i

LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF CODE SWITCHING AND CODE MIXING IN THE SERMONS

OF SELECTED CHURCHES IN GWAGWALADA AREA COUNCIL, FEDERAL CAPITAL

TERRITORY

BY

UNOMAH, CHIOMA PATRICIA

VPG/MA/ENG/18/2829

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND LITERARY STUDIES,

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

VERITAS UNIVERSITY, ABUJA

JANUARY, 2021

ii

LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF CODE SWITCHING AND CODE MIXING IN THE SERMONS

OF SELECTED CHURCHES IN GWAGWALADA AREA COUNCIL, FEDERAL CAPITAL

TERRITORY

BY

UNOMAH, CHIOMA PATRICIA

VPG/MA/ENG/18/2829

BEING A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOLL OF POSTGRADUATE

STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND LITERARY STUDIES,

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

VERITAS UNIVERSITY, ABUJA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF ARTS

(M.A.) DEGREE IN ENGLISH AND LITERARY STUDIES

JANUARY, 2021

iii

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation “Linguistic Analysis of Code Switching and Code Mixing in the

Sermons of Selected Churches in Gwagwalada Area Council, Federal Capital Territory” is an outcome

of my effort, under the supervision and guidance of Prof Anthony Ayodele Olaoye. This work has not

been submitted to any other academic institution.

__________________ Name of Student Signature Date

iv

CERTIFICATION

VERITAS UNIVERSITY, ABUJA

SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF CODE SWITCHING AND CODE MIXING IN THE SERMONS

OF SELECTED CHURCHES IN GWAGWALADA AREA COUNCIL, FEDERAL CAPITAL

TERRITORY

BY

UNOMAH, CHIOMA PATRICIA (VPG/MA/ENG/18/2829)

DECLARATION

THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS DECLARED AS FOLLOWS:

THAT THIS IS THE ORIGINAL WORK OF THE CANDIDATE;

THAT THE DISSERTATION IS ACCEPTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

MASTERS OF ARTS IN ENGLISH AND LITERARY STUDIES

Prof. Anthony Ayodele Olaoye Prof. Anthony AyodeleOlaoye

SUPERVISOR HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

Signature & Date---------------------------------- Signature &Date---------------------------------

Fr. Prof. Michael Ufok Udoekpo Professor Gabriel B. Egbe

DEAN, FACULTY OF HUMANITIES DEAN, SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

Signature & Date-------------------------------- Signature & Date-------------------------------------

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

Professor Gbenga Solomon Ibileye

Signature & Date --------------------------

v

DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to the Almighty God for His continuous walk with me on this journey.

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Beyond what words can ever express, I wish to submit my unending gratitude to God the Almighty who

has been the source of my strength, my keeper, protector, sustainer and provider throughout the course

of my programme. Lord, you are indeed faithful.

With sincere appreciation, I thank you my wonderful supervisor, Prof. Anthony Ayodele Olaoye for his

painstaking efforts in ensuring that this work sees the light of day. God bless and reward every labour

of your hands.

I also appreciate the immense contribution of Prof. Gabriel Egbe, my lecturer and Dean of Postgraduate

School. I am also grateful to the former Head of Department, Dr Emmanuel Egar, Mrs Biodun Ayeni-

Daniyan and other lecturers who rendered different forms of assistance to me.

Also, my sincere gratitude goes to my sponsors, The Higher Education for Sisters in African (HESA)

and the country staff of the organization for this initiative that gives the female religious in Africa the

opportunity to acquire knowledge and develop themselves to further the Kingdom of God on earth. All

thanks to African Sister’s Education Collaborative (ASEC), the Sisters Leadership Development

Initiative (SLDI) and to Rev. Sr. Veronica Fatoyinbo, SNDden, (Sisters of Notre dame de l’armour)

and Rev. Sr. Clare Abisola Adelakun, DHS (Daughters of the Holy spirit) who work behind the scene

at ASEC/SLDIcountry office. May God bless you, all.

I will not forget to pay my sincere and heartfelt appreciation to my Congregation, Sisters Home Visitors

of Mary for the opportunity given to me, their continuous prayers and support through out the period of

my studies.

I want to express my gratitude to Mr. Awodi Sheidu, Fr. Raymond Aina, and Fr. Felix Anebi Odobi,

Bro. Gabriel Onwu, Fr. Idara Otu, Sr. Margaret Opara, HVM (Sisters, Home Visitors of Mary) for their

vii

contributions to seeing that my work comes out beautiful. My immeasurable appreciation goes to my

very dear family, my parents and sibblings whose unconditional love and encouragements made this

work a reality.

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page- - - - - - - - - - - -i

Declaration - - - - - - - - - - -ii

Certification - - - - - - - - - - -iii

Dedication- - - - - - - - - - - -iv

Acknowledgements - - - - - - - - - -v

Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - -vii

List of Tables - - - - - - - - - -x

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - -xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study - - - - - - - -1

1.2 Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - -5

1.3 Research Questions - - - - - - - -6

1.4 Purpose of the Study - - - - - - - - -6

1.5 Significance of the Study - - - - - - - -7

1.6 Scope of the Study - - - - - - - - -8

1.7 Assumptions and Limitation of the Study - - - - -8

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 Preamble - - - - - - - - - -9

2.1 Conceptual Framework - - - - - - - -9

2.1.1 Concept of Code- - - - - - - - - -9

2.1.2 Conceptualization of Sermon - - - - - - - -11

2.1.3 Conceptualization of Bilingualism - - - - - - -11

2.2 Code Switching - - - - - - - - -17

2.3. Code Mixing - - - - - - - - - -21

2.4 Reasons for Code Switching and Code Mixing - - - - -23

2.5 Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - -24

ix

2.5.1 Speech Accommodation Theory - - - - - - -24

2.5.2 Language Styles as Audience Design Theory - - - - -26

2.6 Empirical Review - - - - - - - - -27

2.7 Chapter Summary - - - - - - - - -40

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Preamble - - - - - - - - - - -42

3.2.1 Research Design- - - - - - - - - -42

3.3 Area of Study - - - - - - - - - -43

3.4 Method of Data Collection - - - - - - - -43

3.5 Participants - - - - - - - - - -44

3.6 Data Recording - - - - - - - - - -44

3.7 Data Analysis - - - - - - - - - -45

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Preamble - - - - - - - - - - -48

4.2 Data Presentation - - - - - - - - -48

4.2.1. Data Tabulation of code switching and code mixing - - - - -48

4.3. Pattern of Code Switching in Church Sermons - - - - - 49

4.3.1 Occurrence of Intersentential Code Switching - - - - - -50

4.3.2 Occurrence of Extra-sentential Code Switching - - - - -54

4.4 Pattern of CodeMixing in Church Sermons - - - - - -57

4.4.1 L1 to L2 (English-Hausa) Code Mixing at word level - - - -58

4.4.2 L1 to L2 (English-Hausa) CodeMixing at phrase level - - - -59

4.4.3. L2 to L1 (Hausa-English) Code Mixing at word level - - - -62

4.5 Rationale for Code Switching and Code Mixing - - - - - 63

4.6 Discussion of findings - - - - - - - - -74

x

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION

5.1 Preamble - - - - - - - - - -78

5.2 Summary - - - - - - - - - -78

5.3 Conclusion - - - - - - - - - -79

5.4 Implication for Further Research - - - - - - -80

References - - - - - - - - - -81

Appendices - - - - - - - - - -88

xi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Sample of Sermons Collected from the Selected Churches and Dates - -45

Table 2: Frequency of Occurrence of Code Switching and Code Mixing in Sermons -48

Table 3: Pattern of Code Switching in the Church Sermons - - - - 50

Table 4: Pattern of Code Mixing in Church Sermons - - - - - -58

xii

ABSTRACT

This study on “Linguistic analysis of code switching and code mixing in the sermons of selected

churches in Gwagwalada Area Council of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja” was motivated by the

quest to understand the occurrence and rationale for code switching and code mixing among religious

leaders in communication with their followers. The study was aimed at ascertaining the extent of the

occurrences of code switching and code mixing that takes place in sermons, the pattern of code switching

used, the pattern of code mixing used and the rationale for code switching and code mixing during

church sermons. The study was anchored and guided by the Speech Accommodation Theory and

Language Styles as Audience Design Theory. The study adopted the qualitative ethnographic research

approach using observational method of data collection from some selected churches in Gwagwalada

Area Council with the instrumentation of recording various sermons during Sunday services. The data

was analyzed through analytical and logical adoption of Huberman & Miles (2002)’s five steps, namely,

familiarisation, identifying a thematic framework, indexing, charting and mapping and interpreting. The

study revealed that there is a significant level of occurrence of code switching and code mixing in

sermons with a total of one hundred and one code switches (101) representing 71.6% of code switches

and forty (40) code mixes representing 28.4% of both language mixes showing that there was more

occurrence of code switching compared to code mixing in the sermons. It further revealed that the pattern

of code switching by the preachers was dominantly more of intersentential with 62.4% than

extrasentential with a percentage of 37.6%. It further revealed that there were more code mixing of

English-Hausa at phrase level comprising 55% of the code mixing. In addition, the reasons for code

switching and code mixing in church sermon in the light of the Speech Accommodation Theory were

for clarification, accommodation, sociolinguistic play, emphasis, and lack of lexical facility. The study

concluded that code switching and mixing play essential role in the use of English and Hausa as medium

of communication among preachers during church sermons. This justifies the need for further research

into the use of code switching and code mixing among religious groups such as Islam and the African

Traditional Religion just as it may also be useful to conduct a study of the same phenomenon in public

communication such as public announcements, political campaigns, media contents and other civic

communication.

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

General historical observation has proven that there is a symbiotic relationship existing between

the human society and language. The interdependence of these two has prompted several

investigations in the past to find out how the relationship between language and society operates.

However, language is viewed as a binding power and a shared identity, among various individuals

for communication. Language has a significant role in human existence and has a few uses for

humans as a means of interaction or communication in community life. This means that language

is a key to communication or interaction among individuals, without which one would not be able

to identify with one’s thoughts, and feelings, and one would not be able to share one’s insight with

others.

In the light of this, it is unthinkable for individuals to live without communication. In

communication, individuals ordinarily pick various codes in diverse circumstances. They may pick

a specific code or assortment since it makes it simpler for them to talk about a specific point,

notwithstanding where they are talking. It is like a system that is utilized by individuals to speak

with each other. When individuals need to talk to one another, they need to pick a specific code to

communicate their intentions. It is an impression of togetherness when individuals talk or convey

their intents in a specific language, code, register, signs, jargons, or style on various

communication events and reasons.

English language is a contact language in Nigeria just like other English speaking countries. The

role of English language is enormous. One of the functions of language is communication. Over

the years, many scholars have examined the consequences of its usage in Nigeria. In situation of

language contact, the point of contact is known as the bilingual individual, and there are usually at

2

least two interacting mother-tongue sets of people, each representing different linguistic groups.

When languages or speakers come in contact, varieties of phenomena are observed. These include

bilingualism, language switching and/or language mixing. Interference mostly manifests itself and

this influences the structure of the language.

Sometimes, individuals need to convey their intents to specific individuals or groups. To stay away

from the other groups or individuals meddling in their conversations, they may attempt to ignore

those individuals by utilizing the language or a "code" that not every person knows or can

understand. So, a code is utilized by individuals to speak with one another in various

circumstances. They may pick a specific code since it makes it simpler to express a specific point,

when they are talking. For example, when talking about work or school at home, they may utilize

the code that identifies more with those places as opposed to the language utilized in everyday

language at home.These occurrences are typical of bilingual and multilingual societies. This

explains why Milroy and Musyken (1995) define code switching and code mixing as (CS/CM)

“the alternative use by bilinguals of two or more languages in the same conversation.”

Poplack, Sankoff, Miller and Garcia (1988), following their work on the legitimacy of language

limits the term 'translanguaging' to show that dialects are not 'airtight fixed units'. Translanguaging

goes past code swithcing and code mixing as bilinguals use dialects dependent on suitability,

inclination, capacity and different variables. Hence, Poplack et al (1988) propose that

translanguaging is the ordinary act of "bilingualism without diglossic practical partition". Here,

the terms code switching and code mixing are utilized to portray any sort of language rotation

between the two dialects, English and Hausa (EH). So, code switching and code mixing have

become an intriguing phenomenon to concentrate with regard to specific use of language in the

3

public arena since it is important for advancement cycle and utilizes various dialects (bilingual) or

a combination of (multi-lingual).

Code switching (also spelt as codeswitching' or 'code switching and shortened as CS or code

mixing also spelt as codemixing or code mixing and shortened as CM) are occurrences in language

contact circumstances around the globe as an element of bilingual discourse. It results from at least

two dialects being in contact in a person's language just as in their discourse (Myers-Scotton,

2002). Code switching and code mixing cover the utilization of components of more than one

"code" in a discourse, word, expression, sentence or an expression (Grosjean, 1989).

Code mixing can be defined as changing from one language to another within the same utterance.

It is a common phenomenon in every society where two or more languages are utilized in

interaction. There has been tremendous body of literature addressing the phenomenon of two or

more disparate languages. Generally, these scenarios are referred to as code switching and code

mixing. The switch of languages can occur either at the intersentential level (code switching), or

it can occur at the intra sentential level (code mixing).

The historical backdrop of the study of code switching and code mixing shows that they owe their

pioneering investigation to the study of Fano in 1950, who worked on information technology and

their acquaintance into etymology crafted by Jakobson, Fant and Halle in 1952 (Gardner, 2009).

As indicated by Alvarez-Cáccamo (1999), the terms later became lexicalized, discovered

application in different territories of etymological examination, including auxiliary phonology and

bilingualism, and has been exposed to a wide scope of translations and definitions. As more

exploration in code switching and code mixing arose, the underlying utilization of the expression

"code" to mean an interior instrument of people and machines for discourse handling in paths to

speech material.

4

As speech and discourse definition made strides, the expression "code" got compared with

"language", while in its earliest usage,Jakobson, Fant and Halle (1952), code switching and code

mixing were conceptualized as "the shift of dialects, yet additionally of vernaculars, styles,

prosodic registers, paralinguistic signals, and so forth" (Alvarez-Cáccamo, 1999). Even though

"codes" by and large has to do with dialects, the significance currently stretches out to the entire

scope of phonetic varieties, (geological or social) varieties/tongues of a language, or even various

registers or discourse styles in speech communities.

According to Mashiri (2002), code switching is understood as the alternate use of two or more

languages within a single discourse or constituent. Kamisah (2009) in her study of content-based

lectures, found that code mixing and code switching serve functions ranging from changing,

clarifying explanation, enacting social relationships and mitigating messages. In this work,

emphasis is laid on how effective communication is made through code switching and code mixing

by Preachers in the church. This brings us to describing what communication really

is.Communication is the transmitting of a message from one party to another so that it can be

understood and acted upon.

MacSwan (2005) also describes communication as “any means by which a thought is transferred

from one person to another.” The reason for code switching and code mixing by the preacher, is

to drive across a message to the congregation. Communication is defined as imparting or

exchanging information by speaking or using some other medium.It is the successful conveying

or sharing of ideas and feelings from one person to another. This definition describes

communication as more than just transmitting information. It requires an element of success in

transmitting or imparting a message, whether emotions, information or ideas. This is what the

5

preacher does. He tries as much as possible to get to the people by what he utters through code

switching and code mixing.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Bilingual or multilingual societies are known for consciously or subconsciously mixing languages

in conversations.This has drawn the attention of language researchers such as (Muysken, 2000,

Chen, 2013; Jalaludeen, 2016; Orji and Chidebelu, 2017; Adetuyi, Owaniyi and Adeniran, 2017)

among others to investigate this phenomenon in various communication situations. Social

observations have equally proven that this phenomenon is typical among churches in Nigeria.

However, like other multilingual nations of the world, the implementation of language policy to

incorporate code switching and code mixing poses a serious challenge as scholars have paid little

attention to this occurrence in various formal settings. It is observed that this phenomenon does

not happen in a vacuum but has specific objectives such as what the speakers’ intend to achieve

through this system of coding styles. Therefore, this study inquired into the rationale for the

utilization of such a communication system in a church setting. It is also noticed that empirical

studies focusing on issues of code switching and code mixing by previous researchers have treated

code switching and code mixing independently, while the observation in the literature shows that

the two go hand-in-hand. Therefore, in the absence of considerable studies that examined the two

phenomena in both quantitative and qualitative approaches, this study sees the need to give a

statistical and descriptive examination to the phenomena. It is pertinent to investigate the more

prevalent between the two phenomena. This study examines the occurrence of code switching and

code mixing in church sermons in some selected churches in Gwagwalada Area Council of the

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, Nigeria.

6

1.3 Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study.

i. To what extent do code switching and code mixing take place in sermons in the selected

churches in Abuja?

ii. What are the patterns of codeswitching used by the preachers during sermons in the

selected churches?

iii. What are the patterns of code mixing adopted by the preachers during sermons in the

selected churches?

iv. What is the motivation for code switching and code mixing during church sermons in the

selected churches?

1.4 Purpose of the Study

The aim of this study is to linguistically analysis instances of code switching and code mixing in

sermons in selected churches. However, the specific objectives are:

i. To examine the extent of the occurrences of code switching and code mixing that take place

in sermons in selected churches in Abuja.

ii. To identify the patterns of code switching used by preachers in sermons of selected

churches in Abuja

iii. To identify the patterns of code mixing used by preachers in sermons of selected churches

in Abuja

iv. To analyse the motivation for code switching and code mixing during church sermons of

the selected churches in Abuja.

7

1.5 Significance of the Study

Theoretically, considering the occurrence of code switching and code mixing in a single study is

of significance to the theories of coding. This is because the known theories of coding such as

Pfaff (1979) and Poplack (1980) did not predict that such combinatory approach to the study of

both code switching and code mixing exist. Meanwhile, other advanced theories such as Poplack,

Wheeler, and Westwood (1989); Sankoff, Poplack, and Vanniarajan (1990) project such

combinationatary approach to be rare.Therefore, carrying out a study on both phenomena will give

a wider and rational theoretical ground to both phenomena as against the independent approach as

initially done.

The studyof code switching and code mixing is of particular importance to language study

specifically bilingualism. This study supports the Federal Government’s Language Policy about

bilingualism and multilingualism and the implementation of the Mother Tongue. By focusing on

the preacher-congregation interaction that takes place during church sermons, this study will

contribute additional information to the present literature on code switching and code mixing in

formal setting (church) as well as full participation and understanding of the sermons by the

congregation. It is also of significance in that it will add to the already existing literature on code

switching and code mixing, especially on English – Hausa bilingual’s form of interaction. The

findings from the study will assist in providing more critical and empirical insight on the manner,

types and rationale for code switching and code mixing in the speech of bilinguals. This study, by

extension, will assist in promoting language diversities. Finally, it will serve as an academic

discretionary consult for students seeking knowledge on the subject matter (code switching and

code mixing in church sermons).

8

1.6 Scope of the Study

This work focuses on code switching and code mixing in the sermons of selected churches. The

study covers thirty-six states and the FCT of Nigeria. However, due to certain constraints such as

finance, time and data availability, the study is restricted to Gwagwalada Area Council of FCT,

Abuja. The research scope covers 2019 and 2020.

1.7 Assumptions and Limitations of the Study

The assumptions of this study as observed by the researcher are the frequent and deliberate use of

code switching and code mixing among preachers in sermons in churches within Abuja. It is also

assumed that this phenomenon occurs in the preacher’s quest to clarify language complications

and to ensure better understanding. Likewise, it is assumed that the congregation appreciates such

occurrence as it enhances their level of comprehension of the sermons and information being

passed. In the current study, the researcher used the term code switching as an all-encompassing

term referring to the use of more than one language in a conversation or a sentence. Holme’s (2013)

definition of code switching “using more than one language in a single conversation as code

switching” and code mixing as “using more than one language in a single sentence” is adopted for

the study. The study analyzes the occurrence of code switching and code mixing in sermons in

selected churches. However, it was limited in some ways that should be addressed in subsequent

researches. Another limitation is that code switching and code mixing were only observed in a few

Hausa ethnic churches in the study area. This indeed limited the ability to generalize the findings

of the study.

9

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 Preamble

The review of related literature covers the ideas, stands and findings of different authors regarding

the subject matter under study. This covers conceptual frameworks such as sermon, code

switching, code mixing, and bilingualism. It incorporates the theoretical as well as reviews of

previous empirical studies.

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.1.1 Concept of Code

When individuals communicate or interact with other people in society at any point in time or

anywhere, they inevitably use a language. Without the instrumentation of language, individuals

will find it very difficult and confusing when carrying out their activities and action towards others

and expecting a replication or response. Language is a tool for human interactions and transactions.

The role and function of language among people in society individually and collectively cannot be

overemphasized. There are two sides to the conceptualization of code, while some scholars see

code as the units of language (language comprising of codes), others see code to be the form of

language Ronald (2006).

Code is generally a language or a tongue. It is a term used to signify any arrangement of signs, for

example, numbers, words, which convey solid information andat least two individuals can

utilizethat for correspondence. According to Stockwell (2002, p.8-9), code is “a symbol of

nationalism that is used by people to speak or communicate in a particular language, dialect or

register, or accent, or style on different occasions and for different purposes.

10

In day-to-day transactions and interaction, people choose diverse forms of codes in different

situations. They may choose one form of code or different codes because it makes it easier and

more convenient for them to discuss a particular issue. For example, when discussing at home, in

school, with peers, one may choose to use the language that is either related to those one is talking

to. A code is a framework that is utilized by individuals to speak with one another. When

individuals need to talk to one another, they need to pick or decide on a specific code to

communicate their minds or feeling (Toribio, 2009).

