking the great fo rest, the

country of the Tanala tribes,above which i t towers about

feet. This memo rial was close to the vil lage, and was

very perfect, the carving very sharp,and the stage near the top ,

consisting of several pieces of wood crossing one ano ther,in

good preservation,with about thirty ox skulls and ho rns sti l l in

thei r places.

I t may be added that in many cases figures o f oxen and

men are carved in some o f the panels or compartments o f these

memo rial posts , but the o rnament is chiefly conventional . The

Bétsil‘

eo name for these memo rial pi l lars is te‘

z a or te’

z an-hdz o ;

the roo t te‘

z a means “durabi l i ty,anything fi rm ly fixed, and

also , fixed upright.”

I n his l i ttle book entitled M adag ascar of T0-day ,M r. Shaw

says,“Perhaps the most elabo rately carved po st I saw during

DECORATIVE CARV ING ON WOOD . 325

my residence of eight years in the Bétsileo was at a smal l

vi l lage about a day’

s journey no rth-west of Fianarantsba.

This was the central post o f a high house belonging to one of

the chiefs. I twas twenty feet high and carved from top to bottom .

Each o f the four surfaces,about eighteen inches broad

,was

divided into sections by cross - cuts fo rm ing squares with the

edge o f the post. In each of these were different designs

fo rmed acco rding to the i ndividual tastes o f the many men

who were probably impressed into the service o f the chief to

perfo rm the wo rk . Some consisted of radiating triangles ,who se apices met in the central po int ; some were fi l led with

pai rs o f Circles touching each o ther at the ci rcumference o thers

were concentri c ci rcles, and the co rners of the squares fi l led

with smal ler curves springing from the outermost C i rcle ; o ther

squares were fi l led with z igz ag l ines running paral lel to each

o ther, or running diagonal ly across the square, while o thers were

rough im i tations of birds,bullocks

,crocodiles , &c .

”

Befo re leaving the subject o f Bétsiléo art i t may be added

that gourds,fifes , tobacco boxes (a piece o f finely po l ished

reed or bamboo ), and o ther arti cles are often very tasteful ly

o rnamented with patterns,

incised on the smoo th yel low surface,the l ines being then fi l led in w i th black . These patterns consist

of l ines,z igz ags, scro l ls, and diaper grounds , often very artistical ly

arranged .

As al ready remarked , my visi t to the Bétsiléo in 1 876 was

too sho rt and hasty to al low o f a tho rough exam ination o f these

interesting examples of indigenous art. And no t thinking o f

meeting wi th such specimens of carving, I had no t prepared

myself befo rehand wi th any appl iances for taking drawings or

copying them in any way. But an article in the Antandnarivo

Annualfor 1876 , which I have largely reproduced in this chapter ,did

,to some extent, have the effect I desired in drawing the

attention of some o f my bro ther m iss ionaries to the subject ,

and especial ly in inducing M r. Shaw to make a number o f

rubbings of the mo re Characteristic specimens o f the o rnament


employed . Sti l l,these by no means convey a proper idea of

the rich effect of many o f these sculptured memo rials,for

hardly anything but pho tography and the autotype process

could adequately reproduce the many varieties of elabo rate

carving that are to be found but sti l l,much m ight be done by

careful measurements and sketches and enlarged photographs .

Many of the finest specimens o f carving in the memo rial posts

and tombs are being fast obli terated by the action of the

weather, and if not secured wi thin a few years , the patterns

carved upon them wil l soon be past recovery. I ndeed , when

pass ing by Ikangara seven years ago , I found the interesting

group of burial memo rials al ready described fast disappearing.

Some o f those I had seen in 1876 were quite gone, ei ther ro tted

away by the rain and damp, or fal len to the ground and half

buried in de’bris,and the who le presenting a much less striking

appearance than during my fi rst vis i t twelve years previous ly.

(Of course these remarks apply chiefly to those carvings which

are out of doo rs ; those in houses have a much greater chance

o f preservation,but even here the des ire to have larger and

mo re modern fashioned dwel l ings,especial ly o f sun-dried brick ,

wi l l probably cause the destruction of many o f these old

fashioned ado rnments .) Bes ides this , i t is very probable that

the incom ing of ideas and fashions from fo reigners wil l

eventual ly lead to the discontinuance of this prim itive style

both of memo rial and o f o rnament, al though I have mo re

recently found that such carvings are sti l l executed, and such

memo rial posts sti l l set up by the people. S ti l l , as examples o f

indigenous art, i t is very desi rable that they should be copied

as soon as possible, and perhaps i t m ight be practicable to

secure a few examples o f the best carved pieces of wood them

selves,and have them careful ly deposi ted in some place of

safety for reference and preservation. Apart from their intrinsi c

interest,these carvings may prove of value in showing l inks of

connection between the B‘

etsiléo and some o f the Malayan and

Oceani c peoples, and thus aid us in understanding mo re clearly


MALAGASY HANDICRAFTS .

This chapter seems an appropriate place for saying something

further about o ther manual arts practised by the people of

Madagascar. I proceed therefo re to describe briefly their chief

handicrafts,and i t must be remembered that these are strictly

manufactures in the o riginal and l iteral sense o f the wo rd made

by hand,and no t by machinery, steam - engines and power looms

being sti l l unknown to the Malagasy.

Sp inning and Weaving— Most o f the Malagasy races are

expert in the various arts in which dexteri ty o f hand is requis ite

manufactures,stri ctly so cal led — and thei r long

,tapering

fingers look as if fo rmed for Ski l led wo rk . In the processes con

nected with spinning and weaving,the Malagasy Show no smal l

amount of skil l . They make a variety of clo ths, bo th coarse

and fine,o f s i lk

,co tton

,and hemp

,and from the fibres o f the

rofia palm leaf, the aloe,and the banana. With rude spindles

of wood and bone,twi rled by the hand , they spin the thread ;

and then,with very s imple looms

,they weave the yarn thus p re

pared . B ut the weaving is regular and firm,and the fabrics

produced are excel lent in qual i ty.

The coarser c lo ths from the fibre of the rofia palm not only

fo rm the usual clo thing o f the poo rer classes and the S laves,but

they also constitute a considerable po rtion of the expo rts from

the eastern side o f the island . Many thousands of them , under

the name of rabannas,are sent to Mauritius and Reunion,

where

they are used for a variety of purposes . The fibre is prepared

from the fine pinnate leaves of the roj ia palm these are stripped

of the cuticle above and below,leaving a glossy, straw- co loured

material,which is divided into threads o f various breadths, as

may be desi red , by a so rt o f i ron comb . The straw~ tinted

ground is varied by an endless variety o f longitudinal stripes,the dyes for which are procured from co loured earth and vege

table substances . Very fine and strong clo ths are also made

from this fibre some of these have the woof of co tton,obtained

by unravel l ing English or American cal i co .

DECORATIVE CARV ING ON WOOD. 329

A very favourite clo th, cal led arindrano, is made with a white

ground of fine twi l led co tton,with narrow stripes of black and

co loured threads,and broad bo rders o f black twi l led s i lk

,in

which is a central pattern o f co lour. These fo rm the lamba,or

outer native dress,which is fo lded graceful ly

,something in the

fashion o f the ancient Roman tog a,one co rner being thrown

over the Shoulder. European co ttons are also largely used by

the Hovas and the east coast tribes,a piece the s i z e of a good

s i z ed sheet or tableclo th fo rm ing a very good ldmba. These

often have borders of co loured s i lk sewn on to the ends of the

stuff.

But the ski l l and taste of the M alagasy, as regards weaving,

are shown most in the handsome si lk lambas,which are woven

by the Hova women. These are of cons iderable variety of

pattern and co louring (wi thin certain conventional l im i ts), Often

very rich and elegant in thei r effect,and with a pecul iar kind o f

square leaf or flower introduced into the stripes, and various

combinations of smal l diamond- shaped patterns. These s i l k

lambas fo rm a cons iderable po rtion of the weal th o f every

Malagasy fam i ly, as they are wo rth from twenty to fifty do l lars

each. They are only wo rn on special occas ions , such as the New

Year’s festival , and at marriages, &c. Dark-red s i lk ldmbas are

used as the outer wrapping of a co rpse among the Hovas,no

coffin being employed for burial,but a great number o f clo ths

instead . This dark-red ldmba also fo rms a so rt o f Official dress

for the j udges and head -men of the districts ; and in many of

them fine metal beads are woven into the stuff,so as to fo rm a

variety of o rnamental patterns across the ends of the ldmba.

A lmost all Hova women,from the Queen down to the s lave,

can Spin and weave ; in some tribes , a girl is cal led z aea

amp e’

la,i.e.

,

“spindle chi ld

,a close analogy to our English wo rd

spinster.”

S traw -worh.—But bes ides spinning and weaving , the dexterity

o f the Malagasy women is seen hardly less in thei r straw-plai ting.

From the great variety o f grasses,as wel l as from the tough


o uter peel o f the z oz bro (p apyrus) rush, they plai t many kind .

o f baskets, large and smal l,coarse and fine, plain and co loured ,

and also mats o f various degrees o f fineness. Among the

Hovas these are used for floo ring,and l ining wal ls and parti

t ions, but among the Bétsiléo and south-eastern tribes,mats

are the chief articles of clo thing. Broad-brimmed straw hats o f

excel lent qual i ty are made by the Hovas,and this is thei r general

head- dress. A cons iderable variety o f straw caps and head

coverings are made and wo rn by the o ther tribes, some being

pecul iar to particular districts. The straw mats used for

clo thing are sewn into a kind of sack,which is kept in its

place by a girdle o f bark clo th. Some tribes are especial ly

skilful in this manufacture. The S ihanaka and Bétsil‘

eo make

mats of a great length, a number o f these fo rm ing part o f the

yearly tribute they pay to the Central Government. The Hovas

also are very ingenious in making minute square baskets of

straw,some o f them not larger than 52- inch cube, in which the

plai t,with beautiful patterns, is as fine as the finest weaving.

Barh Cloth— The bark clo th j ust mentioned , as used for

girdles, is made by the people of the south-east coast and the

fo rest tribes ; but in this branch of handicraft the Malagasy

canno t compete with the del icate fabrics prepared from the bark

o f trees by many o f the Po lynesian races . The bark cloth of

the TaimOro,Tanala, and o ther tribes

,is a coarse reddish

brown material , o f l i ttle strength, except in the di rection of the

fibre ; but its use,as wel l as the non-employment of Skins for

c lo thing, is one of the many links o f connection between the

Malagasy and the Malayo -Po lynes ian peoples,and serves

(among many o ther pecul iari ties) to mark them o ff distinctly

from the Afri can tribes,who make such large use of the skins

o f animals as articles of dress.

