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Leveraging Maternal Rhetoric, Space, and Experience: La Leche Leveraging Maternal Rhetoric, Space, and Experience: La Leche

League's Emergence as a Counterpublic League's Emergence as a Counterpublic

Jenny Lynn Moore Old Dominion University, jmoor090@odu.edu

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/english_etds

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Moore, Jenny L.. "Leveraging Maternal Rhetoric, Space, and Experience: La Leche League's Emergence as a Counterpublic" (2020). Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Dissertation, English, Old Dominion University, DOI: 10.25777/5wr2-p133 https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/english_etds/104

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LEVERAGINGMATERNALRHETORIC,SPACE,ANDEXPERIENCE:LALECHELEAGUE’S

EMERGENCEASACOUNTERPUBLIC

by

JennyLynnMooreB.A.Dec.2004,NortheasternStateUniversityM.A.Dec.2009,NortheasternStateUniversity

ADissertationSubmittedtotheFacultyof OldDominionUniversityinPartialFulfillmentofthe

RequirementsfortheDegreeof

DOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY

ENGLISH

OLDDOMINIONUNIVERSITYMay2020

Approvedby:

LindalBuchanan(Co-Director)

DavidMetzger(Co-Director)

JuliaRomberger(Member)

CarolynSkinner(Member)

ABSTRACT

LEVERAGINGMATERNALRHETORIC,SPACE,ANDEXPERIENCE:LALECHELEAGUE’SEMERGENCEASACOUNTERPUBLIC

JennyLynnMoore

OldDominionUniversity,2020Co-Directors:Dr.LindalBuchananDr.DavidMetzger

Foroversixdecades,theinternational,mother-to-motherbreastfeedingsupport

organizationLaLecheLeague(LLL)hasbeenhelpingwomenbreastfeedsuccessfully.LLL

wasformedatatimewhenthedominantideologyofscientificmotherhoodframed

mothersasobedientadherentstophysicians’strictguidelines,whichencouragedbottle-

feedinganddiscouragedclosemother-childbonds.LLLhasbeencreditedwithchallenging

scientificmotherhood,transformingmedicaldiscourseandpracticessurroundinginfant

feeding,andpromptingthemedicalprofessionaltoacceptmothers’activeinvolvementin

decision-making;yet,paradoxically,ithasalsoconstrainedmothersbyreducingwomento

theirmaternalbiology,discouragingmothersfromparticipatinginthepublicsphere,and

alienatingeconomicallychallenged,working,minority,andlesbianmothers.Whilescholars

havestudiedtheparadoxicalnatureoftheorganization,therehasbeennoin-depthstudy

oftherhetoricalstrategiesthatLLLemployedinordertogainadispersedaudienceof

dedicatedsupportersandaffectsignificantchange.

ThisdissertationtracestheearlyhistoryofLLL,withafocusontheperiodbetween

1956and1963,toarguethatLLL’smaternalrhetoricwasthekeytoitsdevelopmentintoa

significantcounterpublicthatwouldtransformthemedicalprofession’sviewson

breastfeedingandtheroleofmothers.IarguethatLLLsubversivelyreclaimedthe

domesticspaceofthehometocreateamaternalspacewhichwouldoperateasa“parallel

discursivearena”(Fraser68)inwhichtheorganizationwoulddevelopits

counterdiscourseanditsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.IsuggestthatLLL’s

employmentofmaternalrhetorictocraftanorganizationalethosframedmothersasthe

naturalauthoritiesonchildcareandinfantfeeding.Thismaternalrhetoricledtoitssuccess

inbuildingacounterpublicmadeupofanarmyofbreastfeedingmotherswhowereableto

createtheirownmaternalspacesthatwouldallowthemtoeffectivelyresistthestatusquo.

Finally,Iassertthatinofferingarhetoricaleducationtohelpmothersemploy

maternalrhetoricintheirindividualactsofresistance,LLL’scounterpublicunderwenta

projectofcollectiveethosformationthatwouldpromptthemedicalprofessiontore-

evaluateitsunderstandingofinfantfeedinganditsviewoftheroleofmothersindecision-

makingregardinghealthcare.LLLthusincreasedmothers’options,autonomy,and

authority,outcomeswhichIcontendarefeministinnature.

iv

©2020,byJennyMoore,AllRightsReserved.

v

ForConnor,whofrequentlyaskswhenI’ll“finallybedonewritingthatbook”.Youmakemelaugheveryday.Thankyou.

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Ioweatremendousamountofgratitudetoanumberofpeoplefortheirsupportand

guidancethroughouttheprocessofwritingthisdissertation.First,IwouldliketothankDr.

LindalBuchanan,whoservedasaco-chaironmydissertationcommittee.Dr.Buchananis

anexceptional,dedicatedscholarwhoseworkintheareaofmaternalrhetoricswas

inspirationaltome.Generouswithhertimeandknowledge,Dr.Buchananprovideda

significantamountofsupportwhileshechallengedmeinwaysthathelpedmegrowasa

scholar.Herenthusiasmfortheprojectandherregardformeasascholarsustainedme

whenIfoundmyselfstruggling.Icountmyselfluckytohavebenefittedfromherguidance

throughouttheprocess.

IamverythankfultoDr.DavidMetzger,whoservedwhoservedasco-chaironmy

committee,forposingintriguingquestionsthatopenedupnewavenuesofexplorationfor

thisproject.IwasconsiderablyhonoredtohaveDr.CarolynSkinnerserveasamemberof

mycommittee.Herscholarshipexploringthewayinwhichwomenrhetorscanharnessthe

affordancesoftheirmarginalizedpositionstodevelopethosandengageincollective

rhetoricalactioninfluencedmythinkingagreatdeal.IamverygratefulforDr.Skinner’s

insightfulquestionsandfeedback,whichhelpedmethinkthroughcomplextheoretical

aspectsoftheproject.IamverygratefultoDr.JuliaRomberger,whoisanastutescholar

andadedicatedteacher.Dr.Romberger’sinstructionprovedvaluableinhelpingme

conductvisualanalysisandthinkthroughthecomplexitiesofsocialnetworks.Iappreciate

Dr.Romberger’sthoughtfulfeedbackandperceptivequestions.

vii

AnumberofothermembersofODU’sfacultymembers,currentandformer,

providedfeedbackonearlypiecesofthisproject,andIamgratefultothemfortheir

supportandguidance.IoffermysincerethankstoMorgenMacIntoshHodgetts,Special

CollectionsInstructionLibrarian/ArchivistatDePaulUniversity’sRichardsonLibrary,and

herstaffinSpecialCollectionsforsupportingmyresearchbyhelpingmemaximizemytime

inthearchives.

MypeersinOldDominionUniversity’sPhDinEnglishprogramprovidedmewitha

greatdealofmoralsupportthroughouttheprogramandthedissertationprocess.Iam

gratefulinparticulartoAprilCobosandSarahMoseley,whoofferedvaluablefeedbackon

multipledraftsthroughouttheprocessofcompletingthedissertation.

TherearesevenwomenwhoIfeelImustrecognizefortheirtenacityand

generousnessofspirit.MarianTompson,MaryWhite,MaryAnnCahill,MaryAnnKerwin,

EdwinaFroehlich,ViolaLennon,andBettyWagnerstartedLaLecheLeaguewiththegoalof

helpingoneanothernavigatemotherhoodinthewaythatmadethemostsensetothem,

andinsodoing,theyempoweredmotherstotakechargeoftheirmaternalexperiences.

Today,LaLecheLeagueInternationalisstillhelpingwomen.Theyareaninspiration.

Finally,Iwouldliketothankmyfamily.Myparents,TommyandSherryStephens,

havebeencheeringmeonandencouragingmetopursuemygoalsallofmylife,andthey

gavemethecouragetoso.Mysister,JessicaStephens,groundedmeandliftedmyspiritsas

onlyasisterwhoalsohappenstobealifelongfriendcoulddo.Myspouseandco-parent,

Charles,hasmyimmensegratitudeforprovidinganinvaluableamountofemotionaland

practicalsupportthroughoutmydoctoralstudies.HehasmadesurethatIhadthetimeand

spacetodevotetomystudies,butthatIalsotaketimetohaveotherkindsoffun.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

Page

LISTOFTABLES........................................................................................................................................................xLISTOFFIGURES.....................................................................................................................................................xiChapterI.INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................................1

FramingLLLRhetorically.......................................................................................................................7ExaminingLLLThroughaFeministLens.....................................................................................15LLL’sNaturalMotherhood..................................................................................................................23MaternalSpaceandLLL.......................................................................................................................32CreatingTextualOutreach..................................................................................................................36OverviewofChapters............................................................................................................................44TheComplexOutcomesofLLL’sPhilosophyandMaternalRhetoric...............................48

II.ACUSTOM-MADECLUBFORMOTHERS:CREATINGMATERNALSPACESAND

RECLAIMINGMATERNALAUTHORITYANDEXPERIENCE.........................................................52Rhetoric,MaternalSpace,andMotherhoodinthe1950s.......................................................59ChildbirthandMaternalSpace............................................................................................................68EstablishingLLLWithinMaternalSpace........................................................................................78PersuadingMotherstoResistDominantPractices....................................................................86TheGrowthofLLL’sHorizontalNetwork......................................................................................96Conclusion....................................................................................................................................................99III.CRAFTINGA“WOMANLYART”:TRANSLATINGMATERNALSPACEAND

LOCALMOTHER-TO-MOTHERSUPPORTINTOTEXTS.............................................................102TheDevelopmentofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding......................................................106MaternalRhetoricinTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.....................................................114DevelopingMaternalEthos...............................................................................................................120EstablishingMaternalAuthorityandInspiringSelf-Confidence......................................127MaternalRhetoricandtheDevelopmentofMaternalSpace.............................................138Conclusion................................................................................................................................................147

IV.THEREVOLUTIONARIESWOREPEARLS:RHETORICALEDUCATIONINEARLYLALECHELEAGUETEXTS.......................................................................................................150MaternalRhetoricinLLL’sRhetoricalEducation...................................................................156CollectiveRhetoricalActionandtheBuildingofaCounterpublic...................................176TheImpactofLLLOnDominantPracticesandSocialNormsSurroundingInfantFeedingandMotherhood..................................................................................................................184

ix

ChapterPageV.CONCLUSION:“WECAMEWANTINGTOLEARNTHEARTOFBREASTFEEDING.WEFOUNDAWAYOFLIFE.”.................................................................................................................189WORKSCITED.......................................................................................................................................................204APPENDIX:COPYRIGHTPERMISSION.......................................................................................................213VITA...........................................................................................................................................................................214

x

LISTOFTABLES

Table Page

1.TheWoman/Mothercontinuum.............................................................................................................122

xi

LISTOFFIGURES

Figure Page1.Gownsusedtorestrainwomenduringtwilightsleep.....................................................................712.Compactadvertisement..............................................................................................................................1163.TitlepagefromTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.........................................................................1244.Copyrightpermission...................................................................................................................................213

1

CHAPTERI

INTRODUCTION

Inthesummerof1956,MarianTompsonandMaryWhite,twoyoungmiddle-class

mothers,wereattendingaChristianFamilyMovementpicnicintheirlocalCatholicparish

inFranklinPark,Illinois.Theywereapproachedbyanumberofotheryoungmotherswho

admiredtheeasewithwhichthetwobreastfeedingmothersfedtheirinfantswithno

formulatomixorwatertoheat.Severalwomensharedthattheyhadtriedtobreastfeed

buthadfailed.ThompsonandWhitehadfirst-handknowledgeofthewayinwhichthe

socialandideologicalclimateofthemid-twentiethcenturycontributedtobreastfeeding

difficulties,andtheyalsounderstoodthevalueofsupportfrommotherswhohadbreastfed

successfully.Thompsonproposedthattheyorganizeabreastfeedingsupportgroupfor

friends,acquaintances,andchurchmemberswhowouldbenefitfromthesupportof

experiencednursingmothers.

InOctoberof1956,sevenmothers—MarianTompson,MaryWhite,MaryAnnCahill,

MaryAnnKerwin,EdwinaFroehlich,ViolaLennon,andBettyWagner—beganamother-to-

motherbreastfeedingsupportgroupinthelivingroomoffoundingmotherMaryWhite

(Lowman,Revolutionaries16).Thoughthegroup,latercalledLaLecheLeague(LLL),

startedasanintimategroupoflike-mindedmothersmeetinginadomesticspace,withina

decade,theorganizationbegantosignificantlyinfluencemedicaldiscourse,medical

practices,andsocietalattitudestowardsmothersandmotherhood.ThefoundingofLLL,at

atimewhenmostphysiciansprescribedformulafeedingandthebreastfeedingratehad

fallento20%(“ABriefHistory”),wasthefirstinaseriesofrhetoricalactionsthatLLLtook

2

thatchallengeddominantnotionsofmotherhoodandtransformedmedicaldiscourse

regardinginfantfeeding.

Thenecessityforsuchanorganizationelucidatesthede-emphasisonexperience-

basedmotheringandthewidespreadlossofunderstandingofthephysiologyof

breastfeedingamongstbothmothersandmedicalprofessionals.Priortothemid-

nineteenthcentury,physicianshadlittletodowithchildcare,andmedicalcarewasgiven

bymothersinthehome(Apple,“PerfectMotherhood”3).Theprofessionalizationof

medicine,comprisedchieflyofmalephysicians,wasincreasinglylucrativeasmedical

professionalstooktheresponsibilityfordecision-makingaboutchildcareandnutrition

awayfrommothers.Asaresult,beginninginthelatenineteenthcentury,therewasan

increasingpushformotherstomakedecisionsbaseduponthechildcareadviceofferedby

medicalexpertswhosedisciplinaryknowledgewasbaseduponscientificobservation.Over

time,thisfocusonevidence-basedcaremorphedintoaheavyrelianceonspecific

directivesofferedbyphysicians.Bytheearlytwentiethcentury,theideologyofscientific

motherhood,whichprivilegedknowledgearisingfromscientificobservationoverfirst-

handmaternalexperienceandpromotedadetachedapproachtomotheringbasedupon

scientificprinciples,positionedAmericanmothersassubservienttoanddependentupon

theadviceofpediatricandimmunologicalprofessionals.Infantfeedingwasincreasingly

viewedasamechanicalprocesswiththesolegoalofmeetingthenutritionalneedsof

children.Thiswasalucrativedevelopmentforartificialformulamanufacturersandthe

pediatricsprofession,asmotherswereexpectedtorelyheavilyonphysician-directed

feedingschedules.

3

Initsinfancy,thesmallgroupofyoungsuburbanmotherswhomadeupLLLmay

haveseemedanunlikelygrouptosuccessfullychallengetheoppressiveinstitutionof

scientificmotherhoodandpromptthemedicalprofessiontochangeitsviewsandpractices,

butwithinadecade,theorganizationhadaninternationalnetworkofmother-to-mother

supportgroupsandrecognizedbymedicalprofessionalsasanauthorityonbreastfeeding.

Whileanumberofscholarsofhistoryandsocialscienceshaveexploredthelong-term

impactsofLLL,therehasnotbeenanexplorationoftherhetoricalmeansemployedbyLLL.

ThisdissertationprojectaimstouncoverhowthefoundersofLLLtransformedthe

organizationfromalocalsupportgrouptoawidespreadcounterpublicmadeupofanarmy

ofbreastfeedingmotherswhoembracedanalternativeideologyofmotherhoodandwere

preparedtorhetoricallyforegroundtraditionalvaluesassociatedwithmotherhoodasthey

engagedwiththedominantpublic,challengedthestatusquo,andprompteda

transformationofthemedicalestablishment.

Scientificmotherhooddidnotrecognizethatthelivedexperienceofmotherhood

wasanongoingexchangeinarelationshipbetweenauniquemotherandchildpair,andit

didnotvaluethemother-childbond;rather,itreducedmotherhoodtoadherencetoa

prescribedsetofguidelinesformaternalbehaviorsandactions.Itframedchildcareasa

mechanical,emotionallydetachedprocess;motherswerediscouragedfromholdingbabies

toofrequentlybecauseitwoulddiscourageindependence.Becauseoftheirheavy

dependenceonexperts,womenoftenlackedtheknowledgeandconfidencetodealwiththe

diverseandrapidlychangingneedsofchildren,andtheywereunabletoconfidently

provideeachotherwithpeer-to-peersupport.

4

In1956,thefoundersofLaLecheLeague,youngsuburbanChicagoCatholicmothers

whobelievedinbreastfeeding’semotionalandnutritionalbenefits,aimedtosolvethe

problemoflackoflocalsupportforbreastfeedingmothers.ThefirstvolumeofLaLeche

LeagueNews,firstpublishedin1958,identifiedthepurposeofthefirstLLLmeetingand

subsequentmeetings:“tohelpthesemothers,notonlytolearnthetechniquesof

breastfeeding,butmoreimportant,tohelpthemenjoytheresultantclosecommunionwith

theirbabiesthru[sic]arealizationoftheimportanceofasatisfyingmother-child

relationship”(1).Thegoalwastosupportmotherswhowishedtohavethekindofclose

emotionalbondwiththeirbabiesthatbreastfeedingcouldfacilitate.AccordingtoLinda

Blum’sAttheBreast:IdeologiesofBreastfeedingandMotherhoodintheContemporary

UnitedStates,LLLhasalwaysemphasizedan“embodied,relationalviewofmotherhood”

thatoffersanalternativeto“themechanistic,cold,andfinally,disembodiedmotheroffered

bymedicalauthorityinthelatetwentiethcentury”(63).ForLLL,itwasimperativethat

mothers’instinctsandfirst-handknowledgebevalued,asmothersareonthefrontlinesof

childcareandbecausethewidespreadmisunderstandinganddenigrationofbreastfeeding

hadpotentiallylife-threateningconsequencesforchildren.

LLL’sfoundersfeltthatwithknowledgegainedfromexperience,motherscould

judgeandrespondtotheirbabies’needs.Intheirview,individualbabies’needsareunique,

andthoseneedsincludeaneedforaclose,physicalbondwiththeirmothers.Theybelieved

thatbreastfeedingwasnotonlytheidealformofnourishment,butithelpedtofacilitatea

wayofmotheringthatledtoastrongmother-childbond.Anearly,strongbondbetween

motherandchildwascriticaltothefoundersofLLLbecausetheybelievedthatitmade

parentingeasierandhelpedthemtoraisewell-adjusted,psychologicallyhealthychildren.

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Theyfeltthatanemotionalconnectionwiththeirbabieswasdifficulttoachievethrough

thedetachedpracticesofscientificmotherhood.Asanalternative,LLL’sfounders

developedaphilosophyofmotherhoodthatwascharacterizedbyabeliefinmaternal

instinct,positingthateachmotherhadaninnatesenseofhowtocareforandnurturea

childandrespondtohisorheruniqueneeds.Theypromotedthismodelofmotherhood

explicitlyandimplicitlythroughtheofferingofinformationandthemodelingofmother-

childrelationshipsintheirsupportgroupsandintheiroutreachmaterials.

