'Like Sheep'? Disobedience Among Soviet Tourists Travelling Abroad

‘Like Sheep’? Disobedience Among Soviet Tourists Travelling Abroad

Benedikt Tondera

RESÜMEE

DieEinführungdesvonderUdSSRausgehendenAuslandstourismusimZugederChruščevschenTauwetterpolitikbeschertedensowjetischenAutoritäteneineReiheschwierigerFragen:WieließensichBürgerfinden,diedieSowjetunionimAuslandwürdigvertretenwürden,wiekonn-tendieTouristenwährendderReiseunterKontrollegehaltenwerden,undwiekonntenAus-landsreisenpropagandistischgenutztwerden?VordemHintergrunddieserFragenbetriebendiestaatlichensowjetischenTourismusorganisationeneinenbeträchtlichenAufwand,umAus-landsreisenzueinemkontrollierbarenElementderKulturdiplomatiezuformen.Dervorliegen-deArtikelbefasstsichindiesemKontextmitMomenten,indenendieKontrollmechanismenzeitweilignichtmehrgriffen,etwawennTouristenausdenerwartetenVerhaltensmusternaus-brachenoderMängelinderReiseorganisationdenreibungslosenAblaufderAuslandsfahrtenstörten.DerartigeVorfällewarenmehralsnurUnregelmäßigkeitenineineransonstengeöltenInszenierungsmaschinerie – sie verwiesen auf strukturelle Probleme des Auslandstourismus,eineswichtigenElementesderAußendarstellunginZeitendesKaltenKrieges.

Introduction

WheninlateJanuaryof1969foreigntourismprofessionalsoftheSoviettradeunionsmetforaconferenceinasmallvillagenearMoscow,itwasmostlybusinessasusual.1The

� GARF,f.9520,op.2,d.32.

Comparativ | Zeitschrift für Globalgeschichte und vergleichende Gesellschaftsforschung 24 (2014) Heft 1, S. 18–35.

‘Like Sheep’? Disobedience Among Soviet Tourists Travelling Abroad | 1�

eventsofthePragueSpringhadhadaneffectontourismtoCzechoslovakiaandwerementioned,ofcourse,butmostlytheproblemsthatwerediscussedbytheparticipantswereknownforyears:misbehaviourandillegaltradeactivitiesbytourists,shortcomingsintravelprograms,poorcoordinationbetweenthevariousorganisationsinvolvedinSo-vietforeigntourismandsoon.14yearsaftertheCommunistPartyhadlaunchedregularoutgoingforeigntourismasasymbolofanewopennessafterStalin’sdeath,itseemedas if travellingabroadhadalmostbecomeroutine.Theabove-mentioned issuesaside,things looked quite satisfying. The numbers of tourists going abroad was constantlygrowingandtheshareofworkersandkolkhozmembersamongSovietforeigntravellershadalsoreachednewheights.2However,theUSSRwasyetfarfromclaimingtobea‘normal’memberoftheinterna-tionaltouristcommunity.Therewasstillsomethingoddlyold-fashionedaboutthewaySovietforeigntripswereorganized.Fromtheverybeginningin1955,thedecisiontoallowforeigntraveltoalimitednumberofcitizenswasflankedbyawholehostofpre-cautionarymeasuresinanattempttoinsureagainstideologicalharm.3Anditshowed:Whileinthepopular1968Sovietadventuremovie“Diamondarm”(Brilliantovaja ruka)the main heroes travel casually and relaxed on a cruise trip along the Black Sea andembarkonindividualwalksthroughacoastalcityinTurkey,inrealitythingslookedalotdifferent.V.A.Ankudinov,whobetween1947and1968hadservedasChairmanof Intourist and was now head of the foreign tourism administration (Upravlenie po inostrannomu turizmu),attheabove-mentionedconferencegaveadifferentaccountofaSoviettouristgrouphemetonavacationinBulgariain1969:

I personally observed the behaviour of our tourists, who were […] on a holiday. I really ask you, comrades, to change the instructions that you […] give to these groups. All the tourists – from Yugoslavia, Austria, Italy, West Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the GDR behave themselves at the beach […] like normal people, they take a walk in pairs, as a threesome or foursome; but our tourists: in groups, like herds. I can’t stand it any longer, approach a group and ask: […] Why do you walk around like sheep? We were instructed that way, they answer. That’s a shame for our country and for our people. What are we afraid of? […] Why are we afraid of taking a bath at the beach, of playing ball with other tourists?4

ItisratherrevealingthatofallpeopleAnkudinov,oneoftheleadingfiguresinSovietforeign tourism for more than twenty years, was supposedly surprised by the conse-quencesofthecontrolexcessesthatweresocharacteristicforthetravelexperienceofhis

2 SeethenextchapterformoredetailedinformationaboutthestatisticalindicatorsofSovietforeigntourism.3 Thosemeasures includedanenormouslycomplicatedandbureaucraticapplicationprocessandaconstant

surveillanceoftouristsduringtheirtrip,seeforexampleA.Gorsuch,Allthisisyourworld.SoviettourismathomeandabroadafterStalin,Oxford,NewYork20��,80-87,��7-�20andS.Shevyrin,Zagranitsu!(Izistoriizarubezh-nogoturizmavSSSR),http://www.permgani.ru/publikatsii/stati/za-granitsu-iz-istorii-zarubezhnogo-turizma-v-sssr.html.

4 GARF,f.9520,op.2,d.32,l.�34f.

20 | Benedikt Tondera

compatriots.ItwasarareconfessionofahighrankingofficialthatattheverycoretherewassomethingwrongwiththeprojectofSovietforeigntourism.Justafewmomentsearlierduringthesamespeech,thetouristofficialhadboastedthat“agroupofSoviettouristsinsomecountriesonatentotwelve-daytripismoreeffectivethanadiplomaticmissionintwentyyears.”5TherewasaclearcontradictionbetweenwhatAnkudinovclaimedtobetrueandwhatheobservedwithhisowneyes.HowcouldSoviettouristshaveaneffectonthepopula-tiontheyvisited,iftheyhadnochancetocommunicatewithanyoneoutsidetheirowngroupanddidnotevenlooklike‘normalpeople’?Nottomentionthatrecentdevelop-mentsdidnotmakeiteasierforthemtopromotethemeritsoftheirnativecountrytoforeigners. Economically, the Soviet Union was “ceasing to catch up and overtake”,6liberalconcessionsinvariouserasofculturalandsociallifethathadbeenassociatedwithKhrushchev’sThawhadbeen takenback andPragueSpringwas crushedby theRedArmyjustafewmonthsearlier.WhileallofthesedevelopmentscertainlydiminishedtheeffectivenessofSovietforeigntourismasacultural-diplomaticmission,thisarticlewillarguethattheexploitationoftourists forpropagandistmeansdidnot just start to stumble in1969,butwasmuchratherfromtheverybeginningfraughtwithproblems.Onereasonforthiswasthatcon-trollingentiretouristgroupsforthedurationoftheirtripforvariousreasonsprovedtobeademandingtaskfortheresponsibleSoviettravelorganisations.Afterall,thetouristsquiteoftenresembledanythingbutpassivesheep,ignoringinstructionsandfollowingtheirownagendainstead.Justafewyearsago,littlewasknownaboutSovietforeigntourism.AnneGorsuch,whopublishedherfirstarticleon‘TimeTravellers’toEasternEuropein2006,basicallyhadtocarrytheloadaloneinthefirstfewyears.7However,thetopichasrecentlygainedinpopularityandthescopeanddepthofthefieldhaswidened.Anumberofresearchershaveworkedwithoraltestimoniesofformertourists,whichhelpstounderstandhowSoviet citizensexperienced travellingabroadunder the specificcircumstancesof theirtime.8WhileinitiallytheyearsunderKhrushchevhadbeenthefocalpointofattention,themajorityoftherecentstudiesadditionallyorevenexclusivelycoverforeigntourism

