Learning about Meaningful Life as a Way of Coping with

Situations of Stress and Anxiety – The Instance of Second

Generation Holocaust Survivors*

Yael Wilchek Aviad & Diana Cohenca

* This study was funded by the Ariel University Center and the Research

Authority

Abstract

This study illuminates an educational attempt to cope

with the Holocaust from an emotional angle, by learning

about meaningful life at a time fraught with extreme

stress and anxiety, as a way of coping with stressful

situations. The study examines the quest for meaning as a

way of coping with levels of anxiety and depression among

180 adult descendants of Holocaust survivors, 142 of whom

had two survivor parents and 38 one (for 27 a father and

for 11 a mother), with reference to survivor parents'

gender and their circumstances of survival (alone or with

a family member). A significant correlation was found

between anxiety and depression among children of

survivors and their search for meaning in life. In

addition, children of fathers who underwent the Holocaust

on their own (without a family member) were more prone to

anxiety and depression than children of fathers who spent

the Holocaust with a family member, leading them to a

greater search for meaning in life. When the survivor was

the mother, anxiety and depression were not found to

serve as mediators between the mother's circumstances of

survival and the search for meaning in life among

children of survivors. The main conclusion of this study

is the strong need of people in stressful situations to

seek meaning in life. This leads to another, educational-

preventive practicable conclusion, regarding the need of

the educational system to help students cope with the

issue of meaning of life in general and in times of

stress in particular, and to instill the value of giving,

all the more important in a generation controlled by

hedonistic values and dominated by individualism. This

may reduce stressful situations and increase personal and

social resilience, crucial for Israeli society.

Second Generation Syndrome

In the 1950s and 1960s it was becoming evident that not

only Holocaust survivors were suffering from trauma and

other consequences of their experiences, rather also

their children, the second generation. This led to many

studies, conducted mainly by therapists who provided

mental care to patients with mental problems or

difficulties (Kellerman, 2001). These therapists also

coined the term "Second Generation Syndrome" – indicating

that children of Holocaust survivors have mental symptoms

deriving from their status as descendants of Holocaust

survivor parents. Since then many empirical studies have

been conducted with nonclinical populations in an attempt

to verify this term, however no conclusive findings were

evident. Even studies that did uncover several typical

affective disorders showed that most were within the

normal personal and behavioral range, although

significantly distinguishing between the second

generation and control groups. Thus, the Second

Generation Syndrome is controversial. Aside from post

traumatic syndrome (Felsen & Erlich, 1990; Yehuda,

Schmeidler & Wainberg, 1998), anxiety, and depression

(Kellerman, 2001a; 2001b), found to be characteristic of

the second generation, most studies do not provide any

clear proof of Second Generation Syndrome. This can

probably be explained by cautioning that similar to the

survivors themselves, children of survivors should not be

treated as a homogeneous group (Helmreich, 1996;

Kellerman, 2008). The term "Second Generation"

encompasses a large spectrum of conditions and subgroups.

When referring to the second generation we mean children

who were born after the war and at least one of their

parents was a Holocaust survivor. However this title

covers a large range of possible situations: children

born right after the Holocaust to broken, worn out,

helpless parents, or children born many years later,

after the survivor had recovered mentally and physically.

Some survivors lost their families and some did not. Some

survivors had been in the death camps and others fought

with the partisans, and so on (Wiseman & Barber, 2007).

Consequently, in recent years descendants of Holocaust

survivors are being studied and analyzed differentially.

The current study constitutes one more attempt to examine

the effect of the survival circumstances of parents on

the second generation. Namely, the effect of the gender

and survival circumstances (alone or with a family

member) of survivor parents on the anxiety and depression

experienced by the second generation – correlations that

have not received empirical attention in the literature.

At the same time, in recent years humanistic theories

have begun emerging, mainly that of Viktor Frankl, on the

search for meaning in life as a response to situations of

human suffering, stress, and pain. According to Frankl

(1982, 1985, 1969, 1978, 1984, 2000) human beings are

distinct from other creatures by virtue of a unique

component – reason (nous). A person endowed with reason

is not passive and controlled, rather active, in control

of one's fate and views, and able to choose (Fabry,

1988). Frankl contends that we strive to realize the

purpose of our life, a purpose that will give us a unique

sense of self-expression and self-realization. Purposeful

life is perceived as meaningful. A meaningful life is a

necessary condition for maintaining mental health, for

coping, and for protecting oneself from crises and

difficulties, as well as for sustaining a satisfactory

life style (Fabry, 1988). The lack of a meaningful life

generates "existential frustration" accompanied by a

sense of "existential vacuum", facilitating excessive

narcissistic practices and various pathologies (Nadiv,

2007; Tukir & Court, 2007; Wolf, Katz, & Nachson, 1995).

