Learning about Meaningful Life as a Way of Coping with
Situations of Stress and Anxiety – The Instance of Second
Generation Holocaust Survivors*
Yael Wilchek Aviad & Diana Cohenca
* This study was funded by the Ariel University Center and the Research
Authority
Abstract
This study illuminates an educational attempt to cope
with the Holocaust from an emotional angle, by learning
about meaningful life at a time fraught with extreme
stress and anxiety, as a way of coping with stressful
situations. The study examines the quest for meaning as a
way of coping with levels of anxiety and depression among
180 adult descendants of Holocaust survivors, 142 of whom
had two survivor parents and 38 one (for 27 a father and
for 11 a mother), with reference to survivor parents'
gender and their circumstances of survival (alone or with
a family member). A significant correlation was found
between anxiety and depression among children of
survivors and their search for meaning in life. In
addition, children of fathers who underwent the Holocaust
on their own (without a family member) were more prone to
anxiety and depression than children of fathers who spent
the Holocaust with a family member, leading them to a
greater search for meaning in life. When the survivor was
the mother, anxiety and depression were not found to
serve as mediators between the mother's circumstances of
survival and the search for meaning in life among
children of survivors. The main conclusion of this study
is the strong need of people in stressful situations to
seek meaning in life. This leads to another, educational-
preventive practicable conclusion, regarding the need of
the educational system to help students cope with the
issue of meaning of life in general and in times of
stress in particular, and to instill the value of giving,
all the more important in a generation controlled by
hedonistic values and dominated by individualism. This
may reduce stressful situations and increase personal and
social resilience, crucial for Israeli society.
Second Generation Syndrome
In the 1950s and 1960s it was becoming evident that not
only Holocaust survivors were suffering from trauma and
other consequences of their experiences, rather also
their children, the second generation. This led to many
studies, conducted mainly by therapists who provided
mental care to patients with mental problems or
difficulties (Kellerman, 2001). These therapists also
coined the term "Second Generation Syndrome" – indicating
that children of Holocaust survivors have mental symptoms
deriving from their status as descendants of Holocaust
survivor parents. Since then many empirical studies have
been conducted with nonclinical populations in an attempt
to verify this term, however no conclusive findings were
evident. Even studies that did uncover several typical
affective disorders showed that most were within the
normal personal and behavioral range, although
significantly distinguishing between the second
generation and control groups. Thus, the Second
Generation Syndrome is controversial. Aside from post
traumatic syndrome (Felsen & Erlich, 1990; Yehuda,
Schmeidler & Wainberg, 1998), anxiety, and depression
(Kellerman, 2001a; 2001b), found to be characteristic of
the second generation, most studies do not provide any
clear proof of Second Generation Syndrome. This can
probably be explained by cautioning that similar to the
survivors themselves, children of survivors should not be
treated as a homogeneous group (Helmreich, 1996;
Kellerman, 2008). The term "Second Generation"
encompasses a large spectrum of conditions and subgroups.
When referring to the second generation we mean children
who were born after the war and at least one of their
parents was a Holocaust survivor. However this title
covers a large range of possible situations: children
born right after the Holocaust to broken, worn out,
helpless parents, or children born many years later,
after the survivor had recovered mentally and physically.
Some survivors lost their families and some did not. Some
survivors had been in the death camps and others fought
with the partisans, and so on (Wiseman & Barber, 2007).
Consequently, in recent years descendants of Holocaust
survivors are being studied and analyzed differentially.
The current study constitutes one more attempt to examine
the effect of the survival circumstances of parents on
the second generation. Namely, the effect of the gender
and survival circumstances (alone or with a family
member) of survivor parents on the anxiety and depression
experienced by the second generation – correlations that
have not received empirical attention in the literature.
At the same time, in recent years humanistic theories
have begun emerging, mainly that of Viktor Frankl, on the
search for meaning in life as a response to situations of
human suffering, stress, and pain. According to Frankl
(1982, 1985, 1969, 1978, 1984, 2000) human beings are
distinct from other creatures by virtue of a unique
component – reason (nous). A person endowed with reason
is not passive and controlled, rather active, in control
of one's fate and views, and able to choose (Fabry,
1988). Frankl contends that we strive to realize the
purpose of our life, a purpose that will give us a unique
sense of self-expression and self-realization. Purposeful
life is perceived as meaningful. A meaningful life is a
necessary condition for maintaining mental health, for
coping, and for protecting oneself from crises and
difficulties, as well as for sustaining a satisfactory
life style (Fabry, 1988). The lack of a meaningful life
generates "existential frustration" accompanied by a
sense of "existential vacuum", facilitating excessive
narcissistic practices and various pathologies (Nadiv,
2007; Tukir & Court, 2007; Wolf, Katz, & Nachson, 1995).