5 GARF,f.9520,op.2,d.32,l.�29.6 P.Hanson,TheRiseandFalloftheSovietEconomy.AnEconomicHistoryoftheUSSRfrom�945,Londonetal.

2003,�26.7 A.Gorsuch,TimeTravellers.SovietTouriststoEasternEurope, in:AnneE.Gorsuchu.DianeKoenker (ed.),Tu-

rizm.TheRussianandEastEuropeantouristundercapitalismandsocialism, Ithaca2006,205–226.AnotableexceptionisthedissertationofEkaterinaAndreevaaboutRussiantourismtoFrancefrom2006,seeE.Andreeva,EvolutsijaturističeskichpraktikrusskichvoFrantsii.NačaloXIX–nachaloXXIv.v.,Saratov2006.

8 SeeforexampleA.Popov,Potustoronu‘zheleznogozanavesa’:Velikiieotkrytiiasovetskikhturistov,publishedonline in June 20��, http://hist-tour.livejournal.com/20��/06/23/; D. Raleigh, On the Other Side of theWall,ThingsAreEvenBetter.TravelandtheOpeningoftheSovietUnion:TheOralEvidence,in:AbImperio(20�2)4,373–399;S.Zhuk,ClosingandOpeningSovietSociety(IntroductiontotheForum),in:AbImperio(20��)2,�23–�58; A.Golubev,BringingHomeNewThingsandEhttp://www.permgani.ru/publikatsii/stati/za-granitsu-iz-istorii-zarubezhnogo-turizma-v-sssr.htmlmotions:SovietTouristsAbroadasConsumers,NewOrleans20�2,https://www.academia.edu/3202�33/Bringing_Home_New_Things_and_Emotions_Soviet_Tourists_Abroad_as_Consumers.

‘Like Sheep’? Disobedience Among Soviet Tourists Travelling Abroad | 21

under Brezhnev.9 Only the 1980s and especially the perestroika are still a somewhatneglectedarea.10

Workingmainlywithtripreports,protocols,statisticsandannualreportsfromSoviettouristorganisationsstoredinRussianarchives,butalsotakingintoaccountrecentrel-evantstudies,thisarticletakesalookathowSoviettravellersfoundwaystobreaktheenforcedgroupdisciplinewhilebeingonforeigntrips.Suchdeviationsfromprescribednormsdeserveadeeperanalysis,becausetheyallowustoperceiveSoviettourismnotonlyasaflawlesslyorchestratedcollectiveperformance,butasanundertaking,wheretravellers tooktheopportunity toexpress their intentionsandact individuallywithingivenconstraints.Bylookingattheexceptionfromtherule,welearnaboutyetunful-filleddesiresofthealreadyprivilegedSovietcitizensinasocialistsocietythatdiscoveredanincreasinglustforhedonisticpleasuresandluxury.11Itwasnotonlyaboutconsumer-ism,however.Tourism,describedbyDeanMacCannellasapowerfulglobalisedculturalexperience,12offeredSoviettravellersglimpsesofadifferent,temptinglifestyle.IntheWest,excessivedrinking,romanticaffairsandcasualbehaviouronforeigntripsmighthavebeenmerelyregardedastouristclichés;nevertheless,itiscertainlyworthwhiletoaskwhethertravellersfromtheUSSRconstrueditasameansofrebellingagainstastatethatwantedthemtobebetterdressed,bettereducatedaswellasbehavebetterthanev-eryonearoundthemallthetime.Thispapertriestoassessdivergentbehaviouralpatternsoftouristsaswellastheirmean-ingforSoviethistoryingeneral.WhiletheyearsunderKhrushchevarethemainfocus,the‘boomyears’offoreigntourismunderBrezhnevarealsotakenunderconsideration.Specialattentionisinthiscontextdevotedtothedifferenttravelexperiencesthatwereprovidedbythetwomaintouristorganisations,IntouristandSputnik.Bothtravelof-ficeshadaverydistinctapproachtowardstheirbusiness,whichmakesitnecessarytotreatthemindividually.Sovietforeigntourismafterallwasamulti-facetedphenomenonnotonlywithregardtotouristbehaviour,butalsofromaninstitutionalpointofview.SinceSovietforeigntourismdespitetherecentsurgeinintereststillremainsarelativelyyoungresearchfield,evenbasicquestionsarenotyetsatisfactorilyresolved.Oneofthemishowmanytouristsactuallywentabroadintheyearsfollowinguptheintroductionofforeigntravelin1955.Thusbeforedealingwithtouristsviolating“normsofbehaviour”,

9 Alloftheabove-mentionedauthorscovertourismunderBrezhnev,additionallyoneshouldmentionA.Kozovoi,EyetoEyeWiththe‘MainEnemy’.SovietYouthTraveltotheUnitedStates,in:AbImperio(20��)2,22�–237.Rus-sianhistorianSergejShevyrinhaswrittenashortarticleonoutgoingforeigntourismbasedondocumentsfromthePermStateArchive,coveringtheyearsfrom�960tothemid-�970s,seeS.Shevyrin,Zagranitsu!(3).The20��dissertationofAnastasiyaMashkovapartiallycoversboththeKhrushchevandBrezhnevera,seeA.Mashkova,BMMT‘Sputnik’v�958-�968gg.Stanovlenie i razvitiemolodezhnogo inostrannegoturizmavSSSR,Moscow20��.

�0 TheyarehoweveratleastpartiallycoveredintheaforementionedarticlesofDonaldRaleigh,AndreiKozovoiandSergeiZhuk.AlexeyGolubevhadthelate�980sasafocusinhisarticleforaFinnishjournal,seeA.Golubev,NeuvostoturisminjaläntisenkulutuskulttuurinkohtaaminenSuomessa.[SovietTourismandWesternConsum-erism:aMeetinginFinland],in:Historiallinenaikakauskirja[TheFinnishHistoricalJournal](20��)4,4�3–425.

�� SeeD.Crowley,SusanE.Read(ed.):PleasuresinSocialism.LeisureandLuxuryintheEasternBloc,Illinois20�0.�2 D.MacCannell,TheTourist.ANewTheoryoftheLeisureClass,Berkeley�976.


achaptershallbedevotedtothisstatisticalissue,whichprobablyhasnotgottenenoughattentionyet.