Therefore, another purpose of the current study is to

examine the correlation between levels of anxiety and

depression and between the need to seek meaning in life

among the second generation.

Parents' Gender and Survival Circumstances

Studies examining the correlation between survivors'

gender and lifetime functioning and the correlation

between survivors' gender and Second Generation Syndrome

found that male children of survivors experience

Holocaust events differently than females. Rim (1991),

for example, examined the differential coping of

Holocaust survivor mothers and fathers with current

difficulties. Results indicated a significant difference

between the two genders, with fathers showing a limited

number of methods for coping with difficulties while

mothers were conspicuous for their wider variety of

coping methods. Children of survivors used similar

methods of coping as their mothers. Lichtman (1984) found

that female Holocaust survivors who conveyed their

experiences to their daughters had a more adverse effect

on the daughters' personality, while male survivors who

convey their experiences to their sons have a positive

impact on sons' personality. Scharf (2007) found that

second generation mothers displayed a higher level of

psychological stress and insecure maternal functioning

than non-second generation mothers.

Another issue is the correlation between the survival

situation, i.e. whether the survivor went through the

Holocaust alone or with a relative, and long-term effects

of the Holocaust on the survivor and mainly on his/her

children. No reference to this issue was found in the

literature, aside from DeGraf (1975) who found that

(second generation) soldiers whose parents had lost

family in the Holocaust (but the parents themselves had

not been persecuted by the Nazis) proved more neurotic

even in comparison to soldiers born to parents who had

survived the death camps. In addition, an indirect study

by Tal (1992) found that sons of survivors who had lost

first-degree relatives showed lower scores of

assertiveness and openness in close interpersonal

relationships than those whose parents had lost distant

relatives.

Meaning of Life

Logotherapy, the treatment method advocated by Frankl

(1982), assumes that man is a three-dimensional entity

comprising body, soul, and spirit. On the physical

dimension man is imprisoned, on the mental dimension man

is motivated by needs, while on the spiritual (noogenic)

dimension, which exists in everyone, each person is free

to influence one's own existence and decide what type of

person he/she wishes to be in the present and future. The

spiritual dimension is composed of all uniquely human

aspects, such as existential meaning, freedom of choice,

conscience, setting goals, creativity, faith, ideas, and

imagination (Iluz, 2001; Frankl, 1985; Frankl, 1982).

The supreme significance that Frankl attributes to the

noogenic-thinking dimension, which motivates one's acts

in life and urges one to follow ideals and values, is a

result of the concept of freedom of choice that he

attributes to human beings. Frankl uses the terms

"liberty in spite of determinism" and "autonomy in spite

of dependency", whereby one is not free of one's

circumstances, but one is free to take a stand, to decide

whether to put up a fight or become resigned (Frankl,

1982).

According to Frankl (1982), meaning of life does not mean

self realization, but rather rising above oneself,

surpassing oneself, such that self realization can not be

a goal in and of itself, rather an outcome of taking

responsibility and of choice. "Rising above oneself"

means one's devotion to people, values, and deeds that

are beyond one's personal narcissistic needs. A person's

need to be part of somebody or something aside from

himself enables him to be significant and humane (Nadiv,

2007; Frankl, 1969, 1982).

Klinger (1977) defines meaning of life as the

relationship between individuals and goals they perceive

as valuable. In Klinger's (1977) opinion, individuals who

believe that their life is significant are those who are

emotionally involved in interpersonal relationships, who

have special experiences, or who engage in occupations

perceived as important. People's involvement in goals

that hold significance for them and are sufficiently

refreshing to arouse their emotional reactions provides

them with a sense of meaning. In contrast, people who see

their life as meaningless do so in one of two situations:

either the goals they value are not accessible, or they

are accessible but a life of habit has robbed them of

their power to stimulate emotions.

