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Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

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Dr. Robert Caldelli

CNIT - National InteruniversityConsortium for TelecommunicationsResearch Unit at MICC Media Integration and Communication Center Ph.D., Telecommunications andComputer Science Engineering, University of Florence, Italy

Dr. Xiaoxun Sunx

Australian Councilfor Educational ResearchPh.D., Computer ScienceUniversity of Southern Queensland

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Department of Electronics and Computer Science, Koszalin University of Technology, Koszalin, Ph.D., Computer Science, Japanese Institute of Information Technology,Warsaw, Poland.

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Harbin Institute of Technology Shenzhen Graduate School, China Ph.D.,The Hong Kong PolytechnicUniversity Hong Kong

Dr. Rafid Al-Khannak

Senior Lecturer Faculty of Design, Media andManagement Department of Computing Ph.DDistributed Systems Buckinghamshire New University, United Kingdom

Prof. Piotr Kulczycki

Centre of Information Technology for Data Analysis Methods, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Faculty of Physics and Applied, Computer Science AGH University of Science and Technology, Poland

Dr. Shi Zhou

Senior Lecturer, Dept of Computer Science,Faculty of Engineering Science, Ph.D., Telecommunications Queen Mary, University, London

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College of Computer and Information Sciences,

Alazaeim Alazhari University, Khartoum North,

Sudan, Associate Professor of Computer Science

and Information Ph.D., Computer Science-

Bioinformatics, University of Technology

Emeritus Professor, Department of Mathematics,

Dept. of Computer & Information,

Science & Engineering

Ph.D.,

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P.G. Deptt. of Computer

Science & Applications,

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Khalsa

College, India

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National Research,

University of Electronic Technology

Ph.D.,

National Research University of Electronic

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School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering,

University of Hull, UK

Ph.D., Chemical Engineering

Universiti Sains Malaysia,

Malaysia

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University of Annaba, Algeria Ph.D., Environmental Engineering,

University of Annaba, University of Savoie, France

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, Research Associate, University of Saskatchewan, Canada Ph.D., Materials Science, Central South University, China

Luisa Molari

Professor of Structural Mechanics Architecture, University of Bologna, Department of Civil Engineering, Chemical, Environmental and Materials, PhD in Structural Mechanics, University of Bologna.

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National Yunlin University of Science

and Technology, Chinese Taipei

Ph.D.,

Department of Chemical Engineering

University of Missouri-Rolla (UMR)

USA

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Department of Mechanical Engineering,

National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences, Chinese Taipei

Ph.D., Department of Mechanical

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Chinese Taipei

Malasiya

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Faculty

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Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, Ph.D., Queen Mary, University of London,

London, UK

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Associate Professor for Integrated Science, Defense

University Center, Spain Ph.D., Chemical

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Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of Engineering Mathematics and Internetworking, Ph.D. in Internetworking Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax Nova Scotia, Canada

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Assistant Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Campus of Veracruz, Civil Engineering Department, Ph D., Degree, University of Minho, Portugal

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Department of Civil Engineering, Associate Professor, Minia University, Egypt, Ph.D Earthquake Engineering and Structural Safety, Indian Institute of Science

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Faculty of Engineering,

Multimedia University Jalan Multimedia,

Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia,

Ph.D, Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Power Electronics and Devices, University Sians Malaysia

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Associate Professor,

China University of Petroleum,

Ph.D Mechanical and Electronic Engineering,

China

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Beijing University of Aeronautics

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United Kingdom

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University of Thessaly,

Associate Professor, Ph.D.,

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Greece

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Canadian Scientific Research and Experimental Development Manager-Science,

KPMG LLP, Canada, Ph.D., Nanotechnology, University of Alberta, Canada

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HeFei University of Technology, HeFei,

China, Ph.D.,

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Electrical Engineering Dept., Nationalsun-Yat-sen University Ph.D., Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Taiwan

Mu-Chun Su

Electronics Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan, Ph.D. Degrees in Electrical Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA Ph.D. Degrees Control Systems,

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Telecommunications, University of Quintana Roo, Ph.D., Telecommunications Center for Research and Advanced Studies National Polytechnic Institute, Mexico

Nagy I. Elkalashy

Electrical Engineering Department,

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Minoufiya University, Egypt

Vitoantonio Bevilacqua

Department of Electrical and Information

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Pennsylvania State University

USA

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Professor, Zhejiang University, Ph.D.,

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Zhejiang University, China

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College of Merchandising, Hospitality and Tourism, University of North Texas, USA

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China, PhD. Applied Science and Engineering,

Metallurgy and Materials, Aston University, UK

Jeng-Da Chai

Associate Professor, Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, Excellent Junior Research Investigators, Ministry of Science and Technology, Career Development Award, National Taiwan University

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Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Ph.D., University of Toronto B.Sc., McGILL University

Yas Al-Sultani

Ph.D. Image processing Enhancement

using Fuzzy Set Theory Arabian Gulf University, Constituencies, Training and Continuous Teaching Center, Iraq

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School of Physics, Astronomy, and Computational Sciences, George Mason University, USA Ph.D., Theoretical Solid State Physics University of London(UK)

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Faculty of Sciences, Dept. of Chemistry

Laboratory

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Mohammed First University

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Associate Professor of Physics Pennsylvania,

State University Penn State Lehigh Valley, ,

Ph.D., Physics, University of Cincinnati,

President of the Lehigh Valley,

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National Institute for Laser Enhanced Sciences,

NILES Cairo University, Giza, Egypt Ph.D.,

Experimental Physics V Institute

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Department of Physics,

Awarded Junior Radiation Physics Medal,

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Department of Chemistry, Aix-Marseille University Ph.D.,

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Mersin University Ph.D., Chemistry Nigde University

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Department of Mathematics, Nanjing University, China Ph.D., Applied Mathematics, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA

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Assistant Professor, University of Houston Ph.D. in Geodetic Science, Ohio State University, USA

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Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche,

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Setif University, Ph.D., Physics University of Sétif Algeria

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University of Connecticut Health Center

USA Ph.D., Biotechnology Central

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Department of Anaesthetics,

Al Salam International Hospital,

The State of Kuwait

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Vice Dean for Education and Student Affairs,

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European Bioenergy Research Institute,

Director of EBRI, Leader of Aston University

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Medical University of Warsaw, Poland Ph.D., Medical University of Warsaw,

Poland

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University of Atlanta, Ph.D., Cardiovascular Biology and Pathology,

Moscow State University

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Department of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ph.D., Dept. of Comparative Medicine, Mc Gill University

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Division of Oral Biology and Medicine,

Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Ph.D.,

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College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Kansas, USA Ph.D., Veterinary Medicine Chonbuk National University, South Korea

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Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine Stanford, California Ph.D., Microbiology, University of California, Los Angeles

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Professor, Public Health School of

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Australia

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Department of Management and Engineering,

University of Padua, Italy

PH.D, University of Florence

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Department of Accounting and Finance,

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University of Murcia,

SPAIN

Dr. Dimitrios Vortelinos

Department of Accounting,

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University of Lincoln,

UK

Ph.D., Financial Economics,

University of Peloponnese, Greece

Victor J. Tremblay

Department of Economics, Oregon State University Ph.D.,

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Mugasia

Department of Education planning

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Masinde Muliro University of Science

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School of Business, Accounting Department University of Houston -Clear Lake Ph.D. Accounting University of Alabama

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Information Technology and Management Rzeszow University Poland Ph.D., Department of Economics University of Warsaw, Poland

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University of Calabria, Arcavacata – Rende, Italy University Giustino Fortunato, Benevento – Italy Ph.D., Economy and Management of Public Administrations

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Professor of Accounting A. Gary Anderson Graduate School of Management University of California, Riverside, USA Ph.D., Accounting University of Texas, Austin

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Assistant Professor,

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Professor of Finance ALHOSN University, UAE

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Student Industrial Work Experience

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Assistant Professor Chinese University of

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Purdue University, USA Ph.D.,

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Middlesex University, UK Ph.D.,

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COST Office Belgium Ph.D., University of Zilina Slovakia

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Beijing Jiaotong University B.S., Northern Jiaotong University Beijing

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University of Warwick,

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LJP Copyright ID: 573321Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792

London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences

Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

ABSTRACT

Scan to know paper details andauthor's profile

(Des) Militarization and Political Violence: Forced Disappearance as a Dispositive of Necropower in

Northern MexicoSalvador Salazar Gutiérrez

The text presents a discussion about the implications that the strategy the militarization of public security implemented since 2006 in Mexico, has generated about the increase in violence in various sectors of the population, and specifically in practice of the forced disappearance by agents of the Mexican State. From the analysis of sources, it reveals how the implementation of the Operativo Conjunto Chihuahua-Juarez, was the example of a policy based on the production of disposable bodies.

Keywords: militarization, political violence, necro power, forced disappearance, Ciudad Juarez.

Classification: 160699

Language: English

© 2020. Salvador Salazar Gutiérrez. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use,distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

For Code:

(Des) Militarization and Political Violence: Forced Disappearance as a Dispositive of Necropower in 

Northern Mexico 

Salvador Salazar Gutiérrez ____________________________________________

ABSTRACT 

The text presents a discussion about the

implications that the strategy the militarization

of public security implemented since 2006 in

Mexico, has generated about the increase in

violence in various sectors of the population, and

specifically in practice of the forced

disappearance by agents of the Mexican State.

From the analysis of sources, it reveals how the

implementation of the Operativo Conjunto

Chihuahua-Juarez, was the example of a policy

based on the production of disposable bodies.

Keywords: militarization, political violence, necro

power, forced disappearance, Ciudad Juarez.

I. INTRODUCCIÓN 

A partir de un trabajo como perito especialista

ante la Corte Interamericana de Derechos

Humanos (Corte IDH), relacionado con un caso

de desaparición forzada operado por elementos

militares adscritos al Operativo Conjunto

Chihuahua-Juárez, el artículo propone un análisis

de las implicaciones de la presencia de militares

en tareas de seguridad pública, en específico

considerando los periodos de gobierno de Felipe

Calderón Hinojosa (2006 a 2012) y Enrique Peña

Nieto (2012 a 2018). El texto sostiene que la

desaparición forzada, ha constituido un

mecanismo por parte del Estado mexicano que

remite a la lógica de necropolítica (Mbembe,

2011), perspectiva que según el filósofo camerunés

da cuenta cómo gobiernos someten la vida a un

poder encargado de reproducir la muerte como

dispositivo de control. En este sentido, la relación

que establezco entre militarización y violencia

política, adquiere relevancia en un contexto

sociohistórico en la frontera norte de México,

caracterizado por una expansión del brazo

punitivo del estado, la extinción de las políticas de

bienestar, y la puesta en marcha de una estrategia

selectiva encargada de contener y desaparecer

vidas consideradas eliminables (Salazar y Curiel,

2012).

El artículo comprende cuatro apartados. El

primero describe a partir de la relación entre las

categorías de violencia política y seguridad

pública, la implementación de una política

contenciosa y de violación sistemática a derechos

humanos, a partir de la puesta en marcha de

operativos policiaco-militares subordinados a la

operatividad logística castrense. Para ello,

describe qué significó el Operativo Conjunto

Chihuahua-Juárez, con una presencia entre el

2008 y el 2011, así como el andamiaje que

significó el compromiso de implementación de

este tipo de política a partir del acuerdo

binacional Iniciativa Mérida.

El segundo apartado, retoma la categoría de

necropoder (Mbebme, 2011), para evidenciar la

configuración de una política de militarización de

la seguridad pública, dando como resultado la

violación sistemática a derechos humanos, y

específicamente la práctica de la desaparición

forzada por agentes del Estado mexicano

vinculados a los operativos conjuntos. Para

fortalecer dicho argumento, el tercer apartado

muestra el caso ante la Corte Interamericana de

Derechos Humanos sobre desaparición forzada

–Caso Alvarado Spinoza y Otros vs México-, que

significó la evidencia pública a partir de una

sentencia condenatoria, de cómo las fuerzas

armadas han implementado una serie de prácticas

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1 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

violatorias a los Derechos Humanos, así como la

severa crisis de paradigma en torno a la seguridad

pública que enfrenta el Estado mexicano. Un

aspecto clave resultado de la sentencia emitida

por la Corte, fue el establecer cuatro principios

básicos de regulación que debe imperar en

cualquier intención de favorecer la actuación de

las fuerzas armadas en tareas reservadas a la

policía civil: extraordinaria, subordinada y

complementaria, regulada, y fiscalizada.

El cuarto apartado, busca dar un giro de

interpretación, a lo que ha significado la

simulación de cambio en torno a la perspectiva de

seguridad pública por parte del actual gobierno

federal encabezado por Andrés Manuel López

Obrador. En febrero del 2019, se emitió el decreto

por el que se crea el organismo denominado

Guardia Nacional. Una organización “híbrida”

que plantea operar, a partir de una relación dual

civil-militar, en tareas de apoyo a la seguridad

pública, y que ha generado un fuerte debate en el

marco de los Derechos Humanos.

Paisaje de militarización de la seguridad pública

(violencia política) en el norte de México.

Si bien, a lo largo de la historia en México se ha

mostrado las implicaciones de la participación de

elementos de las fuerzas armadas en diversas

tareas vinculadas a labores de la policía civil, en

las dos últimas décadas ha sido una constante la

presencia de operativos policiaco-militares en

torno a tareas destinadas a la seguridad pública,

en los que la constante es la violación sistemática

a Derechos Humanos reconocidos por el propio

Estado mexicano. Por violencia política, haré

referencia a todo proceso instrumentalizado y

orientado a la formación, distribución y ejercicio

del poder por parte del Estado, con la intención de

establecer un dominio de facto sobre una región y

su población (González Calleja, 2017). Partiendo

de ello, militarización de la seguridad pública

implica la subordinación de las tareas prevención,

investigación y persecución de diversos delitos,

tanto del fuero común como federal, a la

actuación y estrategia represiva castrense que, en

el contexto reciente de crisis en relación a la

inoperancia del Estado para contener los altos

índices de violencia en diversas regiones del país,

ha constituido una medida en la búsqueda de

legitimar la posición del Estado ante la presencia

del narcotráfico y el crimen organizado.

El primer aspecto a destacar, refiere a lo que

varios autores han planteado como la ambigüedad

jurídico-procedimental en torno a la perspectiva

de la seguridad pública, dando como resultado la

tendencia de ampliar el rango de participación de

elementos de las fuerzas armadas. Al respecto, la

Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos

Mexicanos, en su artículo 21, establece que por

seguridad pública define toda función cuya

finalidad sea

“…salvaguardar la vida, las libertades, la

integridad y el patrimonio de las personas, así

como contribuir a la generación y preservación

del orden público y la paz social, de

conformidad con lo previsto en esta

Constitución y las leyes en la materia. La

seguridad pública comprende la prevención,

investigación y persecución de los delitos, así

como la sanción de las infracciones

administrativas, en los términos de la ley, en

las respectivas competencias que esta

Constitución señala. La actuación de las

instituciones de seguridad pública se regirá por

los principios de legalidad, objetividad,

eficiencia, profesionalismo, honradez y respeto

a los derechos humanos reconocidos en esta

Constitución.” (Constitución Política de los

Estados Unidos Mexicanos,).

Esta definición, en la perspectiva de Muñoz

Castellanos (2017), presenta dos interrogantes

centrales. Por un lado, no queda claro en manos

de quién se cumple dicho mandato, es decir la

autoridad o cuerpo ejecutor de dicha prevención;

mientras que por otro lado, coloca dos enfoques

que enfrentados entre sí, resultado con ello una

serie de ambigüedades en la interpretación

jurídica: la prevención y la reacción : “si bien es 1

cierto que su corte es preventivo, también es

cierto que al señalar las facultades de

investigación y persecución ambas representan el

corte reactivo de la seguridad pública” (Muñoz

Castellanos, 2017;150).

Más allá de una discusión a fondo con respecto a

la falta de claridad conceptual que enfrenta el

1 El autor ejemplifica esta problemática de vacío legal en

torno a la relación prevención-reacción, en relación al

surgimiento en agosto del 2014, de la Gendarmería como

unidad operativa de la Policía Federal, a cargo de

implementar operativos en aquellas zonas en las que exista

presencia de la delincuencia organizada o altos índices

delictivos.

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(Des) militarization and political violence: forced disappearance as a dispositive of necropower in northern Mexico

enfoque de la seguridad pública en su anclaje

normativo y procedimental, es importante para la

intención del presente texto, dar cuenta de las

implicaciones que ha generado la participación de

elementos de las fuerzas armadas, en torno a la

dicha ambigüedad, propiciando con esto un

paisaje de indefensión y violación sistemática a

derechos humanos en el país.

Ahora bien, con la intención de caracterizar dicho

paisaje, y de manera específica el impacto que

generó la práctica de la desaparición forzada por

parte de elementos de las fuerzas armadas, a

continuación describiré dos antecedentes

centrales que permiten dar cuenta de la apuesta

por parte del Estado mexicano en torno dicha

estrategia: el acuerdo binacional Iniciativa

Mérida, y el Operativo Conjunto Chihuahua-

Juárez.

La Iniciativa Mérida

No se puede comprender el escenario actual de

irrupción de la violencia en la zona fronteriza

entre México y Estados Unidos, así como las

estrategias de “seguridad pública” llevadas a cabo

por el gobierno mexicano, sin tener presente el

acuerdo binacional denominado Iniciativa

Mérida. En Marzo del 2007, durante el encuentro

que sostuvieron los presidentes Felipe Calderón y

George Bush en la ciudad de Mérida, se formalizó

el plan de apoyo logístico y financiero de

seguridad, considerado como un esquema de

cooperación bilateral entre México y Estados

Unidos, que permitiría fortalecer y complementar

los esfuerzos internos contra la delincuencia

organizada transnacional.

“Los gobiernos de México y Estados unidos,

comparten una profunda preocupación por la

amenaza que representa para nuestras

sociedades la operación de organizaciones

criminales que actúan en ambos lados de

nuestra frontera común. La creciente

capacidad operacional y financiera de los

grupos criminales involucrados en el tráfico de

drogas, armas y personas, así como de otras

actividades criminales trasnacionales,

representan una contundente amenaza para las

vidas y el bienestar de los ciudadanos de

México y Estados unidos. Ambos países

establecerán como una prioridad combatir el

poder y la impunidad de las organizaciones

criminales y del narcotráfico, que amenazan la

salud y la seguridad pública de sus ciudadanos,

así como la estabilidad y la seguridad de la

región.” (SER, México, 2007) 2

El acuerdo destacó en su momento tres ejes de

acciones: 1) reforzar los esfuerzos internos de

procuración de justicia en México; 2) reforzar los

esfuerzos internos de procuración de justicia en

Estados Unidos; y 3) ampliar la cooperación

bilateral y regional dirigida a la amenaza que

representa la delincuencia transnacional

organizada (SRE, México, 2007). En específico,

destacó la prioridad de favorecer la adquisición de

equipo militar de vigilancia , así como el 3

adiestramiento y capacitación de mandos

militares y policiacos pertenecientes al Estado

mexicano:

“para incrementar las capacidades operativas,

nuestras estrategias incluyen una renovada

transferencia de equipo y recurso técnico, de

acuerdo con las normas correspondientes de

transparencia y rendición de cuentas de ambos

países. Asimismo, la estrategia incluye programas

de capacitación e intercambio de expertos, pero no

contempla el despliegue de personal militar

estadounidense en México ” (SER, México, 2007). 4

De manera particular, el acuerdo buscó

considerar “un compromiso de protección y/o

defensa de derechos humanos y establecer

mecanismos para una relación continua con la

sociedad civil” (Woodrom Wilson International

2 Dicho enfoque se fundamenta en la perspectiva que el

gobierno Federal de México planteó en el 2007, como parte

de su política exterior a cargo de la Secretaría de Relaciones

Exteriores. Consultar en https://embamex.sre.gob.mx/

suecia/index.php /en/comunicados/ 6-comunicados-2007/

306--sp-998823279 3 Para el 2010, Estados Unidos había destinado $1.5 mil

millones en asistencia para México bajo la Iniciativa Mérida

con el fin de combatir el tráfico de drogas y la violencia

asociada al mismo, incluyendo asistencia para la reforma

judicial, el desarrollo institucional, la lucha anticorrupción y

el fomento del Estado de Derecho. Se estima que entre 2008

y 2010 el Departamento de Defensa de Estados Unidos

destinó $80.9 millones a financiar la lucha antidroga en

México (Meyer, Brewer y Cepeda, 2010). 4 Si bien en el acuerdo se estableció el “no despliegue de

personal militar estadounidense en México”, considerado el

“pleno respeto de la soberanía, la jurisdicción territorial y el

marco legal de cada país; y están orientados por los

principios de confianza mutua, responsabilidad compartida y

reciprocidad.” (Iniciativa Mérida, 2007), diversas notas

periodísticas han evidenciado la participación de elementos

de organismos como la DEA o el FBI, en diversos operativos

de búsqueda y detención de personas que se consideraban

vinculadas al narcotráfico.

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3 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

(Des) militarization and political violence: forced disappearance as a dispositive of necropower in northern Mexico

Center, 2009). Aquí radica una de las

preocupaciones fundamentales del gobierno de

los Estados Unidos, el problema de la corrupción

en los organismos de seguridad pública en México

y la violación sistemática de los derechos

humanos (Chabat, 2010). El estudio “Abuso y

miedo en Ciudad Juárez: un análisis de

violaciones a los derechos humanos cometidas

por militares en México” de Meyer, Brewer y

Cepeda (2010), es claro y contundente al mostrar

el fracaso que significó en su momento la

implementación de este acuerdo bilateral, en su

compromiso de garantizar la defensa de los

derechos humanos.

El rol de las fuerzas armadas como principal actor

en los operativos antidroga ha llevado a un

aumento en los abusos dada la impunidad de la

que históricamente han gozado las fuerzas

castrenses mexicanas. Pero también hay otros

peligros asociados a la participación de los

militares en operaciones de seguridad pública

relacionados con las diferencias en entrenamiento

y mandato entre las fuerzas. Las fuerzas armadas

están entrenadas para actuar en situaciones de

combate, en las cuales el objetivo es eliminar al

enemigo mediante el uso de la fuerza sin

consideración alguna por el bienestar del enemigo.

Por el contrario, las fuerzas policiales están

entrenadas para interactuar con civiles dentro de

un marco básico de derechos constitucionales.

Debido a las diferencias en cuanto a roles y

tácticas, los conflictos y abusos son prácticamente

inevitables cuando se asigna a los militares tareas

que corresponden a la policía. Aparte genera serias

dudas acerca de la práctica actualmente extendida

de nombrar a militares en cargos de mando en las

fuerzas policiales locales. (Meyer, Brewer y

Cepeda, 2010;10)

En el año 2006, al ser electo presidente de la

República el Lic. Felipe Calderón Hinojosa,

llevó a la práctica la participación directa de

comandos militares en torno a tareas de

seguridad pública en diversas regiones del país.

Los operativos conjuntos, fueron estrategias

que se caracterizaron por una falta de

coordinación entre diversos gobiernos locales y

el gobierno federal, ante el incremento de la

violencia expresada en un número creciente de

homicidios, secuestros, y presencia de grupos

vinculados al narcotráfico.

Operativo Conjunto Chihuahua-Juárez

El 21 de Marzo del 2008, el entonces Secretario de

Gobernación Juan Camilo Mouriño, anunció el

inicio de la estrategia de seguridad pública

denominada Operativo Conjunto Chihuahua-

Juárez, con el que se desplazarían a esta ciudad

fronteriza más de dos mil efectivos militares para

contribuir al resguardo de la ciudad junto con las

policías estatal y municipal. Tan solo cinco días

después del anuncio, los militares asumieron el

control de las instalaciones y funciones de

seguridad pública del Estado y el municipio. Para

inicios del 2009, existían en la ciudad más de siete

mil efectivos del ejército que tenían a su mando el

control y tareas de vigilancia de la ciudad (Salazar

y Curiel, 2012).

El discurso oficial en relación a incorporar

militares en actividades de seguridad pública,

constituye uno de los ejes clave al proceso de

militarización que se promovió por medio de los

operativos conjuntos en diversos lugares del país.

En el 2009, el Ejecutivo Federal pronunciaba las

siguientes palabras ante elementos del ejército

adscritos al Operativo Conjunto Chihuahua: “En

Ciudad Juárez derrotaremos al crimen

organizado, porque nuestras Fuerzas Armadas no

se arredrarán ni desistirán jamás” . El uso 5

retórico que buscó legitimar las acciones directas

de confrontación con los cárteles del narcotráfico,

alcanzó su expresión más contundente en la

expresión “guerra contra el crimen organizado”.

Una política belicista por parte del gobierno

federal, transitó como diáspora a diversos

escenarios de la administración estatal en

regiones del país. Para el caso específico de

Chihuahua, la constante fue el llamado al

gobierno federal para la participación de efectivos

militares en tareas de seguridad pública bajo la

justificación de la infiltración del crimen

organizado y el narcotráfico en las policías locales.

Si bien el uso legítimo de la fuerza, por

organismos de cualquier Estado moderno

democrático, parte de una necesidad básica y

fundamental: “que no sean los particulares

quienes resuelvan sus diferencias por propia

5 Boletín Presidencia de la República “Junto con el ejército,

derrotaremos en Juárez al crimen organizado: Presidente

Calderón”. En Presidencia de la República (sitio oficial), 14

mayo del 2009. http:// calderon.presidencia. gob.mx/

2009/05/ junto-con- el-ejercito- derrotaremos en-juarez

-al-crimen-organizado-presidente-calderon/

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4 Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0 © 2020 London Journals Press

(Des) militarization and political violence: forced disappearance as a dispositive of necropower in northern Mexico

mano y bajo sus propias reglas, sino que sea una

entidad distinta la que resuelva dichas

controversias, aun empleando la fuerza”

(Guerrero Agripino y De Santiago Álvarez,

2013:35), el problema es el uso indiscriminado de

la fuerza que, en palabras de Ernesto López

Portillo: “la salida de las fuerzas armadas a las

calles a realizar las tareas de seguridad pública,

invierte el principio del uso racional de la fuerza,

dominante en el mundo democrático

contemporáneo, al ubicar el instrumento del uso

máximo de la fuerza en el papel de recurso

regular, multiplicando ad infinitum los riesgos del

exceso” (López Portillo, 2016:07).

Ejemplo de ello es, que al transcurrir los primeros

meses de implementación del operativo, la

Comisión Estatal de los Derechos Humanos del

estado de Chihuahua, dio cuenta de un número de

1422 quejas en relación a diversos actos de

violación a Derechos Humanos por parte de

integrantes de las corporaciones policiacas y del

ejército : allanamiento de morada, detención 6

ilegal, robo, tortura, amenazas, desaparición

forzada, incomunicación, entre otras. Al respecto,

la perspectiva crítica de los derechos humanos

(Gallardo, 2010), sostiene un cuestionamiento a la

fragilidad de los Estados, que han producido una

sociedad fracturada, una economía excluyente y la

entronización de élites de gobiernos a partir de

instrumentos de coerción, como ha sido la

participación del ejército en diversas actividades

de seguridad pública en franca violación a los

derechos humanos.

En el 2009 The Human Rigths Watch publicó un

documento titulado “Impunidad Uniformada.

Usos indebidos de justicia militar en México para

investigar abusos cometidos durante operativos

contra el narcotráfico y de seguridad pública”.

En él detalla un panorama de prácticas violatorias

por parte de militares a la población en general a

partir de la “desaparición forzada”. El documento

dio cuenta que:

“México ha utilizado a las fuerzas armadas en

operativos contra el narcotráfico y la insurgencia

durante décadas. No obstante, la visibilidad de las

6 Referencia “Suman 1450 quejas contra el ejército” publicada

en el periódico El Universal, el 10 de septiembre del 2009.

Consultar en https://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/ estados/

73044.html

fuerzas armadas en operaciones de seguridad

pública ha incrementado drásticamente durante el

gobierno de Calderón, quien ha planteado el

despliegue del Ejército como una de sus

estrategias clave para combatir al narcotráfico y

mejorar la seguridad pública. Miles de integrantes

de las fuerzas armadas han sido incorporados a la

policía federal y más de 40.000 efectivos entre

militares y policías han sido asignados a distintas

partes del país. En ciudades muy violentas, como

Ciudad Juárez y Tijuana, los gobiernos locales han

designado a militares de alto rango al frente de la

policía. Si bien el gobierno de Calderón ha

señalado que el uso del Ejército es de carácter

temporal, aún no ha presentado siquiera un plan

provisional para el repliegue de las tropas…”

(Human Rigths Watch, 2009;02).

En general, podemos concluir que la

implementación de operativos policiaco-militares

como el Operativo Conjunto Chihuahua-Juárez,

fueron resultado de una política a gran escala de

impulso a la militarización de la seguridad pública

en diversas regiones del país. Ante la presión

interna por parte de diversos sectores de la

población que enfrentan el colapso de sus

experiencias cotidianas resultado del incremento

de violencias, así como externa como da cuenta el

acuerdo Iniciativa Mérida, el Estado mexicano ha

promovido una estrategia de subordinación de las

corporaciones policiacas municipales, a una

estructura jerárquica y de mando militar,

resultado con ello una crisis sistémica en relación

a los Derechos Humanos.

● La desaparición forzada como dispositivo de

necropoder

En los últimos años, uno de los fenómenos de

mayor preocupación en México, ha sido el de

personas extraviadas o desaparecidas . Un 7

número importante de estos casos, como bien lo

dan a conocer diversos abordajes periodísticos , 8

7 Según el Registro Nacional de Personas Extraviadas o

Desaparecidas (RNPED), del Secretariado Ejecutivo del

Sistema Nacional de Seguridad Pública, reconoce entre enero

del 2014 y abril del 2018 en todo el país, un total de 37,435

casos. Vale la pena destacar, el 63% corresponde a población

en el rango de edad de 15 a 34 años. Consultar en

https://www.gob.mx/sesnsp /acciones-y-programas/reg-

istro-nacional-de-datos-de-personas-extraviadas-o-desapare

cidas-rnped 8 El 31 de agosto del 2019, el Heraldo de Chihuahua publicó

una nota titulada “Hay 306 fosas clandestinas en

Chihuahua”. En él, da cuenta a partir de datos generados por

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5 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

(Des) militarization and political violence: forced disappearance as a dispositive of necropower in northern Mexico

están vinculados al mundo del narcotráfico y el

crimen organizado, como resultado del

reclutamiento forzoso que se genera sobre

diversos sectores de la población, principalmente

jóvenes (De la O, María Eugenia y Flores Ávila,

la Comisión Nacional de Búsqueda de la Secretaria de

Gobernación, que la entidad ocupa uno de los primeros

lugares a nivel nacional en torno al fenómeno, y que varios de

estos casos están relacionados con la práctica de desaparición

de personas por parte del crimen organizado.