‘Explosive growth’? About the statistics of Soviet foreign tourism

EstimatingtheamountofoutgoingSoviettouristsissomewhathelpedbythefactthattherewereonlya limitednumberoforganisationswhooffered touristic foreign tripsandthatitwasnotpossibleforSovietcitizentospontaneouslyandindividuallytravelabroadontheirown.13TheinstitutionalstructureofoutgoingSovietforeigntourismwasbasicallythreefold:Firstly,tripsonacommercialbasis(meaningthattouristicserviceswereboughtfromprofessionaltravelorganisationsabroad)wereorganizedsince1955byIntourist,whichatthattimewasaffiliatedwiththeforeigntradeministry.In1964In-touristbecamepartofthenewly-builtAdministrationforforeigntourismattheCouncilofMinisters(Upravlenie po inostrannomu turizmu pri Sovete Ministrov SSSR),whichhadaministry-likestatus.14Secondly, theKomsomolfoundeditsownyouthtraveloffice,Sputnik, in 1958, first and foremost to give its own members a platform for touris-ticexchangeandanopportunity tospread“the truthabout life in theSovietUnion”aroundtheworld.15Itoperatedonanon-commercialbasis,whichmeantthattouristicserviceswerestrictlydeliveredbasedonexchangeagreementswithforeignpartneror-ganisations.16Finally,beginningin1958theSoviettradeunionsalsoprovidedtouristictripsthroughtheirowntouristoffice,mostlyfordistinguishedworkers,whoreceiveddiscountsontheirtravelvouchers.17AsinthecaseofSputnik,tripswereorganizedonanon-hard-currencybasis.18Apartfromthat,thetradeunionscooperatedwithIntourist,promotingthelatter’stripoffersonalocalfactorylevel,assemblingthetravelgroupsandpreparingthetouristsforthetrip.TravellingabroadasatouristforaSovietcitizenrequiredtoapplyforatravelvoucherofoneof theabovementionedorganisations,usuallythroughatradeunionofficialathisworkplace (for tripswith Intouristor the tradeunion)or at the localKomsomoltouristoffice(fortripswithSputnik).19SinceannualstatisticsoftheSoviettraveloffices

�3 Thisremainedinprinciplealsotrueafter�967,whenSoviettouristsfortripstosocialistcountriesonlyneededtheirinternalSovietpassports(asopposedtotheinternationalpassportthatwasrequiredbefore)andatouristvoucher,seeA.Gorsuch,AllThis,86-87(3).Thecomplicatedprocedurethatwasrequiredtoreceiveatouristvoucherwasnotchanged.

�4 In�969itwasagainrestructuredintothe‘MainAdministrationforforeigntourismattheCouncilofMinisters’(Glavnoe upravlenie po inostrannomu turizmu pri Sovete Ministrov SSSR/Glavinturist).AgoodoverviewabouttheinstitutionalstructureofSovietforeigntourismafterStalincanbefoundinAndreeva,Evolutsija,�03-�05(7).

�5 A.Mashkova,BMMT,42-52(9).�6 GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.�8�0,l.5-9.�7 Thetradeunion‘stravelofficechangeditsnameandstructurethreetimesintheexaminedperiod:TouristExcur-

sionBureau/Turistsko-ekskursionnoeupravlenie/TEU(�953–�962);CentralCouncilforTourism/Tsentral’nyisovetpoturizmu/TsST(�962-�969)andfinallyfrom�969onCentralCouncilforTourismandExcursions/Tsentral’nyisovetpoturizmuiekskursijam,TsSTE).

�8 Ibid.�9 FordetailsabouttheapplicationprocessseeS.Shevyrin,Zagranitsu!(3)andA.Gorsuch,AllThis,��(3).


arestoredinRussianarchives,itispossibletoapproximatelydeterminethequantityofforeigntourismbysimplyaddinguptheamountoftouriststhatweresentabroadbyeachoneofthem.AnneGorsuchforexampleextrapolatedavailablenumbersforoutgo-ingtourismunderKhrushchevviaIntouristandSputnikandquiteconvincinglycametotheconclusionthatallinallroundabouthalfamillionSoviettouristswentabroadinthetimespanfrom1955to1964,withtheannualamountoftouristsgrowingsteadilyfromamere2000inthefirstyear.20Beforethat,mostpublicationsupuntilrecentyearscitedmuchhighernumbersforoutgoingtourisminthattimeperiod,relyingmostlyonratherdubiousdatafromSovietsources.ConcerningKhrushchev’sera,AnneGorsuchmadeanattempttofindoutwherethosenumbersactuallyoriginatefrom.Inafootnoteofherbook“AllThisIsYourWorld”,Gorsuch quotes an interview of the Soviet newspaper “Izvestiia” with V. Ankudinovfrom1966,wherethethenheadofIntouristclaimedthatin1956560,000andin19651150,000Soviettouristshadtravelledabroad.21Theseandotherfiguresonoutgoingfor-eigntourismlaterreappearedinawell-knownbookonthehistoryofRussianandSoviettourismbyGennadiyDolzhenkofrom1988withoutfurthercommentary.22IthasbeensuggestedbyGorsuchthat theyrepresent thenumberofSovietcitizensgoingabroadnotonlyastouristsinagivenyear.23Thisisconfirmedbystatistics,whichIntouristpub-lishedinNovember1959initsbulletin“NovostiIntourist”undertheheadline“Sovietcitizensvisitingforeigncountries”.Accordingtothedatagivenhere,in1958atotalof740,805citizenswentabroad,amongthem168,319 for touristicorhealthpurposes,whilethelion’sshareoftravelwasconnectedwithbusinessmatters(558,741).24SoapparentlyofficialSoviettourismstatisticshavetobehandledwithcare,andthisholdstruealsooflateryears.DianeKoenkerrefersinherrecentpublication“ClubRed.Vaca-tion,TravelandtheSovietDream”toan‘explosivegrowth’inSovietforeigntravelunderBrezhnev.25 Citing various sources, among them G. P. Dolzhenko, she comes to theconclusionthat1,8millionSoviettouristswentabroadin1970,amongthem816,000tocapitalistcountries.EvenAnneGorsuchcitesamongotherstheverysameDolzhenko,whose statistics shehaddoubted forearlieryears,asa source forherestimate that in1974,“approximatelytwomillionpeopletravelledabroad”.26DonaldRaleighinarecentarticlewrotethat“between1960and1976,elevenmillionSoviettourists[…]travelledtoEasternEurope”,eventhoughitisnotquiteclearonwhatsourcethisnumberisbasedon.27

20 SeeA.Gorsuch,AllThis,�8-�9(3).2� Ibid.22 G.Dolzhenko,IstoriyaturizmavdorevoljucionnoyRossiiiSSSR,RostovnaDonu�988,�54.23 SeeA.Gorsuch,AllThis,�8(3).24 NovostiInturista,November�959,p.3.25 D.Koenker,ClubRed.Vacation,TravelandtheSovietDream,IthacaandLondon20�3,242.26 A.Gorsuch,Allthis,�86(3).27 D.Raleigh,OtherSide,380(8).


Infact,thedimensionsofoutgoingforeigntourismintheyearsfrom1965to1975wereprobablymuchsmalleraccordingtoarchivalsources.WecanevenquoteformerIntour-ist-presidentV.A.Ankundinovhimselftosupportthisclaim.Atthe1969conferenceoftourismprofessionalsmentionedintheintroduction,hetoldhisprofessionalcolleaguesthat“astouristsabout200,000Sovietcitizenstravelabroad”.28This isanumberthatindeedcanbereproduced.Ifweadduptheamountoftouristswhoaccordingtointernalstatisticswentabroadin1968withIntourist(117,179),29thetradeunions(8373)30andSputnik(50,800),31wearriveatanumberofalittlemorethan176,000.Usingthesamemethod,for1970wearriveatanumberof239,000(166,025/8241/65,000)32tourists.In1970,thetradeunionsalsocalculatedthesumofalltouriststhatwentabroadsince1955withIntouristandtheirowntraveloffice–roughly1,1million.33