Whilethegroupbeganmeetinginadomesticspace1956asawaytooffersupport

andinformationaboutbreastfeedinganditsroleinmotheringtowomenwithintheirsocial

circle,LLLexperiencedrapidgrowthwhenwordoftheorganizationspread.LLLhadto

holdadditionalmeetingstoaccommodatethewomenwhocametothemforaid.

Eventually,wordspreadoutsideofthelocalarea,andtheorganizationwasinundatedwith

phonecallsandlettersfromgeographicallydispersedwomen.Bylate1957,itwasclear

thatLLLwouldneedtofindawaytooffersupportandinformationtowomenfroma

distance.ByMayof1958,LLLhadassisted150motherslocally,hadprovidedtelephone

consultationtocountlessothers,andhadhostedpubliclecturesgivenbyhealth

professionals(LLLNews,1.1:1).In1958,LLLbegandevelopingoutreachmaterials,

includingLaLecheLeagueNews,andthebreastfeedingself-helpmanual,TheWomanlyArt

ofBreastfeeding,aswellasbuildinganetworkofmother-to-motherlocalsupportgroupsto

meettheneedsoftheirdistributedaudience.LLLcontinuedtogrow,anditofficially

becameaninternationalorganizationin1964.Bytheearly1980s,itwaspartneringwith

organizationssuchastheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)andtheUnitedNations

Children’sFund(UNICEF).LLLcontinuestopromotebreastfeedingglobally,withbranches

6

inapproximately68countries,anditcontinuestopublishinformationalmaterials.LLL’s

eightheditionofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,whichwasfirstpublishedin1958,

becameanationalbestsellerin2010.

Inthisdissertationproject,IframetheearlydevelopmentofLLL,from1956tothe

mid-1960s,astheemergenceandspreadofacounterpublic.AccordingtoJennifer

EmerlingBone,counterpublicsaregroupsofpeoplewhoworkto“exposeanalternate

understandingtoprivateorpublicissuesandpubliclyresistandreconstructthose

dominantunderstandings”(20).BynarrowingmyfocustoLLL’searlyhistory,Iaimto

showhowamarginalized,disempoweredgroupofindividualscanorganizeandemploy

rhetoricalstrategiestoformasuccessfulcounterpubliccapableofinspiringchangewithin

thedominantpublic.Ratherthandirectlychallengingthemedicalestablishment,LLL’s

foundersemployedtheirmarginalizedstatusasmothersasevidencethattheybrought

somethingnewandimportanttodiscoursearoundinfantfeeding.Thefoundingofthe

organizationpredatedthewomen’shealthmovementofthe1960s,whichtookamore

directapproachtochallengingtheoppressionofwomenbytheinstitutionofmedicine.In

contrast,IarguethatLLLtookamuchmoretemperedapproachtoengagingwithmedical

professionalsandpushingbackagainstthenotionthatmothers’first-handexperiences

werenotavaluablesourceofknowledgewhileforegroundingtraditionalconcepts

associatedwithmotherhood.Inforegroundingthematernal,LLLcraftedamaternal

rhetoricfortheorganizationthatauthorizeditsresistancetothedominantideologyand

drewalargeaudienceofmothers.LLL’smaternalrhetorichelpedittransformitsaudience

intoacounterpublicthatwouldchallengedominantinfantfeedingdiscourseandpractices

andinspirechangeinthemedicalprofession.

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Inordertoovercometheirmarginalizedpositionwithinsociety,LLL’sfoundersfirst

hadtoreclaimthedomesticspaceasasiteofmaternalauthority.Theenclaved,domestic

spaceofthemother-to-mothersupportgroupofferedasafesiteinwhichtodevelopand

practiceanalternativephilosophyofmotherhood.Thelocalmother-to-mothersupport

groupwassuccessfulinsupportinglocalmothers,butastheorganizationgainedattention,

LLLhadtosolvetheproblemofofferingsupporttogeographicallydispersedmothers.To

doso,itemployedmaternalrhetoric,appealingtotraditionalconceptsassociatedwith

motherhood,inordertoconvincemotherstoadoptandsuccessfullypracticeLLL’s

alternativeparadigmofmothering.InadditiontohelpingmothersadoptLLL’spracticesin

theirownhomes,LLLalsoneededtoofferrhetoricalstrategiestohelpnavigate

interactionswiththedominantpublic,particularlythemedicalprofession.Intheirtextual

outreach,LLLofferedmodelsandscriptsthatinstructedmotherstoforegroundtraditional

valuesandviewsofmotherhoodinordertojustifytheiractsofresistancetodominant

practices.

Incomingpages,Iwillreviewrelevantscholarshiponmotherhood,maternal

rhetoric,counterpublics,andgenderedspace;explainthetheoreticalframeworkguiding

myanalysisofLLL’srhetoricalpracticesanditsdevelopmentasacounterpublic;briefly

reviewtheorganization’sdevelopment;definekeytermsthatwillbeemployedthroughout

thedissertation;andpreviewthecontentoftheremainingchapters.

FRAMINGLLLRHETORICALLY

Inthischapterandthroughoutthedissertationproject,Iarguethattheactof

translatingtheorganization’sassertionsaboutmotheringandbreastfeeding,aswellasthe

8

supportivepracticesoftheirmother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetings,intowritingfora

geographicallydispersedaudiencemarkedtheemergenceofLLLastheleaderofanew

counterpublicthatresistedmainstreammedicaldiscourseregardinginfantfeedingand

childcare.“Counterpublic”isakeytermthatIemployinthisdissertationtocharacterize

thenatureofLLLanditsnetworkofbreastfeedingmothers.Asacounterpublic,the

networkofmotherswhomadeupLLLandembraceditsphilosophyandpractices

developedanalternativeunderstandingofmotherhoodandalternativediscourseon

breastfeedingthateventuallyreshapedthedominantpublic’sviewsontheseissues.

Theorganization’searlydevelopmentinthedomesticspaceofthemother-to-

mothersupportgroupallowedittodevelopasadiscoursecommunityseparatefromthe

discoursesofmedicineandnaturalchildbirth.Theorganization’sideaspercolatedina

privatespaceasmotherssharedtheirexperiences.Thismutualsharingofexperiences

revealedwhatkindofsupportwouldbemostbeneficialtowomenwhoaimedtoresist

mainstreampracticesandsocialpressures.Themother-to-mothersupportgroupbecamea

criticalbuildingblockofitscounterpublicthatNancyFraserdefinesasa“parallel

discursivearena,”orthelocationinwhich“membersofsubordinatedsocialgroupsinvent

andcirculatecounterdiscourses,whichinturnpermitthemtoformulateoppositional

interpretationsoftheiridentities,interests,andneeds”(Fraser67).In1958,thetranslation

ofLLL’sworkintowritinginTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingand“LaLecheLeague

News”markedthebeginningofthecirculationofLLL’scounterdiscourseamongsta

broadersegmentofsociety,whichwouldeventuallyreshapedominantdiscoursesoninfant

feedingandmothering.InexaminingthedevelopmentandcirculationofLLL’srhetoricof

breastfeedingsupport,Ihopetoshedlightontherhetoricalstrategiesthatmarginalized

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groupscanemployinordertodevelopcounterpublicsthatleadtotherevisionofpowerful

institutionaldiscourses.Inparticular,IutilizeLindalBuchanan’sconceptof“maternal

rhetoric,”akeytermIemployinthisdissertationtodescribethewayinwhichLLL

leveragedtraditionalconceptsassociatedwithmotherhoodtoauthorizeresistanceto

dominantpracticesandideologieswhileframingthemselvesasgoodmothers.Thus,this

dissertationisanefforttocontributetoscholarshipattemptingtounderstandhowthe

construction,circulation,andimpactofmotherhoodenablesrhetorstoresist“dominant

systemsofgender,knowledge,andpower”(Buchanan124).

BytracingthetrajectoryofLLL’scontributiontodiscourseonmotherhoodand

infantfeeding,fromtheexigencethatledtotheorganization’sfoundingtotheimpactthat

LLLhadonprofessionalmedicaldiscourse,thisdissertationprojectservesasacasestudy

thatilluminatesthelifecycleofacounterpublicfromthetimethatthediscursive

communitydevelopsandthediscoursebeginstoemerge,tothetimethatthe

counterdiscoursebeginstobeadoptedintothemainstreamdiscourse.IapplyManuel

Castells’theoryoftheinteractionbetweenhorizontalandverticalnetworksinorderto

visualizehowLLL’scounterdiscoursetransformeddominantpracticesofinfantfeedingand

motherhood.Horizontalnetworksarecharacterizedbyahorizontalfloworsharingof

informationbetweenpeers,andverticalsocialnetworksarecharacterizedbyatop-down

flowofinformationfromanauthoritytoendusers.InRiseoftheNetworkSociety,Castells

positsthatashorizontal,peer-to-peernetworks,likethemother-to-mothernetwork

createdbyLLL,increasinglyinteractwithvertical,orauthoritativetop-downnetworks,

suchasprofessionalmedicaldiscourse,theverticalnetworkistransformedbythenew

informationintroducedbythehorizontalnetwork.TotracethetrajectoryofLLL’s

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counterpublicanditsimpactonmainstreammedicaldiscourse,thisdissertationwill

examinethehistoricalcontextandexigencethatledtothefoundingofLLL,the

developmentofLLL’sbeliefsandassertionsaboutmotherhoodandinfantfeeding,the

foundingoftheorganizationandLLL’slocalmother-to-mothersupportgroup,the

translationoftheworkofthemother-to-mothersupportgroupintowritingforadispersed

audienceofmothers,therhetoricalforegroundingofmotherhoodandthematernalinLLL’s

activitiesandtextualoutreach,theinteractionsbetweenLLLandmedicalauthorities,and

theimpactofthoseinteractionsonprofessionalmedicaldiscourse.

LLL’srhetoricalforegroundingofmotherhoodandthematernalwasthekeytoits

growthanddevelopmentintoalarge,horizontalnetworkoflike-mindedmothers.LLL

focusedonanaudienceofmothersandpromotedmaternalexperienceasawayof

knowing.Inthisdissertationproject,Itracethewayinwhichtheorganizationemployed

maternalrhetoricsbyforegroundingmothersandtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodintheir

organizationalstructure.ThefoundersofLLLleveragedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodto

inspiretheiraudiencetotrustandidentifywiththem,andtheyusedthecodetoframe

first-handmaternalexperienceasasourceofknowledge.

IrelyonLindalBuchanan’sRhetoricsofMotherhoodtounderstandtheaffordances

offeredthroughtherhetoricalforegroundingofmotherhood.Buchananexplainsthat

maternalrhetoricsareapowerfulresourcethatimbueswomenrhetorswithauthorityand

credibility,enablingthemtoresistandreshapesocialinstitutionsandgenderedcultural

codes.Maternalrhetoricsleveragethepositionofmothersinsocietytoargueforthe

authoritytospeakonissuesbyforegroundingtheculturalcodeof“mother,”which

“connotesamyriadofpositiveassociations,includingchildren,love,protection,

11

nourishment,altruism,morality,religion,self-sacrifice,strength,thereproductivebody,the

privatesphere,andthenation”(Buchanan9).Byinvokingtheseconceptspositively

associatedwithmothers,LLL’sfoundersconvincedtheiraudiencetotrustthem;however,

inforegroundingthematernalintheirrhetoricalefforts,theyreinforcedthegendered

statusquo,undergirdinggenderedstereotypesthatoftenlimitwomen’sstandinginthe

publicsphere.AsBuchananexplains,maternalrhetoricsareparadoxical,as“boththeir

forceandperilderivefromentrenchmentwithindominantsystemsofgender,knowledge,

andpower”(Buchanan5).Inemphasizingtraditionalvaluesassociatedwiththematernal,

LLLworkedtosubvertthestatusquopracticesofscientificmotherhoodandpromoteits

agendafromwithinthegenderedsystem;however,becauseitforegroundedmotherhood,

LLLriskedhavingitsaccomplishmentsinactivismandrhetoricmaskedbythegroup’s

maternalidentityandalignmentwithtraditionalvalues.Whileforegroundingmotherhood

canofferrhetorsapowerfultooltoassistthemastheyadvocateforchange,italso“hasthe

potentialtodiminishwomen’scomplexity,dimensions,andopportunities”(Buchanan23).

ThisiscertainlythecasewiththematernalrhetoricofLLL.

IarguethatLLL’sfoundingmothersadoptedavarietyofrhetoricalstrategiesthat

foregroundedmothersandestablishedfirst-handmaternalexperienceasasourceof

authority:theycraftedastrongmaternalethosfortheorganization;theyemployedlogical

andpatheticappeals;theychoseothermothersastheirprimaryaudience;theyaddressed

thosemothersasequalswithwhomtheycouldmutuallyshareinformationbasedon

experience;theypreferreddomesticspacesastheappropriatesettingforLLL’smother-to-

mothersupport-group,evenwhentheyhadotheroptions;theyofferedarhetorical

educationtoassisttheiraudienceofmothersinnavigatinginteractionswiththedominant

12

public;theydevelopedpartnershipswithphysicianswhosupportedtheirefforts;they

framedmotheringasanaturalactivitythatbenefittedmorefromfirst-handexperience

thantheinterventionofmedicalprofessionals;theyinvokedtheimageryofBiblical

mothers,suchasEveandtheMadonna,toimbuetheirmessagewiththeauthorityof

natureandreligion;andtheyreliedonvisualimagesofmotherstoestablishrelationships

withtheirdispersedaudience,underscorematernalauthority,andtomakepowerful

argumentsaboutthenatureofthemother-childrelationship.Byemployingmaternal

rhetoric,LLLwasabletoempowermotherstomakemoreinformedandauthoritative

decisionsaboutinfantcare,todevelopacounterpublicthatsuccessfullychallengedthe

dominantideologyofscientificmotherhood,andtoreshapethemedicalcommunity’s

attitudetowardbreastfeeding;thus,itplayedaroleintherevisionofdominantmedical

discourse.

MyunderstandingofLLL’smaternalrhetorichasbeeninformedbyprevious

scholarshipontherhetoricofmotherhood,medicine,andthematernalbody.Some

rhetoricianshavealreadyturnedtheirattentiontoreconstructingrhetoricalhistoriesin

someoftheseareas.ScholarssuchasSusanWells,SarahHallenbeck,andCarolynSkinner

eachstudiedthevariousrhetoricalstrategiesemployedbypostbellumwomenphysicians

andlaypersonactivistswhosuccessfullyenteredintoorshapedmedicaldiscourseby

challengingspatialsegregation,writingforpopularaudiences,andpromotingtheir

femininityanddomesticexperienceasanasset.CarolynSkinner’sWomenPhysiciansand

ProfessionalEthosinNineteenth-CenturyAmericaexplorestherhetoricalstrategiesthat

womenphysiciansusedtogainentranceandacceptanceintheprofessionalpracticeof

medicineinthenineteenthcentury.JudySegal’sHealthandtheRhetoricofMedicine

13

exploresthehistoryofdevelopmentsinmedicalrhetoric,particularlyasitpertainstothe

relationshipandbalanceofpowerinphysician/patientrelations.AmyKoerber’sBreastor

Bottle?:ContemporaryControversiesinInfantFeedingPolicyandPracticetracesthe

developmentofknowledgeofinfantfeedingwithinseveralsub-disciplinesofmedicineas

wellashowthatknowledgewasframedanddisseminatedinefforttoeducate

breastfeedingmothers.SusanWell’sOurBodies,OurselvesandtheWorkofWritingprovides

someinsightintothewayinwhichrhetoricsofthemedicalprofessionconstructed

knowledgeofwomen’shealthcareissuesandthewayinwhichthewomenoftheBoston

Women’sHealthBookCollectivechallengedthemedicalprofessionbyadaptingmedical

genresandlanguageinefforttocraftalayperson’sself-helptext.InTheRhetoricof

Pregnancy,MarikaSeigelexaminestherhetoricofpregnancymanualsineffortto

understandwhatroletheyplayinshapingwomen’sunderstandingsoftheirbodiesand

theirrolesinsocietyaswellastheirexperienceswithpregnancyandbirth.Thesetexts

haveinformedandinfluencedmyownthinkingabouttherhetoricityofmotherhood,

medicine,andthematernalbody,andIhopethatthisprojectwillcontributetothat

conversationinproductiveways.

PublisheddocumentsandarchivalmaterialsfromtheLaLecheLeagueInternational

RecordsatDePaulUniversityinChicagoweretheprimaryobjectsofstudyforthis

dissertation.Thetextualartifactsexaminedinthedissertationincludehighlyvisible

documents,suchasbreastfeedingmanuals,newsletters,journals,andorganizational

histories,aswellastheorganization’smundaneinternaldocuments,includingmeeting

minutesandcorrespondencewithmothersandwithphysicians.Thevalueofstudying

mundane,internaldocumentshasbeenexploredbyNathanielA.RiversandRyanP.Weber

14

in“Ecological,Pedagogical,PublicRhetorics”andbySuzanneBordelonin“MutedRhetors

andtheMundane”.RiversandWeberclaimthatsupporting,mundanedocumentsare

necessarytothedevelopmentofpublicadvocacyandpublicaction(187-188).They

suggestthatratherthanfocusingsolelyonvisiblerhetoric,whenstudyingrhetorical

advocacy,rhetoricalscholarsmust“seepublicadvocacyastheinteractionofseveraltexts”

(RiversandWeber187).“Meetingsandmeetingminutes,”claimRiversandWeber,“areas

influentialastheactionstheyspawn”(197).SuzanneBordelonbuildsonRiversand

Weber’sworkbyusingtheirmethodofexaminingmundane,internaltextstouncoverhow

marginalizedandmutedrhetorsworktochangethestatusquothroughsmall,consistent

efforts(332).Bordelonarguesthatforrhetorswhoarefrequentlyconstrainedwithina

marginalizedposition,amutedmethodmaybemoreeffectivethanahighlyvisible

approachtoactivism(349).InstudyingboththepublictextsofLLLandthemundanetext

thatLLLproduced,Iaimtogainabetterunderstandingoftherhetoricalactionsand

strategiesthatLLLemployedasitdevelopedandcirculateditscounterdiscourse.Ifocus

primarilyontheexaminingarchivaldocumentsandpublicationsfromthefoundingin1956

throughthemid-1960s,asthiswasaperiodofrapidgrowthforLLL,andanexaminationof

discourseoninfantfeedingduringthistimerevealsagrowingrelianceonLLL’sexpertise

bymedicalprofessionals.InadditiontostudyingtextsproducedbyLLL,Isurveyother

publications,suchasmedicaljournals,totracethewayinwhichtheintersectionofLLL’s

counterdiscourse,throughthemothersinvolvedinLLL’snetwork,andthemedical

professionbegantoreshapemedicaldiscourse,andIrelyonsecondaryscholarshipto

contextualizeandsituatemyanalysisofprimarymaterialswithintheareasmotherhood,

infantfeedinghistory,andtheemergenceofsecond-wavefeminism.