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6 Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0 © 2020 London Journals Press

(Des) militarization and political violence: forced disappearance as a dispositive of necropower in northern Mexico

382U

LJP Copyright ID: 573332Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792

London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences

Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

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Geografia Simbólica Dos Cemitérios Em Perspectivas

Alcimara Aparecida Föetsch & Christian Dennys Monteiro de Oliveira

© 2020. Alcimara Aparecida Föetsch & Christian Dennys Monteiro de Oliveira. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms ofthe Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/),permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Dormitory, place of eternal rest, space- environment of the end activity, necropolis, “necrotope” or campo-santo, we intend to discuss the physical space intended for different forms of burial. For that, we take the cemetery as an object and path of geographic research, proposing a set of perspectives that qualify such equipment as a symbolic representation of landscape, making sense of the spatiality of death, and demonstrating its meanings. Considering the landscape as text interpretative (COSGROVE; JACKSON; 1987), the intangible value of the mourning periodic, the role reference and recall diffuser powered by memory, the tourist transformation of the cemetery and its categorization as a commodity, the expansion of heritage that transcends its function utilitarian and the use of necropolises while didactic-pedagogical educational resource. O purpose of this essay, therefore, consists of highlight the multiple possibilities and perspectives of analysis of the cemetery, from the Geography contributions beyond a element of the functional restrictions that reduce its interpretive potential in the contemporaneity. The results of this study point to the expansion of the revitalization of necropolises in the face of cultural and heritage demands for training educational.

Keywords: cemetery; geography; analysis perspectives.

Classification: FOR Code: 040699

Language: English

ABSTRACT

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7 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

Geografia Simbólica Dos Cemitérios Em Perspectivas

____________________________________________

RESUMO

Dormitório, lugar do repouso eterno, espaço-reduto da atividade fim, necrópole, necrótopo ou campo-santo, pretendemos discutir o espaço físico destinado ao enterro, sepultamento ou inumação. Para tanto, tomamos o cemitério enquanto objeto e caminho de investigação geográfica, propondo um conjunto de perspectivas que qualificam tais equipamentos como representação simbólica da paisagem, provendo sentido à espacialidade da morte, e demonstrando seus significados. Considerando a paisagem enquanto texto interpretativo (COSGROVE; JACKSON; 1987), o valor intangível da ritualização do luto, o papel difusor de referência e recordação acionado pela memória, a turistificação do cemitério e sua categorização enquanto mercadoria, a patrimonialização que transcende sua função utilitária e a utilização das necrópoles enquanto recurso educacional didático-pedagógico. O intuito deste ensaio, portanto, consiste em evidenciar as múltiplas possibilidades e perspectivas de análise do cemitério, a partir das contribuições da Geografia para além de um elemento das restrições funcionais que reduzem sua potencialidade interpretativa na contemporaneidade. Os resultados desse estudo apontam para a ampliação da capacidade de revitalização das necrópoles diante das demandas culturais e patrimoniais de formação educativa.

Palavras-chave:cemitério; geografia; perspectivas de análise.

Alcimara Aparecida Föetschα & Christian Dennys Monteiro de Oliveiraσ

ABSTRACT 

Dormitory, place of eternal rest, space-

environment of the end activity, necropolis,

“necrotope” or campo-santo, we intend to discuss

the physical space intended for different forms of

burial. For that, we take the cemetery as an object

and path of geographic research, proposing a set

of perspectives that qualify such equipment as a

symbolic representation of landscape, making

sense of the spatiality of death, and demonstrating

its meanings. Considering the landscape as text

interpretative (COSGROVE; JACKSON; 1987), the

intangible value of the mourning periodic, the role

reference and recall diffuser powered by memory,

the tourist transformation of the cemetery and its

categorization as a commodity, the expansion of

heritage that transcends its function utilitarian

and the use of necropolises while

didactic-pedagogical educational resource. O

purpose of this essay, therefore, consists of

highlight the multiple possibilities and

perspectives of analysis of the cemetery, from the

Geography contributions beyond a element of the

functional restrictions that reduce its interpretive

potential in the contemporaneity. The results of

this study point to the expansion of the

revitalization of necropolises in the face of

cultural and heritage demands for training

educational.

Keywords: cemetery; geography; analysis 

perspectives

I. INTRODUÇÃO 

“[...] aeternam dona eis [...].

Liturgia católica do Ofício dos Mortos: “Dai-lhes o

repouso eterno”.

(MIRANDA, 1999, p. 81).

Uma visita ao centro da cidade de Fortaleza –

estado do Ceará, no nordeste do Brasil –

especialmente no dia 02 de novembro (feriado do

dia de Finados, em todo o país), permite ao

visitante o encontro de reuniões familiares, feira

popular, e dinâmicas sociais de vizinhança

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8 Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0 © 2020 London Journals Press

Geografia Simbólica Dos Cemitérios Em Perspectivas

incomuns em outros dias do ano. A imagem que

utilizamos para abrir esse estudo registra a

mobilização nas missas especiais do cemitério

central da cidade, o São João Batista e a forma dos

visitantes ocuparem a paisagem de túmulos,

observada a partir de uma perspectiva horizontal

do cemitério. Nesta imagem (Figura 01) o ato de

ver os túmulos se articula ao exercício cotidiano

de rever a cidade que os mortos continuam

representando. Que expressão simbólica tal

perspectiva pode incluir, em novas perspectivas

(paisagística, ética, educativa e turística), no que

concerne às representações de um cemitério no

espço geográfico?

O enfrentamento dessa questão, fazendo dialogar

autores dedicados ao tema e situações que temos

reunido em pesquisas sobre a geografia cultural, é

o que trazemos para esse trabalho.

 

Figura 1: Cemitério São João Batista, em Fortaleza-CE

O desaparecimento do ser vivo associado à

fertilidade do pensamento humano promove

desassossegos, aflições e fantasias, cujas

repercussões se sobrepõem e ficam impressas na

paisagem geográfica. Espaço privilegiado, pleno

de significados e sociabilidades, os “lugares da

morte” ou necrópoles/necrótopos , em suas

múltiplas perspectivas, evidenciam um espaço

simbólico em que estas impressões podem ser

percebidas, propondo o que Pegaia (1967)

chamaria de estudo geográfico do cemitério. Estes

representam um “item de um conjunto bem

maior, que se poderia chamar de ‘Geografia da

Morte’” (p. 103) e “o geógrafo que se dispuser a

abordá-lo, encontrará nos cemitérios um

interessante ‘laboratório’ para suas pesquisas”

(PEGAIA, 1967, p.119).

Grisales (2017), ao enfocar o discreto encanto dos

cemitérios, afirma que os enfoques que integram

discursos sobre a morte são construídos “sin

haber estado (el antropólogo) muerto, sin haber

realizado trabajo de campo en el estado de la

muerte, sin penetrar ni cohabitar con los difuntos

en su sociedad silenciosa, conociendo poco de ella

y sin poder acompañar al objeto de estudio”

(GRISALES, 2017, p. 79-80). Trata-se de um

discurso elaborado por razões e emoções do outro,

daqueles que nunca morreram, tornando os

cemitérios espaços de lembranças vivas, locais

onde se projetam valores, estruturas ideológicas e

socioeconômicas (BELLOMO, 2008), pois “são

lugares para os vivos e [...] os monumentos

funerários e esculturas ali instaladas dizem mais

respeito de seus autores e de seus clientes, do que

Fonte: Acervo dos Autores (2019)

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as pessoas que ali estão enterradas” (BORGES,

2004, p. 08).

Um apanhado histórico nos mostra que a

sociedade brasileira, até o sec. XIX sepultava seus

mortos em espaços eclesiais, independente de

classes social. Tratava-se do enterramento ad

sanctos, prática que foi proibida a partir da

Primeira República (1989-1930), deslocando os

campos santos rumo aos arredores dos povoados

e cidades, incitando uma “verdadeira busca pela

demonstração de nobreza e opulência: suntuosos

túmulos de arquitetura especializada passam a ser

construídos e adornados por esculturas de figuras

e signos próprios” (SANTOS, 2011, p. 190-191).

Também no final do século XVIII, o discurso

médico-higienista e um novo pensamento

ocidental diante da morte deram início a uma

nova espacialização , originando justamente 1

espaços próprios, os cemitérios, tidos como

morada dos mortos, expressivo em representação

e simbolismo (COSTA, 2003).

Local onde se dorme, lugar das inumações,

carneiros, ossuários ou recinto das sepulturas,

vários são os batismos e alcunhas. No Brasil,

quando da morte de alguém, “sempre prevaleceu

a técnica da inumação, totalmente consolidada

pela tradição” (PEGAIA, 1967, p. 103) e

considerando as dimensões territoriais associadas

a diversidade cultural do país é possível presumir

a pluralidade e a riqueza que estes espaços podem

revelar. Aproveitamo-nos, destarte, da

possibilidade de tomar o cemitério enquanto

objeto de investigação geográfica.

Neste horizonte, nos propusemos e refletir sobre a

necrópole considerando perspectivas distintas

com o intuito de qualificar o cemitério enquanto

espaço simbólico. Partimos do enfoque

geográfico-cultural da paisagem, buscando

compreender o texto que revela o processo

formativo de seus cenários; assim como suas

várias camadas de representação, percebendo,

inclusive, as experiências vivenciadas com relação

1 Rodrigues (1997) fala em situá-los “extra-muros”,

atendendo determinadas exigências, como “a altitude do

terreno, a composição de seu solo e vegetação” (p. 59).

à vida e a espacialidade da morte. Em seguida,

objetivando valorizar o intangível, discutimos a

ritualização do luto, a mitificação da vida para

além da morte e a teatralidade de ambos os

processos, evidenciando linguagens, celebrações e

práticas performativas que vão de encontro à

espiritualidade e o desconhecido (imaginado), e se

processam auxiliando na lida com a ausência, a

perda, a culpa, a saudade e o remorso. A paisagem

e o ritual nos guiaram à perspectiva da memória,

a perceber os cemitérios e seu papel difusor de

referência e recordação, são lugares que

oportunizam o direito às lembranças e a

imortalização do sepultado na terra. São

repositórios do “fazer recordar”, de fabricação do

imortal, de enraizamento territorial. Isso ao

mesmo tempo, em que calam almas solitárias,

encobertam mortos anônimos, retratam o

abandono e perpetuam o esquecimento.

Impossível pensar o cemitério sem considerá-lo

enquanto potencialidade socioambiental, para uso

turístico e de lazeres contemporâneos. Edificado,

construído e vivenciado por distintas

coletividades, atrai verdadeiras peregrinações

para visita a suas marcas elementares:

personalidades, heróis, celebridades, arte,

genealogia, estilo construtivo, paisagismo,

adornos e artesanato. Essa turistificação do

cemitério associa dimensões mercadológica e

simbólica simultaneamente. E tal enquadramento

nos aproxima da reflexão sobre sua

patrimonialização, na qual a necrópole pode ser

tida como um museu a céu aberto e alimentada

por uma rede de significados, repositório de

identidades e espaço privilegiado para fomentar

educação patrimonial. Tal encadeamento orienta

a última perspectiva observada: a

didático-pedagógica. Por meio desta,

reconhecemos que os cemitérios podem

promover, para além do assombro e do temor,

profícuos diálogos interdisciplinares, figurando

como espaço educacional, aberto a incentivar a

formação de agentes multiplicadores de suas

representações.

Dessa maneira, o cemitério enquanto campo de

representação simbólica estabelece um equilíbrio

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vital que permite ao ser humano dar sentido à

morte, significando-a. Arena teatral, a necrópole,

faz transparecer os sentimentos religiosos através

dos signos e símbolos que os identificam e que

podem ser notados, evidenciados e discutidos pelo

viés geográfico.

No Brasil, o dia 02 de novembro, seguindo o

calendário de festas católicas, sincretizadas ou

não com outras cresças populares, temos um

feriado oficial e um ato regular de visitação aos

Cemitérios; seja em áreas densamente

urbanizadas ou em povoado rurais e distantes.

Assim como em outros países latinos, afro

descendentes e ameríndios, o ritual de visitação

aos túmulos dos antepassados mobiliza a busca

pela reconexão existencial na realidade terrena,

muitas vezes vivida de maneira apartada dos

valores existenciais mais significativos. Por isso,

para completar nossa metodologia de análise

dessas perspectivas (paisagística, ritual,

memorialista, turística e educativa) indicamos a

observação, ainda que panorâmica, de 2 casos que

intercalam diferente motivações para construção

multifacetada das representações culturais da

necrópole.

O primeiro exemplo, com predomínio das marcas

de ruralidade e memória devocional, representado

pela sutil conjugação entre a busca de significados

para os falecimentos infantis e a herança da

santidade popular de São João Maria, cuja

tradição de líder e curandeiro marca a região da

Guerra do Contestado no Sul do Brasil. E o

segundo, expresso pela sobreposição de políticas

eclesiais, de lazer e educação artística, envolvendo

as comunidades urbanas de Ocara-CE, cuja

iniciativa de valorização da localidade no Dia dos

Mortos, capitaneou espaço de disputas culturais

inesperadas para um contexto de religiosidade

católica, tão avessa à ocasião.

II. A PERSPECTIVA DA PAISAGEM – CENÁRIOS DA MORTE: A 

SOBREPOSIÇÃO DE TEXTOS 

“[...] o geógrafo que se dispuser a abordá-lo,

encontrará nos cemitérios um interessante

‘laboratório’ para suas pesquisas”.

(PEGAIA, 1967, p. 119).

Ao propor um enfoque sobre o cemitério na

perspectiva geográfica da paisagem, valemo-nos

inicialmente das considerações de Sopher (1967)

quando este destaca que “uma das preocupações

da geografia da religião é entender como a

paisagem se associa a um conjunto de sistemas

religiosos e modelos de religiosidade que estão

condicionados a comportamentos” (p. 24).

Cymbalista (2002) nos desafia nesta perspectiva,

ao chamar a atenção para o fato de que a

paisagem contemporânea dos cemitérios é fruto

da sobreposição de várias camadas de

representações construídas, sendo que muitas

vezes a “camada” que percebemos é apenas a mais

recente (p. 21). Assim sendo, decodificar os

históricos sistemas religiosos e religiosidades

diversas que, ao longo do tempo e no espaço,

construíram e reconstruíram a territorialidade da

morte é tarefa provocadora.

Inegavelmente, a paisagem é terreno fértil para os

geógrafos culturais (COSGROVE; JACKSON,

1987) sendo que a tarefa de todo geógrafo cultural

é, portanto, dupla: explorar o universo das

representações mentais e estender sua tradução

para a paisagem (CLAVAL, 1992). Neste sentido,

esta pode ser analisada considerando duas

perspectivas no campo religioso: como marca da

experiência religiosa no lugar e como matriz

identitária dessa experiência (BERQUE, 1998).

Também é interpretada como texto que permite

múltiplas leituras (DUNCAN, 2004, p. 106).

Transportando estes apontamentos teóricos para

o espaço cemiterial, pode-se dizer que

compreender a paisagem significa ser requisitado

a decifrar o universo mental religioso, perceber as

experiências vivenciadas com relação à

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vida/morte e o processo formativo da paisagem

social influenciada pela religião.

Bellomo afirma que os “cemitérios reproduzem a

geografia social das comunidades e definem as

classes sociais” (2008, p. 15) funcionando como

um espelho da sociedade que o cria. É um espaço

onde se projetam valores, crenças, estruturas

socioeconômicas e ideologias, indo da área dos

ricos (suntuosos mausoléus), passando pela área

da classe média (túmulos familiares) até a parte

dos pobres e indigentes (covas rasas). Reis (1999,

p. 127) chamaria de “hierarquização” das

sepulturas. Isso porque a condição igualitária do

espaço de morte existe apenas no discurso. De

fato, diferenças sociais até se acentuam, pois nos

cemitérios as estruturas socioeconômicas e

ideológicas são reproduzidas na paisagem, visíveis

aos olhos de todos.

Rezende (2007) ao escrever especificamente sobre

os cemitérios destaca que elementos e materiais

nos remetem a quem está sepultado, conferindo

certa imortalidade ao espaço, visto que as

“construções tumulares, a decoração das covas, os

epitáfios e as fotografias, além dos elementos

religiosos, mostram como a morte e o morto são

tratados pela comunidade” (SANTOS, 2011, p.

192). Orser (1992) comenta que todas as

sociedades construíram objetos físicos para

ajudá-las a sobreviver, a compreender o mundo

em que vivem, a comunicar-se. Assim, a

sociedade, ao dar sentido aos objetos e lugares,

assegura que “todos os artefatos têm ‘vidas

sociais’, já que são possuidores de importantes

sentidos sociais e são usados de modos variados,

para significarem coisas diversas, no decorrer de

sua existência” (p. 98). O cemitério, nestas

considerações, emerge como espaço de vivência e

comunicação, possuidor dos mais variados

sentidos sociais e simbólicos.

Nesta proposição, a paisagem do cemitério, ao

carregar a “memória social de determinada época”

(RICHTER, 2005, p. 47) pode sugerir diversas

interpretações. Entre as possíveis, destacamos:

a. As edificações e seu estilo construtivo:

mini-igrejas, mausoléus, jazigos, capelas, e

covas rasas que permitem estabelecer uma

reflexão sobre os aspectos socioeconômicos do

lugar e da sociedade que o constrói, onde são

possíveis análises sobre a hierarquia social;

Ь Aspectos históricos e sociais: as origens

históricas dos lugares, as ideologias políticas,

sociais e culturais, elementos étnicos,

genealogias, representações de poder, o

sincretismo e a democratização dos espaços,

personagens icônicos e demais associações com

a história e a sociedade podem ser muito bem

exploradas por meio da paisagem cemiterial;

c As manifestações artísticas da morte: que

pode ser percebida na estética da paisagem

cuja linguagem material revela recordatórios,

relicários, uma arte tumularia artesanal,

homenagens pictóricas, epitáfios primorosos,

túmulos oratórios transformados em altares,

adornos tão bem planejados e construídos;

d As oferendas e ex-votos: visíveis em sua

materialidade são os artefatos de memória,

revelados nos túmulos e lápides: nomes e

informações pessoais, elementos que revelam o

ofício/trabalho tido em vida, homenagens,

fotografias que eternizam momentos felizes,

santos de devoção, cruzes, signos religiosos,

coroas, flores, objetos pessoais, pertences,

epitáfios, dizeres, mensagens bíblicas,

saudações e até cenários que recriam os

espaços em vida;

e O espelho da sociedade dos vivos: com o

passar do tempo passou-se a valorizar um

ordenamento estrutural e paisagístico dos

cemitérios: arruamentos, numeração de

registro e identificação, placas informativas,

arruamentos, quadras, corredores, praças,

capelas e demais construções e elementos que

objetivam dar suporte ao uso destes espaços.

Dessa forma, concebendo a paisagem como

produto da “ação humana ao longo do tempo”

(CORRÊA; ROSENDAHL, 1998, p. 08)

percebemos sua dimensão histórica e social ao ser

portadora de significado e simbolismo que carrega

o espaço de afetividade e identificação,

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notadamente nos cemitérios, tendo em vista que

as materialidades das edificações e do estilo

construtivo revelam muito sobre a história e a

sociedade que as produziu. Isso somado às

manifestações artísticas, às oferendas e ex-votos

permite afirmar que o cemitério pode ser

entendido como espelho da sociedade dos vivos,

inclusive em seus rituais.

III. A PERSPECTIVA DO RITUAL DE LUTO E SUA TEATRALIDADE  

“Morre-se em qualquer parte do Mundo, sob a

condição preliminar de estar-se vivo. – Tanto se

morre em Pequim, Como em Quixeramobim! [...]

Mas os defuntos não são iguais aos olhos dos

conterrâneos. Os cerimoniais mudam”.

(CAMARA CASCUDO, 1971, p. 93).

Perpassando a linguagem material da paisagem,

celebrações, missas, rezas e demais práticas

verbais e performativas dão vida ao cemitério

enquanto local de tristeza, despedida,

introspecção, ausência, caridade, acolhimento e

esquecimento, encontro com a espiritualidade e o

desconhecido (imaginado). Observar as diferentes

formas de se relacionar com esses campos-santos

significa ser desafiado a compreender o

sincretismo que funde as diversas concepções

sobre a morte e o morrer, inclusive, as reflexões e

recomposições do sentido da vida. São os túmulos

agindo como elementos de mediação entre quem

vivo constrói a identidade do que se foi, pois para

Damatta (1997, p. 146) vivemos em uma

sociedade na qual “os vivos têm relações

permanentes com os mortos”.

Bellomo (2008) escreve que devido ao sentimento

desconforme e renitente perante a morte, surgem

ritos, referências e magias, atos de várias espécies,

mas que no fundo apresentam tão somente o

inconformismo com essa condição e uma

incansável busca por sobreviver em outra

dimensão. Morre-se, de fato, tanto em Pequim

como em Quixeramobim, contudo, certamente, os

rituais e experiências se diversificam. Neste

sentido, Vovelle (2004) enfatiza que “a história da

morte é de fato a história de toda uma série de

artimanhas, de mascaramentos, de evitações, mas

também de criações de imaginário coletivo em

relação a uma passagem obrigatória em toda

existência humana” (p. 59).

Trata-se, entre outras perspectivas, da ritualização

do luto, que implica em teatralizar culturalmente

esta passagem. Nos cemitérios, a própria

paisagem - cenário cultural de continuidade e

depuração da morte na geografia dos vivos -

demanda aspectos rituais que indicam e revelam

formas de conviver com a ausência: a perda, a

culpa, a saudade e o remorso. As oferendas e

ex-votos, visíveis aos olhos, ornamentam e

diferenciam os túmulos. As velas que iluminam o

caminho de quem se foi, as coroas de flores, os

pertences que retratam a personalidade do morto

(instrumentos de sua representação), as imagens

e ícones dos santos de devoção, a localização da

tumba na ala nobre ou marginal do cemitério e o

estilo construtivo e adornos das sepulturas muito

revelam sobre os rituais ali representados e

vividos. Bastam alguns momentos no cemitério

para que possamos ler a paisagem edificada e

experienciada para além da sobreposição histórica

de seus elementos visíveis. É possível, para além

de ver, imaginar os rituais professados.

Importante registrar as práticas rituais que se

associam, nos cemitérios, às figuras santificadas

(sobretudo, popularmente), cuja mitificação

heroica da vida do morto é marcada por vivências

sublinhadas em oferendas, pedidos, orações e

agradecimentos, o túmulo se transforma em altar.

Quase sempre a trajetória em vida se associa a um

martírio, sacrifício, tragédia, sofrimento ou

tortura, tornando o(a) falecido(a) digno de

glorificação e reverência, estando apto, inclusive,

a operar milagres e conceder graças. Ouvem-se e

espalham-se as narrativas das dádivas, as

visitações se multiplicam, o túmulo torna-se local

de encontro, sociabilidade, peregrinação e fé,

sendo que os rituais revelam a diversidade das

crenças e o perfil dos romeiros. Questionamos,

dessa forma, por que e quem realmente se

apropria do cemitério e o que ele representa

enquanto espaço ritual?

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Impossível refletir sobre a ritualização do luto nos

cemitérios sem assinalar as práticas culturais

associadas ao sepultamento infantil. Aos heróis

adultos, que foram canonizados ou santificados,

as oferendas são condizentes com sua trajetória

em vida, por outro lado, às crianças que

precocemente faleceram os ex-votos objetivam

acarinhar e afagar os pequenos anos cuja

passagem foi encurtada pelos mais variados

motivos. São balas, doces, chocolates, brinquedos,

roupas e até pertences de outras crianças

carinhosamente depositados sobre os túmulos

evidenciando a dolorosa despedida de quem

partiu cedo demais ou nasceu para não viver. Em

alguns lugares, até os sete anos, são chamados de

anjos cuja brevidade da vida não permitiu pecar.

Registram-se também os cemitérios

exclusivamente infantis, por vezes, associados a

um protetor religioso ou a um santo. Os rituais

percebidos nesses campos santos indicam

“confidências”, como a não aceitação do luto

infantil.

É possível também perceber o cemitério enquanto

espaço ritualístico, cuja associação permite

desfrutar de sentimentos de paz, harmonia,

tranquilidade; sendo que em algumas necrópoles

o paisagismo dá origem a um cenário bucólico e

idílico, permitindo um encontro direto com cada

espiritualidade, dores, angústias e sofrimentos

oriundos da separação material dos entes amados.

Isso se torna perceptível nos cemitérios parque

jardim e memoriais quando os elementos visíveis

do entorno dos túmulos arquitetam uma brisa

aprazível ao lugar, atraindo, assim, novas práticas

e experiências rituais muito ligadas à natureza e a

manifestações artísticas.

Dessa maneira, concordamos com Guerrero

(2011, p. 193) quando este afirma que os

cemitérios são vistos “como lugares de

significado y aprendizaje para rastrear las

huellas y memorias de todos aquellos procesos

históricos y culturales que definen a una región,

pero vista a través de sus muertos y prácticas

rituales”. A universalidade da morte lega ao

imaginário coletivo práticas culturais (ritos) que

se revelam na paisagem enquanto cenários da

morte. Assim como práticas verbais e

performativas, que envolvem a teatralidade da

despedida, na mitificação heroica e santificação de

personagens (virtuosos e/ou martirizados), de

todas as idades, “acolhidos” nesse espaço,

aprazível e aberto ao desconhecido.

Acrescentamos que se tratam, portanto, de

lugares de memória, sendo que “só é lugar de

memória se a imaginação o investe de uma aura

simbólica [...] só entra na categoria se for objeto

de um ritual” (NORA, 1996, p. 21), mesclam-se na

projeção de ritos e recordações.

IV. A PERSPECTIVA DA MEMÓRIA E DAS RECORDAÇÕES 

“Los ‘difusores’ de la memoria por excelencia son

los monumentos a los muertos, las necrópolis, los

osarios, etc. y, de manera más general, todos los

monumentos funerarios que son el suporte de

uma fuerte memoria afectiva”.

(CANDAU, 2006, p. 93).

Richter (2005), ao analisar documentos

epigráficos, destaca que o “cemitério carrega a

memória social de determinada época” (p. 47) e

quando combinamos sua reflexão com a de

Candau (2006) reportada acima, temos que a

memória ao se enraizar no concreto e no visível

permite fazer das necrópoles um ingrediente

difusor na busca por referências passadas e

recordações. É o que, nesta perspectiva,

chamamos de “lugares de memória”, ou seja, que

“nascem e vivem do sentimento que não há

memória espontânea” (NORA, 1996, p. 13), sendo

necessário cria-la, organizá-la, pois estas

operações não são naturais. Dessa forma, os

cemitérios acionam, por meio de elementos

visíveis e intangíveis, diferentes tipos de

recordações e lembranças. Bastianello apresenta

como “o túmulo ou monumento tumular que se

torna lugar de memória, sua edificação oportuniza

o direito à memória, à imortalização do sepultado

na terra” (2010, p.98), ou seja, os artefatos e

elementos cemiteriais proporcionam referências

acerca tanto do falecido quanto da própria

história social.

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Santos (2011), ao discutir o processo de

dessacralização da morte, contribui no sentido de

afirmar que os campos santos são considerados

“hoje como lugares de memória, como um cenário

composto por jazigos-capelas, túmulos

monumentais, esculturas e símbolos que

ultrapassam sua função” (p. 187), se convertendo,

desta forma, em locais de preservação da história

social e se tornando patrimônios culturais dos

lugares. Neste sentido da criação e apropriação da

memória, Le Goff (1994, p. 535), ao discutir a

questão das memórias coletivas, coloca que esta

pode ser analisada a partir de dois materiais:

monumentos e documentos. Os primeiros se

relacionam ao desejo de perpetuar testemunhos e

legados de um povo, ao passo que os documentos

se constituem de provas históricas.

Assim sendo, o cemitério pode ser entendido

como um cenário que faz parte do cotidiano e age

como repositório de memórias que podem ser

históricas, sociais, emocionais, devocionais,

estéticas, políticas e ambientais cujos elementos

objetivam acionar lembranças e indicar

referências, acionando Ricoeur (2008) podemos

dizer que a memória consiste em uma modalidade

temporizadora que se refere ao passado por meio

do ato de recordar.

De uma forma mais objetiva, Santos (2011) coloca

que os jazigos “suntuosos ou modestos são

espaços onde se encontram traços pulsantes da

memória daquelas pessoas, verdadeiras obras

arquitetônicas que mostram o prestígio dos que lá

residem, em especial dos ilustres da história local”

(p. 230), recordatórios e relicários também são

elementos e/ou adornos que se destacam por

mobilizarem memórias diretas dos falecidos, nas

palavras de Guerrero (2011), portanto, o cemitério

“no es simplemente un depósito de restos

humanos” (p. 204).

Abreu afirma que no campo da memória, os

contornos do sujeito são “delimitados

fundamentalmente a partir das construções

póstumas. Máscaras mortuárias, discursos por

ocasião do enterro e biografias são algumas das

formas de manter viva a memória do indivíduo.

Memória que, diga-se de passagem, é construída

item por item” (1996, p. 67), desta forma, é

através dos indicativos póstumos que se inicia a

construção da memória do herói, da sua

imortalidade.

O contraponto, no discurso da mitificação dos

mortos, dá-se por anonimato. O cemitério

também abriga, especialmente em suas galerias

periféricas, os chamados por Losonczy (2015) de

mortos não reivindicados, cujo conjunto “é

representado na efígie da ‘anima sola’ (‘alma

solitária’, conglomerado de mortos anônimos [...]”

(p. 464) e constituem “a figura mesma da

dissolução da identidade: sem sepultura

individual, sem nome, sem narrativa sobre sua

vida que os situe em uma individualidade” (idem).

Figura o abandono e o esquecimento post

mortem. É bastante comum encontrar nos

cemitérios espaços dedicados aos indigentes ou

mesmo túmulos abandonados cujas memórias já

se dissolveram no tempo.

Entremeio aos extremos dos mortos

emblemáticos e dos mortos não reivindicados,

figura uma série de perspectivas, visto que os

cemitérios permitem “dar cuenta de la

complejidad y reapropiación social a través de

un mapa de representación de memorias como

herramienta para la construcción de un

conocimiento.” (GUERRERO, 2011, p. 206),

sendo que o exercício de seu entendimento

permite “construir y organizar memoria,

conmemorar el pasado, resignificar el presente,

activar el olvido y luchar contra el silencio.”