For later years, it becomes increasingly difficult to find aggregated statistics for for-eigntourism,butit’sstillpossibletooutlinetheroughdimensions–Sputniksentover102,000 tourists abroad in 1975,34 Intourist over 330,000 in the first ten month of1976,whichmakesitunlikelythattheoverallnumberofoutgoingforeigntouristsinthatyearexceeded600,000.35Ofcourse,consideringonlydatafromtouristorganisationsisarelativelystrictwayofestimating outgoing tourism statistics. The method of the United Nations StatisticalYearbook,whichreliesondatafromdestinationcountriesaboutincomingtourists, ismuchmoreliberalincomparison:InthelanguageoftheStatisticalYearbook,“tourist”generallyrefersto“personstravellingforpleasure,domesticreasons,health,meetings,business,study(includingstudentsandyoungpersonsstudyingabroad)andsoon,andstoppingforaperiodoftwenty-fourhoursormoreinacountryorareaotherthanthatinwhichtheyusuallyreside.”36Accordingly,theUNarrivesatratherhighnumbers(aboutonemillionoutgoingSoviettouristsin1970and2,1millionin1975),whicharestillmoremodestthanthosepublishedbyDolzhenko,butatleastinthemid-1970stheydocomeprettyclose.37

Wheredoesthisleaveus?Ifwetalkabouttourisminasenseoforganizedgrouptravelviaoneoftheabove-mentionedorganisations,itseemsappropriatetoworkwithmuchmoremodestestimatesthanhasbeendonesofar.Ifwetakeintoaccountabroaderrangeof international travel activities, including business trips, student exchanges, politicaldelegationsandsoon,wenaturallyarriveatamuchhighernumber,butat thesame

28 GARF,f.9520,op.2,d.32,p.�29.29 GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.�4�7,l.24.30 Ibid.3� RGASPI,f.M-5,op.2,d.7�,l.87.32 GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.�4�7,l.24;RGASPI,f.M-5,op.2,d.�60,l.6�.33 GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.�4�7,l.24.34 RGASPI,f.M-5,op.2,d.923,l.�.35 GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.23��,l.2�.36 R.Siversonetal.,SovietTourismandDétente,in:StudiesinComparativeCommunism�3(�980),356–368,here

360.37 Ibid.,364.


timerunintotheriskofblurringtheterm‘tourism’.Inanycase,whenusingstatisticsinthecontextoftourism,itwouldbeadvisabletoclearlyoutlinewhatkindofdefinitionisused.Returningtostatisticsbasedonaggregatedannualstatistics fromtheSoviettravelor-ganisations,outgoingforeigntourisminfactexperiencedasteadygrowth,risingfrom2000touristsannuallyin1955to50,000in1964,nearly200,000in1968andprobablylandingintherangeof500,000to600,000in1976.GiventhepopulationsizeoftheSovietUnion,whichexpandedfrom200toabout250millioninthesametimeperiod,thosewerefarfromimpressivefigures.38Also,thegrowthintouristnumberswasmainlycausedbyanexpansionoftripstosocialistcountries,whiletourismtocapitalistcountriesespeciallysincethemid-1960sdevelopedmoreslowly.Intouristforinstancesent7921of45,168touriststocapitalistcountriesin1960,whichcorrespondedtoalmost17%.39In1966,thissharewasdownto14,5%(12,552outof86,375),40andinthefirsttenmonthof1976,lessthan12%ofthetourists(38,915outof330,189)wenttocapitalistcountries.41ThedevelopmentatSputnikwascomparable,theshareoftripstocapitalistcountriesheredroppedfrom14,6%in1960to9,2%in1966and8,2%in1975.42Alookatthesocialcompositionoftouristgroupsshowsthattheshareofworkersandkolkhoznikigrewinallorganizations:inthecaseofIntouristfromunder5%in1960toover25%in1970,43inthecaseofSputnikfrom10%in1960toalmost44%in197544andatthetradeunionsfromover48%in1964toalmost60%in1970.45However,tripstocapitalistcountriesbyandlargeremainedaprerogativeoftheupperstrataofSovietsociety,withtheshareofwhite-collarworkersatIntouristbeingat84%in197646and66%atSputnikin1975.47To sum it up, outgoing foreign tourism in the Soviet Union expanded quite rapidlyduringthe1960sandinthefirsthalfofthe1970s,startinghoweverfromaverylowlevel.TourismtocapitalistcountriesthroughouttheyearsremainedacomparablyrareoccurrenceandwasavailablefirstandforemosttoasmallandratherprivilegedshareoftravellersfromtheupperstrataofSovietsociety.Ontheotherhand,theshareofworkersandkolkhozmemberwasraisedespeciallyamongtravellerstosocialistcountriesinallSoviettouristorganisations.Ofcourse, thedatamentionedinthissectiongivesmerelyaroughoverview.Amorethoroughstatisticalexaminationofoutgoingtourismcouldalsotake intoaccountas-

38 M.Hildermeier,GeschichtederSowjetunion,Munich�998,��72.39 GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.430,p.�3�.40 GARF,f.9520,op.2,d.29,l.�.4� GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.23��,l.2�.42 RGASPI,f.M-5,op.2,d.774,‘VypolnenieprogrammyBMMT‘Sputnik’TsKVLKSMza�958-�974gody’,withouta

pagenumber;RGASPI,f.M-5,op.2,d.923,l.�.43 GARF9520�43�,l.96;GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.�4�7,l.24.44 RGASPI,f.M-5,op.2,d.923,l.�;RGASPI,M-5,op.�,d.89,l.43.45 GARF,f.9520,op.2,d.29;GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.�4�7,l.24.46 GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.23��,l.2�.47 RGASPI,f.M-5,op.2,d.923,l.�.

2� | Benedikt Tondera

pectslikepartymembership,genderandageoftourists;thiswouldhowevergobeyondthescopeofthisarticle.48Furthermore,foranumberofyearssufficientdataishardtocomeby,inparticularforthetimeperiodfrom1977to1982,sincetourismstatisticswereincreasinglyassembledexclusivelybythetradeunionsonregionallevels.

Intourist and Sputnik – different organisations, different problems

Ashasbeenhintedatintheprevioussection,theenormouslyexpensivetripsviaIntour-ist,whichinsomecasesequalledtwoormoreaveragemonthlysalariesofaSovietcitizen,wereaccessiblemostlyforwellconnectedmembersofthepartyandtheupperechelonsofSovietsociety.49Sputnikfromtheverybeginningsetoutforayoungerandlessaffluenttargetgroup,deliberatelypositioningitselfasamoremodest,affordablealternativetoIntourist.50Initsfirstannualreportfrom1958,thenewlyfoundedtravelofficecriticizedIntouristfornotconsideringthespecificneedsofyoungtravellersandingeneralbeingtooexpensive.51Infact,Sputnikmanagedtooffertripsforcomparablylowprizes.While14-daytripstoEasternEuropeancountrieswithIntouristin1962costabout200rubles,52comparabletripswithSputnikwereavailableforlessthanthehalfin1964.53

Lowerpricesdidhoweveralsomeanalowerlevelofcomfort.WhileIntouristcustomersoftenlefttheSovietUniononcruiseshipsandviaaircraft,Sputniktripswerebeingcar-riedoutonmuchmoremodestconditions.OneoftheveryfirstexchangeagreementsbetweenSputnikandtheHungariantraveloffice“Express”fromOctober1958statedthatSoviettouristsweretobetransportedinsecond-classtrainwagonswithoutsleepingcompartments.54Accommodationwasprovidedamongothersindormitories,holidayfacilitiesorcamps,withfourtoeightpersonssharingaroomoratent.55Upuntilthemid-1960sitwasnotuncommonthattheyoungtravellershadtocarrytheirownlug-gagethroughthevisitedcities,evenifexchangeagreementstoldotherwise.56Tomakemattersworse,Sputniktouristsoftenhadtogetbywithoutwashingfacilitiesaswell,which obviously made it difficult to sustain the desired authoritative look, especiallyduringhotsummerdays.57

48 AnneGorsuchforinstanceconcludedfortheperiodofKhrushchevthatingeneralmorefemaletouristswenttoEasternEurope,whilemaletouristswerepredominantontripstoWesternEuropeandNorthAmerica,seeA.Gorsuch,AllThis(3),96-97.