Therefore, another purpose of the current study is to
examine the correlation between levels of anxiety and
depression and between the need to seek meaning in life
among the second generation.
Parents' Gender and Survival Circumstances
Studies examining the correlation between survivors'
gender and lifetime functioning and the correlation
between survivors' gender and Second Generation Syndrome
found that male children of survivors experience
Holocaust events differently than females. Rim (1991),
for example, examined the differential coping of
Holocaust survivor mothers and fathers with current
difficulties. Results indicated a significant difference
between the two genders, with fathers showing a limited
number of methods for coping with difficulties while
mothers were conspicuous for their wider variety of
coping methods. Children of survivors used similar
methods of coping as their mothers. Lichtman (1984) found
that female Holocaust survivors who conveyed their
experiences to their daughters had a more adverse effect
on the daughters' personality, while male survivors who
convey their experiences to their sons have a positive
impact on sons' personality. Scharf (2007) found that
second generation mothers displayed a higher level of
psychological stress and insecure maternal functioning
than non-second generation mothers.
Another issue is the correlation between the survival
situation, i.e. whether the survivor went through the
Holocaust alone or with a relative, and long-term effects
of the Holocaust on the survivor and mainly on his/her
children. No reference to this issue was found in the
literature, aside from DeGraf (1975) who found that
(second generation) soldiers whose parents had lost
family in the Holocaust (but the parents themselves had
not been persecuted by the Nazis) proved more neurotic
even in comparison to soldiers born to parents who had
survived the death camps. In addition, an indirect study
by Tal (1992) found that sons of survivors who had lost
first-degree relatives showed lower scores of
assertiveness and openness in close interpersonal
relationships than those whose parents had lost distant
relatives.
Meaning of Life
Logotherapy, the treatment method advocated by Frankl
(1982), assumes that man is a three-dimensional entity
comprising body, soul, and spirit. On the physical
dimension man is imprisoned, on the mental dimension man
is motivated by needs, while on the spiritual (noogenic)
dimension, which exists in everyone, each person is free
to influence one's own existence and decide what type of
person he/she wishes to be in the present and future. The
spiritual dimension is composed of all uniquely human
aspects, such as existential meaning, freedom of choice,
conscience, setting goals, creativity, faith, ideas, and
imagination (Iluz, 2001; Frankl, 1985; Frankl, 1982).
The supreme significance that Frankl attributes to the
noogenic-thinking dimension, which motivates one's acts
in life and urges one to follow ideals and values, is a
result of the concept of freedom of choice that he
attributes to human beings. Frankl uses the terms
"liberty in spite of determinism" and "autonomy in spite
of dependency", whereby one is not free of one's
circumstances, but one is free to take a stand, to decide
whether to put up a fight or become resigned (Frankl,
1982).
According to Frankl (1982), meaning of life does not mean
self realization, but rather rising above oneself,
surpassing oneself, such that self realization can not be
a goal in and of itself, rather an outcome of taking
responsibility and of choice. "Rising above oneself"
means one's devotion to people, values, and deeds that
are beyond one's personal narcissistic needs. A person's
need to be part of somebody or something aside from
himself enables him to be significant and humane (Nadiv,
2007; Frankl, 1969, 1982).
Klinger (1977) defines meaning of life as the
relationship between individuals and goals they perceive
as valuable. In Klinger's (1977) opinion, individuals who
believe that their life is significant are those who are
emotionally involved in interpersonal relationships, who
have special experiences, or who engage in occupations
perceived as important. People's involvement in goals
that hold significance for them and are sufficiently
refreshing to arouse their emotional reactions provides
them with a sense of meaning. In contrast, people who see
their life as meaningless do so in one of two situations:
either the goals they value are not accessible, or they
are accessible but a life of habit has robbed them of
their power to stimulate emotions.