As submitted by Habib (2014), code refers "not exclusively to various dialects, yet also to various

types or similar language just as style inside a language” (p.3). There are different factors that

influence the decision of a specific code on a specific event. In ordinary conversation, individuals

pick various codes on various circumstances. They decide to utilize one code instead of another,

starting with one code then onto the next, and periodically like to utilize a code shaped from two

different codes by exchanging to and fro between the two.

One potential clarification for this situation is that individuals are confronted with picking a fitting

code when they talk. Lowi (2005) expresses that code can be characterized as a discourse

framework and the utilization of the language component, which has explicit elements in line with

the speaker's experience, the connection between the speaker and hearer and the circumstance. He

additionally includes that code can be said to be a language, yet additionally as the dialect of a

language including vernacular or style.

From the above, it can be ascertained thatnumerous language scholars have described code over

time that a code can be said to is a language of ‘difference’ utilized by people to communicate

with others. Likewise, one can deduce that the circumstance, setting or occasion decides the choice

11

of code. Therefore, this study is concerned with the using, mixing and switching of code in church

sermons.

2.1.2 Conceptualization of Sermon

The word ‘sermon’ originated from the Latin word “sermo”, a derivative of the French word

“sermonette” which connotes "discourse". A sermonette refers to a short address, often associated

with television broadcastingbefore signing off for the night. A sermon is further conceptualized

as an address or discourse made by a preacher or a member of the clergy with the goal of giving

knowledge or instruction to the members of a church. As put forth, sermons address a scriptural,

theological, or moral topic, usually expounding on a type of belief, law, or behaviour within both

past and present contexts. Elements of the sermon often include exposition, exhortation, and

practical application. The act of delivering a sermon is often termed “preaching”. In Christian

churches, a sermon occurs in a place of worship, either from an elevated architectural feature,

known as a pulpit or an ambo, or from behind a lectern. Sometime, in order to get to the people

clearer in sermon, the preacher adopts a method of code switching and code mixing.

2.1.3 Conceptualization of Bilingualism

Bilingualism is the use of two languages by the speakers in interaction with others in turn (Sutopo,

2010). A bilingual is a person who speaks two languages. Ayoemoni (2006) defines bilingualism

as knowing two languages. Harmers and Blanc (2000,p 6) define bilingualism as “the

psychological state of an individual who has access to more than one linguistic code as a means of

social communication: the degree of access will vary along a number of dimensions which are

psychological, cognitive, psycholinguistic, socio- psychological, sociological, sociolinguistic,

sociocultural and linguistic.” To be able to use the second language, someone must master both

12

languages. First, his own mother tongue or first language, and the second is another language that

is the language of both (Naseh, 2002).

It is significant to note that code switching and code mixing are not just brought about by

bilingualism, likewise happens in multilingualism and monolingualism. In monolingulism code

switching and code mixing happen as far as the status or level of discourse itself. As expressed by

Sutopo (2010) code switching and code mixing do not just happen in bilingual or multilingual

communities, but even in monolingual communities they use only one language, they may mix or

switch the language style. This is done by moving from the high standard version of a language to

a lower version of same language. For example, in Nigeria where one may move from the Queen's

English to the popular Pidgin English. It is because the term code doesn't generally allude to

language. However, it alludes to style, for example, the statement of higher discourse and lower

discourse.

Romaine (2000) agrees with Sutopothat monolingual communities utilize one language, but could

additionally engage in the switching. However, what they mix and switch are not different codes

but registers of same language. In addition, Iimuro (2006) gives more detail clarification about the

phenomenon of language decisions. For example, code switching where speakers swith starting

with one language then into the next and another happens in multilingual communities often. This

study is conducted under a bilingual setting, it is therefore important to examine the notion about

bilingualism. As expressed by Matras (2000) bilingualism alludes to the capacity to communicate

in two dialects.

Canagarajah (2012) disclosesthat bilingualism alludes to the term language.It pertains to where

individuals of bilingual network utilize two dialects in their everyday lives and ready to control

thetwo dialects as locally alike.sNevertheless, bilingual does not merely imply thecapacity of

13

individuals to communicate in or utilize two dialects. It also alludes to the general public of the

bilingual speakers or the circumstance where individuals utilize two dialects. Affirming the above

defnintion, Lowi (2005) expresses that bilingualism alludes to the social gathering in which its

participation is not dictated by the utilization of two dialects but controlled by various criteria.

It is important to note that there are degrees when classifying bilinguals. Some bilinguals speak

both languages proficiently while others may have a preferred language and interact more in that

language. Martin-Jones, (2003) identifies five major variables in bilingualism. One of these

variables is the ‘Degree of Bilingualism’. According to him, it is rare to find bilinguals who have

equal mastery of both languages, in that one language becomes more prominent in use than the

other.

For Hakuta (2009), bilingualism (multilingualism) refers to the coexistence of more than one

language system within an individual, as contrasted to monolingualism. Researches have been

carried out and which suggestthat when a person has a native-like proficiency in both languages,

such a person is considered as a true bilingual. From these elaborations, the term of bilingualism

partains to the utilization of two dialects, and the circumstance where two dialects are

utilized.Accordingly, bilingualism is experienced in language usage where speakers of two dialects

are allowed to pickwhicheverlanguage they feel the need to use as they interact with one another.

Snodin (2014) holds that bilingualism offers the likelihood to persons in a particular setting to pick

which language they need to talk or use. It will be balanced relying upon specific conditions or

purposes. Coupland and Jaworski (1999) express that language decisions are influenced by both

subject and settings. Likewise, Wardhaugh (2010) avers that language decision is dictated by the

specific circumstance. This setting is referred to by Fasold (1987) as "domain", which portrays

that one language is considered more suitable than another (Rasul, 2006).

14

Similarly, Holmes (2008) maintains that the term“domain” is a general idea drawn on three

significant social factors in language decision. These are membership, setting and theme. In

addition,there are other different factors, including social separation between the

conversationalists, status relationship of questioners, the social job of the questioners, and work or

the objective of the connection. Social separation shows` how well the conversationalists know

one another, models, outsiders, companions, sibling, etc. Status relationship demonstrates the

status of the questioners, regardless of whether they have sequential status. It ordinarily happens

in a legitimate circumstance, for example, the interaction between a chief and manager. The social

job shows the status contrasts between the questioners.For example, the interaction between an

educator and student or a specialist and patient.

In language contact circumstances, the purpose of contact in bilingual individuals is, in most part,

the interwoveness of two cooperating languages, each speaking to various social and phonetic

group. When speakers of different dialects or languages come in contact, there is a significant

tendency for code switching and code mixing. Interference shows in the impact the structure of

one language has on another, or as is even more as often as possible the case, an uncontrolled

circumstance. To differentiate between the terms bilingualism and multilingualism, Gardner-

Chloros (2010) describes a bilingual as “a person who has some form of functional ability in the

second language.” This could vary from a limited ability in one or more domains, to a high level

of command of both languages.

Thus, an average Nigerian is bilingual, giving to using code switching and code mixing of English

language and any indigenous language due to the contact between English and the indigenous

dialects. During the colonial time in Nigeria, at first, such phenomenon was not too significant

since English language-speaking individual were not many, and for the most part, lived separated

15

from the indigenes. Nonetheless, negligible transformations showed in the adjustment and

articulations to make English serve its newconditions, which obviously is what we have today

(Inuwa, 2014).

English is the language of trade in Nigeria. The coming of the Portuguese and the European

ministers of the gospel in Nigeria brought about language contact. They brought along their

language which the indigenes did not comprehend, which called for translation and the need to

learn the language for productivity and adequacy of business exchange by the indigenes.The

language was also expected to be utilized explicitly with the end goal of exchanges. The most

significant part of an exchange language is that it may not be a first language of any user. This

development consequently brought about a mix of at least two languages associated with the

business exchange. A typical case of exchange language was then pidgin (Jidda, 2012).

Therefore, it was clearly defined that any individual who needs to be fruitful in trade or business

must speak English language, regardless of how little. This was so since, almost all the products

to be sold were named in English not in the indigenous languages like Yoruba, Igbo, or Hausa

language. At Nigerians independence, English was adoptedas the official language, the language

for training, discretion, innovation aswell as the lingua franca/national/official/most widely used

language in the socio-economic sectors of the nation.

As indicated by Gough (2000), 33% of Africans know about English and how to speak it while

89% of Whites and 51% of Coloreds have a speaking capacity of English. Hence, even though

English is not the first language of the majority, it is spoken and comprehended by most of the

populace. In Africa, English seems to have a special status among all the official

dialects.McCormick (2002) contends that English is esteemed in the light of the fact that it is the

16

most widely used language. Language specialists are currently contending that ongoing language

studies in Africa has been distinctly retrogressive (Moodley 2000; Kamwangamalu, 2000)

Plainly, the advancement of multilingualism and the encouraging of our etymological decent

variety on the side of the social change that we have accomplished in different areas, just as the

job of language organization isadvancing or hindering economic development and advancement.

Brand (2004) calls attention to, "a careful examination of improvements throughout the last

decade, against the foundation of expansionism, isolation and politically-sanctioned racial

segregation, andargured that that language is one of the critical variables that will decide the

bearing wherein our general public will be created.

Most of the available information in Africa is accessible in English language compared to the

different local dialects. This is an issue since information about administration that is written in

English may be available to individuals who are capable in that language. Along these lines,

language can turn into an obstruction in guaranteeing that everybody understands available

information. This may lead to differences between various language networks in their entrance to

administrations (Ngcobo, 2009).

A long period after imperialism and colonialism, the inter-breeding among English and a

significant number of the indigenous dialects started, essentially due to the considerable increase

in the social, political and institutional as well as educational impact of the then English local

speakers, and the expansion in school populace. Personal contact created among English speakers

and the local communities contributed to a large number of the local individuals getting bilingual

and not having differing capacities to keep the two dialects. This later advancement built up the

social and historical settings leading to the emergence of bilingualism.

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2.2 Code Switching

A simple definition of code switching is the alternate use of more than one code. It could be a

language, dialect or speech variety in the same conversation. Kuntze (2010) posits that code

switching is normally thought of, as mixing two languages in an utterance. Many authors have

come up with different definitions, some of which are presented as follows. Hymes (1974) defines

code mixing as “a common term for the alternate use of two or more languages, varieties of a

language or even speech styles.”

Barnabas (1995) defines code switching as the mixing of words, phrases, sentences from two

distinct grammatical sub systems across sentence boundaries within the same speech event, while

Al-Hourani and Afizah (2013, p 40) define code switching as an act of using more than one

language within a conversation. Boztepe (2005) viewscode switching as an alternation between

languages or dialects during a single conversation while Mabule (2015) asserts that code switching

is a process of using more than one language within a clause or an utterance spontaneously.

Bilingual speakers often "switch codes" meaning they move from the use of one language to

another and sometimes back again in the course of having a conversation.It is often confusing and

not very vivid to the individual which language they are speaking at a particular point in time.

According to Silva-Corvalaán (2016), code switching results in language mixing. However, in

major cases, one of the languages wins out, while the other is demoted to subsidiary status. Silva-

Corvalaán further discloses that while using the subordinate language speaker’s code-switch to

lighten the “cognitive load of having to remember and use two different linguistic systems.” Code

switching may become a significant part of bilingual speech when there is no functional

differentiation between the two languages in contact or restrictions on their usage. In Nigeria,

communication, education, transactions and mobility of persons from places of origin (mostly

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rural) to other parts of the country (urban) facilitate the shifting from local or indigenous languages

to English.

According to Wardhaugh (2010), code switching is a conversational strategy used to establish,

cross or destroy group boundaries to create and evoke changesin interpersonal interaction with one

antoher. Uys and Va- Dulm (2011) explain that code switching is a phenomenon of using more

than one language within the same sentence or conversation that maybe found during an exchange

of utterance.

Some scholars have describes code switching as a synonym of code mixing

because of the fine line that exists between the two phenomena. According to Muysken (2000)code

switching, is a process of interchanging languages during a single speech event whereas code

mixing is an all-encompassing term that extends to the interchanging of languages to

grammaticalfeatures and lexical items. Aligned with the latter scholar, Holmes (2013, Pp 34-36)

provides differentdefinitions for code switching and code mixing. However, her definition differed

fromMuysken’s(2000) in that she argues that code mixing occurs when a switch is made within a

sentence (intrasententially), and code switching is a switch that occurs between sentences

(intersententially). Chen (2013) supports this understanding of code switching and code mixing.

In view of Gardner in Coupland and Jaworski (1997), code switching is a typical phenomenon in

bilingual and multilingual networks, where it is characterized as the utilization of at least two

dialects or languages in a similar articulation. According to Wang (2003), code switching can be

characterized as starting with one language then moving unto the next. Also,Thomson (2001)

argues that code exchanging is the utilization of two dialects or done by single speaker in a single

utterance or discussion, in which a similar discussion here implies that all the speakers talk or

possibly comprehend both or all the languages being spoken.

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Studying the conversations of persons who code switch, one will discover that most times it is

deliberately done to bring about some form of bonding between the persons from the same area. It

can also be used to exclude a person from a particular conversation. Code switching could be seen

as a symbol of solidarity with a group of persons.

Code switching is divided into various categories. Gumperz in Bullock (2009) divides code

switching into two kinds, namely; the situational code switching and conversational code

switching. Situational code switching can be described as the switching that occurs because the

speaker’s context and change in topi. In constrast, the conversational code switching occurs when

there are changes in language or variety without any such external prompting.

Moreover, Wardhaugh (2010) groups code switching into two terms: situational code switching

and figurative/metaphorical code switching. Situational code switching happens when the

language change is dependent on the circumstance where the discussion happens yet it does not

include the difference in the point. However, metaphorical code exchanging happens when the

language change in switching happens when the subject of the discussion is changed as well.

Metaphorical /Figurative code switching likewise happens when the interlocutors change the code

as they consider the circumstance of the discussion, for example, from formal to casual.

Thomas (2010) divides code switching into two terms: inter-sentential code switching and intra-

sentential code switching. Inter-sentential code changing is characterized as the changing starting

with one language then onto the next at a sentence limit. While intra-sentential code switching is

the exchange which happens inside a single sentence such as a change of a word in a sentence.

Regarding Inter sentential code switching, this involves a significant amount of syntactic

complexity and conformity to rules of both languages. This means that persons who perform this

kind of code switching are fairly proficient in the participating languages while in Intra sentential

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code switching, the switching is done inside the same clause or sentence, which then contains

elements of both languages.

Furthermore, in examining the function of code switching, Holmes (2008) summarizes: (i) code

switching is motivated by identity and relationship between participants often used to express

solidarity, (ii) it is used as quotation from other language, such as proverb, (iii) code switching

used to signal ethnic identity, and (iv) for affective functions.

Thomson (2010) states that the functions of code switching are: to fill a lexical gap in the other

language and soften the effect of something unpleasant, such as taboo or rude and impolite words

or verbal expressions. Sebba (2011) gives a more elucidating and expanded function of code

switching in writing, such as poetry and novel, where he opines that code switching serves socio-

pragmatic functions, obey stylistic or aesthetic rules, for marking identify, credibility source and

to communicate biculturalism, humor, criticism, and ethnicity, as a means of alienation and as

characterization. It could also be used for rhetorical reasons, and utilized as a style in terms of tone,

imagery, and rhetorical devices.

2.3. Code Mixing

Muysken (2000) describes code mixing as “all cases where lexical items and grammatical features

from two languages appear in the same sentence.” Souza (2014) in his work, describes code

switching as mixing of mostly words, but also phrases, clauses or even complete sentences of two

languages or varieties. Persons tend to code mix between two languages because they may not be

used to making use of a particular word. Perhaps, they use the word less frequently. Code mixing

also could be done when a person forgets a word completely or does not even know how to use

them at all.

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For Olaoye (2014), code mixing “is random alternation of two languages within a sentence”. He

goes further to describe code mixing as a “deliberate mixing of two languages without an

associated topic change. It is primarily used as a solidarity marker” (Olaoye 2014). For him, code

mixing is practiced not because the interlocutors have a poor knowledge of the codes but because

they know and understand the codes so well. In other words, they feel very comfortable when they

alternate between two languages.

As indicated by Grin, (2006), code mixing refers to "Utilizing two dialects in such a way that it

projects the birth or introduction of a 'new' third code. It implies that code mixing happens at the

point when two codes exchanged dialects generate the presence of a third code”.

Bima (2012) opines that code mixing characterizes two ideas. For him, code mixing is the mixing

of words, expressions and sentences from two particular linguistic (sub) frameworks across

sentence limits inside the same discourse. Code mixing is the inserting of linguistic unit such as

affixes (bound morphemes), words (unbound morphemes), phrases and clauses from a single

expression where the participants infer what is intended, must reconcile what they hear with what

they understand. The common element between these two codes is that the term“code mixing”

underscores mixing, starting with one language then onto the next. Code mixing frequently stresses

hybridization.

On the types of code mixing available, as indicated by Suwito (1983), code mixing is partitioned

into two groups: namely inner code mixing and outer code mixing. For him, inner code mixing

occurs in situation where components of an expression are inclusion from original language with

all its variety while Outer code mixing occurs in situations as a result of component additions

coming from a foreign dialect with a first language. It implies that the primary language of the

22

speaker here is embedded with his or her own first language or embedded with a foreign dialect

or language from the speaker's tribe or linguistic background.

Muysken (2000) divides code mixing into three types, namely; insertion (word phrase), alteration

and congruent lexicalization (dialect). For him, insertion occurs when one approaches a sentence

with the insertion of a foreign word into an expression made in local or first language. Secondly,

alternation occurs when one amalgamates or combines both foreign and first words in a particular

expression, description or sentence. Thirdly, congruent lexicalization occurs as result of style

shifting and dialect/standard variation rather than bilingual language use proper. However, in all

the types of code mixing above, the code involved in the language are in form of pieces either in

words or phrases and does not independently convey absolute meaning or function as a language.

2.4 Reasons for Code Switching and Code Mixing

The motivation, rationale or reasons for a speaker code switching or code mixing is fundamental

and worth considering for better understanding of the significance of these phenomena in human

interaction and language development. Poplack (1980) identifies and proposes twelve (12) reasons

or rationale for which people code-switch and code-mix. These reasons are equally supported by

Holmes (2001) and Smit (2011). They are (i) expression of identity, (ii) ethnic identity marker,

(iii) changing of the topic, (iv) to quote someone, (v) as a sign of respect shown by the speaker (vi)

as a way to ease tension and bring humour into conversation, (vii) to help clarify a point/ emphasise

meaning (viii) to reinforce a request (ix) when they do not know a word or phrase in one language

(x) meaning is lost through translation (xi) interjection and (xii) to exclude other people when a

comment is intended for only limited audience.

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2.5 Theoretical Framework

This study is hinged on Speech Accommodation Theory and Bell's 'Language Styles as Audience

Design Theory.

2.5.1 Speech Accommodation Theory

Speech Accommodation Theory was propounded by Howard Giles in the early 1970s and was

developed as an effort or attempt to understand why speakers during different or various social

encounters alter their styles of speech. The theory proposes that there are two processes at work.

The first process, a speaker may decide to choose a particular linguistic method or strategy when

their speech or expression agrees or converges with that of the audience or the interlocutors. Here,

there will be an effect of establishing a consonance in the speech in terms of rates or utterances

(Howard and Ogay, 2007). Secondly, a speaker may decide to highlight the disparity or difference

between each other and the interlocutors and this is done through the manipulation of similar

linguistic elements. This is equally known as divergence. So, the idea of the Speech

Accommodation holds that speakers can achieve certain objectives or purpose which may be to

either establish a sense of difference or consolidate a sense of solidarity or identity with a particular

group of people Morishima (1999).

According to Howard and Ogay (2007), Speech Accommodation Theory provides a wide-ranging

framework aimed at predicting and explaining many of the adjustments individuals make to create,

maintain, or decrease social distance in interaction. It explores the different ways in which

individuals accommodate communication, motivations for doing so, and the consequences or

outcome of such decisions. The theory further addresses interpersonal communication issues, yet

also links it with the larger context of the intergroup stakes of an encounter. When members of

24

two cultural groups come together they often have to make choices about whose communication

system to use and how much to accommodate from each other’s speeches.

Kim (2003) suggests that the linguistic code, as one of the primary media through which the daily

activities of human affairs are conducted, can well be described as a carrier of culture. Of specific

and particular importance in speech Accommodation Theory is the idea or notion that a speaker

can decide to conform to a particular social group through the code or language of communication,

and as well gain their approval (convergence) or use a code or language that is foreign to the

hearers and get their disapproval (divergence).

It is generally believed that Nigeria tends to emphasize respect for the feelings and personality of

others, rather than just to communicate for one’s own self-expression. In other words, people tend

to view others in terms of the role they play in a particular communication process or group, rather

than in the content of what is said, because this depends on supportive code or gesture from others

accrediting their sense of belonging in the group. So, code switching and code mixing can

obviously be deduced as a social element or marker that is manipulated by a speaker during

conversation or communication to establish a sense of oneness with a particular set of individuals

(Morishima, 1999).

According to the tenets of this theory as related to this study, it proposes that preachers adopt code

mixing and switching to achieve an intended communication success when addressing members

of their congregation from a different inter cultural, ethnic and linguistic diversity to have a

common understanding of the message being preached. Therefore, the Speech Accommodation

Theory is applied in this work because it attempts to explain and predict why, when and how

preachers adjust their communicative behaviour during sermons in church.