49 SeeaswellA.Gorsuch,AllThis(3),p80-85.50 FortheearlyhistoryofSputnik,seeA.Mashkova(9),BMMT,42-52.5� SeeSputnik’sreport‘Abouttheworkin�958’,RGASPI,f.M-5,op.�,d.�,l.�-3�.52 S.Shevyrin,Zagranitsu!(3).53 RGASPI,f.M-5,op.�,l.40.54 Mashkova,BMMT(9),50-5�.55 Ibid.,p.5�.56 SeeforexamplethereportofatouristgroupfromBashkiriatoPolandfromMay�96�,RGASPI,f.M-5,op.�,d.57,

l.72aswellasareportfromSputnikfromOctober�964,RGASPI,f.M-5,op.�,d.207,l.89-95.57 RGASPI,f.M-5,op.�,d.��2,l.279-282(TripreportfromPoland,�965).


HowmodestlysomeofthefirstSputniktouriststravelledisillustratedbyonereportofasocalledgroupelder(starshy gruppy),usuallyadistinguishedPartyorKomsomolmem-ber,whowasappointedbeforethetripbythetouristgroupasaspokesmanandassistedthetripleaderinorganisationalissuesandinsupervisingthegroup.58In1958,SputnikreceivedthefollowingreportfromagroupelderfromBashkiria,whohadjustreturnedfromatriptoPoland:

The tourists were forced to drive on an open, dirty truck on which 33 persons were spread. In this manner, the group spent about five of their 14 days on the road, which is why the tourists got very tired. Comrade Klyučarov also mentioned some deficits with the accom-modation: eight to ten persons were accommodated in rooms with the size of 16-[square] meters in bunk beds, which made it hard to recover; no washing of sheets was organized, there was no hot water, only once did we go to a sauna; the food was monotonous, there was especially a lack of vegetables […].59

OneSputniktripleaderclaimedafteravisittoAustriain1960thathehadtofightforeverypieceofbread‘inordernottostarve.’60

Incomparison,thecomplaintsofIntouristtripleaderssoundedrathermundane.Here,hotelroomsweredescribedasbeingtoosmallordirty.61Missingtowels,mirrorsorseatswerefaultedalongwithtoiletsbeingavailableonlyatthecorridor.OneIntouristtripleader fromMoscow,whoaccompaniedoneof theveryfirst tourist groups from theUSSRtoGreatBritainbyseain1956heavilycriticizedtheconditionoftheSovietmo-torship‘Molotov’,whichhadjustbeenoverhauled.Toiletswerecongested,lampscamecrushingdownfromtheceilingandtheservicepersonnelwasunderstaffed.62ThuswhileonSputniktripsquiteoftentimesevenbasicneedswerenotfulfilled,Intour-ist trip leaders were in comparison concerned with luxury problems, and sometimestheyhadabsolutelynothingtoquibbleabout:Atripleader,whoreturnedfromatriptotheislandRügeninEastGermanyinAugust1960,hardlymanagedtocontainhisex-citementaboutthetravelconditions:“Comfortablerooms,perfectcleanliness,faultlessservice,goodfoodaddeduptofantasticconditionsforourstay.”63

IfweconsiderSovietforeigntourismasasortoftheatricalguestperformance,asAnneGorsuchhasdone, thenIntourist certainly sent themateriallybest equippedcrews.64Havingarrivedattheirdestinations,those‘firstclasstourists’werebeingaccommodatedinhotelroomsandtransportedinexclusivelycharteredbuses,whichcertainlymadeiteasiertokeepthe‘actors’isolatedfromthehostsocieties.Sometimesthisisolationeven

58 ForfurtherinformationhowaSovietforeigntouristgroupwasorganized,seeS.Shevyrin,Zagranitsu!(3).59 RGASPI,f.M-5,op.�,d.2,l.2�0.60 RGASPI,f.M-5,op.�,d.55,l.�3.6� SeeB.Tondera,DersowjetischeTourismusindenWestenunterNikitaChruščev,ZfG(20�3)�,43-64,here5�-

52.62 Ibid.63 ReportaboutatripofBelorussiantouriststotheGDR,GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.426,l.�82.64 GARF,f.96�2,op.�,d.373,l.49.

2� | Benedikt Tondera

wentsofarthatevenIntouristofficialsfoundareasontocomplain:“ThebiggestpartoftheprograminScotlandconsistedofgazingatlandscapesthroughourbuswindow”,aclearlydisappointedtripleaderreportedafterreturningfromatripthroughGreatBrit-aininthesummerof1956.65

ForSputnik,itprovedtobemuchmoredifficulttostagea‘flawlessperformance’,sincetheSpartantravelcircumstancessometimesmadeitmoreorlessimpossibletokeepcon-trolofthetouristgroup.Oftenbeingaccommodatedonlargeinternationalcamps,timeandagaintheyoungSoviettouristsfounditpossibletobreakoutofwhatonetripleaderfittinglycalled‘turdistsiplina.’66Thereoccurredaffairswithforeigners,excessivedrink-ingandsometimesevenfightsbetweenmaletourists.67Occasionally,individualSputniktouristsembarkedonunauthorizedtripsawayfromthegroupaswellor‘embarrassed’theirfellowtravellersinotherways.Inacollectivereportfromagroupof36touristsfromtheRepublicofKazakhstan,atypicalcasewasdescribedasfollows:

Two of our students systematically ignored the daily schedule and returned to the dormi-tory at one o’clock after midnight or later, spending their time individually with Polish comrades. It was observed more than once that the girls hugged, kissed and individually spent their evenings with Poles and had a drink, went to the cabaret and so on. During all of the stay in Poland they kept distance to the group, entertaining the Polish comrades – our guides. This had a huge effect – it had an influence on the realisation of all planned events for our group, since our guide and our interpreter let themselves be distracted from the mentioned two young women and often forgot about us.68

InasimilarcaseaSputniktripleaderexplainedtoaPole,whysuchabehaviourbyaSo-viettouristwasconsideredunacceptableeventhoughamoreintenseexchangebetweenthepeopleoftheSocialistStateUnionwasoneoftheveryreasonstheKomsomolhadintroducedtheirtravelofficeinthefirstplace:TheinterpretersFialkovskiiRičardandJanošfoundout[aboutameetingofthetouristgroupwherethemisbehaviouroftwotouristswasdiscussed]andapproachedmewiththequestion:“Isn’titallowedtomakefriendswithSovietgirls?”Theywerebeingtoldthatit’sokaytomakefriendswithSovietgirls,butthisfriendshiphastobefoundedinmutuallyconsideraterelationsandthatit’snotallowedfortouriststodisturbthedailyschedule.69NothingwasmoreimportantforSoviettouristofficialsthentokeepthingsundercon-trol,nomatterifthetravellersfoundthemselvesamong‘brotherlyfriends’or‘classen-emies’.ButtheKomsomol’stravelofficeduetoitslimitedmaterialpossibilitieshadtomakecompromises.