(idem).

V. A PERSPECTIVA DE NOVOS USOS: LAZERES E TURISMO  

Ao enfocar a arte, a história, o turismo e o lazer

em cemitérios de São Paulo, Osman e Ribeiro

(2007) destacam que estes são espaços carregados

de história e memória e que o lazer e o turismo

nesses locais podem significar uma forma de

contribuição para a sua preservação, introduzindo

a próxima perspectiva a ser considerada.

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O cemitério é, de fato, um atrativo turístico

consolidado nos diferentes lugares do mundo

(OSMAN e RIBEIRO, 2007), roteirizado e

procurado por estudiosos dispostos ler suas

paisagens-códigos, rituais e memórias como

“atrativos”. Desde sua origem, após a proibição

dos enterros ad sanctos pós Brasil colonial, ou

seja, no início da Primeira República (SANTOS,

2011) e, sobretudo, com as políticas higienistas do

século XIX (BASTIANELLO, 2010), vem se

apresentando enquanto espaço simbólico

construído e edificado por distintas coletividades

e, como tal, dotado de características peculiares

capazes de promover verdadeiras peregrinações.

Boa parte destes é marcada pela mistura de

identidades, religiosidades e diferentes formas de

encarar e compreender a morte como

representação dos lugares de vida.

Além das jornadas aos túmulos dos mortos

santificados, temos a visitação turística aos

túmulos de personalidades, heróis e celebridades.

São visitações, por vezes, guiadas e pertencentes a

roteiros religiosos, acadêmicos, que podem ser

realizadas individualmente ou em grupo. Durante

o percurso, obras de arte, estilos construtivos,

paisagismo, adornos e até o artesanato local

podem ser vistos e apreciados. Pegaia (1967)

coloca ainda que o fator nacionalidade

manifesta-se também de maneira peculiar em

certos cemitérios. Entre eles, podemos destacar os

de origem étnica e sua incessante caça por

genealogistas e interessados em busca de

informações sobre antepassados.

As demandas de curiosos e especialistas só se

multiplicam nessa perspectiva de interação

turismo, lazer e conhecimento. Dessa maneira,

enquanto atrativo multifacetado, o cemitério

demanda uma organização estrutural de forma a

atender e facilitar o acesso aos seus chamarizes,

Bittar (2018) informa que:

Hodiernamente ocorre uma intensa visitação aos

túmulos, com diferentes comportamentos,

conforme as tradições locais. Há aqueles que se

juntam sobre os túmulos dos seus amados, e ali

passam o dia, fazendo-lhes companhia, como se,

em verdade, eles ali estivessem encerrados; os que

levam comidas e bebidas, para alimentar o

espírito do morto; os que levam velas e flores para

iluminar e alegrar a última morada. (p. 184).

Para tanto, planejar a disposição de seus

elementos como setores, arruamentos, praças,

placas informativas, numeração e identificação

tumular, espaços administrativos, condições

sanitárias e áreas de convivência torna-se um

padrão de sustentabilidade urbana. A

turistificação dos cemitérios é em um só tempo

mercadoria com finalidades comerciais e modelo

de racionalidade ambiental. Trata-se do discurso

político e econômico que circunda a necrópole, na

“venda” da paz espiritual, em harmonia com o

ambiente pelo desenho paisagístico e, dessa

forma, publicidade e marketing trabalham com a

metáfora do paraíso ecossistêmico.

Neste sentido, Losonczy (2015) exemplifica com a

confiscação do cemitério central de San Pedro, na

Colômbia, pela lógica patrimonial nacional que,

classificado como bem de interesse cultural,

passou a receber saraus, animações poéticas,

musicais e teatrais de artistas locais. É o que a

autora chama de “reciclagem simbólica do

cemitério” (p. 468).

De fato, as necrópoles convivem com o comércio

de artigos comuns em seu entorno e movimentam

o comércio de produtos especializados, com

características definidas. Os primeiros

beneficiam-se do movimento de pessoas para o

cemitério e são legalmente estabelecidos como

bares, lojas, lanchonetes; já os segundos, são

tipificados como os “comércios de ocasião”

(PEGAIA, 1967, p. 117), surgem de maneira

esporádica e adensam feriados religiosos como o

Finados, que utilizamos para abrir esse artigo.

Soma-se a isso, a proposição de Grassi (2018)

acerca da associação entre turismo cultural e

educação patrimonial, quando a autora coloca que

a “implementação de ações a médio e longo prazo,

como visitas guiadas com periodicidade fixa

trazem a oportunidade de estruturação de ações

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mais efetivas” (p. 110), tornando a necrópoles

espaços de formação.

VI. UM PATRIMÔNIO EDUCATIVO NA ATUALIZAÇÃO DE PERSPECTIVAS 

“Os conjuntos de monumentos funerários

formam um verdadeiro museu a céu aberto, onde

arte, cultura e história se encontram”.

(BASTIANELLO, 2010, p. 16).

Os cemitérios condensam tempos, tensões e cenas

de povoados, vilas e cidades como se recontassem

suas histórias em uma só geografia. Por essa razão

se torna possível rever seu lastro patrimonial

percorrendo os túmulos (conhecidos/

desconhecidos) com intencionalidade educativa.

Isto é, existe em seu desenho cumulativo a

condição enciclopédica de favorecer, aos

mediadores do saber local regional, um processo

curricular de sistêmico, no qual patrimônio

edificado e representações dos falecidos atuem

como uma narrativa consistente, incluindo

tendências futuras.

Dominique Poulot (2008), ao contribuir com as

discussões acerca da preservação do patrimônio

cultural material discutindo um “ecossistema do

patrimônio”, coloca que este tem a ver com

interpretação e só pode ser bem entendido a

partir da elaboração de significados. Isso implica

considerar que o reconhecimento do patrimônio

cultural não se define como dado, mas é

construção histórica e social. Reflexão que,

quando combinada a de Bastianello (2010) acima

destacada, permite conjecturar que a necrópole se

constitui em sua materialidade enquanto

patrimônio cultural, museu a ser explorado, cuja

rede de significados de um ensino/aprendizagem

social.

Dessa maneira, considerando que o cemitério

carrega a memória social de determinada época,

defendemos a ideia de que muitos merecem “ser

elevados à condição de patrimônio histórico e

artístico, pois apresentam um artefato de época –

o túmulo; uma técnica – as construções; uma arte

– as esculturas; documentos iconográficos”

(RICHTER, 2005, p. 47). Os cemitérios e seus

elementos tornam-se lugares de memória

“transcendendo a função utilitária para se

transformar em monumentos artísticos,

personificação de uma organização inconsciente

da memória coletiva diante da vida e da morte,

peculiares ao patrimônio cultural de cada lugar”

(MENDES, 2007, p. 66). É possível, portanto, que

a necrópole se apresente como bem cultural e

espaço privilegiado de educação patrimonial.

A própria legislação brasileira, por meio da Lei

nº3. 924, de 26 de julho de 1961, que dispõe sobre

os monumentos arqueológicos e pré-históricos,

assim atesta no Artigo 2º, alínea “c”: “os sítios

identificados como cemitérios, sepulturas ou

locais de pouso prolongado ou de aldeamento,

‘estações’ e ‘cerâmios’, nos quais se encontram

vestígios humanos de interesse arqueológico ou

paleoetnográfico” (BRASIL, 1961), estão sob a

guarda e proteção do poder público. Motta (2010,

p. 66-67) ao tratar das representações literárias e

artísticas que já favoreciam as tratativas

patrimoniais dos cemitérios de grandes centros

urbanos nos dá uma pista para essa

monumentalidade da necrópole como sítio/

espaço privilegiado, no exemplo da ex-capital:

O quadro de urbanidade que se delineava nos

cemitérios, seguindo à risca o calendário dos

vivos, evidenciava-se com maior intensidade

durante as datas de aniversários, de falecimento e

dia consagrado aos mortos, espelhando os novos

valores e modus vivendi da sociedade fluminense

da época. Provavelmente, por ser o Rio de Janeiro

à época a capital do país e, portanto, o centro de

articulação do poder e das decisões políticas, teve

o privilégio de abrigar o maior número de

cemitérios, quando comparado a outros centros

urbanos.

Essa possibilidade, de condensar, mesmo em

localidades remotas, uma ancestralidade que

reúne artes, epidemias, poderes familiares,

crimes, costumes de época e memoriais de valores

personalizados, vai impondo um direcionamento

territorial ao exercício da política como cultura

educativa. Algo que no Brasil – e nos exemplos

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estaduais de cidades interioranas do Paraná e

Ceará – ainda se apresenta muito insipiente, em

razão da menor associação das necrópoles com os

poderes públicos do que com as ingerências

eclesiais. O que pode ser revertido, mediante a

confluência de alguns fatores diretamente

relacionados à “ética da ancestralidade”: o acesso

tecnológico/digital ao subsolo e aos materiais dos

cemitérios; a busca pelo reconhecimento dos

antepassados, afrodescendentes e indígenas,

silenciados da historiografia oficial e a emergência

de socioambientais que fizeram das necrópoles

áreas privilegiadas nos indicadores de fixação

populacional. Por todos esses elementos, a

Educação Patrimonial tende a delimitar os

cemitérios como espaço referencial para aulas de

campo.

VII. O TRATAMENTO DIDÁTICO-PEDAGÓGICA DOS 

CEMITÉRIOS 

“[...] un cementerio es un complejo de obras de

arte, significaciones, simbolismos, coreografías,

estrategias, misterios, prácticas y seres humanos

que de consuno y sin saberlo actúan creando un

mundo espectacular más digno de admiración y

de asombro que de temor”.

(GRISALES, 2017, p. 83).

Brandão (2016) coloca que os cemitérios além de

referências históricas também são fontes de

pesquisa geográfica, sociológica, literária,

arqueológica e demográfica e Catroga (2001) cita

que as necrópoles, como museus a céu aberto, não

revelam somente as recordações identificadas na

simbologia, mas também se apresentam como

organizações bibliotecárias que podem ser

utilizadas com intenções cívico-educativas. Ainda

neste sentido, Bastianello (2010) destaca que os

cemitérios podem promover profícuos diálogos

interdisciplinares nas Ciências Humanas a partir

da História, da Geografia, da Arqueologia, da

Arte, da Antropologia e da Economia, sobretudo,

porque suas ferramentas analíticas estão sujeita a

tensões constantes; ou seja, permitem ocupar-se e

problematizar os modos de sentir, pensar e viver

das sociedades.

Assim sendo, promover visitações guiadas aos

cemitérios com fins pedagógicos pode muito

contribuir no (re)conhecimento do patrimônio

cultural e se apresentar como interessante

ferramenta didático-pedagógica, em especial,

quando considerada a possibilidade de pesquisar

em campo. A citação de Grisales (2017), em

destaque acima, evidencia justamente o caráter

espetacular da necrópole para além do assombro e

do temor que sua perspectiva pode incialmente

conjurar. O envolvimento pedagógico possibilita

ainda a formação de agentes multiplicadores que,

ao explorar a realidade, partem para propagar

perspectivas e conhecimentos.

O cemitério pode, portanto, se configurar como

espaço educacional, permitindo a definição de

temas geradores e norteadores com vistas a

problematizar questões interdisciplinares. Neste

sentido, Bellomo (2000), ao analisar a arte, a

sociedade e a ideologia em cemitérios do Rio

Grande do Sul, sugere seis promissoras

possibilidades: fonte histórica para preservação

da memória familiar e coletiva; fonte de estudo

das simbologias das crenças religiosas; forma de

expressão do gosto artístico; forma de expressão

da ideologia política; forma de preservação do

patrimônio histórico; e, fonte de preservação das

identidades étnicas.

Rigo (2010) ao discutir o cemitério enquanto

fonte de inspiração cênica propõe uma

metodologia intitulada “Pedagogia Cemiterial”

que apresenta um roteiro a ser considerado

quando da utilização do cemitério como recurso

pedagógico. Se o tema já merece destaque em

trabalhos relacionados às políticas culturais e de

turismo em cidades capitais – Paris, Buenos Aires,

Montevidéu, México, Lisboa, entre outras

agregam seus roteiros de visita a certa

“obrigatoriedade” de acesso a suas necrópoles –

também já é possível reconhecer tal preocupação

no âmbito do órgão brasileiro responsável pelas

políticas de patrimonialização Reportagem de

2013 do Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e

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Artístico Nacional (IPHAN) indica sua parceria

com a Central de Postais (Correios do Brasil) para

emissão de selos que ajudam na divulgação desses

bens nacionais tombados. Notadamente: o

Cemitério de Santa Isabel de Mucugê (BA), o

Portão do Cemitério de Arez (RN), o Cemitério do

Batalhão (PI) e o Cemitério da Soledade (PA) . Em 2

que medida tais espaço aproveitaram essa

visibilidade para difundir seu papel

histórico-geográfico, cabe ser considerado em

futuras investigações.

VIII. OS CASOS SIMBÓLICOS EM EMERGÊNCIA (NO PARANÁ E NO 

CEARÁ) 

Ruiz (2004) coloca que perante a realidade da

morte e a incompreensão existencial e angustiante

da vida, “o símbolo estabelece um equilíbrio vital

que possibilita ao ser humano dar um sentido à

sua morte e transcender sua realidade empírica,

significando-a positivamente, de modo

sentimental e esperançoso” (p. 144-145). Neste

sentido, Urbain (1978) destaca que o cemitério,

por sua vez, é concebido como um local, por

excelência, de reprodução simbólica do universo

social e das expectativas metafísicas dos membros

de uma dada coletividade, destacando que este

simbolismo é resultante de um forte vínculo entre

o culto dos mortos e a memória, tanto individual

quanto coletiva. Bakhtin (1986) falaria em signos,

os quais são uma construção social que só existe

em um determinado contexto que lhe dá

significado e sentido.

Considerando o cemitério enquanto resultante de

uma construção social e, portanto, de reprodução

simbólica, trazemos à discussão dois casos em

emergência: os cemitérios de anjinhos de São

João Maria, no Paraná e o cemitério de Ocara, no

Ceará, ambos, porém cada um a seu modo

possuem um sistema de significados, signos e

sentidos resultantes de um contexto e que,

atualmente, constituem-se em desafios

patrimoniais.

2Notícia publicada no Portal do IPHAN

http://portal.iphan.gov.br/noticias/detalhes/494/selos-retra

tam-cemiterios-tombados , acesso em 27/01/2020.

8.1 Cemitério de Anjinhos de São João             Maria em São Mateus do Sul/Paraná 

No Paraná, particularmente em São Mateus do

Sul, polvilham-se lugares sagrados atribuídos à

figura mítica, lendária e simbólica de São João

Maria. Profeta, político ou guerreiro que se

mesclou no imaginário popular é ícone construído

e desenhado por várias mãos e congrega

diferentes expressões de resistência (WELTER,

2012). Para além da sacralização de elementos da

natureza alguns destes lugares foram sendo

ressignificados pela incorporação de um forte

elemento identitário: o cemitério de anjinhos.

Essa prática fúnebre iniciou-se nas últimas duas

décadas século XX quando o Santo popular ainda

perambulava pela região e “havia dado ordem”

para enterrar crianças falecidas em seus lugares

de pouso na floresta, tidos como “valiosos”. A

partir daí, muitos lugares associados a São João

Maria passou a receber e abrigar os anjinhos

nascidos para não viver: recém-nascidos

natimortos, fetos que nasciam antes do tempo e,

em casos menores, crianças que morriam antes

dos sete anos de idade, sendo que muitos eram

seus afilhados espirituais . No mosaico de imagem 3

a seguir (Figura 02), alguns dos cemitérios de

anjinhos:

3 Tal qual Padre Cícero no Ceará eram comuns os laços de

apadrinhamento com São João Maria no Paraná.

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Figura 02: Cemitérios de Anjinhos em São Mateus do Sul-PR

São lugares sagrados, cenários da morte,

simbólicos, onde a paisagem lida na sobreposição

de textos se associa à religiosidade e revela

comportamentos. Percebem-se os elementos mais

recentes que, entretanto, convidam e provocam a

decodificar sistemas históricos, universos mentais

e experiências vivenciadas. Se são os cemitérios

espelhos da sociedade, testemunhos históricos,

que valores, crenças e ideologias são revelados por

estes anjinhos? São lugares de lembrança, de

comunicação, de vivência e significado. Não há

suntuosidade nem estilo construtivo, são

pequenas cruzes na terra, delimitadas por

cercadinhos adornados de coroas e flores,

oferendas e ex-votos. Consiste em uma paisagem

religiosa intimamente ligada à natureza, nas

Matas Mistas do sul do Brasil, que abrigaram João

Maria, próximo às fontes de água por ele

santificadas (FÖETSCH, 2019).

Na perspectiva do ritual, a teatralidade da morte e

a vivência do luto evidenciam o inconformismo

com a partida dos que precocemente faleceram.

Passagem obrigatória e incontestável para todos,

o sentimento diante da morte de crianças suscita

diferentes reações, práticas verbais e

performativas que tornam estes cemitérios em

especial, locais de acolhimento revelado nas

oferendas e, sobretudo, na localização escolhida

para as pequenas sepulturas: em locais sagrados,

sob a proteção espiritual de São João Maria,

destacando que os rituais também confidenciam a

não aceitação do luto infantil.

Os cemitérios de anjinhos são difusores do fazer

recordar, são lugares de memória, memória

afetiva que necessita se enraizar no concreto e no

visível. São cenários cuja existência material

oportuniza o direito à lembrança, fazem parte do

cotidiano, são acessíveis e acionam lembranças,

não são simples depósitos. Entretanto, há que se

registrar que nos cemitérios de anjinhos existem

também os mortos anônimos, sem nomes, sem

narrativas, figurando o abandono e o

esquecimento.

Em uma primeira leitura, não são locais de

visitação turística, porém, a associação a São João

Fonte: Acervo dos Autores (2019)

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Geografia Simbólica Dos Cemitérios Em Perspectivas

Maria os torna, de fato, distintos e atrativos a um

público interessado na trajetória do Santo

popular. É possível pensar, nesta proposição, na

reciclagem simbólica dos cemitérios que saltam de

locais de tristeza para lugares de visitação. Esta

discussão encaminha para a questão da

patrimonialização dos cemitérios de anjinhos, nos

provocando a pensar sobre a função religiosa

destes lugares sagrados, seu significado e o fato de

transcenderem sua função utilitária podendo ser

vistos como bens culturais e defendidos à luz da

educação patrimonial.

Um sentido interessante, para tanto, pode partir

de uma perspectiva didático-pedagógica

entendendo o cemitério enquanto ferramenta,

recurso e campo de estudo em uma gama

considerável de áreas temáticas, num diálogo

profícuo que paute pela transversalidade e pelo

reconhecimento das práticas culturais locais.

Além disso, o envolvimento do pedagógico origina

uma gama significativa de agentes multiplicadores

que muito podem contribuir na valorização destes

espaços.

8.2 A Festa das Almas no Cemitério de Ocara                 – Ceará 

Cemitério de Ocara, “um cemitério que nunca

morre” (KUNZ, 2006, p. 59) escolhido como

segundo caso simbólico, em emergência a ser

exemplificado nesta discussão é motivo de

embates religiosos, sexuais, políticos e

econômicos no Ceará. Isso porque a vivência da

Festa das Almas, ou de Finados, foi também

sendo ressignificada para além dos muros do

cemitério por meio do que hoje se chama de

“Mostra da Cultura Popular de Ocara”. Buscando

compreender essa dinâmica, foi realizada uma

incursão de campo de forma a permitir um 4

diálogo com moradores e visitantes e uma

vivência experienciada no auge das festividades.

4 Foram desenvolvidas entrevistas semiestruturadas aplicadas por estudantes vinculados à Disciplina de “Dinâmica dos Lugares Simbólicos: Imaginação e Planejamento – DLS-IP”, na Pós Graduação em Geografia da Universidade Federal do Ceará em conjunto com alunos de Graduação da Licenciatura em Geografia.

As informações somadas às observações in loco,

leituras prévias e trocas de experiência

permitiram refletir sobre quem faz, quem vivência

e para quem é o cemitério e a Festa.

Segundo Alves (2015) até a década de 1920

quando ocorria algum falecimento, era necessário

percorrer 18 quilômetros até o cemitério da

comunidade vizinha de Vazantes. A comunidade

de Jurema, hoje Ocara, resolve então construir

um cemitério local por volta de 1918-1919. Porém,

os animais começaram a invadir a cidade dos

mortos e profanar os corpos. É aí que Pai Dodó 5

“recorreu aos leilões para obter recursos para a

compra de cal – insumo necessário para fazer a

argamassa, que uma vez colocada entre as pedras

retiradas do sopé do serrote transformavam-se

numa sólida estrutura” (p. 31). Os leilões

ocorreram entre 1920 a 1936 com participação

intensa tanto nas doações de prendas como nos

arremates. Alves (2015) descreve que o “rito

noturno de Finados tinha como foco o cemitério, o

culto aos mortos” (p. 32), tratava-se de um evento

social religioso de cunho comunitário e coletivo.

Possuía caráter endogâmico, ou seja, não recebia

gente de fora, os estrangeiros, forasteiros.

Entretanto, entre meados da década de 1970 aos

anos 1980, as festas dançantes e a prostituição

vinculada, sobretudo à pessoa de Bento

Evangelista Lima (que de forma perspicaz percebe

o potencial da festa) expande o espaço-geográfico,

“o corredor igreja-cemitério vai se expandido para

outras direções” (ALVES, 2015, p. 60) visando

atender a nova clientela. Surgem os discursos de

censura e borbulham os conflitos entre moradores

e “os de fora”.

A partir de 2005 juntamente com a Festa das

Almas é instituído o Dia da Cultura no município

com o objetivo de atrair turistas e amenizar

tensões religiosas. A programação assume caráter

folclórico com grupos de capoeira, teatro, bumba

meu boi, música, mamulengos esculpidos em

umburana, gastronomia típica, artesanato,

5 ALVES, A. Pai Dodó: o patriarca de Ocara. Uma homenagem aos 150 anos do nascimento de Pai Dodó – 1866-2016. Fortaleza: Expressão Gráfica Editora, 2015.

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cordéis, jogos, brinquedos, praça de eventos,

barracas de comércio e serviços, inclusive

prostituição. Dessa maneira, é possível perceber

que o foco e a dinâmica inicial do encontro social

religioso com fins coletivos modificaram-se

assumindo um caráter mercadológico, turístico,

capitalista, feito para o “alheio”. Ressignifica-se a

sociabilidade: antes em torno do cemitério no dia

das Almas e de Finados e, então, em torno dos

festejos, do turismo, do lucro. Neste sentido, Alves

(2015) coloca que a “festa se amplia e ganha vigor

à proporção que aumenta o número de mortos

enterrados no cemitério e de vivos a habitar os

mais longínquos recantos da região” (p. 48).

Os moradores, trabalhadores principalmente

vinculados ao poder público, aposentados,

agricultores, comerciantes e do lar afirmam, sem

sua maioria, participar da festa, entretanto, sem

frequentar as “atividades noturnas”, uma

entrevistada conta que vinham “dois caminhões

de primas de Quixadá para os solteiros”. 6

 

Figura 03: Cemitério de Ocara - Ceará

Fonte: Acervo dos autores (2018).

A principal reclamação gira em torno da falta de

religiosidade alegando que a principal relevância

das festividades está nos valores comerciais e na

arrecadação municipal. Queixam-se de

desrespeito aos mortos e de perda da essência

original, participam dos momentos religiosos e

deixam os atrativos para os visitantes. Ao serem

questionados sobre o símbolo da cidade, a maioria

destaca que antes era o cemitério, porém, hoje é a

festa. Relembram de histórias vividas ou ouvidas

acerca da relação histórica com os mortos, contam

sobre o Terço das Almas detalhando as oferendas:

missas, novenas, flores, velas, orações. As imagens

(Figura 03) que ilustram o Cemitério de Ocara –

feitas no dia de encerramento das celebrações de

2018:

É certamente uma combinação polêmica de data e

local cuja alternância varia entre aprovações e

reprovações, aceitação e repúdio. Algo que se

expressa particularmente nas dificuldades da

Prefeitura local em difundir as atividades

comemorativas durante a semana que antecede o

feriado de Finados. Primeiro porque compreende

a presença de visitantes na cidade, durante a

programação da Mostra Cultural e Festa das

Almas algo “explosivo’, ou seja, muito além da

capacidade de recepção do município, que só

possui duas pousadas e não tem recursos para

organizar acampamentos com infraestrutura

planejada. Depois – e essa dimensão é mais

representativa dos limites culturais – as

6 Prostitutas, pombinhas, meretrizes, que ficavam no

“Curral”, “expressão usada porque ele [Bento] fazia um

cercado onde ficavam expostas as mulheres disponíveis e

promover a fruição sexual dos homens” (ALVES, 2015, p. 61).

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Geografia Simbólica Dos Cemitérios Em Perspectivas

transformações confessionais que incidem sobre

as disputas de católicos e evangélicas –

evidenciam uma tentativa a festa se restrinja a um

campo religioso tradicionalista, sem “espaços para

imoralidades”. O que termina por enfraquecer a

potencialidade de desenvolvimento do local a

partir de sua necrópole.

IX. CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS 

Espaço-reduto da atividade fim da morte, o

cemitério, como descreve Bittar (2018), atrai e

rejeita, está “repleto de significados que atestam

fenômenos sociais como a estratificação social,

símbolos, além de relações de poderes temporais e

místicos” (p. 178). Componente inexorável da

paisagem cultural brasileira: dormitório, lugar do

repouso eterno, são eufemismos adotados para

suavizar a incompreensível e inaceitável situação

de desaparecimento do mundo natural.

O cemitério é, portanto, campo de representações

simbólicas. Os múltiplos signos presentes nesse

espaço vivido, o projeto vital da sociedade,

associada à noção de subsistência e sobrevivência,

além de suas crenças e aspirações revelam o mais

íntimo de suas práticas culturais (CORRÊA, 1995,

p. 30-35). Catroga (1997) tão bem complementa

quando coloca que o cemitério foi se

transformando em um campo teatral onde se

representavam cenas da vida humana e Peter

Burke (1992), ao enxergar o mundo como cena,

destaca que a humanidade faz uso dos

monumentos para moldar uma memória nacional,

momento em que o espaço, geograficamente

considerando, passa a exercer papel fundamental

e as imagens que se queria recordar deveriam ser

destacas em locais específicos, os “teatros da

memória” (p. 241).

Grisales (2017) coloca que as necrópoles

constituem-se de “através de los cuales el

recuerdo del fenecido permanece atado a signos

materiales, que le impiden al muerto y a la

familia bajar de estatus” (p.83) e Pegaia (1967, p.

115) afirma que, de um modo geral, os cemitérios

fazem “transparecer bem os sentimentos

religiosos de seu povo, através da presença

considerável dos símbolos que os identificam”.

Ao discorrer sobre os mortos mais que especiais,

ou seja, os mártires, Nascimento (2013) coloca

que seu exemplo de perseverança serve como

fonte de inspiração e às suas relíquias são

atribuídos diversos milagres, sendo que para

celebrá-los, a comunidade recria “narrativas,

inicialmente orais que serviram para compor

martirológios e obras hagiográficas de grande

significado” (p. 126). Trata-se do que Bastianello

(2010) chama de heroização do espaço mortuário,

cuja leitura dos artefatos desvela o culto ao herói e

o túmulo reverencia sua memória. Tal heroísmo

assentado nas necrópoles, e reconhecido pelos

movimentos contemporâneos de uso e visitação

fornece a essa geografia uma confluência especial

de santuários (tradicional, metropolitano, natural

e festivo) conforme a tipologia que desenvolvemos

para pensar a atualização dos modelos receptivos

do turismo religioso (OLIVEIRA, 2004).

Dessa forma, as necrópoles oportunizam as

análises da densidade cultural como espaço

simbólico, categoria de associação de contrários

(vida/morte, atração/repulsão, passado/futuro),

que fornece a geografia Humana (e geografia

Cultural, em especial) uma conjunção de

realidades que fortalecem o dimensionamento das

representações contemporâneas – apresentamos

sei, mas podem ser mais – da Necrópole. A

paisagem que pode revelar, pela leitura de suas

camadas de representação, a espacialidade da

morte em sua fértil interação com a vitalidade

imagética dos lugares; a ritualização que evidencia

a teatralidade, as linguagens e as práticas

performativas que nos ligam intangivelmente à

espiritualidade; a força da memória, enquanto

repositório do fazer significativo no ato de

recordar, que oportuniza reflexões quanto à

referência espacial e o enraizamento territorial; a

turistificação das práticas de visitação do/no

cemitério, seus atributos, reciclagem simbólica e

uso enquanto mercadoria entretenimento e lazer;

a patrimonialização que transcende a função

utilitária da necrópole e a eleva à categoria de bem

cultural, embora demande novos fluxos de política

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efetiva de investimento; e a perspectiva

didático-pedagógica, que possibilita frutíferos

diálogos interdisciplinares enquanto recurso

pedagógico na formação de agentes

multiplicadores.

Por fim, aceitamos a provocação de Pegaia (1967,

p.116) quando nos questiona abertamente, sobre

como serão num futuro distante o espaço

cemiterial: afinal “qual será a paisagem interna

das necrópoles no futuro?”. Certamente as

dimensões que reunimos para nos debruçar sobre

a riqueza desse objeto não são suficientes para

compor uma resposta fechada para qualquer

localidade no Brasil, país onde as necrópoles,

mesmo em áreas centrais, são facilmente

reduzidas a periferias. Mas considerando as

localidades que investigamos, nos estados do

Paraná e Ceará, ainda que de forma preliminar,

pode-se propor a resposta inversa: Dificilmente

haverá futuro no desenvolvimento cultural de São

Mateus do Sul e Ocará, eu independa do

amadurecimento político, cultural e ambiental no

uso estratégico de suas necrópoles. E neste

sentido a geografia simbólica dos cemitérios,

presente em todas as regiões precisa entrar na

perspectiva de qualquer futuro das paisagens

humanas.

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dos vivos. Rio de Janeiro: Secretaria Municipal

da Cultura, Departamento Geral de

Documentação e Informação Cultural, Divisão

de Editoração, 1997.

52. RUIZ, C. B. Os paradoxos do imaginário.

Editora Unisinos: São Leopoldo, 2004.