Batista and Almond (1973) as well mentioned meaning of
life as a main concept. They see the meaning of life in
the relationship between one's goals and life style. They
emphasize a person's commitment to a set of chosen goals,
which serve as a framework for the life that he is trying
to realize. In their conception, one who perceives his
life as meaningful is one who sees life positively. A
positive life perspective is defined as one's belief that
he is realizing his life goals, that they have a positive
value for him.
In contrast to these scholars, other theoreticians see
the individual's environment as contributing to the
degree to which one perceives his life as meaningful.
Kekes (1986) sees two possible obstacles to achieving a
meaningful life. One is personal – internal disharmony,
and the other circumstantial – brutal life circumstances
leading to frustration and indifference.
Meaning of Life and Suffering
Frankl (1981, 1985, Fabry, 1988) believes that meaning in
life can be found in three ways: by doing a deed -
through an active life, by what one gives to life (work,
creativity, hobbies, and devotion to a task); by having
experiences - through what one receives from life
(experiencing beauty, truth, love, values); and by
suffering -how one relates to one's immutable fate. Even
one who is in a forced, unchangeable situation, can
produce meaning from this situation, by changing his
attitude to the situation, by seeing a purpose and object
to his suffering, seeing the suffering as a means of
self-uplifting, a challenge, a role that he must assume
as a unique individual in a unique situation (Lukas,
1995). The term "power of defiance" defines the power of
people who were raised in relatively pathological
conditions but nonetheless became satisfied, fulfilled,
and creative people. This power comes from one's free
spirit on the noological dimension (Hamiel, 1994).
Hence, meaningful life has the power to reduce anxiety
and instability in life. Anxiety and instability might
derive from traumatic events that occurred in one's past,
but development of the noogenic dimension gives one the
power to rise above coercive forces and thus gives one
the liberty to act with free will and overcome anxiety
(Nadiv, 2007; Frankl, 1982).
A person whose ego is nurtured by the essence of life may
encounter obstacles and manage to find "how" to overcome
and continue proceeding towards realization of one's
goals (Addad, Vignansky, & Himi, 2008). Or as Nitsche
says (cited by Frankl, 1970): "He who has a why to live
for will bear with almost any how". Some hardships must
be born because they have no solution. The more we know
"why" the greater our capacity to bear them. We must find
a reason – someone we care for, a task that must be
performed, something to suffer for. We are not alone in
the world and our own well being cannot be our main goal
in life. Well being in a void, separated from
interpersonal relationships, is nothing (Lukas, 1995). No
suffering can defeat us if we are willing to search for
meaning. Any loss is within reason if it at least has
meaning. In light of all the above, the current study
examined the correlation between levels of anxiety and
depression as well as the power to seek meaning in life
among children of Holocaust survivors as a function of
the gender of survivor parents and their survival
circumstances. In addition, this study attempted to
empirically examine Viktor Frankl's philosophical theory
of the relationship between the level of anxiety and
depression and seeking for meaning in life, among
children of Holocaust survivors.
Research Hypotheses
1. A correlation will be found between parents'
survival circumstances and descendants' level
of anxiety and depression. Children of parents
who were alone during the Holocaust will
present higher levels of (state and trait)
anxiety and depression than children of parents
who were with a family member during the
Holocaust.
2. A correlation will be found between levels of
(state and trait) anxiety and depression and
between seeking for meaning in life. The higher
the levels of anxiety and depression the more
intense the search for meaning in life.
Method
Procedure
The researchers appealed to the "Dor Sheni" (Second
Generation) society, and requested that a structured
questionnaire be sent by e-mail to all members on the
society's mailing list. Questionnaires were also
distributed at conferences or encounters on the Holocaust
or regarding children of Holocaust survivors. In
addition, we used the snowball method, whereby
respondents passed the questionnaire on to their
acquaintances. We did not use the services of
organizations treating pathological cases for this
purpose. Questionnaires were returned by e-mail or by
regular mail. Respondents were told that the
questionnaires are anonymous and that the results would
be used only for purposes of the study.
Sample
The sample consisted of 180 adults, children of Holocaust
survivors, who provided information about their parents
and themselves. Of these, 142 participants (78.9%) were
from families where both parents were Holocaust
survivors, and 38 participants (21.1%) from families
where one parent was a Holocaust survivor (for 27 their
father and for 11 their mother). Several participants had
no information on their parents (two mothers and 12
fathers), and thus the data refers to 151 mothers and 157
fathers.