Batista and Almond (1973) as well mentioned meaning of

life as a main concept. They see the meaning of life in

the relationship between one's goals and life style. They

emphasize a person's commitment to a set of chosen goals,

which serve as a framework for the life that he is trying

to realize. In their conception, one who perceives his

life as meaningful is one who sees life positively. A

positive life perspective is defined as one's belief that

he is realizing his life goals, that they have a positive

value for him.

In contrast to these scholars, other theoreticians see

the individual's environment as contributing to the

degree to which one perceives his life as meaningful.

Kekes (1986) sees two possible obstacles to achieving a

meaningful life. One is personal – internal disharmony,

and the other circumstantial – brutal life circumstances

leading to frustration and indifference.

Meaning of Life and Suffering

Frankl (1981, 1985, Fabry, 1988) believes that meaning in

life can be found in three ways: by doing a deed -

through an active life, by what one gives to life (work,

creativity, hobbies, and devotion to a task); by having

experiences - through what one receives from life

(experiencing beauty, truth, love, values); and by

suffering -how one relates to one's immutable fate. Even

one who is in a forced, unchangeable situation, can

produce meaning from this situation, by changing his

attitude to the situation, by seeing a purpose and object

to his suffering, seeing the suffering as a means of

self-uplifting, a challenge, a role that he must assume

as a unique individual in a unique situation (Lukas,

1995). The term "power of defiance" defines the power of

people who were raised in relatively pathological

conditions but nonetheless became satisfied, fulfilled,

and creative people. This power comes from one's free

spirit on the noological dimension (Hamiel, 1994).

Hence, meaningful life has the power to reduce anxiety

and instability in life. Anxiety and instability might

derive from traumatic events that occurred in one's past,

but development of the noogenic dimension gives one the

power to rise above coercive forces and thus gives one

the liberty to act with free will and overcome anxiety

(Nadiv, 2007; Frankl, 1982).

A person whose ego is nurtured by the essence of life may

encounter obstacles and manage to find "how" to overcome

and continue proceeding towards realization of one's

goals (Addad, Vignansky, & Himi, 2008). Or as Nitsche

says (cited by Frankl, 1970): "He who has a why to live

for will bear with almost any how". Some hardships must

be born because they have no solution. The more we know

"why" the greater our capacity to bear them. We must find

a reason – someone we care for, a task that must be

performed, something to suffer for. We are not alone in

the world and our own well being cannot be our main goal

in life. Well being in a void, separated from

interpersonal relationships, is nothing (Lukas, 1995). No

suffering can defeat us if we are willing to search for

meaning. Any loss is within reason if it at least has

meaning. In light of all the above, the current study

examined the correlation between levels of anxiety and

depression as well as the power to seek meaning in life

among children of Holocaust survivors as a function of

the gender of survivor parents and their survival

circumstances. In addition, this study attempted to

empirically examine Viktor Frankl's philosophical theory

of the relationship between the level of anxiety and

depression and seeking for meaning in life, among

children of Holocaust survivors.

Research Hypotheses

1. A correlation will be found between parents'

survival circumstances and descendants' level

of anxiety and depression. Children of parents

who were alone during the Holocaust will

present higher levels of (state and trait)

anxiety and depression than children of parents

who were with a family member during the

Holocaust.

2. A correlation will be found between levels of

(state and trait) anxiety and depression and

between seeking for meaning in life. The higher

the levels of anxiety and depression the more

intense the search for meaning in life.

Method

Procedure

The researchers appealed to the "Dor Sheni" (Second

Generation) society, and requested that a structured

questionnaire be sent by e-mail to all members on the

society's mailing list. Questionnaires were also

distributed at conferences or encounters on the Holocaust

or regarding children of Holocaust survivors. In

addition, we used the snowball method, whereby

respondents passed the questionnaire on to their

acquaintances. We did not use the services of

organizations treating pathological cases for this

purpose. Questionnaires were returned by e-mail or by

regular mail. Respondents were told that the

questionnaires are anonymous and that the results would

be used only for purposes of the study.

Sample

The sample consisted of 180 adults, children of Holocaust

survivors, who provided information about their parents

and themselves. Of these, 142 participants (78.9%) were

from families where both parents were Holocaust

survivors, and 38 participants (21.1%) from families

where one parent was a Holocaust survivor (for 27 their

father and for 11 their mother). Several participants had

no information on their parents (two mothers and 12

fathers), and thus the data refers to 151 mothers and 157

fathers.