M etalWorh.— In metal wo rk , the Malagasy also show great

skil l in execution and ingenuity in des ign . In go ld and s i lver

wo rk the native sm iths make most fine and del i cate chains, and

they can produce Copies o f any article o f jewel lery with wonder

DECORATIVE CARV ING ON WOOD. 33 1

fulexactness. Thei r i ron wo rk (which is allwrought,no t cast)

is of excel lent qual i ty, and they can also turn out brass and

copper wo rk o f good finish. I n the Memo rial Churches erected

at the capital (1 864 the o rnamental iron wo rk— finials,

rai l ings,floriated hinges, &c.

— were allexecuted by native wo rk

men. Among the Hovas, the smel ting and wo rking o f i ron

seems to have been known from a remo te antiquity ; and they

employ the same double-piston bel lows which are used in the

Malayan Peninsula and I slands. There seems to be no trace o f

a stone age when iron was not known to the Hovas although,

acco rding to tradition , the abo riginal tribe, cal led Vaz imba,whom they displaced in the central province, were igno rant o f

the use o f metal , and used spears made of burnt clay, and o f

the tough wiry bark of certain palms.

P ottery— In fictile art

,the Malagasy are not SO advanced as

are many peoples who,in most o ther things, are their inferio rs.

Perhaps, however, this arises from the large use made by many

o f the tribes o f vegetable substances and leaves for plates and

dishes and waterpots,so that the necessi ty for art icles of po ttery

has not been fel t ; and also from the absence in the maritime

plains o f suitable clays . Amongst the peoples who l ive in and

near the fo rests, wooden dishes are largely manufactured ; and

the fo rest and coast dwel lers also use the leaves o f the pandanus,the banana

,and the travel lers’- tree for ho ld ing food and l iquid

while the jo inted and chambered bamboo supplies them with

vessels for drawing and sto ring water. D ishes o f finely-woven

s traw or rush are also employed. But, in the central provinces,where vegetable materials are more scarce, and where clay is

abundant, po ttery is manufactured , and water vessels of various

kinds are produced,as wel l as rude dishes , plates, and cooking

po ts. A Special kind of vessel , made for cooking the beef at

the New Year’s festival , is elegant in Shape— much l ike some

o f the Anglo -Saxon po ttery now and then found in ancient“barrows,” both in o rnament and outl ine. Some o f the water

jars are of fine qual i ty, and deep red in co lour, l ike Sam ian ware.


The ho rns of the fine humped cattle are manufactured into a

variety of articles,especial ly spoons

,dishes, and plates. A lmost

every tribe has some special pattern o f wooden spoon pecul iar

to i t, some of which are very elegant and beautiful ly finished .

They are o ften o rnamented with various devices b urnt in on the

handles.

B uilding— In the building art, the Malagasy

,as awho le, have

made but l i ttle advance beyond constructing the smal l and

s imple dwel l ings requi red by a sem i- civi l ised people. Except

in the central provinces,the houses are constructed almo st

enti rely o f vegetable materials,and without any metal fasten

ings, allbeing tied together with tough , fibrous plants.

Canoes and B oats .— Water- carriage is largely made use of on

the rivers and coast lagoons . The native canoe is made of the

ho l lowed - out trunk of a tree, chiefly the varbngy (Calop hyllum

inop hyllum), and some of the canoes are fo rty feet long, with

about three feet beam . On the south- east coast , a native boat,cal led sa

‘

ry ,is used . This is a buil t boat of planks , but no i ron

is used in its construction, everything being tied together by the

wire- l ike fibre of the anivona palm,while the ho les are plugged

by tree-nai ls of hard wood . The seams are caulked with strips

o f bamboo , and loops o f the same material fo rm rowlocks for

the larger oars. The seats pass right through the s ides , and

thus stiffen the who le,and bind it together, for there are no r ibs

or framewo rk . These boats rise up at the stem and stem ,and

wi l l carry fifty people, or a large quanti ty of goods. They are

used for go ing out to the shipping through the heavy surf, where

no canoe could possibly venture. These ingeniously made boats

have evidently been in use for a cons iderable period , as they are

referred to by some of the earl iest French books on Madagascar,written from 150to 200years ago . On thewest coast outriggers

are adopted, and canoes fi tted with these and with sai ls venture

out to sea in a very fearless way. The natives along that po rtion

of the island are bo ld navigato rs,and unti l the early po rtion o f

this century,they were accustomed to make an annual piratical


come to an end befo re long unless some steps are taken to

remedy the evi l . In the southern part o f the island,a l i chen ,

cal led orseille, which is valuable for dyeing, is co l lected in con

siderable quanti ties. Ebony and numerous hard and beautiful

woods resembl ing teak , rosewood , and mahogany, are found inthe fo rests, and are used for cabinet wo rk , and in building

,

and also in making the parquetry floo ring in the best class of

houses .

The most impo rtant item o f expo rt at present is cattle.

The co lonies of Mauritius and Bourbon derive their entire

supply of beef from the fine humped oxen which are shipped

by thousands from the eastern ports. In later times, however,the trade is leaving somewhat the eastern s ide of the island

,the

ships fetching the cattle from the no rth -west coast , owing to

their greater Cheapness in the Sakalava country. A consider

able trade has also Sprung up between the south-west po rts and

Natal . H ides are sent down in large quanti ties from the inter ior ,being dried and sal ted for expo rtation. The valuable woods

found in the fo rests now also fo rm an impo rtant article of

trade.

CHAP TER X V].

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF LIFE INMADAGASCAR .

The com ic element everywhere present—First experiences—Native dressBorrowed garments— Christmas Day exhibitions— Interruptions at divineservice—A nation of bald-heads—Native houses and their inmates—Receptions by Hova Governors— Native feasts—Queer artic les of food - Firstattempts at speaking Malagasy—“Try a relative —Transformations of

English names— B ibl ical names— Odd names—Engl ish m istakes—Thesouthern ”

S ide of his moustache— Funeral presents—Church decorationOffertory boxes- Deacons ’ duties.

H IS wo rld o f ours would be but a dull place to l ive in if

there was no room in i t for humour and fun,and if we

could not sometimes indulge in a good hearty laugh. But

happi ly there is no spo t on its surface Where the elements of the

com i c and ridiculous are not present ; and Madagascar certainly

fo rms no exception to the general ru le. We hope,therefo re, no

one wi l l be Shocked at hearing that even in m iss ionary experiences

there is o ccasional ly a decided element o f the amus ing,the odd

,

and the absurd anyhow,during several years ’ res idence in this

island most people come across a few curious experiences,and

hear o f a good many mo re and if all these could be re

membered and no ted down,they would afford ample materials

for mo re than one paper. This , however, is now an imp ossi

bility,but perhaps I may be able to recal l enough to serve to

while away a leisure half-hour and some o f these rem iniscences

may perchance throw a s ide- l ight or two upon certain phases of

native character and habits .

One’

s fi rst landing'

in Madagascar—especial ly if one has had335


no previous experience of a sem i - civi l ised country— must,I

think,strike most people as having some very com ic aspects

the only partial ly clo thed appearance o f so many o f the

“natives ”

; the often absurd m ixture of Europ ean and o ther

d ress ; and the odd gibberish,as i t seems to us

,o f an un

known language— all these tend to excite one’

s amusement.

I vividly remember my fi rst ride in a filanj dna at Tamatave,

and how I was in fits o f laughter all the way from my

lodging to the Battery ; the being carried in that fashion by

men struck me then— I can hardly now understand why— as

i rresistibly com ic . At that time— more than thi rty years

ago— gentlemen very often travel led from the coast to the

capital in the long basket- l i ke filanj dna which is never used

now,nor has been for a long time past

,except by ladies and

chi ldren. In one o f these contrivances I came up myself in

O ctober, 1 863 ; but I suspect few gentlemen would now care

to run the gauntlet of the amusement and“chaff” they wouldexcite by riding through Antananarivo in a s im i lar conveyance.

Yet even in 1873 , the late Rev. D r. Mul lens also travel led up

to Imérina in a lady’

s filanj dna ; but i t struck him at the time

as rather ridiculous, for he said how i t rem inded him o f one o f

Leech’

s pictures in P unch,o f a London exquis i te driving a very

smal l basket carriage, and being saluted by a street g amin with

the words ,“Oh, Bil l , here

’

s a cove a-drivin’ hisself home from

the wash.

”

I referred just now to the oddness o f native dress, especial ly

when only po rtions o f European costume are used . One sees

some absurd enough s ights now and then, even at the present

time,in Antananarivo

,but these are no thing compared wi th the

ridicu lous combinations which often met one’

s view a few years

ago . To see a company o f native officers come up from the

parade ground in all thei r variety of dress was a very m i rth

provoking spectacle. If a hundred or two of men had been

fitted out from an extens ive old- clo thes ’ Shop, with the object o f

making every one different from every one else, i t could hardly

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY LIFE . 337

have produced a greater variety or have had a mo re biz arre

effect than was actual ly the case. A l l so rts o f cast-o ff unifo rms

every k ind and shape of hat,from the smartest to the shabbiest

(the“Sho cking bad not excepted) ; every imaginable civi l ian

dress,po l iceman’

s,fireman

’

s,&c.

— allm ight be seen, and in the

queerest combinations , o ften finished o ff by the commonest of

green and red woo l len comfo rters. The sharp observation of a

friend of m ine (of the So ciety o f Friends) even detected in an

Andohalo crowd the low-crowned broad brims once belonging

to some good East Angl ian Quaker farmers,and pronounced

that they must certainly have o ften figured in the sedate p ro

ceeding s o f an Essex Quarterly Meeting.

”One of the richest

po ints in these exhibitions was the extreme self- consciousness

o f the wearers o f these wonderful suits, and thei r evident pride

in thei r personal appearance,together with the serene conviction

that they were cutting a great dash.

I

I n the earl ier years o f the residence of those of us who have

l ived here longest we can remember what curious no tions our

native friends and our house servants had about bo rrowing (wi th

and without our leave) our clo thes Requests from the fo rmer

to bo rrow one’

s best“go -to -meeting suit to wear at weddings,

ei ther thei r own or that o f some relative,or on o ther festive

o ccas ions,used to be very frequent ; and i t took a good many

refusals and a good deal o f persistence befo re they could be got

to understand that such loans were not congenial to our feel ings .

Our servants,however, did not always take the trouble to ask

leave,but would bo rrow coat, trousers, or shirt ; and we

o ccas ional ly had the pleasure of discovering po rtions o f our

own dress on the back of cook or house boy, as we sat at

church,or on the way home. With new servants i t was a

2 Itmust, however, be said that a great improvement has taken place duringthe lastfew years in allthese particulars, largely through the efforts of the Englishofficers who have been engaged in training the Malagasy army. Most of the

native officers are now dressed in neat and appropriate uniforms, and very many

have a thoroughly so ldierly bearing whi le the simple white uniform of the rankand file has replaced the cross-belts and lo in-cloth which formed the so le dresso f the common so ldiers notmany years ago .