Participants were 23-64 years old (M=51.47, SD=7.30), 125
women (69.4) and 55 men (30.6%). Most were Israeli born
(N=147, 81.7%) and the rest were born in other countries
(N=33, 19.3%). Distribution of schooling: secondary
(N=29, 17.6%), Bachelor's degree (N=91, 55.1%), advanced
degrees (N=45, 27.3%). Most participants lived in cities
(N=143, 86.7%), and the rest in rural towns (N=22,
13.3%). Most were married (N=135, 77.1%) and others
single (N=18, 10.3%) or divorced / widowed (N=22, 12.6%).
Participants had a maximum of seven children (M=2.72,
SD=1.33).
Participants' parents had been 48 years old and younger
during the Holocaust, with mothers' mean age 16.48
(SD=7.79) and fathers' 21.68 (SD=8.84). 103 mothers
(57.2%) and 62 fathers (34.4%) were alive at the time of
the study. Most mothers (N=128, 85.3%) and most fathers
(N=127, 81.4%) had a secondary schooling, and others had
an academic education. 99 mothers (55%) and 99 fathers
(55%) had a chronic illness. Some of the parents (21
mothers – 11.7%, 10 fathers – 5.6%) had a psychiatric
disorder. Participants came from families with a maximum
of six children (M=2.41, SD=0.97): 24 were single
children (13.6%), 58 were first-born (33.0%), 30 were
middle children (17.0%), and 64 were the youngest in the
family (36.4%). About one third of the parents had been
in ghettos, hiding places, or in Siberia, and more than
40% had been in the camps. Of the mothers, some 30% had
been with siblings, slightly more than one quarter with
their parents, and slightly more than one quarter had
been alone (with no relatives). Of the fathers, nearly
half had been alone, and some one fifth with siblings.
Most of the parents had lost family in the Holocaust.
Some 60% of mothers and 70% of fathers had lost family,
over one half of mothers and some two thirds of fathers
had lost a sibling, some 40% lost relatives, and others
lost grandparents, spouses, and/or children.
Research Tools
A three-part sociodemographic questionnaire: One part
provided information on second-generation respondents:
age, sex, schooling, marital status, children, place in
the order of children, and questions on mental care. The
two remaining parts focused on respondents' mother and
father: parents' country of birth, age during the
Holocaust, where they were during the Holocaust, did they
lose family members, with whom were they during the
Holocaust, and did they suffer or receive mental care.
Two versions of the questionnaire were employed, with the
second consisting of more sociodemographic questions.
The Spielbeger State-Trait Anxiety Scale (Spielberger,
Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970): The questionnaire consists of
two parts, with 20 items each, describing different
feelings of comfort or anxiety. Respondents are requested
to state for each item to what degree it matches their
feelings at this moment (state anxiety) and in general
(trait anxiety). Scores range from 1 to 4. Reliability
was α=.94 for state anxiety and α=.92 for trait anxiety.
Correlation between state and trait anxiety was r=.84,
p<.001.
The Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Ward, Mendelson,
Mach, & Erbaugh, 1961): A self-report questionnaire
consisting of 21 items describing symptoms and views
characteristic of people with depression. Each item on
the questionnaire is composed of four sentences scored
from 0 to 3 for severity. Respondents are requested to
choose the sentence that best describes their feelings.
Reliability for this study was: α=.85.
Questionnaire for seeking meaning (SONG): devised by
Crumbaugh (1977). This scale is intended to examine
motivation to find meaning in life. This test examines
the strength of one's motivation to find meaning in life
(Guttman, 1999). The inventory is composed of 20
statements ranked on a 7-level scale. Respondents were
required to state for each statement at what frequency it
is representative of their experiences. Internal
reliability was 0.76. Test-retest reliability after 6
weeks was 0.78 (Reker & Cousins, 1979). The Seeking of
Noetic Goals test measures the strength of one's
motivation to find meaning in life.
Findings
With the aim of checking whether it is necessary to
control background variables when examining the
hypotheses, correlations between research variables and
main background variables were examined.
Age features. Trait anxiety was found to have a
significant negative correlation with age (r=-.20,
p<.01). Thus, younger respondents reported a higher level
of anxiety. Seeking meaning in life was also found to
have a significant negative correlation with age (r=-.21,
p<.01). Thus, younger respondents reported a greater
search for meaning in life. In addition, respondents'
gender and schooling were not found to be correlated with
research variables, and neither was parents' location
during the Holocaust (ghetto, hiding place, Siberia,
versus camps). No differences were found in the research
variables dependent on whether one or both parents of
respondents had been in the Holocaust. In light of these
differences and correlations, respondents' age was
controlled when examining research hypotheses.