65 GARF,f.96�2,op.�,d.373,l.�9.66 GARF,f.96�2,op.�,d.478,l.25.67 Seethechapter‘UnerlaubteBegegnungen’in:B.Tondera,Tourismus,56-58(59).68 ‘Reportaboutthedevelopmentofinternationalyouthtourism’,RGASPI,f.M-5,op.�,d.27,l.�-�5,herel.8.69 Ibid.,9.

‘Like Sheep’? Disobedience Among Soviet Tourists Travelling Abroad | 2�

Asmentioned above, Intourist could stage their tripsundermore controlled circum-stances,but that stilldidnotguarantee thatevery touristwouldactaccording to thescript.Trip leaders often had a hard time managing the great self-confidence of thehandpicked tourists. Among them, there were often well-educated, multilingual andinfluential individuals,whowerenotalwayswillingtosimplyaccepttheauthorityofsuperiors.IntouristtripleaderBraginskiireturnedfromatriptoEnglandinthesummerof1956,complainingthatithadbeenalmostimpossibleforhimto‘maintaindiscipline’among his tourist.70 According to Braginskii, the group, which consisted ofTV andradioprofessionals,didnotformacollective,sincesomeindividualsisolatedthemselvesfromtheothers.71Heaccusedonehistourists,engineerAlekseyAntipov,of“tryingtotakeadvantageofhislanguageskills”andbeing“enthusiasticabouteverythingEnglish,notrealizing,howthisbelittlestheSovietreality”.72Sometouristsopenlychallengedtheauthorityofthetripleader,suchasthetouristsPaliiandČerkmarev,whowentonatriptoEnglandwithIntouristinOctober1960.TripleaderNovikovaaccusedbothfellowtravellersofengaginginillegaltradeactivitiesandofansweringtoherremarkswiththewords:“Idon’tgiveadamnabouttheleaders.”73AnIntouristtripleader,whoreturnedfromHungaryinJune1961complainedthatsomeofhistouristshadrefrainedfromfollowinghisordersandrefusedtotakepartintheprogramatvariousinstances.Shefelttheneedtodemandinherreportthat“everytouristshouldbewellawarethattheleaderofthegroupisaperson,whoseordersaretobeconsideredbythetouristabroad–aslaw.”74SometimesevenentiretouristgroupsturnedagainsttherepresentativeofIntour-istwhentheytriedtopushthroughtheirowninterestsduringthestayabroadorwhentheycomplainedaboutthewaytheyhadbeentreatedafterthetrip,eventhoughusuallysuchattemptswerefutile.75

TheshortperiodofKhrushchev’sThawfromthemid-1950stotheearly1960shadcre-atedasenseofnewbeginningsandtheopeningforforeigninfluencesledtoacultureshockinSovietsociety.76TheeuphoriawasnoticeableamongSovietstravellingabroadaswell.Someofthemprobablydidnotevenrealisewhytheirbehaviourwasbeingdeemedinappropriate.SuchwasthecasewiththeauthorLevKassil,whohadtravelledtotheUnitedStatesinthesummerof1959aspartofawriters’delegation.77Afterhisreturn,

70 GARF,f.96�2,op.�,d.373,l.�2.7� Ibid.72 Ibid.73 GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.426,l.2�6.74 GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.426,l.47(TripreportfromHungary,�96�).75 Atouristgroupcollectivelyrefrainedfromtakingpartin‘yetanothervisittoanelectricalplant’inEnglandin

�96�,seeGorsuch,Allthis,�47;therearefurthermoreafewdocumentedcaseswhentouristgroupscollectivelyorthroughthegroupelderfiledcomplaintsabouttravelconditionsortheirtripleadertothelocaltouristofficeincharge,seeforexampleGARFf.9520,op.�,d.430,l.22,(Tripreportfromagroupoldest,�96�);GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.430,l.9�,(Collectivedeclarationbyagroupoftourists,�96�).

76 V.Zubok,Zhivago‘schildren.ThelastRussianintelligentsia,Cambridgeetal.2009,seeespeciallythechapter‘CultureShock’,94-��.

77 ThedocumentcontaininginformationaboutKassil’stripdoesn’tmentionthroughwhichorganisationitwasrealized,seeRGANI,f.5,op.33,d.�05,l.52f.


hewasinvitedtotheliveTVbroadcast“EncounterinAmerica”totalkabouthisimpres-sionsfromthetrip.Kassiltheredidnotshyawayfromboldstatements,talkingaboutthe “greatpeople”ofAmerica thatwasopen-minded and independent.78Theauthorwenton: “Thisdemocraticbehaviour impressedus.Youcouldnot tell superior fromsubordinate,millionairefrombeggar.”79Kassilalsoexpressedhisenthusiasmaboutthecomfortablecoachandravedabouttheomnipresenthumofthe“blessedaircondition-ing”,bearingwitnesstocomfort.EvenmoreenthusiasticallywereKassil’sremarksaboutNewYork:

The city is beautiful, I don’t know how others feel about this – many comrades might not agree with me – but the skyscrapers have made a huge impression on me. It’s simply impossible to remain unmoved, to avoid a feeling of pride about the power of the human mind and the human technical genius when standing in front of a building, touching the glass skeleton and seeing how the glass under the palm of your hands escapes into the clouds.80

IndeedmanycomradesdidnotagreewithKassil.Hismisbehaviourwassharplycriti-cizedbytheAssistantChairmanoftheDepartmentforAgitationandPropagandaoftheCommunistParty,A.Romanov.Hecondemnedthe‘unconcealedbourgeoischaracter’ofKassil’sremarksandrecommendedthatthewritershouldbebannedfromfurtherexhibi-tionsonpublicmediaforthetimebeing.81AnexplanationforthesurprisinglycandidstatementbyKassilmightbethattheauthorhadfelthisone-sidedreportwasjustifiedsinceonlyafewweeksbeforehimKhrushchevfamouslyhadvisitedtheUnitedStateshimselfandalsoexpressedhisappreciationofthetechnologicalachievementsthere.InthebookthatwaspublishedshortlyafterKhrushchev’stripintheSovietUnion,theFirstSecretarywasdepictedasalevel-headed,yetaggressivestatesman,whouponarrivalatAndrewsAirForceBaseinWashingtonstated:

You are today turning out some goods in greater quantity than we, but that is due to historical circumstances. […] We are catching up with you in economic progress, and the time is not far distant when we will move into the lead.82

TherewasafinesseinKhrushchev’srhetoric,whichKassil(andwithhimalotofSoviettouristsofhistime)obviouslyhadnotyetfullyincorporated–theWestwasnottobecomparedwiththeSovietUnionofthepresent,butwiththeoneofthefuture.OutgoingforeigntourismintheSovietUnionisafascinatingcaseofanauthoritativestateconcedingalibertytoitscitizensandatthesametimetryingtocurtailitatallstagesinordertocontrolanypossiblepropagandistdamage.LookingatexamplesfromIntour-

78 Ibid.79 Ibid.,l.54.80 Ibid.,l.56.8� Ibid.,l.50andl.58.82 M.Charlamov/O.Vadeev(ed.),Litsomklitsucamerikoy.RasskazopoezdkeN.S.ChrushchevavSShA,Moscow

�959,�05-�06.


istandSputniktripshoweverindicatesthattheprocessofturningforeigntourismintoariskfreecultural-diplomaticenterprisedidnotgoalongwithoutbumpsandbruisesandeffectivelyneverquitematerialized.Still,casesoftouristsgettingintoconflictwithtripleadersandviolating‘normsofbehaviour’shouldnotbeinterpretedasintentionaldis-sidentbehaviour,butratherasaconsequenceoftheelitistcompositionoftravelgroups,contradictory signals given by the political leadership and – especially in the case ofSputnik–asaresultofalimitedabilitytocontrolthetravelcircumstances.Soviettripleadersattheirtimeyetagainfoundotherexplanations:theyalmostalwaysblamedshortcomingsintheselectionprocessofthelocalSoviettouristorganisations,whichweremaderesponsibleforchoosing‘unreliable’persons.83Thatway,theprojectofforeigntourismitselfdidnothavetobequestioned–therewasnostructuralproblemwithsendingSovietcitizensabroad,onesimplyhadtoimprovethemechanicstomakesurethatonly‘reliable’personswouldmakeitintothetouristgroups.