23


common thing to bo rrow a tablecloth as a lamba ,

°

and

mo re than once the m istress of the house has been ho rrified ,as her attention has wandered a l i ttle from the eloquence o f

the preacher, to recognise the fam i l iar pattern o f her best diaper

table- l inen enfo ld ing the fo rm o f one of her domestics si tting

not far from her. I t is wel l known, too ,

that some o f our

washerwomen have made quite a business of letting out shirts ,trousers , &c.

,as wel l as various articles of female dress , belong

ing to their English cl ients , to native customers for Sunday

wear,and so adding to the legitimate profits o f thei r bus iness .

In such cases also,we have o ccas ional ly had the gratification o f

seeing at church how wel l our own garments have fitted native

wearers of the same.

In our congregations o f a few years ago there was a

prim i tive s impl ici ty about dress which would rather astonish us

nowadays . I wel l remember being amused by this one Sunday

at the old Ambatonakanga chapel . In the m iddle of the

sermon a l i ttle boy o f three or four years old,and perfectly

naked , came to the doo r and looked about to find his mo ther

among the people closely crowded together on the matted floo r

o f the bui lding. Presently she no ti ced the l ittle urchin,and

taking his tiny lamba which lay bes ide her,She ro l led i t up

into a bal l and tossed it to him over the heads of her neigh

bours . The chi ld quietly unfo lded i t and ,wrapping i t about

him with allthe dign ity o f a grown -up person,gravely marched

to his place,without any one, I think , but myself taking any

no tice o f the incident. On Special o ccas ions,however

, our

congregations used to turn out in go rgeous array, the ladies in

s i lks and satins and wonderful head-dresses, and the men in

black coats and pantaloons and “chimney-

p ot” hats ; so that

i t was for Some l i ttle time quite imposs ible to recognise one’

s

most intimate acquaintance in their unaccustomed “get-up .

”

Christmas Days were the chief o f these high festivals ; and I

wel l remember how, on my fi rst Christmas Day in Antananarivo ,

I was utterly taken aback on entering the dark and dingy old


the r iver Matitanana, and was a l i ttle confused , when about

half through my address,by the old chief o f the place

com ing fo rward to give me a fowl— which clucked and

struggled most no isi ly in the pro cess— and also a bo ttle o f

rum,which was handed up in ful l View of the audience.

I t was a l i ttle di fficul t to resume the thread of the dis

course. This,however, be i t remembered , was in a heathen

vi l lage.

I was speaking just now of clo thing— and of the occasional

want of it— among the Malagasy. There are,however— but

perhaps i t would now be mo re co rrect to say there were

o ccasions happening now and then when even the natural

covering o f the body,the hai r o f the head , was not to be

seen . At the decease o f a Malagasy sovereign,one o f the

customs which have been enfo rced up to the death of Queen

Rasohérina (in 1 868) was, that every person , high and low,rich

and poo r, male and female (wi th a few exceptions in the case

o f the very highest personages in the kingdom), must shave the

head . As may be supposed , the effect of this was most curious ;one’

s most famil iar native friends seemed to tal ly al tered and

unrecognisable, for no hat or o ther head covering could be used .

One o f my bro ther m issionaries wro te to me :“On Friday

mo rning (Apri l 3, 1 868) the people presented a very strange

spectacle. They looked as if they had been suddenly trans

fo rmed into H indoos ; we found a nation of bald-heads, some

o f them quite glossy. I t was amusing to meet our friends, as

in many cases we did not recognise them unti l they Spoke to

us. A man wal ked up into the town with me in the mo rn ing,and from his fam i l iari ty I conclude he was a man I had known

very wel l ; but I did not find out who he was, and have not

been able to recal l his identity s ince. The strangest part of the

business was that the cl ipping was all done at once for on

Friday morning the entire country round Antananarivo was

was clean cl ipped, except some sco re or so of privi leged

Malagasy and the Europeans.” At the decease of the late

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY LIFE . 34 1

Queen Ranavalona however, this custom was not enforced ;probably i t wi l l not be again revived .

Native houses are not as a rule at alldes i rable places to stay

in . In the centrak p rovinces of Madagascar they are certainly

dirtier and mo re uncomfo rtable than on the coast or in the

forest regions,where the enti rely vegetable material s employed

— bamboo,travel ler’s- tree

,or palm leaves and bark —and the

greater dimensions,make the houses there very passable as

tempo rary resting-places. But the clay or wooden houses o f

the Hova,Bétsiléo , and o ther interio r tribes are almost always

dirty and infested w i th verm in and A N ight with the F leas,

”

or with the rats,or the mosquitoes, or the pigs, or the poultry,

or all of them put together, is one of the common experiences

of Madagascar travel l ing. F leas o f extrao rdinary agil ity seem

able to mount to the highest stretcher bedsteads i t is convenient

to use, and make night one long-continued attempt to igno re

thei r ubiquitous presence. Rats descend from the roof and

perfo rm marvel lous acrobati c feats over rafters and cords, play

ful ly running races over one’

s person and even one’

s face, with a

loud squeaking and squabbl ing which rouses us up with a start

in the few intervals o f unconsciousness al lowed by the lesser

plagues . Mosquitoes o ften come in with a hum l ike a smal l

swarm of bees,and unless one is provided with netting, make all

attempts at s leep futi le ; and even if the net .has been careful ly

tucked around one, two or three stragglers o ften get in and

make the net a very questionable benefit, as effectual ly keeping

in some of the to rmento rs as it keeps out their companions.

Pigs being o ften dom i ci led in the house,resent thei r exclus ion

on the night of you r stay, and break through the S l ight barriers

you put up against thei r entrance with a grunting defiance of

your intrus ion into their domains ; or if they do not get into

the house,they wil l pers ist in settl ing down under i t

,as the

floo rs are often raised above the ground . An equal maintenance

o f vested interests is shown by the fowls,who wil l not under

stand that you have engaged the apartments for your exclusive


use, and again and again wi l l manag e to get in to thei r accus

tomed co rner, raising a terrible dust as you attempt to dislodge

them . For,besides the di rt on the floo rs , and the blackened

mats on the wal ls, old houses are also l iberal ly provided with

strings of soo t hanging from the rafters , or from the rough upper

story often fo rmed in the roof. Such ornaments are considered

by the Malagasy as an honourable distinction, a sort of cer

tificate o f an old and long-establ ished fam i ly. But they are

rather inconvenient in case o f a sudden gust o f wind , or a heavy

shower o f rain, or in ejecting a pers istent hen and chickens,as

j ust mentioned. A plentiful sprinkling o f soo t-flakes on bedding

and clo thes, on tableclo th and provisions,is

,of course, the

resul t o f any of these incidents in your stay in many a native

house.

I n go ing about most parts o f Madagascar we come now

and then to some mo re impo rtant places,m i l i tary stations and

centres o f districts, where Hova governo rs are stationed. These

o ffi cials are usual ly very kind and hospitable,but i t is sometimes

very amus ing to see the state and ceremony they keep up. The

mil i tary force under their command is o ften very l im i ted, and

frequently i t is imposs ible to get together any but a very smal l

propo rtion o f even the few so ldiers they have at thei r disposal .

But as soon as they hear o f your approach (for i t is cons idered

courteous to send on wo rd in advance), some of the subo rdinate

o fficers are drawn up to receive you ,together with as many

so ldiers as they can muster (o ften mo re officers than rank and

file,e.g .

,four officers and two so ldiers). As soon as you make

your appearance, a great many words o f command are shouted

out,all in Engl ish, or at leas t as near an approach to that

language as they can manage ; the Queen is saluted , then the

P rime M in ister, then the governor at the place,and then the

second in command,together with the playing o f any mus i c

they have avai lable and the beating of drums ; and not unti l

then is i t etiquette for your own presence to be recognised and

Lfor you to be wel comed . Com ing into the ro‘

va or government


ones,with clarionets and fiddles, and these were in ful l play

almost all the time. Then the room was fi l led by a crowd o f

inferio r oflficers and servants,and the shouting of everybody to

everybody else,from the governo r downwards, was deafening.

I t was a rel ief when the two hours ’ proceedings came at last to

a conclus ion.

A good deal m ight be said about the queer articles o f food

occasional ly used by the Malagasy. Locusts,divested o f their

wings and legs and dried in the sun,are very largely eaten and

may be seen in heaps in almost every market . Besides these,certain kinds o f mo ths are also used for food , as wel l as the

chrysal ides o f various insects, different Species of beetle,and

even some so rts o f spiders ! I must confess, however , that myinfo rmation as to these del i cacies is all second-hand ! I could

never bring myself to try these bonnes bouches,so much

esteemed by my native friends.

A very fruitful source o f amusement (to thosewho have had a

longer knowledge of the language) is the unavo idable igno rance

o f Malagasy on the part o f new- comers and the absurd m istakes

aris ing therefrom . I fear that very o ften we say some sho cking

things in preaching and publ ic speaking during the earl ier years

o f our res idence in the country ; that we say innumerable

ri diculous things goes without saying ; and were i t not that the

Malagasy have not (at least so I think) a very quick sense of the

l udicrous,and are also very to lerant to the m istakes fo reigners

make, our congregations must certainly during our early

attempts be often convulsed with laughter. Very seldom,how

ever, do we see anything o f the kind and I o ften think that old

European res idents see a vast deal mo re that is absurd in the

attempts o f newer arrivals than do the Malagasy themselves . A

venerable m iss ionary, deservedly honoured especial ly in connec

tion with the re-establ ishment o f the L,M .S . M iss ion in Mada

gasear,used every Sunday to thank God that He had given us

another Day of Judgment ! using the wo rdfi tsardna (j udgment)forfitsahdrana (rest). On ano ther occasion he, quite innocently,


used over and over again in a sermon a wo rd which,as he p ro

nounced i t,meant something extremely o ffens ive ; at last even

the Malagasy could stand it no longer,and the women began to

go out ; the preacher could not understand this and repeated

the wo rd with redoubled emphasis,adding

,

“Az a mivoaha, ry

sahaiea”

(“Don ’t go out

,friends ”

) which they, all the mo re,would continue do ing. Ano ther brother info rmed his audience

that God was the m idwife of all l iving things,

” using the word

mamp ive‘

lona (ve’

lona,l iving), which is only used in that sense,

instead of mame‘

lona,which means to suppo rt, nourish , or keep

al ive ; the two prefixes having come to express two very different

ideas. Those who were present at a Congregational Union

Meeting a few years ago sti l l remember with amusement how an

earnest bro ther j umped up,and in a stento rian vo ice shouted

out, S oliha sy rano tsy az o amp ifang aroharoina izy roroa“Oil and water : they canno t be m ixed but by his putting

the accent in sbliha in the wrong place he produced a most

com i cal impression. But such anecdo tes could be given almost

to any extent,and S im i lar m istakes need not be further dwel t

upon.