Second generation features by mother's survival
circumstances. In order to examine the hypothesis
regarding differences in second-generation anxiety and
depression according to the mother's survival
circumstances, a multivariate analysis of variance was
held (state and trait anxiety, depression) according to
the mother's survival situation (alone or with a family
member). Table 1 presents means, standard deviations, and
results of the analysis of variance for the research
variables according to the mother's survival situation.
Table 1: Means, standard deviations, and F values for
anxiety and depression by mother's survival circumstances
during the Holocaust (with family member or alone)
(N=148)With family
member (N=100)Alone(N=48)
With familymember / alone
M (SD)
M (SD)
F(1,145)η2
State anxiety 1.85(0.61)
2.01(0.55)
3.29(.02)
Trait anxiety 1.85(0.56)
1.92(0.47)
1.03(.01)
Depression 0.33 0.40 1.89
(0.31) (0.31) (.01)Falone/family member(3,143)=1.41, ns., η2=.03.
The analysis of variance (MANCOVA controlling for
respondents' age) was not found to be significant for
mothers' situation (alone / with family member) during
the Holocaust. Univariate analysis found no differences
for anxiety and depression.
Second generation features by father's survival
circumstances. Similar to the analysis for mothers, and
as part of the first research hypothesis, differences in
anxiety and depression were examined according to whether
the father was with a family member or alone during the
Holocaust. A multivariate analysis of variance of the
three variables (state and trait anxiety, depression) was
held, according to the father's survival circumstances.
Table 2 presents means, standard deviations, and results
of the analysis of variance for the research variables
according to the father's survival situation.
Table 2: Means, standard deviations, and F values for
anxiety and depression by father's survival circumstances
during the Holocaust (with family member or alone)
(N=155)With familymember (N=69)
Alone(N=86)
With familymember / alone
M (SD)
M (SD)
F(1,152)η2
State anxiety 1.77(0.53)
1.98(0.62)
4.98*(.03)
Trait anxiety 1.72(0.45)
1.96(0.57)
9.01**(.06)
Depression 0.27 0.37 4.06*
(0.26) (0.32) (.03)*p<.05, **p<.01; Falone/family member(3,150)=3.06, p<.05, η2=.06.
The analysis of variance (MANCOVA controlling for
respondents' age) was found to be significant for
father's situation (alone / with family member) during
the Holocaust (F(3,150)=3.06, p<.05, η2=.06). Univariate
analysis found significant differences for state and
trait anxiety and for depression, such that adult
children of fathers who were alone during the Holocaust
(with no family members) showed higher levels of anxiety
and depression than adult children of fathers who were
with family members.
The second research hypothesis was that anxiety and
depression would mediate between the parent's being alone
or with a family member during the Holocaust – and the
dependent research variable, seeking meaning in life.
Before examining this hypothesis, table 3 presents
correlations between the research variables.
Table 3: Correlations between anxiety, depression, and
seeking meaning in life (N=170-180)
State
anxiety
Trait
anxiety
Depression
Seeking meaning in
life
.54*** .61*** .52***
State anxiety .83*** .73***Trait anxiety .74****p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001
The correlations in the table show positive relationships
between the research variables. There is a positive
correlation between seeking meaning in life and state
anxiety (r=.54; p<0.01). Thus, the higher the state
anxiety of second generation respondents, the more they
are inclined to seek meaning. There is a positive
correlation between seeking meaning in life and trait
anxiety (r=.61; p<0.01). Thus, the higher the trait
anxiety of second generation respondents, the more they
are inclined to seek meaning in life. There is a positive
correlation between seeking meaning in life and
depression (r=.52; p<0.01). Thus, the stronger the level
of depression of second generation respondents, the more
they are inclined to seek meaning in life. In addition, a
positive correlation was found between state anxiety,
trait anxiety, and depression (see table 3).
Anxiety, depression, and seeking meaning. The hypothesis
that anxiety and depression mediate the parent's being
alone or with a family member during the Holocaust and
seeking meaning in life was examined by Preacher & Hayes'
(2004) bootstrapping procedure. Anxiety and depression
were found to be mediators for fathers but not for
mothers.