53. SANTOS, A. R. dos. Processo de

dessacralização da morte e a instalação de

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"The authors would like to thank the CAPES

PGPSE Proc. 88887.123947 / 2016-00 projects:

Coastal Environmental Systems and economic

occupation of the Northeast; CAPES PRINT Proc.

88887.312019/2018-00: Integrated socio-

environmental technologies and methods for

territorial sustainability: alternatives for local

communities in the context of climate change; and

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2018-00: Support to the Scientific Cooperation

Strategies of the Graduate Program in Geography

- UFC "

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ABSTRACT

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The Irregularity of the Uthmanic Orthography of the Holy Quran in Contrast with the Standard

Orthography: A Pragmatic Reading

Dr. Manal Najjar

The Uthmanic orthography of the Holy Qu’ran is distinctively miraculous. In different contexts in Qu’ran, one word could exhibit a variety of distinct forms of orthographic constructions, either by adding or deleting a letter for example or even by a total change in the word from in comparison with its standard. This opens the door for new levels of meaning that go in harmony with their contextual use. By varying the written shapes of a word in different contexts of Qu’ranic verses, new dimensions of meaning can be elicited. This study aims at setting apart the differences between the Uthmanic orthography and the conventional Arabic writing system in writing certain words, and as a result what differences in meaning that variation could create. Hence the study stresses the need to examine why a word is written in different variants in different Qu’ranic verses: one variant complies with the conventional orthography, such as writing the medial long vowel alif /a/ in the form of alif mamdūdah in words: - /Salah/ةالص prayer, ةاكز /zakah/ - charity, ةايح /hayah/ - life, - ghadah/ةادغ dawn, ةاجن /najah/ - survival,ابر /ribah/ - monetary illegal interest, ةاكشم /mishkah/ - a round hole in the wall; whereas in other Qu’ranic verses, the same word is shaped in a different variant following the Uthmanic orthography where the medial long vowel alif /a/ is written in the form of the Arabic letter /wa/ but with identical pronunciation, becoming ةولص /salah/, ةوكز /zakah/ ةوادغ/ghadah, ةوجن/najah/, اوبر /ribah/, ةوكشم /mishkah/, and ةويح /hayah/.

Keywords: NA

Classification: 130399, 200403

Language: English

© 2020. Dr. Manal Najjar. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

For Code:

University of Ttabuk

The Irregularity of the Uthmanic Orthography of the Holy Quran in Contrast with the Standard 

Orthography: A Pragmatic Reading 

Dr. Manal Najjar ____________________________________________

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27 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

ABSTRACT 

The Uthmanic orthography of the Holy Qu’ran is

distinctively miraculous. In different contexts in

Qu’ran, one word could exhibit a variety of

distinct forms of orthographic constructions,

either by adding or deleting a letter for example

or even by a total change in the word from in

comparison with its standard. This opens the

door for new levels of meaning that go in

harmony with their contextual use. By varying

the written shapes of a word in different contexts

of Qu’ranic verses, new dimensions of meaning

can be elicited. This study aims at setting apart

the differences between the Uthmanic

orthography and the conventional Arabic

writing system in writing certain words, and as

a result what differences in meaning that

variation could create. Hence the study stresses

the need to examine why a word is written in

different variants in different Qu’ranic verses:

one variant complies with the conventional

orthography, such as writing the medial long

vowel alif /a/ in the form of alif mamdūdah in

words: /Salah/صالة - prayer, زكاة /zakah/ -

charity, حیاة /hayah/ - life, ghadah/غداة - dawn,

نجاة /najah/ - survival,ربا /ribah/ - monetary

illegal interest, مشكاة /mishkah/ - a round hole in

the wall; whereas in other Qu’ranic verses, the

same word is shaped in a different variant

following the Uthmanic orthography where the

medial long vowel alif /a/ is written in the form

of the Arabic letter /wa/ but with identical

pronunciation, becoming صلوة /salah/, زكوة

/zakah/ ,ghadah/غداوة نجوة /najah/, ربوا /ribah/,

مشكوة /mishkah/, and حیوة /hayah/. This variation

in shaping the vowel alif implies meaning that

this paper seeks to unveil in the light of

pragmatic analysis, calling at the same time for

utilizing such variants in our everyday writings

and speeches to convey more dimensions of

meaning intended in a way not accessible with

conventional Arabic orthography. Using

Qu’ranic orthography is historically established

and acknowledged by Prophet Mohammad,

Islamic nation through all generations.

Author: University of Tabuk

I. INTRODUCTION 

The orthography cited in the Holy Quran, in many

of its occurrences, is distinguished by its

dissimilarity with the Arabic conventional system

of writing. Such phenomenon has received

considerable attention to understand, providing

different interpretations. This study endeavors to

open new horizons and perspectives of

interpretation which looks beyond the narrow

scope of the traditional conventions of the writing

system strictly stated in text books or educational

ones. Such strict and narrow treatment with the

Arabic writing system does not cover the required

dimension related to the variety of uses in real

occurrences of communication. This study sets off

from the concept that the variation and

inconsistency of orthography inevitably imply a

hidden meaning and an intended goal at the

linguistic and social levels. To closely examine this

rationale, the current study takes, as example,

Quranic words where the mamdudah long alif (a:)

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28 Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0 © 2020 London Journals Press

The Irregularity of the Uthmanic Orthography of the Holy Quran in Contrast with the Standard Orthography: A Pragmatic Reading

is written in the form of wa /wa:/, with an attempt

to finding out the underlying meaning of such

variation.

Therefore, the study seeks to answer the following

research question:

1. Why are the Quranic words مشكوة، نجوة، صلوة،

،ربوا زكوة، غدوة ،حیوةwritten in the wa (و) instead of their conventional

form with alif (ا), such as الزكاة written الزكوة?

Some of Arabic modern scholars believe that the

dissimilarity of the writing system followed in

Quran came in consistency with the usage

common in its time of descending. In this respect,

Alhamad (1986) conducted a contrastive study

between the writing system in Quran and that

found on the Islamic and Pre – Islamic

inscriptions. He concluded that the Uthmanic

Quranic system of writing is not unusual or odd;

rather it represents a recognized stage in the

history of development in the Arabic writing

system, following the prevailing conventions of its

early time of existence. Alhamad added in another

reference that the Uthmanic orthography

remained, for a considerably long time, the

system followed by Prophet Mohammad’s

followers and second followers even in their

everyday practice. In line with the

aforementioned, according to the writing system

development known in the history of the Arabic

language, the unconventional word forms cited in

the Quran actually came in harmony with the

usage of the time in its descending and decades

before so that the Quranic verses could be read

and understood by its people (Alhafni,1988).

Thus, Quran copiers since then used their own

common writing rules of their time. As a

testimony of this rationale, Ibn Qutaiba explained

the phenomenon of writing the long alif as wa in

words such as حیوة زكوة، صلوة، as following the norm

and usage of their time i.e. Arabs in the time of

early Islam used to normally write with wa instead

of alif, such as the Arabs of Quraysh, therefore

those Arabs who were entrusted to copy the Holy

Quran followed this way of writing of such words.

While other Arab tribes such as Hatheel, and

Thaqif did not adopt the wa in writing such words

(Aldani,1983). This is proved in the words of the

Prophet’s follower Othman bin Affan when he

said that if the copier of the Quran was from

Hatheel or Thaqif, he would write in a different

way in spite of their remarkable competence in

the Arabic language (Aldani,1983).

In a later stage, there appeared the need to unify

the rules of the writing system, seeking to

maintain the consistency between writing and

pronunciation of words to be easier to learn and

apply (Alsamarqandi, 1986). Hence, Arabic

language scholars established a set of rules based

on the syntactic and morphological parameters

(Alhamad, 2001). Such movement commenced in

the time of bloom for books production written in

Arabic in cities as Basra and Kufa (Alsae’ed,1967).

Since then, the conventions of the writing system

in Arabic have been standardized and unified,

drifting away from the old and archaic word

forms. However, the Quran copiers have not

adopted this trend; rather they maintained the old

Uthmanic system of writing as exactly was written

in the time of Othman bin Affan, the Prophet

follower.

Such inconsistency of word forms in Quran (of

Uthmanic writing) in comparison with the

conventional known system of writing nowadays

has created a debate of various views among Arab

scholars for the sake of comprehensible

interpretation. Some said that it was based on

instructions from Prophet Mohammad for divine

reasons (Alkurdi,1365 H; Almubarak,1306 H;

Alzarqani,1943); while others defied the fact that

Prophet Mohammad dictated how to copy the

Quran since there is no Hadith to testify the

existence of such instructions, adding that it was

the choice of his followers to adopt the Uthmanic

system in copying. Other modern scholars go far

to claim that such dissimilarity and

unconventional writing was a mistake made by

old followers or the copiers of Quran (Ibn

Qutaiba,1954, Ibn Qutaiba,1326 H; Ibn

Khaldun,1956; Alfera’,1955; Aldani,1983).

Whereas some other scholars believe that it is

possible to have words with different forms that

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are considered correct with regard to the variant

readings of the Qura’n (Qira’at). (Alzarqani,1943;

Alsayoti,1967; Alqastalani,1972). Others see that

such forms are originated from one of the

languages of old Arabs (Ibn Jini,1952, Ibn

Jini,1954; Saybawi,1317 H.). In the same vein,

some scholars refer the unconventional word

forms to their origin of usage in old times as

identical to what they used to be in both letter and

sound (Alanbari,1971; Aldani,1983; Hammodah,

1948; Alhamad,2001). Aldani,(1960) stated in this

regard that old Arabs of the Prophets’ followers

through generations were known by their

language competence and eloquence; hence, their

choices of written words in Quran must have been

built within the limits of accuracy and correctness.

In other interpretations, Arab scholars attribute

this unconventional written word forms in Quran

to a kind of shifting from common forms to other

uncommon though correct ones (Aldani,1960).

Among Arab scholars are those who consider such

a phenomenon as being purposeful and intended

for reasons only known by its producers

(Alkurdi,1365 H.). Alkurdi (1365 H. ) added that

the Prophet Mohammad’s followers, all passed

away, were the ones who copied the Quran, hence

the interpretations nowadays are mere

speculations and assumptions. He added that the

writing system adopted by the followers was

intended for a specific purpose, not accessible to

people in the present time.

In the current study, it is entirely excluded that

this dissimilarity in word forms between the

Uthmanic orthography and the present Arabic

writing system refers to a mere mistake. Rather,

the Uthmanic choice of word forms or shapes in

Quran is not random, but it contributes to the

meaning considerably whatever was the reason or

interpretation behind using it. Moreover, choices

made exhibit the great competence and delicacy of

language that our followers and copiers of Quran

used to enjoy. Such deep understanding of

language meaning made them write the words in

the way it meant more than the way it should be

written with. In this regard, Aldani (1983) stated

that if the Arabs of the tribes Thaqif and Hatheel

were entrusted to copy the Quran and not the

Arabs of Quraish, they would have followed the

spelling of words as commonly used without

giving the required attention to meaning. Alkurdi

(1365 H.) also argued that the Prophet’s followers

who copied the Quran at that time were fully

aware of the Arabic orthography and different

varieties of word forms. He added that their

decisions how to write imply specific effect

(Alkurdi,1365 H.) and intended meaning

(Aldani,1983).

Therefore, the authority Arab scholars in

consensus have recommended that the Uthmanic

orthography must be maintained in copying the

Quran (Aldani,1983; Alsayoti,1967; Alkurdi,1365

H.); moreover, this system should be learned

(Almarghini,1995). For example, the authority Ibn

Hanbal stressed on the obligation to copy Quran

by using the Uthmanic writing and considered any

change of this practice as forbidden in Islam

(Alzarkashi,1957; Alsayoti,1967).

In the current study, the researcher believes that

the Arabic language like any other languages

witnesses a historical development in its

orthography and writing system. What was

common in a stage is not necessarily common in

another. In the course of development, changes

and alternations are very possible. Such changes

could be equated with the current social and

contextual conditions of each stage (Alhafni,1988;

Alhamad,2001). In the early era of Islam, Quran

addressed people of various social environments

and backgrounds with their own language and

writing system – as an attempt to establish a

context of effective communication and open

channels of understanding. The unconventional

Uthmanic orthography, hence, made possible the

achievement of more comprehensive meanings in

the context of past times. In addition, the system

we know today is a different stage of writing that

aims to provide easier manners of orthography

and spelling than those of old times. However,

abandoning the old Uthmanic system, we could

argue, has led to unrecoverable loss of meaning

pertaining to the word forms or shapes.

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30 Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0 © 2020 London Journals Press

The Irregularity of the Uthmanic Orthography of the Holy Quran in Contrast with the Standard Orthography: A Pragmatic Reading

In line with the aforementioned, the study takes

the use of the wa /wa:/ instead of the mamdoudah

long alif /a:/ in the words نجوة، حیوة، غداوة، زكوة، صلوة،

ربوا مشكوة، to be intended for another level of

pragmatic meaning. In this perspective, this

distinguished form of writing will merit those

words with other shades of meaning, in addition

to more value and recognition so as to be more

clearly notable from other surrounding words

(Aldayeh,2010). For instance, Al Marakishi (721

H.) gives explanation to the use of the wa in words

cited in Quran as in } (Ala’araf surah) to add more

distinction to the word to be noticed by readers,

driving them to think deeper of the threat

embedded in the verse line (Al Marakishi,1957).

The researcher believes that the word صلوة

(prayer), which is normally written as ,صالة is used

in both forms in Quran for a pragmatic meaning

that serves the context in which it was used. When

Quran refers to the prayer in general, the word

was written normally with alif صالة and that is

cited in (9) Quranic verses (Shamlul, 2000).

While the word prayer was written with the wa (

(صلوة in (67) Quranic verses in contexts that

exhibit its distinguished value and pillar

significance in Islam, in the relation between

humans with Allah their Creator and this

dimension of meaning is particularly activated in

the words of the Prophets when in dialogue of

persuasion aims either with believers or with the

disbelievers (Aldayeh, 2010).

The word زكوة (Islamic Charity), normally written

with long alif ,زكاة is cited with wa in all instances

of 32 verses in order to give this pillar of Islam its

obligation and sense of unavoidable commitment

to spend for the sake of Islam and Allah

(Shamlul,2000; Aldayeh,2010). Such Islamic duty

requires deep faith and effort, therefore, it is

difficult to perform if not a true believer of all

times. This is why the wa was chosen to be written

with in all its occurrences, since the writing of the

wa requires also more effort to draw than the long

alif. In general, the two pillars of Islam the regular

daily five prayers Al Salah and the spending of

Islamic Charity Al Zakah are actions that call for

determination, and strength spiritually and

physically, thus, their shape with the letter wa will

be more expressive to convey such sense than

with the long alif.

The word غداوة (the dawn), normally غداة with alif,

is cited in Quran two times with the wa (Alan’am

surah, and Alkahf surah) with the purpose of

showing the significance of prayers or Al Salah at

this specific time (Shamlul,2000). Getting up

from deep sleep at dawn to wash and pray this

faridah (duty) is performed with spiritual strength

and physical effort endowed only in true believers.

Therefore, copiers chose the wa to add this shade

of meaning, where both require more zeal and

effort.

Interestingly, the word حیوة (life) was written with

the wa instead of alif in 71 instances in Quran

when equated with the Muslims and true

believers, implying a difficult life of jihad,

challenges and determination on the righteous

track (Shamlul,2000), as the curved/crooked

shape wa is more expressive of such difficulty

than the long straight alif. Whereas the same word

life was written in the conventional way with alif

حیاة in 5 occurrences in the contexts equated with

the life of non muslims.

The word نجوة (survival) was written with wa

instead of the conventional alif in one place in

Quran (Ghafir surah) to draw attention to the

context of a dialogue between one of the believers

of the Prophet Moses to his tribe or people under

the rein of Egyptian Pharos, inviting them to join

the believers as the only way of real survival

(Shamlul,2000). This wa form of نجوة was

intentionally and carefully chosen to emphasize

the difficulty of survival of those believers from

the tyranny of the Pharos.

Another example is the word الربوا (monetary

illegal interest), which is normally written as ,الربا

is cited in 7 verses in the Holy Quran. It came in

the wa to draw people’s attention to the threat of

such forbidden practice in their financial matters.

In contrast, the same word was used in its

conventional form with the long alif in one verse

only as referring to its basic concept, being

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The Irregularity of the Uthmanic Orthography of the Holy Quran in Contrast with the Standard Orthography: A Pragmatic Reading

compared with Zakah (Alrum surah). Moreover,

the end alif was added to both forms in all

instances, of الربوا and یربوا while the normal

spelling is without that end alif, i.e. الربو and .یربو

By this, another level of pragmatic meaning is

being implied to emphasize the danger of such sin

as if this end long alif borders the wa to give time

to readers to contemplate on the round and

curved shape of the wa, being crooked as the deed

itself.

The word ,مشكوة originally written as ,مشكاة was

cited only one time in Quran and was written with

the wa (Alnour surah). This selected shape of wa

is probably used in order to evoke in the mind of

readers the shape of this word, similar to the

shape of wa, as it means a round hole in the wall

in which the light was used to be placed.

In conclusion, the study seeks to argue that the

shapes in which the unconventional Uthmanic

writing system exhibited in many word forms in

Quran are not randomly selected and are capable

of evoking other levels of meaning in the minds of

readers. And those meanings could vary as the

perception of people of them could vary, i.e. this

current study does not say that there is only one

meaning to be equated with a specific shape, and

interpretations of the meaning of those shapes are

open to the imagination and understanding of

readers in accordance with their experiences as

well as their contextual environments. Hence, in

such processing of meaning, the attempts made

by readers to perceive and comprehend meaning

could be acceptable for some and unacceptable by

others (Alfarmawi,1977).

It is possible to say that some interpretations of

meaning could be incomprehensible in the

current time, lost in the course of history due to

the absence of concern to teach the rules and

orthography of Quran (Alhusaini, 1432 H.;

Almarghini,1995; Alfarmawi,1977).

Therefore, the study calls for reviving this

important science of Uthmanic Orthography,

including it in the curricula of schools and

universities. In addition, this study invites our

Arabic language scholars to take into their careful

understanding and application the levels of

meaning that the Uthmanic Quranic orthography

render. Moreover, the study recommends that this

science is worpractices of language use instead of

abandoning it in the modern time, being ranked

as odd and archaic. This Uthmanic system of

writing will maintain to be part of the Arabic

writing system in all its stages of development,

enriching our Arabic language with more varieties

and dimensions of meaning.

As well, one of the major tendencies that this

study argues to pursue is to consider and include

as an integral part of meaning the forms or shapes

of words particularly those that deviate from the

standard orthography. Hence, it is of paramount

importance to create and establish a translation

theory pertinent to the Uthmanic orthography of

the Quran. Such theory could provide effective

framework and strategies to reach a more

comprehensive realization of meaning in the Holy

Quran.

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Lishu’n Aleslamiyah.

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1967). Alhusaini Publication.

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(Ed. 1943). Cairo: Dar Ihiyaa’ Alkutub

Alarabiyah. 3rd edition.

19. Hamad, Ghanim Qaduri. Muwazanah bayn

Rasm Almushaf wa Alnuqush Ala’rabiyah

Alqadimah (Ed. 1986). Almawrid Journal.

Issue 4.

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Allahajat (Ed 1948). Cairo: Alnahdah

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1952). Alkutub Almasryah, Cairo.

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ABSTRACT

Scan to know paper details andauthor's profile

Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

Dennis Zami Atibuni

Busitema University

This is a conceptual critical review paper. It analyses the match and mismatch between the autonomy and interdependence of internal and external quality assurance mechanisms in higher education institutions in Africa as they strive to deliver quality graduates. The mark of quality of graduates is their employability and relevance in the job market. However, the current generation of graduates of higher education institutions in Africa is often blamed for negative issues regarding accountability, control, compliance, and improvement. Considering accountability, the graduates are noted to offer less value for money, fitness for purpose, and quality service delivery and transparency in the world of work. Their legitimacy, integrity, and standards when compared across the board is often questioned. The paper unravels the fact that these quality concerns are a result of the challenges of autonomy and interdependence between internal and external quality assurance mechanisms operating in the institutions. It asserts that the negative traits indicate that the curriculum, pedagogy, resources, appraisal, and feedback systems of courses taught to these graduates while still studying at the higher education institutions had gaps due to ineffective quality assurance.

Keywords: external quality assurance, higher education institution, internal quality assurance, quality assurance mechanism.

Classification: 130103

Language: English

© 2020. Dennis Zami Atibuni. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

For Code:

Dennis Zami Atibuni 

____________________________________________ 

 

 ABSTRACT 

This is a conceptual critical review paper. It

analyses the match and mismatch between the

autonomy and interdependence of internal and

external quality assurance mechanisms in higher

education institutions in Africa as they strive to

deliver quality graduates. The mark of quality of

graduates is their employability and relevance in

the job market. However, the current generation

of graduates of higher education institutions in

Africa is often blamed for negative issues

regarding accountability, control, compliance,

and improvement. Considering accountability,

the graduates are noted to offer less value for

money, fitness for purpose, and quality service

delivery and transparency in the world of work.

Their legitimacy, integrity, and standards when

compared across the board is often questioned.

The paper unravels the fact that these quality

concerns are a result of the challenges of

autonomy and interdependence between internal

and external quality assurance mechanisms

operating in the institutions. It asserts that the

negative traits indicate that the curriculum,

pedagogy, resources, appraisal, and feedback

systems of courses taught to these graduates

while still studying at the higher education

institutions had gaps due to ineffective quality

assurance. The paper argues that both internal

and external mechanisms of quality assurance

should be fostered in the higher education

institutions in order to strike a balance between

improvement and accountability. Strategies for

enhancing the autonomy and interdependence of

the two mechanisms are proposed with a view to

promoting quality culture in the higher education

institutions.

Keywords: external quality assurance, higher

education institution, internal quality assurance,

quality assurance mechanism.

Author: Department of Education, Faculty of Science

and Education, Busitema University, Uganda.

I. INTRODUCTION 

Education in general, and higher education in

particular, has been variously acclaimed as

fundamental to the construction of the knowledge

economy of society in all nations (El-Maghraby,

2012; Kisanga & Machumu, 2014; Mulu Nega,

2012; Oladipo, Adeosun, & Oni, 2009; World

Bank/UNICEF, 1996). Malcolm (El-Maghraby,

2012; Gillis, 1999) points out that the wealth

and/or poverty of nations depends on the quality

of higher education at the present more than ever

before in human history. Oladipo and colleagues

particularly point out the causal relationship

between heavy investment in higher education

and economic growth and social development in

developed nations.

Research indicates that major and drastic changes

including massification of education, greater

diversity in terms of programme provision and

student types, matching programmes to labour

market needs, shrinking resources, heightened

accountability, and indirect steering of higher

education (Kayombo, 2015; Mulu Nega; 2012) are

already shaping the higher education landscape in

Africa. Governments in several African countries

Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

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have inevitably allowed and even encouraged

private providers, distance education programs

and foreign institutions to provide higher

education. This has accordingly ushered in the

establishment of private higher education

providers in addition to massive private

sponsorship in public institutions to complement

the very few slots offered on government

sponsorship in the public institutions, which is

quite insignificant to accommodate the

skyrocketing numbers of qualified candidates

seeking to attain higher education (Galafa, 2018).

This has caused a disproportionately larger

fraction of higher education institutions as well as

programmes and students in public universities

and colleges in Africa to be private.

These developments have come with a down side

to the quality of education offered in the higher

education institutions in Africa. Galafa (2018)

notes that the provision of higher education by the

disproportionately higher percentage of private

institutions in addition to the privately sponsored

provisions in public ones is characterised by

chaos. Hayward (2006) observes that private

higher education institutions are mainly of poor

quality and that many are more interested in

making money than providing a quality education.

El-Maghraby (2012) confirms that many higher

education institutions in Africa do not like to seek

accreditation from the agencies set up for that

purpose, and so the quality of their students and

staff as well as programmes, scholastic and

physical resources does not match the required

standards.

On the other hand, Swanzy, Langa, and Ansah

(2018) posit investment in quality higher

education as Africa’s best chance of speeding its

development and helping it become competitive

in the knowledge-driven economy. Kisanga and

Machumu (2014) proffer quality assurance as the

main driver of investment in quality education,

arguing that no university will survive the present

competition with other universities locally and

internationally without paying attention to quality

assurance. Luckett (2006) notes that fostering

quality assurance is deemed to lead to the

improvement of higher education management

capacity, which in turn should provide the

conditions for high quality provision, which will

reciprocally produce large numbers of high

quality graduates, which will lead to national

economic and social transformation and

development.

This paper is concerned with the match and

mismatch between the autonomy and

interdependence of quality assurance mechanisms

– internal and external – which should be

emphasized in the provision of higher education

in Africa in order to make the purported impact.

Scholars such as Harvey (2018) and Okoche

(2017) have argued that internal quality assurance

is more critical and paramount in the pursuit of

quality in the provision of university education as

it promotes improvement of standards, as

opposed to external quality assurance by national

accreditation bodies which merely drives

accountability. The paper seeks to provide

answers to questions of what the common

grounds of autonomy and captivity are between

the two quality assurance mechanisms, what

challenges are experienced in quality assurance

due to the issues and concerns of autonomy and

captivity between internal and external quality

assurance, and how these challenges can be

overcome. It is argued in the paper that both

internal and external mechanisms of quality

assurance should be fostered in the higher

education institutions in order to strike a balance

between improvement and accountability.

The paper is structured in such a way as to

smoothly transit from an understanding of the key

concepts of quality and quality assurance through

the purpose of quality assurance to the contextual

and conceptual scopes of quality assurance. Then

a synthesis of the critical issues concerning the

autonomy and interdependence of the internal

and external quality assurance mechanisms in

higher education institutions in Africa is

presented as a gist of the paper. The benefits and

strategies for enhancing autonomy and

interdependence of the mechanisms is then

capped. The following sections give an

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34 Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0 © 2020 London Journals Press

Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

understanding of the meanings of quality, quality

assurance, internal and external mechanisms of

quality assurance with reference to higher

education.

II. MEANING OF QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION (HE) 

Oladipo et al. (2009) and LH Martin

Institute/INQAAHE (2012) note that “quality” is a

slippery concept with many definitions, meaning

that it implies different things to different people.

Accordingly, it could mean what best satisfies and

exceeds customers’ needs and wants, in which

case it can be said to lie in the eyes of the

beholder. Okafor (2015) similarly posits quality to

be a multi-dimensional concept with various

interpretations, such as excellence, perfection,

value for money, transformation, meeting

customers’ needs, conformity to standards, fitness

for purpose, and fitness of purpose. Kisanga and

Machumu (2014) submit that quality is best

determined by the product users, clients or

customers and to some extent by society in

general. However, there has got to be a reference

point or established standard against which the

quality of a product, service, or phenomenon is

gauged as relatively below, same to, or superior to

other similar ones. Given that quality is generally

associated with the level and quality of education,

then it is imperative to focus attention on what

the term means in the realm of higher education.

According to Vlsceanu, Grünberg, and Pârlea

(2007, p. 70), “Quality in higher education is a

multi-dimensional, multi-level, and dynamic

concept that relates to the contextual settings of

an educational model, to the institutional mission

and objectives, as well as to specific standards

within a given system, institution, programme, or

discipline.” Quality education, according to Mosha

(1986), is thus “measured by the extent to which

the training received from an institution enables

the recipient to think clearly, independently and

analytically to solve relevant societal problems in

any given environment” (pp. 113-134). This

implies that quality higher education is inferred

from the ability or degree to which a higher

education institution conforms to the established

standards of relevance and appropriateness of

programmes, student admissions, staff

recruitment, infrastructural development, and

managerial processes in order to effect teaching

and learning, research, and community outreach

for which it is established. In other words, the

quality of a higher education institution is to be

judged from the input, throughput, output, and

outcomes of the institution; meaning that it is a

continuous rather than a one-step process. This

leads us to the meaning of quality assurance.

III. MEANING OF QUALITY ASSURANCE 

El-Maghraby (2012) presents many terms

associated with quality improvement in higher

education. These include Quality Assessment,

Quality Assurance, Quality Control, Total Quality

Management (TQM), and Quality Audit. “Quality

assurance” stands out as the most popular,

conventionally accepted as an “all-embracing

term referring to an on-going, continuous process

of evaluating (assessing, monitoring,

guaranteeing, maintaining, and improving) the

quality of a higher education system, institutions,

or programmes” (Vlsceanu, Grünberg, & Pârlea,

2007, p.74). Oladipo et al. (2009) posit that

higher education quality assurance is about

consistently meeting product specifications or

getting things right the first time, and every time

as far as academic matters, staff-student ratios,

staff mix by rank, staff development, physical

facilities, funding, and adequate library facilities

are concerned. To Alele – Williams (2004),

quality assurance is a mechanism which indicates

the pre-eminence and special features that make a

higher education institution distinct from other

forms of institutions.

All these definitions point out an accountability

and improvement function of quality assurance.

From the definitions, quality assurance can be

taken to mean all activities that are aimed at

ensuring that the process and product of an

educational system serve fitness for and of

purpose. This implies that as a regulatory

mechanism, certain minimum standards are put

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in place for the continuous monitoring of the

quality of input, process (throughput), output,

and outcomes of the higher education institution.

The indices chosen should cover the inhibiting

and facilitating entry behaviours, characteristics,

and attributes of learners; entry qualifications,

values, pedagogic skills, and professional

preparedness of teachers; structure of the

curriculum and learning environment of the

teaching/learning process; and the adequacy and

regularity of the flow of operational funds.

Netshifhefhe, Nobongoza, and Maphosa (2016)

allude to the fact that quality assurance measures

are vital in adding value to the product and are

best applied during the process of implementing a

programme and not merely inspecting the final

product.

Quality assurance has two components: internal

and external. El-Maghraby (2012) categorizes

quality assurance into ‘institutional’ and

‘programme or professional’. Institutional quality

assurance is when the institution as a whole is

accredited, in which case the accreditation review

process focuses on evaluating the institution as an

entity. In the ‘program or professional’ quality

assurance, a specific program of study offered by

an institution is accredited, in which case the

accreditation review process focuses on just one

department, program or curriculum (Koenig,

2004). It should be noted that both the

institutional and programme arms of quality

assurance do fit into internal and external quality

assurance.