15

EXAMININGLLLTHROUGHAFEMINISTLENS

LaLecheLeaguehasahistoryofreceivingbothpraiseandblamefromfeminist

scholars.Inseveraltextsonmotherhood,medicalhistorianRimaD.ApplehascreditedLLL

withchallengingandrenegotiatingtheauthoritarianroleofthemedicalcommunityover

childcareandshiftingtrendsininfantfeeding.Otherfeministscholarshavecontextualized

theorganizationsociallyandhistoricallyandpraisedthewayinwhichLLLempowered

mothersandvalidatedmaternalexperiencewhilepointingoutthewayinwhichLLL’s

mother-centeredmissionservedtoconstrainwomenwithintraditionalgenderroles.

ThoughthesescholarsfoundvalueinLLLdespitethewayinwhichitconstrainedmothers,

stillotherfeministscholarshaveregardedLLLasaninsidious,anti-feminist,conservative

organizationthatreducedwomentotheirbiologyanddiscouragedmothersfromactive

participationinthepublicsphere.

ThiscriticismofLLLisnotwithoutmerit.LLL’sphilosophyofmotherhoodandits

maternalrhetoricarebaseduponclass-basedassumptionsaboutthenatureofmothers

andmothering.Inher2001article,“BoundedLiberation:AFocusedStudyofLaLeche

LeagueInternational,”ChristinaBobelarguesthat“AnydiscussionofLLLIwouldbe

inadequatewithoutaddressingtheclassdimensionsembeddedinLeagueideologyand

practiceandhowtheandclass-basedunderstandingsofgoodmotheringprofferedbythe

Leaguemayimpairtheorganization'sabilitytoappealtoamorediversepopulationof

mothers”(146).Sinceitsfounding,membershipoftheorganizationhasbeenlargelymade

upofwhite,middle-class,marriedwomen.AsBobelpointsout,theleagueleadershiphas

oftenexplaineditslackofdiversitybycitingstatisticsshowingthatwomeninitsprimary

demographicaremorelikelytobreastfeedthanothers(146).Theorganization’sleaders

16

seemedtolackawarenessthatitsownideologyandconstructionofmotherhoodalienated

manywomen.

ScholarssuchasBobelandBerniceHausmanhaveexploredthewayinwhichLLL’s

viewofmotherhoodandgoodmotheringservedtomarginalizeandalienatewomenwho

didnotfititsprimarydemographic.Workingwomen,womenofcolor,single-mothers,

lesbianmothers,feministmothers,andbottle-feedingmothersaremarginalizedbyLLL’s

viewof“goodmothering”whichframesagoodmotherasastay-at-homebreastfeeding

motherwhoepitomizestraditionalnotionsoffemininityandismarriedtoamasculine

breadwinnerwhoprovidesforandprotectsthefamily.Byimplication,womenwhodonot

fitLLL’sconstructionof“goodmothers”cannotbegoodmothers.AsBobelnotes,“Single

mothers,womenreceiving(nowdwindling)federalaid,andothersnotfitthemoldofthe

LLLImothermaywellfindtheorganization'smessageadissonantchord”(146).Forthese

women,theorganization’sexpectationsforgoodmaternalbehaviorwereprohibitiveand

unrealistic.

FeministscholarshiphaslargelyfocusedonthewayinwhichLaLecheLeague

Internationalhasservedtomarginalizewomenevenwhileattemptingtoempowerthem

withinformationandsupport.ScholarssuchasBobelandHausmanhaveexploredthis

aspectoftheorganization’ideologyandexamineditsimpacts,buttherehasnotbeena

closeexaminationoftherhetoricalstrategiesthatLLLemployedearlyinitshistory.

Therefore,whileIacknowledgethewayinwhichwomenhavebeenmarginalizedandby

LLL’spracticesandideologythroughouttheorganization’shistory,thatgroundhasbeen

coveredelsewhere.Myfocusinthisdissertationisexplainingtherhetoricalstrategiesthat

LLLemployedthatempoweredmotherstoresistdominanttrendstoembracean

17

alternativemotheringpracticeandledtoatransformationofmedicalpracticesand

ideologyaroundbreastfeeding.Intheremainderofthissection,Iwillreviewthefeminist

viewsoftheparadoxicalnatureofLLLandexplainhowLLL’smaternalrhetoriccanbe

viewedthroughthelensoffeministrhetoricalscholarship.

TheparadoxicalnatureofLLLisevidentinthevarietyofdescriptiveterms—

empowering,liberatory,traditionalist,maternalist,fanatical,cultish,andanti-woman—that

feministscholarshaveusedtocharacterizetheorganization.Inthisdissertation,Iargue

thattheparadoxicalnatureofLLLcanbeunderstoodasaninevitableresultofthe

organization’semploymentofmaternalrhetoric.Therhetoricaltoposofmotherhood,

Buchananexplains,“producesrichrhetoricalresourcescapableofadvancingwomenand

theircivicagendawhilesimultaneouslyreinforcinglimitingstereotypesandinequitable

genderrelations”(14).ForLLL,maternalrhetoricwasindeedapowerfulresourcethat

enabledmotherstopushbackagainstdominantpracticesofinfantfeedingandmothering

whilepresentingitsmembersasgoodmothers.Byforegroundingtraditionalconcepts

associatedwithmotherhoodasjustificationfortheirdecisionstobreastfeedandmother

differently,motherswereabletocushiontheiractivismsothatitwasmoreeasilyaccepted

bythemainstreamsocietyofthemid-twentiethcentury.Becausetheorganization

tempereditsactivismbyemployingvaluesandconceptstraditionallyassociatedwith

motherhoodtomakeitsarguments,LLLwasabletoestablishacounterpublicthatwould

subtlyadvancethecauseofempoweringmotherstohavesomecontrolandautonomyover

theirmaternalexperiences;yet,itsemploymentofmaternalrhetoricputtheorganization

atoddswithsecond-wavefeminists.

18

Thisdissertationprojectbuildsupontheworkofanumberofscholarsofhistory,

socialsciences,andEnglishstudieswhohavenotedthewayinwhichLLL’smessaging

simultaneouslyempoweredandconstrainedwomen.ScholarssuchasBerniceHausman,

LynnWeiner,LindaBlum,andChristinaBobelunderstandLLLasamaternalist

organizationthat,whileitoperatedwithintheboundariesoftraditionalsocialformations,

wascapableofquiteradicaleffectsduetothe“individualempowermentthatpolitical

organizingcanfacilitate”(Hausman158).Weinerexplainsthat,“Likematernalist

ideologiesofpastcenturies,LaLecheLeaguemotherhoodgavepublicpurposetothe

privateactivitiesofdomesticlife;likeadvocatesofthosepastideologies,too,theleague

urgedthatwomensubsumetheirindividualismforthegreatergoodofthefamilyand

society”(1359).Theresult,claimsWeiner,isthatLLL“simultaneouslypromotedwomen's

autonomyandrestrictedwomen'sroles”(1359).SociologistChristinaBobelviewsthis

paradoxicalnatureofLLLas“boundedliberation”thatvalidatesmotherhoodand

encourageswomentoreclaimtheirmaternalbodies,yetrestrictsmothersfrominteracting

inthepublicsphereandframesgoodmotheringassacrificeofone’sownneedsand

desires.Iagreewiththenotionthat,likeothermaternalists,LLLempoweredmaternal

voicesbyarguingthattheinfluenceofmothersisanassettosocietyastheirinfluence

improvesthehealthandmoralqualityofsocietywhilealsoconstrainingmotherswithin

theirmaternalroles.Ontheotherhand,IdisagreewiththeideathatLLLstrippedwomen

oftheirindividualism.Instead,Iarguethatincontrastwiththestrictideologyofscientific

motherhood,LLLallowedmothersagreaterdegreeofautonomyandauthorityovertheir

maternalexperiences.Additionally,IpushbackagainstthenotionthatLLL’sparadigmof

motheringrequiredsacrificeofone’sownneedsanddesires,astheorganizationresisted

19

the1950semphasisonmaternaldomesticity,whichframedmotherhoodassacrifice,and

insteadattemptedtogivemothersthespaceandauthoritytopracticeaversionof

motherhoodthattheyfoundmorepersonallyfulfilling.Imaketheseclaimswithone

caveat:thatthemotherswhofeltmostempoweredbyLLL’sphilosophyandfoundLLL’s

approachtomotherhoodfreeingandfulfillingweremotherswhofittheLLLmoldofwhite,

middle-class,housewife;werealreadyinclinedtobreastfeed;wantedaclosemother-child

bond;andwhodesiredmoreautonomyoverdecisionsregardingchild-care.

Anotherfactorthatcontributedtotheparadoxicalnatureoftheorganizationwasits

philosophyofnaturalmotherhood,whichLLLdevelopedasanalternativetothestrict

ideologyofscientificmotherhood.LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,akeyterm

thatIemploythroughoutthedissertation,encouragedbreastfeedingasameansto

developaclosephysicalbondbetweenmothersandtheirchildren,anditencouraged

motherstoviewthemselvesasthenaturalexpertsonthecareandfeedingoftheirown

children.Whilethiswasliberatoryformotherswhofeltoppressedbytheideologyof

scientificmotherhood,manyfeministscholarshavebeentroubledbythebiological

essentialisminherentinLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodanditssupportof

gendereddivisionsoflabor.Itisevidentthatforsecond-wavefeminists,LLLmade

problematicassertionsaboutthetiebetweenbiologyandthematernalrole.These

assertionsincludetheclaimthatthemother-childbondisstrongestwhenthebabyfeeds

atthebreast,thatwomenhavematernalyearningsthatgounfulfilledinthekindof

detachedmother-childrelationshipthatscientificmotherhoodpromoted,andthatwomen

haveabiologicallyguidedmaternalinstinctthatissharpenedbyclosephysicalcontact

withthebaby.Becauseoftheemphasisonthephysicalrelationshipbetweenmotherand

20

child,LLLencouragedwomentoavoidinvolvementsinthepublicspherethatseparated

babiesfromtheirmothers.Thereactionbysomefeminists,asBerniceHausmanexplains

in“WomanlyArts,”thefifthchapterofMother’sMilk:BreastfeedingControversiesin

AmericanCulture,hasbeentolabelLLLasbackwardandnostalgic,an“antifeminist,

traditionalistcult,”and“anorganizationthatmandatesspecificbehaviorsandideas”

(Hausman160).Somehavevieweditaspotentiallydamagingtoamother’ssenseofself

(Hausman160),andothersclaimthatthefocusongoodmotheringthroughbreastfeeding

castsmotherswhodonotadheretoLLL’smodelofmotherhoodasbadmothers(Hausman

162).

Whilesomesecond-wavefeministsviewedLLLasaproblematicorganizationthat

limitedwomen’soptionsandreducedthemtotheirbiology,LLLvieweditselfasatruly

woman-centeredmovementthatdidnotignorewomen’sbiologybutinsteadcelebrated

women’suniquecapacitytonurture.ThisviewofthedifferencesbetweenLLLandthe

women’smovementwashighlightedina1981reprintofanearlyLLLtext:

LLL’sstrengthwasthatitwastrulyawoman’smovementgroundedontherealities

ofnatureandresponsivetonature’svestedandunimpeachablegoal;namely,that

woman,thenurturant,beherwomanlyself(andman,hismanlyself).Inthissense,

itwasdistinguishedfromthewomen’smovement,amovementitisboundto

outlast,sincenatureisonitsside.(“LLLDialogue”198)

ThispassageshowsclearlythatLLLbelievedthewoman’smovementhadunnecessarily

placedwomeninconflictwiththerealitiesoftheirmaternalbodies,andthatasaresult,the

women’smovementwasnotsustainableasawoman-centeredmovement.LLLsuggested

thatthegoalsofthewomen’smovement,whichadvocatedforbodilyautonomyandequal

21

treatmentunderthelawandintheworkplace,wereunnaturalbecausetheydidnotfully

accountforwomen’sexperienceswithmotherhoodandweregroundedontheargument

thatwomenandmenaresimilarandhavethesamecapabilities.LLLcelebratedgendered

differencesandarguedthatwomencouldwouldfindmorefulfillmentandhappinessin

embracingfemininebiologyratherthantryingtoescapetherealitiesoftheirbiological.

Certainly,suchsentimentsputLLLatoddswiththeidealsofsecond-wavefeminist

thinkers.

Inthisdissertation,IarguethatLLL’semploymentofmaternalrhetoricalloweditto

achievefeministaimsofempoweringwomentoexercisemoreautonomyovertheir

maternalexperiences.LLL’smaternalrhetoricprovidedaconservativecamouflagefor

progressiveactivitiessuchasbreastfeeding,developingaclosemother-childbond,andthe

subversivereclaimingofthehomeasamaternalspaceinwhichmotherswerefreetoreject

thedominantpracticesofscientificmotherhood.MostoftheexistingscholarshiponLLL,

whichgenerallytakesalong-viewofitshistorywithafocusrecenthistoryformthe1980s

onward,exploresitsproblematicandparadoxicalnature.Iaimtoshowthatthis

paradoxicalnatureoftheorganizationwaspartiallyaresultofitsconservativeapproachto

advocatingforwomen’sempowerment.AsCarolMattinglypointsoutinWellTempered

Women:Nineteenth-CenturyTemperanceRhetoric,feministrhetoricalscholarshiphas

frequentlyoverlookedtherhetoricalcontributionsofwomenandwomen’sorganizations

whodonotadoptadirectandaggressiveapproachtoforwardingthecauseofwomen(21-

22).LLLsucceededinchangingthemedicalprofessioninlargepartbecauseitadvocated

forwomeninasubtlewaybyhelpingitscounterpublicofbreastfeedingmothersemploy

22

maternalrhetoricanddevelopmaternalspacethatallowedthemtoresistdominanttrends

inmedicineandadvocateforthemselves.

Inthisdissertationproject,Ihopetocontributetothescholarshipexploringtheway

thatconservativewomen’svoices,suchasthoseofnineteenth-centuryMethodistwomen

(Shaver;TolarCollins),U.S.women’sclubs(RugglesGere),andtheWomen’sChristian

TemperanceUnion(Mattingly)canempowerwomenandeffectivelypromotewomen’s

causeswhenamoreaggressiverhetoricalactivismlikelywouldhavefailed.AsMattingly

claims,thestudyofconservativewomen’sgroupssuchastheWomenChristian

TemperanceUnion(WCTU)canhelpusunderstandthecomplexrhetoricalchoicesthat

womenmake(38).TheWCTUused“asubtle,non-threatening,persuasiveapproach”

(Mattingly21),yet,theywerehighlysuccessfulinadvancingissuesthatimpactedthelives

ofwomenbyharnessingthesociallyprescribedrolesofwomentoasserttheirauthority

(Mattingly40).In“SteppingOutsidetheLadies’Department:Women’sExpanding

RhetoricalBoundaries,”LisaShaverexplainsthatMethodistwomentookasimilar

approachbyundertakingactivismandadvocacyundertheguiseofbenevolentworkwhich

theycharacterizedasan“extensionofwomen’sdomesticandmaternalroles”(63),and

whentheysteppedoutsideoftheirdomesticrolestoengageinpublicadvocacy,they

alignedtheireffortswithscriptureandChristianduty,whichjustifiedtheirmovementinto

areasandissuesthatmightotherwisebedeemedinappropriateforthem(Shaver,

“SteppingOutside”65).Inasimilarway,LLLrhetoricallyharnessedideasandvalues

associatedwithmotherhood,suchaslove,domesticity,nurturance,andself-sacrifice,to

asserttheirauthority.IarguethatitwastheparadoxicalnatureofLLL,whichempowered

mothersbysharingitsessentialistphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandemploying

23

maternalrhetoric,thatcontributedtoLLL’swidespreadsuccess.Byrhetoricallygrounding

theworkofLLLintraditionalviewsofgenderroles,LLL’sfoundersmadeasophisticated

rhetoricalmovethatappealedtoabroadaudiencedespiteitstransformativemessageand

impact.

LLL’SNATURALMOTHERHOOD

LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,whichfeministsfoundhighlyproblematic

duetoitsinherentbiologicalessentialism,wascentraltoLLL’sformulationofmothering

andwasfoundationaltoitsrhetoric,thusitisakeytermthatIusethroughoutthe

dissertation.ThefoundationalassumptionofLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodwas

thatnaturehasprovidedmotherseverythingthattheyneedtoeffectivelygaugeandattend

totheroutinephysicalandpsychologicalneedsofaninfant.LLLarguedthatthematernal

bodyiscapableofmeetingbabies’nutritionalneedsthroughbreastfeedingandtheactof

breastfeedingaidsinthedevelopmentofastrongmother-childbond.LLLbelievedthatthis

strongbondmetbabies’psychologicalneedswhilealsohelpingmothershoneanddevelop

confidenceintheirmaternalinstincts.Whenmothersexperiencethedevelopmentofa

strongphysicalandemotionalbondwiththeirbabies,theirmaternal,first-hand

experiencesprovidethemwithadeep,instinctualunderstandingoftheirbabies’needsand

desires.Thus,first-hand,maternalexperiencewithmotheringmakesmotherstheprimary

authorityonthecareandfeedingoftheirbabies.MaternalexperienceisakeytermthatI

useinthisdissertationasitservedasafoundationuponwhichLLLconstructedan

authoritativematernalethosforLLLanditscounterpublicofbreastfeedingmothers,andit

helpedLLLcarveoutspacetodiscussinfantfeedingwithauthority.

24

LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodstoodinstarkcontrasttothedominant

ideologyofscientificmotherhood.Scientificmotherhoodframedmothersaspassive,

obedientlearnerswhileitframedphysiciansasknowledgeableauthoritiesandeducators.

Bythe1920s,mothersofallclasseshadbeguntorelymoreheavilyonexpertadvicerather

thanadvicebaseduponthefirst-handexperienceofthosewithintheirsocialnetworks.

Increasingly,theguidelinesforthecareandfeedingofchildrenwerebasedonknowledge

gainedthroughscientificobservationinaclinicalsetting.Theadviceofscientificand

medicalprofessionals“replacedtraditionalsocialnetworks,”andtheresultswasthat“good

mothering,modernmothering,meantfollowingthedirectionsofyourhealthcare

provider”(Apple,PerfectMotherhood106).AccordingtoWendySimonds,thedenigration

oflaywisdomandemotionalityinfavorofarelianceontheauthorityandcontrolofthe

medicalprofessionexacerbatedfeelingsoffearandself-doubtamongpregnantwomenand

youngmothers(125).Theresultisthatyoungmotherswereplacedinanuntenable

situation:“theywereresponsiblefortheirfamiliesandincapableofthatresponsibility”

(Apple,“ConstructingMothers”91).Theweightofthisresponsibilitylikelypromptedmany

motherstoadheretothestrictguidelinesofphysiciansoutofdesperation.