It is wel l known to allwho have studied Malagasy that for a

long time the “relative fo rm of the verb is one o f the most

pu z z l ing features o f the language. Several years ago , when the

faci l i ties for learning Malagasy were far less than they are now ,

some of us were much amused by the announcement made

by a mo re recently arrived bro ther one Sunday mo rning, that

he was“go ing to try a

‘ relative ’

to -day.

” I t was evidently

sti l l a very unfam i l iar fo rm to him . Ano ther brother, after being

much bothered and perplexed by the intricacies of this “p onsasinorum o f the language

,decided upon a sho rt and easy road

out of the diffi culty ; he determ ined to stick to the active and

pass ive fo rms and to igno re the annoying“relative ”al together

Ano ther frequent source o f queer m istakes is the difficulty, to

Malagasy tongues,o f pronouncing our English names. These

are o ften so al tered both in wri ting them and in speaking them


that they become utterly unrecognisable by the uninitiated .

Who , for instance, could detect under the fo rm M isite‘

ritbri

nérina the s imple English name “Mr. Tho rne ”? or in the

word ltsciridisaonina, the name of R ichardson ”

? The names“Briggs ”and“Jukes and“S ims are less

'

altered in thei r

Malagasy fo rms,

“Biringitra,

”and S imp itra,

but

are sti l l funny enough. Our distinctive titles o f respect, Mr.,

M rs,and M iss

,are very diffi cu lt for the Malagasy to distin

guish ; and so M iss Craven becomes M isitera Giravy and

Craven ,” Graham

,and“Graves ”

can hardly be recognised

as having any difference ; while“Wilson ”

and “Wills ”are

continual ly confounded together. I wel l remember how an

noyed my wife was,during our early time of res idence at

AmbOhimanga, by the native pasto r inquiring for me as

“James.

”He had heard my wife address me thus, and there

fo re concluded that it was the proper way for him to speak of

me. The Malagasy have no exact equivalent for our Mr., Mrs,

&c.,for their name-

p refix es Ra and Andrian are inseparable

parts o f their proper names. Official names also suffer curious

transfo rmations ° thus “bishop becomes besbpy (l i t. ,“much

soup and“besompy ,

” while in Bétsiléo i t figures as beso‘

fina

(l i t.,“great eared l). S trangely too

,no t only are Episcopal ian

clergymen all styled “besopy ,

” but their adherents also are

distinguished from o ther Christians by the same name ; each

and all are“bishops. I n the same way, also , students at the

Co l lege are cal led “t ote/y,and scho lars are cal led sehbly

they are themselves co l leges and schoo ls ! The French Res i

dent soon became known in the country distri cts as re‘

sian

ddnitra,which

,l i teral ly trans lated

,would mean“conquered in

heaven The name of the famous prime m inister of Prussia,

Prince Bismarck,has actual ly become a Malagasy wo rd as an

equivalent for cunning,craft

,in the fo rm of bizy manao bizy

”

is“to act crafti ly.

” This phrase o riginated in the time of the

Franco -Prussian war,when the fame of Bismarck fi rst reached

this country.


confused by the parents giving his own name (Christian and

surname included) as the one he was to give to the young

neophyte. One o f the oddest names I have heard o f i s Radé

boka,which I am assured was taken from the title o f the day

book ” which the parents had seen in the Hospital ! Ap o ther

odd name is Ramoséjaofé ra, in which we have, fi rst the native

name prefix Ra,then the French “monsieur

,

”al tered to mose

‘

,

and final ly the native name j aofizra. An absu rd m istake arising

from igno rance of Malagasy is perpetuated on the ti tle-page o f a

Malagasy vocabulary published in England some years ago , but

prepared by three young native officers,one of whom has been

for several years past governo r o f Tamatave. The English

edito r apparently intended to describe i t as“a booh (Mal. bohy)written by Rabezandrina and his companions ; instead of

which it reads ,“B oha no anarany Rabez andrina, &c , &c.,

which is l i teral ly, Lepers are the names o f Rabezandrina, &c.

The three autho rs were long known to some o f us as“the three

lepers .

”

But it is not the Malagasy only who make absurd m istakes

about names unfam i l iar to them . I t is known to many in

England who have friends in Madagascar that the name by

which we m issionaries and other fo reigners are designated

by the natives here is “Vazaha.

” But a wo rthy m in ister in

England,who had got ho ld of the term ,

s l ightly m istook i ts

exact meaning ; and ,suppos ing i t to be the name o f a divis ion

o f the Malagasy people, he gravely info rmed his hearers at a

public meeting that“the Vazaha are a tribe in Madagascar who

are sti l l but imperfectly acquainted with the Gospel !” Many

native customs strike us as very odd, and doubtless not less so

do many of our customs appear to the Malagasy. Thus they

are accustomed to employ the po ints o f the compass in speaking

o f the posi tions o f things in the house, where we should say,to

the left ” or“to the right, or

“in front of you”or“behind

you . One of my brother m iss ionaries was once dining with

a native friend , and while eating some ri ce, a po rtion happened


to adhere to his moustache. His host po l i tely cal led his

attention to the ci rc umstance,and on my friend wiping the

wrong S i de,his entertainer cried , No ,

no ! it’

s on the southern

s ide o f your moustache !” I t sometimes takes a l i ttle time

for our Malagasy friends to understand our ways. Thus I

remember that when l iving at AmbOhimanga we were vis i ted

one day by an old friend who happened to be then staying at

the ancient capital . After a l i ttle conversation my w ife brought

out a good - s iz ed plum - cake, and cutting a s l ice or two offered it

to him . To her great astonishment he quietly took— not a

sl i ce— but, the who le o f the cake ! and commenced eating it.

But finding himself, after a l i ttle time,rather embarrassed by its

quantity, and that i t was a good deal mo re than he could then

comfo rtably manage, he gradual ly stowed i t away in his pockets,remarking that his chi ldren would l ike i t. We altered o ur way

of handing cake to native friends from that date.

The native custom of giving and expecting bits o f money on

all imaginable o ccasions seems very odd to Europeans. A t

bi rths and marriages,at deaths and funerals

,when i l l or when

getting better, at the New Year, when building a house or when

constructing a tomb,when go ing on a journey or on returning

from one, in times o f joy or in times o f so rrow— at each and all

of them these wretched l ittle bits o f cut-money are expected

from vis i to rs. I t is true that at funerals a return is made in the

shape of presents of beef ; and the so lemni ties o f death and

mourning are m ixed up with the— to us— very incongruous

elements of the s laughter-house and the butcher ’s -shop . But if

one leaves befo re the oxen are ki l led , a present o f poul try

instead o f beef is made ; and I have mo re than once come

home from a funeral , or,at least

,from the prel im inary“lying

in- state,” with a goose or a duck dangling from the po les o f

my palanquin.

Some curious things are seen by those who travel much about

Madagascar in the way of church deco ration . (I am here, i t

should be said , Speaking almost exclusively o f bui ldings erected,


by congregations in connection , at least nom inal ly, with the

When i t is remembered that these number mo re than

and are scattered over a very wide extent o f country,

some missionaries having as many as seventy, eighty, or ninety o f

these under thei r nom inal charge, i t wi l l be clear that to only a

very smal l propo rtion of them can he give any personal atten

tion or advice as to their construction or ado rnment. As i t is,

it is only in the case o f the Vi l lages nearest to his station,and

here and there at impo rtant centres , that an English miss ionary

can do much to gu ide and advise country church builders. The

majo ri ty of vi l lage churches are therefo re enti rely the product of

native skil l , and their deco ration the outcome of native taste.

I n many cases , especial ly in some o f the districts nearest to

Antananarivo,the vi l lage churches are models of what such

places should be ; and with their glass windows,their neatly

co loured interio rs , and wel l -made platfo rm pulpits— sometimes

elabo rate structures o f mass ive stonewo rk— they do credit to the

S imple country people who have bui l t them . But it canno t be

truthful ly said that the majo rity of Madagascar vil lage churches

are of this kind . By far the greater number of them are rough

structures of clay wal ls with sun-dried bri ck gables and thatched

roofs ; and thei r only furniture a raised platfo rm of earth or

brick,with a rough table serving bo th for pulpit and for the

Communion , a clumsy fo rm or two for the s ingers, a few dirty

mats on the floor, some lesson - sheets on the wal ls,and perhaps a

blackboard for every-day schoo l use. There is certainly no fear

at present of the majo rity o f our congregations being led astray

by mstheticism in rel igious buildings or wo rship .

But frequently there are at the same time some attempts at

deco ration , and these are often very incongruous and occasion

al ly highly com ical (though doubtless unintentional ly so). In a

l i ttle church away no rth, and o therwise very neatly finished , is a

band o f o rnament round the wal ls which is exactly l ike the

figures on an ace-of-clubs card , and has probably been copied

from this . I n o ther places figures of offi cers . and so ld iers


furn iture have been seen by o ccasional visi to rs. The wish o f

the late Queen that her subjects should wo rship the true God

was in many places interpreted by petty officials as giving

them autho ri ty to fo rce the attendance o f the people,and to

punish them if they were negl igent. The command , Compel

them to come in,

”was

,in fact

,often very l i teral ly carried out.

Travel l ing down to the Betsiléo province on one occasion,Dr.

Davidson,while stopping for his mid-day meal at a country

chapel , no ticed a good- s iz ed stone near the doo r,the Object o f

which much exercised his m ind . On inquiring the use of this

stone, he was to ld that if the people were negl igent of the“means o f grace and did not attend service regularly

,they

were sei z ed and obl iged to carry the stone to the top of a

neighbouring hil l and down again,to punish them for thei r

s ins and rem ind them to be mo re dil igent in future. Ano ther

kind o f penance used to be enfo rced at Tsiafahy : people who

were i rregular in attendance at chapel were obliged to creep on

thei r hands and knees round the fa‘

hitra or ox - fattening p en in

the vil lage, as a punishment for inattention to thei r rel igious

duties. At a country chapel in the Friends’ D istrict,M r. H . E .

C lark saw,on one o ccas ion,

a deacon s itting at the doo r with

a handful of smal l pebbles. When this official no ticed any one

in the congregation asleep,or inattentive, or i rreverent, he threw

a pebble at the offender to rouse him up , or as a gentle rem inder

to be mo re careful .2

Much that is amusing m ight be no ted with regard to native

preaching : odd i l lustrations, strange m isapprehensions and mis

appl ications o f Scr ipture, curious answers to questions about

Bibl ical subjects, &c. but enough has,I hope, here been said to

j ustify my remark at the commencement o f this paper,that the

mono tony of our dai ly routine is frequently enl ivened by curious

and com i c o ccurrences, and that, together wi th the mo re serious

duties o f our work, there is o ften “a decided element of the

amus ing, the odd,and the absurd in our l ife in Madagascar.

2 It need hardly be said that all true missionaries utterly repudiate and

denounce all such ways of promoting Christianity .


warmer coast region,but also the eastern slopes o f the elevated

interio r highlands.