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2.5.2 Language Styles as Audience Design Theory

The Language Styles as Audience Design Theory was propounded by Alan Bell in 1984. Alan

argues that the stylistic distinction in speech shares a functional relationship with code switching

and code mixing among bilinguals. According to him, “Audience Design” refers to the fact that

speakers design their speech or utterances in response to the demand and requirements of the

audience they are speaking to. Audience here refers to the addressee in the communication, or

individuals who are participating in the communication process but not directly addressed. They

could also be referred to as the eavesdroppers or the reference group.

Alan Bell through the instrumentality of this theory illustrates that there are three cardinal and

basic positions in which speakers or communicators take in order to respond to their diverse

audiences or addressees. The first involves the speaker assessing the personal characteristics or

attribute of the audience and then adapting or designing their speaking style to suit the attributes

of such audience. Secondly, the communicator appraise the general style level of the audience’s

speech, and communicate using it. Thirdly, the communicator examines and evaluates the

audiences’ or addresses’ levels for particular linguistic variables, and then modifies the speech so

that it corresponds/agrees to their level. Bell submits that speakers generally respond at all three

levels.

In respect to the audience design, the auditor’s impact on choice of language and code among

bilinguals is more evident and significant compared to the choice of codes and language among

monolinguals, because there are obvious diversities between the languages. Therefore, there is the

demand and pressure to accommodate the audience that is considered as a greater demand in

bilinguals. The application of Bell’s theory on the current study rests on the fact that it is believed

that preachers are aware of the linguistic level of their audience and consciously adopta

26

communication style which is familiar to both the speaker and audience by code switching and

code mixing to ensure that they are carried along on the messages or sermons. It is equally believed

that their interaction or communication pattern are audience friendly and familiar as much as

possible leading to the usage of first and second language interchangeably.

2.6 Empirical Review

Code switching and code mixing have been of interest to several scholars, especially as it concerns

teaching and learning either in religious or educational settings. Therefore, this section looks at

some of the studies carried out on the subject matter.

Firstly, Susanto (2006) carried out a study on code switching in Islamic Religious Discourse: The

role of Insha Allah. The study reflected on an earlier study by Barnes and Mohamed in 1994 who

conducted a study in Ladium, a town in Pretoria, where they studied the linguistic patterns and

style of Muslims who were Indians and speak various languages ranging from Telugu, Tamil, Urdu

Gujarati, among other Indian languages. The study revealed that when the Indians teach or discuss

religious matters, they code-switched from their mother tongues to Arabic because the Muslim

religion was given and administered to them in Arabic. The study equally revealed that they code

switched when they made reference to an event in the Qur’an and also code-switched due to the

intimacy of the religious practices that were being carried out which is easier believed in Arabic

than in Indian or English. The similarity between Susanto’s study and this current is that both study

examine code switching in religious settings. However, the studies’ point of divergence has to do

with the inclusion of code mixing in this current study which is left out of Susanto’s study and the

current one focused on the Christian religious setting in other to balance the general phenomenon

of coding in religious settings in general.

27

A study by Kamisah & Misyana in (2011) examined code switching and code mixing of English

and Bahasa Malaysia in content based classrooms with specific focus on frequency and attitudes.

The motivation for the study which was undertaken in a public university in Malaysia was based

on the researchers’ observation that codeswitching and codemixing of English and Bahasa

Malaysia occur extensively as communicative behaviour among instructors and students. Through

the instrumentation of self-completed questionnaires and interviews as methods for data collection,

the findings of the study revealed that instructors frequently code-switched and code-mixed

between the two languages in the classroom. It also revealed that the occurrence of these

phenomena was related to the instructors’, as well as the students’ own linguistic competence.

Furthermore, it was discovered that the purpose of code switching and code mixing was to facilitate

effective teaching and learning. However, it was observed that there was a mixed attitude towards

codeswitching and code mixing in that while both instructors and students agreed that code

switching and code mixing can promote better understanding, the latter (students) with better

English proficiency, felt that such communicative behaviour can be off-putting, as it does not help

in improving their linguistic competence in English. This study however raises further concern on

the conflict between the policy and its actual implementation that certainly has some implications

on language development and effective communication. While this study examined both code

switching and code mixing forming a point of similarity between this study and the current work,

the former focused on English and Bahasa while the current study focuses on English and Hausa

in Nigeria. However, Kamisah & Misyana (2011) could not establish between the two phenomena

of code switching and code mixing that was more dominant in the communication. The current

study sought to bridge this gap.

28

Jelena (2012) also analysed code switching and code mixingbetween two bilingual children from

the Serbian-English language interaction. The core objective of his study was to analyze the code

choice and the motivation behind such pattern in order to ascertain whether there are any

differences. Data used in the analysis of the study was collected through informal conversations

and observation recorded in the residence of the two families. The collected data along with the

observational notes were analyzed sentence-by-sentence and separated into several dyads in order

to understand the relation between the children’s code switching/code mixing and the converser.

The study revealed that the most common motivation behind the children’s code choice is

solidarity which establishes “we code”, referential, directive and reactive to positive/negative face

and power. However, the major difference between the two children’s language behavior regarding

code choice is rather in the patterns of code switching versus code mixing. It was observed that

the boy who was a natural bilingual and acquired the second language (L2) simultaneously was

more prone to code switching, while on the other hand, the girl who acquired L2 consecutively

adopted the syntax of Serbian language, using more code mixing during her conversation and

interactions. The study concluded that close connection of the linguistic behavior with the

linguistic environment exposes essential mechanisms of speakers’ ability to adjust their language

skills to their conversational needs. Jelena’s study and this current study have thematic similarities

in that both focused on code switching and code mixing. Meanwhile, the former study focused on

the motivation for such phenomena in a natural (informal) setting among little children, but the

later shifts attention to adult communication in a formal setting to identify the pattern of these

phenomena.

In the same vein, Amuzu (2012) examined the socio-pragmatics of conversational code switching

in Ghana. The purpose of Amuzu’s study was to ascertain the various socio-pragmatics of

29

conversational code switching in a multilingual nation like Ghana. It presented detailed textual

analyses of code switching in which Ewe-English and Akan-English bilinguals employ in various

social contexts, including informal interactions at home, at semiformal discussions in study group

meetings at school and interactions on talk-radio. The study situated the discussion within an

ongoing debate about the future of indigenous Ghanaian languages in intensive code switching

contact with English. It specifically took on the speculation that most of the local languages in this

kind of contact were sooner rather than later transformed into mixed codes. Based on the data

collected and analysed, the study found out that code switching appeared to be predominantly

unmarked (that is, appears to fulfil little or no pragmatic and discursive functions in interactions

beyond indexing speakers’ solidarity). Nevertheless, on closer observation, it was realized that

many code switching instances that could pass as unmarked were illustrations of marked code

switching, which bilinguals employ stylistically to convey specifiable social and discourse

intentions. The study however predicted that Ghanaianswould slow down ongoing development

of their languages into mixed codes if they continue to use marked code switching. This conclusive

prediction stemmed from the fact that bilinguals who use marked code switching alongside

unmarked code switching usually have the mental capacity to keep their languages apart as codes

with separate identities.The similarity between Amuzu’s study and this study is that they both hold

focus on code switching. However, while Amuzu’s is narrowly focused on only code switching,

the current work expand to include code mixing based on the consideration that both phenomena

go hand-in-hand in bilingual settings. However, there is also variation in scope and location of the

study in that Amuzu study was conducted in Ghana while this is in Nigeria.

In 2012, Ndebele examined the socio-cultural approach to code switching and code mixingamong

speakers of Isizulu in kwazulu-natal. Ndebele’s study provided an overview of the socio-cultural

30

functions and motivations of English-IsiZulu code switching among speakers among the study

population (Inanda, Ntuzuma and KwaMashu (INK) in Durban. The objectives of the study was

to explore the socio-cultural functions of code switching, to explain why IsiZulu speakers code-

switch a lot, the socio-cultural factors as well as the linguistic factors that contributes to the

predominance of code switching and to demonstrate its significance among IsiZulu-English

bilinguals. The Myers-Scotton (1993)’s Markedness was adopted as the theoretical framework of

the study based on the fact that the model is useful analyzing code switching because it accounts

for the speaker’s socio-psychological motivations when code switching. Secondly, the Heller

(1992)’s ideological-political model was also utilized as a supplementary model in this study in

order to understand the role and significance of code switching in the community and distribution

of access to valued resources and the way in which that value is assigned. The research approach

adopted for the study was the phenomenological parade in which both qualitative and quantitative

methodologies were employed. Data for the study were gathered through voice recordings of

naturally occurring conversations, semi-structured interviews and participant observation. The

voice-recorded conversations were transcribed and analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively.

The study revealed that code switching serves a number of functions in speech ranging from

emphasis, clarifying, accommodation and exclusion, word replacement to expanding, among

others. It was also revealed that this phenomenon is motivated by social and cultural factors such

as one’s educational background, the influence of the media, social identity, cultural loyalty and

disloyalty, the influence of Christianity, political influence, unconscious linguistic behaviour and

linguistic incompetence. In examining Ndebele’s study, despite the similarity in themes which are

code switching and code mixing, it can be observed that his work focused on the socio-cultural

approach to occurrence, while the current study focuses on the linguistic analysis. Therefore, both

31

studies complement each other in that the current study provides a linguistic angle to what

Ndebele’s study was able to do earlier.

Chen (2013) examined the motivation for code switching in the Chinese Christian Church in the

United States. He studied code switching with specific focus on the English-Chinese speaking

Christians who code-switched between English and Chinese languages at predominantly “Chinese

churches” in the United States of America. The data for study was elicited from an observation

that took place over a period of one month during the bible study sessions and during the Sunday

school services. These were then used to observe the code switching patterns. The study initially

hypothesised that the preachers code-switched due to style and identity but after testing, it was

rejected as a result of the fact that they code-switched for the sake of clarification. Further findings

about the rationale for code switching among Bible teachers and preachers revealed that they

included shifting of the message, because of the mood that the congregants were during the time

the message was delivered, and the level of competence or incompetence of the preacher and as

well as trying to strengthen the character of preaching. In Chen’s study of the motivation for code

switching, it resonates with the objective of the current study in that both are scoped in Christian

religious setting. However, while the initial focused on just motivation, the later linguistically

seeks to see the patterns in not just code switching but with the inclusion of code mixing seek to

establish how such phenomena occur among churches in not China but in Nigeria which bring a

scope gap and which this study seeks to fill.

Gulzar, Farooq and Umer (2013) looked into the inter-sentential patterns of code switching with

focus on gender basis using male and female EFL Teachers. This study’s aim was to identify EFL

male and female teachers’ patterns of ISPCS in the EFL classrooms, explain how male and female

teachers accomplish their interaction in the EFL classrooms by using ISPCS; and define the ways

32

in which EFL teachers achieve proper coordination of communication in the interaction of EFL

classrooms. Through a detailed analysis of recorded data produced in that context, distinctive

features in the discourse were discerned which were associated with males’ and females’ inter-

sentential switches. The ethnography of interaction was selected as a research design to record and

transcribe the sessions of eight resource persons of Allama Iqbal Open University. After the

analysis, the study indicated that all the male and female teachers switched code in the boundary

of ISS. Furthermore, trends were determined among male and female teachers for the patterns of

inter-sentential switches. Finally, this study conclusively developed an understanding about the

phenomenon of inter-sentential switches which gave more insight of the teaching/learning

situation in the EFL context.With the specification of this study on inter-sentential patterns of code

switching, it establishes a ground for the current study as it studied one of the strands of the issues

under study. However, the current study goes beyond the inter-sentential level to looking at the

phenomena wholly.

In addition, Ling, Jin, Tong, Tarmizi and Sahiddan (2013) studied the influence of English

lecturer’s code switching practice on students’ confidence in the subject in Malaysia. The study

took its approach from the students’ perspectives in response to what they think about their

teachers’ code-witching practice. In other words, the aim of their study was to find out whether

students react positively or negatively to their lecturer’s alternation from English to other

languages while teaching. In such case, the researcher used the study to assess the students’

reaction towards the lecturer’s code switching in class. The survey method was adopted and self-

designed questionnaire was distributed to 27 students of Bachelors of Science degree programme

in Software Engineering to investigate their lecturer’s code switching in relevance to their affective

reaction and their learning success. The study revealed that students do not hold strong beliefs in

33

code switching as a practice that can ease their learning processes and the practice does not appeal

significantly to their affection. At the same time, it was discovered that students do not perceive it

as an effective way from their lecturer to help achieve their success in learning English. Finally,

the study drew two conclusions based on the results of this research. First, that English proficiency

students do not need translation or alternating from English to other languages to assist their

understanding, and secondly, that students do not favour alternation of languages in an English

classroom, because they are expecting more English exposure from the lecturer to familiarise

themselves with the target language.

Akinkurolere & Abuya (2013) examined the manifestation of code switching among

Yoruba/English semilinguals. The study explored the manifestation of code switching with

reference to ten-selected 3 year-old school children with the Yoruba language serving as the

children’s first language (L1) and the English language serving as the second language (L2). The

Theoretical framework for the study was anchored on Peng (1986) theory of Insight which attempt

to achieve explanation or interpretation of what the text is about when it is measured against or

placed in the ‘context of situation’ as a background. The method for data collection was

specifically through direct observation. The children were watched and interrogated as they

communicate in a play group within a time range of two weeks. Hence, the data for discussion and

analysis were from the natural discourse of the three-year old semi-lingual. Then, ten significant

instances of code switching among the children were selected randomly for the purpose of their

analysis and the instances were labelled I-X and then the data were translated and analyzed

according to Insight theory of Peng (1986). From the data collected and analysed, the researchers

were able to discover the fact that although semi-lingual children in Yoruba /English acquire both

languages, there is dominance of English language at the expense of Yoruba language, especially

34

in the educational setting. Furthermore, it was revealed that the primary language of discussion

among the children is English language. Then, they also realised that for the children, code

switching functions from asserting meaning, laying emphasis, promoting interpersonal

relationship, to seeking approval. The study however recommended speech act analysis of children

utterances.

Abiodun (2015) studied code mixing among Yoruba-English Bilinguals. This study examined the

phenomenon of code mixing among educated Yoruba-English bilinguals. It addressed the

questions of the frequency of switches from one language to the other, the predictability of such

switches, the susceptibility of particular word classes to switching, and the relationship between

language mixing and linguistic borrowing. The study revealed that there was a high frequency of

code mixing among the Yoruba-English bilinguals.

Nikuigize (2016) examined code switching in university classroom interaction, using the

University of Dares-Salaam. The study was premised on the assumption that lecturers are likely to

make marked language choices consciously or unconsciously with first year students because they

are new to the university’s English spoken register. The primary objective of this particular paper

is to identify, describe, document and analyse the types of code switching that lecturers used during

lectures. A Discourse Analysis (DA) approach facilitated the identification and analysis of the

lecturers’ code switching. The findings indicated that lecturers used inter- and intra-sentential code

switching to engage with students, to translate concepts, to explain, to manage students’ behaviour,

and to advise or encourage students. These findings helped reveal how participants in their

practical contexts do things the way they do, even when this runs contrary to how the things are

planned, evaluated and accounted for elsewhere in theory or at a higher hierarchical level in an

organisation.

35

Snell (2016) looked at code switching during church services in South Tucson, Arizona. The study

addressed the frequency of each language between English and Spanish in the bilingual church

service, which language was marked (according to Myers-Scotton’s (1998) markedness model),

what patterns of language alternation was used during the church service and factors that impacted

language choice and codes-switching during bilingual services. The theoretical framework of the

study was hinged on Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Theory that explained the variation in linguistic

code choices and acknowledgement of the socio-pragmatic functions of code switching and

Elster’s (1989) rational choice model, which suggests that speakers’ ability to choose rationally is

governed by two filters: external and internal constraints. From the data collected transcriptions of

church services showed the frequency of each language with Spanish at 39.89% and English at

60.11% in sermons. It was equally discovered that Spanish was the marked code, while English

was the unmarked code. Furthermore, the frequency of codes-switches were determined at a

frequency of 938. The study contributed to the quantitative literature on codes switching in church

communities.

Liswani (2016) studied the impact of code switching on learners' participation during classroom

practice. The objectives of the qualitative case study were to investigate whether the use of mother

tongue in English medium classrooms enhanced classroom participation or not. Questionnaire,

interviews and observation were the instruments used for data collection. Investigating 12 ESL

teachers in 12 schools in the Zambezi educational region, the study revealed that the use of mother

tongue in English medium classrooms did not constrain learners’ understanding of the learning

content; it rather seemed to facilitate classroom participation. The findings equally revealed that

Grade ten (10) ESL teachers agreed that code switching benefited learners’ participation in English

medium classrooms. In the Zambezi region context, where English is a second language or a third

36

language after Silozi and other Zambezi Region Languages, the use of code switching was seen as

highly crucial among learners who are not proficient in English are still in the majority.

Jalaludeen (2016) investigated into the syntactic structures of code switching and its social and

pragmatic functions in the speech of Hausa-English bilinguals in Manchester, United Kingdom.

The naturally occurring data used in this study was collected during informal conversations

recorded at locations in different times and analysed based on various available approaches. The

findings of this study revealed that switches in Hausa-English do not occur at random, rather they

are constrained by set of grammatical rules of both participating languages. The study also revealed

that nouns were the most switched items, followed by discourse markers (interjections, particles,

fillers & conjunctions), verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns and then determiners. The findings

further demonstrated that Hausa-English bilinguals employ code switching to enhance their

everyday conversational interactions. Additionally, they indicated that code switching occurs in

the speech of Hausa-English bilinguals to serve functions as reiteration, quotation, clarification,

low level of competence in English, lexical gap, grammatical loan and unique referent. It was

concluded that insertion (intra-sentential) and alternation (inter-sentential) were the two structural

patterns in Hausa-English conversation, triggered by various conversational contexts.

Johanes (2017) investigated the influence of using code switching and code mixing on learning

English language in secondary schools in Rombo district, Tanzania. Specifically the study aimed

at finding out causes of code switching and code mixing on learning English language, determine

how code switching and code mixing contributed toward student’s success or failure in learning

English language in class and examine other ways which can be used to avoid Code switching and

code mixing on learning English language. The theoretical framework used included theory of

language acquisition like the imitation theory, Inter-language theory, and theory of active

37

construction of grammar and Reinforcement, in addition with theories of code switching and

mixing like situational and metaphorical switching and makedness. The study adopting qualitative

approach in data collection, analysis and presentation indicated that code switching and code

mixing influence student’s comprehension of English language negatively, creates lack of

confidence in speaking, limited students practice in speaking English language, retarded the ability

of students to master English language. Finally, the study revealed that teachers are the main source

for code switching and code mixing and that more efforts be placed on training English teachers

to improve their pedagogy skills.

Furthermore, Adetuyi, Owaniyi and Adeniran (2017) looked at the sociolinguistic study of code

switching among Yoruba users of English Language in South-western part of Nigeria. This study

examined the various rationale for code switching. Data elicitation research method with the

application of random sampling technique in recording the conversations of some Yoruba users of

English Language sample was adopted. The study revealed that the rationale for code switching

was to share common ground between the speakers and audience. However, it was recommended

that the indigenous language be developed, modernized and standardized in order to widen their

cognitive frames. In addition, that code switching should be seen and treated as a rich and a

veritable communicative tool because of its role in the process of communication.

Orji and Chidebelu (2017) analysed the lexical insertion in the code switching of Igbo-English

bilinguals in Awka. Data for the study was elicited from both primary and secondary sources

through note taking and audio recording of oral interview. The study was anchored on Matrix

language Frame model of Myer-Scotton of 1993. The data were later analyzed using Myer-scotton

matrix language frame model (MLF) to code switching. A simple percentage analysis was carried

out to determine the frequency and percentage of lexical items from the EL inserted into the ML

38

frame. The findings of the study revealed that Igbo is the matrix language while English is the

embedded language. Content morphemes came from both the matrix language and the embedded

language. System morphemes such as inflectional and aspectual affixes bound to elements from

the EL come from the ML. Content morphemes such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives were most

frequently used lexical category in Igbo-English bilingual code switching. Based on the findings

it was concluded that code switching of Igbo-English bilinguals could be explained from the

structural perspective which going a long way to explore more fully the phenomenon of code

switching in Igbo-English bilinguals.

Abdoulaye and Minkaiou (2019) looked into the nature of code switching and code mixing of

Songhay Speakers of French. The study identified and described the structural nature of the

instances of switches by classifying and categorising them according to the existing theories and

models on code switching and code mixing groupings. Data was collected through interviews and

participant observation from ninety (90) participants from the regions of Gao and Timbuktu in the

northern part of Mali, and Bamako, the Capital City. The study identified two forms of code-

switches, inter-sentential and intra-sentential code switching, in which participants alternate the

two codes or insert words from French into Songhay and vice-versa. However, the more explicit

finding of the study showed that the frequent was the use of the past participle in the intra-sentential

switches of the French verb groups. The study however recommended that future research studies

be done to generate new data and new findings on the problem of code switching and code mixing

on other languages.

In the current study, the researcher examines the existing gaps in studies conducted on code

switching in religion by studying the practice of code switching in the linguistic analysis of code

switching and code mixing in sermons in selected churches. The current study seeks to close a gap

39

in literature by determining reasons for selecting code switching and code mixing between English

and indigenous language by Preachers in Sermons of selected churches in Abuja, the extent of the

occurrences and the effectiveness of messages delivered, in terms of its comprehension by the

congregation. Subsequently, the researcher believes that the churches in Abuja comprise of people

from different ethnics backgrounds, of age bracket and economic classes. Therefore, situating the

study in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja will reveal elements that contribute to code switching

and code mixing as well as the impact it has on language development and communication in an

empirical manner.