Participants were 23-64 years old (M=51.47, SD=7.30), 125

women (69.4) and 55 men (30.6%). Most were Israeli born

(N=147, 81.7%) and the rest were born in other countries

(N=33, 19.3%). Distribution of schooling: secondary

(N=29, 17.6%), Bachelor's degree (N=91, 55.1%), advanced

degrees (N=45, 27.3%). Most participants lived in cities

(N=143, 86.7%), and the rest in rural towns (N=22,

13.3%). Most were married (N=135, 77.1%) and others

single (N=18, 10.3%) or divorced / widowed (N=22, 12.6%).

Participants had a maximum of seven children (M=2.72,

SD=1.33).

Participants' parents had been 48 years old and younger

during the Holocaust, with mothers' mean age 16.48

(SD=7.79) and fathers' 21.68 (SD=8.84). 103 mothers

(57.2%) and 62 fathers (34.4%) were alive at the time of

the study. Most mothers (N=128, 85.3%) and most fathers

(N=127, 81.4%) had a secondary schooling, and others had

an academic education. 99 mothers (55%) and 99 fathers

(55%) had a chronic illness. Some of the parents (21

mothers – 11.7%, 10 fathers – 5.6%) had a psychiatric

disorder. Participants came from families with a maximum

of six children (M=2.41, SD=0.97): 24 were single

children (13.6%), 58 were first-born (33.0%), 30 were

middle children (17.0%), and 64 were the youngest in the

family (36.4%). About one third of the parents had been

in ghettos, hiding places, or in Siberia, and more than

40% had been in the camps. Of the mothers, some 30% had

been with siblings, slightly more than one quarter with

their parents, and slightly more than one quarter had

been alone (with no relatives). Of the fathers, nearly

half had been alone, and some one fifth with siblings.

Most of the parents had lost family in the Holocaust.

Some 60% of mothers and 70% of fathers had lost family,

over one half of mothers and some two thirds of fathers

had lost a sibling, some 40% lost relatives, and others

lost grandparents, spouses, and/or children.

Research Tools

A three-part sociodemographic questionnaire: One part

provided information on second-generation respondents:

age, sex, schooling, marital status, children, place in

the order of children, and questions on mental care. The

two remaining parts focused on respondents' mother and

father: parents' country of birth, age during the

Holocaust, where they were during the Holocaust, did they

lose family members, with whom were they during the

Holocaust, and did they suffer or receive mental care.

Two versions of the questionnaire were employed, with the

second consisting of more sociodemographic questions.

The Spielbeger State-Trait Anxiety Scale (Spielberger,

Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970): The questionnaire consists of

two parts, with 20 items each, describing different

feelings of comfort or anxiety. Respondents are requested

to state for each item to what degree it matches their

feelings at this moment (state anxiety) and in general

(trait anxiety). Scores range from 1 to 4. Reliability

was α=.94 for state anxiety and α=.92 for trait anxiety.

Correlation between state and trait anxiety was r=.84,

p<.001.

The Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Ward, Mendelson,

Mach, & Erbaugh, 1961): A self-report questionnaire

consisting of 21 items describing symptoms and views

characteristic of people with depression. Each item on

the questionnaire is composed of four sentences scored

from 0 to 3 for severity. Respondents are requested to

choose the sentence that best describes their feelings.

Reliability for this study was: α=.85.

Questionnaire for seeking meaning (SONG): devised by

Crumbaugh (1977). This scale is intended to examine

motivation to find meaning in life. This test examines

the strength of one's motivation to find meaning in life

(Guttman, 1999). The inventory is composed of 20

statements ranked on a 7-level scale. Respondents were

required to state for each statement at what frequency it

is representative of their experiences. Internal

reliability was 0.76. Test-retest reliability after 6

weeks was 0.78 (Reker & Cousins, 1979). The Seeking of

Noetic Goals test measures the strength of one's

motivation to find meaning in life.

Findings

With the aim of checking whether it is necessary to

control background variables when examining the

hypotheses, correlations between research variables and

main background variables were examined.

Age features. Trait anxiety was found to have a

significant negative correlation with age (r=-.20,

p<.01). Thus, younger respondents reported a higher level

of anxiety. Seeking meaning in life was also found to

have a significant negative correlation with age (r=-.21,

p<.01). Thus, younger respondents reported a greater

search for meaning in life. In addition, respondents'

gender and schooling were not found to be correlated with

research variables, and neither was parents' location

during the Holocaust (ghetto, hiding place, Siberia,

versus camps). No differences were found in the research

variables dependent on whether one or both parents of

respondents had been in the Holocaust. In light of these

differences and correlations, respondents' age was

controlled when examining research hypotheses.