Bythemid-twentiethcentury,medicalprofessionalsroutinelyprescribedbottle-

feedingwithartificialformula.Thisapproachtoinfantfeedingwaslargelyaresultofthe

wayinwhichthemedicalprofessionhaddirecteditsstudiesintoinfantfeeding.Early

twentieth-centurymedicalresearcherswhostudiedinfantfeedingfocusedprimarilyon

understandinghowtoreplicatethenutritionalcontentofhumanbreastmilkinmass-

producedinfantformulas.Thisdisembodiedapproachreflectedthenatureofthepediatrics

discipline,whichwas“builtfromtraditionsthatrelegatedbreasts,lactation,normal

25

birthing,andwell-baby-caretowomen(nursesormidwives)”(Blum,AttheBreast29).Due

toapoorunderstandingoflactation,particularlyofthecaloricandimmunologicalvalueof

colostrumproducedinthefirstfewdaysofnursingandthesupply-and-demandnatureof

lactation,manyphysiciansrecommendedthatallmotherssupplementbreastfeedingwith

formulafeeding(Apple,MothersandMedicine1386).Thus,physicianswhohadlittle

knowledgeofthemechanicsoflactationunderminedmothers’attemptstobreastfeed

successfullybyrecommendingroutineformulasupplementation.

Whilephysicians’lackofknowledgeofteninterferedwithmothers’attemptsto

breastfeed,itcouldalsoleadtotragicconsequences.Ahandwrittennote,postmarked1965

fromAllieneParkerofPennsylvaniaandaddressedtoJudyTorgus,amemberofLLL’s

executiveboard,revealsthetruepotentialcostofthemedicalprofession’signoranceofthe

normalphysiologicalprocessandeffectsofbreastfeeding:

MyDearJudy-

Ababyisdead-because“oneofthefinestpediatriciansinthe

country”thoughtanormalbreast-milkstoolwasdiarrhea-notonce-

threetimes.

TinyDeanneSullivanisdead.

Iwillwriteyouwhentheresultsoftheautopsyarecomplete-and13

weeksoffactsaresiftedover-andIamnotquitesotornup-

26

Alliene

13July(Parker)

ThisnotenowresidesintheLaLecheLeagueInternationalarchivesatDePaulUniversity,

anditisaccompaniedbyahandwrittennoteonJudyTorgus’LLLletterheadidentifyingit

asa“PoignantnotethatshowswhyLLLwassoneeded”(Parker).AsthecaseofDeanne

Sullivanreveals,physicianswerefrequentlyunfamiliarwiththephysiologyofthe

breastfeedingbaby.Inthiscase,thephysicianwasunfamiliarwiththedifferencesbetween

thestoolofabreastfedinfantandthatofaninfantwhohasbeenfedformula.Hisignorance

likelyledhimtomakeunnecessarychangesinthebaby’scare,suchasanunnecessary

switchtoartificialformula.Formulafeedingisnotwithoutrisks,includingtheriskofan

allergicreactiontotheformula’scontentsorinfectioncausedbybacterialcontamination.

LLL’sfounderswereawareoftherisks,andthisnoteoffersastarkreminderofthe

rhetoricalexigencetowhichLLLwasresponding.Thedangerouslackofknowledgeonthe

partofphysiciansleftalacunathatneededtobefilled.

LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodanditspromotionofthatphilosophyinthe

mother-to-mothersupportgroupwasaresponsetotheproblemsposedbytheintersection

ofthemedicalprofession’spotentiallydangerouslackofknowledgeofbreastfeedingand

thedominantideologyofscientificmotherhood,whichframedphysiciansasexperts.Good

motheringundertheideologyofscientificmotherhoodrequiredmotherstoleavedecisions

aboutchildcareuptotheexpertsandcarefullyfollowtheadviceofphysicians,whichwas

problematicwhenphysicianshadnofirst-handknowledgeofbreastfeeding.Natural

motherhoodframedmothersasthelogicalauthoritiesonroutinechildcare,particularlythe

careofabreastfedbaby,andviewedtheovermedicalizationofroutinecareasan

27

unnecessaryandsometimesproblematicintervention.HadDeanneSullivan’smotherhad

thebenefitofothermothers’first-handmaternalexperiencewithbreastfedbabies,andhad

shebeenconvincedthatmaternalexperiencewasavaluablesourceoftrustworthy

knowledge,itispossiblethattheremayhavebeenadifferentoutcome.Thiscaseservesas

avividillustrationofthevalueofmaternalexperienceasarespectedsourceofauthority,

whichwasacornerstoneofLLL’sphilosophyandmaternalrhetoric.

Thephilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodwasinspiredbythefounders’individual

maternalexperiences.Severalofthefoundershadgivenbirthathomefollowing

unsatisfactoryexperienceswithunmedicatedhospitalbirths.Theyfoundthesehome

birthstobemorepersonallyfulfillingandmother-centeredthanhospitalbirthsthat

framedthephysicianastheprimaryactorcontrollingthesituationandthemother.

Additionally,thefoundersofLLLfounditeasiertoinitiatebreastfeedingwithoutthe

interventionofmedicalpoliciesandproceduresthatseparatedbabiesfrommothersand

frequentlyinvolvedformulasupplementation.Theydiscoveredthattheirpeerswhohad

breastfedwereamoreknowledgeablesourceofinformationandsupportthanphysicians.

Theyalsodiscoveredthatbreastfeedinghelpedthemdevelopstrongbondswiththeir

babiesthatstrengthenedtheirconfidence,sharpenedmaternalinstinct,andhelpedthem

understandtheirbabies’individualneeds.

WhileLLL’sfounderswerepredisposedtowardtheideasthatmadeuptheir

philosophyofnaturalmotherhood,theseideaswerenotpopular.Thenotionthatmothers

developedaninstinctualunderstandingoftheirbabies’needsandtheideathatbabieshave

aphysiologicalandpsychologicalneedtobeclosetotheirmotherscontradictedthe

dominantideologyofscientificmotherhood.Combatingthatideologywasasignificant

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undertaking.OneoftheprimaryargumentsthatLLLneededtomaketopromote

breastfeedingandnaturalmotherhoodwastoreframemotherhoodasthenatural

outgrowthofauniquerelationshipbetweenindividualsratherthanadherencetoasetof

prescribedorpre-determinedbehaviors.Scientificmotherhoodframedmotherhoodasan

ideologicalinstitution,thussuggestingthatithadafoundationofrulestoguidematernal

behavior.Theframingofmotherhoodasaninstitutionhashistoricallybeenapowerfultool

fortheperpetuationofsystemicoppressionofwomen,asAdrienneRichexplainedinOf

WomanBorn,afeministanalysisofmotherhoodpublishedin1976.Motherhood,Rich

claimed,canbeunderstoodintwoways:1)the“potentialrelationshipofanywomantoher

powersofreproductionandtochildren”and2)“theinstitution,whichaimsatensuringthat

thatpotential—andallwomen—shallremainundermalecontrol”(13).Theinstitutionof

Motherhoodhasbeensodeeplyingrainedinculturethatithasbeenusedtoperpetuatethe

socialandpoliticalstatusquo,anditinfluenceshowwomenfeelandbehaveaswellashow

othersbehavetowardwomen.Themid-twentiethcenturyAmericaninstitutionofscientific

motherhoodignoredtheramificationsofthesocial,cultural,andeconomiccontextsin

whichparticularmothersandchildrenexistedandinsteadattemptedtoreduce

motherhoodtoaprescribedsetofactionsandinteractions.Ithadalsostrippedself-

confidencefrommothersbyteachingthemthattheywereincapableofbeinggoodmothers

withoutfollowingthedirectivesofmedicalexpert.

Inordertorelyonnaturalmotherhoodasawaytoauthorizemotherstorejectthe

dominantpracticesofbottle-feedinganddetachedmothering,LLLneededtofirstprovide

evidencetosupportitsassumptionthatmaternalexperienceandinstinctwasamore

effectiveguidethantheadviceofadistantexpert.Toarguethatthisassumptionwas

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accurateandlogical,LLLframedbabiesasuniqueindividualswithcomplexneedsthat

couldonlybeunderstoodthroughthedevelopmentofastrongmother-childbond.

Additionally,LLLpointedtoabygoneerawhenmothersgavebirthandbreastfedwithout

theoversightofmedicalexperts.LLLtoldmothersthattheywerestillcapableofmothering

effectivelyinthisway,butthattheirconfidenceintheirabilitytodosohadbeenlostasthe

resultofheavymedicalinterventionintowhatshouldberoutinechildcarematters.The

waytorestoreconfidence,LLLargued,wastobuildalovingrelationshipwithone’sbaby

thatencouragedthedevelopmentofastrongmaternalinstinct.Theeasiestwayto

accomplishthis,accordingtoLLL,wastobreastfeed,astheresultingemotionaland

physicalbondwouldgivethemotherinsightintotheneedsofherbabyandthusdevelop

herconfidenceinhermaternalinstincts.Tofurtheritsargumentinfavorofthisapproach

tomothering,LLLemployedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodanditspositiveassociations

(suchaslove,security,comfort,andnurturance).LLL’smaternalrhetoricforegrounded

theseconceptsasfurtherbackingtolegitimizetheassumptionthatbreastfeedingandthe

closebondthatitfacilitatedwereapreferabletothedominantpracticesofscientific

motherhood.

LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodreflectedtheideologyofnaturalism,which

wasasignificantdeparturefromthefocusonsciencethatwascentraltoscientific

motherhood.Asaresultoftheirmaternalexperiences,thefoundersofLLLdevelopeda

strongaffinityforanaturalapproachtomotherhoodthatreflectedtheideologyof

naturalism.In“ReconstructingMotherhood:TheLaLecheLeagueinPostwarAmerica,”

LynnY.Weinersaysthatwhile“thenineteenth-centuryversionofmiddle-class‘true

womanhood’emphasizedmoralpurityassymbolsassymbolsofnatureandsimplicity,the

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league,inthescientifictwentiethcentury,emphasizednaturalism”(363).Naturalism,

accordingtoElizabethGroszis“aformofessentialisminwhichafixednatureispostulated

forwomen”(48).Thisfixednatureismostcommonlyassociatedwithbiology,butalsomay

beattributedtotheologicalcauses(Grosz48).ForthefoundersofLLL,motherhoodwas

naturalandaproductoffemalebiology;theybelievedthatgivingbirthnaturally,

breastfeeding,anddevelopingstrongmother-childattachmentsensuredamorefulfilling

approachtomotheringbecauseitalignedwithmaternalbiologyandmothers’natural

instincts.Forthefounders,thenaturalnessofmotherhoodandtherespectforthewisdom

offemalebiology,whichtheyviewedasaproductofdivinecreation,wasrootedlargelyin

theirCatholicsensibilities.TheBiblicalcharactersofEveandtheMadonna,whonurtured

ChristatthebreastandwhoissoreveredinCatholicism,inspiredLLL’sfounders.Therole

ofmotherasnurturerandcomforterwassomethingofareligiousvocationforthe

founders.Notonlydidtheyviewmothersasnurturersandcomfortersfortheirchildren

butalsoasabenefittosociety.

Inadditiontoespousingnaturalism,LLLalsoespousedamaternalistviewpoint,

believingthatamotherhoodthatisempoweredanddefinedbyfemalequalitiescould

improvesociety.Thus,LLLencouragedmotherstostayhomewiththeirsmallchildrenand

avoidworkinguntilafterthemother-childbondwaswellestablishedandchildrenwere

weanedsothatthechilddevelopedself-confidence,asenseofsecurity,andpsychological

well-being.LLLevenencouragedmotherstoplacechildren’sneeds,includingtheneedto

beclosetomother,aboveotherdomesticchores.Naturalismandmaternalismoffered

inspirationtothefoundersofLLL.Theywereinspiredbythe“wisdomofnature,”or

creation,andrejectedscientificmotherhood’sfocusonastrictadherencetoscientificand

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medicaladvicethatencouragedformulafeedingandadetached,hands-offapproachto

childcare.OnewaythatLLLemphasizedthewisdomofnatureintheirtextualoutreachwas

byhighlightingbenefitsofbreastfeeding,includingnaturalchildspacing.Theyrecognized

thatthewidespreadpracticesofscientificmotherhoodhadresultedinalackofconfidence

inmaternalinstinctandinthematernalbody’sabilitytonurtureachildthrough

breastfeeding.Astheydevelopedtheirpracticesandtheirphilosophyofmothering,or

“naturalmotherhood,”LLLplacedanemphasisonthenatural,biologicalnatureofthe

practiceofmotherhoodbyhighlightingtheneedoftheinfantformother’smilkandclose

physicalcontactforpsychologicalandemotionalhealth.Thisconcernfortheemotionaland

psychologicalwell-beingofthebabyinstilledLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodwith

amaternalistelement.Iarguethatthematernalistfocusandmessagingoftheorganization

wasacriticalaspectofitsrhetoricalforegroundingoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood,

whichconnoteslove,protection,nurturance,home,andthematernalbody.Byemphasizing

thatanaturalapproachtomotherhoodhelpsmothersembodytheseconnotations,LLL

empoweredmotherstorejectscientificmotherhoodandestablishtheirownauthorityover

decisionsregardingchildcare;yet,inemphasizingmaternalbiologyandassociating

motherhoodwithtraditionalvalues,LLLalsoconstrainedmothers.Thus,itisunsurprising

thatLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodwouldlaterberejectedbyfeministsand

wouldthereforewoulddiscreditLLL’sargumentsandunderminetheiraccomplishmentsin

theeyesofsecond-wavefeminists.

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MATERNALSPACEANDLLL

WhilefeministcritiquesofLLLviewedtheorganization’sstancethatmothersof

infantsshouldremaininthehomeasananti-womanpositionthatoppressedwomen,I

arguethatLLLactuallysubvertedthestatusquobyencouragingwomentoreclaim

authorityoverdomesticspace.Justaswomenhadbeenoppressedbytheideologyof

scientificmotherhood,theyhadalsobeenconstrainedbytheextremeemphasison

domesticityfollowingWorldWarII.Inthe1950s,white,middle-classmothersbecamethe

symbolofthesuccessofAmericancapitalism(Coontz;Odland).Motherswereexpectedto

focustheirtimeandenergyondomesticchoresthatwerelargelyconcernedwith

cleanliness.Undertheideologyofscientificmotherhood,housekeepingwastreatedasa

full-timescientificoccupation(Apple1782).Therewasmuchmorefocusonchores,suchas

cleaningandcooking,andlessfocusontherelationalandpsychologicalaspectsof

motherhood.Withinthehome,motherswereexpectedtoenactthepracticesprescribedto

thembyhousekeepingexpertsinmagazinessuchasGoodHousekeeping,Ladies’Home

Journal,Today’sWoman,andWoman’sHomeCompanion.Justasmedicalexpertsprescribed

strictfeedingandsleepingschedules,women’smagazinesofferedadviceregarding

decorating,cooking,cleaning,andchildcare.Themother’sprimaryrolewastomaintaina

clean,comfortablehome.

LLL’sfoundershadadifferentunderstandingoftheroleofthemotherwithinthe

home.Inspiredinpartbyexperienceswithhomebirth,LLL’sfoundersviewedthehomeas

aspacewithinwhichmotherscouldreclaimagencyandautonomy.Inthemid-twentieth

century,themajorityofwomenweredrugged,andthustheyplayedapassiverolein

childbirth.Laborwardswerenotequippedtodealwiththeneedsofconsciousandalert

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laboringmothers.Afterdisappointingexperienceswithunmedicatedchildbirthinthe

hospital,someofthefoundersofLLLhadoptedtohavephysician-attended,unmedicated

birthsathome;thus,priortothefoundingofLLL,thesemothershadexperiencewith

transformingthehomeintoasiteofactiveresistancetodominantmedicalpractices.When

LLLwasformed,thedomesticspacewithinwhichmeetingswereheldofferedasafespace

todiscussmotheringanddeveloptheorganization’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.

Thus,thehomebecamea“maternalspace,”akeytermthatIemploythroughthe

dissertationtodescribeaspaceinwhichmothersareabletoexerciseautonomyin

decisionsregardingchildcareandresistdominanttrendsinmotheringsothattheyareable

tohavemorepersonallyfulfillingexperienceswithmotherhood.

ThematernalspaceoftheLLLmother-to-mothermeetingofferedasafespacefor

theorganizationtodevelopitsideologyofnaturalmotherhood.TheseinitialLLLmeetings

withinamaternalspacewerethefirstinaseriesofaffective,symbolic,andmaterialmeans

thatLLLutilizedinordertotransformothermothers’experiencesofmotherhood.By

offeringsupporttomotherswhowantedtobreastfeed,rejectingstrictprescriptionsfor

maternalbehavior,andencouragingthedevelopmentofclosermother-childrelationships,

LLLreclaimedthespaceofthehomeasasitetosharefirst-handknowledgegainedfrom

experienceandempowerothermotherstotakeownershipandassertmaternalagency

overtheirexperienceswithmotherhood.ThedevelopmentofLLL’slocalmother-to-mother

breastfeedingsupportgroupwasthefirststepinestablishingthemother-to-mother

networkthatwouldintersectwiththeverticalnetworkofmedicaldiscourse,challenge

scientificmotherhood,andreshapemedicaldiscourseoninfantfeeding.AsIdetailin

subsequentchapters,thesuccessofLLL’scounterpublicanditscounterdiscoursecameasa

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directresultofitsrhetoricalstrategies,including:thestructureofLLL’smeetingswithina

domesticspace,whichallowedittoprivatelydevelopandstrengthenitsideas;the

foregroundingofconceptstraditionallyassociatedwithmothers—includingdomesticity,

religion,love,nourishment,altruism,self-sacrifice,thematernalbody,andprotection—

temperedtheorganization’scounterdiscourseandhelpeditdrawalargeaudiencemadeup

ofmothers,sothatLLLgrewrapidlyanddidnotalarmphysicians;thecombiningofthe

culturalcodeofmotherhoodwithnaturalmotherhood,whichestablishedmothersas

naturalauthoritiesonchildcareandhelpedLLLcraftastrongmaternalethosforitselfand

itsmembers;andtheofferingofarhetoricaleducationthroughscripts,whichallowed

motherstoassertthemselveswithconfidenceinthefaceofcredulityorskepticism,thus

potentiallyexpandingothers’understandingsoftheorganizationandchallengingtheview

ofscientificmotherhoodthatmotherscouldnotmakeknowledgeabledecisionsabout

childcareontheirown.