From these circumstances, as wel l as from the variety o f

o ther phys ical conditions prevai l ing in the country— mountains

and Open downs , coo l interio r highlands and sultry tropical

plains,ferti le river val leys and (in the south-west) arid deserts

i t m ight be supposed that Madagascar, s i tuated , as i t is, almost

entirely within the tropics, would be abundantly fi l led with

animal l ife. But i t is not so , at least, not nearly to such an ex

tent as one would expect, and a stranger crossing the forests for

the fi rst time is always struck with thei r general sti l lness and

the apparent scarci ty o f animal l ife along the route. The fauna

o f the country does , i t is true, include some most interesting and

exceptional fo rms o f l ife, but i t is almost as remarkable for what

is om i tted in i t as for what i t contains. Not only so,but from

the pos ition of the island with regard to Afri ca— being separated

from i t by a sea only 230m i les w ide at its narrowest part,a

distance further reduced by a bank of soundings to only 160

m i les— one would also suppose that the fauna o f the island

would largely resemble that o f the continent. But it is remark

ably different : who le fam i l ies of the larger mammal ia are

enti rely absent ; there are no representatives o f the larger

fel ines, no l ions,leopards , or hyaznas none o f the ungulate

o rder, except a S ingle Species of river -hog ,so le relative here of

the hippopo tamus} no rhinocero s or buffalo ; and there is no

z ebra,quagga

,or giraffe, or any o f the numerous fam i l ies o f

antelope which scour the African plains. There is no elephant

brows ing in the wooded regions o f Madagascar,and

,stranger

sti l l , there are no apes or monkeys l iving in its trees. The few

ho rses and asses existing in the island are of recent introduction

by Europeans even the humped cattle, which exist in immense

herds,are not indigenous , but have been brought at a somewhat

2 There was , however, formerly a smal l species of Madagascar hippopotamus,apparently only recently extinct, for its bones are found in a sub-fossi l state,w i l l be noticed more ful ly further on.

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR . 355

remote period from Africa ; and the hai ry fat- tai led sheep and

the goats, as wel l as the swine and dogs found in Madagascar,

are allof fo reign introduction.

B ut no twithstanding all that, the z oo logical sub- region, o f

which Madagascar is the largest and most impo rtant po rtion, is

pronounced by every natural ist who has studied i t to be one o f

the most remarkable districts on the globe,bearing

, says Mr.

A lfred R. Wal lace, a S im i lar relation to Africa as the Anti l les

to Tropical America, orNew Zealand to Austral ia, but possess

ing a much ri cher fauna than either o f these, and in some

respects a mo re remarkable one even than New Zealand.

I The

Madagascar fauna is very deficient in many of the o rders and

fam i l ies of the mammal ia, only six out o f the eleven o rders

being represented} but some o f these, especial ly the Lemuroida

among the Quadrumana, the Viverrida: among the Carnivo ra,and the Centetidae among the I nsectivo ra, are wel l represented

in genera and species.

No less than forty distinct fam i l ies o f land mammals are

represented in Afri ca, only eleven o f which o ccur in Mada

gascar, which also possesses four fam i l ies pecul iar to i tself.3

2 The who le surface of the g lobe is divided by Mr.Wal lace into six z oo log icalreg ions,

”in each o f which broad and clearly marked distinctions are Shown to

exist in the animal l ife as compared w ith that of the other great divisions . Eachof these regions is again divided into sub-regions," Madagascar and the neighboun

’

ng islands forming the“Malagasy Sub-region of the“Ethiopian Region,

”

the latter being a z oo logical d ivision which includes Africa south of the Tropic of

Cancer,together w ith its islands, excepting the Cape De Verde group . The

fo l low ing diagram shows the geographical position of each reg ion, and , to a

considerable extent, their relation to each other

NEARCTIG PALZEARCTIC

ETHIOPIAN ORIENTALNEO ’

I‘

ROPICAL

AUSTRALIAN2 These are

,Primates, Cheiroptera, Insectivora, Carnivora, Ungulata, and

Rodentia.

3 Cheiromydae (one genus and one species , the Aye-aye) Indrisidae (threegenera and ten species and varieties) ; Lemuridae (six genera and twenty-eig htSpecies and varieties) ; and Cryp tOp roctidze (one genus and one species ,the F65a) .


The fo l lowing is a l ist o f all the genera o f mammal ia as yet

known to inhabit the island , together with the number of

species belonging to each,these latter, including wel l -marked

varieties, now amounting to 107

PRIMATES.

Sp ecies‘

and'

Varieties.

Sub-order Lemuroida. M iniop terus

Propithecus 8 Emballonura

Avahis 1 Triaenop s

Indri s I Tap hoz ous

Lemur 15 Nyctinomus

Hapalemur 2 RhinOp oma

Lemdolemur 4 Myz op oda

Phaner 1

M irza I CARNIVORACheirogaleus 5 Fossa.

Cheiromys I ViverriculaCryptoprocta

CHEIROPTERA.

PteropusCynonycten

’

s Eup leres

Phyllorhyna

Vesp erusINSECTIVORA

Vesp erugo SorexScotop hilus Microgale

Vesperti l io 1 Geogale H ippopotamus (sub-fossil)

We have here a to tal o f 46 genera and 107 species and

varieties of mammals , many o f the genera being pecul iar to

Madagascar. A l l the species are pecul iar, except,perhaps

,

some of the wandering bats.

The assemblage of animals above no ted is remarkable,and

seems to indicate a very ancient connection with the southern

po rtion of Africa befo re the apes and all its present ungulates

and fel ines had entered it, no doubt from the no rth. The

presence o f nearly a hundred species o f mammals is a certain

proof in i tself that the island has once fo rmed part o f,or has

been very closely connected with, a continent ; and yet the

character of these animals is al together different from the

assemblage now found in Afri ca or in any o ther existing

continent. A very S l ight acquaintance with the present fauna

o f Africa would at fi rst s ight prevent us from thinking that

RODENTIA.

Eliurus

Hyp ogeomys

NesomysBrachytarsomys

Hallomys

Schoenomys

Pseudomyoxodon

Brachyuromys

UNGULA’

I‘

A.

Potamochoerus

N

H

N

H

H

t


pecul iar jaguar- l ike animal,the Cryptopro cta, which fo rms in

i tself a distinct fam i ly and has no near al l ies in any o ther part

of the globe, and by nine civets , belonging to genera pecul iar

to this country.

“Here we fi rst meet with‘

some decided

indications o f an African o rigin,for the civet fam i ly is mo re

abundant in this continent than in As ia, and some o f the

Madagascar genera seem to be decidedly al l ied to African

groups.

” A lthough now almost confined to the Ethiopian and

O riental regions, the civets were abundant in Europe during the

M iocene period .

Com ing to the next o rder,the I nsectivo ra, we find them

represented in Madagascar by two fam i l ies , one o f which— the

shrews— is found over all the continents,but the o ther— the

Centetida— is allbut confined to this island, none being found

anywhere else on the globe except one genus in the West

I ndies, in Cuba and Hayti,

“thus,

”says M r. Wal lace,

“adding

sti l l further to our embarrassment in seeking for the o riginal

home o f the Madagascar fauna.

”This group

,however, is, l ike the

Lemuroida, of high geo logical antiquity, and is fo und in numerous

pecul iar fo rms in various parts of the wo rld , but in no equal ly

l im i ted area are so many distinct types found as in Madagascar.

The Madagascar Rodents cons ist only o f five rats and

m ice of endem ic genera,one of which is said to be al l ied to an

Ameri can genus ; but it is probable that in this o rder o ther

species wi l l sti l l be discovered .

As regards the last o rder, the Ungulata, this is represented

in Madagascar by but one l iving species, a river-hog al l ied to

an African species, and by an extinct fo rm o f hippopo tamus.

But, from the sem i-aquatic habits o f these animals and thei r

powers o f swimm ing,i t appears probable that their presence i n

the island is explained by a fo rmer mo re close connection with

the neighbouring continent. I

I For the substance,and in many sentences the wording , of the three

preceding pages, I am indebted to those valuable works of Mr. Wal lace, TheGeographicalDistribu tion of Animals, chap . xi . , vol. i. , and Island Life, chap . xix.

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 359

For a full discuss ion o f the difficult problem o f the deri

vation o f this very particular fauna, I would refer the reader to

M r. Wal lace’

s interesting wo rk Island Life, chap. xix. I can

only here indicate in a' very brief fashion the principal po ints

which now appear pretty wel l established from a consideration

o f allthe avai lable facts. If we bear in m ind the special and

iso lated character o fmany of the Madagascar bi rds,as wel l as the

As iatic affinities o f some ; the pecul iarities o f the mammal ian

fauna,as j ust detai led ; the O riental and American relation

ships o f many o f the repti les and the O riental , Austral ian,and

even South American affinities o f some o f the insects and if to

these facts we add the geo logical character o f the is land,and

the now wel l -known conditions as regards the depths o f the

surrounding o cean , the fo l lowing deductions may be fai rly

drawn

Madagascar is a very ancient is land geo logical ly cons idered ,and many o f the animals now found here are very antique

fo rms,survivals o f a once much mo re widely extended fauna

,

which in early times was spread over the continents, but has in

them become nearly or quite extinct through the introduction

o f o ther fo rms o f animal better fitted to survive in the struggle

for existence. In this great is land, however, cut o ff from the

fiercer competition o f continental l ife, many o f these earl ier types,e.g . , the Lemurs and the Centetidze , have held their own, and so

Madagascar has become,to a certain extent, a kind o f museum

o f ancient fo rms o f l ife to be seen nowhere else on the globe.

There can be no doubt that Madagascar had anciently a much

closer connection with Africa than exists at present, and that

from that continent mo st o f its present fauna was derived ,befo re, however, Southern Africa had received from the Euro

Asiatic continent mo st of its present characteristic animals .

At the time when Madagascar was thus mo re closely connected

with the continent, Southern Africa was probably a large conti

nental island , l i ke Austral ia, separated from its no rthern po rtion

by a shal low sea, now represented by the Sahara and the


Arabian deserts . About the same time also i t is probable that

numerous groups o f islands,now represented only by sti l l s lowly

s inking banks and ato l ls in the No rthern Indian O cean,brought

Madagascar into much closer connection with South-eastern

As ia,and so some o f the O riental and Austral ian affinities o f

its fauna are perhaps accounted for. And as for the l ikeness of

some o f its fo rms of l ife the Centetidm among Insectivo ra,

the Urania among butterfl ies , and some Of the serpents and

to rto ises among repti les) to the l iving creatures o f sti l l mo re

distant countries , these are no doubt only remnants of a

fauna once spread over all the intervening regions, but now

found only in such w idely separated is lands as Cuba and

Madagascar.

I t wi l l be evident, therefo re, that although the mammal ian

fauna o f Madagascar consists, except in the case o f some o f the

lemurs , chiefly Of smal l and inconspicuous animals,many o f

these creatu res are of exceptional interest to the z oo logist,and

throw no smal l l ight upon earl ier conditions of l ife upon the

earth .