Second generation features by mother's survival

circumstances. In order to examine the hypothesis

regarding differences in second-generation anxiety and

depression according to the mother's survival

circumstances, a multivariate analysis of variance was

held (state and trait anxiety, depression) according to

the mother's survival situation (alone or with a family

member). Table 1 presents means, standard deviations, and

results of the analysis of variance for the research

variables according to the mother's survival situation.

Table 1: Means, standard deviations, and F values for

anxiety and depression by mother's survival circumstances

during the Holocaust (with family member or alone)

(N=148)With family

member (N=100)Alone(N=48)

With familymember / alone

M (SD)

M (SD)

F(1,145)η2

State anxiety 1.85(0.61)

2.01(0.55)

3.29(.02)

Trait anxiety 1.85(0.56)

1.92(0.47)

1.03(.01)

Depression 0.33 0.40 1.89

(0.31) (0.31) (.01)Falone/family member(3,143)=1.41, ns., η2=.03.

The analysis of variance (MANCOVA controlling for

respondents' age) was not found to be significant for

mothers' situation (alone / with family member) during

the Holocaust. Univariate analysis found no differences

for anxiety and depression.

Second generation features by father's survival

circumstances. Similar to the analysis for mothers, and

as part of the first research hypothesis, differences in

anxiety and depression were examined according to whether

the father was with a family member or alone during the

Holocaust. A multivariate analysis of variance of the

three variables (state and trait anxiety, depression) was

held, according to the father's survival circumstances.

Table 2 presents means, standard deviations, and results

of the analysis of variance for the research variables

according to the father's survival situation.

Table 2: Means, standard deviations, and F values for

anxiety and depression by father's survival circumstances

during the Holocaust (with family member or alone)

(N=155)With familymember (N=69)

Alone(N=86)

With familymember / alone

M (SD)

M (SD)

F(1,152)η2

State anxiety 1.77(0.53)

1.98(0.62)

4.98*(.03)

Trait anxiety 1.72(0.45)

1.96(0.57)

9.01**(.06)

Depression 0.27 0.37 4.06*

(0.26) (0.32) (.03)*p<.05, **p<.01; Falone/family member(3,150)=3.06, p<.05, η2=.06.

The analysis of variance (MANCOVA controlling for

respondents' age) was found to be significant for

father's situation (alone / with family member) during

the Holocaust (F(3,150)=3.06, p<.05, η2=.06). Univariate

analysis found significant differences for state and

trait anxiety and for depression, such that adult

children of fathers who were alone during the Holocaust

(with no family members) showed higher levels of anxiety

and depression than adult children of fathers who were

with family members.

The second research hypothesis was that anxiety and

depression would mediate between the parent's being alone

or with a family member during the Holocaust – and the

dependent research variable, seeking meaning in life.

Before examining this hypothesis, table 3 presents

correlations between the research variables.

Table 3: Correlations between anxiety, depression, and

seeking meaning in life (N=170-180)

State

anxiety

Trait

anxiety

Depression

Seeking meaning in

life

.54*** .61*** .52***

State anxiety .83*** .73***Trait anxiety .74****p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

The correlations in the table show positive relationships

between the research variables. There is a positive

correlation between seeking meaning in life and state

anxiety (r=.54; p<0.01). Thus, the higher the state

anxiety of second generation respondents, the more they

are inclined to seek meaning. There is a positive

correlation between seeking meaning in life and trait

anxiety (r=.61; p<0.01). Thus, the higher the trait

anxiety of second generation respondents, the more they

are inclined to seek meaning in life. There is a positive

correlation between seeking meaning in life and

depression (r=.52; p<0.01). Thus, the stronger the level

of depression of second generation respondents, the more

they are inclined to seek meaning in life. In addition, a

positive correlation was found between state anxiety,

trait anxiety, and depression (see table 3).

Anxiety, depression, and seeking meaning. The hypothesis

that anxiety and depression mediate the parent's being

alone or with a family member during the Holocaust and

seeking meaning in life was examined by Preacher & Hayes'

(2004) bootstrapping procedure. Anxiety and depression

were found to be mediators for fathers but not for

mothers.