2.7 Chapter Summary

This chapter has examined the relevant literature review beginning with the conceptual framework

which examined the concept of code, bilingualism, code switching and code mixing. It further

discussed the reasons why language users code switch or code mix while communicating or

interacting with others. The Theoretical framework of the study was discussed anchoring on

Speech Accommodation Theory and Bell's 'Language Styles as Audience Design Theory. Lastly,

empirical studies focusing on issues of code switching and code mixing by other researchers were

examined. While some focused on code switching, others focused on code mixing. However,

literature observed hasshown that the two go hand-in-hand. Therefore, this study seeks to examine

both phenomena in a single analysis. A significant number of these reviewed works adopted a

single approach, the qualtitative approach, therefore not being able to submit the dominant

occurenece between the two phenomena (code switching and code mixing); the current study

combines both quantitative and qualitative method of analysis to provide a statistically and

descriptively comprehensive information on the phenomena. In terms of scope, majority of the

study on coding focused on educational setting (class setting), however this current study is on the

40

religious setting. Observation also revealed that the study of these phenomena in religious settings

were done outside Nigeria such as Ghana and China who have different lingusitic pattern

compared to Nigeria. No study known to this researcher had done exhautive work on the

phenomena in Nigerian religious settings. This study seeks to fill such gaps, with specific focus

on the church.

41

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Preamble

This chapter presents the methodology of the present study. The aim of this study was to conduct

a linguistic analysis of code switching and code mixing in sermons in selected churches. This was

done in order to identify the pattern of code switching and code mixing used by the preacher in

sermons of selected churches in Abuja, to examine the extent of the occurrences of code switching

and code mixing that take place in sermon, and finally to find out the rationale for code switching

and code mixing.

3.2 Research Design

The research design for this current study is ethnographic. The ethnographic approach is a method

of studying data through observation (here, the researcher becomespart of the society and observed

the actions of the population being studied). This design according to Leininger (1988) is the

systematic process of observing, detailing, describing, documenting, and analysing the lifeway or

particular patterns of a culture in order to grasp the life ways or patterns of the people in their

familiar environment. Based on this, the researcher examined code switchingand code mxing in

conversation using ethnographic approaches in English-Hausa language contact setting. This

design was adopted in order to enable the researcher observe the real situation of code switching

and code mixing in sermons of different preachers of different churches. The aim of this research

design was to obtain a complete and accurate information on this study. It involved seeking to

categorize and describe the code switching and code mixing phenomena. This design permitted

the researcher to do an exploratory work on finding out how bilinguals actually behave in the use

of languages. The advantage of this method of inquiry rests on the fact that it provided spontaneous

data through the verbal expression of the participants. More so, it gave the researcher the

42

opportunity to record information as it happened in the natural setting (in this case, the church

setting), with the researcher being passive in the activities (during the church service).

3.3 Area of Study

The study was carried out in Gwagwalada Area Council Abuja, Nigeria. It has quite a number of

churches, both Catholic and Pentecostal churches. The specific churches selected were the

Evangelical Church Wining All (ECWA Good News), Immaculate Conception Catholic Church,

Church of Christ in Nigeria (COCIN) and Evangelical Reformed Church of Christ (ERCC). The

rationale for the selection of these churches was based on the fact they were the English-Hausa

speaking churches within the study area (Gwagwalada) and accessible by the researcher within the

time-frame for the study. So, members of these churches are mostly bilinguals, those who speak

English as a second language and have their mother tongue as their first language.As mentioned,

Gwagwalada is a developing area where one finds many persons considered as illiterates and semi

literates. Hence, the need for code switching and code mixing by preachers in order to evangelize

to them is observed in this study.

3.4 Method of Data Collection

The study being a qualitative research, the researcher personally went to the selected churches.

The researcher’s first contact with the study population was for an introduction and soliciting

permission by the church authorities to enable her carry out the process of data collection. This

was granted by the churches after the researcher was able to convince them that the data was

strictly for academic purpose and had no form of political intent. The reasercher then visited the

churches at the intervals to personally attend the Sunday services in the respective churches.

During the service, the researcher took a strategic position where the recording device could

effectively pick the sermons being preached from a close range. However, this was not disclosed

43

to the congregation because it is an ethnographic design that expected them to be in their natural

state devoid of any form of suspicion. Since the design of this study was an ethnographicsurvey,

the researcher focused on the processes of code switching and code mixing in the course of the

sermon.

3.5 Participants

The population of the study consisted of the preachers during the Sunday services in the selected

churches in Gwagwalada Area Council of the Federal Capital Terrority, Abuja. In terms of

instruments, participant observation was used to collect the data. In terms of conversation

collected, only messages or sermons were recorded, transcribed, and translated into English in an

oral corpus. The mobile phone recording App was used for recording the data. The data was

qualitatively analyzed in line with the research objectives.

3.6 Data Recording

The researcher pre-informed the preachers before each church service of her visit to the church

and of her intention of recording the sermons.This, she didin order to carry out a linguistic analysis

of code switching and code mixing in sermons. She attended the Sunday church services as a

participant-observer at different churches from July, 2020 through September, 2020. The audio

recorder was placed in the front of the church, generally on a pulpit in front of the preacher, while

the researcher sat at each time in the congregation to be able to observe well. She tried to be as

unobtrusive as possible while recording but occasional problems with recording equipment drew

attention to it and her presence in the congregation. The researcher was always in the congregation

while recording was carried out.The table 1 below shows churches visited, days and duration of

recording.

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Table 1: Sample of Sermons Collected from the Selected Churches and Dates

Churches Date Sermon Title Duration

Immaculate Conception Catholic

Church,

05/07/2020 Message of Love 36:12

Immaculate conception Catholic

Church,

12/07/2020 Building on God’s Word 23:12

Church of Christ in Nigeria

(COCIN)

19/07/2020 Danger of Life 28:16

Church of Christ in Nigeria

(COCIN)

2/08/2020 Standing on God’s Word

35:02

Evangelical Reformed Church of

Christ (ERCC).

16/08/2020 Working For God. 22:34

Evangelical Reformed Church of

Christ (ERCC).

6/09/2020 Working for the Truth 34:27

Evangelical Church Winning All

(ECWA Good News),

20/09/2020 Walking in Humanity 26:57

Evangelical Church Winning All

(ECWA Good News),

27/09/2020 Principle of Integrity 38:01

Source: Field Observation, 2020

3.7 Data Analysis

For the data analysis, the researcher evaluated them using analytical and logical reasoning to

examine each component of the data provided. This equally included studying the data in order to

understand and putting them in a structure which was a task that took time due to the amount of

data collected from the churches. So, in order to achieve the research objective and as well answer

the researcher’s question, the researcher used Huberman & Miles’s (2002) five step procedure for

data analysis, namely 1. Familiarisation, 2. Identifying a thematic framework, 3. Indexing 4.

Charting and 5. Mapping and interpreting. These steps are:

Step 1: Familiarisation

At this level, the researcher studied the data being collected through the recorded sermons. To

familiarize herself with the collected data, since the researcher was a non-Hausa speaker, she

45

employed the service of a professional Hausa Speaking research assistant, a postgraduate student

of Mass Communication from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria in transcribing the recorded

messages. A critical re-examination of the transcripts by the researcher gave her various themes

that served as key to the study’s analysis.

Step 2: Identifying a thematic framework

At this level, the researcher focused on the extraction of themes from the collected and transcribed

data. These themes correspond with the research objectives and questions set. Through this, she

found out that the themes were in actual alignment with the objectives of the study. These themes

were spotted as frequency of code switching and code mixing, pattern of code switching and code

mixing, rationale for code mixing and code switching and the implication of code mixing and code

mixing on sermon comprehension.

Step 3: Indexing

At this level, the researcher engaged in the codification of themes as well as data classification.

This was done to the allocated themes from the previous step (Identifying a thematic framework).

Here, the researcher achieved this by marking as way of indicating the parts of the transcribed data

in accordance with the themes and concepts being presented. There are circumstances in which

she picked or spoted more than a single theme and examined those themes in accordance with the

various forms of code switching and code mixing. The reason for this was due to the fact that

utterances were examined according to presentation and meaning.

Step 4: Charting

At this level, the data are aligned in accordance to the research questions and purpose or objectives.

Here, the researcher placed the data agreeing to the proposed themes as set in step 3

earlier.Headings for various sections are formed. The data are placed under each of the relevant

46

headings with the primary objective being to achieve or meet the study objectives and answer the

research questions.

Step 5: Mapping and Interpreting

At this final level, the researcher is expected to fissure the data down to ascertain what is being

required. Here, she interpreted and subjected the data to comparison and inference. The data from

the sermons were examined according to the frequency of code switching and code mixing, pattern

of code switching and code mixing as well as rationale for code switching and code mixing during

the various church sermons investigated.

47

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Preamble

This chapter deals with presentation and analysis of data through sermon observation, and

recording. The findings from sermon observations are presented based on the specific research

objectives of this study. During the sermon observations in churches, majority of them

communicated and passed their messages mainly in English language as the L2 with Hausas as L1

of communication.

4.2 Data Presentation

4.2.1. Data Tabulation of code switching and code mixing

Table 2: Frequency of Occurrence of Code switching and Code mixing in Sermons

Sermon Title Code –Switching

Cases

Code –Mixing

Cases

Total %

Message of Love 7 4 11 7.8%

Building on God’s

Word

4 5 9 6.4%

Danger of Life 25 9 34 24.1%

Standing on God’s

Word

19 7 26 18.4%

Working For God. 26 2 28 19.9%

Working for the Truth 7 3 10 7.1%

Walking in Humanity 4 7 11 7.8%

Principle of Integrity 9 3 12 8.5%

Total 101 (71.6%) 40 (28.4%) 141 100.0%

Source: Field Observation, 2020

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The Table 2 above shows the frequency of occurrence of code switching and code mixing in

sermons. It shows that the researcher collected data of eight (8) sermons from four (4) churches.

From a total sermon duration of four hours and forty-three minutes (4:43:00), there were one

hundred and one code-switches (101) representing 71.6% of code switches and forty (40) code-

mixes representing 28.4% of both language mixes. This shows that there were more of code-

switches in the sermons than code mixing cases.

According to Muthasamy (2009), one of the reasons for this occurrence is fluency in more than

one code or language, which often comes up when a speaker moves from one language to another.

Adopting Muysken’s (2000, p.28) definition of code switching and code mixing, she argues that

Code mixing occurs when a switch is made within a sentence (intrasententially), and code

switching is a switch that occurs between sentences (intersententially) which is a view sustained

by Chen (2013, p.2).

4.3. Pattern of Switching in Church Sermons

During the observations in the churches, majority of the preachers ommunicated and passed their

messages in English language as the L2 with Hausas as L1 of communication. Grammatically,

there are two types of code switches. Hoffmann (1991) gives the switches that occur between

sentences as “intersentential” and that in which a bilingual speaker attaches a tag from one

language to an utterance as “extrasentential”.

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Table 3: Pattern of Code switching in the Church Sermons

Sermon

Pattern of Code switching

Intersentential

Code Switchng

Extrasentential

Code Switching

Total Cases of

CodeSwitching

Cases

Percentage

A 5 2 7

6.9%

B 2 2 4

4.0%

C 14 11 25

24.8%

D 11 8 19

18.8%

E 19 7 26

25.7%

F 4 3 7

6.9%

G 2 2 4

4.0%

H 6 3 9

8.9%

Total 63(62.4%) 38(37.6%) 101 100%

Source: Field Observation, 2020

The table above shows the pattern of code switching during the church sermons. This shows that

there are 63 cases of intersentential code switching which represents 62.4% of code switching

cases in the data collected and 38 cases of extrasentential code switching cases which represent

37.6% of the code-switched cases.

4.3.1 Occurrence of Intersentential Code Switching

According to Marawu (1997, p.31) intersentential code switching occurs when the speaker

switches by adding a sentence or a clause from another language between sentences uttered by the

speaker. Here, the preacher while using a particular code, turns to present another sentence or a

clause which makes meaning independent of the earlier sentence. In the view of Holmes (2013,

p.45), this type of situation happens within a paragraph where the speaker completes sentences in

a language different from the one he started with in a paragraph. This pattern was observed in

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some of the data for the study. Below is a presentation of extracts of the intersentential

switches:(NB: Non-English words are in bold and the translation is written in italics).

1. Greetings dear friends in Christ, our Gospel text today speaks of sacrifice, according to

Matt.10:39, Litafi mai tsarki ta gaya mana cewa, ya kamata mu sadakar da kanmu domin

Ubangiji ba sadaka na duniya ba akarshe zamu karbi ladar Ubangiji. (This scripture says

that we must sacrifice for what is right and for God). (see Appendix I)

2. According to the Gospel of John chapter 15, it tells us that for us to be His children, we must

love Him, and not just love him only but we must love those that are around us. Yesu Almasihu

yana magana a kan kauna, kauna junan mu, kauna abokanin mu da kaunan sa (Jesus is

talking of love, love of oneself, love of friends and love of Him). (see Appendix I)

3. For us to be in the light, it has to manifest in our daily activities, our daily lives, how we

express our love to one another, how we sacrifice for our friends, how we sacrifice for those

around us. Ya kamata kauna ya nuna a ta wurin aikace aikacen mu ko yaushe, duk abinda

zamu yi, mu sa kauna a gaba, Donim shi Allah kauna ne Kuma shi Yesu Almasihu ya

dawo cikin duniya, ya shigo duniya, ya ba ma kansa har ya mutu a giciye don kauna (love

should be seen practiced in our daily activities, no matter our engagement, love should be seen

expressed in it, because Jesus is love and he even came into the world and died on the Cross

because of love). (see Appendix I)

4. Jesus told us that he who wants to follow Him must take up his cross and follow Him. The

Cross means pain, sacrifice. Ya kamata mu sadakar da kanmu a ta hanya gaskiya, a ta

hanya Ubangiji ba akan duniya ba amma akan abinda yesu zai bamu wato a karshe zamu

samu lada daga wurin. (We need to sacrifice for what is right, truth and for God and not for

personal gratification). (see Appendix I)

5. Ya kamata muyi abinda zamu samu lada a rana ta karshe kada muyi abinda zai kaimu

gidan wuta sai dai abinda zamu Sami lada a Kuma yi murna da Ubangiji (we should be

conscious that all we do will be rewarded according on the last day, we need to sacrifice for

the sake of the kingdom of God so that we can receive eternal reward). (see Appendix I)

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6. The scribes came and met Jesus in the Gospel of Mark 12:28-32, they asked Jesus that what is

the greatest commandment? Yesu ya gaya musu cewa, kauna Ubangiji Allah da Kuma

kauna yanwanin mu tafi sauran dokoki (Jesus told them that the greatest commandment is

to love God above all else and to love our neighbours). (see Appendix I)

7. Today is the day of salvation, tomorrow may be too late, musen muna achikin aduwa(know

that we are praying now). Amaa in kasen be ka karba yesu yazaman maicheotokaba, inna

geyamakafa, wonde yazama na shedan, akwai wuta faa (whoever has not accepted Jesus

as Saviour, there is hell awaiting). I told somebody yesterday. (see Appendix VII)

8. God wants your life, give Him your life, inna ka tuba ba, baka karba yesu ba, kuma kana

zuwa ecclisia (if you know you have not confessed the Lord Jesus as your saviour and you are

comming to church,). Aaa rana kerche, Pastor zei bade lisafi kenchi, keima zakaba de lisafi

ken ka (on the last day, the pastor will give his own account and you will also give your own

account). kwowa zeizo gaban ubangiji (everyone will stand before God). (see Appendix VII)

9. I am begging you, give your life to Christ, inn ka naso ke karba yesu yaza ma maicheiton

ka (if you want to accept the Lord Jesus as your saviour). Musowkwo de kei mu, muyi adua.

(Lets bow our heads in prayers).(see Appendix VII)

10. Do you know the work of a mopol? Inkagani katachi desensape, kadinga kula, inna

magana dewande so dede a awere ankei shakara goma (when you wake up in the morning,

I'm talking to those who have stayed long in marriage beyond ten years), karkaganni akarmin

jigi, I'm forty six years old, so I'm growing, I'm going somewhere. Praise the Lord, I am

portable and presentable but not for marketing (laugh!). (see Appendix III)

11. When I told my wife I was coming here. Matana tachewei zatazo nan, amadena che

Nassarawa ne, tache "blood of Jesus"! (My wife said she will follow me but when I said it’s

in Nassarawa,, she said "blood of Jesus"). Tache ke geise su (she said I should greet them),

kasenta ai, do o go (you know her now, very tall). wata rana na raka ta zuwa kasuma, na

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che innje parking indawo. de na zo inna binta abaya, nachaga wani shago insaya abin,

sai wata mata tache wei madam your junior brother entered that shop. (One day, I followed

her to the market, I said let me park and follow her, I then decided to buy some from another

shop and the lady owner of the shop she entered said, see your younger brother entering

another shop). (Laugh)! (see Appendix III)

12. You know boys can be very funny, kwo?. woni yaje chan taba weewee (one went to smoke

marijuana). Yana forming Home boy, bakusan home boys are hell boys ba (he is forming

Home boys, don’t you know home boys are hell boys). Wuna de nigga raw, ya flying collar

kuma inna kai checking result din su, su na de fatima tara. JAMB yayi jaming nasu already

(he is forming nigga raw and if you check his Jamb result he has F9. Jamb has jammed them).

(see Appendix III)

13. There are two types of truth that operates in this where we are today. Akwai geskiya kechin

biyu. na deyan, shinen wande zaibanyana muna achinkinna inna a sabowa achinkin

lintafi Yohanna, suran goma chahudu, ayan chida, Yesu yache wei nine hanya. nine

geskiya, nine kuma rai, bamai zuwa gurun uba, sai te gurin na I am the way, the truth and

the life, no one comes to the father except through me. (The first truth is the one recorded in

the scripture in the book of John, where Jesus said I am the way the truth and the life). (see

Appendix VI)

14. And you sit down and fold your hands, you cannot pray. Abin de yeka damunna yenzu (what

is disturbing me now) is Christians chine, zaa a zo (they will come to) church. (demonstration

of sleep) in Church cannot pray, aama daga sun zo gida ansa (from reaching home, they jump

on) Nigerian film, haaaba! Benchi ya wanware (sleep disappears), which one is better, film

or your life? (see Appendix VI)

15. Christ called us to walk before him in truth and the simplicity of our hearts. Yesu yakirayemu,

muyi tabiya agabansa de gaske. Zamu samei chinkin geske (He that walks before me in

truth shall be secured from evil occurrences and be delivered from harm). (see Appendix VII)

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From the above extracts, an obvious fact spotted is that the preachers placed sentences of English

and Hausa side by side such as “Today is the day of salvation, tomorrow may be too late, musen

muna achikin aduwa(know that we are praying now)”. (Appendix VII).They did this mainly

without violating the internal structures of the two languages used in preaching. Therefore, this is

made possible as a result of the syntactic similarity between English and Hausa. This fact goes in

line with the position of Poplack’s (1980) word-order equivalence between languages used while

code switching. It can also be seen that the juxtaposition of the English and Hausa in the inter-

sentential switching varies according to the situation being spoken of by the preachers. It can also

be seen from the extracts that the preachers lay emphasis sequentially on their points in a way that

caught the hearer’s attention. According to Scheloff (2007), this way of introducing the first

statement of a speaker is to capture the attention of the audience and create a communicative

impact where the hearers can be carried along. The preacher also code-switched so as to

domesticate the topic of discussion in such a way that he inculcates the topic into the day-to-day

actions and expectation of the hearers. This is done in orderto give instruction to the hearer. It

could also be seen that majority of the extracts show the juxtaposition of the two languages are

declarative sentences in English being followed by Hausa to show a form of instruction while few

are interrogative demanding responses from the congregation. Again, it can be seen that in virtually

all the extracts, there seem to be a form of parallel use of English and Hausa (with English as the

introductory language, and Hausa as the supportive or secondary language).

4.3.2 Occurrence of Extra-sentential Code Switching

This happens when a bilingual inserts short expressions (tag) from a different language at the end

of his/her utterances.This includes exclamations, tags, and parenthetical explanations uttered in a

different language from that used from the rest of the sentence. Kaspercyzk (2015, p.7) submits

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that it is when “a word or phrase from another language is tagged in the conversation”. This type

of code switching occurs mostly since tags normally contain minimal syntactic restrictions and do

not break the rules of the first language (L1) when they are inserted into a sentence (Kastori, 2017).

Extra-sentential code switching was found in the collected data and preachers who used it did so

because the tags inserted fit well within the structure of Hausa. Below is a presentation of examples

of the extra-sentential code-switches: (NB: Non-English words are in bold and the translation is

written in italics).

1. May God help Brethren to run this race to the end; Amin (Amen) (see Appendix V)

2. Zain hada Hausa da turenchi.Okay? (I'll use both Hausa and English. Okay?). (see

Appendix III)

3. Kwo wata de mijinta yakarba salary (Every time her husband collects salary).(see

Appendix III)

4. Inade (I have) NAFDAC Approval. (see Appendix III).

5. Wazeya temeke mu; who? (who will help us, Who?)?(see Appendix III).

6. She looked at the woman and said junior wane (who is the junior brother of who)?(see

Appendix III).

7. You know boys can be very funny. Kwo! (isn’t it?) (see Appendix III)

8. Do you know the work of a mopol? Kunsabi? (Do you know?) (see Appendix III)

9. This is a serious question for you and I. ansafaa! (answer it).

10. As younger preacher, sometimes, I feel calmer introducing myself by name than the title,

because once you add the title, you become a thing of suspicion, kenau (then). (see

Appendix IV).

11. Ninety-nine days for the thief, one day for owner. Allah yakama ka (God has gotten you!).

(see Appendix IV).