Having thus sketched the leading characteristics o f the

Madagascar Fauna, I pro ceed to give a brief outl ine Of the

F lo ra Of the island,for the main facts o f which I am indebted

to a paper o f my friend,the Rev. R . Baron

,contri

buted in November, 1 88 8 , to the j ournal of the Limzean Society— B ola7zy .

1

SECTION I I . : THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR .

The vegetable productions o f the is land are now to lerably

wel l known to science, s ince the country has been explo red by

European bo tan ists in many different di rections. Its highest

mountains have been ascended , its lakes and marshes crossed, and

its encircl ing fo rests have been penetrated in a number o f places

and large co l lections o f plants have been made at various times,

The Flora of Madagascar, w ith map show ing Botanical“Regions .


s i lent gaz e, there wil l perhaps be a sudden outburst o f amused

laughter, or i t may be a l i ttle whispering, which , if i t were

audible, would be something to this effect : Whatever in the

wo rld is the man do ing ? or,What strange creatures the white

men are Some o f the people doubtless think’

that you are a

k ind o f so rcerer. For these dried plants,whatever can you do

with them ? you canno t eat them you canno t make them into

bro th ; you canno t plant them ,for they are dead ; you cannot

fo rm them into bouquets or wreaths,for they are brown and

withered . Is i t surprising,then,

if some Of the natives th ink

that you are dabbl ing in the black art,and that your plants , in

the fo rm o f some strange and mysterious decoction,are to

supply, i t may be, a po tent rain -medicine, or a love-phi lter, or a

disease-preventing phys i c ? For among the natives themselves

there are many herbal quacks, who , for a cons ideration,are able

not only to prescribe for the cure, and even prevention , of

disease, but also to furnish charms against fire or tempest, lo custs

or l ightning, leprosy or lunacy,ghosts

,crocodi les, or witches.

The explanation which I have mo st frequently heard given,

however, by the mo re intel l igent Of the natives as to the use

O f the dried plants, is that the leaves are intended to be

employed for patterns in weaving.

I t is not, then,the natives that you have to fear in regard

to yo ur co l lections of plants, i t is the weather— it is those heavy

showers that, unless pro tected with extreme care by waterproof

coverings, succeed in soaking your specimens and your drying

paper,so that you have o ccas ional ly to spend half the night in

some dirty hovel in do ing what you can,by the aid o f a large

fire,to save your co l lection from destruction .

A large extent o f country in Madagascar is covered with

primeval fo rest. These woods are mo st extens ive on the eastern

s ide of the island , where they clothe the hi l ls and the eastern

s lopes o f the edge o f the upper table- land,where the principal

water-parting of the country, running no rth and south, is found .

I t is bel ieved that the who le island is encircled by a belt Of


fo rest,but this statement sti l l requi res confi rmation,

al though

there is no - doubt that there are extens ive fo rests also on the

western s ide. The eastern fo rest attains its greatest breadth in

the no rth-east o f Madagascar,a l i ttle no rth o f the Bay o f

Antong il, where i t is from 40to 60m i les broad . Further south ,however, i t is much narrower, probably no t averaging mo re

than 25m i les in breadth. I t has been calculated that in the

who le is land there is an area of m i les o f fo rest-covered

country, or about one-eighth part o f the to tal area. Besides

dense fo rests, there is a large extent of country on the coast

plains covered with scattered patches o f wood and brush, so i t

wi l l be easi ly seen how large a field there is in Madagascar for

bo tani cal research .

This large extent o f wooded country is,however

,being

dim inished every year by the who lesale destruction Of the

fo rest in burning it for ri ce-planting,and i t is grievous to see

how recklessly it is cut down and destroyed for this and o ther

mo re trivial reasons. The large concessions o f fo rest land to

European companies for timber- cutting and plantations also

tend in the same direction,and unless some plan of forest

conservation is soon effected , the beautiful woods , wi th most o f

thei r flo ra and fauna,wil l eventual ly disappear.

Mr. Baron bel ieves that the great bulk o f the Madagascar

plants have been al ready gathered , and so there are now

sufficient data to enable a few general conclus ions to be drawn

as to the character and distribution o f the flo ra. I wi l l again

quo te from his paper to give these conclus ions“The fo l lowing figures wil l show at a glance the number

o f Natural O rders and genera of flowering plants represented

in Madagascar as compared with those known throughout the

wo rld , acco rding to Bentham and Hooker’s Genera Plantaram

Total known in theWor ld Orders, 200 Genera,Madagascar 144 970.

The number of genera here given comprises those only that


are indigenous to the is land . If we inc lude the numerous

plants that have at one time or o ther been introduced , the total

number o f the genera would be probably raised to about“O f the indigenous plants at present known in

Madagascar, about (or three-fourths Of the flo ra), are,

remarkable to say,endem i c . Even o f the Gram inea and

Cyp eracea about two -fifths o f the plants in each o rder are

pecul iar to the is land . There is but one natural o rder confined

to Madagascar, the Chlaenaceae, with twenty- four species, which ,however, D r. Bai l lon places under Ternstroem iaceae. Of ferns

mo re than a thi rd are endem i c, and o f o rchids as much as five

s ixths , facts which in themselves are sufficient to give a very

marked individual i ty to the character of the flo ra.

O f the known plants , there are

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

The fo l lowing l ist shows the number o f species in the

O rders mo st largely represented , and thei r percentage o f the

total flo ra of the plants mentioned above)

Legum inosaeFi l icesCompositaeEup horbiaceze

Orchidem

CyperaceaeRubiaceaeAcanthaceaeGram ineae

The Palms and Asclepiads are as yet imperfectly known.

O f the fo rmer only eighteen are described , although the is land

1 “This includes only the Fi l ices,Equisetaceae

,Lycopodiaceae, and Selagi

mellaceae . The remaining Acotyledonous Orders are as yet very imperfectlyknown. Of M osses about 250have been described , and of Rhiz Op horeae 3 .


over the island from east to west. Among these few is the Rofia

palm (Rap hia rufi a) whi le a fern (Gleichenia dicholona) is p er

haps the commonest and most widely-spread specimen in the

who le island .

An exam ination of the l ist o f plants found in the three

Regions shows a w ide difference between the floras o f the

Central Region and of the two o thers to the east and west and

this is no t to be wondered at when i t is remembered that the

Central Region has a great elevation above the sea (from

to nearly feet). But it is no t so easy to account for the

great difference between the flo ras of the Eastern and Western

Regions, seeing that they have the same posi tion,as regards

latitude, and do not differ much in height above the sea

(al though the western s ide Of the island is decidedly ho tter).

Mr. Baron gives a very s imple reason for this,po inting out that

the elevated central region of the island , running no rth and

south, is no doubt o f very great antiquity,reaching possibly

from the Pale o z o i c era, and has therefo re always fo rmed a

barrier (except at the south) between the flo ras o f the Eastern

and Western Regions.

“The flo ras therefo re, even if they were

fo rmerly s im i lar, which is doubtful , have had abundance of time

to become differentiated in character ; and if they were o riginal ly

different, they have been kept, by the existence of the mountain

barrier, distinct to the present day.

As regards flo ral beauty in Madagascar,all who have

travel led much in the island wi l l agree with the statements

o f Dr. A . R . Wal lace in his M alay Archip elag o and Trop ical

Nature, that, contrary to the common Opinion,tropical countries

and tropical forests are not ri ch in flowers,al though they are

unrival led for luxuriance of fo l iage. Madagascar is no ex cep

tion to this ru le, for i t possesses comparatively few plants having

beautiful flowers. There is nothing to compare with an English

meadow,with its clover and its buttercups and daisies, or with a

field o f poppies, orwith the effects produced by gorse and broom

and heather. Nor are there many flowering trees in the fo rests,


and any one expecting to see great numbers o f beautiful flowers

there wil l be disappo inted . There are,i t is true

,a considerable

number Of handsome flowers, both on the open downs and in the

woods,but they do not occur, with some few exceptions

,in large

masses, so as to strike the eye, or to produce a distinct effect in the

landscap e.

I One Of the most conspicuous flowers in the upper

fo rest in the month of November is that of a l iana (S trong /loam

Cravenice), which has a stem about as thick as a one- inch rope,and spikes Of creamy-yel low flowers set pretty closely on the

main stem . These spikes are from 10 to 16 inches in length,each contain ing from 40 to 60 large flowers growing closely

together, so that they are very conspicuous in the fo rest, fo rm ing

immense festoons o f flowers , mounting to the tops o f the highest

trees , crossing from one tree to ano ther, and shining almost

go lden in co lou r in the bri l l iant sunshine.

The O rchids are a prom inent feature in the woods near the

east coast, especial ly several species Of Ang rwcnm o f these A .

sup erbum is the most plentiful,while A. sesguzpea

’ale

,w i th its

long spur and large pure white flowers,is also very conspicuous.

In the interior of the is land there are several striking ground

o rchids ; one yel low,ano ther bri l l iant scarlet

,and ano ther blue

in co lour. Among trees and shrubs which have the most hand

some flowers are species o f Rhodole na,Imp atiens , fr om ,

S tep /za

notis,P oinciana

,Astrapwa,

lp orncea,K zgelia, Combretmn,

and

o thers .

A few particulars may be added as to the special characteris

tics Of each Of the three botanical Regions .

The Eastern Reg ion— This is a comparatively narrow strip

o f country lying between the sea and the central highland,of

the interio r. I t averages about 60to 70m i les in breadth , and is

about 900m i les long from no rth to south . I t includes a l i ttoral

be l t of grassy and wooded plains, with a series of lagoons stretch

ing in an almost continuous l ine for 300 to 400m i les ; then a

tract of country wi th a wild confusion o f rounded hil ls and

See, however. Chapter IV.,p . 72.


thirdly,a series Of two or three mountain ranges, running alm<

throughout the who le length of the is land , and rising in t

western range to a height o f about feet above the

Facing the I ndian Ocean , and meeting the vapour- laden so

east ,winds, .which blow for the g reater. part of the year, t

eastern side of Madagascar is ; naturally 'the'

moistest po rtion

the island , aud i ts vegetation is acco rdinglymost abundant

large,

proportion o f its surfaceyis . covered wi th dense: forest, and

there,are innumerable patches -

o f‘

wood and b ush where there is

no continUous‘

forest;

The narrow l itto ral bel t, with its attractive park

has been made most familiar toEnglish , readers byjdescrip tions

o f i t in many books relating to -Madagasca'

r ; . s ince that po rtion

o f i t which‘

extends between Tamatave and xAndovoranto is

traversed by almost alltravel lers to the , capital . Its soft green

turf,its clumps of trees and shrubs

,and its lake scenery,

make this po rtion o f the‘

journey a very pleasant experience.