When the father is a Holocaust survivor. State anxiety
was found to be a significant mediator between the
father's being alone or with a family member – and
seeking meaning in life (effect=0.18, SE=0.09, Z=2.01,
p=.04). Trait anxiety was found to be a significant
mediator between the father's being alone or with a
family member – and seeking meaning in life (effect=0.29,
SE=0.11, Z=2.73, p=.006). In addition, depression was
found to be a significant mediator between the father's
being alone or with a family member – and seeking meaning
in life (effect=0.17, SE=0.09, Z=2.04, p=.04). Compatible
with table 3, we can see that adult children of fathers
who were alone (with no family members) during the
Holocaust suffered more anxiety and depression, leading
them (according to table 3) to seek more meaning in life.
Thus, the father's being alone in the Holocaust is
associated with higher levels of anxiety and depression
among the children, leading to more seeking of meaning in
life.
When the mother is a Holocaust survivor. Anxiety and
depression were not found to be mediators of the mother's
survival situation and second-generation quest for
meaning in life.
Discussion and conclusions
Seeking meaning in life as a function of second-
generation levels of (trait and state) anxiety and
depression. Viktor Frankl (1978, 1984, 2000, 1969, 1985,
1982) and later other researchers (Addad, Vignansky, &
Himi, 2008; Lukas, 1995; Fabry, 1988) believed that one
motive for seeking meaning in life is suffering. Reker
and Cousins, (1979) as well as Debats et al. (1993),
believed that there is a strong relationship between
meaning in life and life satisfaction. Reker and Cousins
(1979) also believe that dissatisfaction is a strong
motivator for seeking meaning in life. Wong (2010)
claimed that treatment focused on finding meaning in life
should be employed to facilitate coping with anxieties
and pathologies. Thus, there is a strong relationship
between mental pain, physical suffering, trauma etc., and
seeking meaning.
Hence, the current results support Frankl's theory on the
relationship between suffering (in the present case: high
levels of trait and state anxiety and depression) and the
need to seek meaning in life. This also leads to the
understanding that if we wish to prevent potential
situations of mental crisis and raise the resilience of
children and youth in Israeli society, we must take
preventive steps and begin helping them seek meaning in
life from infancy, in both formal and informal
educational systems, by instilling in them the value of
giving rather than hedonistic values. This conclusion is
extremely important, all the more so today in light of
rapid social changes, the many materialistic values to
which we are exposed, modern technology, the structure of
the modern family, and the breaching of traditions and
values, which have the effect of increasing the
complexity, vagueness, and instability of our world
(Addad, 1995).
Anxiety and depression among the second generation as a
function of parents' survival situation. Many studies on
Second Generation Syndrome show that members of the
second generation have higher than average levels of
anxiety and depression. The current study aimed to
ascertain whether parents' survival situation has an
effect on the second generation's levels of anxiety and
depression. The rationale was that a survivor who had
been with a family member, even one younger than him/her
and certainly older, might have felt that he/she was not
completely alone and that the relative was a source of
strength, support, or mental assistance, which may have
diminished even if not completely prevented the trauma.
Partial corroboration of this finding was provided by
Hogman (1983) who found that children (aged 11 and
younger) who had been with their parents during the
Holocaust demonstrated a better level of adjustment than
children who experienced the Holocaust without their
parents. Gampel (1988) too found that children (aged 2-
12) who had remained with one parent felt that this
parent was a source of support and hope in comparison to
children who had remained without parents.
If so, in the case of fathers who survived the Holocaust,
why did fathers' survival situation (alone or with a
family member) affect their children's levels of anxiety
and depression, while mothers' survival situation (alone
or with a family member) did not affect their children's
levels of anxiety and depression?
A well-known phenomenon among trauma survivors is guilt
feelings and conscience pangs for having survived the
event although others did not (Helmreich, 1996;
Kellermann, 1999; Pynoos & Nader, 1987). We assume that
this element of stronger guilt feelings among boys has to
do with the fact that boys are taught to be strong,
"brave", "macho" (Williams & Best, 1990), to be
emotionally reserved and to help their family when
necessary (Granot, 2004). The social masculine image
formed early on in a boy's life dictates that men must be
mentally tough and physically strong, self-controlled and
successful. Boys are expected, both by themselves and by
society, to act to save their family in times of trouble
– to fight. This is particularly true of Israeli society.