Foreign tourism under Brezhnev

AstheThawintheculturalandideologicalsphereswasrolledbackbySovietleadershiprightafterKhrushchev’sousterandcriticalvoiceslikeAndreiSinyavskyandYuliDanielwerebeingshutdowninpublic trials, thepeckingorder in touristgroupsappears tohavebecomemorestable–atleastatthesurface.IfwerememberAnkudinov’sremarksfromthe1969conferencementionedintheintroduction,thetop-leveltouristofficialcouldnotconcealcertainawkwardnessaboutthesupposedobedienceofhiscompatri-ots.TherewassomethingunnaturalaboutthoseSoviettourists,notonlyinthattheylookedmisplacedamongtheircasualfellow-travellersfromothercountries.Ankudinovmighthavealsosuspectedthattheproverbialsheepishnessofthetouristswassuspicious.Andindeed,complaintsabouttouristspraisingWesternlifestyleoropenlychallengingtheauthorityofthetripleadersappearedmuchmoreseldomintravelreportsafter1964.Inanannualreportfrom1968abouttripstoBulgaria,byfartheleadingdestinationforSoviettourists,Intouristproudlyproclaimedthatthe“amountofseriousviolationsofbehaviouralnormsdecreasesyearbyyear.”84

Nevertheless,anotherproblemsoaredtothetopoftheagendaoftouristofficials–smug-glingofmoneyandillegaltradeactivities.AworkerofIntouristatthebordercheckpointtoRomaniainUnghenireportedagrowthofdetectedcasesofillegalexportofcurrencyfrom104in1967to187in1968.85Accordingtothisworker,thegrowthofsmugglingexceeded the growthof tourist traffic athis checkpoint.86Even though especially for

83 AtypicalcasewasatripleaderfromLeningrad,whouponreturningfromEastBerlininMay�965complainedthatthetradeunionrepresentatives,whochosethetouristsatthefactorylevel,wouldnotsufficientlytakeintoaccounta‘generallevelofmaturityandculture’seeGARF,f.9520,op.�,d.873,l.99.

84 GARF,f.9520,op.2,d.28,l.29.85 GARFf.9520,op.2,d.32,l.80.86 Ibid.


tourismtoEasternEuropeconsumptionhadalreadyearlierplayedan important roleduringforeigntripsupuntil1964,87thisaspectnowreachednewdimensions.“Sincethemid-1960s”,AlexeyGolubevwrites,“atypicalSoviettouristunderwentthroughdrasticchanges,asideologicalimplicationsrelatedtotherepresentationoftheSovietsocialistsystemweregivingwaytotheunderstandingofforeigntoursasanopportunitytopur-chaseconsumergoodsunavailableortooexpensiveathome.”88ThefactthatanumberofEasternbloccountries lifted their travel restrictions since themid-1950s led toanunprecedentedexplosionof travel in thisareaand triggeredahugeupsurge in illegaltradeactivityalloverCentralEasternEurope.89Asamatteroffact,Soviettouristsplayedonlyaminorroleinthisdevelopment,sincetheUSSRremainedmuchmorecautioustowardsopeninguptheirborderscomparedtotheirneighbours.90ButthosewhogotthechancetovisittheblossomingblackmarketsofPoland,CzechoslovakiaortheGDRcertainlydidnothesitatetomakethemostofsuchanopportunity.Therefore, complaintsof Intourist trip leadersnowoften sounded like this one fromNovember1968aboutatriptoPolandandCzechoslovakia:

Two persons from Baku […] were stopped during border control, since they carried 50 cans of black caviar with them (25 of them were being taken away) and they tried to exchange or sell wrist watches, cameras, transistor radios abroad, which they did not manage to do thanks to the active interference from both the trip leader and the group elder.91

The trip leadershiphoweverwasnot always as attentive. InNovember1974, a tradeunionofficialaccompaniedalargetouristgroupfromAzerbaijanonacruisetripalongtheBalticSeaandafterwardsreportedtohissuperiorsthattheresponsibletripleadercompletelyignoredthefactthattouristsweresellingjewelleryandtransistorradiosalongtheway.92Insomecases,eventouristofficialsthemselveswereinvolvedinillegalactivi-ties.In1981,amajorscandalshatteredSputnik,whenitwasrevealedthatanumberofofficials from the central officehad circumventedofficial tourist selectionproceduresand“usedtheirprofessionalpositionforselfishintentions”.93ItappearedthatSputnikemployeeshadcooperatedwithtouristsinillegalforeignexchangedealingbymanipulat-ingbalancesheetsandbookkeeping.94Theywerebeingfiredandlegallypursuedfortheir

87 Seethesub-chapter‘ShoppingAdventures’inA.Gorsuch,AllThis(3),93-97.88 A.Golubev,Neuvostoturismin(�0),withoutpagenumber,sincethequotehasbeentakenfromtheonlinever-

sionofthisarticle.89 SeeJ.Kochanowski,‘Wirsindzuarm,umdenUrlaubimeigenenLandzuverbringen.’Massentourismusund

illegalerHandelinden�950erund�960erJahreninPolen,in:W.Borodziej,J.Kochanowski,J.vonPuttkamer(ed.),‘Schleichwege’,InoffizielleBegegnungensozialistischerStaatsbürgerzwischen�956und�989,Cologneetal.20�0,�35-�52.

90 SeeJ.Kučera,DersozialistischeStaatunddieKontakteseinerBürgermitden‘Bruderländern’,in:W.Borodziej,J.Kochanowski,J.vonPuttkamer(ed.),‘Schleichwege’(94),365-378.

9� GARF,f.9520,op.�,d.�234,l.3�.92 GARFf.9520,op.�,d.�978,l.59-60.93 RGASPI,f.M-5,op.3,d.407.l.�594 Ibid.


actions.95Asthisexampleshows,consumptionandtradeonforeigntrips inthe laterBrezhnevyearswerenotjustsecretlypursuedbyindividualtourists.Itwasaprofitableundertaking, inwhich largernetworksofhigh-rankedparty-officials andwhite-collarworkerswereinvolved.96

Theprevalentnotionamongresearchers is that thegrowing importanceofconsump-tionintourisminthe longrundeeplyunderminedthefaithofSovietcitizens inthesuperiorityoftheCommunistsocietalidea:“ContributingtotheerosionofpatriotismandevenSovietself-legitimacy,foreigntravelcreatedanunquenchablethirstformate-rialgoodsandservices,aswellasenvyandasenseofhumiliationovertheSovietUnion’spovertyanddeficits”,DonaldRaleighwrote97andAnneGorsuchaddedtothatnotion,statingthat“theoptimismoftheearly1960sappearstohavesunkundertheweightofBrezhnev-erastagnationandconsumerdisappointmentwithlong-promisedgoodsandservices, a deficit now judged in open and explicit comparison with offerings visibleelsewhere.”98