TheearlystructureoftheLLLmother-to-mothersupportgroupwascriticalin

allowingtheorganizationtodevelopacounterdiscourseandrhetoricalstrategiesto

challengescientificmotherhoodanddominantpracticesofinfantfeeding.Counterpublics,

accordingtoscholarsNancyFraser,JenniferEmerlingBone,andPhaedraC.Pezzullo,offer

thosewhohavebeenmarginalizedbydominantpublicsawaytovoicetheirconcernsand

combattheirmarginalizedrolewithinsociety.LLL’sfoundingofferedmotherswithan

interestinresistingthestrictpracticesofscientificmotherhoodarelativelyintimate,

privatesettingwithinwhichtodeveloptheirideas.Lowprofilecounterpublics,or

subalterncounterpublics(Bone;Fraser)usuallylackmaterialmeansofparticipationin

dominantpublicdiscourse(Fraser65),andsotheydeveloptheirownalternative

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discoursesinprivatesettings.ThematernalspaceofLLL’smother-to-mothersupport

groupoffereda“paralleldiscursivearena”(Fraser68),allowingasafespaceinwhichLLL’s

counterdiscoursedeveloped.Theroleofthemother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetingsin

thedevelopmentofLLL’scounterdiscourseissimilartotheroleofconsciousnessraising

groupsthatwouldbecomepopularwithfeministsapproximatelyadecadeafterLLL’s

founding.TheearlyexperienceofLLLasasmall,localsupportgroupallowedthefounders

tohonetheirphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandunderstand,inanintimateway,what

kindsofsupportivemessagesweremosteffectivewithmotherswholackedself-confidence

andstruggledwiththechallengesposedbybreastfeedingandnavigatingsocialpressures

onmothers.Theknowledgeofthekindofsupportthatmothersneedalsocamefromfirst-

handexperienceintheearlydevelopmentofthesupportgroup.

Encouragingmotherstoembraceanalternativeparadigmofmotheringinvolved

convincingthemtoreclaimauthorityovertheirownchoicesandactivitiesandcreate

maternalspacesintheirownhomes.Inordertoaccomplishthis,LLLleveragedthecultural

codeofmotherhood,particularlyelementssuchasnurturanceandlove,toarguethat

resistancetodominantpracticeswasinthebestinterestoftheirchildren.LLLarguedthat

motherswerenaturalexpertsonchildrearingandthatmaternalauthoritywasbornof

instinctandexperience.Theorganizationencouragedmotherstorestructuredomesticlife

aroundthegoalofdevelopingstrongfamilialrelationships.Inthisdissertation,Iarguethat

LLLinstructedmothersinthedevelopmentofmaternalspace.Idefinematernalspaceas

mother-centeredspaceinwhichmothersareempoweredandregardedasauthority

figures;yet,theyareconstrainedwithinthatspacebythetraditionalvaluesofmotherhood

thatmothersrelyuponinordertoauthorizetheirresistancetodominantpracticeswithin

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thespace.Maternalspaceisamaternalistideainthattheinfluenceandauthoritythata

motherexertswithinthatspaceislegitimizedoutofaconcernforthemaintenanceand

bettermentofsociety.Becausematernalauthorityinamaternalspaceisauthorizedin

ordertoupholdsocialtraditionsandvalues,mothersareconstrainedbylimitationsplaced

uponthembythosetraditionsandvalues.Whilemothersmayresistsomedominanttrends

orpractices,theymustoperatewithinthelimitationsimposeduponthembythe

traditionalvaluesthattheyforegroundinordertoauthorizetheiractsofresistance.

Intheorizingmaternalspace,Ibuilduponfeministrhetoricalscholarshipthat

exploresspatialrhetorics.Mostofthescholarshipthatexplorestherhetoricofgendered

spacesfocusesonthewayinwhichwomenhaveemployedrhetoricalstrategiesto

authorizeentryintomale-dominatedspacessuchasthepulpit(Mountford),theWWIIera

factory(Enoch;Jack),navalsubmarines(Buchanan),andthemedicalprofession(Wells;

Skinner).AccordingtofeministscholarDaphneSpain,genderedinstitutionscanonly

changeafterwomenhaveaccesstoandoccupypowerfulinstitutionalspacesonequal

terms.Inthisdissertation,Iaimtorevealthewayinwhichmarginalizedrhetorscan

harnesstheaffordancesoftheundervaluedspacesthattheyarealreadyauthorizedto

occupyinordertoinspiresocialchange.

CREATINGTEXTUALOUTREACH

Withinayearoftheorganization’sfoundingin1956,LLL’slocalnetworkhadgrown

somuchthatthefounderswerereceivingphonecallsandlettersfromgeographically

dispersedmotherswhohadheardoftheorganizationbywordofmouthorfrommedia

attentionthattheorganizationreceived.Bythefallof1957,thefoundersrealizedthatthey

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neededtostartdevelopingwrittenmaterialsthatnotonlyofferedhelpfulinformation,but

thatalsoencouragedanaudienceofgeographicallydispersedmotherstogaintheself-

confidencerequiredtoresistdominantpracticesandplacetrustinthematernalauthority

gainedfromfirst-handmaternalexperience

LLL’ssolutiontotheproblemoftranslatingtheworkofthelocalsupportgroupinto

textwastoforegroundtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodinitspublicoutreach.By

employingthecode,LLLwasabletoreassuremothersthattheirresistancetostrictly

prescribedmaternalbehaviorsalignedwithtraditionalvaluesassociatedwithmotherhood.

AccordingtoBuchanan,theculturalcodeofmotherhoodisapowerfulrhetoricalresource

becauseit“providesrhetorswithpersuasivemeansthatnotonlyreflectdominantcultural

andgendercodesbutalsohavethepotentialtoreify,resist,andrevisethem”(22).

Foregroundingconceptsassociatedwiththecodeofmotherhood—particularly

domesticity,protection,love,nourishment,religion,morality,self-sacrifice,altruism,and

thematernalbody—inthedevelopmentoftheLLL’srhetoricwasapracticalsolutionfor

navigatingthecomplexrelationshipbetweenmothers,physicians,andconsumersociety

becausetheculturalcodeofmotherhoodwascomfortingandfamiliar.Byhighlightingtheir

maternalexperiencesandassociatingthemselveswithelementsoftheculturalcodeof

motherhood,thefoundersofLLLsuccessfullypushedbackagainsttheoppressionofthe

institutionofscientificmotherhoodandplacedanewemphasisonthevalueofmaternal

experienceasasourceofknowledge.Challengingdominantideologiesandpracticescanbe

difficult,somothersneededreassurancethatmaternalexperiencewasalegitimatesource

ofinformationandthatideologyandpracticespromotedbyLLLweresound,safe,and

beneficialfortheirbabies.LLLrespondedtothisneedforreassuranceoftheorganization’s

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authoritybyinvokingelementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhoodsuchasthe

reproductivebody,protection,religion,andmorality.Theyframedfemalereproductive

functioningandthematernalinstincttonurtureasnaturaloccurrencesthatcanbe

negativelyimpactedbytheinterferenceofprofessionals.Theyalsoinvokedreligiousand

moralsentimenttoimbueexperiencedmotherswithasenseofmoralauthority.

ThefoundersofLLLleveragedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodtoinspireasenseof

familiarityandcomfortwiththeorganization’sworkandvalues,andthissenseofcomfort

andfamiliaritylikelyhelpedtheorganizationgrowintoalargecounterpublic.Thefirst

editionofLLL’sself-helptext,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,illustratesthe

combinationofthewisdomofnaturewiththeconceptsofloveandsecuritythatare

inherentintheculturalcodeofmotherhood:“Breastfeedingmeansalittleextratimein

whichtoenjoyandpayspecialattentiontoyourbabybeforethenextonecomesalong.

ThiswouldseemtobeNature’swayofhelpingusrearourlittleone’sinanatmosphereof

loveandsecurity”(WomanlyArt5).Here,thesuggestionthatmothersshouldresist

scientificmotherhood’spreferenceforbottle-feedinginfavorofamorenaturalapproach

toinfantfeedingistemperedbytheconceptsoflove,protection,andthematernalbody,all

elementstraditionallyassociatedwithmotherhood.Altruismisanotherconnotationofthe

culturalcodeofmotherhoodthatisinevidencehere.Ratherthanpromotingnaturalchild

spacingasabenefittothemother,itisconstructedasapsychologicalbenefittothebaby

thatensurestwootherconnotationsoftheculturalcode:loveandsecurity.

LLL’schoicetorhetoricallyforegroundconceptstraditionallyassociatedwith

motherhoodenabledittoattractalarge,geographicallydispersedaudienceofmothers

whofeltcomfortablewithLLL’sfamiliarconstructionofmotherhood.Asmorewomen

39

gravitatedtowardLLL,physiciansincreasinglytooknoticeoftheirpatients’successful

experienceswithbreastfeeding.Becausetheyforegroundedtraditionalvaluesassociated

withmotherhood,encouragedwomentoremaininthehome,andaimedtosupplement

ratherthanreplacemedicaladvice,LLLwasabletocraftasubtle,non-confrontational

rhetoricalstancethatwouldnotalarmthosewhoheldtraditionalvaluesorwere

concernedwithdisciplinarygatekeepinginthemedicalprofession.

ThecombinationoftheculturalcodeofmotherhoodandLLL’sphilosophyofnatural

motherhoodallowedLLLtouseitspositioningonthemarginsofscientificmotherhoodasa

sourceofauthoritytoestablishastrongmaternalethos,groundedinnaturalmotherhood,

thatwouldappealtoalargeaudienceandhelpcrafttheorganizationintoacounterpublic.

Itspositioningonthemargins,itspromotionoftraditionalvalues,anditsconstructionof

motherhoodaslovingandnurturingimbuedLLL’scounterdiscoursewithauthority.

Throughexploringtheethos-buildingeffortsofwomenrhetors,feministrhetorical

scholarshipshedslightonthewaysinwhichmarginalizedrhetorsusetheirpositioningto

arguethattheyhavetheauthoritytospeak.AccordingtoCarolynSkinner,womenrhetors

oftenmustuserhetoricalstrategiestoarguethattheinsightandknowledgegainedfrom

theirpositioningonthemarginsimbuesthemwithauthoritytospeakandactpublicly.As

Skinnershows,nineteenth-centurywomenphysicianssuccessfullyharnessed“marginality

asalocationfromwhichtospeak”which“authorizestheknowledgeandcredibilityof

thosehistoricallylocatedoutsideofthecentersofpower”(Skinner,WomenPhysicians

420).Thislocationofknowledgegainedfromexperienceonthemargins,claimsNedra

Reynolds,isparticularlyfeminine:“Whenaknowerislocatedasafemaleinthisculture,

knowledgeisexperienced,constructed,andrecalledinnonhierarchical,nonlinear,and

40

nonobjectiveforms.Inotherwords,femaleknowersadapttotheirmarginalizedpositions

byseeingdifferently—andlearningdifferentthings”(Reynolds330).LLLwrested

authorityfromscientificmotherhoodandthemedicalprofessionbyarguingthatanatural

maternalexperienceunimpededbyscientificinterventionsisthebestwaytodevelopan

understandingofababy’sneeds.InTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLL’sfounders

claimedthatexperiencedbreastfeedingmothersdevelopa“‘spirit’ofnursingthatcomes

fromexperiencingthequick,stronglove-tiessonaturalbetweenamotherandherbaby”

(5).This“spiritofnursing”willhelpamothertodevelopa“sureunderstandingofher

baby’sneedsandherjoyandconfidenceinherselftosatisfythem”(WomanlyArt5).The

implicationhereisthatmotherscannotdevelopanunderstandingoftheirbabies’needs

fromasetofprescribedbehaviors,butthattheycanonlydevelopthatunderstandingand

gainconfidenceintheirmaternalinstinctsthroughauthenticandnaturalexperienceswith

theirbabies.Bydrawingastrongconnectionbetweenknowledgegainedfromexperience

withthewisdomofNatureanditsassociationwiththereligiousconceptofcreation,love,

physicalandpsychologicalnourishment,andprotectioninTheWomanlyArtof

Breastfeeding,LLLcraftedamaternalrhetoricthatpositionedtheorganizationasa

powerfulandcredibleauthorityonmotheringandinfantcare,andbyextension,ithelped

mothersestablishthemselvesasthenaturalauthoritiesontheneedsoftheirownbabies.

AnotherstrategicrhetoricaldecisionthatimpactedtheeffectivenessofLLL’s

counterdiscourseonmotherhoodandinfantfeeding,andwhichwouldeventuallyenable

LLLtobecomeadistinctcounterpublic,wastheorganization’schoiceofaudience.AsI

detaillaterinthedissertation,inboththeirsupportgroupeffortsandtheirtextual

outreach,LLLfocusedtheireffortsonmotherswhoalreadyhadaninterestin

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breastfeeding.Theydidnotchallengescientificmotherhooddirectlybytargeting

physiciansastheiraudiencebecausetheycouldnotengagedirectlywiththemedical

professionwithauthoritytospeakontheissueofinfantfeeding.Theprofessiondidnot

valueknowledgethatlaypersonsgainthroughfirst-handexperience.LLLalsodidnot

purposefullytargetwomenwhoplannedtobottle-feedinpartbecausethesocialpressures

onthesewomenweresignificant.LLLtargetedmothersinterestedinbreastfeeding

becausetheywouldlikelybeamenabletoLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.

Thetargetingoflaypersonsasanaudiencecanbeaveryeffectivestrategyfor

developingacounterpublicthatsuccessfullychallengesdominantdiscourses.Sarah

Hallenbeck’sbookClaimingtheBicycle:Women,Rhetoric,andTechnologyinNineteenth-

CenturyAmericaandherarticle“RidingOutofBounds:WomenBicyclists'Embodied

MedicalAuthority”bothshedlightonthewayinwhichnon-medicallytrainedwomenof

thepostbellumerawereabletoshapemedicaldiscoursebycraftingapeer-to-peer

networkoflaypersonswhosharedinformationaboutbicycleridingthroughpopular

media.Astheresultofwomen’spublicconversationsaboutbicycleriding,medical

professionalsmadeagradualshiftintheirowndiscoursetoreflecttheexperience-based

knowledgesharedinpopulararticles(Hallenbeck,“RidingOutofBounds”341).

Hallenbeck’sstudyoftherhetoricalactivitiesofwomenbicyclistsoffersamodelfor

understandingthewayinwhichnon-professionalwomencanharnesstherhetorical

strategiesavailabletothem,shapemedicaldiscourse,andleadtotherevisionof

professionalknowledgeofwomen’sbodies.Inasimilarfashion,LLLharnessedthe

founders’experienceswithbreastfeedingtoreachoutpubliclytoothermotherstoshare

theirknowledgeofbreastfeedingandthepotentialforbreastfeedingtohelpmothers

42

developstrongmother-childbondswiththeirchildren.Intargetingothermothers,LLLwas

abletocraftacounterdiscoursethatwouldgaintheattentionandrespectofthemedical

professionandeventuallybesubsumedintoprofessionalmedicaldiscourse.Medical

professionals,partofverticalnetworkofscientificmotherhood,eventuallynoticedthe

practicalimpactofLLL’scounterdiscourse,andtheprofessionmadechangestoitsown

practices,therebychangingtheprofessionitself.HadLLLattemptedtoengagethetop-

downorverticaldiscourseofthemedicalprofessiondirectly,itsargumentswouldlikely

havebeendismissed.

LLL’ssuccessingrowingitscounterpublicandreshapingmedicaldiscoursewas

largelytheresultoftherhetoricalstrategiesthatLLLofferedtoitsaudienceof

breastfeedingmothers.ThemedicalprofessiontooknoticeoftheeffectivenessofLLL’s

modelofpeer-to-peersupportthroughtheirinteractionswiththemother.LLLoffered

mothersarhetoricaleducationintheformofscriptsthathelpedthemasserttheirabilityto

makeinformed,autonomousdecisionsaboutinfantfeeding.LLL’smethodofoffering

scriptsforinteractionswithaskepticalpublicresembledthescriptsthatFrancesWillard

andotherleadersoftheWomen’sChristianTemperanceUnionofferedtonewmembers

whohadlittleornorhetoricaleducationandwerenervousaboutspeakinginpublicand

conductingpublicmeetings(Mattingly65-67).The1958publicationofTheWomanlyArtof

Breastfeedinghadadvisedmotherstotelltheirphysicians,particularlythosewhowere

inclinedtopromotebottlefeeding,“thatyouaregettingsomehelpfromusandlethim

thinkthatyouassume,naturally,he’dwantyoutobreastfeedyourbaby;inanycaseitis

somethingthatyouasamotherwanttodo”(7).Thetextalsowarnedmothers“Aboveall,

don’tletyourconfidenceinyourselfbeshakenbyanegativeresponsefromyourdoctor”

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(WomanlyArt7).LLL’swidelydispersedaudienceofmothersseemedtotakethisadviceto

heart.

Armedwiththerhetoricalmeansforengagingwithphysicians,LLL’sarmyof

nursingmotherslaidthefoundationforseismicshiftsinthemedicalprofession’sattitude

andunderstandingofbreastfeeding.Theofficesofphysicianswereaprimarysiteofthe

intersectionofthehorizontalnetworkofLLLandthevertical,top-downnetworkofthe

medicalprofession.AsLLLgrewandmanymorewomenbegantobreastfeedsuccessfully

withLLL’ssupport,physiciansbegantotakenotice.ThefirstpublicationofLLL’s

newsletter,LaLecheLeagueNews,inMayof1958includedlettersfrommedical

professionalsbothpraisingtheworkofLLLandrequestingwrittenmaterialstodistribute

intheiroffices.Inthesecondhalfofthe1960s,adecadefollowingLLL’sfounding,

professionalmedicaljournals,includingTheAmericanJournalofNursingandTheJournalof

Pediatrics,begantociteLLLasasourceofreliableinformationandsupportthatwasnot

onlybeneficialtomothers,butalsoofbenefittomedicalprofessionalsandthemedical

profession.TheseacademicreferencestoLLL—anorganizationwithabodyofknowledge

thatwasdevelopedfromfirst-handmaternalexperiencesharedinapeer-to-peer,

horizontalmanner—provideevidencethatLLLunderminedthebasicassumptionof

scientificmotherhoodthatmothersneededtobemicromanagedbymedicalprofessionals

astheywentaboutday-to-daychildcareactivities.Italsochallengedthenotionthat

valuableknowledgecouldonlycomefromascientificlaboratoryandthatthefirst-hand

experienceoflaypersonscouldnotinformscientificunderstanding.

ThisinteractionbetweenLLLandthemedicalprofession,andtheresultingshiftin

themedicalprofession’sdiscourseoninfantfeeding,isatestamenttothepowerofthe

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horizontal,peer-to-peernetworktocraftacounterdiscoursecapableofchallengingand

transformingdominantideologiesthatarepromotedinvertical,top-downnetworks.

PublicacknowledgementoftheimportanceandvalueofLLL’sworkmarkedonlythe

beginningoftheprocessthroughwhichtheorganization’scounterdiscoursebecamepartof

dominant,mainstreamdiscourseonmotherhoodandinfantfeeding.

OVERVIEWOFCHAPTERS

ThisdissertationexaminesthestagesofLLL’sdevelopmentoutlinedabove,charting

itsformationininitialmeetingsinlivingroomstoitsattemptstomeettheneedsofa

dispersedaudiencethroughtextualoutreach.Intheprocess,theorganizationanditsarmy

ofmaternalrhetorsbecameacounterpublicthattransformedthemainstreamdiscourse

andpracticesofmedicine.Next,Ioutlinethechaptersdetailingthisprocess.