Hence, we believe, although this requires additional
examination, that boys feel conscience pangs not only for
having survived while others did not but also for not
having actively helped their family, another well-known
phenomenon among survivors of disaster (Granot, 2004;
Helmreich, 1996). This became even more acute upon
immigrating to Israel, when Israeli society, not yet
aware of the dimensions of the Holocaust, accused
Holocaust survivors of going "as sheep to the slaughter"
(Davidson, 1992; Segev, 1993). A man who does not succeed
in serving as his family's mainstay will feel that he has
let them down, and this will have a negative effect on
his self-image (Granot, 2004). In contrast, the social
norm allows women to be "weak", emotional, unreserved.
Women who have nervous breakdowns or stop functioning in
time of crisis arouse no radical social response
(Williams & Best, 1990). The assimilation of "weak women"
stereotypes and in contrast "strong brave men"
stereotypes is attested to in a study conducted by
Lichtman (1984). Lichtman found that mothers who survived
the Holocaust transmit a victim motif to their children,
while fathers transmit a fighter motif.
Therefore, boys who remained alone see this as a failure
on their part, a failure to save someone from their
family. Thus, when they experienced the trauma of the
Holocaust together with a family member they enjoyed a
feeling of security, even if false security, as did
girls, but they also enjoyed the feeling of not leaving
their relatives to die and extricating only themselves
from the horror. In addition, if there had been someone
else, older, with the surviving son, they could have
transferred responsibility for the "failure" to the
adult, or at least shared the guilt or responsibility.
This is why children of fathers who experienced the
horrors with no family members demonstrated higher levels
of anxiety and depression versus fathers who were with
family. In contrast, among women who survived the
Holocaust on their own, levels of anxiety or depression
were found to be no higher than those of survivors who
had been with a family member, apparently because the
latter did not suffer from higher levels of guilt
feelings or remorse, as no macho behavior was expected of
them.
The parent's survival situation and meaning in life. The
hypothesis that anxiety and depression mediate the
parent's being alone or with a family member during the
Holocaust and seeking meaning in life was confirmed only
for fathers but not for mothers. In other words, fathers'
being alone in the Holocaust was associated among their
children with higher levels of anxiety and depression,
leading to more seeking of meaning in life. However when
the mother was the Holocaust survivor, anxiety and
depression were not found to mediate between the mother's
survival situation and seeking meaning in life among the
second generation. This difference between findings
regarding fathers and mothers derives from the fact that
no differences were found in the levels of anxiety and
depression of children of Holocaust survivor mothers as a
function of their survival situation.
In summary, this study adds to previous research
examining the effects of survival circumstances of
parents on the second generation. The current study is
the only one in the literature to examine the effect of
the gender and survival circumstances (alone or with
family members) of parents on anxiety and depression and
on seeking meaning in life among the second generation –
relationships never previously empirically examined. We
found that the survival situation was particularly
detrimental to children of fathers who had been alone
during the Holocaust, and we attempted to explain this
through the macho education prevalent among society in
general and Israeli society in particular.
In addition, the study found a strong relationship
between high levels of anxiety and depression and seeking
meaning in life, a finding compatible with Viktor
Frankl's theory. This finding forms the foundation of the
current study's important practicable conclusion, which
has the potential of highlighting manners of treatment
and prevention used with people suffering from mental
pathologies.
In Israeli society, with its many victims of terror and
war, and when treating the children of these victims,
there is room to embrace Frankl's theory and help
children and youth find meaning in life in both formal
and informal educational settings. It is certainly
advisable to provide these victims and their children
with mental care according to Viktor Frankl's theory,
i.e. logotherapy, thus reducing and preventing levels of
anxiety and depression among many Israelis. The research
findings may illuminate the method of learning about
meaningful life from an emotional angle, at a time
characterized by extreme distress and anxiety, as a way
of coping with stressful situations. The main conclusion
of the study is the strong need of people in stressful
situations to seek meaning in life. This leads to
another, educational-preventive practicable conclusion,
whereby educational systems must help students cope with
the issue of meaning in life in general and in times of
stress in particular and instill in them the value of
giving, in an era of hedonistic values dominated by
individualism. This may help reduce stressful situations
and increase personal and social resilience, so crucial
for Israeli society.
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