Among the most striking features of the vegetation here are the

tal l fir- l ike Casuarina, or beef-Wood tree,which grows in long

l ines m ile after m i le, near the sho re several species o f Pandanus,

or screw-pine the Indian almond (Terminalia Catapp a) ; the

celebrated Tangena“shrub (Tang /i inia venenifera); fo rmerly used

as an lordeal; a species of fern Thouarsiz) , from

which a kind o f sago is Obtained ; o ccasional plantations o f

cocoa nut palm,which

,however, is not indigenous to the island ,

and manyo thers, including some of the most. bea1’

1tifulfl owering

trees al ready mentioned“ The O rchids have been referred to

above,and besides these, , among gother notewo rthy plants, is a

species of p’

it‘

che r plant with pitchers ’

4'

Or 5inches

long,and

.the curious and beautiful lace leaf-( plant (Oilmrana

’ra

fenestralis),‘

which -. is

,however, ; found also ih

'

streams in . the

Central .Region. Bo rdering thei

'

riversides .mars’

hes,a

gigantic Arum (Vi/2a) from 12 to 15feet in height, with a large

white spathe mo re than a foot in length , grows by thousands ,and is sure to attract attention.


As one travels higher up the country, o ther trees and shrubs

become prom inent ; among these is a most elegant species of

bamboo,which

,with its cu rving stems and l ight-green clusters

of leaves, gives quite a character to the scenery the celebrated

Travel ler’s- tree (already described in Chapter I .) the Carda

mom ; the Rofia palm , with its eno rmously long leaves and

feathery fronds ; and many o thers.

With regard to the upper and fo rest- covered po rtion o f the

Eastern Region,Mr. Baron says that i t is “remarkable for its

great variety Of plant forms,there being no s ingle species

,genus ,

or o rder o f plants predominant over the rest, or which influences

to any great degree the general phys iognomy of the vegetation.

”

For ful l particulars as to the most characteristic trees and plants

the reader must be referred to M r. Baron’

s paper ; suffi ce i t to

say here that there are many kinds producing valuable and

beautiful timber, some of which are becom ing impo rtant com

mercially o thers yield many useful products, as indiarubber,bark for dyes

,gamboge, pepper, arrowroo t, &c . As in most

tropical fo rests,the numerous kinds of l iana

,from some not

thicker than a stout thread to o thers as large as a ship’s cable

bind the trees together in an almost impenetrable tangle of

co rdage, through which i t is most difficult to force a path.

The Central Reg ion— As al ready stated,this second

bo tanical region occupies the elevated table- land o f the interio r

of Madagascar. Taken as a who le,the greater part of this

region consists of bare,dreary

,and deso late moo rlands

,with

l i ttle verdure, except in the ho l lows between the hi l ls,and in

those val leys and plains,mostly the beds o f ancient lakes now

dried up,where rice is cultivated by the people. Trees and

shrubs are few,except where a few patches of fo rest sti l l remain ;

and the moo rlands and hi l ls are covered with coarse,wiry

,

grey-brown grass .

‘ But for the usual bright skies and clear

atmo sphere, this part o f Madagascar would be much mo re

dreary and uninteresting than i t real ly is . (For many aspects

o f thisfpart of the country, see Chapter IV.) One pecul iari ty

2S


o f this region is that its vegetation cons ists much mo re largely

of herbs and smal l wi ry plants than Of trees and shrubs ; in fact,about three- fourths of the plants belong to the fo rmer Class .

Ano ther pecul iari ty o f the flo ra here is, as m ight be expected,

its mo re temperate character than that o f ei ther Of the o ther

two regions . Palms and o ther tropical fo rms are rare,while

,

on the o ther hand , Heaths, Gentians , and plants of the o rders

Umbel l iferae, RanunculacezE,and C rassulaceae are plentiful

,

and such mountain fo rm s as the V io let, the Geranium , and the

Sundew,as wel l as the common bracken

,the royal fern

,and the

male fern are found . Perhaps the most prom inent trees in the

Central Region are several species o f Ficus,especial ly the

Ainontana,with large glossy leaves, and the Ao iaoy ,

which are

frequently seen in the Old towns and vi l lages of the interio r

provinces , and also the Nono‘

ha,the Voara

,and the Adaho.

M r. Baron gives a l ist Of s ixty—three plants,only found on the

slopes Of the Ankaratra mass of mountains, all of which are

endem i c in Madagascar.

The Western Reg ion— This part of the is land is much less

known than those included in the o ther two regions . With the

exception of two or three mountain ranges, which appear to run

in a very straight course for several hundred m i les,this region

largely cons ists of extensive level or s l ightly undulating plains,

covered with coarse grass and patches o f fo rest,bes ide the

encircl ing bel t of wood not many m i les from the sho re l ine.

The heat is much greater on the western s ide of the island than

on the eastern s ide,while the rainfal l is much less

,especial ly in

the south-west, where a smal l extent of country is almost a

desert from the scanty amount of rain i t receives. The vege

tation here, therefo re, is much less plentiful and luxuriant than

on the eastern s ide Of the is land,and trees and shrubs are mo re

restricted to the banks of rivers and streams.

The most common trees and shrubs here are species of

Ficus,Hihiscus

,Eug enia, and Weinnzannia

,and the Tamarind

,

which grows to a large s iz e,as does also the Mango

,while the


Of its genera o f plants are endem i c and i t seems probable that

Madagascar was jo ined to the Afri can continent during some

part or parts or the who le of the M iocene (including O l igocene)and early Pl iocene periods

,

” but was cut off from the mainland

at least not subsequent to the later Pl iocene period .

A large number o f plants, trees, and shrubs have been

introduced into Madagascar, including fruits, cereals , and vege

tables but al though many Of them have established themselves

in the island and become natural ised , they can scarcely be

inco rpo rated in the native flo ra.

SECTION I I I . : EXTINCT FORM S OF AN IMAL L IFE IN

MADAGASCAR .

Geo logy and Pala ontology are very modern sciences in

Madagascar, for except sl ight and fragmentary no tices of fo ss i ls

in 1821 , 1 854 , and 1855, and the fi rst discovery of the eggs of

{ Epyornzs in 1851 , hardly anything was known Of the geo logy

of the is land or o f its ancient fo rms of l ife unti l wi thin the last

thi rty years. The travels and researches of M . A lfred Grandidier,however, from 1 865to 1 870, gave the fi rst accurate info rmation

as to the physi cal geography of the country,together with

particulars as to the geo logy of various parts of i t,and greatly

added also to our knowledge of the fauna. And during the past

twenty years a large number of facts have been obtained by

various travel lers , and co l lections of ro ck specimens and fossi ls

have been made.

A l though a very great deal yet remains to be done befo re i t

can be said that we have a fai rly complete elementary acquaint

ance w i th Madagascar geo logy,especial ly in the central -western

,

south -western,and southern po rtions of the island

,certain

general conclus ions appear pretty fai rly establ ished,and may

be very briefly described . The central po rtion of the island

(mo re,however, to the east o f the true centre) cons ists Of land

elevated from feet to between and feet above

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 373

the sea, and extending for about 650m i les no rth and south,and

about 180m i les at its greatest breadth from east to west. This

po rtion of the is land is very mountainous,in fact

,there is here

hardly any level land except in the val leys o f the rivers,and in

the dried -up beds o f ancient lakes. The rocks Of this interio r

region, as wel l as o f the narrow bel t Of coast plains and hil ly

country between i t and the sea to the east,cons ist of gneiss

and o ther crystal l ine rocks, gneiss very largely predom inating.

Bes ides these ancient rocks there are also mo re modern ones,o f various ages and of vo l cani c o rigin. The highest po ints in

the island are the summ i ts of the mass o f Ankaratra,which is

“the wreck o f a huge but ancient subaerial vo l cano .

” Beside

these and o ther ancient s igns o f subterranean action,there are

many sco res Of vo lcani c cones , probably of much mo re recent

o rigin,some of them possibly in activi ty during the earl iest

human o ccupation of the country. These extinct craters are

distributed in two principal groups, one in Mandridrano , about

fo rty-five m i les E .N .E. o f the summ i t Of Ankaratra,and the o ther

in the district Of Betafo ,at about the same distance to the south

west.

In the western half o f the island sedimentary rocks appear to

fo rm the greater po rtion o f the comparatively level country o f

which i t is composed . These consist o f sandstones,beds of clay

and shale,and l imestones , together w ith o ccasional depos i ts o f

l ignite. The fo l lowing is a l ist given by M r. Baron of“themetamo rphic and sedimentary strata o f Madagascar

,so far as

they are at p resenti

known,referred to the European standard

o f geo logical chrono logy.

” But i t must be remembered that

this l ist refers chiefly to the no rth-west o f the island, the central

western and south-western po rtions not having been yet

exam ined by any competent geolog ist.I

I am indebted for the main facts in the preceding paragraph to a paper bymy friend and brother m issionary

,Rev. R. Baron

,who is our chief

authority on the geo logy and petro logy of Madagascar. This paper,

“Noteson the Geo logy of Madagascar, in Quar. yourn. Geol. Soc. , May, 1889 , togetherw ith a later one in the same journal (Feb ,

“Geo logical Notes o f a j ourney


POST-TE RTIARY Recent.

TE RTIARY Eocene.

U pper.CretaceousNeocomian

Oxfordian.SECONDARYj urassic

Lower Oo lite (Cornbrash , Bradford C lay, Fu l ler

’

s Earth).Lias.

PALzEOZOIC

I now proceed to give a sketch of the most interesting fo rms

o f extinct animal l ife which have been discovered in Madagascar,most o f them by very recent research .

M ammalia.—It has been for a long time known that the

l iving fauna o f the island is remarkably deficient in the most

characteristi c mammals o f Afri ca,or indeed in any large

quadrupeds, and that the lemurs and their al l ies are very

numerous in species, and are the most prom inent and typical

forms of the Malagasy fauna. And as shown by the table at

p . 356 of this chapter,bats

,smal l species o f carnivo ra, of

insectivo ra, and of rodents, with one ungulate animal (a wild

hog ), compose the hundred and odd species of the l iving

mammals o f the country.

About three years ago M r. 1. T. Last, who has been co l lecting

for some time for the Hon. Wal ter Ro thschi ld, discovered a

mammal ian skul l o f strange aspect in a marsh at AmbOlisatra,on the south-west coast of Madagascar. After an elabo rate

exam ination by D r. C . J . Fo rsyth Majo r,this has been deter

m ined to belong to a large -extinct Lemuro id animal . The skul l

is much longer in shape,as wel l as larger

,than that Of any of the

l iving Lemuridae,and the animal was probably nearly three times

the s iz e o f any existing Lemur,approaching to the dimensions

of the Anthropo id Apes . D r. Majo r has acco rdingly fo rmed a

new fam i ly for this aberrant fo rm Of Lemuro id,which he has

in Madagascar,gives the ful lest information yet obtainable as to Madagascar

geo logy. They are i l l ustrated by three geo logical maps .