When the father is a Holocaust survivor. State anxiety

was found to be a significant mediator between the

father's being alone or with a family member – and

seeking meaning in life (effect=0.18, SE=0.09, Z=2.01,

p=.04). Trait anxiety was found to be a significant

mediator between the father's being alone or with a

family member – and seeking meaning in life (effect=0.29,

SE=0.11, Z=2.73, p=.006). In addition, depression was

found to be a significant mediator between the father's

being alone or with a family member – and seeking meaning

in life (effect=0.17, SE=0.09, Z=2.04, p=.04). Compatible

with table 3, we can see that adult children of fathers

who were alone (with no family members) during the

Holocaust suffered more anxiety and depression, leading

them (according to table 3) to seek more meaning in life.

Thus, the father's being alone in the Holocaust is

associated with higher levels of anxiety and depression

among the children, leading to more seeking of meaning in

life.

When the mother is a Holocaust survivor. Anxiety and

depression were not found to be mediators of the mother's

survival situation and second-generation quest for

meaning in life.

Discussion and conclusions

Seeking meaning in life as a function of second-

generation levels of (trait and state) anxiety and

depression. Viktor Frankl (1978, 1984, 2000, 1969, 1985,

1982) and later other researchers (Addad, Vignansky, &

Himi, 2008; Lukas, 1995; Fabry, 1988) believed that one

motive for seeking meaning in life is suffering. Reker

and Cousins, (1979) as well as Debats et al. (1993),

believed that there is a strong relationship between

meaning in life and life satisfaction. Reker and Cousins

(1979) also believe that dissatisfaction is a strong

motivator for seeking meaning in life. Wong (2010)

claimed that treatment focused on finding meaning in life

should be employed to facilitate coping with anxieties

and pathologies. Thus, there is a strong relationship

between mental pain, physical suffering, trauma etc., and

seeking meaning.

Hence, the current results support Frankl's theory on the

relationship between suffering (in the present case: high

levels of trait and state anxiety and depression) and the

need to seek meaning in life. This also leads to the

understanding that if we wish to prevent potential

situations of mental crisis and raise the resilience of

children and youth in Israeli society, we must take

preventive steps and begin helping them seek meaning in

life from infancy, in both formal and informal

educational systems, by instilling in them the value of

giving rather than hedonistic values. This conclusion is

extremely important, all the more so today in light of

rapid social changes, the many materialistic values to

which we are exposed, modern technology, the structure of

the modern family, and the breaching of traditions and

values, which have the effect of increasing the

complexity, vagueness, and instability of our world

(Addad, 1995).

Anxiety and depression among the second generation as a

function of parents' survival situation. Many studies on

Second Generation Syndrome show that members of the

second generation have higher than average levels of

anxiety and depression. The current study aimed to

ascertain whether parents' survival situation has an

effect on the second generation's levels of anxiety and

depression. The rationale was that a survivor who had

been with a family member, even one younger than him/her

and certainly older, might have felt that he/she was not

completely alone and that the relative was a source of

strength, support, or mental assistance, which may have

diminished even if not completely prevented the trauma.

Partial corroboration of this finding was provided by

Hogman (1983) who found that children (aged 11 and

younger) who had been with their parents during the

Holocaust demonstrated a better level of adjustment than

children who experienced the Holocaust without their

parents. Gampel (1988) too found that children (aged 2-

12) who had remained with one parent felt that this

parent was a source of support and hope in comparison to

children who had remained without parents.

If so, in the case of fathers who survived the Holocaust,

why did fathers' survival situation (alone or with a

family member) affect their children's levels of anxiety

and depression, while mothers' survival situation (alone

or with a family member) did not affect their children's

levels of anxiety and depression?

A well-known phenomenon among trauma survivors is guilt

feelings and conscience pangs for having survived the

event although others did not (Helmreich, 1996;

Kellermann, 1999; Pynoos & Nader, 1987). We assume that

this element of stronger guilt feelings among boys has to

do with the fact that boys are taught to be strong,

"brave", "macho" (Williams & Best, 1990), to be

emotionally reserved and to help their family when

necessary (Granot, 2004). The social masculine image

formed early on in a boy's life dictates that men must be

mentally tough and physically strong, self-controlled and

successful. Boys are expected, both by themselves and by

society, to act to save their family in times of trouble

– to fight. This is particularly true of Israeli society.