12. May God have mercy on His church, kowei (only!) (see Appendix IV)

13. When I told my wife I was coming here, she said “kai” (see Appendix III)

14. So, mata kuna de abubuwa masu keo (so, women have good things).(see Appendix III)

15. JAMB yayi jaming nasu already (JAMB has jammed him already). (see Appendix III)

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16. I don't have any problem against comedy in church, but it shouldn't be done at the expense

of the value of the word of God, Yauwa! (alright). (see Appendix IV)

17. People can just pick the bible, turn it upside down and say all manner of things, this days

Kwo wa (anyone).(see Appendix IV)

18. If you are tapping, kadenna! (stop it!).(see Appendix VI)

19. . . .I think the first thing your feel is regret at realizing that all your years you have been

following a lie bahaka ba (or not so?)(see Appendix VI)

20. Ta che(She said) “I won't tell you anything, but I have only one word to tell, you, "men

have gotten enough of me, now let God have the rest of me”. (see Appendix VIII).

21. They will carry our young men from school and give the best lifestyle, Kwerei (just). (see

Appendix VI).

In these extracts, the preachers inserted different forms of words from one language to another.

This method is best described by Muysken (1995)’s attribution of “placing” an alien lexical

category intoa language. It could also be seen that one language forms the medium of conversation

while the latter compliments the former with English being the major medium of conversation

while Hausa words are mostly used as the “alien” element in the language or embedded language.

This is in tune with Myers-Scotton’s (1993) position that in extra-sentential code switching, one

of the two languages serves as the medium of the conversation where alien words or phrases are

being inserted. From the extra-sentential code switching being observed, it is discovered that

majority of them are declarative and interrogative in form of the following “Okay”, “wane”,

“Kwo?”, “ansafaa”, “kenau”, “kowei”, “Yauwa”, “Kwerei” etc. It was observed equally that the

preacher had extrasentential code switching such as metaphoric expressions which were used at

various points. These metaphorical code switching serves as contextualization in addition to

making available the actual lexical meaning of statements during the sermon.

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Particularly, it is seen that code- switching from English to Hausa could indicate a balancing

function as directives or avoidance strategy for spiteful lexical element or expressions.

Furthermore, most of the extra-sentential code switching were mostly expressions showing

identity makers of Hausa-Christians. This is in line with the position of Holmes (2013) that extra-

sentential code switching are often used to show the identity to a certain group of individuals.

These extra-sentential switches were observed to be used even though, they were not so needed or

significantly necessary in the conversation. They were added based on the preachers’ desire to do

so as a way of showing identity or sense of belonging to the same (language) group as the audience

or congregation.

4.4 Pattern of Code mixing in Church Sermons

As regards the pattern of code mixing, the study adopted Dias’(2011) delineation of code mixing

as the mixing of two codes or languages at the intra-lexical level, usually without a change of topic,

in ascertaining the dominant pattern of code mixing. The study adopts the classification of code

mixing pattern of Simasiku (2016) which spells out L1to L2 at word and phrase level and L2 to

L1 at word and phrase level. Based on this, the patterns of code mixing were designated into four

basic groups which are; A= "L2 to L1" at word level (Code mixing of English-Hausa at word

level), B="L2 to L1" at phrase level (Code mixing of English-Hausa at phrase level) C= "L1 to

L2" at word level (Code mixing of Hausa-English at word level) and D= "L1 –L2" (Code mixing

of Hausa-English at phrase level.

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Table 4: Pattern of Code Mixing in Church Sermons

Sermon

Pattern of Code Mixing

"L2 to L1"

"L1 to L2"

Total Cases of

Code –Mixing

Cases

Word level Phrase level Word level Phrase level

A 1 3 1 0 4

B 0 3 2 0 5

C 2 6 1 0 9

D 2 2 3 0 7

E 0 0 2 0 2

F 1 1 1 0 3

G 0 5 2 0 7

H 1 2 1 0 3

Total 7(17.5) 22(55%) 13(32.5%) 0 (0)% 40 (100)

Source: Field Observation, 2020

The table above shows the pattern of code mixing in church sermons. It can be seen that there are

7 L2 to L1 occurrences of code mixing of English-Hausa at word level which accounted for 17.5%

of the code mixing; 22 occurrences of L2 to L1 at phrase level (code mixing of English-Hausa at

phrase level) which comprised 55%; 13 L1 to L2 at word level of code mixing Hausa-English at

word level which comprised of 32.5%; and 0 occurrences of L1 –L2 of code mixing Hausa-English

at phrase level comprised 0%. This shows that there are more code mixing of English-Hausa at

phrase level accounting for 55% of the code mixing in the data collected.

4.4.1 L2 to L1 (English-Hausa) code mixing at word level

According to Ene (2011), this type of code mixing occurs when a single word is taken from one

language and then inserted within a sentence or clause rendered in another language. In this case,

it is particular on the insertion of a word from Hausa as the L1 into a statement rendered in English

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as the L2. Below is a presentation of examples of L2 to L1 (English-Hausa) code mixing at word

level: (NB: Non-English words are in bold and the translation is written in italics).

1. She looked at the woman and said wane (who/which) junior? (See Appendix III)

2. I went to visit one baba (old man) yesterday (See Appendix III)

3. I never knew what he was saying but that was evening before he left me; Ya che (he said)

please, we are having Christmas Carol, can you come"? (See Appendix III)

4. One boy went to smoke marijuana, and sneaked into the room passing in front of his parent

without him seeing them and the father said to the mother "Look at your son" sai yai (he

is) sneaking chikin (inside) palour.(See Appendix III)

5. Or if someone end up convincing the world chewa (that) Christianity is a scam?(See

Appendix II)

6. Hello, as far as we are concerned, what was handed over daga (from) Christ to the Apostles,

to the early Church, to the Missionaries arjuwa (down-to) our fathers is the word of God.

(See Appendix II)

7. Kwomai (everything) that is created is akai (on) based on the spoken word of God, so the

power of creation is the word. (see Appendix IV).

From the above extracts, the preachers inserted about ten words from L1 (Hausa) in various parts

of an L2 (English) sentence. The L1 words being used were not difficult or unknown words in

English but the preachers decided to express them in Hausa. These words, when inserted into L2,

are joined with L1 words with the aim of communicating more effectively. Therefore, in this

current study, L1 (Hausa) words being inserted into L2 (English) sentences still follow the rules

of English which allow statement to flow smoothly without any form of distortion.

4.4.2 L1 to L2 (English-Hausa) code mixing at phrase level

This form of code-mix occurs when an L1 phrase is inserted into an L2 statement. According to

Offiong & Okon (2013), a particular language can be mixed within a phrase in the middle of a

conversation. Below are examples of extracts that contain such occurrences or examples of L2 to

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L1 (English-Hausa) code mixing at phrasal level. (NB: Non-English words are in bold and the

translation is written in italics).

1. And the truth is there are nations kamanTurkeyda (like Turkey that) they once had this

kind of life but today have no more Christianity (see Appendix II).

2. He is flying collar sai kuma inna kai (until you) checking result. (see Appendix III).

3. The second, wannan gaskiya (this truth) is the one you know about yourself that nobody

know. (see Appendix VI).

4. Brother Philemon, kuman kunan shan (do you take) natural? (see Appendix VI).

5. He asked her Inna kasamu (where did you get it?) (see Appendix VI).

6. The man woke up and the wife said "mai wannan" (what is this?) Baba Boyi. (see

Appendix VI).

7. The second, Wannan gaskiya (this truth) is the one you know about yourself that nobody

know (see Appendix VI).

8. If you have God, they know, if you don't have God, they know. Inna kaunna (I’m not

taking about) pretending (see Appendix VI).

9. Ooh, you think azo abuga (came to play) han nu (see Appendix VI).

10. How many of us lokochin de ake yin (the time they did) ECWA Book Project bought

books? (see Appendix III).

11. And on Friday morning, the senior went off, then they called me, lokochin, yariga ya

summa (he had fainted already), I said you will not die anywhere.(see Appendix III).

12. With curiosity, one evening, I went to look for Bose, Nache "Bose, mai yafaro (Bose,

what happened)? (see Appendix III).

13. There was time in the history of the church when the church faced physical persecution of

death. But now, the church is facing word persecution, kwowa (everyone) is busy attacking

the church here and there. (se Appendix IV).

14. That day she told me, that the question I asked her "Bose, bakigajiba (Bose, are you not

tired?" tache (she said) “sir, your coming back, you see me a changed person?(see

Appendix III).

15. Ta che(She said), I won't tell you anything, but I have only one word to tell, you, "men

have gotten enough of me, now let God have the rest of me.(see Appendix III).

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16. This is the letter of Apostle Paul to Timothy wande yarubu ta (the one he wrote) as a

guide to any Christian that must survive in the Last days. (see Appendix II)

17. Or how will you feel in katachi wata rana (if you wake up one day) to realize that all that

there is about Christianity is history and no more? (see Appendix II)

18. If you ask me, it will be time of wailing and crying and weeping, bakukankeden ba (not

a small cry). (see Appendix II)

19. And the truth is there are nations kamanTurkeyda (like Turkey that) once had this kind of

life but today have no more Christianity. (see Appendix II)

20. All they cry is wishing that they go back to those days. So Apostle Paul yana rubuta

wanna leta (is writing this letter to) Timothy his son. (see Appendix II)

21. That he should contend for the faith that was once handed over to him. And as far as we

are concerned, the tool kwo abun fada (or weapon) for contending for the faith is the Word

of God (see Appendix II).

22. So, what do you need as believers for a time like this? It is time to go more than just reading

the scriptures to the eating and digesting of the word to the level that no one, bakwowa

achikin duyiyana (in this world) can come and confuse you (see Appendix II).

The extracts above show phrases in L1 (Hausa) which were inserted into L2 (English) sentences

without interfering with the L2 sentence rules and form. Since, they do not interfere with L2

(English) sentence structure, it could be submitted that they still convey meanings or messages

which could as well be decoded or understood by bilinguals. Likewise, since they are phrases, the

preachers initially started by using L2 (English) and then inserting L1 (Hausa) phrases and often

returned or switched back to L2 (English) in order to complete the statement or sentence. The

ability of the preachers in switching to, from and between the languages depicts the high level of

fluency of the preachers in both English and Hausa as L2 and L1 respectively. In line with this,

Marawu (1997) submits that when this code-mix occurs, it shows the speaker switching forth and

backward between languages with ease without interference.

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4.4.3. L1 to L2 (Hausa-English) code mixing at word level

Here, code mixing occurs in form of insertion of L2 (English) words in L1 (Hausa) sentences or

statements. It is believed that they are used because they fit well within the structure or suitable to

the preacher’s expression. Below is a presentation of examples of L1 to L2 (Hausa- English) code

mixing at word level: (NB: English words are in bold and the translation is written in italics).

1. Aaa rana kerche,Pastorzei bade lisafi kenchi, keima zakaba de lisafi ken ka (on the last

day, the pastor will give his own account and you will also give your own account) (see

Appendix VIII).

2. Zain hadaHausada turenchi (I'll use both Hausa and English), yaowa (Okay).(see

Appendix III).

3. Wata rana na raka ta zuwa kasuma, na che innjeparkingindawo. . . . madam your junior

brother entered that shop. (One day, I followed her to the market, I said let me park and

follow her, I then decided to buy some for another shop and the lady owner of the shop she

entered said, see your younger brother entering another shop). (Laugh)! (see Appendix

III).

4. kudi yanamissingdega hajipunchi (money usually gets missing from his pocket). (see

Appendix III).

5. Kunlu, kudi yatamissing (every time, money kept missing)(see Appendix III).

6. . . .muyibranching mu sha ai. Ni banseni ba, su sukezo suna geyanmumthat (I never knew

until they came to tell me that) do you know that there was time in our lives. (see Appendix

VI).

7. . . . , akai wai suflatde sunarenting (there is an apartment on rent).(see Appendix VI).

8. Kanan ni manwonicontractkwo kana niman woni mutun yabaka aiki(looking for someone

to give them a contract or a job)(see Appendix VIII).

9. kasain mutunmin kamaan ya shar zeg.abun spirit kwoma abunbiyaya irin nan masusan

rigan perin nan (like someone possessed with evil spirit or like that people who used to

wear whiteclothes) eeeeeh shamamama (see Appendix VIII).

10. yaro yanan kalloncartoonbakasain abundeyeke geni ba (boy is watching cartoon and you

don't know the content) (see Appendix VIII).

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11. Ankira ni youche ma, amakaranda aahjunctiondinna. . . (They called me one day at the

school by the junction).(see Appendix VIII).

12. sai nache waya, anche wei Bose, nache “is it a lie”, woni Bose (then I said who and they

said Bose, I said “it is a lie” which Bose”).(see Appendix VIII).

From the extracts above, it can be seen that majority of the single words from the L1 (English)

inserted into L2 (Hausa) sentence are nouns which the speakers may have found difficult to find

the suitable L2 word and therefore found it more convenient to code-mix them into the L1 words.

According to Kebeya (2013) who classifies this form of code-mix as intra-lexical code mixing in

which a single word from another language is inserted into a sentence by the speaker. This pattern

of code mixing is basically and neatly employed by a bilingual preacher in order to retain the flow

of the sentence as a result of their fluency in both languages, in this case English and Hausa.

Furthermore, Zirker (2007) submits that bilingual speakers who are fluent in two languages adopt

this form of code mixing unconsciously.

4.6 Discussion

4.6.1 Rationale for Code Switching and Code Mixing

According to the preachers’ feedback, code switching and code mixing are found to be normal

phenomenon that plays numerous roles and used to achieve certain goals. As observed from the

reviewed literature, there seemsto be no difference between the functions of code switching and

the reasons forcode switching. Therefore, the reasons for code switching and code mixing in

conversation are used as a parasol term covering what some scholars, researchers or authors would

call the functions of code switching and code mixing, while others would preferrationale or reasons

for code switching and code mixing. For this particular study, the ten (10) possible reasons for

code mixing and code switching that were identified and proposed by Hoffman (1991) cited in

Dladla (2017) will serve as template to determine the rationale for code switching and code mixing

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by the preachers during the sermons. The following are the possible reasons and some of the

examples of preachers’code switching and code mixing as observed in the church sermons.

(A) Clarifying the Speech Content

This simply means generating and expanding on a content of a speech in order to be undestood by

the hearers. Here, the preachers’ goal is to give more in-depth explanation to a sentence so as to

simplify and make the hearers understand more what has been said earlier. The preachers in the

following examples try to expand on their initially made statements;

i. For us to be in the light, it has to manifest in our daily activities, our daily lives, how we

express our love to one another, how we sacrifice for those around us. Ya kamata kauna ya

nuna a ta wurin aikace aikacen mu ko yaushe, duk abinda zamu yi, mu sa kauna a gaba,

Donim shi Allah kauna ne Kuma shi Yesu Almasihu ya dawo cikin duniya, ya shigo

duniya, ya ba ma kansa har ya mutu a giciye don kauna (love should be seen practiced in

our daily activities, no matter our engagement, love should be seen expressed in it, because

Jesus is love and he even came into the world and died on the Cross because of love).(see

Appendix I).

ii. Jesus told us that he who wants to follow Him must take up his cross and follow Him. The

Cross means pain, sacrifice. Ya kamata mu sadakar da kanmu a ta hanya gaskiya, a ta

hanya Ubangiji ba akan duniya ba amma akan abinda yesu zai bamu wato a karshe zamu

samu lada daga wurin. (We need to sacrifice for what is right, truth and for God and not for

personal gratification). (see Appendix I).

iii. There are two types of truth that operate wherewe are today. Akwai geskiya kechin biyu. na

deyan, shinen wande zaibanyana muna achinkinna inna a sabowa achinkin lintafi

Yohanna, suran goma chahudu, ayan chida, Yesu yache wei nine hanya. nine geskiya,

nine kuma rai, bamai zuwa gurun uba, sai te gurin na I am the way, the truth and the life,

no one comes to the father except through me. (The first truth is the one recorded in the

scripture in the book of John, where Jesus said I am the way the truth and the life). (see

Appendix VI).

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iv. Greetings dear friends in Christ, our Gospel text today speaks of sacrifice, according to

Matt.10:39, Litafi mai tsarki ta gaya mana cewa, ya kamata mu sadakar da kanmu domin

Ubangiji ba sadaka na duniya ba akarshe zamu karbi ladar Ubangiji. (This scripture says

that we must sacrifice for what is right and for God) (see Appendix I).

(B) Quotation/Quoting someone’s Expression

Here, the preachers change or mix codes to cite the scriptures or the saying of a Bible or the sayings

of biblical characters or personalities. Likewise, there were also instances of citations where the

preachers quoted some articulations or idioms. Below are some of the examples where the

preachers code-switched or code-mixed in quotations.

i. The scribes came and met Jesus in the Gospel of Mark 12:28-32, they asked Jesus that what

the greatest commandment is. Yesu ya gaya musu cewa, kauna Ubangiji Allah da Kuma

kauna yanwanin mu tafi sauran dokoki (Jesus told them that the greatest commandment

is to love God above all else and to love our neighbours).(see Appendix I).

ii. When Jesus responded, they were impressed and one among them added that,Cikin su,

daya ya Kara ya ce, yesu ya amsa da kyau, yace kauna ya fi sadaka. (One among them

added that, to love God and Man is more than burnt offering.). (see Appendix I).

iii. Jesus Christ responded and said that you are not far from the kingdom of heaven, Yesu ya

gaya mishi ya ce ai shi yana kusa da haikalin Ubangiji (Jesus told himthat he is not far

from the kingdom of God) (see Appendix I).

iv. She looked at the woman and said wane junior wane (who is the junior brother of who)?

Inn Allah yayeda, gobe zamu zo de ita (By God's grace, tomorrow we will be here with

her)(see Appendix III).

v. I went to visit one baba (old man) yesterday, I was telling them, Baba yai waazi aa (the

old man preached in) COCCIN for seventy years (see Appendix III).

vi. So, I ask him a question, mai kuna yin agurin, ya che mun, insuhadu, suna wakokine

kowe (what are you people doing there, he said if they meet, they all sing songs" and I said

I love song).(see Appendix III).

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vii. Nache zenzo inji waka intafi, (I said I will just come and hear the music and go) my

purpose of coming was just to mock them and see what they are doing. (see Appendix III).

viii. sai maman ma yache, (so the mother said) he is also your son. You know, inn yabo

yabache, yaron unwachin ne (When a boy get spoilt, it’s the mother's son) amaa, yanade

keo, na uban ne (but if he is good, he's the father's son) Kwo ba geskiya ne (or is that not

true) (see Appendix III).

ix. Sai, baban yache, (the father said) Harison, who asked you to go and take weewee

(Marijuana)? Harison yasha weewee (said marijuana) (see Appendix III).

x. The man woke up and the wife said "mai wannan" (what is this?). He asked her Inna

kasamu (where did you get it?) (see Appendix VI).

xi. He said “If you don't wear this you wear that of a security or waiter tomorrow. yawanchi

weone yara sobode basajin gargegin Iyayensu, basakaona ubangidi, suna san hanu aa

abunde bazasuiya putaba (this is what is disturbing about children of nowadays, they

don't listen to elders, they don't love God and so they deep their hands into what they will

be not be able to escape from) (see Appendix VIII).

xii. In the book of Genesis, God promised our Father Abraham to inherit the world through his

actions and committed work. My dear brothers and sister, Christ’ promise to us is not in

vain. Yesu yache din wande yai gaskanta de chi bazei zama duhu ba amaa zai samu

rai madamami ar ya abada (Christ said, whoever follows him will not walk in darkness

but will have life, life eternal) (see Appendix IV).

(C) Talking about a particular topic

Another rationale seen here is the Preacher code switching or mixing when talking about a

particular topic different from the focus of the discussion. Here, it is noticed that occasionally the

Preachers code-switched and code-mixed when telling stories about their own life experiences or

those of others they feel are relevant to the issues being discussed as supportive narrations. Some

of the examples where the Preachers code-switched or code-mixed while talking about a particular

topic or issues are;

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i. Praise the Lord, Kuyi ankuri, na zo lati, abubuwa deyafaru (I am sorry for coming late,

it is as a result of what happened). But we thank the Lord, Praise the lord. We are supposed

to come with Youths in Dadinkowa but they had another programme but tomorrow they

will join us. A kwei wata matta, na ji dadin magana de kay yi (There is one woman, I

really enjoyed the story). Kwo wata de mijinta yakarba salary (Every time her husband

collects salary) (see Appendix III).

ii. Women can be tough some times, then mu maza mu na de towrin hanu wani lokochi

kwo, (then we men can be very tricky sometimes). Natinna wani lokochi de mata na tache

imbata kudi, na denga mesifa na che bande chi. Kerki massa mum, kuma geskiya kwo

meshe, mopol ne (I remember once my wife asked for money, I boldly told her I have no

money and the fact is every woman is like a mopol) (see Appendix III).

iii. Inna de (I have) NAFDAC Approval. Inkagani mecha tatachi desafe, tafara baka

suraye debandeban (when a woman wakes upin morning and starts calling you names)

honey, sugar, mango, anan soun akarba kudinka ne (they want to collect your money)

(see Appendix III).

iv. The woman came to the parlour to check, inann baba boyi ne (Where is baba Boyi) sai

haka. baba boyi yayi benchi ai (she thought that baba boyi went to sleep). She went back

into the room and put hand in his pocket and said "Kai, kai, kai, wonnan yaui kudi yao”

(ha ha ha, this man made money today), so she put her hand to remove more money and

before she knew she removed condom and she shouted “aaii! napada ai, napada ai

abundin yasa yana zuwa gidan lati (I said it, this why he used to come home late) (see

Appendix VI).

v. Gaabun de nasamu a ajifu shi, Reverend was shocked, sai Reverend yakirachi ya zo

yache mei gaabun de matanka yakawo wei tasamu ajipunka. (This is what I found in

his pocket. Then Reverend called him and when he came, he was asked and he accepted it)

(see Appendix VI).

vi. You are working but no evidencekaran nawaa, keremin jiki na (My own smallishness is

natural) (see Appendix VI).

vii. When I went to Israel, I went to a bookshop to buy books, as I entered one of the shops,

immediately the woman looked at my eyes, she started shaking her head, kasain

mutunmin kamaan ya shar zegabun spirit kwoma abunbiyaya irin nan masusan

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rigan perin nan (like someone possessed with evil spirit or like that people who used to

wear whiteclothes) eeeeeh shamamama, you understand that kind of spirit, as she was

shaking her head, she ran into another office (see Appendix VIII).