ChapterII,“ACustom-MadeClubforMothers:CreatingMaternalSpacesand

ReclaimingMaternalAuthorityandExperience,”beginsbyexploringtheexigencies,

includingtheriseofbottle-feeding,scientificmotherhood,andtheexperiencesand

strugglesofindividualfounders,whichhelpedinformtheirunderstandingofthewayin

whichmaternalspaceiscreatedandpromptedthemtofoundLLL.Thischapterarguesthat

thefoundingofLLLwasarhetoricalactthroughwhichtheorganizationresistedscientific

motherhoodanddominantdiscoursesofmedicine.Throughtheexaminationofarchival

andpublishedtexts,IexplorethedevelopmentofLLL’smother-to-mothersupportgroup,

whichmetinthematernalspaceofthefounders’homes,astheestablishmentofthe

“paralleldiscursivearena”(Fraser68)inwhichLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood

anditscounterdiscoursewasshapedthroughthemutualsharingofmaternalexperiences.

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TheearlymeetingsoftheLLLsupportgroupshapedthefounders’viewsoftheneedsof

theiraudiencesothattheygainedanunderstandingofthemethodsofsupportand

persuasionthatwouldbestservetheneedsofmothersnewtobreastfeeding.The

conversationsthatoccurredwithinthesemeetingshelpedtoshapethematernalrhetoric

thatLLLemployedwhenitlateraimedtosupportmothersthroughthedevelopmentofa

self-helptextforbreastfeedingmothers.Finally,Iarguethatthemutualsharingof

maternalexperienceswithinthematernalspaceofthesupportgroupmeetingwasLLL’s

firststeptowardthedevelopmentofacounterpublicthatwouldsignificantlyimpact

medicalknowledgeandpractice.

ChapterIII,“Craftinga‘WomanlyArt’:TranslatingMaternalSpaceandLocal

Mother-to-MotherSupportTexts,”examinestherhetoricalstrategiesemployedbythe

organizationasittranslatedtheworkofthelocalsupportgroupintowritingwiththegoal

ofreachingageographicallydispersedaudienceofmotherswhileattemptingtoprovide

thesamespiritofsupportitofferedtolocalmothers.LLL’stextualoutreachinThe

WomanlyArtofBreastfeedingcultivatedanegalitariantoneandforegroundedthecultural

codeofmotherhood—particularlylove,altruism,protection,religion,nourishment,andthe

maternalbody—whilepromotingbreastfeedingandthephilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.

LLLrecognizedthatinorderforitsaudiencetoachievesuccessintheirattemptsto

breastfeedandexperienceamorenaturalapproachtomotherhood,itwouldbenecessary

formotherstotransformtheirhomesintomaternalspaces.Helpingmotherscreate

maternalspacerequiredthatLLLconvincethemtorejectmanyofthedominant

expectationsofwomeninthe1950s—forexample,keepingaspotlesshome—andinstead

prioritizethedevelopmentofstrongfamilialbonds.Inthischapter,Ianalyzethe1958

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editionofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingtouncovertherhetoricalstrategiesthatLLL

usedtoconstructmaternalethosfortheorganization,toframemothersasthenatural

authoritiesonchildcare,toconvincemotherstobreastfeedandembraceanewparadigmof

naturalmotherhood,andtoconvincebothmothersandfatherstorestructurethehome

intoamaternalspacethatwouldhelpmothersbesuccessfulintheireffortstobreastfeed

anddevelopastrongmother-childbond.Finally,IarguethatitwasthroughLLL’s

supportivetextualoutreachthattheorganizationbegantodevelopalarge,geographically

dispersed,horizontalnetworkofmothersintoaneffectivecounterpublicthateventually

challengedscientificmotherhoodandreshapedmedicaldiscourseoninfantfeeding.

ChapterIV,“TheRevolutionariesWorePearls:RhetoricalEducationinEarlyLaLeche

LeagueTexts,”exploresthewayinwhichLLL’searlytextsofferedmothersarhetorical

educationtohelpthemnavigateinteractionswithmembersofthedominantpublic,

particularlymembersofthemedicalprofession.Throughrhetoricalanalysisofthe1958

and1963editionsofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingandissuesofLaLecheLeagueNews

fromtheperiodof1958to1961,IaimtorevealthewayinwhichLLLdevelopedscripts

andmodelstohelpitsburgeoningcounterpublicofbreastfeedingmothersdevelop

maternalethos.Thesescriptsandmodelsfocusedparticularlyonhelpingmothersassert

theirmaternalauthorityininteractionswithmedicalprofessionalswithinthehospital

maternityward.Supportfrommedicalprofessionals,orlackthereof,isasignificantfactor

inthesuccessorfailureofeffortstoinitiatebreastfeeding.LLLinstructedmotherstocreate

maternalethosbyforegroundingtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodintheirargumentsas

theyadvocatedfortheirdecisiontobreastfeedandforgoformulasupplementation.By

actingconfidentanddetermined,buttemperingthatconfidencewithtraditionalvalues

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associatedwithmotherhood,LLL’scounterpublicofbreastfeedingmothersconvinced

medicalprofessionalsthatthedecisiontoresistthestatusquowasmotivatedoutofa

sharedconcernforthebestinterestoftheirbabies.MuchoftherhetoricalworkofLLLwas

achievedthroughone-on-oneinteractionsbetweenthemembersofthemedicalprofession

andLLL’sarmyofbreastfeedingmotherswhohadbeenequippedwiththerhetorical

strategiestoassertmaternalauthorityandadvocateformaternalwaysofknowing.Iargue

thatbyofferingsuchscriptsandmodels,LLLcreatedacounterpublicmadeupofanarmy

maternalrhetorswho,throughtheirindividualrhetoricalactions,engagedinaprojectof

collectivematernalethosformationthatshapedthemedicalprofession’sviewson

breastfeedingandtheroleofmothersinchildcare.Thechapterendswithareviewof

breastfeedingstatistics,contemporaryreferencestoLLLinpopularmedia,andreferences

toLLLanditsworkinmedicalpublicationstotracetheimpactthatLLL’scounterpublic

hadonattitudestowardbreastfeedingandtheroleofthemotherinmakingdecisions

aboutinfantcare.

ChapterV,“Conclusion:‘WeCameWantingtoLearntheArtofBreastfeeding.We

FoundaWayofLife’”arguesthattheparadoxofLLL’ssimultaneousliberationand

constraintofwomenwasaninevitableresultofitsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodand

itsemploymentofmaternalrhetoricstoauthorizemotherstoexerciseautonomyovertheir

motheringexperiencesandresisttheoppressionofscientificmotherhood.Ireviewthe

stagesofLLL’searlyevolution,fromlocalsupport-groupmeetingtonationallyrecognized

expert,toillustratehowhorizontalcounterpublicscanshapethediscourseandpracticesof

dominantpublicsfromapositiononthemargins.Finally,Iexplorewhatthehistoryof

LLL’sgrowthasacounterpublicrevealsabouttherhetoricalaffordancesinherentin

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marginalizedmaternalspaces.Whilegenderedspatialsegregationhasgenerallybeen

viewedonlyasasourceofwomen’soppression,Iarguethatmarginalizedrhetorscan

leveragetherhetoricalaffordancesofgenderedspacestodevelopethosfroma

marginalizedposition.Iargue,too,thatthereisaneedforfurtherexplorationofthe

rhetoricityofmaternalspaces,whichlikematernalrhetorics,havethecapacitybothto

constrainmothersandtoserveasthelocusoftheirempowerment.

THECOMPLEXOUTCOMESOFLLL’SPHILOSOPHYANDMATERNALRHETORIC

Despiteitsmanysuccesses,LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandits

maternalrhetoriccreatedadoublebindfortheorganization.WhileLLLgainedtherespect

ofauthoritiesbythemid-1960s,workingclassmothersandfeministswerealienatedbythe

publicfaceandpracticesoftheorganization.Initsattempttoempowermothers,LLL

reinforcedsomeofthesocialcodesofwomanhoodandmotherhoodthatserveto

marginalizewomenanddiscouragetheirparticipationinthepublicsphere.Forinstance,it

associatedfemalebiologywiththematernalandsuggestedthatmotherhoodiswoman’s

naturalcalling;itpromotedatraditionalfamilystructurewithamale-breadwinner;andit

encouragedmotherstostayathomeduringtheirchildren’searlyyears.Thisparadoxical

aspectoftheorganization’srhetoricwasproblematicforsomeaudiences.Theorganization

verymuchreflectedthevaluesofthetraditionalfamily,particularlythewhite,middle-class

suburbanfamily.Singlemothersandmotherswhoworkedoutsideofthehomeoftenfelt

alienatedbytheassumptionsandrhetoricoftheorganization.Asdescribedearlierinthis

chapter,membersofthesecond-wavefeministmovement,whowerelargelyconcerned

withbringingaboutanendtogender-baseddiscrimination,criticizedtheorganizationfor

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perpetuatingthebiologically-based,systematicoppressionofwomenbyfocusingonthe

maternalbodyandexpectingwomentoremaininthehometocarefortheirchildren.

Theconflictbetweentheideologyofsecond-wavefeministsandLLL’sphilosophyof

naturalmotherhoodandmaternalrhetoricresultedinmisunderstandingsandsometimes

dramaticinteractionsbetweentheorganizationandleadersofthewomen’smovement.

OnesuchsceneinvolvingfeministactivistBettyFriedanwasdescribedbyMarian

Tompson,foundingmotherandformerpresidentofLLL,inPassionateJourney:My

UnexpectedLife.AtameetingoftheMaternalandChildHealthAssociation,Friedan

suggestedthatreceivingapaycheckisanimportantconformationofself-worthforwomen.

WithherinfantchildPhilipinherarms,Tompsonstoodandexplainedthatseeingher

breastfeedingsonhappyandhealthywasenoughjustificationforhertofeelimportantasa

woman(TompsonandVickers804).FriedanrespondedbyclaimingthatTompsonwas

usingherbabytobuildherself-esteem(TompsonandVickers804).Forsecond-wave

feministssuchasFriedan,LLL’seffortsmusthaveseemedtobeanattemptbymothersto

avoidconfrontingtheiroppressionandtoconvincethemselvesthattraditional

womanhoodisnobleandself-affirming.

Obviously,LLLheldvaluesandassumptionsthatconflictedwiththephilosophyof

second-wavefeminism,butIcontendthatthisdifferenceofvalueswasaresultofLLL’s

philosophyofnaturalmotherhood,itsconstructionofamaternalrhetoric,andits

organizationalgoals.LLLcalleduponthecodeofmotherhoodtoestablisha

counterdiscoursethatwouldenableittoresistdominantideologieswhilestillappealingto

themainstream.Thisalienatedsecond-wavefeministsbecauseitvalidatedwhatfeminists

believedtobeproblematicassumptionsaboutwomen,theirroleinsociety,andthe

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physicalspacesthattheyshouldoccupy.Nevertheless,IarguethatLLL’smaternalrhetoric

anditspromotionoftraditionalgenderrolesprovidednecessarycamouflageforits

feministgoalsandachievements.LLLuseditsmaternalethosandphilosophyofnatural

motherhoodtooffersupportandaffectimmediatechangeinthelivesofparticularwomen

andchildrenwithintheirimmediatecontexts,whilealsoworkingtochallengetheideology

ofscientificmotherhoodandgraduallychangetheinstitutionofmotherhoodtoempower

mothersandvalidatetheirexperiencesofmotherhood.Intheprocess,LLLdevelopeda

counterpublicpowerfulenoughtotransformthedominantdiscourseoninfantfeedingand

tounderminescientificmotherhood’slackofrespectformaternalexperienceasawayof

knowing.

ThisprojectrevealsthatLLL,whichhasbeenlargelyassociatedwithbiological

essentialismandanti-feministsentiment,managedtochallengetheoppressiveinstitution

ofscientificmotherhoodandre-framemotherhoodasaunique,responsiverelationship

betweenaparticularmotherandherchildorchildren.IarguethatthefoundersofLLL

werebeginning“tothinkthroughthebody,”toconvertwomen’sphysicalityinto

knowledgeandpower,torepossesswomen’sbodies,andtotreatmotherhoodasfreely

chosenintellectualworkafulltwentyyearsbeforethepublicationofRich’slandmark

feministanalysisofmotherhoodinOfWomanBorn,inwhichshecalledforpreciselythese

actions.LLL’sgoalwastohelpanymotherwhodesiredtobreastfeeddososuccessfully

whiledevelopingastrongmother-childbond.

Therehaveindeedbeenmanywomenwho,becauseoftheirlifestylesorsocial

positioning,feltjustifiablyalienatedormarginalizedbytheorganization,butthenotion

thattheorganizationwasattemptingtoprescribeauniversalapproachtomotherhoodisa

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misrepresentationoftheircoremission.LLLaimedtohelpindividualwomenandtheir

childrenexperienceauniqueandclosemother-childrelationship.Itsmaternalrhetoric,

withtherhetoricalforegroundingoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood,itsfocusonmother-

to-mothersupport,anditsassumptionthatmotherhoodisnatural,framedmothersas

authoritiesonchildcare.Additionally,LLLempoweredmotherstotakeownershipoftheir

experienceswithmotherhoodinwaysthatweremeaningfultothem.WhileLLLwas

largelysuccessfulinachievingthisgoalbecauseittempereditsactivismbyforegrounding

traditionalvaluesandgenderedassumptionsaboutwomenthatwerepopularinthe1950s,

thesestrategiesalsoalienatedmotherswhodidnotfitorganization’smold,including

adoptivemothers,workingmothers,lesbianmothers,andbottlefeedingmothers,andit

madeLLLsuspecttofeminists.Despitethis,LLL’smaternalrhetoricattractedarapidly

growingaudienceinthelate1950s.Thisaudiencebecameastrongcounterpublicthat

wouldchangedominantdiscoursesandpracticesofmotheringandinfantfeeding.Though

itwasaconservativeorganization,LLLachievedfeministendsbyexpandingwomen’s

options,encouragingthemedicalprofessiontore-evaluatethevalueofwomen’slived

experiences,andempoweringwomentoassertagencyandtakeownershipoftheir

experiences.AsHausmanpointsout,LLLopensthedoorforfeministstoconsiderthe

complexityofmaternityandthematernalbodyandencouragesfeministstohavemore

nuancedconversationsaboutwomen’svaryingroles(159).

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CHAPTERII

ACUSTOM-MADECLUBFORMOTHERS:CREATINGMATERNALSPACESAND

RECLAIMINGMATERNALAUTHORITYANDEXPERIENCE

WhenthefirstofficialmeetingofLaLecheLeaguetookplaceinOctoberof1956in

thehomeofMaryWhite,thesevenfounders—MarianTompson,MaryWhite,Edwina

Froehlich,BettyWagner,MaryAnnKerwin,MaryAnnCahill,andViolaLennon—had

alreadyindividuallyengagedinresistancetomainstreammedicalpracticesandattitudes

towardchildbirthandinfantfeeding.Severalofthefoundingmotherswereinspiredbythe

philosophyofthenaturalchildbirthmovementtohaveamorenaturalbirthexperienceand

tobreastfeed.Inthemid-twentiethcentury,thestandardpracticeinobstetricswasto

medicatelaboringmothersinchildbirthwithmedicationssuchasnitrousoxide,ether,local

anestheticsornerveblock,oracombinationofmorphineandscopolaminewhichresulted

inthestateof“twilightsleep”.Thesemethodslimitedwomen’sengagementinor

awarenessofchildbirth.Toasignificantdegree,womenhad“lostcontrolinthebirth

chamber”(Gibson619).Intheearlytwentiethcentury,asmedicatedchildbirthwas

becomingincreasinglyprevalent,scientificmotherhood’sphysician-centeredapproachto

childcaredisplacedmaternalexperienceasasourceofknowledge,andbottle-feeding

replacedbreastfeedingastheprimarymethodofnourishinginfants.Additionally,inthe

post-WWIIera,motherswereconstrainedbythenarrowconceptualizationofthewhite,

middle-classhousewifewhowasexpectedtoprioritizekeepinghouseoverattendingtothe

emotionalandpsychologicalwell-beingofherchildren.Severalofthefoundingmothersof

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LLLresistedthelossofmaternalautonomyandcontroloftheirmaternalexperiencesand

spacesbychoosingtohavehomebirthsandtobreastfeed.

TheexperiencesofthefoundersofLLL—includingdisappointingexperienceswith

unmedicatedbirthinthehospitallaborward,subsequentsatisfyingunmedicatedhome

births,failedattemptsatbreastfeeding,andsubsequentattemptstobreastfeedthatwere

facilitatedbythesupportofknowledgeablepeers—taughtthemthatinordertoexperience

naturalmotherhoodontheirownterms,theyneededtheopportunitytoasserttheir

agencyandlearnfromexperiencedmothers.Creatingthisopportunityforthemselves

involvedtheestablishmentofbothrhetoricalandphysicalspaceinwhichtheywere

regardedasauthorities.Informingthemother-to-motherbreastfeedingsupportgroup,

LLLwouldsubversivelyharnesstheassociationbetweendomesticspaceandthecultural

codeofmotherhoodtoauthorizethedevelopmentofacounterdiscourseoninfantfeeding

andanewparadigmofnaturalmotherhoodthatchallengedscientificmotherhoodandthe

expectationsforthebehavioroftheprototypical1950shousewife.Physicalspaceplayeda

significantroleinthedevelopmentofLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,inits

rhetoricalstrategies,andinthespreadofLLL’scounterpublic.Because“physicalspaces

havethepowertochangebehaviorandpeople’sviewofthemselves”(Mountford,“On

Gender”50),Iwillcloselyexaminethewaysinwhichthefoundingmothersfelteither

empoweredormarginalizedinthelaborwardandthehomeduringchildbirth.Iwill

explorethestrategiesemployedbyoneLLLmothertotransformthehospitallaborward

andthehomeintomaternalspacethataffordedherautonomyoverherchildbirth

experiences,andIwillteaseoutthewaysinwhichtheseexperiencesshapedthefounding

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mothers’beliefsaboutmotherhood,maternalauthority,andtheliberatorypotentialof

maternalspaces.

Fromthebeginning,thefoundersofLLLconstructedthehomeasamaternalspace

thatwasavaluablesourceofexperience-basedknowledge.Forthisreason,theyconducted

theirmother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetingswithinmembers’homes,suchasthatof

MaryWhite,wherethefirstLLLmeetingswereheld.Thesehomesfunctionedasprivate,

enclavedmaternalspacesinwhichmotherswereallowedthefreedomtoshareideasand

supportoneanotherwithoutinterferencefrommembersofthedominantpublic.