IV. MEANING OF INTERNAL QUALITY ASSURANCE AND EXTERNAL QUALITY 

ASSURANCE 

According to various scholars including Kisanga

and Machumu (2014), Mulu Nega (2012), and

Odera-Kwach (2011), internal quality assurance

refers to an institution’s own mechanisms such as

having and practicing certain policies within its

policy framework to attain its own objectives and

standards in a manner that ensures and improves

its quality. UNESCO cited in Kisanga and

Machumu affirms that internal quality assurance

ensures that the institution is fulfilling its own

purposes, as well as the standards that apply to

higher education in general, or to the profession

or discipline in particular.

Based on the fundamental idea that quality

assurance is mainly the responsibility of the

institution itself (El-Maghraby 2012), higher

education institutions often have their internal

mechanisms to ensure good performance.

Processes within the internal mechanism usually

include, but are not limited to, policy and

procedures for quality assurance; approval,

monitoring and periodic review of programmes

and awards; assessment of students; appraisal of

teaching staff; learning resources and student

support; information systems; and public

information. Higher education institutions are

largely independent in instituting and actualising

these processes, but also yield to oversight by

external quality assurance agencies.

On the other hand, according to Kisanga and

Machumu (2014), Mulu Nega (2012), and

Odera-Kwach (2011), external quality assurance is

performed by an independent organization or

quality assurance agency external to the

institution to determine if the institution meets

the agreed upon or predetermined standards that

apply to higher education in general, or to the

profession or discipline in particular. External

quality assurance often includes accreditation,

review, assessment, and evaluation or audit of the

inputs, throughputs, outputs, and sometimes

outcomes of the higher education institution. The

aim of external quality assurance is mainly to

provide accountability and enhance the

institution’s performance.

External quality assurance is often the preserve of

an independent agency with legal autonomy. The

agency is often comprised of a governing board

composed of members from various sectors that

represent higher education stakeholders in the

country. It usually operates under an appropriate

quality assurance framework that is sensitive to

local context and is consistent with international

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Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

practices, using transparent procedures so as to

ensure accountability. In order to efficiently and

effectively perform its functions, the external

quality assurance agency needs to be adequately

financed and resourced with competent staff and

external reviewers of unquestionable integrity.

The agency needs to continuously review the

impact of external quality assurance processes on

the higher education system it oversees so as to

appraise its relevance.

V. NEED FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS 

Hayward (2006) notes that the main reason for

quality assurance in higher education institutions

is the desire to improve quality, be competitive

internationally, protect the public from fraud, and

be accountable to the stakeholders. According to

El-Maghraby (2012), quality assurance helps the

institutions to improve their internal coherence

and provides an opportunity for regular

interactions between the programmes and

universities in a given setting. It also encourages

exchanges with other peers from other

institutions through quality assurance and

accreditation bodies and agencies. LH Martin

Institute/INQAAHE (2012), drawing on European

Standards Guidelines (2005, 2007) and

Woodhouse and Stella (2008), summarises the

functions and hence need for quality assurance as;

to foster accountability, safeguard academic

standards, enhance user protection, provide

independently verified information, assist

institutional efforts in quality control, and

standardise operations within the institution.

Brennan and Shah (Mulu Nega, 2012) posit four

forms of quality values that quality assurance

seeks to attain. These include academic,

managerial, pedagogic, and employment focus

values. The academic values emphasise

establishment of and adherence to broad

disciplinary and professional authority among the

staff and students. In imparting managerial

values, the basic assumption is that good

management can produce quality, in which case

quality assurance serves as a tool of management

to foster quality within the institution. Pedagogic

values lay emphasis on teaching skills and

classroom practices; effective pedagogy is claimed

to yield quality student learning in terms of

knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes as

required by the job market. Employment focus

values target graduate output characteristics,

standards, and learning outcomes such that the

learners are accordingly provided with more

experiences/training outside the classroom

setting with a semblance of the job market so that

they graduate ‘fit for purpose.’

Brennan and Shah reviewed 12 quality agencies

(LH Martin Institute/INQAAHE (2012) and

identified 10 statements of purpose for quality

assurance. These include the following:

● To ensure accountability in the use of public

funds;

● To improve the quality of higher education

provision;

● To inform funding decisions;

● To inform students and employers;

● To stimulate competitiveness within and

between institutions;

● To undertake a quality check on new

(sometimes private) institutions;

● To assign institutional status;

● To support the transfer of authority between

the state and institutions;

● To encourage student mobility;

● To make international comparisons.

With specific reference to external quality

assurance agencies, LH Martin Institute/

INQAAHE (2012) identifies the following

functions:

● To develop standards and procedures for

self-assessment and external review

● To manage data on higher education

institutions

● To select and train of external reviewers

● To liaise with higher education institutions on

the quality assurance processes and site visits

● To monitor, make decision and report to the

public on key quality outcomes

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Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

● To manage appeals of higher education

institutions (if any)

● To organize capacity building interventions

● To promote external relations and networking

with other quality assurance agencies

Each of these functions encompasses a number of

administration, coordination and decision-

making roles and responsibilities that overlap.

Mhlanga (2010) notes that internal quality

assurance systems are generally associated with

institutional improvement while the external

systems are associated with ensuring compliance

of the institution with set standards and provision

of accountability to the stakeholders. In order to

realise the need for quality assurance, the quality

assurance agencies must observe certain basic

principles as described below.

VI. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF QUALITY ASSURANCE 

• Providers of higher education have the

primary responsibility for the quality of their

provision and its assurance;

• The interests of society in the quality and

standards of higher education need to be

safeguarded;

• The quality of academic programmes need to

be developed and improved for students and

other beneficiaries;

• There need to be efficient and effective

organisational structures;

• Transparency and the use of external expertise

in quality assurance processes are important;

• There should be encouragement of a culture of

quality within higher education institutions;

• Processes should be developed through which

higher education institutions can demonstrate

their accountability, including accountability

for the investment of public and private

money;

• Quality assurance for accountability purposes

is fully compatible with quality assurance for

enhancement purposes;

• Institutions should be able to demonstrate

their quality at home and internationally;

• Processes used should not stifle diversity and

innovation.

The violation of any of these principles could

interrupt the harmony between internal and

external quality assurance mechanisms in the

African higher education space. The section below

highlights the context of quality assurance in

Africa which could provide a recipe for violation

of the quality assurance principles.

Quality assurance systems are a relatively recent

development in Africa (Swanzy et al., 2018) with

Kenya being the first country in Africa to set up an

external quality assurance agency for higher

education in 1985. However, Materu (2007) notes

that the concept is gaining momentum as a result

of the growing importance of private tertiary

institutions and private sponsorship in public

institutions whose activities need to be regulated.

This implies that though the majority of the

African countries have national quality assurance

agencies established by an act of parliament to

oversee the quality of higher education in both

public and private institutions in the respective

countries, there are still some countries within the

continent that do not have quality assurance

mechanisms. It further implies that even within

countries that have quality assurance

mechanisms, not all higher education institutions

and even departments and faculties within the

institutions undertake quality assurance with the

same zeal, mainly given the diverse understanding

and practices of quality assurance.

However, a study by Swanzy et al. (2018) reveals a

cohort of recent developments in Africa which

indicate that quality assurance is being upheld as

an important mechanism to make higher

education more relevant to developmental needs.

The study unveils several initiatives by the African

Union such as the Association of African

Universities (AAU), the African Higher Education

Harmonization Strategy, the Tuning Africa Pilot

Project, and the African Quality Rating

Mechanism, to promote quality and excellence in

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Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

VII. THE CONTEXT OF QUALITY ASSURANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION 

INSTITUTIONS IN AFRICA 

Africa’s higher education systems. Another more

recent initiative is the Joint Africa–European

Union Strategic Roadmap 2014–2017 which

emphasizes quality assurance as the primary

action line to strengthen higher education in

Africa. A yearly International Conference on

Quality Assurance in Higher Education in Africa

has also been established as a platform to develop

ideas and suggest strategies for the provision of

quality education.

The African Union has further identified quality in

higher education as one of the focal points in the

Plan of Action for the Second Decade of Education

for Africa (2006-2015), which resultantly has

caused the development of the Continental

Education Strategy for Africa (2016-2025). These

initiatives are aimed at producing a harmonized

higher education system characterised by

enhanced trust and confidence, quality, relevance

and sustainability. Subsequently, the Pan-African

Quality Assurance and Accreditation Framework

(PAQAF) has been established in response to the

desire to achieve harmonized quality assurance

practices in the continent. PAQAF sets the

principles and rules of engagement for higher

education institutions and agencies in the

continent.

A number of regional quality assurance agencies

have also been formed to upscale the regional

networking and mobility of students and staff in

the regional blocks. These include the African and

Malagasy Council for Higher Education (CAMES),

the Inter-University Council for East Africa

(IUCEA), and the Council for Quality Assurance

and Accreditation in Arab countries. Over time, a

number of quality assurance networks have also

been established across Africa. Notable among the

networks are the African Quality Assurance

Network (AfriQAN), the Arab Network for Quality

Assurance in Higher Education (ANQAHE), and

the Southern Africa Quality Assurance Network

(SAQAN)

According to Swanzy et al. (2018), about 25

African countries had established national quality

assurance agencies by 2015 to oversee their higher

education systems, and some others were at

advanced stages of establishing theirs. The

national quality assurance agencies are either

semi-autonomous or part of the government’s

departments. Their mandate is mainly to

undertake external quality assurance activities

through accreditation of higher education

institutions and programmes. They are also

responsible for periodic monitoring and

evaluation of the quality assurance aspects in

higher education institutions as well as auditing

the institutions for continuous enhancement of

quality. These activities entail assessing inputs,

processes, outputs, and sometimes outcomes of

the institutions through the use of external peer

reviewers and making decisions with regard to

quality aspects of the institutions based on

predetermined minimum standards.

Generally, more emphasis has been placed on

external agencies with relatively little attention

given to institutions. So, the focus of quality

assurance is seen to be more on compliance and

accountability rather than improvement of the

institutions, which could potentially threaten the

autonomy of the institutions. The institutions are

usually captives of a witch-hunt by the external

quality assurance agencies. However, in many of

the countries, support is being provided to

enhance internal quality assurance activities in

the higher education institutions so as to blend

logically with the external quality assurance

activities.

VIII. CONCEPTUAL SCOPE OF QUALITY ASSURANCE 

Middlehurst (2001) describes five key dimensions

of the scope of quality assurance. These include

regulation, the educational process, curriculum

design and content, learning experiences, and

outcomes. The ‘regulation’ dimension

encompasses everything to do with but not

limited to legal frameworks, governance,

responsibilities, and accountabilities. The

educational process dimension deals with quality

of admissions, registration or enrolment,

curriculum design and delivery, support for

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Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

learning, and assessment of learning. Curriculum

design and content dimension entails

mechanisms for validation and approval

frameworks, levels and standards. The dimension

of learning experiences involves consumer

protection, enhancing students’ experience, and

handling of complaints and appeals among

others. Outcomes dimensions involves

ascertaining the quality of qualifications,

certificates, transcripts, security, transferability,

recognition/currency and value. This scope

includes what Okafor (2015) describes as the

input, throughput, output and outcome of quality

assurance.

Luckett (2007) poses a set of critical questions

that a conceptual scope or framework of quality

assurance should be able to capture. These

include ‘Who decides what counts as quality?’

‘Who decides what the criteria or measures of

quality should be?’ ‘Who owns the quality

system?’ ‘For whom is the evaluation done?’ To

answer these critical questions, she proposes a

modification of Barnett (1999) and Trow’s (1999)

frameworks. The proposed framework (Figure 1)

is used for analysing quality systems at

programme, institutional, and national levels.

 

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for Analysing Quality Assurance Systems. Adopted from Luckett, K.   

(2007). The introduction of external quality assurance in South African higher education: An analysis

of stakeholder response. Quality in Higher Education, 13(2), 97-116.

The framework in Figure 1 indicates that quality

assurance is motivated by two main dimensions:

‘power and control’ and ‘purpose’. The ‘power and

control’ dimension on the horizontal axis shows

that quality assurance systems are owned and

controlled by actors internal as well as external to

the institution. In answering the critical questions

of ‘who conducts the evaluation?’ and ‘to whom

are they accountable and in whose interests are

they acting?’ posed by Luckett (2007), ‘power and

control’ dimension considers the former as

nonsignificant while the latter takes precedence.

In this case, both the internal and external

mechanisms of quality assurance impact on and

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Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

reinforce each other in striving to achieve the

functions of the institution. The mechanisms are

shown to have similar strengths and weaknesses

for the institution based on power relations.

The ‘purpose’ dimension on the vertical axis

provides answers to Luckett’s (2007) questions of

‘who is to be enlightened by the evaluation?’, ‘who

determines the evaluation criteria?’, and ‘to what

extent is the self-understanding of those being

evaluated enhanced as a result of the evaluation

process?’. Accordingly, self-understanding is

maximised when it is self-generated within the

institution, and minimised when other-generated

from outside the institution; implying that

internal quality assurance maximises, while

external quality assurance minimises, systemic

improvement. Following Habermas’s (1987)

framework, when the purpose of quality assurance

is to communicate the status of performance

(communicative action) rather than to judge

(strategic action), members of the institution

develop mutual understanding because of being

considered genuine persons (as subjects) rather

than as objects.

In the framework adopted in Figure 1, Luckett

(Mulu Nega, 2012) presents four ways of thinking

to quality. These include collegial rationality,

managerial rationality, facilitative rationality, and

bureaucratic rationality. Collegial rationality and

managerial rationality are generated from within

the institution and hence constitute internal

quality assurance, while facilitative rationality and

bureaucratic rationality are driven from outside

the institution and hence constitute external

quality assurance. In collegial rationality, the

quality assurance system is under the control of

academic peers internally within the department

or faculty. Managerial rationality is driven by the

cadres of management within the institution with

the assumption that good management is key to

quality, and hence quality assurance serves as a

management tool. In facilitative rationality,

external quality assurance agencies play a support

role to the institution to enable the members of

the institution to up their performance in critical

areas of the quality assurance chain. Meanwhile in

bureaucratic rationality, the norms are external to

the institution, and imposed on the institution.

Bureaucratic rationality typically serves an audit

or accountability function with an emphasis on

fitness for purpose and value for money.

The origin and operationalization of managerial

and bureaucratic rationalities impart compliance

tendencies in the quality assurance procedure

such that the purpose seems to be ‘strategic

action’. On the other hand, collegial rationality

and facilitative rationality are geared towards

institutional improvement such that the strategy

of quality assurance is mainly communicative

action. However, in practice, there is often tension

between the autonomy and interdependence of

internal and external mechanisms of quality

assurance in higher education institutions in

Africa. One mechanism is often held captive by

another such that rather than improving quality

and providing effective accountability, the process

of quality assurance ends up eroding quality

through generating unnecessary conflict within

the institution and between the institution and the

external quality assurance agencies. The critical

issues of autonomy and interdependence of

quality assurance mechanisms are synthesized in

the following section.

Critical Issues of Autonomy and Interdependence

of Internal and External Quality Assurance

Mechanisms.

According to Hayward (2006), the gateway to

economic growth and development of a country is

the full participation in knowledge societies of the

country’s higher education institutions as engines

for that transformation. However, Hayward

admits that there is very little evidence about the

link between quality education and economic

growth for Africa. Instead, Kisanga and Machumu

(2014) assert that there is an open and wide link

between low quality of graduates and quality

assurance practices in most African countries. The

disjoint between the university outcomes and

market demands exists because of lack of

appropriate, well-coordinated, controlled, and

maintained quality assurance practices both

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Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

internal and external to the institutions. The

ultimate aim of quality assurance is employability

and relevance of the graduates in the job market.

According to the World Bank (2003), higher

education institutions cannot produce high

quality graduates without adequate investment in

a well-coordinated quality assurance framework

encompassing both the internal and external

mechanisms.

Okafor (2015) notes that the current generation of

graduates from higher education institutions in

Africa is characterised and so often blamed for

negative issues regarding accountability, control,

compliance, and improvement. Considering

accountability, the graduates are noted to offer

less value for money, fitness for purpose, and

quality service delivery and transparency in the

world of work. Netshifhefhe et al. (2016) similarly

note that there is a skills gap between what

university graduates possess and what employers

look for.

According to Dada, Wunti, and Martin (2017), the

public concerns on the ill preparedness of

graduates for work and further studies in higher

education institutions in Africa and elsewhere in

the world are as a result of poor quality human,

physical, and financial resources in the

institutions. Ansah, Swanzy, and Nudzor (2017)

similarly note that the higher education

institutions are indeed characterised by negative

factors including limited funding, inadequate

infrastructure, inadequate staffing, low research

output, and limited graduate employable skills.

These grossly compromise the graduates’

legitimacy, integrity, and standards when

compared across the board. In short, there is a

blame game (Figure 2) within the quality

assurance process as to who contributes most to

the poor quality of educational outcomes.

Figure 2: The blame game within the quality 

assurance process in Africa. Adapted from Okafor,

T. U. (2015). External quality assurance in higher

education: Nigeria and South Africa (Doctoral

dissertation). University of Nottingham, the

United Kingdom.

According to Oladipo (2009), there are scores of

unemployed graduates roaming the streets of

cities and towns in Africa, and more

embarrassingly, some who are lucky to secure

employment have to undergo remedial training in

order to bridge the huge knowledge and skills

gaps left over from the training institutions.

Kisanga and Machumu (2014) argue that jobless

graduates engage in illegal cases of drug

trafficking, human trafficking, sexual harassment,

sexual for money. Oladipo enumerates other

defining characteristics of the higher education

context in Africa including a poor state of

economy, weak internal capacity, poor

governance, poor research activities, brain drain,

political interference, incessant industrial actions,

unruly and destructive conduct of

undergraduates, poor preparation of entering

students, unsuitable policy environment, poor

funding, shortages in instructional materials,

laboratory equipment and poor library facilities,

questionable government policy of automatic

promotion at the primary and secondary levels of

education. All these indicate that the curriculum,

pedagogy, resources, appraisal, and feedback

systems of courses taught to students at the

higher education institutions in Africa have gaps.

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Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

This tends to negate the tenet of higher education

as a producer of a quality workforce for national

development. This ultimately begs for conscious

continental, regional, national, and institutional

efforts to boost the quality of the academe and

hence graduates in the continent.

The IUCEA (2014) argues that in the face of

globalization which has led to increased

internationalization of higher education, there is

need to develop strategies to ensure comparability

of degrees and certificates, transferability of

educational achievements and international

competitiveness of both institutions, staff,

students, and graduates of higher education

institutions. It therefore becomes very critical for

African countries, regions, and institutions to

establish quality assurance mechanisms to guard

the standards of their higher education systems

and programs to suit both local and international

standards.

However, Ansah et al. (2017), Kayombo (2015)

and Mhlanga (2010) observe that higher

education institutions in Africa mainly copy the

quality assurance frameworks of developed

countries instead of conceptualising their own

frameworks suited to delivering quality higher

education outcomes in the context of Africa.

Hence there is a notable degree of reliance on

external or international expertise in developing

most quality assurance frameworks in higher

education institutions in Africa. Similarly, Harvey

(2018) notes that some governments and agencies

ignore problems in other countries and

institutions when implementing accreditation

systems to the extent that they grossly inhibit

mobility with other countries and institutions.

Oladipo et al (2009) observes that some foreign

educational providers come along with poor

quality programmes; different quality standards;

indifference or general ignorance to the national

criteria, local needs and policies; issues of

comparability of quality of education; less

qualified staff; and lack of clear information.

Many of them are insensitive to issues of cultural

differences and recognition of qualifications

outside of their mother countries. But because

they are rich in most cases, they fraudulently

manipulate the national quality assurance

agencies and get more favours. Hence the

operations of some regulatory agencies are

discriminatory between foreign and local

institutions.

Luckett (2007) observes that the idea of quality

involves issues of power and values, and that the

introduction of a national quality assurance

system is likely to be embroiled in efforts to

empower new interests and challenge traditional

values. As noted by Hayward (2006), it is difficult

to find an approach to quality assurance that

fosters improvement, encourages quality inputs,

points faculty to areas and resources that will

improve teaching, research, and service quality

simultaneously. According to Mhlanga (2010),

most universities in sub-Saharan Africa are torn

between addressing issues of redress, social

transformation, and accountability on one hand

and the struggle to maintain high levels of

scholarship that can give them international

competitiveness on the other hand. The redress,

social transformation, and accountability arm of

the tension involves enrolling greater numbers of

learners from disadvantaged social groups of

society under the oversight of external and

politically motivated quality assurance agencies.

This compromises the envisaged high standards

of scholarship that are usually promoted by

internal quality assurance policies and practices of

the institutions. This indicates that there is

tension between the internal and external quality

assurance mechanisms in the higher education

institutions.

Different African countries and institutions are at

different levels of development and hence quality

assurance. Hence institutional autonomy of

internal and external quality assurance varies

from country to country across Africa. Many

African governments are in a drive to institute

internal and external quality assurance

mechanisms in higher education institutions with

an aim of addressing the concerns of employers in

various markets about the poor performance of

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Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

graduates (Hayward, 2006). The move is also

aimed at curbing the concerns about competition

of private tertiary institutions, many with dubious

quality, which constitute the majority of higher

education providers, with public ones, and the

impact of foreign providers within the countries.

Garwe (2013) observes that private institutions

face more quality assurance challenges as a result

of poor financial resources. Hence, they are not

capable of acquiring adequate human and

material resources to support quality teaching and

learning, thus they mainly depend on part-time

teachers or those who are on sabbatical leave,

mainly from public institutions.

Matei and Iwinska (2016) argue that internal

quality assurance has a positive effect on quality

improvement, though mostly in developed

countries. Hayward (2006) notes that the

internal-external quality assurance process in

Africa is often compromised by peer reviewers

who are not experts in their fields, those who are

unprepared for the site visits, or those insensitive

to the need to be impartial and respectful

throughout the site visit and peer review process.

Harvey (2018) laments that quality assurance

processes mainly emphasise accountability rather

than improvement to the extent that the notion of

quality education has been replaced by quality

assurance processes. Apart from decrying the

excessive politicization of quality assurance,

Harvey notes that there is also excessive

bureaucratisation of procedures, increased

administrative workload for academic staff,

stifling of creativity and individuality and a lack of

trust and de-professionalisation of academic staff.

This impinges on the legitimacy of the process as

it instills fear and animosity within the

institutions and between the players involved in

the two quality assurance mechanisms.

Relatedly, Castell (Luckett, 2006) argues that

higher education institutions are dynamic systems

with contradictory functions in which research

and scholarship (epistemic function) should be

protected from immediate economic, social and

political processes (ideological function).

However, it should be noted that Third World

universities – including those in Africa – are

mainly state apparatuses used for the generation

and reproduction of nationalist and culturally

assertive ideologies. Luckett observes that the

ideological function has tended to crowd out the

epistemic function. In pursuing the government

interests, external quality assurance agencies

often use policing style and show of might rather

than a quality improvement approach. According

to Jonathan (cited in Luckett), whereas the state

needs to intervene and regulate higher education

in the public interest because the radical change

required in the system will not be delivered

through voluntarism or through market forces,

the state should leave the curriculum content,

pedagogy, and research to the expertise of

individual academics and to their disciplines and

institutions.

The use of internal quality assurance protocols as

a basis for external quality assurance operations

often compromises external quality assurance

outcomes. Given that officers of internal and

external quality assurance mechanisms are vastly

incompetent (Kisanga & Machumu, 2014), it is to

be expected that the sharing of protocols will lead

to poor quality assurance practices. Moreover, as

observed by Tamrat (2019), the process is already

awash with political interference at national and

institutional level, and intrigue at personal levels.

In addition, Tamrat contends that internal quality

assurance is nearly always captive to external

quality assurance in terms of deficiencies such as

lack of leadership support, lack of resources,

exclusive focus on the academic wing as

contrasted with research and administrative

functions of universities, challenges of

overburdened and limited quality audit staff and a

high staff turnover rate. In many cases, higher

education institutions are required to cover the

costs of external quality assurance processes.

Moreover, the quality assurance practices do not

explicitly include student engagement. Coates

(Harvey, 2018) argues that quality assurance

needs to take account of student engagement in

developing productive learning. Not listening

directly to students continues to impose negative

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Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

effects on the success of internal quality assurance

systems, holding them captive to the external

agencies who often have the financial muscle to

conduct student surveys to pin down the internal

mechanisms.

Another critical issue that requires attention in

the internal-external debate of quality assurance

is the discouraging work environment of quality

assurance officers. Kisanga and Machumu (2014),

Harvey (2018), and Swanzy et al. (2018) note that

quality assurance officers in Africa often do not

have enough office space, working tools, no

defined boundary between official duties and

other administrative work. Most of the officers

have capacious responsibilities including

teaching, research, supervision of students’

research, assessing students’ academic progress,

attending trainings, organising quality assurance

workshops, conducting evaluations, and making

follow-ups. Coupled with the incompetency

among the quality assurance officers as noted

above, low staff morale and poor performance in

nearly all aspects of the input, throughput, and

output of the educational process are eminent.

The ultimate negative multiplier effect is

witnessed in poor student outcomes, low quality

publications, and almost zero community

engagement. Otherwise, harmony between the

internal and external mechanisms yields

tremendous benefits to all stakeholders.

IX. BENEFITS OF INTERDEPENDENCE OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL QUALITY 

ASSURANCE MECHANISMS 

Concurrent and harmonious undertaking of

internal and external quality assurance yields

great dividends at institutional, national, as well

as international levels. Harvey (2018) argues that

external processes are a necessary prerequisite of

internal improvement. Mhlanga (2010) observes

that the internal-external link serves both an

accountability and self-enlightenment function

through regular and systematic self-review

processes. The accountability function enables

external stakeholders to understand better what

goes on in the institution, and self-enlightenment

has great potential for enhancing institutional

improvement. Hence, interdependence of internal

and external quality assurance mechanisms

ensures that higher education institutions and

programmes largely meet benchmark standards

set at national, regional, and international levels.

It further ensures that the institutions and their

programmes move in a set direction towards

continuous quality improvement.

Harvey (2018) observes that a combination of

external and internal processes instills rigorous

course approval procedures, increased awareness

of students’ perspectives on teaching, and an

intensification of debate about effective learning.

An effective external quality assurance process is a

necessary condition for the development of

institutional structures such as internal quality

processes and specialist quality units that

promote quality culture within the institution and

can be used as an academic management tool to

legitimise cultural and organisational change. Gift

and Bell Hutchinson (Harvey, 2007) note that a

synchrony between the two mechanisms offers a

means of modernizing systems, citing an example

in Germany where the implementation of

accreditation procedures marked a fundamental

shift in the relationship between higher education

institutions and the state. It also generates

interdepartmental competition for resources

which boosts teamwork among the staff and

hence improvement in research, teaching, and

community outreach.

Hayward (2006) reports that peer reviewers learn

useful lessons from site visits, which lessons are

useful for improving quality at their own

institutions. In case the reviewers are drawn from

both the public and private institutions, then the

interdependence of internal and external quality

assurance will promote the mutual existence of

public and private higher education and ease

transfer of credits. Institutions are also able to

benchmark and incorporate diversity in their own

courses, delivery mechanisms, and creation of a

unique identity through programme

diversification. This produces graduates with

higher employability because employer attitudes

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Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

are raised due to enhanced stakeholder

confidence.

X. STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING THE AUTONOMY AND INTERDEPENDENCE OF 

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL QUALITY ASSURANCE MECHANISMS 

To achieve the ultimate aim of quality assurance,

that is, employability and relevance of the

graduates, there is need to ensure quality

independence and interdependence of internal

and external quality assurance mechanisms.

Strategies targeting continuous improvement in

teaching and learning processes and facilities;

programme design and review; staff recruitment,

welfare, and continuous professional

development; service delivery and infrastructural

development; as well as community engagement

should be well thought out and implemented. As

stated by Kayombo (2015), the establishment of

effective quality assurance systems beyond those

of institutions and nations should be set as a

precedence in every agenda of the institutions and

governments.

According to Tamrat (2019), the establishment of

a continuous and sustainable quality

improvement scheme at the institutional level and

at the level of academic disciplines should be top

on the institutional priorities. Such an internal

system would serve as a precursor to the national

external quality assurance mechanisms like

accreditation and quality audits. Galafa (2018)

urges universities to work on achieving and

maintaining the minimum standards set by the

national agencies in order to avoid claims of bias

but rather promote collegiality between the

institutions and agencies. Swanzy and Potts

(2017) recommend transparent and merit-based

staff and student recruitment processes as the

roots of a quality link between internal and

external quality assurance mechanisms. The staff

recruitment processes for both systems should

include staff induction, laying bare and upholding

the staff rules and regulations, staff formal

appraisal methods, staff workshops and seminars,

further studies for staff, and short training

courses for staff.

The student recruitment process on the other

hand should include student orientation,

simulated workplace for students, student

academic counselling, student disciplinary

associations, student graduation ceremonies, and

alumni tracer studies. Akpan (2011) Quality in

higher educational institutions is influenced by

the quality of students admitted from the lower

levels. It has been observed that students in

secondary and post-secondary institutions are no

longer committed to hard work and scholarship

but rather they tend to gravitate towards cultism

and examination malpractice. Where the majority

of students admitted into higher education

institutions are from the examination malpractice

and cultism backgrounds, the institution has more

work to do on the youths to get them to see the

need for hard work on their studies.

Where the government provides student loan

schemes, private universities should also be

considered to host the students as they are also

helping in the expansion of access to higher

education (University World News, 2013). This

would amicably resolve issues of equity and

quality of entry students. In addition, the

government would then have more say and

control over the private providers. In the same

vein, another workable strategy is to affiliate

private universities to reputable public

universities (Galafa, 2018). This would foster

collaboration in various fields such as research

projects and quality assurance. The private

universities would benefit tremendously as they

stand to learn a lot from the established public

institutions in various practices.

With regard to funding of the quality assurance

processes, Dada et al. (2017) suggest that the

governments should set up special budgetary

allocations for the national agencies to conduct

accreditation and audits. This would ease the

financial strain on the institutions which usually

lack the financial muscle to effectively provide for

all their needs in addition to cost-sharing the

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Autonomy and Interdependence of Higher Education Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Africa

expenses of external quality assurance processes.

Compromises such as lack of thoroughness of

appraisals and audits that arise as a result of the

institutions paying the national agency reviewers

for external quality assurance are eliminated.

Another effective strategy proposed by Hayward

(2006) is for the government to partner with

existing professional associations (or groups of

professionals) to develop an external quality

assurance process which meets both national and

professional needs. Membership of such

associations is often at a fee, and so the

government would be saved the costs of

accreditation and audits.