(D) Interjection

This covers code switching and code mixing by the preachers that express emotions such as

surprise, shock, compelling or strong emotion, or to win attention. Although these expressions

have little or no grammatical value, but can have value dependent upon how the speaker uses them.

Some of the examples where the preachers code-switched or code-mixed indicated as interjections

are:

i. When I told my wife I was coming here, she said kai! (see Appendix III)

ii. Matana tachewei zatazo nan, amadena che Nassarawa ne, tache "blood of Jesus"! (My

wife said she will follow me but when I said it’s in Nassarawa,, she said "blood of Jesus")

(see Appendix III).

iii. tache ke geise su (she said I should greet them) (see Appendix III),

iv. "Jehova, you are good" morning devotion, sai nache waye, anche wei Bose, nache “it is

a lie!” (see Appendix VIII),

(E) Laying Emphasis

In laying emphasis, the preacher code-switched or code-mixed in order to be categorical or to

stress the importance or the significance of a practical point in another language. Here, the

preachers utilized a language purposefully or unexpectedly which is perceived as advantageous to

him or her to be emphatic in his/her borrowed or foreign language rather than the one earlier used.

Some of the examples where the preachers code-switched or code-mixed as laying emphasis are:

i. Today is the day of salvation, tomorrow may be too late, musen muna achikin aduwa

(know that we are praying now) (see Appendix VIII).

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ii. Amaa in kasen be ka karba yesu yazaman maicheotokaba, inna geyamakafa, wonde

yazama na shedan, akwai wuta faa (But if anyone says he will not accept Jesus, so that

he can be come his Saviour, there is hell awaiting). (see Appendix VIII).

iii. God's wrath is coming on you, that night, forty seven of them came out, bansen abun de

ka sa kenka ba (I don't know what you are into), yanzu zaa a che kezo gida ayimaka

wanka, Allah zeye tere ka magani, waye, mageni (they deceive some of you and tell you

to come home for spiritual birth and cleansing) (see Appendix VIII).

iv. God wants your life, give Him your life, inna ka tuba ba, baka karba yesu ba, kuma

kana zuwa ecclisia (if you know you have not confessed the Lord Jesus as your saviour

and you are coming to church,). (see Appendix VIII).

v. Aaa rana kerche, Pastor zei bade lisafi kenchi, keima zakaba de lisafi ken ka (on the

last day, the pastor will give his own account and you will also give your own account).

kwowa zeizo gaban ubangiji (everyone will stand before God) (see Appendix VIII).

vi. The torment of these guys won’t let you graduate, baze barka ke gama de makaranta fa

(will not allow you to finish school) so, follow me. The boy was afraid (see Appendix VI).

vii. If you are prayerful person, they will be able to take control of your life, enuwa kutachi,

lokochin nan na aduwa (this is time for prayers) (see Appendix VIII).

viii. It is not time to sleep, lokochin ne na karantan litafi na ubangidi musain wanne na

ubangida (this is time to seriously study the word of God so as to know which is godly and

which is not) (see Appendix VIII).

ix. It is not time to play, ba lokochin wasa banee muna batan lokochin munan kanlo,

munayimu siasa, mai siasa zai baka (I repeat, this is not time to sit and fold our arms

and watch). Our leaders belong to this. (see Appendix VIII).

(F) Expressing Group Identity

Here, the preachers try to identify with the specific language or style of communication indigenous

to the hearers’ or congregation’s community. Therefore, the manner of preaching to them is in

recognition of their cultural elements or communication pattern as well as identity. Below are some

of the examples where the preachers code-switched or code-mixed as expressing group identity:

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i. Zain hada ganbiza da chikafa de wake (I am going to make concoction of rice and

beans). Wa ya sain ganbiza (who knows concoction?). Zain hada Hausa da turenchi (I'll

use both Hausa and English), yaowa(Okay)(see Appendix III).

ii. Yenzu, Baba (now the man) is about eighty years old. After preaching to me and I rejected,

he never got angry with me. Ya che(he said), one day you will wear this cloth and shoes I

am wearing (see Appendix III).

iii. I never knew what he was saying but that was evening before he left me; Ya che (he said)

please, we are having Christmas Carol, can you come"? (see Appendix III).

iv. Then I was a Muslim but I love music, Inn na ji karan drum kwo anabuga gbanjo kwo

galala, kwo makusa, (anywhere I hear the sound of music, especially galala or makosa) I

will follow that line (see Appendix III).

One boy went to smoke marijuana, and sneaked into the room passing in front of his parent

without him seeing them and the father said to the mother "Look at your son" sai yai (he

is) sneaking chikin (inside) palour. Sai baban yachae, (so the father said) see your son,

see you son! (see Appendix III).

v. Brother Philemon, kuman kunan shan natural (brother Philemon, do you take natural),

muyi branching mu sha ai. Ni banseni ba, su sukezo suna geyanmum that (I never knew

until they came to tell me that) do you know that there was time in our lives (see Appendix

VI).

vi. I remember when I was at the other side, we don’t take things for granted. kwo woni dare

dega (every night from) twelve o'clock, zamudege kapamun we zona a kei taburma (we

get ourselves sited on the mat), kasan abunde akekira (do you know what we call it? In

Islam?) anna kira duwayi (it is called duwayi) muna duwayi dege dere aar zuwa safe,

kana karan ayoyi den sunan (You will recite from midnight to day break, you read

chapters and verses,) mai keke nima? Kanan ni manwoni contract kwo kana niman

woni mutun yabaka aiki (looking for someone to give them a contract or a job)(see

Appendix VIII).

vii. Garchi su suna kiran demons yatameke su gobbe susamu aiki kwo wani abun (they

call on demons to help them get a job or something from someone), ar akira sallah

ketachi, ketayi sai ka dawo, ke (when they call prayer and you are done with prayer,

then).

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viii. So, he doesn't know how to cover it so he said on Saturday, I will kill you, kagani kwo,

ansa abun ahandu wonde be sai inde zai ganai ba, chine hausawa sukeche , innka na

so, kai ajiyan kudinka de kana de barowo aagida, ke bachi ya ajiye, bazodou ka ba

(so it is said by the Hausas' that the best way to secure your money when you have a thief

in the house, give it to the thief to keep, he will not steal it) (see Appendix VIII).

ix. And the truth is there are nations kamanTurkeyda (like Turkey that) they once had this

kind of life but today have no more Christianity. . .sobode muslinchi (because muslims)

have taken over kasansu (their land) (see Appendix II).

(G) Repetition/Clarification

For this point, the preachers explain their sermons in the intent that it will be perceived and

understood better by the audience by code switching and code mixing while expressing themselves

during the sermon. It is observed here that the repetitions do not only serve to explain what is

stated, but in addition to intensify or underscore a message. Some of the examples where the

preachers code-switched or code-mixed for repetition are:

i. But, zanyi inbargida a kerpan kwoma inche masu genje de lokochi (where am I going

to tell my siblings that I will be going past ten pm) (see Appendix III).

ii. bayan de ariga kwo woni gidan muslimi, akpai zoure ai, In anriga antore zoure nan

sa dose sobode aseni wande yana puta kenan. Ama alokochin, akai abunde de nai

noticed de babe. (After they have locked a house in a Muslim’s compound, no one goes in

or out. So what do I tell them is my reason for going, I noticed something) (see Appendix

III).

iii. There are two types of truth that operate where we are today. Akwai geskiya kechin biyu.

Na deyan, shinen wande zaibanyana muna achinkinna inna a sabowa achinkin lintafi

Yohanna, suran goma chahudu, ayan chida, Yesu yache wei nine hanya. nine geskiya,

nine kuma rai, bamai zuwa gurun uba, sai te gurin na I am the way, the truth and the

life, no one comes to the father except through me. (The first truth is the one recorded in

the scripture in the book of John, where Jesus said I am the way the truth and the life) (see

Appendix III).

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iv. Ninety-nine days for the thief, one day for owner, Allah yakama ka (God has gotten you

today). Dan Allah, kugayamun, wane Allah yakama! (Who has God gotten) (see

Appendix VI).

v. We want to title this message as God's Word for building. Maganan Ubangidi mai gini

(God’s word for building) (see Appendix II).

vi. How will you feel if you wake up one day and discover that Christianity is a lie? Yaya

zaka gi inde katachi wata rana kaduba chewa christochi keriya (How will you feel if

you wake up one day and discover that Christianity is a lie?) Has it ever come to your mind

like that (see Appendix II)?

vii. So, muna a lokochin de muta nen ba su de soro maganan ubangidi (we are in a time

when people have no fearfor the word of God). We live in a time when God's word is

devalued even in the name of comedy (see Appendix IV).

viii. May God have mercy on His church, Yesu ya temeko mu mu dachi fa (Jesus help us to

have victory).Brothers and sisters, if on the last day we are to be disqualified, I know that

on the last day, we will not be disqualified. kede mumanta de ruhun mu ga inde mu na

niman ruhuhuna ma ubangidi (So that we will not forget our souls, while we are looking

for souls for God.).(see Appendix V).

ix. Inmuna waazi, muyi ma waazi akeimu tukuna kafenan muyi ma weisu (If we are

preaching, we should first preach to ourselves first before preaching to others).(see

Appendix V).

x. In muna aduwa, muyima keimu domin musamun karfi muyima weusu aduwa (If we

are praying, we should pray for ourselves that we should have strength to pray for others)

(see Appendix V).

(H) Strengthen or Soften Command

Under strengthening or softening command, it is noticeable that the preacher code-switched and

code-mixed between Hausa and English as a solicitation since English isn't their local tongue.

Here, in order to appeal to the listeners and to solicit desired response, the preacher code-switched

and code-mixed in order to make the expression remarkable and powerful so that the audience can

be prompted to accepting the view being expressed in their own indigenous language. So, some of

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the examples where the preachers code-switched or code-mixed for strengthening or softening

command are:

i. The love of God needs to be expressed among ourselves especially to the needy; Ya

kamata mu nuna musu kauna (we need to show them love)(see Appendix I).

ii. We must sacrifice for others, it has to go with pain and letting go off our values/valuables.

Ya kamata kauna mu cc mu (our love should be expressed through our activities)(see

Appendix I).

iii. I am begging you, give your life to Christ, inn ka naso ke karba yesu yaza ma maicheiton

ka (if you want to accept the Lord Jesus as your saviour). Musowkwo de kei mu, muyi

adua. (Let’s bow our heads in prayers) (see Appendix VIII).

iv. The majority of the churches now are like business centre, you have to pay to be prayed

for, Allah yana siya material dey kudin na (is God buying materials with the money).

The scripture says freely we receive andfreely we give. Kunkaranta alitafi Yesu yakarba

kudi dege mutun kepen yayi michi adua (did you read anywhere in the scripture where

Jesus collected money before praying for somebody?(see Appendix IV)

v. Christ called us to walk before him in truth and the simplicity of our hearts. Yesu

yakirayemu, muyi tabiya agabansa de gaske. Zamu samei chinkin geske (He that walks

before me in truth shall be secured from evil occurrencesand be delivered from harm) (see

Appendix VII).

vi. We should divide ourselves by the church we worship based on doctrines but we believe

in one God and our Lord Jesus Christ, not a matter of the Church you worship. Juchiyanmu

achin magana yesu neen (let our heart keep the words of Jesus) (see Appendix VII).

vii. Let our differences, kede ya hana mu temoko juna ba (let our differences not stop us

from helping one another). keda yarife muna edo kede mugeni inde zamu iya tamako

enyuwanmu (let it not blind us from seeing where we can be of assistance to one another)

(see Appendix VII).

viii. For if we are blind, we will not see the places to help our brothers, ama bari rufu mai

sarki ya budemuni ido mugane inde zamu bi hanya ubangidi kwo ma karche

enyuwamum (let the Holy spirit help us to see how to follow God and help our fellow

brothers) (see Appendix VII).

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ix. We call ourselves "Christian" but we doubt the existence of Christ. We need to believe

with our heart that Christ who was raised for our justification will save us from eternal

domination. Mugaskenta de Ubangidi chi wande ya tachi dege makartu chi zai bama

rai madawami (We should understand and believe that he who raised Christ from the

grave, He will give us life eternal) (see Appendix VII).

x. He worked hard but not forgetting himself too because he thinks of the last day. Mudinga

tuna de ranan takarche, ranan takarche ranan deza muzo gaban Ubangidi, ranan

sharia. (We should always remember the last day, the day we will stand before God, the

Day of Judgment) (see Appendix V).

(I) Due to Real Lexical Need

The preachers code-switched or code-mixed due to lack of similar diction or lexicon in the

languages. So, when the preachers have words or expressions that are lacking in any of the

languages, he simply finds out the local dialect to replace it and this is the same when they have

words in the local dialect that are lacking in English. Below are examples where the preachers

code-switched or code-mixed due to real lexical need:

i. Sunan zuwan churchi abonkin nanReverendIdachaba (They attend my friend’schurch,

Reverend Udachaba)(see Appendix VI).

ii. Yanaforming Homeboy, bakusanhomeboys are hell boys ba (he is forming Homeboys,

don’t you know home boys are hell boys) (see Appendix III).

iii. Wannan nenigga raw. (this is Nigga raw)(see Appendix III).

iv. Chi yanan flyingcollarsai kuma bakwomai akai (He is fly his collar but nothing in the

head)(see Appendix III).

v. Inkaje dubanresultdin su, su na de fatima tara. (if you check his result, he has nine F9s).

vi. JAMByayi jaming nasu already(Jamb is done jamming them). (see Appendix III).

vii. kwo rada danmiji ya karbasalary, yana discover kudin yana missing dege ajipun (anytime

the husband collects salary, he’ll discover the money will be missing from his pocket). (see

Appendix III).

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viii. Na zonn indo ka weisun takandu dagalibrarydin na(I came to pick some books from my

library). (see Appendix III).

ix. Inna kacha taba, sai ka dinnga tabiyan baya Kamantrailerdai bachi de briki (When you get

yourself drunk, you will be reversing like trailer without break) (see Appendix III).

From the above extracts, it can seen that there are lexical needs for some words in L2 (English)

which are not available in L1 (Hausa) and the speakers had to code mix to ensure that their

messages are communicated. Examples of such terms with lexical needs in L1 (Hausa) are

‘Reverend’ in extract (i), ‘homeboys’ in extract (ii), ‘nigga raw’ in extract (iii), ‘collar’ in extract

(iv), ‘result’ in extract (v), ‘JAMB’ in extract (vi)‘zoom’ in extract (vii), ‘library’ in extract (viii)

and ‘trailer’ in extract (ix) respectively.

From the above, it can be summarized or subsumed as evident by the data that there are four basic

communicative purposes for which the phenomenon of code switching and code mixing are carried

out during church sermons that are for clarification, sociolinguistic play, emphasis and

accommodation.

4.6 Discussion of Findings

The study examined the linguistic analysis of code switching and code mixing in sermons of

selected churches in Gwagwalada Area Council, FCT Abuja. From the data collected and anlysed,

the study according to the first objectivewhich seeks to find out the extent of occurrences of code

switching and code mixing that took place in the sermons reveals thatthere were more of

codeswitching in the sermons than code mixing in the collected sample of sermons. This finding

supports the position of Muthasamy (2009) who submited that this happens often because of the

level of fluency of speakers in more than one code or languages which often comes up when a

speaker easily moves from one code or language to another. Like wise, this finding is equally

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supported by the stand by Muysken’s (2000, p.28) and Chen (2013) who both declare that billigual

speakers find it more convenient to code-switch than code mix in languages which seems to have

syntantic similarities, such as English and Hausa.

The second objetive of the study concerned with identifying the pattern of code switching used by

the preachers in the sermons of selected churches, revealed that there were intersentential code

switching comprising 62.4% and extrasentential code switching comprising 37.6%, therefore

submiting that there were more intersentential code switching than extrasentential code switching

in the collected and analysed data. This is backed up by the the position of Holmes (2013) that this

type of situation happens within a paragraph where the speaker completes sentences in a language

different from the one he started with in a paragraph. Likwise this fact goes in line with the position

of Poplack’s (1980) word-order equivalence between languages used while code switching. It can

also be seen that the juxtaposition of the English and Hausa in the inter-sentential switching varies

according to the situation being spoken of by the preachers. This is further enumerated by Scheloff

(2007) that this way of introducing the first statement of a speaker is to capture the attention of the

audience and create a communicative impact where the hearers can be carried along.This goes on

to support the stand of Abdullahi, Rahmany & Maleki, (2015) that inter-sentential code switching

phenomenon are usually bidirectional.

The third objective of the study, which focused on the pattern of code mixing used by the preachers

in sermon, revealed that there are more code mixing of English-Hausa at phrase level comprising

of 55% of the code mixing in the data collected. This is supported by the study Ene (2011) who

submits that mixing occurs when a single word is taken from one language and then inserted within

a sentence or clause rendered in another language. From the viewpoint of Simango (2011) when

he submitted that the insertion of a single word is a familiar phenomenon in code mixing pattern.

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He further highlighted that such insertions are able to blend without a “distortion” in the sentence.

This is made possible in a situation where there are syntactical similarities in the two languages of

communication, (as in this case English-Hausa).

The last objective of thes study which was concerned with the rationale for code switching and

code mixing was determined through the use of the ten (10) possible reasons for code mixing and

code switching framed by Hoffman (1991). This revealed that the most evident reason for the

occurence of the phenomena in church sermons are for clarification, sociolinguistic play, emphasis

and accommodation. The analysis on code switching and code mixing resonates with the Speech

Accommodation Theory, which proposes that code switching and code mixing are done by

speakers to seek solidarity with others. In the view of Giles (2017), “the theory explains how and

why speakers magnify or reduce communicative gap or differences and the social consequences

for such act.” Furthermore, Giles and Ogay’s (2007) submit that Speech Accommodation Theory

hinges on the interlocutors mutually adjusting their speech and other forms of verbal/non-verbal

communication to accommodate their conversation partners through two major mechanisms which

are convergence and divergence, with the former being means of adjusting toward the other

person’s speech, and the latter being means of shifting away from other person’s speech. In data

analysis, the preachers are seen to obviously converge with their audience during the sermons. The

convergence is free of any form of formality or informality, irrespective of the topic or social

relationship with the audience. The preachers adopt the usage of Hausa with English considering

the fact that the service attendees belong to the Hausa speaking groups with English being used in

the setting. From this, it can be established that there are sociocultural and linguistic reasons for

code switching and code mixing prevalent in church sermons and this reason is to ensure or foster

relations in fellowship as well as to effectively communicate the sermon during the services.

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CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION

5.1 Preamble

This chapter provides a summary, conclusion and implications of the study and limitation of the

study. In the previous chapter, the researcher presented the analysis and findings from the study

by responding to the research questions of the study.

5.2 Summary

This study was an analysis of code switching and code mixing in sermons in selected churches in

Abuja. The study was adopted the Speech Accommodation Theory which proposes that code

switching and code mixing are done by speakers to seek solidarity with others. Data in this study

was collected from churches in Gwagwalada Area council Abuja through participant observation

and recording during the various church sermons. In response to the objectives of the study, it was

revealed that there is a significant level of occurrence of code switching and code mixing in

sermons. Furthermore, it was observed that there were dominant occurrences of code switching

compared to code mixing in the sermons. Moreover, the study revealed that the pattern of code

switching by the preachers was dominantly more intersententialthan extrasentential. As regards

the pattern of code mixing, the study revealed that there was more code mixing of English-Hausa

at phrase level comprising 55% of the code mixing in the data collected. Finally, the study unveiled

that the reasons for code switching and code mixing in church sermon in the light of the Speech

Accommodation Theory are basically for clarification, accommodation, sociolinguistic play,

emphasis and lack of lexical facility.

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5.3 Conclusion

The study has revealed that there is a significant level of subconscious and conscious code

switching and code mixing by preachers during sermons in the church. It is discovered that

majority of the preachers switch and mix subconsciously due to bilingualism. The work also

showsthat code switching was a more prevalent phenomenon in the churches. Although in Nigeria,

English stands as the official language and that’s the reason churches chose it as the official

language but it is being code-switched and mixed with indigenous languages in an attempt to pass

information and identify socio-culturally with congregations. This study agrees with the position

of Das (2012) that code switching and code mixing can be used as effective communicative tools

for messages which are intended by the speaker in a way that the speaker wanted it to be relayed

and to solicit specific response or acceptance from the hearer. In this current study the preachers

selected words, phrases, clauses, sentences and expressions in the L2 (English) and the L1 (Hausa)

according to the communicative need of the target audience. The basic rationale for code switching

and code mixing was done so that their messages are better understood by the target congregation.

Therefore, the goal of this study is to make researchers understand that the use of code switching

and code mixing is significant for the comprehension and acceptance of messages being passed

during preaching process. Such must be done consciously and skillfully to ensure maximum

communicative effect. This study has revealed that code switching and mixing can be used as a

powerful tool for teaching in the Nigerian churches. In all, this study proves that code switching

and mixing play essential role in the use of English and Hausa as medium of communication.