Hence, we believe, although this requires additional

examination, that boys feel conscience pangs not only for

having survived while others did not but also for not

having actively helped their family, another well-known

phenomenon among survivors of disaster (Granot, 2004;

Helmreich, 1996). This became even more acute upon

immigrating to Israel, when Israeli society, not yet

aware of the dimensions of the Holocaust, accused

Holocaust survivors of going "as sheep to the slaughter"

(Davidson, 1992; Segev, 1993). A man who does not succeed

in serving as his family's mainstay will feel that he has

let them down, and this will have a negative effect on

his self-image (Granot, 2004). In contrast, the social

norm allows women to be "weak", emotional, unreserved.

Women who have nervous breakdowns or stop functioning in

time of crisis arouse no radical social response

(Williams & Best, 1990). The assimilation of "weak women"

stereotypes and in contrast "strong brave men"

stereotypes is attested to in a study conducted by

Lichtman (1984). Lichtman found that mothers who survived

the Holocaust transmit a victim motif to their children,

while fathers transmit a fighter motif.

Therefore, boys who remained alone see this as a failure

on their part, a failure to save someone from their

family. Thus, when they experienced the trauma of the

Holocaust together with a family member they enjoyed a

feeling of security, even if false security, as did

girls, but they also enjoyed the feeling of not leaving

their relatives to die and extricating only themselves

from the horror. In addition, if there had been someone

else, older, with the surviving son, they could have

transferred responsibility for the "failure" to the

adult, or at least shared the guilt or responsibility.

This is why children of fathers who experienced the

horrors with no family members demonstrated higher levels

of anxiety and depression versus fathers who were with

family. In contrast, among women who survived the

Holocaust on their own, levels of anxiety or depression

were found to be no higher than those of survivors who

had been with a family member, apparently because the

latter did not suffer from higher levels of guilt

feelings or remorse, as no macho behavior was expected of

them.

The parent's survival situation and meaning in life. The

hypothesis that anxiety and depression mediate the

parent's being alone or with a family member during the

Holocaust and seeking meaning in life was confirmed only

for fathers but not for mothers. In other words, fathers'

being alone in the Holocaust was associated among their

children with higher levels of anxiety and depression,

leading to more seeking of meaning in life. However when

the mother was the Holocaust survivor, anxiety and

depression were not found to mediate between the mother's

survival situation and seeking meaning in life among the

second generation. This difference between findings

regarding fathers and mothers derives from the fact that

no differences were found in the levels of anxiety and

depression of children of Holocaust survivor mothers as a

function of their survival situation.

In summary, this study adds to previous research

examining the effects of survival circumstances of

parents on the second generation. The current study is

the only one in the literature to examine the effect of

the gender and survival circumstances (alone or with

family members) of parents on anxiety and depression and

on seeking meaning in life among the second generation –

relationships never previously empirically examined. We

found that the survival situation was particularly

detrimental to children of fathers who had been alone

during the Holocaust, and we attempted to explain this

through the macho education prevalent among society in

general and Israeli society in particular.

In addition, the study found a strong relationship

between high levels of anxiety and depression and seeking

meaning in life, a finding compatible with Viktor

Frankl's theory. This finding forms the foundation of the

current study's important practicable conclusion, which

has the potential of highlighting manners of treatment

and prevention used with people suffering from mental

pathologies.

In Israeli society, with its many victims of terror and

war, and when treating the children of these victims,

there is room to embrace Frankl's theory and help

children and youth find meaning in life in both formal

and informal educational settings. It is certainly

advisable to provide these victims and their children

with mental care according to Viktor Frankl's theory,

i.e. logotherapy, thus reducing and preventing levels of

anxiety and depression among many Israelis. The research

findings may illuminate the method of learning about

meaningful life from an emotional angle, at a time

characterized by extreme distress and anxiety, as a way

of coping with stressful situations. The main conclusion

of the study is the strong need of people in stressful

situations to seek meaning in life. This leads to

another, educational-preventive practicable conclusion,

whereby educational systems must help students cope with

the issue of meaning in life in general and in times of

stress in particular and instill in them the value of

giving, in an era of hedonistic values dominated by

individualism. This may help reduce stressful situations

and increase personal and social resilience, so crucial

for Israeli society.

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