AndreiKozovoi,whowroteanarticleaboutSputnik tourismto theUSAfrom1975to1985,hashowevermadeanotherinterestingpointthatnotthosecitizens,whodidtravelabroadposedaproblemtotheSovietcause,butratherthose,whodid not.99Thoseyoungtourists,whowenttoAmerica,gotachancetoactuallycontrastthe“ImaginaryWest”100withafirst-handimpressionoftheirown.AccordingtoKozovoi,notalltouristswereallthatimpressedbywhattheysaw.ButsinceonlyasmallminorityevermadeittoAmerica,“hemajoritylive[d]withandsprea[d]theideaofanimaginaryWest,amajorthreattotheofficialdiscourse”.101SinceKozovoiinhisstudymostlyreliesonquestion-nairesthatthetouristswereaskedtofilloutupontheirreturntotheSovietUnionbySputnikofficials,onemightsuspectthattheyoungtravellerswouldbehesitanttorevealtheiractualfeelingsabouttheirimpressions.Nevertheless,Kozovoi’slineofargumenta-tionisalsosupportedbyDonaldRaleigh.Whilesomeofhisinterviewed“SovietBabyBoomers” recountedbeing shockedby thewell beingofWestern (and evenEastern)Europeansocietieswhentheytravelledthereforthefirsttimebetween1960to1990,quiteanumberofthemalsoremainedratherunimpressed,especiallythose,whogottheopportunitytotravelabroadmultipletimes.Oneofhis interviewees,whoafter1980wenttodifferentWesternEuropeancountrieswork-related,stated:

95 Ibid.96 SergeiZhukhasillustratedforDniepopetrovskinthe�970sand�980sthatimportofWesternproductsthrough

foreigntourismwastoacertainextendtoleratedandsometimesevenencouragedbyKomsomolofficials,seeS.Zhuk,RockandRollintheRocketCity.TheWest,Identity,andIdeologyinSovietDniepropetrovsk,�960-�985.Washington,D.C,Baltimore,20�0,280-302.

97 D.Raleigh,SovietBabyBoomers.AnOralHistoryofRussia’sColdWarGeneration,Oxford,NewYork20�2,2�0.98 A.Gorsuch:AllThis(3),�89-�90.Anotherarticle,whosupportsthispointofviewisA.Popov,Storonu(8).99 A.Kozovoi,Eye(9).�00 ThetermwascoinedbyAlexeiYurchak,seethechapter‘ImaginaryWest’,in:A.Yurchak,EverythingWasForever,

UntilItWasNoMore.TheLastSovietGeneration,Princetonetal.2006,�48-207.�0� Ibid.,236.


I had a mistaken understanding that it [the West] was something of an earthly paradise not only from the point of view of the development of civilisation and its possibilities but also in regard to the development of the individual.102

Duringperestroika,Raleighconcludesthat“foreigntravelforsomebecameroutine”.103

Finally, Anne Gorsuch’s assessment for the period of Khrushchev that “a trip to theWestandthepurchaseofWesternmaterial itemsmoreoftenreaffirmedthetraveller’sprivilegedstatuswithinapositivelyviewedsystemthan itgeneratedresistancetothissystem”,104probablyneedstobeadjusted,butnotentirelyrejectedfortheBrezhnevera.Sincetravellingabroad(andespeciallytotheWest)remainedarareprivilegeandtouristswerechosenjustascarefulasintheearlyyearsofforeigntourism,theshareof‘believ-ers’inSovietCommunismamongtouristswasprobablystillratherhigh.Ofcourse,theeuphoriaoftheThawyearswasgoneandespeciallythelateBrezhnevyearshavebeendescribed as a period, where “material frustrations grated on the population”,105 butthatinturnalsoelevatedthevalueofbeinggrantedaccesstoforeignconsumermarkets,howeverrestricted.TravellingabroadstillpromisedprivilegedSovietcitizensagreatdealofculturalcapitaltogoalongwithpossiblematerialgains.The1968movie“Diamondarm”mightnothavebeenaccurateindepictingatypicaltouristicexperience,butitwasspotoninshowing,howthemainprotagonististreatedwithtremendousrespectuponreturningfromhiscruisetoEuropefromhisneighboursandfriends.

Conclusion

IfwedescribetheestablishmentofSovietforeigntourismasanattemptofthetouristorganisationstoestablishcontroloverallstagesofthetravelandtoturntourismintoareliableinstrumentofculturaldiplomacy,wecanmakeoutat leasttwofactorsthatpossibly disturbed this process: Firstly, compromises in accommodation or transportconditionsoftentimeshadtobemadeespeciallybySputnikduetothenon-hard-cur-rencycharacterofitsexchangeprograms.Thisledtotouristsalmostinevitablegettingintocontactwithfellowtravellersorlocalresidents,especiallywhentheyresidedinlargeinternationalcamps.Furthermore,trips inpoorlyequippedvehiclesandthenecessitytocarrytheluggageonone’sownledtoexhaustionandlefttouristsinanon-desirablelook.Secondly,party-members,officialsandmembersoftheprofessionalelitesprovedtobeself-confidenttourists,whoespeciallyduringtheyearsoftheThawwerenotafraidtovoicetheirownopinion,protestagainstthetripleadersandformallianceswithfellowtravellers.

�02 D.Raleigh,OtherSide(8),388.�03 Ibid.,392.�04 A.Gorsuch:AllThis(3),�66.�05 N.Chernyshova,SovietconsumercultureintheBrezhnevera,Londonetal.20�3,205.


BothIntouristandSputnikseemtohavegottenabetterhandleontheseissuesduringtheearly1960sandespeciallyafterKhrushchev’souster,atleastonthesurface.However,insteadofopenlyviolatingnormsofbehaviourorvoicingtheirdiscontent,touristsnowincreasinglyusedtheirtripsasanopportunitytoconsumeandtradebehindthebackoftheirsupervisors.Insomecaseseventouristofficialsthemselveswereinvolvedinillegaltradeactivities,hintingat the fact that the systemof foreign tourismas awholewasincreasinglyplaguedby corruption. Insteadofpraising technological and economicalachievementsofsocialismabroad,Soviettouristsmoreandmoreusedtheirtripstoac-quirecommoditiesthataneconomyofscarcityathomecouldnotofferthem.CanSovietforeigntourismthereforeberegardedasametaphorforanempirethat–eventhough stableon the surface - lost the supportof its citizens andexperienceda slowbutsteadydecline?Theanswerisprobablyyesandno:ontheonehand,thefailureofthecultural-diplomaticambitionsconnectedwithinternationaltravelbecameapparentalreadytowardstheendofKhrushchev’sreignandthecompulsorypropagandisticex-ercisesperformedbySoviettouristsaswellastheirstiffappearancelookedoddlyoutofplaceatthelatestattheendofthe1960s,whenthe‘globalbeach’hadotherculturalrolemodelsthanwell-behavedapparatchiks.Ontheotherhand,foreigntravelallthroughthe1960sand1970scontinuedtofulfilanimportantfunctionasvaluedluxuryitemforthepoliticallyprivilegedclassandfurther-moreservedasasourceforhighly-demandedWesterncommodities.Apartfromthat,eventhoughtheeconomicalsuperiorityofcapitalist(andevenmostsocialist)countrieswasnoticedbythetourists,thisdidnotnecessarilymeanthattheyautomaticallydis-tancedthemselvesfromtheSovietcause.ThewaySoviettouristsdealtwiththeirtravelexperiencesabroadwasneitheruniformnorunambiguous.

'Like Sheep'? Disobedience Among Soviet Tourists Travelling Abroad

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