5.4 Implication for Further Research

i. Future investigations should examine the use of code switching and code mixing among

other religious groups such as Islam and the African Traditional Religion.

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ii. In addition, the patterns of code switching and code mixing can be re-examined in other

Church activities such as prayers, Sunday school sessions, counseling session and other

interactive communication.

iii. Finally, considering the limitation of time, context, and number of selected churches, this

study could be carried out in more churches to ascertain how various preachers’ code-

switch and code-mix during their sermons.

5.5. Limitation of the Study

In the course of this study, the researcher ecountered challenges. One of such challenge was the

reluctance and suspicion of some of the church leaders to permit the researcher to collect data until

she was able to convince them that the data was purely for academic purpose. Another limitation

of the study is that the researcher is not a native speaker of Hausa and had to employ the sevice of

of native speaker as a research assistant for the interpretation and transcription of data which could

in a way affect the contextual and linguistic accuracy of the data. However, to the best of the

researcher’s knowledge, this does not in any way affect the study from achieiving its set objectives.

Therefore, the researcher is positive on the outcome of this study and hopes for improvement by

future researchers.

80

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

Church: Imaculate Conception Catholic Church,

Date: 05/07/2020

Sermon Title: Message of Love

Duration: 36:12

Greetings dear friends in Christ, the message of Jesus to us today is Love. According to the Gospel

of John chapter 15, it tells us that for us to be His children, we must love Him, and not just love

him only but we must love those that are around us. Yesu Almasihu yana magana a kan kauna,

kauna junan mu, kauna abokanin mu da kaunan sa...trant (Jesus is talking of love, love of oneself,

love of friends and love of Him).

We cannot claim to love Him whereas we do not love our neighbours, this is made clear in 1 John

2:9, that anyone who claims to be in the light but hates his brother or sister is still in the dark. For

us to be in the light, it has to manifest in our daily activities, our daily lives, how we express our

love to one another, how we sacrifice for our friends, how we sacrifice for those around us.

Ya kamata kauna ya nuna a ta wurin aikace aikacen mu ko yaushe, duk abinda zamu yi, mu sa

kauna a gaba, Donim shi Allah kauna ne Kuma shi Yesu Almasihu ya dawo cikin duniya, ya shigo

duniya, ya ba ma kansa har ya mutu a giciye don kauna..

(transt: love should be seen practiced in our daily activities, no matter our engagement, love should

be seen expressed in it, because Jesus is love and he even came into the world and died on the

Cross because of love).

1 John 4:8..God is love, therefore, for us to be children of God, we must love

Ya kamata mu zama yaya masu kauna, kauna juna, da Kuma kauna shi Yesu Almasihu..

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(trans: we should be children of love, love of others and love of God.)

Our activities, Our daily lives should express true love, we can't claim to love Jesus whereas we

hate our brothers or hate our sisters Matter 22:27 &29

The love of God needs to be expressed among ourselves especially to the needy; Ya kamata mu

nuna musu kauna (we need to show them love)

Wanda suna nima taimakon a wurin mu..(those who are in need of us)

Ba kauna da tafi wannan...(no love is greater than this)

Jesus tells us that there is no greater love than to lay down your life for another. We must sacrifice

for others, it has to go with pain and letting go of our values/valuables.

The love has to be expressed in our daily lives, we have to do everything in love because Jesus is

love and he has shown us the way. We need to sacrifice, we need to show love to those that are in

need.

Ka kamata mu zama masu kauna...(we are supposed to be a people of love especially to the needy)

We pray....

The scribes came and met Jesus in the Gospel of Mark 12:28-32, they asked Jesus that what is the

greatest commandment? Jesus told them that the greatest commandment is to love God above all

else and to love our neighbours. Magatakarda suka zo suka Sami she Yesu Almasihu suka tambaye

shi cewa, cikin dokoki, wanne ne ya fi? Yesu ya gaya musu cewa, kauna Ubangiji Allah da Kuma

kauna yanwanin mu tafi sauran dokoki.

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When Jesus responded, they were impressed and one among them added that, to love God and

Man is more than burnt offeringimpressed.

Cikin su, daya ya Kara ya ce, yesu ya amsa da kyau, yace kauna ya fi sadaka

And that was why Jesus Christ responded and said that you are not far from the kingdom of heaven,

for Him to have told him that you are not far from the kingdom of God, therefore means that the

kingdom has to do with justice,. Fairness, care, Joy and above all, Love

Cikin su da dayan su ya amsa ya Kara ce cewa kauna ya fi sadaka, Yesu ya gaya mishi ya ce ai shi

yana kusa da haikalin Ubangiji, wato ya nuna cewa, kauna ya fi duka komi da komi hard a mulkin

sama

I pray.......

Greetings dear friends in Christ, our Gospel text today speaks of sacrifice, according to Matt.10:39,

that we must sacrifice for what is right and for God. Litafi mai tsarki ta gaya mana cewa, ya kamata

mu sadakar da kanmu domin Ubangiji ba sadaka na duniya ba akarshe zamu karbi ladar Ubangiji....

Jesus told us that he who wants to follow Him must take up his cross and follow Him. The Cross

means pain, sacrifice.

Yesu ya gaya mana cewa duk wanda zai bishi said ya dauki giciyen sa ya bishi, giciye ya zama

sadaka a ta fannin Ubangiji..

We need to sacrifice for what is right, truth and for God and not for personal gratification. Ya

kamata mu sadakar da kanmu a ta hanya gaskiya, a ta hanya Ubangiji ba akan duniya ba amma

akan abinda yesu zai bamu wato a karshe zamu samu lada daga wurin Ubangiji, duk sadakar da

zamu yi, mu tuna yesu yana kallo Kuma a karsha zai bamu lada, ya kamata muyi abinda zamu

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samu lada a rana ta karshe kada muyi abinda zai kaimu gidan wuta sai dai abinda zamu Sami lada

a Kuma yi murna da Ubangiji.....( we should be conscious that all we do will be rewarded according

on the last day, we need to sacrifice for the sake of the kingdom of God so that we can receive

eternal reward). We pray that the word will bear fruits in us Amen.

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APPENDIX II

Church: Imaculate conception Catholic Church,

Date: 12/07/2020

Sermon Title: Building on God’s Word

Duration: 23:12

This is the letter of Apostle Paul to Timothy wande yarubu ta (the one he wrote) as a guide to any

Christian that must survive in the Last days. First Timothy 3; Here is a trustworthy saying: If

anyone sets his heart on being an overseer, he desires a noble task. 2 Now the overseer must be

above reproach, the husband of but one wife, temperate, self-controlled, respectable, hospitable,

able to teach, 3 not given to drunkenness, not violent but gentle, not quarrelsome, not a lover of

money. 4 He must manage his own family well and see that his children obey him with proper

respect. 5 (If anyone does not know how to manage his own family, how can he take care of God's

church?) 6 He must not be a recent convert, or he may become conceited and fall under the same

judgment as the devil. 7 He must also have a good reputation with outsiders, so that he will not

fall into disgrace and into the devil's trap.

8 Deacons, likewise, are to be men worthy of respect, sincere, not indulging in much wine, and

not pursuing dishonest gain. 9 They must keep hold of the deep truths of the faith with a clear

conscience. 10 They must first be tested; and then if there is nothing against them, let them serve

as deacons.

11 In the same way, their wives are to be women worthy of respect, not malicious talkers but

temperate and trustworthy in everything.

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12 A deacon must be the husband of but one wife and must manage his children and his household

well. 13 Those who have served well gain an excellent standing and great assurance in their faith

in Christ Jesus.

We want to title this message as God's Word for building. Maganan Ubangidi mai gini (God’s

word for building)? How will you feel if you wake up one day and discover that Christianity is a

lie? Yaya zaka gi inde katachi wata rana kaduba chewa christochi keriya? Has it ever come to your

mind like that? Or how will feel if you wake up to realize that all that there is about Christianity is

history and no more?

Or if someone end up convincing the world chewa (that) Christianity is a scam? I think the first

thing your feel is regret at realizing that all your years you have been following a lie kwakaba (or

not so,)?

If you ask me, it will be time of wailing and crying and weeping, bakukankeden ba (not a small

cry). That this beaustiful life we are enjoying be taken away.

And the truth is there are nations kaman Turkey da (like Turkey that) once had this kind of life but

today have no more Christianity.And the truth is there are nations kaman Turkey da (like Turkey

that) they once had this kind of life but today have no more Christianity, sobe muslinchi (because

Muslims) have taken over kasansu (their land).

All they cry is wishing that they go back to those days. So Apostle Paul yana rubuta wanna leta (is

writing this letter to) Timothy his son.

That he should contend for the faith that was once handed over to him. And as far as we are

concerned, the tool kwo abun fada (or weapon) for contending for the faith is the Word of God.

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Hello, as far as we are concerned, what was handed over daga (from) Christ to the Apostles, to the

early Church, to the Missionaries arjuwa (down to) our fathers is the word of God. Chine abunda

muna karanta, munaa aiki, muna gudu kuma muna adua de (This is what we read, work, run and

pray with). The Word of God.

That is why the scripture says "all scriptures are God breaths giving to for doctrines, teachings, for

reproof and correction in righteousness. So, the wisdom penned down is enough to guide us.

So, what do you need as believers for a time like this? It is time to go more than just reading the

scriptures to the eating and digesting of the word to the level that no one, bakwowa achikin

duyiyana (in this world) can come and confuse you.

The first thing that started in nations that have lost their faith is the rebellion against word, basaso

su ji maganan Yesu kwo Allah (they don't want to hear the word of Jesus or God).

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APPENDIX III

Church: Church of Christ in Nigeria (COCIN)

Date: 19/07/2020

Sermon Title: Danger of Life

Duration: 28:16

Muyin anduwa kepen muchigaba (let us pray before we proceed). Our heavenly father we thank

you this evening for your mercy, thank you for your grace. We are who we are by your grace, if

not for your mercy we would have been consumed. Lord, let your mercy over rule judgments.

Lord, as we study your word, help us to become believers. Let our holy faith be built and we

will wake up to the full knowledge of your son, Jesus Christ in Jesus name.

Praise the Lord, Kuyi ankuri, na zo lati, abubuwa deyafaru (I am sorry for coming late, it is as a

result of what happened). But we thank the Lord, Praise the lord.

Zain hada ganbiza(I am going to make concution) da chikafa de wake (of rice and beans). Wa ya

sain ganbiza (who knows concoction?). Zain hada hausa da turenchi (I'll use both hausa and

English). Yaowa. . .

As a youth, I want you to pay attention to what we are going to say today because it is going to

make a significant change in your life. Destiny is one road to follow with many people to meet and

what you do with them matters.

Don't be fighting the devil, you may be carrying your worst enemy withing you. You know me

with one question and it is "what do you do when the enemy you are fighting in right inside of

you?

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Take gamaly 20, I thank the leadership of the church, God bless you. we are supposed to come

with Youths in Dadinkowa but they had another programme but tomorow they will join us.

A kwei wata matta, na ji dadin magana de kay yi (There is one woman, I really enjoyed the story).

Kwo wata de mijinta yakarba salary (Every time her husband collects salary).

Maza mu na de towrin hanu wani lokochi kwo, (Men, we can be very treaky sometimes). Makwo.

Natinna wani lokochi de mata na tache imbata kudi, na denga mesifa na che bande chi. Kerki

massa mum, kuma geskiya kwo meshe, mopol ne (I remember once my wife asked for money, I

boldly told her I have no money and the fact is every woman is like a mopol.

Do you know the work of a mopol? Kunsabi? Kusen aikin mopol? (Laugh)! Inkagani katachi

desensape, kadinga kula, inna magana dewande so dede a awere ankei shakara goma) when you

wakeup in the morning, I'm talking to those who have stayed longe in marriage beyond ten years,

karkaganni akarmin jigi, I'm forty six years old, so I'm growing, I'm going somewhere. Praise the

Lord, I am portable and presentation but not for marketing (laugh!). Inna de NAFDAC Approval

(I have NAFDAC Approval. Inkagani mecha tatachi desafe, tafara baka suraye debandeban (when

a woman wake up in morning and starts calling you names) Honey, shuga, mango, anan so akarba

kudinka ne (they want to collect your money).

When I told my wife I was coming here. she said “kai”. Matana tachewei zatazo nan, amadena che

Nassarawa ne, tache "blood of Jesus"! (My wife said she will follow me but when I said its in

Nassarawa, she said "Blood of Jesus" tache ke geise su (she said I should greet them), kasenta ai,

do o go (you know her now, very tall). wata rana na raka ta zuwa kasuma, na che innje parking

indawo. de na zo inna binta abaya, nachaga wani shago insaya abin, sai wata mata tache wei

madam your junior brother entered that shop.

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(One day, I followed her to the market, I said let me park and follow her, I then decided to buy

some for another shop and the lady owner of the shop she entered said, see your younger brother

entering another shop. (Laugh)! Gachi na zama junior brother (Now I have become my wife's

junior brother) praise the Lord.

She looked at the woman and said wane junior wane (who is the junior brother of who? In Allay

yayeda, gobe zamu zo de ita (By God's grace, tommorow we will be here with her.

So, mata, kuna de abubuwa masu keo (so women, you have good things). Apkai wata mata inde

mijinta ya karba salary, (There is one woman, anytime the husband collect his salary) kudi yana

missing dega hajipunchi (money usually gets missing from his pocket). Sunan attending churchi

abonkin nan, Rev Idachaba (they are members of my friend's church Rev. Idachaba. Kunlu, kudi

yata missing, kuma yatenbee yara, kwoya be yanda ba (He asked his children and none aggreed to

be the one taking the money. Yana de yanra banba (he has grown up children).You know boy can

be very funny (oni yaje chan taba weed). Yana forming Homeboy, bakusan home boys are hell

boys ba. . .(Home boys are hell boys). Wnnan ne nigga, wuna de nigga raw, ya flying collar. . .

kuma inna kai checking result din su, su na de fatima tara. JAMB yayi jaming nasu already.He is

flying collar sai kuma inna kai (until you) checking result.

Innmata that che, baban mu, zaka putane (if a woman says, "daddy, are you going out?", check.

So, kwo rada damiji ya karba salary, yana discover kidi yana missing de ajipu. Miji din yai tabaya

bawade yayar ya do ka kundi. Sai, miji yai ma abokin complain, sai aboki. Kagaini, wuna magana

a kain Danger of New age moverment. Na zonn indo ka weisun takandu daga library din na (I

came to pick some books from my library).

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I went to visit one baba yesterday, I was telling them, Baba yai waazi aa COCCIN for seventy

years, yenzu (now) Baba is about eighty yes old. After preaching to me and I rejected, he never

got angry with me, Yache (he said), one day you will wear this cloth and shoes I am wearing.

I never knew what was saying but that evening before he left me, yacha (he said) please, we are

have Christmas Carol, can you come"?

Then I was a Muslim but I love music, Inna jin karan drum kwo anabuga gbanjo kwo galala, kwo

makusa, I will follow that line. So, I ask him question, mai kuna yin agurin, ya che mun, insuhadu,

suna wakokine kowe (what are you people doing there, he said if they meet, they all sing songs"and

I said I love song.

Ya che zenzo inji waka intafi, my purpose of coming was just to mock them and see what they are

doing. But, zanyi inbargida a kerpan kwoma inche masu genje de lokochi (where am I going to

tell my sibllings that I will be going past ten pm)

bayan de ariga kwo woni gidan muslimi, akpai zoure ai, In anriga antore zoure nan sa dose sobode

aseni wande yana puta kenan. Ama alokochin, akai abunde de nai noticed de babe.

Baba na yana de buta guda biyu, deya akai runa, na biyu akai guilder. Inn mutun yazo zai dauka

buta yejesallah, jai che doka na daya, sobode ya san abunde yeke chikin, he knows what is inside.

And this is hypocritical life. I then waited for all ofthem to sleep so I sneak out of the house.

One boy went to smoke marijuana, and sneeked into the room passing infront of his parent with

out him seeing them and the father said to the mother "Look at your son" sai yai sneeking chikin

palour, sai baban yachae, see your son, see you son!

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sai maman ma yache, he is also your son. You know, inn yabo yabache, yaron unwachin ne (When

a boy get spoilt, its the mother's son) amaa, yanade keo, na uban ne(but if he is good, he's the

father's son)

Kwo ba geskiya ne. . . So, I am going to teach you the danger of the new age movement because

God has given us the designment spirti so bo de mubaina mai geskiya kwo mai kariya na shatan

(so that we design between truth and falsehood of satan) Wanna. Sai, baban yache, Harison, who

asked you to go and take weewee? Harison yasha weewee. Now, when I left the house by 9:30.

Na sain lokochin de na kai churchin

abayan fototype (when I left the house, I knew when I got to the Church behind fototype) and the

church was very small, sunan kiran sunna su (they called themselves the Apostolic Revival

Crusade) they teach the bible and nothing less.

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APPENDIX IV

Church: Church of Christ in Nigeria (COCIN)

Date: 2/08/2020

Sermon Title: Standing on God’s Word

Duration: 35:02

There was time in the history of the church when the church faced physical persecution of death.

But now, the church is facing word persecution, kwowa (everyone) is busy attacking the church

here and there. There is a battle against the word. bakarmin pada ba (it is not a small fight).

So, when you go on the televisions, internet or social media, there are so many analysis aimed at

proving that the Word of God and the content of the Bible are lies, kaman kariya ne (like lies).

This is not only done by unbelievers, even some Christians are also involved in attempt to prove

themselves right and others wrong, Kwo ba kutaba gani ba (Or have you never seen any)?

So, the goal of this fight is to ensure that the faith that was once handed over to us is being lost.

kai, wanna abunda muwane fa (this is a matter of worry) to any genuie child of God.

Everything that is created is based on the spoken word of God, so the power of creation is the

word. Proverb 18:21. We stand on the word of God to exercise our authority. The word of God is

our block for building any things.

We use the word of God is our building block. The word of God is our cleanser, Jesus said Ye are

cleansed by the word I have spoken to thee. . . So, these is telling us that we cannot separate God

from His word. So, an attack on the word of God is equal to attack against God Himself.

I realize that the word of God in our time, Lokochin mu is losing value. Anyone can just pick the

bible, turn it upside down and say all manner of So, muna a lokochin de muta nen ba su de soro

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maganan ubangidi (we are in a time when people have no fear for the word of God). We live in a

time when God's word is devalued even in the name of comedy.

I don't have any problem against comedy in church, but it shouldn't be done at the expense of the

value of the word of God. Gaskiya, abundei nike nifi kenan (truelly, this is what I mean).People

can just pick the bible, turn it upside down and say all manner of things, this days Kwo wa

(anyone).

That is why we question some of the practices going on in churches, wanna ma abunde mutum

zaiyi achikin chuchi kenan (is this what one should do in church too)?.

In our time, Christianity and what it represents is becoming a joke, yazaman kaman abun wasa. As

younger pastor, sometimes, I feel calmer introducing myself by name than the title, because once

you add the title, kazama abun suspicion kenan (you have become a subject of suspicion).

We have come to that age when we can't out rightly differentiate between what is Godly and what

is worldly and we leave unbelievers confused, because they look at us and say sonann yinka

manmu ma (they behave like us too).

We have plenty of prophets going on lying in the name of God said, kuman Allah be che Kwomai

(everything) that is created is akai (on) based on the spoken word of God, so the power of creation

is the word. Even the Muslims value Qur'an than we value the Bible. Barhaka banei (is it not like

that)?

For a believer of this age, we need to go back to the word of God, din abunde zakeyi, kaitenbeya

abund de magana Allah yache ayi (whatever you want to do, ask how the word of God says it

should be done). Let the word be our working standard.As younger preacher, sometimes, I feel

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calmer introducing myself by name than the title, because once you add the title, you become a

thing of suspicion, kenau (then).

The reality confronting us is if we put between what the word of God says and the society says,

most of us will go with the society, kwo ma munji ache wei maganan Allah bayaso muyi wanna

kwo wancha, chinemunayi (if we hear that the word of God says we should not do this of that, that

is what we choose to do).

The majority of the churches now are like business centre, you have to pay to be prayed for, Allah

yana siya material dey kudin na (is God buying materials with the money). The scripture says

freely we receive and freely we give. Kunkaranta alitafi Yesu yakarba kudi dege mutun kepen yayi

michi adua (did you read anywhere in the scripture where Jesus collected money before praying

for somebody?

But this is happening in our time, so don't be decieved, there so many things that are outside the

word of God that people do today in Church, ban inde Allah kwo Yesu yache ayi ba (not way God

of Jesus said it should be done).

In our time, you need to know God for yourself, study the word of God for yourself. The church

is almost becoming a center for entertainment. We will rather trust a man on suit than what the

word of God says . . .but this is my counsel, whatever is not found in the word of God, no matter

how beautiful, it is not healthy for you. . . zei bata ma tafiyanku de Yesu awanna rauyuwa dey na

lahira (it will affect your walk with Jesus now and eternity).

We should wake up to the fact that the reality this is a fight for faith. Jesus said "when I will return,

will I find faith on the eart". With the ways things are going, will we even have faith to hand over

to our children?

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This is a serious question for you and I. . . Mu ansa faa (lets answer it). He said contend for the

faith that was once handled over to us? The scripture says "if the foundation be destroyed what

can the righteous do? If your foundation is not based on the word of God, it is destructible"

abunbanza ne (it is useless). No matter how high you build.