Itheorizematernalspaceasanyspaceoccupiedbywomeninwhichtheirmaternal

rolesareforegroundedandleveragedrhetoricallytogivethemauthorityandagency

withinthatspace.Inthesematernalspaces,mothersareexpectedtobegoodmotherswho

reflecttheculturalcodeofmotherhoodandreinforcesociety’straditionsandvalues,yet

paradoxically,maternalspaceisamother-centeredplacethatallowsmotherstohavesome

agencyandautonomyindecidinghowbesttostructuretheactivitiesthatoccurwithinthat

space.Spacesassociatedwithwomenhavetraditionallybeendisregardedand

marginalized,ashastheknowledgeandactivitiesthattakeplacewithinthosespaces

(Spain235).Whileideologiessuchasscientificmotherhoodplacestrictexpectationson

mothers,theactivitiesthatactuallyoccurwithinindividualdomesticspacesareconsidered

privateandareoftennotcloselyscrutinized.Thisdisregardfortheimportanceofthe

activitiesthatoccurwithinindividualdomesticspacesallowsmotherstheopportunityto

transformthehomeintoasafeprivatematernalspaceinwhichtheycanresistthe

dominantpracticesassociatedwithmotherhoodandredefinemotherhoodforthemselves.

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Whilesuccessfulpracticeofanalternativeparadigmofmotherhoodwoulddepend

uponthecreationofmaternalspacewithinthehome,itwasalsovitalforLLLmothersto

carveoutmaternalspaceinpublicplacesbecausethepublicis“thearenainwhichsocial

relations(i.e.status)areproduced”andthosesocialrelationsarethenreproducedinside

thehome(Spain7).Totrulyoffermothersautonomyovertheirmaternalexperiences,LLL

motherswouldneedtotransformpublicspacesintopublicmaternalspaces.Inorderto

achievethisoutsideofthehome,LLLmothersneededtodeveloprhetoricalstrategiesto

negotiatenewrelationshipswiththosewhoheldauthoritywithinpublicspaces.Often,this

involvedemployingmaternalrhetorictoargueinfavorofalternativepracticesandto

establishmaternalethosbyframingmaternalexperienceasasourceofauthority.

Whilethecreationofpublicmaternalspaceswascriticalforthegrowthandspread

ofLLL’scounterpublicafteritgainedalarge,geographicallydispersedaudience,inits

earlieststages,LLLfocusedlargelyoncraftingprivatematernalspacethroughthe

employmentofmaternalrhetoricandrhetoricallysignificantactivity,suchashomebirth

andthesharingofknowledgegainedfromfirst-handexperience.Itusedthatspaceasasite

todevelopanalternativeparadigmofmotherhoodandre-establishmaternalauthority.

Theuseofaprivatematernalspacetohosttheegalitariansupport-groupconstituteda

subversiverhetoricalresponsethatallowedthefoundersthephysicalandmetaphorical

spacetocraftacounterdiscoursethatchallengedthemarginalizationofmothersbythe

medicalprofession.AsFraserexplains,counterpublicsoftenoriginatein“parallel

discursivearenas”thatofferasafespacetodeveloptheirideasandhonetheirdiscourse

(Fraser67).TheprivatematernalspaceofLLL’smother-to-mothersupportgroup

constitutedaparalleldiscursivearenainwhichmemberswereabletodiscussnatural

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childbirthandmothering,topicsthatwerelargelyignoredordismissedbythemedical

profession;toclaim,withlegitimacy,thatmaternalexperienceisavalidandvaluableform

ofknowledge;toencouragewomentoshareinamutualexchangeofsupportand

knowledgeinordertoencourageandsustainanapproachtomotheringthatdifferedfrom

thedominantparadigm;andtocreateanalternateparadigmofmotheringandinfant

feeding.ThesemeetingsbecamearhetoricaltraininggroundsforLLLandledtothe

developmentofacounterdiscoursethateventuallyallowedtheorganizationtochallenge

dominantdiscourseontheissuesofinfantfeedingandmotherhood,re-establishmaternal

authorityoverinfantcareandfeeding,de-medicalizetheroutinecareofinfants,andcreate

anewmodelofnaturalmotherhoodandchildcare.

Bothprivateandpublicmaternalspacesarerhetoricallycreated,butifprivate

maternalspacesoperatedasrhetoricaltraininggroundsforLLL,publicmaternalspaces

werethefrontlineswhereLLL’sarmyofbreastfeedingmotherswherecalleduponto

employmaternalrhetorictoassertmaternalauthorityinthepublicspaceswherethey

weremarginalized.Scholarshipexaminingthewayinwhichwomenreformersadvocated

fortheirrighttooccupyandspeakinpublicspacesoffersamodelforunderstandingthe

wayinwhichmembersofLLLemployedmaternalrhetoricinordertoassertagencyand

creatematernalspaceinpublicspaces.Forexample,CarolMattingly’sWell-Tempered

Women:NineteenthCenturyTemperanceRhetoricexploresthewayinwhichwomenofthe

Woman’sChristianTemperanceUnion(WCTU)highlightedtheirfemininityandpresented

themselvesasduty-boundandbenevolentinordertoauthorizepublicspeechandtheir

reformactivities.Theyemphasizedthattheywerenotfocusedonadvocatingforwomen’s

rightsbutinsteadwerefocusedonprotectingtheweakandimprovingthedomesticlivesof

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womenandchildrenbyadvocatingfortemperance;thus,theirpublicreformactivities

wereacceptedbecausetheyseemedtobemotivatedbyChristiandutyandwerefocusedon

thedomesticlivesofwomenandchildren.Theyoftenusedthisplatform,however,to

“reachotherwiseinaccessibleaudiencesinordertomaketheircaseforgreaterrightsfor

women”(Mattingly15).Asimilarapproachwasemployedbypostbellumwomenorators.

InGenderandRhetoricalSpaceinAmericanLife,1866-1910,NanJohnsonrevealsthewayin

whichpostbellumwomenoratorswereableto“co-optthepublicspeakingpodiumasa

domesticsiteandportraywomenrhetorsasachievingtheirpublicinfluenceonlyasa

resultofaninspiredextensionoftheirfemininedomain”(16).Similarly,IarguethatLLL

employedmaternalrhetoric—arguingthattheyweremotivatedbymotherlyloveand

concern—toassertmaternalauthorityinpublicspacesandtocraftmaternalspacethat

offeredthefreedomtoresistdominanttrendsandpracticesininfantfeeding;however,I

arguethatinsteadofframingpublicspaceasanextensionofdomesticspace,LLL

developedarhetoricalstrategytocraftanyspaceintomaternalspacebydeveloping

maternalethosandassociatingresistancetothedominantpracticesandactivitiesthattook

placewithinpublicspaceswiththemother’sroleasagood,loving,nurturing,protective

mother.Therefore,whilepostbellumoratorsarguedthatthepodiumwasanextensionof

thedomesticsite,LLLmothersarguedthatpublicspacesmustaccommodatetheactivities

involvedingoodmotheringevenifthoseactivitiesarecontrarytostatusquopractices.

Becausetherewereveryfewwrittenrecordsoftheorganization’sfirsttwoofyears

ofexistence,1956and1957,thischapterreliesheavilyonreadingsoforganizational

historiesandfirst-handaccountsgivenintranscribedinterviewspublishedmorerecently.

Thesetextsrevealthewayinwhichthefounders’experiencesshapedtheirviewson

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motherhood,maternalspace,maternalauthority,andmaternalpractices,anditshowshow

theseviewsshapedthestructureandcontentofthemother-to-mothersupportgroup

meetingsaswellasLLL’scounterdiscourseonmotheringandbreastfeeding.

Myaiminthischapteristocontributetothebodyofscholarshipexploringthe

rhetoricalnatureofspaceandtheroleofspatialrhetoricsingendering.JessicaEnochcalls

fortheinvestigationofspatialrhetoricswhichinvolve“thelanguagethatdesignatesa

space,thematerialsthatconstructandadornit,andtheactivitiesenactedinsideit”in

orderunderstand“howthecompositionofspacecreates,maintains,orrenovatesgendered

differencesandunderstandings”(Enoch,OctologIII,115).Inthischapter,Ibuildonthe

workoffeministrhetoricianssuchasJessicaEnoch,JordynnJack,andRoxanneMountford,

aswellasfeministgeographerDoreenMasseyandurbanplanninganddevelopment

scholarDaphneSpain,tounderstandthegenderingandrhetoricityofspace.Theirwork

shedslightonthewayinwhichthegenderingandregenderingofspaces,physicallyand

symbolically,canmarginalizeorempower.Iapplytheirscholarshiptoreadtheearly

historyofLLLasastoryaboutthesubversiveuseofgenderedspacetoreclaimandrevalue

women’sexperience-based,domesticknowledge.IrelyonLindalBuchanan’sRhetoricsof

Motherhoodtounderstandtheparadoxicalnatureofmaternalrhetorics,whichcan

empowermotherswhilesimultaneouslyconstrainingthem.Additionally,Buchananoffers

insightintohowLLLharnessedtheculturalcodeofmotherhood,particularlycomponents

suchasdomesticity,love,nurturance,andnourishment,toauthorizeanewwayofbeing

andacting,withinamaternalspace,thatempoweredmothers.

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RHETORIC,MATERNALSPACE,ANDMOTHERHOODINTHE1950S

Spacesareunavoidablyrhetorical,asrhetoricisimplicatedinquestionsregarding

whoisauthorizedtooccupyaspace,whoisexcluded,howthosewithinthespaceare

expectedtoconductthemselves,thelayoutofthespace,thematerialsfoundwithinthe

space,andwhatcountsasknowledgeorauthorityinthatspace.Spacesareinescapably

imbuedwithsymbolicmeaningandconveygenderedmessagesthat“bothreflectandaffect

thewaysinwhichgenderisconstructedandunderstood”(Massey179).Whenwomenare

relegatedtoaparticularspace,asthewhite,middle-classhousewiveswhofoundedLLL

wererelegatedtothehome,thisprocessofgenderedspatialsegregationisinstrumentalin

theformationoftheiridentities(Massey179);thus,spaceplaysasignificantroleinthe

constructionofmotherhoodandinthedevelopmentofone’smaternalidentity.

Inthemid-twentiethcentury,middle-classwhitemotherswereexpectedtoremain

athomedespitethefactthatmanywomenhadenteredtheworkforceduringWWII.

Consigningwomentothehomeinthepost-WWIIeramaderoomintheworkforceformen

returningfromwar,butitalsoreinforcedtraditionalvaluesandservedasasymbolof

economicprosperity.The1950swhite,middle-classhousewifewasarepresentationof

classstatusandupwardmobility(Coontz6).AccordingtoCoontz,thepopularmagazine

imagesofthe1950sAmericanhousewifeandhernewhomeapplianceswerean

internationallydistributedsymboloftheprosperityandqualityoflifeofferedbyAmerican

capitalism.Minoritywomen,low-incomewomen,andsinglemotherswerealso

constrainedbytheseexpectations,buteconomicnecessitypushedthemintothe

workforce;thus,thesemothershadtorhetoricallyleveragetheculturalcodeof

motherhooddifferentlytoframetheiractivitiesasgoodmothering.

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Combinedwiththeideologyofscientificmotherhood,whichpromotedahands-off,

scientificapproachtochildrearing,theemphasisondomesticityasasymbolofarising

whitemiddle-classresultedinanattitudetowardthehomethatwasprimarilyconcerned

withthemother’sroleinmaintainingtheimageofasuccessful,well-organizedmiddle-

classfamilywithouttheaidofhousekeepingstaff.Therewaslessemphasisonspending

timewithchildrenanddevelopingcloserelationshipswiththem.Thiswasadeparture

fromthelong-heldunderstandingofthehome,whichaccordingtoMassey,hadlongbeen

associatedwithstability,reliability,andauthenticity;thehomehadpreviouslybeenviewed

asanemotionalsafetynetinwhichthosewhohadleftcouldreturntoreceivecomfortand

affectionfrommothersorwives(Massey180).

Whilethewhite,middle-classhousewifeofthe1950splayedakeyroleinthe

promotionofAmerica’sthrivingcapitalisteconomy,theknowledgethatmothersgained

fromtheirfirst-handexperiencesinthehomewerenotvalued.AsDaphneSpainexplains,

“Domesticinformationconveyedwithinthehomeisdevalued,atleastpartiallybecauseitis

possessedbywomen”(235).Inthe1950s,therealitywasthatadvancementsin

technology,science,andmedicine,aswellasscientificmotherhood’sprescriptiveideology,

strippedmothersoftheirpersonalautonomyandagencybothwithinandoutsideofthe

homebyconsigningthemtothehomeanddictatingtheiractionswithinit.Gendered

institutions,suchastheprofessionsofmedicineandscience,reliedonspatialsegregation

tocontrolknowledgeandresourcesthroughthecontrolofspace(Spain15).Because

motherhoodhadbeenmedicalizedbytheideologyofscientificmotherhoodandmothers

wereexpectedtostayathomeratherthanenterprofessionssuchasmedicine,maternal

knowledgeandexperiencegainedindomesticspaceswasnotrecognizedasauthoritative.

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Spainarguesthattheonlywayforgenderedinstitutions,suchasmedicine,to

changeisforwomenandmentooccupythesameplacesequally(xv),anditisonlyonce

thisspatialbarrierisbreachedthatgenderedstratificationbeginstochange(Spain5).

Muchofthescholarshipdedicatedtospatialrhetoricsfocusesonwomen’suseofrhetorical

strategiestodegendermasculinespaces.Feministrhetoricalscholars(Jack;Enoch;Wells;

Skinner;Buchanan;Mountford;Moseley)havepreviouslyexploredthewayinwhich

womenrhetorshaveemployedrhetoricalstrategiestoauthorizetheirentryintomasculine

genderedspaces,andinsodoing,havetransformedthosespacesandthegendered

relationshipstheyrepresent.ButasscholarssuchasWells,Skinner,andMountfordreveal,

evenwhenwomenenterintomasculinegenderedspacesinaprofessionalcapacity,they

stillmustemployrhetoricalstrategies,suchasthedevelopmentofethos,toassert

authorityandgainrespect.Forexample,studiesoftherhetoricalactivityofnineteenth-

centurywomenphysiciansbySusanWellsandCarolynSkinnerrevealthatoncewomen

haveenteredintoagenderedinstitutionorspace,itwasstillnecessarytoadoptrhetorical

strategiesthatauthorizetheirparticipationandvalidatetheiruniquecontributions.These

studiesrevealthedifficultrhetoricalworkrequiredtodegenderspaces,which,asSpain

explains,requiresthatrhetors“makegenderedspacesandtheirlinkswithknowledge

visible”andthen“toopposetheirpersistence”(Spain239).

Sometimesopposingthepersistenceofgenderedspacesmeantcontendingwith

problematicmaterialarrangements.InTheGenderedPulpit:PreachinginAmerican

ProtestantSpaces,RoxanneMountfordexploredthewaysinwhichonefemaleminister,

PatriciaO’Connor,dealtwiththephysicalrealitiesofthepulpit,whichdwarfedher

diminutivesize.O’Connorrejectedthepulpitandmovedoutintotheaudiencewhengiving

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sermons(Mountford,GenderedPulpit66).Thispracticalsolutionhadsignificantrhetorical

implications,asthepulpitkeptadistancebetweentheministerandthecongregation.In

movingamongstthecongregation,O’Connoralteredtherelationshipbetweenherselfand

thecongregationandtransformedthesanctuaryintoamorefemininespace.

Inadditiontostudyingthewaysthatwomenhaveattemptedtorhetorically

regendermasculinespaces,rhetoricianshaverevealedthewayinwhichthemeaningof

domesticspaceanddomesticityhasbeenexpandedtoencouragewomentoenterinto

masculinespaces.Earlierinthechapter,Iexploredthewayinwhichwomenhave

employeddomesticitytoauthorizetheirreformactivitiesinpublicspaces.Asscholars

JessicaEnochandJordynnJackreveal,domesticityhasalsobeenemployedtoreframe

publicspacestopersuadewomentoleavethehome.In“ActsofInstitution:Embodying

FeministRhetoricalMethodologiesinTimeandSpace,”JordynnJackexploresthewaythat

WWIIerafactorieswererenovatedtoreflectdomesticityandfemininityinorderto

accommodatewomenworkers.Jackarguesthattheassociationofthefactorywith

femininityanddomesticityreshapedlaborpractices,structuredwomen’sschedulesaround

theirmaternalresponsibilities,andpromptedthephysicalreorganizationoftheworkplace

throughsuchinclusionsasachildcarecenterandasaloninthefactory;suchchanges

allowedwomentoaccomplishtheirdomesticdutieswhilefillingamanpowershortage

(Jack294-296).JessicaEnoch’s“There’sNoPlaceLiketheChildcareCenter:AFeminist

Analysisof<Home>intheWorldWarIIEra,”revealsthewayinwhichtherhetorical

constructionoftheWWIIerachildcarecenteras“home”showsthattheexpansionofthe

conceptofdomesticitywasastrongrhetoricaldevicethathelpedtoauthorizewomen’s,

evenmothers’,movementintotheworkplaceandoutofthehomeduringtheWWIIera

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(“There’sNoPlaceLike”).Conversely,thiscontinuedassociationofwomenwiththe

domesticsphereinthewartimeerahelpedtofacilitateamovementtopushwomenoutof

theworkplaceandbackintothehomeinthepost-warera(Enoch,“There’sNoPlaceLike”

434).InDomesticOccupations:SpatialRhetoricsandWomen’sWork,Enochexpandedher

explorationofthewayinwhichtheconceptofhomewasleveragedrhetoricallytoallow

womenentranceintotheteachingprofessionandlaboratorysciences(asdomestic

scientists)inadditiontothewartimefactoryduringWorldWarII.Domesticscientists,for

example,gainedentryintothesciencesbyregendering“thehomefromafemininespaceof

loveandcomforttoamasculinesiteofscientificexperimentation”(Enoch,Domestic

Occupations172).Thesedomesticscientistswereabletoelevatethevalueofdomestic

activitiesandgainaccessintothesciencesbyframingwomen’sunderappreciateddomestic

workasmasculineandworthyofscientificstudy;yetintheprocess,theylikelycontributed

tothedevelopmentofthescientificapproachtomotheringandmotherhoodthatwas

prevalentintheeraofscientificmotherhood.