According to Luckett (2006), the nature of the

relationship between the state and higher

education needs to be rethought to inculcate more

of a social contract. Mhlanga (2010) argues that

the state should engage more in facilitation rather

than in interference in developing and

maintaining robust quality assurance systems.

Luckett (2007) suggests institutional mergers of

historically disadvantaged institutions with

selected historically advantaged institutions as

one of the social contract facilitations. Hayward

(2006) however warns that the process should be

transparent, open, and free of political and other

non-academic influences in order to uphold its

legitimacy. Hayward further insists that the

national quality assurance agencies should handle

a limited number of program reviews in order to

be effective.

In a review of studies on quality assurance,

Hayward (2006) captures a number of other

strategies that can enhance the autonomy and yet

interdependence between the internal and

external quality assurance agencies. These include

upholding the payment of peer reviewers, holding

continuous consultations between the internal

and external mechanisms, and using technology

to ease the quality assurance process. Harvey

(2018) argues for transparency and reciprocity

between internal and external quality assurance

agencies, noting that such reciprocity reduces the

potential for dissembling and game playing.

However, he warns that too much reciprocity

could lead to ‘negotiating the truth’ which

damages the credibility of the quality assurance

process.

XI. CONCLUSION 

This paper notes that the graduates of higher

education institutions in Africa are largely

wanting in skills of being innovative, analytical,

articulate, balanced and adaptable to the ever

changing world. The graduates are accused of

lacking the love for life-long learning and they

struggle to contribute meaningfully to their

personal as well as national wellbeing. This is

largely attributed to the inefficiency and

ineffectiveness of the autonomy and

interdependence between the internal and

external quality assurance mechanisms which are

supposed to be mutually reinforcing. The paper

argues that it is necessary to foster the

independence and interdependence of internal

and external quality assurance mechanisms to

ensure that the purpose of quality assurance –

employability of the graduates – is achieved. It is

recommended that institutional leaders as well as

governments give the needed attention and deploy

appropriate resources towards strengthening the

link between the internal and external quality

assurance mechanisms in order to foster

institutional changes and meet emerging

challenges in a manner that promotes quality

culture in the higher education institutions. In

essence, quality assurance should be a continuous

rather than a one-stop process.

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accreditation in the United States. EAIE

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quality assurance: Quality Assurance for

higher education, establishing a QA system-

the choices. Unpublished lecture notes,

Graduate Certificate in Quality Assurance,

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2012.

14. Luckett, K. (2007). The introduction of

external quality assurance in South African

higher education: An analysis of stakeholder

response. Quality in Higher Education, 13(2),

97-116.

15. Luckett, K. M. (2006). The quality assurance

of teaching and learning in higher education

in South Africa: An analysis of national

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(Doctoral dissertation, Stellenbosch:

University of Stellenbosch).

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Quality assurance practices in higher

education institutions: Lesson from Africa.

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144-156.

17. Matei, L., & Iwinska, J. (2016). Quality

assurance in higher education: A practical

handbook. Budapest: Central European

University, Yehuda Elkana Center for Higher

Education.

18. Materu, P. N. (2007). Higher education

quality assurance in Sub-Saharan Africa:

Status, challenges, opportunities, and

promising practices. The World Bank.

19. Mhlanga, E. (2010). Quality assurance in

higher education in Southern Africa: The case

of the universities of the Witwatersrand,

Zimbabwe and Botswana (Unpublished

doctoral dissertation). University of the

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20. Mulu Nega, K. (2012). Global voices in higher

education: Critical issues and practical

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ABSTRACT

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Overcome Depression by Spirituality in the Bhagavad Gita

Dr. Ku. Richa Shrivastava

The expression depression indicates the feelings of lowliness and inferiority complex. From the despair, we have to come in the state of happiness or gaiety. If water is heated up, it will come to its state, it will become cool. Howsoever lowered we get; we have to move towards in the status of cheerfulness as high spirits is human nature. Similarly, if water gets warm, it could burn the skin although we put water in fire, it extinguishes fire. That's the nature of the water. If misery enters our life, correspondingly dispirited is not our temperament. It ensued because of the stipulation, we may undergo gloominess in some one's company, in dwelling with someone, and for the time has been the conduct of someone causes despair rather we may get depressed than we will arrive at the ultimate delight by devotion to Almighty. Fundamentally, kids are the exemplariness of zeal, joy, gladness and merriment that have been observed. Children have never been watched to be discouraged. In case, if the children turn out to be annoyed for something or the other but they alter themselves quickly into affection. As we people get friendly and familiar with society, we adopt the wretchedness and the worry of other people. Thereby we turn into saddened. Therefore depression has been discussed in this research paper. This research paper aims to attain cheerfulness from the depressed state of mood disorder.

Keywords: bhagavad gita: spiritual book of hindus: bhakti path: the path of devotion, granthas: spiritual books, guru: teacher.

Classification: 220499

Language: English

© 2020. Dr Ku. Richa Shrivastava. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use,distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

For Code:

Overcome Depression by Spirituality in the Bhagavad Gita 

Dr. Ku. Richa Shrivastava 

____________________________________________

ABSTRACT 

The expression depression indicates the feelings

of lowliness and inferiority complex. From the

despair, we have to come in the state of

happiness or gaiety. If water is heated up, it will

come to its state, it will become cool. Howsoever

lowered we get; we have to move towards in the

status of cheerfulness as high spirits is human

nature. Similarly, if water gets warm, it could

burn the skin although we put water in fire, it

extinguishes fire. That's the nature of the water.

If misery enters our life, correspondingly

dispirited is not our temperament. It ensued

because of the stipulation, we may undergo

gloominess in some one's company, in dwelling

with someone, and for the time has been the

conduct of someone causes despair rather we

may get depressed than we will arrive at the

ultimate delight by devotion to Almighty.

Fundamentally, kids are the exemplariness of

zeal, joy, gladness and merriment that have been

observed. Children have never been watched to

be discouraged. In case, if the children turn out to

be annoyed for something or the other but they

alter themselves quickly into affection. As we

people get friendly and familiar with society, we

adopt the wretchedness and the worry of other

people. Thereby we turn into saddened.

Therefore depression has been discussed in this

research paper. This research paper aims to

attain cheerfulness from the depressed state of

mood disorder. In Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna

attempts to overcome Arjun's gloominess and

resume his cheerfulness. The Bhagavad Gita is

very extensive to confer in a research paper. So

shortly, it's written that how Arjun overcomes

dejection. It is not possible to discuss the

Bhagavad Gita in every feature so the essence

has been written. I would be akin to notify

spirituality through characterizations of various

characters in The Bhagavad Gita.

Keywords: bhagavad gita: spiritual book of

hindus: bhakti path: the path of devotion,

granthas: spiritual books, guru: teacher.

Author: PhD, IITR, Roorkee, Hoshangabad Road,

Bhopal, M. P.

I. INTRODUCTION 

If we deliberately look for the implication of

Arjun's name in Sanskrit, we would simply find

the meaning. Arjun connotes 'White' which

signifies a clear hearted and pure-hearted

individual. The devotee must be comprehensible

one. Krishna denotes the one who attracts;

thereby Krishna's denotation in Sanskrit is black.

The person with white colour aura could be

modified into any other colour of the aura. The

black coloured people could never be altered into

any other colour of this world. Bhagavad Gita

mentions that Supreme Being, Krishna has the

darkest complexion amongst Indians. Lord

Krishna had the Golden aura which could be

equated with the radiance of the thousands of

suns. On the one hand, the luminosity of the sun

gives pain to the eyes. On the other hand, the

bright light of Lord Krishna's aura is calm, clear

and soothing to eyes and with no burning

sensation to eyes as revealed in Bhagavad Gita.

When we colour textile, we have to clean it. At

first, we will have to remove the previous colour of

the cloth. We have to either convert the colour of

the cloth material into white colour or any very

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light colour. As much as the colour of the cloth is

light, it will get coloured in a better way.

Lord Krishna is the Guru; Arjun is the disciple of

Lord Krishna. Thereby it means that every student

ought to be inquisitive and simple in front of their

Guru. If a person with pure consciousness would

go to Guru, he would have an in-depth effect. That

person will get coloured in the colour of love with

Lord Krishna that is holiness in such a way that

his holistic life could not be changed. Thereby,

first of all, we ought to be pure-hearted. Our

innermost self must be cleared.

If we paint our home, we foremost take out, the

old scratches and the old patchy signs. Labour

would clean and clear the wall. What would

happen if the wall is not plain, or if we tint our

vehicle without removing the old colour? Firstly

we have to rub out the old colour of the concrete

wall. Similarly, we have to take out the paint and

decolour the vehicle to colour it again. If you wish

to colour your life, clear your consciousness daily,

remove old and useless thoughts, to assume a

revived life. You may take out some papers write

all your hurts, pains and sufferings and

whatsoever is redundant in your life. After writing

about all these stings which are the cause of your

anguish, burnout these papers and flush them, so

they could be decomposed completely. Repeat the

process, if you feel upset again. Adopt a new life.

In the same manner, it is said we should get

cleansed of ourselves by taking a bath and be

dressed in clean clothes if we go to any religious

place; and we ought to remove our shoes.

Thereby, no dirt must enter a sacred place. If our

wits are preoccupied from envy, suspicion, rage

and clash and we might enter any spiritual set up;

it would affect the auspiciousness of that setup. If

we could visit any spiritual place with a pure

heart, we would acquire peace within us,

completely; when we would leave that place. If

you would go to a religious place with hostility

and hatred, we would come back with much

hostility and more hatred, because the world is

like a mirror, what we reflect it comes back to us.

To enter a temple, church or mosque, be simple

and be with a clear conscience. You would attain

peace, pleasure and your desires will get fulfilled.

It is always appreciated to be of rough and tough

nature because no one could hurt the crooked

nature person. Similarly, the straight trees are

fallen. The shapeless trees are never cut down.

Public always hurt the straight forward persons. It

is harmful to be good, to be crooked is beneficial.

It's not like that. In this world, all crooked and

wicked people are never able to achieve anything.

They were not able to do something constructive.

If we cut straight trees from forests them are

either ought to be arranged in the construction of

the building or them will be the decorative pieces

of that building. People do not cut the curved

trees, if we cut the curved trees from forests than

the zig-zag trees would be used for burning, they

could not be used for construction. If there is a

person of devious nature he would always feel

envious, because he creates nothing, no one would

remember him. The world will not memorize such

a person. Be simple, because you have to plan

your career so that you could have the prosperous

future. Good human beings in the society,

formulate a good nation, thereby if you would

improve yourself a better world could be formed

by you. Yet, this is an example. The reason is that

the cutting of trees is a wrong task in itself. Never

deforestation should be done. It's beneficial to a

forestation as many trees as possible. More the

greenery is the much, it is better. Wheresoever's

human beings reside that densely populated areas

should be forested with at least thirty per cent of

trees. The greenery promotes well – being.

In India, it's the greatest misfortune as many trees

are fallen in comparison to that eleven per cent or

thirteen per cent of trees are grown there. That's

why the climate and ecology are affected. Balance

has been perturbed, seasons are influenced.

Diseases are augmented. The ozone layer is

depleted. Tension has been increased. Gentry are

stressed. The biosphere is getting affected. Nature

is getting unbalanced, cosmos is getting

imbalanced. It's at all times said what is in the

human body that is in the cosmos. We have the

effect of the whole universe; it is to be understood

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Overcome Depression by Spirituality in Bhagavad Gita

that the people should follow a simple lifestyle

and generate constructive ideas which could be

implemented for the welfare of entire cosmos.

Arjun is plain but there is a wonder about him as

stated below.

Krishna means black and the name of Lord

Krishna is Baake – Bihari; Baanka – pan, why

does someone is called "Banka"? Arjun is straight

forward. Lord Krishna is flexible. Here "flexible",

does not mean clever and crooked. Here, the

admiration, the adoration, the reverence, the

fondness has taken this form. Although Lord

Rama is remembered for his simple nature, it's

also easy to take his name. It's not straightforward

to take Lord Krishna's name; if we speak of his

name the lips get twisted. The personality of Lord

Rama is effortlessly implicit and if we study about

his lifestyle, it is simply perceived. If we interpret

about Lord Krishna's lifestyle, it could not be

easily perceived. He could not be understood

because of his mysterious nature. If we attempt to

realize him, as the pointer is mildly tilted, if

something falls in water or if a vessel falls in the

water, then in case we put the pointer, it brings

back that picky object or vessel out of water. It is

well said if there is sin in our heart, similar to as

it's creating complicatedness for us. That is the

cause of worry, and then enchants the mantra,

"Om Namah Bhagavate Vasudevaya"; that is

Krishna's name, as he is tilted. If some feeling or

emotions are hurting you, if it could not be

resolved easily, does the mantra – jap (a

meditation technique) of Lord Krishna's name, in

addition to this study Bhagavad Gita. Every

dilemma will be resolved by reading of Bhagavad

Gita as persistently as many are the predicaments.

As we came out of the troubles by comprehension

of Bhagavad Gita, you could also come out of your

dangers.

We interpret in Bhagavad Gita about the Lord

Krishna's well – being. The word Krishna

connotes black and Arjun indicates white. At this

point, we have to consider one thing, white colour

paint could be converted into any other colour of

the paint but if we take out black colour of paint

and mix with it other colours, it will be converted

into black colour. It signifies if someone ensues

the adherent devotee of Lord Krishna that person

befalls his affectionate one. Friendship of Lord

Krishna has great strength, he is affable. He would

be with you when you would need great strength

to stand in life, you would wish to transpire like

him.

In India, it has been decided, the black colour

coats as the uniform of all lawyers. It represents,

that the person will not affect any side, as well as

he will not affect his client also. To dress in black

colour suggests, you turn out to be the voice of

justice and you must be away from bribery and

trickery. This example has been stated.

Remember one more craze that magician, in

magic keeps black colour in front of him.

Similarly, Lord Krishna is an infatuation. He is a

magician who attracts everyone with divine love.

The Parmatma's (God's) arrangement is likely that

every night the sky is black, as we may sleep

peacefully at night. More and more you become

spiritual, you will feel serene and calm. The night

is associated with darkness, whenever we have

sound sleep at night; we arise fresh in the

morning. In reality, the attraction of Lord Krishna

is magical. To be, in fascination with Lord Krishna

is to attain his bliss and be in amity with him.

Spiritual awakening is the reason for

enlightenment. The most precious passion is

spiritual awakening and one may attain

enlightenment by enchanting Krishna's mantra:

"Om Namah Bhagavate Vasudevaya"! This mantra

has already been mentioned earlier.

After this conversation between the Guru as

Krishna and follower as Arjun, we ought to

proceed forward towards the benefits of

inquisitive nature. Consider this; if we have to get

noticed ourselves with spiritual knowledge, we

ought to have to be spiritually awakened.

Inquisitive nature is the utmost requirement of a

devotee. When we come to this world; after that

when we became conscious, while we learn to

speak, then we are the most inquisitive, the

inquisitive nature is an innate quality which is the

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Overcome Depression by Spirituality in Bhagavad Gita

reason behind our understanding and our

interpretation of this world.

The inquisitive nature of Dhritrashtra is

responsible for the conversation between him and

Sanjay; both of them are sitting in the palace.

Dhritrashtra asks Sanjay – notify me from your

vision, what has happened in Kurushetra; the

battlefield. From the Dhritrashtra's

inquisitiveness the sightless one, the Bhagavad

Gita begins.

That's why remembering this until when you are

alive in this world, do not leave your inquisitive

nature. Do not let your student life to be finished.

Keep learning; keep asking about the knowledge

of life. Inquiring and learning about the

knowledge of the way towards life is the most

important. Our development is possible only

when we will get spiritually awakened. Asking

questions with the inquisitive mind is bliss. The

best desire is the desire to be inquisitive. What we

ought to know? We ought to know the Almighty,

but these worldly people are not inquisitive about

Almighty. They are interested to know about this

world and the powers to acquire worldly

possessions. This Dhritrashtra is unsighted in

addition to this; he does not incline to procure

spiritual knowledge. Thereafter, he is not a

religious aspirer. He yearns to make out the

circumstances of the battlefield. He hopes to reign

over the state.

Memorize this, whosoever person tried to empire

over this world, his condition has been like

Dhritrashtra. 'Dhrit' is a Sanskrit word implies

'blind person', 'Rashtra' is also a Sanskrit word

denotes, 'Nation' the complete word suggests

blind person trying to rule over this nation, blind

means blindness from eyes as well as person's

wish to acquire worldly materialism blindly, i. e.

Not in adherence to the rules of society. He has

been demanding to seize the throne.

Retain this information whosoever tried to

acquire these worldly possessions; whosoever

tried to inherit the properties, whatsoever the

person tries to acquire wealth and avarice.

Everyone tries to get his hands on materialistic

life. In the beginning, everyone has the same

aspiration as Dhritrashtra. Everyone wishes to

obtain all the tenures. At the beginning of

childhood, everyone wants to catch hold of

everything. Children run after several things to

catch them. They catch good things plus bad

things also. The whole life span of a human being

is dissipated in getting hold of worldly

ownerships. In the end, the person expires and his

hands are empty without gaining anything. After

death, the empty hands of a person stand for the

person tried to acquire his level best but he could

not take anything to heaven. Everything is left in

this world. The people whom destruction is

confirmed, they do not wish to remember

Almighty. They do not wish to acquire knowledge

about God. As previous sins of the sinners, do not

allow the sinners to discuss Lord. Likewise, as

when the person is suffering from fever, he does

not feel hungry. When the temperature of body

increases; the hunger decreases, when we intake

water, we sense it bitter; the taste is affected,

nature becomes irritable. These are the symptoms

of fever. It has been supposed that, similar to

fever, when the person becomes sinful his anger

increases. He will misbehave and feel glad. He will

attempt to dominate others, he will be the reason

of others worry; he will exploit and harass women.

Jealousy and animosity would be his nature. If we

would discuss God with him; he would

understand it to be a futile discussion. If we would

tell him the way towards progress, he would

perceive it, that he is being blamed by others for

his deeds.

Keep this in mind, when the sky gets clouded and

it starts drizzling. The rainfall is alike in barren

land as well as infertile land. Thence infertile land

either the flowers will be blown or the crops will

be grown. In a barren land, after receiving the

same rainfall as fertile land but there will be

grown only thorny plants. Drona – Acharya has

given the same knowledge of weapons and

artilleries to their students comprising both

Kauravas and Pandavas. He has given analogous

teachings and discourses to both the groups.

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Overcome Depression by Spirituality in Bhagavad Gita

Likely, the rainfall is akin in barren and fertile

land; this happens, when the rainfalls to Neem

trees, it increases its bitterness which had been

previously bitter. When the rain falls to Sugarcane

plants, it increases its sweetness which already

tastes sweet. Similarly, when the rain falls to

lemon plants, it increases its sourness. When the

rainwater will fall to chilly plants, it will add to its

pungency. Therefore, its best do not keep poison

within you. Do some hard work and endeavour to

keep some divine nectar within you. Pray to

Parmatma (Almighty) for his bliss that he may

give the boon to you that ambrosia i. e. Divine

nectar within you may multiply thousands of

times and thus source your welfare.

Duryodhana - the truth about the birth of wicked

person who stings others is expressed awfully –

When Duryodhana was born, in the day time, the

foxes and the jackals shrilled. The eagles and the

crows were flying high in the sky. Sage Vyas

explicates that a person for the destruction of

human beings has been born. It would take the

lives of millions of the human race.

In this world, certain dictators dictated millions of

people; everyone has anger, hatred, irritation and

resentment for them. They are the reasons behind

the mass killing of millions of humans. There have

been many dictators who existed. These human

killers have only one motto in mind that has been

to add up their arrogance and pride.

As you know some people are creative and they

devote themselves to their creativity, they do not

have the time to take out the shortcomings of

anyone. The person who has no achievements, as

he could not do anything in his lifetime, that

person would find faults of successful people.

That individual would count the wrong deeds of

flourishing persons. As if he could not do anything

at all, the person who has attained zenith in life,

he would be covetous and offended with

victorious people. In addition to this, he will

discuss counterfeit and disparaging hearsays

about them. As he could not win the hearts of the

human race, he would attempt the downfall of

other thriving beings. Duryodhan had such a

mind.

Drona – Acharya has given similar teachings and

imparted the same knowledge to Yudhistir and

Duryodhan, but he could not procure the same

results from both of them. That's why in

Mahabharata this awful depiction has been

discussed.

Drona – Acharya has to take the exams of

Yudhistir and Duryodhana, so he has sent both of

them for examination. He has asked both of them

to make a list of all the good people in this world

as well as to make a list of all the bad people in

this world. Both of them have departed and both

of them returned without the list. Their papers

have been blank. Drona – Acharya says, "Some

miracle has taken place because of my teachings

both of you have brought blank papers".

Drona – Acharya has asked Duryodhana – "Have

you met with good people of this world? Have you

noted down their names?"

Duryodhana answered – "I have to read

everyone's mind, I have tried to enquire every

person, I have found that no person exists of good

qualities, I have seen only bad qualities in them. I

have found the people of this world thousands of

times worse than me. That's the reason if I have to

write the name of a good person that's me. I have

to write my name and that's not fair."

Drona – Acharya has asked Yudhistir, "You have

not written any name?"

Yudhistir folded his hands and wished pranam in

front of Drona – Acharya and said, "There are so

many good people in this world, this paper is

insufficient as well as if we comprise all the

papers, even those papers will be less to write the

names of good people because in every human

being there are thousands of good qualities and if

I have to write the name of a bad person why to

spoil this sheet of paper. The person who is

standing in front of you, that's me who could be

the bad person. No one is worse than me. I am the

worst person in this world. Thereby, all the people

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Overcome Depression by Spirituality in Bhagavad Gita

of this world are better than me. I could see all the

good qualities in all of them. I am here with the

blank paper. If you would like to know about me, I

could not accomplish achievements what I could

have achieved. I could have attained zenith in life

which I could not have reached, even now, I have

many expectations, Gurudev (Respected Teacher).

Thereafter, good people are spread all over in this

world".

After listening to Yudhistir, Drona – Acharya hugs

him and blesses him. He tells him, you are my

disciple, I am thankful to divinity for you.

Remember this – if someone has lots of children

but if only one is responsible son or daughter,

then, it's like this that there is one moon amongst

millions and billions of stars. Likewise, if there are

thousands of disciples and if only one is a

responsible disciple then it's comparable like the

moon as to our galaxy.

II. CONCLUSION 

It's thoughtful to think that, what are our qualities

as a disciple? Most of the people are cautious to

watch Guruji's (teacher's) qualities. Could he

perform any miracle? They do not correct

themselves as a true disciple. Miracle may

certainly take place with every disciple but he

should become a true follower. Confirm that you

are a true partisan to your Guru (teacher), believe

in yourself and prove yourself then see the Guru's

miracle.

Arjun as a disciple is pure-hearted. Krishna is a

Guru and companion. Guru has to be like a friend.

The problem which could not be shared with

parents, it could be shared with acquaintances

and if the Guru is friendly with the disciple, the

disciple could open-heartedly share his or her

problem to Guru without any hesitation. If Guru is

a therapist, he could understand the disciple and

do the best therapy. Lord Krishna is the mate,

Lord Krishna is the Guru, and Lord Krishna is the

saviour. See the reflection of all relations in Lord

Krishna. Believe in Guru. You will acquire many

good things.

WORKS CITED 

1. BhagvadGita.net

2. C. Rajgopalchari. Mahabharat, Mumbai:

Bhartiya Vidya Bhawan Press. 2015. Print.

3. "Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya - Moksha

(Liberation Mantra) eaning", www.

Awakeningstate.com 2020 Web 17 Feb 2020.

4. www.awakeningstate.com/spiritual-awakenin

g/com... Web 17 Feb 2020.

5. "Ramayana: Asia Society". Asiasociety.org.

2020 Web 17 Feb 2020.

6. https://asiasociety.org/education/ramayan.W

eb 17 Feb 2020

7. "Shastra: Hindu Scriptures".

Hinduonline.com 2020 Web 13 Jan 2020.

8. http://hinduonline.co/Scriptures/Shastras.ht

ml.Web13Jan2020.

9. Sudhanshuji Maharaj.net.

10. Swami, Prabhupada, A. C. Bhaktivedanta.

Bhagavad Gita as it is, Watford: ISKON

Reader Services, 2010. Print.

11. "Vedanta Concepts and Application", Kolkata:

Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture,

2000. Print.

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Overcome Depression by Spirituality in Bhagavad Gita

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LJP Copyright ID: 573336Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792

London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences

Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

ABSTRACT

Scan to know paper details andauthor's profile

Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio- Economic

Status: A Descriptive Survey StudySahidul Alam & Dr. Md Rofikul Islam

Aligarh Muslim University

The appraisal of academic performance has been a regular process in the educational field for a long time. The aim of education is to bring the all-round development of an individual by imparting knowledge, skill and imbibing values in them. But with the passage of time, the aim of formal education is being changed from all-round development of an individual to solely the academic success of the students which narrows down the broader meaning and aim of education. The contemporary study was carried out to examine the association between the academic achievement of secondary students with their study habits and socio-economic status. The researchers took 250 students, selected from different secondary schools of Aligarh district of Uttar Pradesh as the sample of the study by using simple random sampling technique. Study Habits Scale (2015) developed by Rani and Jaidka and Socio-economic Status Scale developed and standardized by Kalia and Sahu (2012), as instruments were administered to collect the data. The researchers found that academic achievement, study habits and socio-economic status were correlated with each other.

Keywords: academic performance, secondary students, study habits, socio-economic status.

Classification: 139999

© 2020. Sahidul Alam & Dr. Md Rofikul Islam. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercialuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Language: English

For Code:

Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio- 

Economic Status: A Descriptive Survey Study Sahidul Alamα & Dr. Md Rofikul Islamσ

____________________________________________

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57 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

ABSTRACT 

The appraisal of academic performance has been

a regular process in the educational field for a

long time. The aim of education is to bring the

all-round development of an individual by

imparting knowledge, skill and imbibing values

in them. But with the passage of time, the aim of

formal education is being changed from

all-round development of an individual to solely

the academic success of the students which

narrows down the broader meaning and aim of

education. The contemporary study was carried

out to examine the association between the

academic achievement of secondary students

with their study habits and socio-economic

status. The researchers took 250 students,

selected from different secondary schools of

Aligarh district of Uttar Pradesh as the sample of

the study by using simple random sampling

technique. Study Habits Scale (2015) developed

by Rani and Jaidka and Socio-economic Status

Scale developed and standardized by Kalia and

Sahu (2012), as instruments were administered

to collect the data. The researchers found that

academic achievement, study habits and

socio-economic status were correlated with each

other. The study revealed that no critical

statistical difference exists in scholastic

achievement, study habits and socio-economic

status among the secondary students on the

grounds of gender and locality but the significant

difference exists among the secondary students in

academic achievement, study habits and

socio-economic status on the grounds of their

school types which means the significant

difference between govt. and private schools. The

study also revealed that there was a significant

main and interaction effect of study habits and

socio-economic status on academic achievement.

It further showed that study habits and

socio-economic status were significant predictors

of academic achievement of the secondary

students.

Keywords: academic performance, secondary

students, study habits, socio-economic status.

Author α: Research Scholar, Dept. of Education, 

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P-202002

σ: Asst. Professor (M. Ed.), Education College, Domkal,

Murshidabad, W.B, India-742406

I. INTRODUCTION 

In the post-modern era of science and technology,

society has become extremely competitive

throughout the whole world, everyone is

competing with others in achieving their life goals

in society. Among dissimilar fields of competition,

academic pursuit appears as the most important

and relevant faces of one’s life. An individual

makes every possible effort to do his best in

academics. The aim of true education is to bring

the all-round development of an individual by

conveying knowledge and skill and imbibing

values in them. But the aim of formal education is

being changed with changing time from all-round

development of an individual to exclusively the

academic performance or success of the learners

which restricts the wider meaning of education. It

is the requirements of the time because in the

competitive modern society everybody wishes

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Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio-economic Status: A Descriptive Survey Study

academic brilliance i.e. good academic

achievement or performance. Eysenck and

Arnold, in the Encyclopaedia of Psychology

(1972), defined academic performance as,

‘General term for the successful attainment of a

goal requiring certain effort’.

Academic achievement or performance is a

multidimensional and multifaceted phenomenon

also it is complex behaviour. Researches

throughout the world have regularly shown that

academic accomplishment is not a result of any

single factor; rather it is the product of the

interaction of a large number of factors. There are

a countless number of factors which affect the

academic accomplishment of the students viz.

heredity, intelligence, motivation, home

environment, school environment, interests,

attitude, aptitudes, socio-economic status of the

parents, and so on so forth. The above-mentioned

factors and other similar mechanisms might play

a pivotal role in determining one’s achievement in

academic performance.

It could be expressed that the factors that impact

the scholastic performance of students overall fall

in the accompanying four classes featured as

Associated to Student, Associated to Teacher,

Associated to School, and Associated to Home.

Firstly, Associated to Students: anxiety,

intelligence, interest, attitude, achievement

motivation, emotional maturity, aptitude, study

habits, and language skills etc. come under this

domain. Secondly, Associated to Teacher: method

of teaching, teaching skills, classroom interaction,

teacher motivation, teaching experience,

home-work, and reinforcement etc. Thirdly,

Associated to School: this domain includes types

and location of the school, school climate, the

medium of instruction. Lastly, Associated to

Home: home atmosphere, socio-economic status,

family size, religion, and cultural effect etc comes

under this domain. This study will address the

enhancing importance of the student’s academic

performance measured by the annual scores,

through examining the study habits and

socio-economic status of the students in its

relation. So, a question arises in mind whether

these factors are associated with academic

performance or achievement or not and if

associated then up to what extent? The present

study is an effort to search the answers to these

questions.

II. STUDY HABITS AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE 

Often, performance is measured by how well or

poorly something is finished. It holds great

significance to society because it is the sole basis

of measuring learners’ output. In educational

parlance, performance demonstrates through

scholastic success, which is the outflow of a

student’s study propensity and fortified through

education. Great study habits are similarly

significant and supportive in the scholarly field as

well as in picking a future profession. The

interrelationship of the scholarly accomplishment

or success and study propensity for the students

can’t be disregarded on the grounds that to an

enormous degree it shapes an individual

predetermination. The basic conviction wins in

the public arena is that students with great study

habits are probably going to sparkle than those

with pitiable study habits. ‘Study habit means the

habit that an individual might have formed with

respect to his learning activities’ (Nagaraju, 2004,

p.16).