Let us build our lives based on the Word of God, and not how we feel, because there are ways that

seem right unto a man but the end is distruction. . . Yesu ya kiyaye mu (May Jesus save us). Muyi

Adua (Let us pray).

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APPENDIX V

Church:Evangelical Reformed Church of Christ (ERCC).

Date: 16/08/2020

Sermon Title: Working For God.

Duration: 22:34

Reading from the first letter of Saint Paul to the Corinthians from Chapter nine verse 24 to 27. 24

Do you not know that in a race all the runners run, but only one gets the prize? Run in such a way

as to get the prize. 25 Everyone who competes in the games goes into strict training. They do it to

get a crown that will not last; but we do it to get a crown that will last forever. 26 Therefore I do

not run like a man running aimlessly; I do not fight like a man beating the air. 27 No, I beat my

body and make it my slave so that after I have preached to others, I myself will not be disqualified

for the prize.

Using the imagery of Sport, Paul compared him to an athlete who practices often severe self-

discipline in order to win purely material price. Paul worked just as hard but for a reward that is

eternal. He worked hard but not forgetting himself too because he thinks of the last day. Mudinga

tuna de ranan takarche, ranan takarche ranan deza muzo gaban Ubangidi, ranan sharia. (We should

always remember the last day, the day we will stand before God, the Day of Judgment).

Mainene zamu iya mubayer (what will we give)?

Paul prepared himself, preached the word, he fasted, prayed and praised God but also conscious

of the last day, conscious of how he life to please God. He said so that he may not be disqualified

on the Last.

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May God have mercy on His church, Yesu ya temeko mu mu dachi fa (Jesus help us to have

victory).Brothers and sisters, if on the last day we are to be disqualified, I know that on the last

day, we will not be disqualified. kede mumanta de ruhun mu ga inde mu na niman ruhuhuna ma

ubangidi (So that we will not forget our souls, while we are looking for souls for God.). Inmuna

waazi, muyi ma waazi akeimu tukuna kafenan muyi ma weisu (If we are preaching, we should

first preach to ourselves first before preaching to others). In muna aduwa, muyima keimu domin

musamun karfi muyima weusu aduwa (If we are praying, we should pray for ourselves that we

should have strength to pray for others).

In the Act of the Apostle chapter 16 to 24, Paul and his companion were confronted by this lady

who has the spirit of fortune telling but this spirit was instill in her by the owners. They use it for

buisiness and to gain money but when the spirit encountered with the true spirit, it shouted this is

the true servant of God the Most high.

Darkness recognised the true light of God in them. Duhu yaiyaye yega mai haske achikin Manzo

Bulus dey masu aiki dechi. Domin Yariya tagane chenwa wai inan masu de aikin geskiya sune

masu aikin Ubangidi. My dear brothers and sisters, the trials and challenges we face today can be

compared with Saint Paul. Living the life of the Gospel expose us to all kind of persecution and

dangers rayuwan kalman Ubangidi rayuwan bishara yakankaomun musamo masaloli deyawa de

duniya.

The gospel is a way of life where we proclaim and teach the redeeming power of God and also

enlighten people on the way of salvation. Sanantan mu, duniya su deke mu, duniya su kechemu.

Amaa inmu dache, inmu naache aken karman ubangidi, zamuchi nasara kaman inde kakaka Bulus

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sukechi nasara (If we continue to follow and serve God, we will have victory like Paul and his

follwoers).

If we continue to read, we will understand that through their words and through their action, the

praises they rendered to God, they were set free. A miraculous deliverance from that cell and they

caused a conversion for the Jailer. So, my dear brothers and sisters, let us be not only be hearers

of the word but we should also put it into practice with a pure and clean heart.

In the reading of the Act of Apostle, the question of how can I be saved or must I do to be save?

My dear brothers and sister, in the event of life, God visitation to nations to individuals, to families

and communities, comes occasionally. It comes in a way that we ourselves may not.

Beri muzama masu sorara kalman ubangidi mukuma yi aikata tai zuchiyan masu sarkin de kuma

masudaraja (we should live our lives like people with a king and faith. Allah ya barkache mu

dika.May God help Brethren to run this race to the end; Amin (Amen)

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APPENDIX VI

Evangelical Church Winning All (ECWA Good News),

Date: 20/09/2020

Sermon Title: Working for the Truth

Duration: 34:27

There are two types of truth that operates in this where we are today, akwai geskiya kechin biyu

(repeated) na deyan, shinen wande zaibanyana muna achinkinna inna a sabowa achinkin lintafi

Yohanna, suran goma chahudu, ayan chida, Yesu yache wei nine hanya. nine geskiya, nine kuma

rai, bamai zuwa gurun uba, sai te gurin na I am the way, the truth and the life, no one comes to the

father except through me. The second, wannan gaskiya (this truth) is the one you know about

yourself that nobody know.

Akwai wanin gurin da ana sar de natural, sai woni yayi branch (there is one where there is used to

sell natural. Brother Philemon, kuman kunan shan (do you take) natural? (brother Philimon, do

you take natural), muyi branching mun sha ai. Ni banseni ba, su sukezo suna geyanmum that (I

never knew until they came to tell me that) do you know that there was time in our lives.

The woman came to the parlour to check, inann baba boyi ne (Where is baba Boyi) sai haka. baba

boyi yayi benchi ai. She went back into the room and put hand in his pocket and said "Kai, kai,

kai, wonnan yaui kudi you), so she put her hand to remove more moeney and before she knew she

removed condom and she shouted aaii! napada ai, napada ai. . abundin yasa yana zuwa gidan lati

(I said it, this why he used to come home late).The man woke up and the wife said "mai wannan"

(what is this?) Baba Boyi.

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Ninety-nine days for the theif, one day for owner, Allah yakama ka (God has gotten you today).

Dan Allah, kugayamun, wane Allah yakama? (Who has God gotten).

The man woke up and she wife said "mai wannan" and he asked He asked her Inna kasamu (where

did you get it?)

Wonde yanadelefi shine yana brokon reporting (the guilty party is always to firts to report). Kasan

mata, they can cry like type writter ta ta ta ta ta (women can cry like typewritter tat at at at t).

kuyiankuri, amaa geskiya. . .small thing they can cry.

Gaabun de nasamu a ajifu shi, Reverend was shocked, sai Reverend yakirachi ya zo yache mei

gaabun de matanka yakawo wei tasamu ajipunka...continue in Hausa (This is what I found in his

pocket. Then Reverend called him and when he came, he was asked and he accepted it.

Praise the Lord, inkana tapping, kadenna (If you are tapping, stop it). . If you are tapping stop it

(audience Laf). Mathew 24: In English from 24:12-20. 12 Because of the increase of wickedness,

the love of most will grow cold, 13 but he who stands firm to the end will be saved. 14 And this

gospel of the kingdom will be preached in the whole world as a testimony to all nations, and then

the end will come.

15 "So when you see standing in the holy place 'the abomination that causes desolation,' spoken

of through the prophet Daniel — let the reader understand— 16 then let those who are in Judea

flee to the mountains. 17 Let no one on the roof of his house go down to take anything out of the

house. 18 Let no one in the field go back to get his cloak. 19 How dreadful it will be in those days

for pregnant women and nursing mothers!

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Abraham Lincon -Kennedy (Alchohol), Rosevel and Bush (weapon & oil). Inna kacha taba, sai ka

dinnga tabiyan baya Kaman trailer dai bachi de briki (When you get yourself drunk, you will be

reversing like trailer without break).Every tree that my Heavenly father has not planted shall be

uprooted, so I uproot you, Kasuwanka yakare (your market is finished), Yesu jai chigaba (Jesus

will continue from here), I said this and the contronted me and I said you are die and he died

mysteriously. Sir, kasan yaranmu akai takadun a nursery school that they are learning witchcraft

and we don't know?

The torment of these guys won’t let you graduate, baze barka ke gama de makaranta fa (will not

allow you to finish school) so, follow me. The boy was afraid.. If you have God, they know, if you

don't have God, they know. Inna kaunna (I’m not taking about) pretending, sunsani (They also

know).

So, the govenment gave them another land somewhere, and inn kanazuwa dega sakaara junction,

akaiwanda su flat by the right, by this side, akai wai su flat de suna renting. They will carry our

young men from school and give the best lifestyle.

Ooh, you think azo abuga (came to play) han nu. and yinkanana chorus kwo (Ohh, you think it is

to come, clap, and sing small choruses, right?). May God have mercy on His church, kowei (only!)

And you sit down and fold your hands, you cannot pray. . Abin de yeka damunna yenzu is

Christians chine, zaa a zo church . . . .(demostration of sleep) in Church can not pray, aama daga

sun zo gida ansa Nigerian film, haaaba. . .Benchi ya wanware (sleep disappears), which one is

better, film or your life?

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APPENDIX VII

Church: Evangelical Church Winning All (ECWA Good News)

Date: 27/09/2020

Sermon Title: Walking in Humanity

Duration: 26:57

My brethren, we ought to walk in humility. yen uwana kamata muyi rawan enkesketa wa de deske

agaban Allah. Christ called us to walk before him in truth and the simplicity of our hearts. Yesu

yakirayemu, muyi tabiya agabansa de gaske. Zamu samei chinkin geske (He that walks before me

in truth shall be secured from evil occurrences and be delivered from harm).Zamu samei chinkin

geske (He that walks before me in truth shall be secured from evil occurrences and be delivered

from harm).

Let’s read the following scriptures Prov 11:2When pride comes, then comes disgrace,but with

humility comes wisdom.

Prov 22:4 4 Humility and the fear of the Lord bring wealth and honor and life. He that walks before

me in truth shall be secured from evil occurrences and be delivered from harm. The reading of the

first letter of Saint Paul to the Church in Corinthian. One's own teaching must be judge as foolish

by world standard. The way he does his things and the way he argued with the pagans and the

passion he had for the cross of Christ, the crucified Lord.

Humanly speaking, one may say Paul was unworthy, sai de menzo bulus yayi waa zi ma mutanen,

yayichi de zuchi ya deya de aminchi inde zaye taba yayuwan mutanen (when Apostle Paul

preached to people, he does with simplicity and truth of what happened in a way that it will touch

the lives of people).

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But it was is his preaching that established the church, showing that faith rest on the power of

God's word, uban geskiya mu yakao zona iko ubangidi Allah a aiki. taban geskiya mu ne zuma

sama nasara (is it our passion and truth in serving God that will give us victory in eternity). Our

faith and passion can build up gospel and help people accept the word of God.

In first peter chapter 1 Peter 5:5-9 reads "Young men, in the same way be submissive to those who

are older. All of you, clothe yourselves with humility toward one another, because,

"God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble."

6 Humble yourselves, therefore, under God's mighty hand, that he may lift you up in due time. 7

Cast all your anxiety on him because he cares for you.

8 Be self-controlled and alert. Your enemy the devil prowls around like a roaring lion looking for

someone to devour. 9 Resist him, standing firm in the faith, because you know that your brothers

throughout the world are undergoing the same kind of sufferings.

This call for encouragement, brothers and sisters. We are to encourage one another to be united in

faith and same beliefs. We should divide ourselves by the church we worship based on doctrines

but we believe in one God and our Lord Jesus Christ, not a matter of the Church you worship.

Juchiyanmu achin magana yesu neen (let our heart keep the words of Jesus).

Let our differences, kede ya hana mu temoko juna ba (let our differences not stop us from helping

one another). keda yarife muna edo kede mugeni inde zamu iya tamako enyuwanmu (let it not

blind us from seeing where we can be of assistance to one another). keda yarife muna edo kede

mugeni inde zamu iya tamako enyuwanmu (let it not blind us from seeing where we can be of

assistance to one another).

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For if we are blind, we will not see the places to help our brothers, ama bari rufu mai sarki ya

budemuni ido mugane inde zamu bi hanya ubangidi kwo ma karche enyuwamum (let the Holy

spirit help us to see how to follow God and help our fellow brothers).

In the book of Paul to the Romans, he encouraged them that there are riches attached to faith in

Christ Jesus. for Christ says "whoever belive in me shall not perish but have eternal life"

In the book of Genesis, God promised our Father Abraham to inherit the world through his actions

and committed work. My dear brothers and sister, Christ promise to us is not in vain. Yesu che din

wande yai gaskanta de chi bazei zama duhu ba amaa zai samu rai madamami ar ya abada (Christ

said, whoever follow him will not walk in darkness but will have life, life eternal). Mungane chewa

ban gaskiya mu tache zai ba mu hanya zamu gei Yesu ido dei ido aran dikarchi (We understand

that truelly afeter this life, we will Jesus Christ face to face on the lastday).

We call ourselves "Christian" but yet we doubt the existence of Christ. We need to believe with

our heart that Christ who was raised for our justification will save us from eternal demanation. We

call ourselves "Christian" but yet we doubt the existence of Christ. We need to believe with our

heart that Christ who was raised for our justification will save us from eternal domination.

Mugaskenta de Ubangidi chi wande ya tachi dege makartu chi zai bama rai madawami (We should

understand and believe that he who raised Christ from the grave, He will give us life eternal).

Ubangidi Allah ya abarkache maganan sa, Amin (May the Lord bless His word) Amen.

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APPENDIX VIII

Church: Evangelical Church Winning All (ECWA Good News),

Date: 27/09/2020

Sermon Title: Principle of Integrity

Duration: 38:01

I remember when I was at the other side, we done take things for granted, kwo woni dare dega

twelve o'clock, zamudege kapamun we zona a kei taburma (we get ourselves sitted on the mat),

kasan abunde akekira (do you know what we call it? In Islam, anna kira duwayi (it is called

duwayi) muna duwayi dege dere aar zuwa safe, kana karan ayoyi den sunan (You will recite from

midnight to day break, you read chapters and verses,) mai keke nima, kanan ni oni contract kwo

kana niman woni mutun yabaka aiki (looking for someone to give a job).

Lets look at what Jesus said in Mathew 5:33-37. It reads "Again, you have heard that it was said

to the people long ago, 'Do not break your oath, but keep the oaths you have made to the Lord.' 34

But I tell you, Do not swear at all: either by heaven, for it is God's throne; 35 or by the earth, for

it is his footstool; or by Jerusalem, for it is the city of the Great King. 36 And do not swear by your

head, for you cannot make even one hair white or black. 37 Simply let your 'Yes' be 'Yes,' and

your 'No,' 'No'; anything beyond this comes from the evil one.

Garchi su suna kiran demons yatameke su gobbe susamu aiki kwo wani abun (they call on demons

to help them get a job or something from someone), aiankira sallah ketachi, ketayi sai ka dawo, ke

you will still go back to your work, they are making thier enchantment while we are sleeping. It is

a sin for a Christian to be on bed while they are calling Sallah.

How many of us lokochin de ake yin (the time they did) ECWA Book Project bought books?.

Akwai wani (there is one) books project da anayin aa (that) Ecwa aaniyi (use to do) every year..

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ka samun wannan a naka (the name of this one- shows them a book) is the kingdom of cult, go

through it over and over. . .

God warned Solomon in first Kings 9:4-5, 4 "As for you, if you walk before me in integrity of

heart and uprightness, as David your father did, and do all I command and observe my decrees and

laws, 5 I will establish your royal throne over Israel forever, as I promised David your father when

I said, 'You shall never fail to have a man on the throne of Israel.'

You are working but no evidence. . karan nawaa, keremin jiki na (My own smallishness is natural)

laugh. 1st John 4:1-6 (Read) verse 1: if you want to understand this, innkunnan so kugane litafi

Yohanna nafera suran hudu, aya deyan na, read it together with Relevation chapter sixteen, which

talks about the dragon that came our of the water . . .

When I went to Isreal, I went to a bookshop to buy books, as I entered one of the shops,

immediately the woman looked at my eyes, she started shaking her head, kasain mutunmin kamaan

ya shar zegabun spirit kwoma abunbiyaya irin nan masusan rigan perin nan..(like some one

possessed with evil spirit or like that people who used to wear white clothes) eeeeeh shamamama,

you understand that kind of spirit, as she was shaking her head, she ran into another office. . .

To invade the world, and yaro yanan kallon cartoon bakasain abundeyeke geni ba (boy is watching

cartoon and you don't know the content), aiyi cartoon din camman baban yan wani kei haka (the

design the cartoon with some funny head shape), there are many cartoons and they are demonic.

If you are prayerful person, they will be able to take control of your life, enuwa kutachi, lokochin

nan na aduwa (this is time for prayers), it is not time to sleep, lokochin ne na karantan litafi na

ubangidi musain wanne na ubangida (this is time to seriously study the word of God so as to know

which is godly and which is not), it is not time to play, ba lokochin wasa banee muna batan

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lokochin munan kanlo, munayimu siasa, mai siasa zai baka (I repeat, this is not time to sit and fold

our arms and watch). Our leaders belong to this. . .banee muna batan lokochin munan kanlo,

munayimu siasa, mai siasa zai baka. Our leaders belong to this . .

You are a young person, God is interested in you, and you are not yet interested in God, this youth

programme . . akwai wana yaro ya techi wata rana baban yachemischi "kejo kechiriya ke tafi

makaranta, sai yache ahaah domin bayason yasa uniform din, do you know what the father said to

him?

If you don't wear this you wear that of a security or waiter tomorrow, yawanchi weone yara sobode

basajin gargegin Iyayensu, basakaona ubangidi, suna san hanu aa abunde bazasuiya putaba (this is

what is disturbing about children of nowadays, they don't listen to elders, they don't love God and

so they deep thier hands into what they will be not be able to escape from).

Ankira ni youche ma, amakaranda aah junction dinna a Saint Batilomew, a small boy in JSS 2, he

looked at his senior and said on Saturday, I will kill you. And on Friday morning, the senior went

off, then they called me, lokochin, yariga ya summa (he had fainted already), I said you will not

die anywhere.

Garchi su suna kiran demons yatameke su gobbe susamu aiki kwo wani abun (they call on demons

to help them get a job or something from someone), ar akira sallah ketachi, ketayi sai ka dawo, ke

(when they call prayer and you are done with prayer, then) you will still go back to your work,

they are making their enchantment while we are sleeping. It is a sin for a Christian to be on bed

while they are calling Salah (prayer).So, he doesn't know how to cover it so he said on Saturday, I

will kill you, kagani kwo, ansa abun ahandu wonde be sai inde zai ganai ba, chine hausawa sukeche

, innka na so, kai ajiyan kudinka de kana de barowo aagida, ke bachi ya ajiye, bazodou ka ba (so

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it is said by the Hausas' that the best way to secure your money when you have a thief in the house,

give it to the thief to keep, he will not steal it).

This wages of sin is death, and gift of God is eternal life, akusa de agida na a Lagos, akwei wata

yarinya, karwanchi tageji, watarana kowe, Inna zuwa sai na genta tana chorus "Jehova, you are

good" morning devotion, sai nache waya, anche wei Bose, nache “is it a lie”, woni Bose (then I

said who and they said Bose, I said “it is a lie” which Bose”).

With curiosity, one evening, I went to look for Bose, Nache "Bose, mai yafaro (Bose, what

happened)?because she stayed in the North, zakagani motochi agaban gidan su (you will see cars

at the frontage of her house), Inn yarinya nan zai tayi politics with the grace of God, she will win

election. Wonnan mutumi yazo, yatafi feee, Wannchan mutumi yazo, yatafi feee (this person will

come and go, that person will come and go). Natambe tawatarana, na che Bose, waitan mazannan

kaman rigafaa, bakigajiba? (I aked her one day, and said, Bose, these men are like clothes, are you

not getting tired? That day she told, that that question I asked her "Bose, bakigajiba?" tache sir,

your coming back, you see me a changed person?

tache, I won't tell you anything, but I have only one word to tell, you, "men have gotten enough of

me, now let God have the rest of me.

I want us to bow our heads and pray? If there is any area of our lives, inna akwai

wonnin abun arayuwan mu wonde mu bade geskiya, iden ubangiji yazo yenzu (what if there is any

aspect of ourlive that is faulty, what if God should come now?) baza mu samun bilkin sama ba,

garan mu chanza (if there is anything we know that is contrary to God's law, it is better we change).

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wazaya temeke mu, Jesus said, Satan came to me and found nothing of his own. I was in church

preaching when God told me about abortion and I said those who committed abortion, God's wrath

is coming on you, that night, forty seven of them came out, bansen abun de ka sa kenka ba (I don't

know what you are into), yanzu zaa a che kezo gida ayimaka wanka, Allah zeye tere ka magani,

waye, mageni (they deceive some of you and tell you to come home for spiritual birth and

cleansing) waye mutum, waye bokan? (Who is the person, who is the doctor?). Akwei wani magani

de yafi jini Yesu de yazubar akeiche (is there any medicine for cleansing that is more than the

blood of Jesus shared on the tree?). . .

Today is the day of salvation, tomorrow may be too late, musen muna achikin aduwa (know that

we are praying now) amaa in kasen be ka karba yesu yazaman maicheotokaba, inna geyamakafa,

wonde yazama na shedan, akwai wuta faa (But if anyone says he will not accept Jesus, so that he

can be come his Saviour, there is hell awaiting). I told somebody yesterday.

God wants your life, give Him your life, inna ka tuba ba, baka karba yesu ba, kuma kana zuwa

ecclisia (if you know you have not confessed the Lord Jesus as your saviour and you are comming

to church,) aaa rana kerche, Pastor zei bade lisafi kenchi, keima zakaba de lisafi ken ka (on the last

day, the pastor will give his own account and you will also give your own account). kwowa zeizo

gaban ubangiji (everyone will stand before God).

I am begging you, give your life to Christ, inn ka naso ke karba yesu yaza ma maicheiton ka (if

you want to accept the Lord Jesus as your saviour,) musowkwo de kei mu, muyi adua (lets bow

our heads in prayers).