Bira’s .— Forty-five years ago the scientific wo rld was startled

by the discovery in Madagascar o f the eggs and bones of a

giganti c bi rd,to which the name o f (Epyornis nzax z

'

rnus was

given. The bones showed that this extinct creature was a

struthious bird,apparently al l ied to the ostrich and the recently

exterm inated Dinornis Of New Zealand,but with mo re mass ive

feet and leg -bones. The eggs were,however, perhaps the most

interesting rel i cs o f this ancient bi rd,for they largely exceed the

sme o f any previously known egg , be ing 1 2% inches long by

93 inches broad , with a capacity of mo re than six o f the largest

known ostri ch eggs .

During M . Grandidier’

s explo rations in Madagascar, al ready

referred to,he discovered o ther bones ofE pyornz

'

s,which were

eventual ly described as belonging to two o ther species bes ides

E . max imus,viz .

,IE. inea

’ius and A15. 7noa

’estus . A l l these

remains were, up to a recent date,known only from the coast

regions, viz .,south-east

,south

, and south-west. But in the

excavations made by the Rev. T. A . Rosaas at Antsirabe, which

revealed the remains of Hipp op otamus just referred to,bones o f

{ Epyornis were also discovered,and among these were some of

a fourth species, which was named A}. Hila’ehrana’

ti. Mo re

recently sti l l,further excavations at Antsirabe and in the

south-west and west have brought a large quanti ty o f o ther

material to l ight, and from these MM . M i lne-Edwards and

Grandidier have been able to make a mo re complete study

o f the extinct birds of Madagascar,and to determ ine that

they belong to many different species.

I They say

These various kinds of fi pyornis constitute a family, rep re

sented by very differing fo rms. A t the present time at least

a do z en can be distinguished , some of large s iz e,o thers of

moderate dimens ions. The fo rmer had a height of about ten

feet, while o thers hardly exceeded that Of a bustard . Their

anatom i cal characters j ustify their being arranged in two genera

Observations sur les Epyornis de Madagascar Comptes rendus, t. cxvi i i .Januaiy 15. 1894 .


(1) that ofE pyornis, with large and mass ive legs and (2) that

o f M ullerornis , wi th s lenderer legs and feet, and which much

resembled in their propo rtions the cassowary Of New Guinea

and . the apteryx o f New Zealand.

”The largest of the species

o f E pyornis has been named AZ. ing ens, and greatly exceeds

in s iz e 122. nzaxinzus .“The condi tions under which the remains of these birds

have been depos i ted seem to show that they frequented the

margins of sheets o f water, and that, if they did not swim there,they kept in the midst of the rushes bo rdering the lakes and

the rivers. I n fact, wherever they have been obtained,their

bones are asso ciated wi th those of smal l hippopo tam i,croco

di les, and to rto ises, that is to say, with animals al together

aquatic -in their habits. The E pyornis must usual ly have

l ived in low- lying and frequently inundated plains ; and there

also they nested,as we may infer from the number of p or

tions of the skeletons o f very young birds which have been

found there in abundance.

”

Besides the remains Of the struthious birds j ust described ,among the bones from Antsirabesome po rtions which belonged

to a large rai l,nearly related to Ap hanap teig/x ,

have been

recognised ; as wel l as o thers of a species o f wild-goose, but

much larger than those o f any kinds now inhabiting Mada

gascar. These remains again show the existence o f extinct

birds o f aquatic habits , belonging to the same period as the

zEpyornis, and l iving under s im i lar conditions.

These large birds were certainly contempo raneous with

Man,for there are to be seen , on some of thei r bones, some

deep and very sharply distinct no tches, which were made by

cutting instruments, probably in removing the flesh . On the

femur of a hippopotamus, of the same date, is also to be seen

a ho l low cut, go ing through the who le thickness of the bone and

evidently produced by human hands.

These discoveries doubtless give prom ise o f o thers sti l l

mo re impo rtant yet to be made, which wil l throw some l ight


upon the early histo ry o f Madagascar,from the po int of view

Of phys ical geography and z oo logy. I t is impo ssible not to

be struck with the analogies which the fauna o f this island

p resentszwith that of New Zealand , where, at a recent period ,there l ived a large number of gigantic birds

, theD ino rnithidae ,represented by mo re than twenty species. These resemblances

seem to indicate some fo rmer connection between these islands

(as wel l as between the is lands of the southern hem isphere

general ly), now separated by an immense extent o f ocean and

this conclusion appears to agree with observations made with

regard to the ancient fauna Of the Madagascar group of islands.

I

Rep tiles — It is wel l known to students o f natural histo ry

that on smal l islands separated from each o ther by nearly half

the circumference Of the globe there s ti l l exist gigantic to rto ises.

These i slands are the Galapagos, west of Ecuado r in South

Ameri ca,and the island of A ldabra

,no rth o f Madagascar. On

the main land of the great Afri can Island none of these great

chelonians are now found l iving, but recent research has shown,

as we m ight have supposed,that they fo rmed part o f the ancient

fauna of the country. I t is only owing to the fact of A ldabra

being uninhabited by man that these huge defenceless creatures

have maintained their existence in one of the outlying islands.

The A ldabra to rto ises have a carapace,

5 ft. 6 in . long and

5ft. 9 in . broad,and weigh about 800lbs. The extinct to rto ises

o f Madagascar appear to have been as large as the ones now

l iving in A ldabra islet, and have been described as o f two

species, Testua’

o ahrup ta and T. Grana’

ia’ieri.2 As already

mentioned,their skeletons, carapaces, and plastrons have been

found asso ciated with remains o f z fi‘

pj /ornis and hippopo tamus.

The rivers and lakes of Madagascar abound with crocodi les ,and i t is not therefo re surpris ing that remains of this repti le

have been found in the Quaternary depos i ts which have yielded

1 The preceding paragraphs are translated from the paper of MM . M i lneEdwards and Grandidier already Cited .

3 See Conzptes-rendus, vol. lxvii ., 1868 vol. c., 1885.


represented,one being l ike Ornithop sis or B rontosaurus .

I I n

a paper by M r. R. Lydekker, contributed to the Quart.

j ourn. Z ool. S oc. (August, some o f these bones have been

described as belonging to a Sauropodous D ino saur,

”o f the

genus B othriosp onclylus , and cal led by him B . nzaa’ag ascarz'

ensis.

These remains belong to the j urass i c series o f rocks.

I n 189 1 some fragments o f the skul l of a repti le were dis

covered by the Rev. R. Baron in a tenacious Shel ly l imestone

in the no rth-western part Of the island. These have been deter

mined by M r. R . Bul len Newton,

to belong to a repti le

p ossesing crocodi l ian affinities, and from its narrow and elongate

rostrum ,

“bearing a strong resemblance to the existing Gavial

of the Ganges,though differing very widely from i t in o ther and

mo re impo rtant characters . I t is not unti l we go much further

in time that we find its congener among the Meso z o i c crocodi les

fo rm ing the fam i ly o f the Teleo sauridae. M r. Newton regards

these remains as po rtions Of a new fo rm,and from them he

founds a new species o f the genus S teneosaurus,which he names

5. Baroni. This genus has hitherto been known only in British

and European areas,so that the discovery o f this new species in

a lo cal i ty so far south as Madagascar is a matter of very high

interest when considering its geographical distribution . From

the few mo l luscan shel ls associated with the fossi l,i t appears to

belong to the Lower Oo l i te age.

The above-mentioned mammals,birds

,and repti les (twenty

six or twenty-seven only in number) comprise all that is at

present known of the ancient vertebrate fo rms Of l ife in Mada

gascar. There are doubtless many o thers yet to be disentombed ,and fresh discoveries are sure to be made on fuller investigation

o f the country. I t may be confidently expected that the next

few years wi l l show a great increase in our knowledge Of the

p ala ontology o f this great is land,as wel l as of its geo logy, for

the field is very wide,and bo th subjects have only been s l ightly

touched as yet.

I Brontosaurus was about sixty feet in length .

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 38 1

A complete l ist o f allthe foss i ls from Madagascar known up

to the present date is given by M r. R. Bul len Newton in a paper

in Quar. j ourn. Geol. S oc. (February, 1 895). I These, om i tting the

vertebrates al ready described , number 140, and belong to the

Mo l lusca in Quaternary strata, to the Mo l lusca and Foraminifera

in Tertiary (Eo cene), to Mo l lusca, Echinodermata, Actino z oa,Fo ram inifera, and Plantze in the Secondary (Cretaceous and

Jurassi c).

Let us try to sum up in a few sentences the results o f recent

research on the ancient animal l ife of the island .

I t seems probable that Madagascar, when the fi rst represem

tatives Of mankind occupied it, was a country much mo re ful ly

covered by lakes and marshes than i t is at present. In these

waters, am id vast cane brakes and swamps of papyrus and

sedge,wal lowed and sno rted herds o f hippopo tam i huge

to rto ises crawled over the low lands on thei r margins ; tal l

ostrich - l ike birds , some over ten feet high, and o thers no larger

than bustards, stalked over the marshy val leys ; great rai ls

hoo ted and croaked among the reeds, and clouds of large

geese and o ther water- fowl flew scream ing over its lakes ; on

the sandbanks cro codiles lay by sco res basking in the sun ;

great ap e- l ike lemurs climbed the trees and caught the birds ;troops of river-hogs swam the streams and dug up roots among

the woods ; and herds o f s lender- legged z ebu -oxen graz ed on

the open downs. These were the animals which the fi rst wi ld

men hunted with thei r palm -bark Spears, and sho t with thei r

arrows tipped w i th burnt clay or stone.

2

And as we look further back through long past geo logical

ages, when the clays and sandstones Of the oo l i te and the white

masses of the chalk were being depos i ted in the co ral - studded

tropic seas and archipelagoes o f Europe and o ther parts of the

And reproduced in Antananarivo Annual, xix ., 1895.

The Vaz imba, the supposed earl iest inhabitants of the interior, are said not

to have known the use of iron, but to have had spears made of the hard, w iry

bark of the Anivona palm ,and to have employed arrow -heads made of burnt

C lay. NO flint weapons have yet been discovered in Madagascar.


wo rld,and when Madagascar was probably no island , but a

peninsula Of Eastern Africa, the m ist opens for a moment,and

we see vast repti le fo rms dim ly through the haz e : great s lender

snouted Gavials in the streams and lakes,and huge D inosaurs,

s ixty to eighty feet long, crawling over the wooded plains,and

tearing down who le trees with their powerful arms.

Such are some glimpses of the Madagascar of the past

which the study o f its ro cks and foss i ls al ready opens to the

mental eye. We may confidently look for further l ight upon

the dim and distant bygone ages as we learn mo re Of the

geo logy of the country. The thick curtain which at present

shrouds the old -wo rld time wil l be yet mo re fully l ifted , and we

shal l probably, ere many mo re years have passed,be able to

draw many mo re mental pictures of the extinct animal l ife of

the great Afri can island .

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