III. ACCORDING TO CREDE AND KUNCEL (2008),  

‘Study habits are studied routines, including but

not restricted to, the frequency of studying

sessions, review of the material, self-testing,

rehearsal of learned material, and studying in a

conducive environment’.

Studies revealed that the Study Habits of the

students play a key role in the academic

achievement of students.

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Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio-economic Status: A Descriptive Survey Study

IV. PREVIOUS STUDIES RELATED TO STUDY HABIT AND ACADEMIC 

PERFORMANCE 

Chamundeswari and Kumari (2014) and Ayodele

and Adebiyi (2013), in their study, found a

positive huge connection between study habits

and scholarly success or accomplishment.

Mashayekhi et al. (2014) conducted a study on

220 graduate-level students of Islamic Azad

College Jiroft Branch and found that 89% of

students have moderately alluring study habits,

and furthermore found that study habits and

scholastic accomplishment were positively

correlated. The researchers selected the sample

randomly and collected data from both the

College of Agriculture and Humanities. Anwar

(2013) also found that students with poor and

good study habits differed significantly in their

academic performance, students with good study

habits performed well in their academics and

vice-versa. In (2012), Sharma while studying the

study habit and academic achievement of 250

students of 9th-grade high school students found

that good study habits very often lead to a higher

level of academic achievement. The study also

showed that girls had a bitter study habits in

comparison to boys. Pillai (2012) in his study

found a significant difference in study habits

between male and female students. Bhan and

Gupta (2010) in their research on study habits

and academic performance found no significant

effect of study habit on the academic performance

of students in relation to the sexual role. Sarwar et

al. (2009) in their study found that higher

achievers had better study habits than the lower

achievers. Prema (2007) while studying the

relationship between study habits and academic

success found that girls had better study habits

and performed well than the boys in their

academic performance. The study also highlighted

that significant difference among the students of

Govt., Govt. Aided and Private schools. Lastly, it

also revealed a significant positive relationship

between study habits and academic achievement.

The researchers selected a sample of 450 senior

secondary students from different administration

schools. Sud and Sujata (2006) after

investigation, concluded by saying that girls were

better in their Study Habits than the boys. Sirohi

(2004) found that poor study habits of the

students were one of the main reasons for low or

under-achievement. Thakkar (2003) concluded

that a significant difference exists between low

and high achiever rural students in their study

habits. Baland (1999) in his study found that

study habits of males were bitter than females

students. It also revealed that the study habits of

urban males were significantly lower than that of

urban females.

V. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE 

The word socio-economic status is a composite

term comprising two measurements dimensions

i.e. societal status and economic status. The

socio-economic status of an individual or family

can be estimated based on education, salary,

profession, wellbeing and material had, and so

forth in contrast with others in the public arena.

Socio-economic status is a proportion of an

individual or family’s relative economic and social

positioning in the general public and it is

frequently made out of the parents’ education

level, parent’s occupation, family income,

community network, and size of the family.

‘Socio-economic status is the position of an

individual or group on the socio-economic scale,

which is informed by a combination or interaction

of social and economic factors, such as income,

amount and type of education, kind of prestige

and occupation, place of residence and in some

society’s even ethnic origin and religious

background’ The American Psychological

Association (APA) in Dictionary of Psychology

(2007).

So, Socio-economic status not only helps a pupil

in getting higher education but it also helps in

choosing a future career. In Indian society, there

is a common saying that higher the socio-

economic background better the educational

facilities are available together with more

intellectual stimulation. The socio-economic

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Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio-economic Status: A Descriptive Survey Study

background looks to influence a student’s

attitudes, motivation, values, etc. and thus, his

academic achievement or accomplishment.

VI. PREVIOUS STUDIES RELATED TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS AND 

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE 

Plenty of studies have been finished by the

researchers before to look at the problems and

investigate socio-economic status as a

contributing element in scholastic performance or

achievement and their examination indicated an

alternate result. Faaz and Khan (2017) directed an

investigation to know the connection between the

socio-economic status of upper primary students

with their scholarly or academic performance and

found that socio-economic status and scholastic

success of the students had a positive critical

relationship. Sanjurjo, Blanco and Fernández-

Costales (2017) found that socio-economic status

adversely influences lower socio-economic status

foundation students in their learning of CLIL

while concentrating the impact of socio-economic

status on the scholarly accomplishment of the

students and Gabriel et al. (2016) likewise found

an insignificant relationship or relationship

between scholastic achievement of the students

and their parent's occupation while researching

the effect of parental socio-economic status on the

scholarly accomplishment or performance of

secondary students. Farid et al. (2016) in their

investigation saw that socio-economic status

significantly affected student’s academic

performance. Gul and Rehman (2014) in their

study saw that socio-economic status had a

critical and positive effect on the scholastic

performance of the students. It additionally

uncovered that high socio-economic status

students perform well in their academics. Zaki et

al. (2014) after their investigation closed by saying

that the scholastic performance of students has a

hugely positive association with their parent's

socio-economic status. Suleman et al. (2013) in

their study reasoned that parent's Socio-economic

status i.e., parent's education, occupation and

salary influence secondary students’ academic

performance. Sirin (2005) while leading a

meta-diagnostic research study of the exploration

articles distributed in a different noted scholastic

diary in the middle of 1990-2000 to survey the

connection between socio-economic status and

scholarly achievement found a moderate to solid

degree relationship between socio-economic

status and academic achievement of the students.

VII. JUSTIFICATION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM 

The educational career of each and every student

is very often full of tests and examinations

thoroughly. It is an acknowledged fact that school

days are more challenging than any other level of

education for the students to do well in academics

because at this level they have encountered many

problems. Students to perform well need proper

learning facilities, effective study habits and

sound socio-economic family background which

very often leads to productive learning.

Forecasting or predicting academic success of the

students is one of the most essential tasks in

modern-day education. Educationists, acade-

micians, researchers, guidance workers and

counsellors always tried to predict and maximize

academic achievement of the students through

studying students achievement with certain other

psycho-social variables, and researchers and

educationists have made many attempts in this

direction e.g., use of intelligence test scores as a

predictor of academic achievement. But, today,

there is a growing realization among the

educationists that other psychological,

sociological, cognitive, non-cognitive, and

environmental factors must be considered in

order to maximize the student’s performance and

to lessen the error in bringing good academic

achievement.

In this way, in the present study investigators

make an endeavour to trace the impact of study

habits and socio-economic status on the academic

or scholastic achievement of secondary students.

An examination of the related literature further

uncovers that a countable number of studies had

been directed in India on U.P. Board students

identified with the dimensions attempted in the

present study i.e., study habits, and

socio-economic status. Be that as it may, no

researcher has concentrated on the connection

between scholastic achievement and the

previously mentioned factors. Likewise, nobody

has endeavoured to utilize these factors as

conceivable prescient files of academic

performance at the secondary stage. The present

study is, along these lines, defended in light of the

fact that it is the arrangement of its sort, intended

to investigate the relationship of two predictors

i.e., study habits and socio-economic status with

one criterion i.e., academic achievement which

may fundamentally add to the forecast of the

scholastic accomplishment of the secondary

students. The present study will be advantageous

for instructors as a ruler and educators

specifically in light of the fact that the information

on the relationship of these variables understudy

will empower the teachers and instructors to

design their instructive program remembering the

connection of these above-said factors. The

present study will give a piece of knowledge to the

guardians to manage their children and

youngsters with the goal that they will have the

option to build up a comprehension of the

significance of study habits and socio-economic

status. This understanding will likewise help the

teachers to make a progressive, friendly,

agreeable, warm and loyal, passionate and

favourable atmosphere in instilling great study

habits at school and appropriate direction and

counselling might be given to the children

accordingly. In addition, based on the findings of

the study, educators may assist the students in

modifying their conduct as to study habits and

socio-economic status. Educational admini-

strators and planners, curriculum organizers,

guidance workers and counsellors may likewise be

profited by the consequences of this study. The

results yielded by this work might be of incredible

practical use with the end goal of the preparation

of the educational program of the teachers or

instructors. Results of the study might be used at

the hour of confirmation of the students in

different scholarly and proficient courses of study.

Educationists may likewise find new difficulties or

new spaces for further investigation. The present

study is along these lines imagined serving a

multidimensional cause in the ever-growing field

of

education.

VII. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 

1. Does study habits affect the academic

performance of secondary students?

2. Whether secondary students differ in their

study habits?

3. Does socio-economic status affect the

academic achievement of secondary

students?

4. Whether secondary students differ in their

socio-economic status?

5. Whether secondary students differ in their

academic performance on the grounds of

gender, locality, and types of school?

6. Whether study habits and socio-economic

status have a combined or interaction effect

on the academic achievement of the

secondary students?

7. So, as to respond to the above research

questions, the accompanying objectives have

been formulated in reachable terms.

VIII. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 

1. To study the inter-relationship of academic

performance, study habits and socio-economic

status of the secondary students.

2. To study the combined impact of study habits

and socio-economic status on the academic

performance of the secondary students.

3. To study the difference in academic

performance, study habits and socio-economic

status of the secondary students on the

grounds of their sexual orientation, residential

locality, and school type.

4. To study the main and interactional effect of

study habits and socio-economic status on the

academic performance of the secondary

students.

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Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio-economic Status: A Descriptive Survey Study

XI. HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY 

The researchers formulate null hypotheses in the

present study for testing purposes. They are as:

H0-1: There is no noteworthy relationship among

academic performance, study habits and

socio-economic status of the secondary students.

H0-2: There is no noteworthy combined impact of

study habits and socio-economic status on the

academic performance of the secondary students.

H0-3: There is no noteworthy distinction in

academic performance, study habits and

socio-economic status of the secondary students

on the grounds of their sexual orientation,

residential area, and school type.

H0-4: There is no main and interactional impact

of study habits and socio-economic status on the

academic performance of the secondary students.

X. METHOD  

The researcher adopted a descriptive research

design for the present study and collected data

from 250 secondary school students of Aligarh

District by applying a simple random sampling

technique.

XI. PARTICIPANTS 

In the present study, samples include 125 boys

and 125 girls of class IX of Aligarh district.

Research Variables

The present research is a correlational study that

thought about the criteria of descriptive research

and depends on two factors to be namely

autonomous variables (study habits and

socio-economic status) and the dependent

variable (academic performance).

XII. RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS 

Following are research tools:

i) Study Habits Inventory

For collecting information regarding student’s

study habits, the researchers used the 1Study

Habits Scale (2015) developed by Rani and

Jaidka. The scale consists of 46 items having the

reliability of 0.872 by the split-half method.

ii) Socio-economic Status Scale

Socio-economic Status Scale developed and

standardized by Kalia and Sahu (2012). It has five

dimensions consisting of 40 items. The content

validity was measured by the experts and criterion

validity was measured by correlating SES scale

developed by Singh, Sharma and Kumar (2006)

and the value was 0.86 which is very highly

significant. Reliability of the scale was measured

with the help of Split half and Test-retest method

and the values are 0.68 and 0.86 respectively.

iii) Academic Performance

The researchers took the final examination marks

of students as academic performance and

collected from the schools’ official record book.

Procedure

First of all, the researchers took permission from

the school authorities to conduct the research and

later participants were informed about the

purpose of the study and further their consent was

taken. At that point, they were approached to

peruse the questionnaire cautiously and select the

alternatives which really mirrors their frame of

mind. The two instruments i.e., Study Habits

Scale (SHS) and Socio-economic status (SES)

scale were controlled so as to quantify the impact

of study habits and socio-economic status

separately on a students’ academic achievement.

The level of a students’ academic performance

was measured by their obtained annual marks in

the last year final examination.

XIII. STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES 

The researchers used a t-test, Pearson’s

product-moment correlation, factorial ANOVA,

Multiple Regression Analysis for testing the

hypotheses and analyzing the data.

Normality of the Data

No. Mean S.D. Kolmogorov-Smirnov a Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.

SH 250 82.30 28.111 .161 250 .000** .922 250 .000**

SES 250 60.28 12.413 .118 250 .000** .953 250 .000**

AA 250 72.04 12.191 .070 250 .005* .979 250 .001**

** Significant at 0.01 level.

* Significant at 0.05 level.

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Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio-economic Status: A Descriptive Survey Study

Study Habits, SES and Academic Performance

XIV. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE STUDY 

Analysis and interpretation is the most significant

undertaking of any research work. As it were,

analysis and interpretation of data is the spirit of

any research study. The analysis procedure

incorporates information or data gathering,

sorting out, organizing and outlining to get the

objectives and to test the null hypotheses of the

study. In the present study, data has been

analysed and interpreted to scrutinize the

probable effect of study habits and

socio-economic status (individually or

combinedly) of the secondary students on their

academic performance in relation to their gender,

locality and types of school. The researcher also

tried to know the difference in academic

performance or achievement, study habits and

socio-economic status of secondary students in

relation to their sexual characteristics, area of

The perusal of the above table shows that the data

of study habits, socio-economic status, and

academic performance are normally distributed.

The Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk test

results also highlight that the distributions are

significant at both 0.05 and 0.01 levels of

confidence. Following figures further clearly

depicts the distributional pattern of the

above-said variables.

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Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio-economic Status: A Descriptive Survey Study

living and types of school. For analysing the data,

the researchers fit the raw scores in MS Excel and

then, export the raw data into the IBM SPSS- 20.0

software. (IBM Statistical Package for Social

Science).

XV. CORRELATIONAL STUDY 

In order to study the interrelationship among

academic performance, study habits and

socio-economic status of secondary students, the

researchers applied Pearson’s product-moment

coefficient of correlation which gives the results as

shown in the following table:

Variables AA SH SES

Academic Performance

(AP)

Pearson Correlation 1

.600** .555**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000 .000

N 250 250

Study Habits

(SH)

Pearson Correlation

1

.445**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

N 250

** Significant at 0.01 level.

Interpretation and Discussion: The perusal of the

above table shows that academic performance and

study habits are significantly positively correlated

(P=.000<0.1) with each other and the degree of

correlation (r=.600) is moderately high. Similarly,

Academic performance and socio-economic status

also positively correlated (r=.555). The table

further depicts the significant positive

inter-correlation between study habits and

socio-economic status (r=.445).

XVI. DIFFERENTIAL STUDY 

Under this headings, the researchers want to

know is there any significant difference in

academic performance, study habits and

socio-economic status of the secondary students

in the ground of their sexual characteristics, area

of living and types of their school. They are as

under:

i) Comparison of Academic Performance of Secondary Students on the grounds of Gender, Locality

and type of Schools

GENDER-WISE

Variables NO. df Mean S.D t-value Sig.

Male 125

248

72.48 13.456

.570 .569NS

Female 125 71.60 10.816

LOCALITY BASIS

Variables NO. df Mean S.D t-value Sig.

Rural 125 248 71.15 11.692 -1.152 .250NS

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Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio-economic Status: A Descriptive Survey Study

Urban 125 72.93 12.655

TYPE OF SCHOOLS BASIS

Variables NO.

df Mean S.D t-value Sig.

Govt. 125 248

67.22 10.814 -6.788 .000**

Private 125 76.86 11.608

NS-Not Significant, * Significant at 0.05 level, ** Significant at 0.01 level.

The perusal of the above table shows that there is

no significant difference in academic performance

between male-female, and rural-urban students

while a significant difference exists between govt.

and private school students as the P=.000<0.05

which further reject the null hypothesis.

ii) Comparison of Study Habits of Secondary Students on the grounds of Gender, Locality and type of

Schools.

GENDER-WISE

Variables NO. df Mean S.D t-value Sig.

Male 125 248 82.54 27.246 .139 .899NS Female 125 82.05 29.057

LOCALITY BASIS

Variables NO. df Mean S.D t-value Sig.

Rural 125 248 83.22 28.786 .517 .606NS Urban 125 81.38 27.504

TYPE OF SCHOOLS BASIS

Variables NO. df Mean S.D t-value Sig.

Govt. 125 248 74.53 25.807 -4.538 .000** Private 125 90.06 28.269

NS-Not Significant, * Significant at 0.05 level, ** Significant at 0.01 level.

From the perusal of the above table, it has been

found that there is no statistically significant

difference in study habits between male and

female, and rural and urban secondary students

whereas significant difference exists between govt.

and private secondary students.

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Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio-economic Status: A Descriptive Survey Study

iii) Comparison of Socio-economic status of Secondary Students on the grounds of Gender, Locality

and type of Schools

GENDER-WISE

Variables NO. df Mean S.D t-value Sig.

Male 125 248 61.46 11.081 1.502 .134NS

Female 125 59.10 13.558

LOCALITY BASIS

Variables NO. df Mean S.D t-value Sig.

Rural 125

248

59.90 12.393

-.488

.626NS

Urban 125 60.66 12.471

TYPE OF SCHOOLS BASIS

Variables NO. df Mean S.D t-value Sig.

Govt. 125 248 55.56 13.126 -6.490 .000**

Private 125 65.00 9.603

NS-Not Significant, * Significant at 0.05 level, ** Significant at 0.01 level.

From the perusal of the above table, it has been

found that no significant difference exists between

male and female, and rural and urban secondary

students in their study habits whereas a

significant difference exists between govt. and

private school students.

Main and Interaction Effect of Study Habits and Socio-economic Status on Academic Performance

Source Type I Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model 36423.933a 233 156.326 4.300 .001**

Intercept 1297440.400 1 1297440.400 35688.905 .000**

SH 21965.485 85 258.417 7.108 .000**

SES 5141.511 47 109.394 3.009 .010**

SH * SES 9316.938 101 92.247 2.537 .019*

Error 581.667 16 36.354

Total 1334446.000 250

Corrected Total 37005.600 249

The perusal of the above table shows that the

main effect of study habits (F=7.108, P=.000) is

significant at 0.01 level whereas the main effect of

socio-economic status (F=3.009, P=.010) is

significant at the 0.01 level. The interaction effect

of study habits and socio-economic status is

(F=2.537, P= .019<0.05) also significant at 0.05

level of confidence.

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Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio-economic Status: A Descriptive Survey Study

XVII. PREDICTIVE STUDY 

Here, the researchers applied multiple regression

analysis to know the individual and combined

effect of study habits and socio-economic status in

predicting academic performance of secondary

students.

Model Summary

Model R R

Square

Adjusted

R Square

Std. Error

of the

Estimate

.681 .464 .459 8.965

From the above table it is found that R= 0.681; R2

= 0.464; and the adjusted R2 = 0.459. The

regression coefficient (R) = 0.681 highlights that

significant moderate positive relation exists

between independent variables (study habits and

socio-economic status) and dependent variables

(academic performance). The coefficient of

determination (R2) of .464 indicates that 46.4% of

the observed variability is explained by the

independent variables and 54.6 % unexplained

variability caused by some other extraneous

variables. This further leads to the verification of

the regression fit as stated in the ANOVA table.

Anova

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 17154.195 2 8577.098 106.720 .000**

Residual 19851.405 247 80.370

Total 37005.600 249

NS-Not Significant, * Significant at 0.05 level, ** Significant at 0.01 level.

From the above ANOVA table, it is found that the

‘F’ value=106.720; P=0.000<.001 which is

statistically significant at .01% level which reveals

that the regression model is statistically

significant, valid and fit, and could be used to

predict academic performance of secondary

students. This further highlights each and every

individual factor’s contribution in predicting

academic performance of the secondary students

in the following coefficient table:

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients t-value Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

(Constant) 35.054 2.858 12.264 .000**

SH .191 .023 .440 8.451 .000**

SES .353 .051 .360 6.910 .000**

NS-Not Significant, * Significant at 0.05 level, ** Significant at 0.01 level.

From the above table, it is found that the study

habits (SH) (t = 8.451, P = 0.000<.001), and

socio-economic status (SES) (t = 6.910, P =

0.000<.001) are statistically significant at .01%

level and highlights that study habits (beta-44 %)

and socio-economic status (beta-36) have

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Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio-economic Status: A Descriptive Survey Study

significant contribution in academic performance

and predict achievement by study habits and

socio-economic status respectively. The beta value

of study habits (.44) would mean that one unit

increase in study habits, academic performance

would increase by 0.44. Similarly, one unit beta

increase of socio-economic status (beta-.36)

would mean .36 unit increase of academic

performance.

XVIII. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 

The researchers found that academic

performance, study habits and socio-economic

status were correlated with each other. The study

revealed that no significant difference exists in

academic performance, study habits and

socio-economic status among the secondary

students on the ground of gender and locality but

the significant difference exists among the

secondary students in academic performance,

study habits and socio-economic status on the

grounds of their school types which means the

significant difference between govt. and private

schools. The study also revealed that there was a

significant main and interaction effect of study

habits and socio-economic status on academic

performance or achievement. It further showed

that study habits and socio-economic status were

significant predictors of academic performance of

the secondary students.

XVIII. DISCUSSION 

After analyzing the data, the researchers found

that academic performance, study habits and

socio-economic status were correlated with each

other. Adeyemi (2014), Chamundeswari and

Kumari al. (2014), Mashayekhi et al. (2014),

Anwar (2013), Sharma (2012), and Sarwar et al.

(2009) in their study found a positive significant

relationship between study habits and academic

achievement whereas Faaz and Khan (2017),

Farid et al. (2016), Gul and Rehman (2014), Zaki

et al. (2014), Suleman et al. (2013), and Sirin

(2005) in their study found that socio-economic

status and academic performance of the students

had positive significant correlation.

XIX. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY 

The findings of the present study could help

psychologists, educationists and counsellors to

better comprehend educational issues and

problems and further to assist students with their

academic problems. Now, coming to the

implications of study habits and on academic

performance, we can suggest some individual &

Group guidance measures which could be used to

improve the study habits and further lead the

academic performance of the students and

minimize the rate of underachievers and failures.

Now, coming to the implications of

socio-economic status on academic

performance/achievement of the students as it is

positively correlated with academic performance

we could bring good performance from the

students by empowering their social and

economic status which directly correlated with

family expenditure in the education of the child.

Summarize, the present research presents a

predictive instrument of academic performance

that can be utilized by parents, teachers,

administrators and guidance personnel for

substantially enhancing the academic

performance of students by empowering the

socio-economically backward classes who often

have low study habits as compared to higher

classes students, especially for those studying in

senior secondary schools.

XX. SUGGESTIONS AND DELIMITATIONS 

The present research study was conducted on

secondary students and a similar study can be

carried out in different settings (e.g., school or

college students.). The study has identified

affirmative effects of study habits and

socio-economic status on academic performance

or achievement of the secondary students. Though

the researchers tried to know and measure is

there any difference among the secondary

students in their academic performance, study

habits and socio-economic status on the grounds

of gender, living locality and type of schools and

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Academic Performance of Secondary Students in Relation to their Study Habits and Socio-economic Status: A Descriptive Survey Study

found a significant difference between govt. and

private schools students in their academic

performance, study habits and socio-economic

status background. Therefore, action should be

taken to minimize the gap between govt. and

private schools in the above dimensions.

The study had certain delimitations, they were as:

❖ The study was delimited to only one district

i.e., Aligarh District, Uttar Pradesh, India.

❖ This study only considered academic

performance as the dependent variable of the

study.

❖ Study habits and socio-economic status were

predictors of this study.

❖ The study was exclusively focused on

Secondary Students.

XXI. CONCLUSION 

Since, Academic performance or achievement of

the students found correlated with study habits

and socio-economic status of the students, it is

very much essential for the institutions that they

should play an important role in encouraging and

promoting good study habits and positive learning

attitudes among students as we all know that

study habits are learnable and teachable and

hence, institutions should take innovative

measures to improve the study habits of students.

Besides study habits, socio-economic status was a

good predictor and correlated with academic

achievement. Modern-day, educating a child is a

good function for school with lots of expenditure.

So, it is the responsibility of the planners,

administrators and govt. authorities to make

provisions, policies and programs for the

betterment of the downtrodden and

socio-economically weaker sections which could

make them able to send their child in a good

school.

REFERENCES 

1. Kalia, A.K. and Sahu, S. (2012). Manual for

Socio-economic Status Scale (Urban & Rural).

National Psychological Corporation, Agra,

U.P, India.

2. Adeyemi, A.M. (2014). Personal factors as

predictors of students’ academic achievement

in colleges of education in South-Western

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3. Ayodele, C. S. and Adebiyi, D. R. (2013). Study

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4. Baland, D. (1999). An investigation into study

habits, reading interest, attitude towards

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6. American Psychological Association (2007).

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8. Anwar, E. (2013). A correlational study of

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9. Mashayekhi, F. et al., (2014). The relationship

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(2017). Assessing the influence of socio-

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economic status on students’ performance in

Content and Language Integrated Learning.

System, 73 pp.

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11. Eysenck, H. J. (1972). Encyclopedia of

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12. Bhan, K. S. and Gupta, R. (2010). Study

Habits and Academic Achievement among the

Students Belonging to SC and None SC

Groups. Journal of Applied Research in

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13. Crede, M. and Kuncel, N.R. (2008). Study

habits, skills, and attitudes: the third pillar

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14. Faaz, M. and Khan, Z.N. (2017). A Study of

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15. Gabriel, M. N. et al., (2016). Parental

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17. Nagaraju, M.T.V. (2004). Study Habits of

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18. Zaki, N. A. et al. (2014). Effect of Peer Group

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19. Farid, Nazish et al (2016). Socio-economic

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20. Thakkar, P.D. (2003). Study of academic

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21. Prema, R. (2007). A Study of Study Habit and

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22. Gul, S. B. and Rehman, A. (2014). A Study of

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24. Pillai, S.K. (2012). An Empirical Study on

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25. Sirin. (2005). SES and academic

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LJP Copyright ID: 573337Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792

London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences

Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

ABSTRACT

Scan to know paper details andauthor's profile

Corruption as a Perennial Theme in Nigerian Literature

Psalms Chinaka

Literature in its form is not only about oral or written artistry, it equally encapsulates nonfictional writings including works with autobiographical elements. In this study, the comparison of a fictional and nonfictional narrative enforces the interface of both genres and also accentuates the verisimilitudinous qualities encapsulated in fictional writings. The subject under study is the question of the enigmatic nature of corruption in Nigeria. Through a sociological approach, the study comparatively evaluated some of the archetypal characters in Festus Iyayi’s The Contract, a fictional text, with those in Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala’s Corruption is Dangerous, a nonfictional text. The presentation of both author’s storyline provides a comparative background in terms of characterization and theme. The essay argued that corruption in Nigeria has become a phenomenon that has been viciously animated by Nigerian public servants who are vulnerable to the frenzy of unethical acquisition of wealth; this compulsion has bracketed and confined Nigerians within a system of savagery. In other words, the archetypal behavioral pattern of all the identified characters in Iyayi and Okonjo-Iweala’s fictive and non-fictive narratives, not only revealed the vulnerability of the characters in terms of baiting, compulsion and indulgence in corrupt and criminal practices, but equally exposes the implication of the exploitative actions of these public administrators at the detriment of the collective wellbeing of the people. In its conclusion, the study proposed that unlike Ogie’s failed reformative posture in The Contract, Nigerian leaders must, like Okonjo-Iweala, be compelled to devise a sustainable political will capable of re-ordering the fate of the state by reviewing the transparency strategies and policies in the Nigerian constitution, placing it above self.

Keywords: NA

Classification: 160699

Language: English

© 2020. Psalms Chinaka. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

For Code:

Corruption as a Perennial Theme in Nigerian Literature Psalms Chinaka 

____________________________________________

ABSTRACT 

Literature in its form is not only about oral or

written artistry, it equally encapsulates

nonfictional writings including works with

autobiographical elements. In this study, the

comparison of a fictional and nonfictional

narrative enforces the interface of both genres

and also accentuates the verisimilitudinous

qualities encapsulated in fictional writings. The

subject under study is the question of the

enigmatic nature of corruption in Nigeria.

Through a sociological approach, the study

comparatively evaluated some of the archetypal

characters in Festus Iyayi’s The Contract, a

fictional text, with those in Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala’s

Corruption is Dangerous, a nonfictional text. The

presentation of both author’s storyline provides a

comparative background in terms of

characterization and theme. The essay argued

that corruption in Nigeria has become a

phenomenon that has been viciously animated by

Nigerian public servants who are vulnerable to

the frenzy of unethical acquisition of wealth; this

compulsion has bracketed and confined

Nigerians within a system of savagery. In other

words, the archetypal behavioral pattern of all

the identified characters in Iyayi and

Okonjo-Iweala’s fictive and non-fictive

narratives, not only revealed the vulnerability of

the characters in terms of baiting, compulsion

and indulgence in corrupt and criminal practices,

but equally exposes the implication of the

exploitative actions of these public administrators

at the detriment of the collective wellbeing of the

people. In its conclusion, the study proposed that

unlike Ogie’s failed reformative posture in The

Contract, Nigerian leaders must, like

Okonjo-Iweala, be compelled to devise a

sustainable political will capable of re-ordering

the fate of the state by reviewing the

transparency strategies and policies in the

Nigerian constitution, placing it above self.

I. INTRODUCTION: CONTEXT AND DEFINITION 

The peculiar nature of this mode of comparative

literary scholarship foregrounds the enforcement

of the concept of verisimilitude in order to

emphasize the sensitive nature of the subject at

hand. The scope of the study is extended beyond

fiction so as to appreciate the essence of literature

not only as written works with artistic value, but

also, to appreciate it from an etymological or a

much more general perspective. In other words,

literature, according to Joseph Nwachukwu-

Agbada, can also appear in the form of “written or

printed material ... books on history, chemistry,

navigation, sociology, economics, geography …

Articles and monographs …” (373). Ultimately,

literature is not only about artistry but can also be

experienced in nonfictional writings such as

works with autobiographical elements. Therefore,

in this discourse, the comparison of a fictional and

nonfictional narrative will not only underscore

some of the elements bridging the two fields, but

will also accentuate the verisimilitudinous

qualities encapsulated in fictional writings. No

subject demands such comparative approach in

the Nigerian literary history than corruption. This

is true since it is apparent that Nigeria’s lengthy

and troubled history in her nationhood has failed

to outlive corruption, a term Stanley Igwe

identifies as “one of many social pathologies

ravaging Africa” (88).

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73 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

Igwe defines corruption as “any organized,

interdependent system in which parts of the

system are either not performing their duties as

ethically expected or are performing them

improperly to the detriment of the system’s

original purpose” (88). Within the first epoch of

Nigeria’s history, the pioneer writers were able to

diagnose or observe corruption as a postcolonial

phenomenon which is exemplified in Chinua

Achebe’s No Longer at Ease. Sequel to this

publication, Nigeria’s historiography recorded a

substantial number of fictional and nonfictional

works on the subject from 1960 to date.

The two texts selected for this study, one fictional

and the other with autobiographical elements, are

considered to be significantly representational as a

result of their incisive nature. In other words,

Iyayi’s text is a suitable example of a fictional work

that focuses on a very sensitive and problematic

Nigerian social condition, while Okonjo-Iweala’s

text corroborates this fact in reality. In this

context, Iyayi’s The Contract represents the

corpus of fictional texts that present characters

who irrespective of their peculiar circumstances

and socio-political statuses have recurrently

become archetypal in Nigerian fiction. In other

words, Chief the Honourable M.A. Nanga, Alhaji

Chief Senator Suleiman Wagada, Chief Koko and

T.C. Kobino in Achebe’s A Man of the People, can

be critically deconstructed as characters who

exhibit a pattern of acquisitive predisposition as

other characters in other fictional works like Chief

Obala in Iyayi’s The Contract, Chief and Queen

Obofun in Iyayi’s Violence, Chief Ikaki, Chief

Opala, Gabriel Akassa (the Amanayabo) in

Chimeka Garricks’ Tomorrow Died Yesterday,

and Brigadier Otunshi in Iyayi’s Heroes who

dispatches his troops in a suicidal mission on the

eve of their payday and found other reasons to

summarily execute the few that made it back. The

only major difference in these novels is how the

peculiarity of each plot yields the sum total of its

own events.

More so, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala’s text represents

the corpus of nonfictional narratives focusing on

corruption as subject matter. In the discussion,

there is also an attempt to prove the recurrence of

these archetypal characters in Nigeria’s

nonfictional texts too, even though in some cases

some of them remain faceless and anonymous. For

instance, such archetypal characters like Iyayi’s

Brigadier Otunshi in Heroes can be identified in a

similar autobiographical narrative as that of Major

Debo Basorun’s Honour for Sale in which he

writes:

The corruption fever was so high that officers in

the field would abandon their troops without

leadership for days or even weeks rather than be

left out of the bonanza. While this

barefaced-roguery was to a great extent

responsible for turning the army into an

embodiment of inertia, it was however not the

only way through which dirty money could be

made in large amounts. (109).

Corruption in Nigeria has become so endemic that

Ebenezer Babatope, one of Nigeria’s social critics,

could not help but conclude that “Nigeria has been

an alternate name for corruption” (7). Achebe is

even more forthright in his view, stating that

“Nigeria … is one of the most corrupt, insensitive,

inefficient places under the sun” (The Trouble, 11).

The implication of such image can then be

conveyed with Fela Durotoye’s popular quote that,

“ordinary citizens of a great nation will forever be

treated better than successful citizens of a failed

country” (https://www.straightfromnaija.com).

In other words, the protracted nature of

corruption in the Nigerian social context, as

Babatope and Achebe’s statements imply, has

become an existential threat to Nigerians in the

diaspora, like the biblical mark of rejection

imprinted on the forehead of Cain in the book of

Genesis.

From a historical perspective, critics like Achebe

believe that the seed of corruption in Nigeria, was

implanted during the colonial era. Achebe makes

this point through the story of Obi Okonkwo in No

Longer at Ease. Elsewhere, he emphasizes this

same point by stating that it was only but a matter

of time after the colonialists “left” that, “Within six

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years of this tragic colonial manipulation Nigeria

was a cesspool of corruption and misrule (There

was a Country 51). In consonance with Achebe’s

view, Charles Nnolim also believes that the history

of corruption in Nigeria should be traced to the act

of colonialism which introduced new social values

to those Nigerians who failed, “not because of

indiscipline or inner depravity but because, caught

in the vortex of inexorable historical changes, they

read the signs wrongly or upside down, and held

on a moment too long, to the status quo, and got

swept away in the unrelenting eddies of history”

(228).

The significant timeline between Iyayi and

Okonjo-Iweala’s publications in which corruption

yet remains an ineffaceable national threat may

perhaps justify Achebe and Babatope’s earlier

comments which some critics may find derisive.

II. A COMPARATIVE READING OF THE TEXTS

The driving force of corruption in Iyayi’s The

Contract revolves around the multi-million-naira

Ogbe City Council contract in Benin City by Ogie,

Chief Eweh Obala’s son, contractors and other

government functionaries. The story exposes how

these stakeholders are intensely desirous to steal

Nigeria’s resources in vicious ways. Such

acquisitive frenzy to loot the national treasury is

what Grace Okereke conceptualizes

as“grabmania” (434), a term that exemplifies the

nature of embezzlement by Nigerian politicians.

Elsewhere, Achebe in his conversation with Ernest

and Pat Emenyonu, describes the act as a

syndrome of “grab and keep” (36).

Okonjo-Iweala’s own account of her personal

experience with Nigerian corrupt officials,

according to Gordon Brown is “Fearless,

principled, compassionate for Africa’s poor and

passionate for Africa’s future” (Blurb). Her text is

a nonfictional revelation of how she fought what

she calls “a small kleptocratic ruling elite” (xvii).

The notion one gets at the end of the text is in a

sense suggestive of a nation state turned into a

political sea of corruption teeming with all sorts of

cold-blooded creatures desperately questing for

wealth through frightening orchestrated

circumstances as is the case with the abduction of

her mother. The “small kleptocratic ruling elite”

include the Nigerian governors whom she thus

describes: “Nigeria’s group of thirty-six state

governors is powerful” (55). There are also the

legislators who are equally powerful. Her words:

“If governors were a tough political group to deal

with, federal legislators were hardly easy. They are

indispensable in the budget process and it was in

that context that difficult battles took place on

budget process and content” (71).

Okonjo-Iweala’s account shares a lot in common

with Iyayi’s fictional account. From a thematic

perspective, both narratives center on the

enigmatic nature of corruption in Nigeria. The

plots of both texts are weaved around Ogie in The

Contract and Okonjo-Iweala in Fighting

Corruption is Dangerous, respectively. Iyayi tells

the story of Ogie from a third person point of view

while Okonjo-Iweala tells her own story from the

first person point of view. Each plot exposes

exaggerated contract figures, fabricated contracts

and poorly executed contracts, all designed and

manipulated by two major sets of actors – corrupt

government officials and corrupt contractors.

They both describe the negative consequences of

corruption and its implication before the Nigerian

people. They both expose the strategies of the

corrupt characters in the system. Their plots are

interestingly filled with suspense and intrigues,

but also disaster for Nigeria. They share gloomy

endings.

In terms of characterization, both texts deal with

binary conflicting forces. In terms of differences in

their structure, Okonjo-Iweala’s text can be

classified as an autobiographical account while

Iyayi’s text is an artistic enactment of the same

Nigerian corrupt system. By training, both key

characters (Ogie and Okonjo-Iweala) are

presented as individuals who have undergone

foreign education and orientation which lay more

emphasis on the individual’s integrity. In the end

of both stories, Ogie in The Contract, differs in

some significant ways from Okonjo-Iweala in

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Fighting Corruption is Dangerous. Even though

they are both disposed toward ensuring a

reformatory process in Nigeria’s socio-economic

system, even though they are presented as

resolute, assertive and idealistic, Okonjo-Iweala

succeeds where Ogie fails. She is able to sustain

the focus of her mission irrespective of her

adversaries till the end of her story. Unlike

Okonjo-Iweala, Ogie is unable to sustain his initial

principle and focus, thereby compromising his

initial ethical stand. This is the ultimate message

one is bound to deduce from the final analysis of

characterization in both texts.

Okonjo-Iweala’s text is set in Abuja, the hub of the

Nigerian nation. Her setting helps to significantly

elucidate how decisions, policies and their

execution from the presidential villa can affect the

entire nation. Iyayi’s own setting is Benin City, a

geopolitical part of Nigeria. The significance of his

setting when reconciled with that of

Okonjo-Iweala is that it not only reveals the

implication of corruption in one part of the

country, but as well exposes the consequences of

bad policies originating from Abuja, the seat of

power. Benin City is thus described in the novel as

a city where,

Little mean houses squatted on both sides of

the street … Lean men in cheap trousers and

shirts walked slowly to and fro … In the night

such a man entered his burrow and he was

empty … And when he slept with his wife

with this same emptiness, with this same

nothingness, small children, black and tiny

like the faeces of dogs were eventually

excreted into this cycle of misery. (129-130)

In this context, Benin City becomes a microcosm

of the entire Nigerian state. In a way, it equally

connects to Okonjo-Iweala’s exposition of the

socio-political signals transmitted through the

decisions of politicians at Aso Rock – the

presidential villa. Nigerian critics by

Okonjo-Iweala’s publication are provided a

counter narrative that explains some of the

political events under Ex-President Goodluck

Jonathan’s administration (2011-2015). The

publication expounds some of the political

backstage events that were publicly manipulated

in the sensational/propagandist reportage of

some fake news media organizations. Thus, she

explains her authorial motive:

So telling my story is risky. But not telling it

also is dangerous. Silence would allow these

same vested interests in my country, the same

corrupt people, to distort events, twist factual

accounts, and hide behind lies, half-truths,

and obfuscations to protect themselves and

harm others. With the co-optation of

unscrupulous media, they turn truth into lies

and promote lies as truth. Their currency is

propaganda and fake news and it must be

challenged by transparency and sustained

ethical actions based on lessons learned. (121)

The above statement reverberates a similar

ideological statement in Wole Soyinka’s own

personal narrative entitled The Man Died. Thus,

he states: “The man dies in all who keep silent in

the face of tyranny” (13). The ultimate motive of

both authors hinges on the implication and image

of corruption in the Nigerian state. Such image is

noticed in Okonjo-Iweala’s description of Nigeria:

“Nigeria is one of the most interesting countries in

the world. It is energetic and sometimes chaotic”

(xv). This euphemistic/scathing description of

Nigeria juxtaposes Iyayi’s very scathing

description. Though conveyed through a fictional

mode, one still gets a sense of Iyayi’s perspective

of the Nigerian state through Ogie’s observation in

the Contract:

Everywhere there was dirt and filth and chaos.

Chaos was there in the way the houses stood, in

the way the refuse spilled into the roads, in the

way drivers used whatever parts of the road

were usable. They drove on the wrong side of

the roads … And there was nothing but abuse

and curses and the blaring of horns and the

screeching of brakes and then more abuses and

finally, swift physical violence and then death.

(7)

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This portrayal is reflective of the point Garricks

makes in Tomorrow Died Yesterday symbolically

conveying a similar chaotic message about

Nigeria’s statehood:

Like most shanty towns, Asiama Waterside looked

like it had been built by a mad child. The houses

were confused: facing every direction, and

backing every direction at the same time. They

were built with anything that gave cover –

corrugated iron, wood, cement, mud plastic sheets

and thatch … There were no streets in Asiama

Waterside: just tiny, filthy, dark labyrinthine

alleys. The alleys and the Dockyard creek allowed

for the smooth and steady flow of black-market

petrol, drugs, sex and guns. (237-238)

Achebe had earlier confronted this nature of

statehood when, as part of his earlier quote in this

discourse, he added that, “Nigeria is not a great

country. It is one of the most disorderly nations in

the world … It is dirty, callous, noisy, ostentatious,

dishonest and vulgar. In short it is one of the most

unpleasant places on earth. (The Trouble, 9-10). In

spite of the backlash that trailed this statement

which no doubt is garbed with “inflammable”

adjectives, the fact remains that these adjectives

have one way or the other vividly conveyed the

measure of rot created in the Nigerian system by

those Okonjo-Iweala tags “small kleptocratic

ruling elite.”

In the global ranking, Okonjo-Iweala assesses

Nigeria as,

Africa’s largest economy, with an estimated

2017 gross domestic product (GDP) of $400

billion. Nigeria constitutes 71 percent of West

Africa’s GDP and 27 percent of the continent’s

GDP … [it] was the fifteenth-largest oil

producer in the world in 2016. It has the

world’s eleventh-largest oil reserves and

ninth-largest natural gas reserves. (xvii)

The glaring problem in a country with such

potentials and enviable quantity of resources is,

according to the taxi driver who drives Ogie from

the airport, actually created by the politicians who

are as well “aided in the enterprise by the cream of

the military, whether still serving or retired” (8).

This thesis supports Eustace Palmer’s findings in

his diagnosis of the perpetual poverty in most

African states, explaining that “this was partly

because in some countries the available resources

were squandered by the ruling elite, including the

army” (13). Ikechukwu Nwosu, decries this

situation, accusing the Nigerian government of

what he calls “domestic recolonization.” His

argument is that,

Neo-economism focuses on the activities and

significance of multinational corporations and

argues that they are able to function in all

capitalist states and to cross state boundaries at

will. The freedom of imperialists’ oligopolies to

enter into nations at will and their alliance with

national governments provides the stage for

internal imperialism. (544)

As Iyayi’s novel reveals the nature of corruption

within the administrative circle of the Nigerian

government and their local/foreign contractors as

depicted by Mr. Oloru/Chief Ekata and Miss

Gasfield, Okonjo-Iweala’s text, by extension,

explores the criminality behind the politics of

Nigeria’s oil. Contract in The Contract is a

reflection of corrupt events in the Nigerian

system. Such events include the contract that is to

be awarded at the cost of “one hundred thousand

naira” (55) which is consecutively upgraded thrice

in the novel. This is revealed through Chief Obala

on three different occasions. In the first occasion,

he tells Ogie: “The value of the contract has gone

up … by five times the original sum.’ Ogie

calculated the new total in his mind. ‘That means

half a million,’ he said” (64). In the second

occasion, the text thus reveals: “Chief Obala … had

had a word with the Commissioner and they had

agreed that the value of the contract was to go up

still higher, this time to one hundred million

naira” (83). In the third occasion, Chief Obala tells

Ogie again about the agreement of the very top

Council members: “The value of the contract has

been increased to five hundred million naira”

(93). This is a brazen display of uncontrollable

greed and unchecked impunity by such corrupt

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Nigerians. This fictional event of the 1980s in

many ways re-enacts Okonjo-Iweala’s experience

with a similar group of Nigerians and other sets of

stakeholders in the millennium age. These vested

interest groups benefitting from the system are

determined to resist her reformatory vision since

it would not favor them. They have formed into a

coalition of counter-progressive force against the

general development of the public. Consequently,

her opinion is that “for every coalition put

together to fight corruption, there is an opposing

coalition trying to persuade the President to block

it” (130). The opposing coalition is similarly

resonated by some of the characters one finds in

The Contract. A typical example is Chief Ekata

who eventually murders Mr. Oloru whom he

perceives as a competent rival. Thus, he

ruminates: “After all, he told himself, nobody

really wants any roads built, nor any houses

erected. All that was needed was to give people the

impression. Once people were under the

impression that things were being done, the rest

didn’t matter” (71).

The consequences of what Chief Obala and his

corrupt colleagues represent in Nigeria are

reflective of the findings of the Ad-Hoc Committee

Okonjo-Iweala initiated during her tenure as

Finance Minister. The committee’s goal was to

verify and determine the actual subsidy

requirements under Resolution No. HR. 1/2012.

Thus, the outcome is multiple layered:

Essentially, the Committee found that there was

indeed fraud and mismanagement in the

oil-subsidy regime; subsidy claims for products

not delivered; overcharging of the government by

oil marketers; requisition of foreign exchange for

imports of refined products, with the foreign

exchange diverted to other uses; unauthorized

deductions by the Nigerian National Petroleum

Corporation (NNPC) to itself; and

mismanagement by government officials. (35-36)

It is the fear of such investigatory instruments and

other forms of “due process” mechanisms that

may have triggered panic among the “small

kleptocratic ruling elite,” hence, one way or the

other they need to get across to whoever that is in

charge. This is the depiction of Donald Duke’s and

Eunice Agbon’s errand in the respective texts. In

other words, what Duke is to Okonjo-Iweala in

Fighting Corruption is Dangerous, is what Eunice

Agbon is to Ogie in The Contract. Both characters

are presented to undertake an ill-motivated errand

on behalf of the “small kleptocratic ruling elite.”

The difference in Duke’s own mission and that of

Eunice is that whereas Eunice succeeds in luring

Ogie into the net of the “small kleptocratic ruling

elite,” Duke was unable to accomplish his own

mission behind his “friendly” visit to

Okonjo-Iweala at her UN’s Bureau in Washington

DC.

It is interesting to note that Duke is introduced

into the text under the subtitle “A Strange

Warning” (17). His story is that “a group of

‘concerned’ people” would want to dissuade her

from accepting the offer to serve as Finance

Minister as it will “give Jonathan and his

government credibility and he [Jonathan] did not

deserve that (17). This presentation is arguably

deceptive. The real mission that can be deduced

here is not actually in the story of the so-called

powerful political cartel trying to frustrate

Ex-President Goodluck Jonathan’s

administration, but it is that this cartel is afraid of

her reformatory approach towards Nigeria’s

economic system which is not in their own

interest. This is the point Okonjo-Iweala attempts

to make when she explains that, “Nigeria’s deep

fiscal decentralization means that governors have

tremendous freedom and little accountability in

the use of monies under their control. There are

few checks and balances because state legislatures

are typically weak” (55). In other words, her

accountability reputation was enough to stir some

of the Nigerian politicians who witnessed her

tough stance during her first tenure as Finance

Minister under Ex-president Olusegun Obasanjo’s

administration. Thus, she writes:

On the finance side, I was surprised to learn

that work started in 2004 … to build

institutions, systems, and processes to stem

revenue leakages from the budget had slowed

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considerably after I left and had in fact stalled.

Government transactions were still largely

cash based, leaving plenty of room for corrupt

diversion of funds … The vested interests

benefitting from the old system still seemed to

have the upper hand. (16)

Obviously, no member of the “small kleptocratic

ruling elite” really wanted her to serve in that

capacity again. On her part, she knew how tough

the fight was in her first tenure as Finance

Minister, and she recounts how it forced her into

resignation at the time:

It also had been politically and personally difficult,

especially toward the end. I resigned when I felt

no longer able to serve under adverse conditions,

and the resignation was seen as a bold and

controversial move on my part. No Nigerian

minister resigns; they are only fired. Stepping

down from my post had earned me the ire of those

at the top. (15)

Eunice, in The Contract goes on a similar errand

to persuade Ogie to award the contract to “Chief

Ekata and Construction Company” (78), without

recourse to due process. Ogie who initially refused

the position of Principal Secretary on the basis of

ethics/or morality disappoints Iyayi’s readers as

he accepts Eunice’s offer of a sensual relationship

in addition to other kickback packages from Chief

Ekata. By this decisive action, Ogie alters greatly

in his worldview after chapter eight. This

alteration in ideology occurs partly because he

fails to design an effective modus operandi that

would protect his policy in respect of his career. In

his unpreparedness, he takes up the offer and was

bound to fail for lack of strategy. This is the lesson

one learns from Okonjo-Iweala who must have

considered some sensitive political factors before

turning down the ministerial position offered by

“President Yar’ Adua … in 2008” (15). But in a

subsequent year, precisely “August 17, 2011” (27),

she takes the same offer from Ex-President

Jonathan after negotiating a reliable workforce

and favorable environment with the presidency.

Ogie lacks this tact. He fails to negotiate favorable

working terms with his employers. He also lacks

experience hence his untested reformative instinct

could not effectively confront some of those

unforeseen realities that led to his downfall. He

merely had a theoretical orientation of

ethics/morality impulsive base from his foreign

training which was not sustainable in the face of

corruption in a practical sense. This is the message

the author conveys through the following passage:

I am going to be decent and straightforward

and clear-headed about money. ‘You are an

idealist,’ the knowing part of his mind said …

You have ideas, and ideas are like the smoke.

Put a little wind under it and it disperses,

scatters in different directions.’ ‘Then you do

not know me,’ the other, second part of him

answered now. ‘You do not know me at all, in

spite of the fact that we have lived together all

these years.’ (21)

But on the other hand, Okonjo-Iweala’s resilience

was sustainable because she saw what was coming

from the “small kleptocratic ruling elite” and

strategized with the support of her team, boss and

her transparency mechanism in which the public

is made the judge between herself and the

“kleptocrats.” She knew they will attempt to infect

her, upset her or indict her. In defiance, she makes

up her mind:

But I would not be easily intimidated. In fact, the

attacks had the effect of tilting me toward

accepting the job. To some extent, it was defiance

… If Nigeria was to fight corruption successfully, it

needed not just to arrest and prosecute people –

which was vital – but also to build the institutions,

processes, and systems that enhance transparency

and make corrupt practices more difficult in the

first place. (21-22)

At the end of both stories, Okonjo-Iweala

eventually succeeds where Ogie fails. Ogie resigns

into a world of defeatism, negotiating new

personality for himself as he distances himself

from his earlier posture as an idealist. Thus, his

inner self accuses him: “You cannot escape it now.

Not anymore.’ For the first time, he could not

readily produce an answer to this … Ogie Obala’s

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eyes suddenly clouded again with tears. He was no

longer sure of himself” (67/68). The initial

personality he professed is no longer sustainable

and as a result succumbs to his other half. He

presents the result of his inner conflict clearer

with the single statement: “I am not a

revolutionary” (77).

To the intelligentsia class, Okonjo-Iweala

concludes that “Nigeria’s ideologues have

remained largely silent about facts that do not

reflect their preconceptions” (120). By this

statement she attempts to implore the

intelligentsia to live up to the task of taking firm

stand against the “kleptocrats” responsible for

Nigeria’s corruption saga. Joe, the trade unionist

who belongs to the intelligentsia class in Achebe’s

A Man of the People, is also of the opinion that

this problem has lingered in Nigeria because,

according to him “we are too nervous” (79). This

notion has been re-echoed in several other

narratives since after the publication of A Man of

the People. For Kizito Osudibia,

The larger numbers of Nigerians are suffering

more not on account of the excesses of the

political heavy-weights but on account of the

pernicious silence of all the good and

well-meaning people of this country. In a

country of over 120 million people, evil thrives

because the good permit it. (3)

For Teresa Njoku the people “are dead because

they keep silent when they should speak” (335).

For Eldred Jones, while the “kleptocarats” enrich

themselves through impunity, “the people, with

the philosophy born of despair tamely lie down

under the imposition” (Qtd., in Ojinmah 67). In

other words, the generality of the people,

according to Udenta Udenta are “gullible, easily

fooled” (ix).

III. PROPOSALS AND CONCLUSION

From her story, Okonjo-Iweala could then be said

to have succeeded in enforcing her reformative

policies as a Minister under the Jonathan’s

administration because of the reasonable support

she enjoyed from her boss who perhaps was

equally conscious of the presence of the “small

kleptocratic ruling elite.” This is evident in the fact

that Jonathan insisted in working with her in

spite of her initial decline of the offer of

ministerial position. One of her strategies was to

negotiate, in her own favor, with the Ex-President.

Her words:

President Jonathan was gracious. He listened

carefully to all I had to say … We went over my

terms of reference … He also approved of

creating an economic team that he would chair

… As for the composition of the team, I

mentioned the need for a small core of

reformers … The discussion with the President

was substantive and reassuring. (23/25)

The implication of losing that very important

support which a reformer requires is exemplified

through what happened in her tenure under

Obasanjo’s administration. As a result, she took a

smart step by resigning. This is another important

lesson many so-called reformers must learn; it is

better to resign from being part of a corrupt

system than adding to the mess itself. Thus, she

says: “I resigned when I felt no longer able to serve

under adverse conditions” (15).

This is one of the spots where Ogie fails. In his

case, he accepts the offer without a firm

negotiation and refused to resign even when he

realized he was not able to serve under those same

adverse conditions similar to Okonjo-Iweala’s

predicaments. The consequence is dire. The likes

of Ogie would be later destroyed by the same

system. The destruction will happen not only on

account that they will always stay back, but on

account that they will pretend to be infallible

reformers with necks above Nigeria’s sea of

corruption - they are bound to always end up like

Ogie, a preacher in conflict with his ideals.

More so, it is important to observe that Iyayi’s

story stops at the point where that of

Okonjo-Iweala starts. Okonjo-Iweala’s story has

taken care of the bleak future and vacuum created

by the simultaneous end of Ogie and the novel.

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Unfortunately, Ogie was not strategically ready

hence he fails. He came back presumably from a

less corrupt system into a deep-rooted corrupt

system without adequate preparedness. He was

quickly swept away into nothingness like many

other such confused self-proclaimed reformers in

the same and other social climes. He made the

second mistake by surrounding himself with

characters who do not share his reformative views,

ending up as his detractors and eventually

overwhelming him. Some of them attempt to

persuade him out of the notion of being a

reformer, such as his father, his uncle and his

mother. Others encourage and entice him to

become part of the corrupt system, such as

Mallam Mallam, Eunice Agbon, Chief Ekata and

Mr. Oloru. Others like Rose, the self-acclaimed

realist, mock his idealist posture. For her, his

idealism amounts to nothing but naivety. In other

words, Ogie surrounds himself with characters

that were ever ready to make him fail in achieving

his original cause. But Okonjo-Iweala on her part

ensured she worked in the midst of fellow

reformers: “Dr. Akin Adesina … Dr. Muhammad

Pate … Dr. Nwanze Okidegbe … Professor

Sylvester Monye … Dr. Bright Okogu” (23/24).

With this strategy, she was able to ward off the

likes of Chief Ekata, Chief Obala, Mr. Oloru,

Mallam Mallam, Eunice Agbon and Rose in The

Contract.

Ogie equally lacks the political will to confront the

“small kleptocratic ruling elite,” the type

Okonjo-Iweala constantly engaged. Even though

the government that succeeded the one she served

under would later reverse some of her policies

after she left office, like the monthly newspaper

publication of federal allocation to States, the

point has been made. Okonjo-Iweala has

indirectly informed Nigerians that the mechanism

that can be used in ensuring transparency and

checking the excesses of corrupt government

officials is not the exclusive right of western

civilizations. It is about selflessness,

determination, focus, risk and, above all, creating

a transparent mechanism that will make the

public sit in judgment over the “small kleptocratic

ruling elite.”

Finally, Okonjo-Iweala and Ogie had the necessary

platforms that could positively impact their

Nigerian system. Okonjo-Iweala sustains and

defines her commitment in the course, while Ogie

compromises the cause itself. In the end, one

learns from both stories that a proposed

reformative process for a corrupt system must

take more than just courage, determination and

political will. These qualities are essential, but the

reformer must be strategically and intellectually

prepared for every shape of dart thrown by the

“small kleptocratic ruling elite.” In fact, the

reformer must expect these darts and prepare for

each one of them or else end up like Ogie. With no

hope in sight as a result of recurring reformers like

Ogie, the entire Nigerian system becomes even

more corrupted, dysfunctional and chaotic. But

with more characters like Okonjo-Iweala and her

transparent mechanism, there is bound to be a

glimmer of hope across the horizon.

WORKS CITED 

1. Achebe, Chinua. A Man of the People.

Heinemann, 1966.

2. --- The Trouble with Nigeria. Fourth

Dimension Publishing Company, 1983.

3. --- There was a Country: A Personal History

of Biafra. Penguin Books, 2012.

4. Babatope, Ebenezer. Nigeria towards the

Revolution. Ebenezer Babatope, 1981.

5. Debo, Basorun. Honour for Sale. Bookcraft,

2013.

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81 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

-Corruption as a Perennial Theme in Nigerian Literature

Iyayi only warns of a looming doom that awaits a

society with such propensity of corrupt acquisitive

tendency. But Okonjo-Iweala lays out a

descriptive and practicable economic template

that enabled the success of her administration

which helped her in checking the excesses of the

corrupt “kleptocratic class.” She did not stop at

merely exposing, criticizing and pontificating

ideas, but she risked her life, that of her family

and that of her team of reformers. By her

narrative, risk has been suggested and must be

prescribed as part of the constituents of

reformation. Risk makes the hero, in this case

heroine.

6. Durotoye, Fela. https://www.straight

fromnaija.com

7. Emenyonu, Ernest and Pat Emenyonu

“Achebe: Accountable to our Society”

Conversations with Chinua Achebe, edited by

Bernth Lindfors, University Press of

Mississippi, 1997, pp. 35-44.

8. Garrick, Chimeka. Tomorrow Died Yesterday.

Paper Worth, 2010.

9. Igwe, Stanley. How Africa Underdeveloped

Africa. Professional Printers & Publishers,

2010. Iyayi, Festus. The Contract.

Longman, 1982.

10. Njoku, Teresa. “Male Politics and Female

Power in Chinua Achebe’s Anthills of the

Savannah” Emerging Perspectives on Chinua

Achebe Vol. I Omenka: The Master Artist,

edited by Ernest Emenyonu, African World

Press, 2004, pp. 333-342.

11. Nnolim, Charles. “The Artist in Search of the

Right Leadership: Achebe as a Social Critic”

Emerging Perspectives on Chinua Achebe Vol.

II Isinka: The Artistic Purpose. Ed. Ernest

Emenyonu. Africa World Press, 2004,

225-335.

12. Nwachukwu-Agbada, Joseph. (Ed.) Use of

English for Tertiary Education. John Jacobs

Classic Publishers Ltd. 2000.

13. Nwosu, Ikechukwu. “Marginality and the

Niger Delta Crises: Ogoni, Ijaw and Warri

Crises in Perspective. Peace Studies and

Conflict Resolution in Nigeria: A Reader.

Marian Ikejiani-Clark (Ed.) Spectrum Books

Limited, 2009, 543-562.

14. Ojinmah, Umelo. Chinua Achebe: New

Perspectives. Spectrum Books Limited, 1991.

15. Okereke, Grace. “Literacy as a Redemptive

Factor in Nigerian Politics in Chinua

Achebe’s A Man of the People and Anthills

of the Savannah, ” Literacy and Reading,

edited by Adewuyi O. Aboderin, Ezekiel A.

Abe and Chukwuemeka E. Onukogu, The

Reading Association of Nigeria, University

of Nigeria, 1993, pp. 431-439.

16. Okonjo-Iweala, Ngozi. Fighting Corruption is

Dangerous: The Story Behind the Headlines.

The MIT Press, 2018.

17. Osudibia, Kizito. Revolution: A Dangerous

Option (for Nigeria). Snaap Press, 2004.

18. Palmer, Eustace. Of War and Women,

Oppression and Optimism. Africa World

Press, 2008.

19. Soyinka, Wole. The Man Died. Penguin Books

Ltd, 1972.

20. Udenta, Udenta. Revolutionary Aesthetics

and the African Literary Process. Fourth

Dimension Publishers, 1993.

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82 Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0 © 2020 London Journals Press

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London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.

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© 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 3 | Compilation 1.0

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