Scholarlyexplorationsofthewaythatdominantviewsofdomesticityandthehome

canbeusedandtransformedrhetoricallytoauthorizewomen’sentryinto,orforcetheir

exitfrom,professionsandpublicspacesareinstructive.Thesestudiesofferamodelthat

canbeusedtounderstandthewayinwhichtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodandits

associatedconcepts—suchaslove,sacrifice,altruism,andthehome—canbeleveraged

rhetoricallytocreatematernalspaceinwhichmothershavetheauthoritytoadoptnew

maternalrolesandpracticesthatchallengethestatusquounderstandingofmotherhood

andmothering.WhileEnochfocusesonthewayinwhichwomenuseddomesticityto

authorizeentryintoprofessionsoutsideofthehome,hertheoryofspatialrhetoricshelps

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toexplainthewaymembersofLLLemployedmaternalrhetorictotransformthehomeinto

amaternalspaceandauthorizesubversivematernalactivities.Understandinghowarhetor

maytransformthemeaningofspacetoauthorizeherentranceintothatspaceorher

activitieswithinthatspacerequiresanexaminationofspatialrhetorics,or“themultimodal

waysthroughwhichspacesgainmeaning”(Enoch,DomesticOccupations6).Thestudyof

spatialrhetoricsrequiresanexaminationof“whatbodiesdoinspaceandwhatspacesdo

tobodies,distinguishingthewaysthatsitesconfine,constrain,orfreebodiesandtheway

thatbodiesmakeandremakespacesthroughtheirpresenceandactions”(12).Thewomen

whomEnochstudiedwereabletoleveragetheconceptofhometoauthorizetheirentry

intoprofessionsoutsideofthehome.Thesuccessoftheirrhetoricalefforts,which

foregroundedtheconceptofhome,dependedupondominantperceptionsofhomethat

“prescribedwomen’sattachmenttoitandconditionedwomen’sworkoutsideit”(Enoch,

DomesticOccupations13).AsEnochexplains,theconceptofhomedoesnothaveastatic

meaning;itsrhetoricalpowerliesinitsadaptability.Enocharguesthatthemeaningof

home“iscreated,sustained,andreshapedthroughrhetoricaloperationsthatarecraftedin

responsetoparticularconstraintsandthatcapitalizedonspecificopportunities”(Domestic

Occupations5).Womencouldtakeadvantageofthefluidandadaptablenatureofspatial

rhetoricsinordertoauthorizetheirentranceintoprofessionsoutsidethehomebyarguing

thattheirprofessionalworkwasanextensionoftheirdomesticity.LLLmadeasimilar

rhetoricalmovebyarguingthatthesubversivedomesticactivitiesandmaternalbehaviors

thatitpromotedweretheproductofgoodmotheringandalignedwiththeculturalcodeof

motherhood.

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Anunderstandingofthewayinwhichmotherhoodcanbeharnessedtoauthorize

resistancetodominantpracticesofmotheringwithinthedomesticsphererequiresa

carefulexaminationofthedifferencesbetweenmotherhoodanddomesticity.While

domesticitywasrequiredofmothersinthepost-WWIIera,andmotherswereexpectedto

occupythedomesticspaceofthehome,motherhoodanddomesticityareseparate

concepts.SarahBurkeOdlandparsesthetwoconceptsandexplainsthatwhilemotherhood

involvesactivitiesrelatedtothephysicalandemotionalcareofchildren,domesticity

involvesdailychoresotherthanchildcareandhouseholdmanagementinthephysical

locationofthehome(67).Itispossibletobeamotherwithoutbeingdomesticordomestic

withoutbeingamother(Odland67).ExtendingthislineofOdland’sreasoning,Idrawa

distinctionbetweendomesticspaceandmyunderstandingofmaternalspace,whichwas

inspiredbyaccountsofthesubversivedomesticactivitiesofLLLmothers,suchasMarian

Tompson,andtheorganizationasawhole.Idefinedomesticspaceasthephysicallocation

withinwhichapersonorfamilyresides.Iunderstandthedifferencebetweenadomestic

spaceoccupiedbyamotherprovidingcareforherchildrenandaprivatematernalspaceto

bethatthelatterisanenclavedspace,bothphysicalandrhetorical,thatoffersthemother

thefreedomtoorientthecare-takingactivitiesthatoccurwithinthespacearoundherown

understandingoftheuniqueneedsofherindividualchildren;itencourageshertoexercise

personalautonomyandallowshertoresistdominanttrendsandideologiesthatcontradict

herunderstandingofhowshecanbestfulfillhermaternalresponsibilitytocarefor,love,

andnurtureherchildren.Theconceptofamaternal,mother-centeredspaceprioritizesthe

mother’semotionalandpsychologicalfulfillmentsothatsheishappyandhealthyforthe

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sakeofherchildren;therefore,thecreationofprivatematernalspaceencouragesmothers

torelaxandpursueactivitiesthattheyprioritizeandfindpersonallyfulfilling.

Bothprivateandpublicmaternalspaceisrhetoricallyconstructed.AsEnoch

suggests,spatialrhetoricsinvolvethestudyofthelanguage,materials,andactivitiesthat

areinvolvedinthecompositionofspace,andthecompositionofspace“cancreate,

maintain,orrenovategendereddifferencesandunderstandings”(Enoch,OctologIII,115).

Maternalspaces,Iargue,havethecapacitytorhetoricallyrenovateculturalunderstandings

ofmotherhood.Thedevelopmentofmaternalspacereliesontheestablishmentofmaternal

ethosthatisundergirdedbyelementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood.Byframingher

styleofmotheringandherresistancetothestatusquothroughthelensofconceptssuchas

love,empathy,altruism,morality,andprotection,amotherisabletojustifyanddefendher

maternalpractices.Sheisbothconstrainedandemboldenedinthespace,asheractions

withinthatspacearemeasuredagainstculturalnormsandvalues,butsheisabletoadopt

andadaptculturalvaluesinordertoresistnormsandpracticesthatcontradictherown

viewsofchildcare.

Asthecreationandmaintenanceofmaternalspacedependsupontherhetorical

foregroundingofelementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood,theconceptofmaternal

spaceisparadoxicalinnature.Itconstrainswomenwithintraditionalrolesandspaces

associatedwithmotherhood,yetitcanbeleveragedrhetoricallytoencouragewomento

challengetraditionandleavetraditionaldomesticspacesforthesakeofthefamily.In

RhetoricsofMotherhood,LindalBuchananexplainsthatmaternalrhetorics“doemploy

traditionalassumptionsaboutwomen,”buttappingintotheculturalcodeofmotherhood

“generatesrhetoricalresourcesthatareusefulforforwardingchange,”whilealso

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potentiallyconstrainingwomen(22-23).Thecodeofmotherhoodcanbeusedrhetorically

toencouragewomentoenterthepublicsphereintimesofcrisis,oritcanbeusedto

empowerwomen,suchasmembersoftheWomen’sChristianTemperanceUnioninthe

latenineteenthcentury(Mattingly),topubliclyadvocateoutsideofthehomeforsocietal

andlegalchangesthatwouldimprovethedomesticlivesofwomenandchildren.

Mostscholarsexploringthegenderingofspacehaveunderstoodthehomeasaplace

thatconstrainswomen’sabilitytoparticipateinthepublicsphereormakemeaningful

contributionstopublicknowledge.ScholarssuchasJackandEnochwhohavestudiedthe

wayinwhichconceptssuchasdomesticityandthehomecanbeleveragedrhetoricallyto

authorizewomentoenterintoprofessionaloccupationsandspaces,butmostscholarshave

stillviewedthehomeasasiteofconstraintanddisempowerment.DaphneSpainbelieved

thatgenderedstratificationcanonlychangewhenwomenoccupythesamespacesasmen

andtheircontributionstoknowledge-makingarevaluedequally(xv).IarguethatLLL’s

creationofmaternalspacethroughthesubversionofthematernalrole,itshighlightingof

gendereddifferences,anditsforegroundingofthequalitiestraditionallyassociatedwith

motherhoodprovidedtherhetoricalauthorizationthatLLLneededinordertoconfront

andultimatelyreshapewidespreadpublicattitudestowardmotherhoodandbreastfeeding.

LLL’sfounderswerenotinitiallyregardedasauthoritiesoninfantfeeding,yettheyused

maternalexperiencesandtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodtocreatematernalspaceand

authorizeactivitiesthatwerediscouraged,includinghomebirth,breastfeeding,andthe

developmentofstrongemotionalandphysicalconnectionstotheirchildren.

Bysubversivelylocatingthemselveswithinthematernalspaceofthehomeand

framingtheiractivitiesthroughthelensoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood,LLLwasable

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torhetoricallyappropriatetheculturalcodeofmotherhood“inordertodisruptand

transmutetheoppressivesystemsofgender,knowledge,andpowerthatcomprisethe

master’shouse”(Buchanan23)which,inthecaseofLLL,wasmedicaldiscourseand

dominantmedicalpractices.LLLusedtheprivatematernalspaceofthehometodevelop

newideasaboutmotherhood,particularlyitsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,andit

usedthatprivatematernalspacetosharetheseideasandpracticeswithothermothers.As

exploredinsubsequentchapters,LLL’scounterpublicofprimarilywhite,middle-class

motherswould,withrhetoricalacumenandmaternalethos,becapableofcreating

maternalspacewherevertheywere—hospitals,doctor’soffices,andhomespaces.As

mothersemployedrhetoricalstrategiestocreatematernalspacewherevertheyhappened

tobe,theybroughtLLL’sideasandpracticesintopublicviewandultimatelyreshaped

dominantdiscourseontheissuesofinfantfeedingandmotherhood.

CHILDBIRTHANDMATERNALSPACE

ThechildbirthexperiencesofseveralofLLL’sfounders,bothinthehospitalandat

home,shapedLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodanditsunderstandingofthewayin

whichmotherscouldusematernalrhetoricandsubversiveactivitytocarveoutmaternal

spacebothinthehomeandinpubliclocations.Theirindividualexperienceswith

unmedicatedbirthbothinthehospitalandathomeexposedthelimitationsofthemedical

profession’sknowledgeandthewaythatthestructureandpracticesoftheprofession

posedanobstacleformotherswhowishedtoexperienceunmedicatedchildbirth.These

experiencesalsorevealedthatdominantpracticesofchildbirthhinderedthedevelopment

ofanearlyandstrongmother-childbond.Inchoosingtogivebirthathome,severalofLLL’s

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foundersestablishedtheirhomesasmaternalspacesinwhichtheyactedwithagencyto

resistdominantpracticesinordertoensurethehealthandwellbeingoftheirchildren.For

severalfoundingmembersofLLL,choosingtohaveaphysician-assisted,unmedicated

homebirthwastheirfirstactofrhetoricalresistancetodominanttrends.Tojustifythe

decisiontothemselves,theirfamilies,andmedicalprofessionals,theyfounditnecessaryto

rhetoricallyforegroundthewaysinwhichhomebirthalignedwithtraditionalvalues

associatedwithmotherhood,suchaslove,protection,andnurturance.Intheremainderof

thissection,Iwillreviewthedominantpracticesofchildbirthinthe1950sanddiscussthe

wayinwhichtheexperiencesofseveralofLLL’sfounders,particularlyMarianTompson,

informedLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandpreparedLLLmothersto

rhetoricallyleverageconceptsassociatedwithmotherhoodtocreatematernalspacewithin

whichtoresistdominantpractices.

SeveralofLLL’sfounders,includingMaryWhite,EdwinaFroehlich,Marian

Tompson,ViolaLennon,andMaryAnnKerwin,sharedaninterestinnaturalchildbirthand

desiredtogivebirthnaturallyinaconsciousstatesothattheycouldbeginbondingwith

theirbabiesimmediately.Theyinitiallyassumedthatachievingthisgoalwasasimple

matterofconvincingphysicianstoagreetoletthemgivebirthunmedicatedinthehospital;

however,theyquicklydiscoveredthatsocietalnorms,establishedmedicalpractice,andthe

physicalspaceofthehospitalworkedagainsttheireffortstoachievethisgoal.Bythetime

thefoundersofLLLwerehavingbabiesinthelate1940s,themajorityofbabieswereborn

inhospitals;inthedecadebetween1938and1948,thepercentageofinfantsbornin

hospitalsintheUnitedStatesrosefrom55%to90%(“HealthierMothersandBabies”853).

Forseveralofthefoundingmothers,MarianTompsonandMaryWhiteinparticular,their

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effortstoexperiencenaturalchildbirthrevealedtheimportanceofcreatingamaternal

spaceinwhichmothershadagencyovertheirmaternalexperiences.Theyfeltthatahome

birthofferedthemmoreautonomyandledtoaquicker,morenaturalintegrationofthe

babyintofamilylife.AfterreadingChildbirthWithoutFear,MaryWhiteandherhusband,

physicianDr.GregWhite,hadanunmedicatedhospitalbirthin1947,andin1950theyhad

anunmedicatedhomebirthwiththeirfourthchild(Lowman,Revolutionaries8).ForMary

White,thehomebirthexperiencemadebirthseemmuchmorelikeanaturalpartoflife

(Cahill7-8).

Medicatedhospitalbirthswereoneoftheprimarywaysthatscientificmotherhood

strippedwomenofpersonalagencyandbodilyautonomy.Ironically,women’squestfor

autonomyovertheirbirthingexperiencesplayedasignificantroleintheriseofhospital

births.First-wavefeministscontributedtothemedicalizationofchildbirthbyadvocating

forpain-freelaborandaccesstohospitalsduringchildbirth(Skowronski26).Many

physicianscapitalizedonthismovementinfavorofpain-freebirthingtechniques,and

somepromotedthispracticeaswomanfriendly,asmotherscouldgivebirthwithout

consciousawarenessofpain.Bymakingdemandsforpain-freeapproaches,suchasaccess

totwilightsleep,“womenbegantoasserttheirautonomyindecisionsaboutchildbirth,”

but,paradoxically,theydidsoinsuchawaythatthey“relinquishedconsciousbirthand

acceptedmedicalcontrol”(Skowronski623).Twilightsleep,theunconscious,amnesic,

pain-freeconditionachievedthroughaninjectionofmorphineandscopolamine,required

womentoberestrainedtopreventinjury(Gibson623).Applicationsofetherrequired

closeobservationbynursesbecauseitfrequentlycausedwomentoloseconsciousness

(Gibson624).Figure1below,apagefroma1915textexploringthemethodofusing

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scopolamineandmorphinetoinducetwilightsleep,providesexamplesofrestraintsthat

wereusedintheprocess.Theimageisastartlingvisualrepresentationofthewayinwhich

mothersrelinquishedpersonalagencyandcontrolovertheirbodiesinthelaborward.

Figure1.GownsusedtorestrainwomenduringtwilightsleepfromVanHoosen,

Bertha;Scopolamine-morphineAnaesthesia.AndAPsychologicalStudyof"TwilightSleep"

MadebytheGiessenMethodbyElisabethRossShaw,Chicago,IL:HouseofManz,1915;

Archive.org,https://ia800707.us.archive.org/16/items/scopolaminemorph00vanh/

scopolaminemorph00vanh.pdf.

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Whilemedicatedchildbirthinthehospitalwasthenorm,thenaturalchildbirth

movement,whichwasledprimarilybymalephysicians,wasgainingtractioninthe1950s.

GrantlyDick-Read’s1942bookChildbirthWithoutFear,whichpromotednatural,

unmedicatedchildbirth,wasaninternationalbestseller,andseveralofLLL’sfoundershad

readit.WomensuchasthefoundersofLLLweredrawntonaturalchildbirthbecausethey

cametobelievethattherewasahumanelementmissingfromthedominantmedical

practicesinchildbirth(Litoff229).Advocatesofnaturalchildbirthfeltthatunmedicated

childbirth,keepingtheinfantinthesameroomasthemother,andbreastfeedingwould

createastrongermother-childbondthatwouldfosterindividualhappinessandsocial

stability(Plant138).Thismaternalistargumentbynaturalchildbirthadvocatesoffered

legitimacytounmedicatedbirthsbecauseitalignedthepracticewiththeculturalcodeof

motherhood.ThediscourseofthenaturalchildbirthmovementconvincedseveralofLLL’s

founderstoseekoutanaturalchildbirthandpreparedthemtomakesimilarrhetorical

argumentsinsupportoftheirdecisionstorejectdominantpracticeandtobreastfeed.Yet,

theyquicklydiscoveredthatconvincingaphysiciantoallowunmedicatedbirthwasnot

sufficienttomaketheexperienceapositiveone.Theirchildbirthexperiencesrevealeda

lackofinformationandsupportforwomentohelpthemnavigatethepracticalitiesof

achievingasatisfyingnaturalchildbirthexperienceinanerawhenmothershadlost

controlofthebirthingchamberandmedicatedhospitalbirthswerethenorm.

MarianTompson’saccountofthestruggletoexerciseautonomyoverherchildbirth

experiencesisillustrativeofthechallengesmothersfacedwhenattemptingtocreate

maternalspaceintheeraofscientificmotherhood.Likeseveralofthefounders,Tompson

chosetohaveanunmedicatedbirth.Inthearticle“Custom-MadeDelivery,”Tompson

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comparedherexperienceswithunmedicatedbirthinthehospitalandathome,andin

doingshedrewastarkcontrastbetweentheconstraintandlackofagencythatmothers

experiencedinthegenderedspaceofthelaborwardversustheliberatorypotentialofthe

home.

Tompsonhadneverdesiredahomebirth;shesimplyhadwanteda“natural

childbirth”(Tompson207),andwhenherphysicianagreedwithherrequestforan

unmedicatedbirth,shehadassumedthatthebattletohavethebirthshewantedhadbeen

won;however,herfirstunmedicatedhospitalbirthwasadisappointment.Theattitudesof

thephysicianandthehospitalstaffmadeitclearthatinthelaborward,wherewomen

werealmostalwaysmedicated,thelaboringmother’sneedsanddesireswere

inconsequential.Herbirthattendantswereunexcitedandlackedinterestinthebirth,her

husbandwasnotallowedinthedeliveryroom,andherphysicianunhappilycommented

thatifshewereunconscious,hecouldusetheforcepsanddeliverthebabyquickly

(Tompson207).Whileshedescribedthebirthasseeminglypainlessandoneofthemost

excitingmomentsofherlife,the36-hourlabor,duringwhichshewasconscious,revealed

toher“howunsuitableahospitalistohaveababyandhowinsensitivemanybirth

attendantsaretotheneedsofthewomaninlabor”(Tompson207-208).Whilefirst-wave

feminists,whohadadvocatedforaccesstothetwilightsleepmethod,wantedcontrolover

theirownexperiences,Tompson’shospitalbirthexperiencesunderscoredthelossof

autonomyandidentityofmedicatedmothersintheroutinepracticeofthelaborwardin

themid-twentiethcentury.

Asaresultofherunsatisfactoryexperienceinthelaborwardduringthatfirst

delivery,Tompsonemployedrhetoricalstrategiesandpracticesinanattempttotransform

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thelaborwardintoamaternalspace.Shemadeapointtodelayarrivaltothehospitaluntil

lateintolaborwithhersecondandthirdchildren(Tompson207).Indoingso,shenotonly

avoidedalengthyperiodofconfinement,butshealsoconveyedthemessagethatalaboring

mothercouldnavigatelaborsafelyonherownwithouttheoversightandinterventionof

medicalprofessionals.Sheaskedthatherhusbandbeallowedintheroom,andinsodoing,

sheframedchildbirthasafamily-centeredeventwhichshouldaccommodatetheemotional

needsanddesiresofthelaboringmother.Thoughshehadhopedforherhusband’scomfort

andsupport,butshewastoldbyherphysicianthatitwasnotallowedandthat“anyway,

therewouldn’tberoom”(Tompson209).UnbeknownsttoTompson,asanunmedicated

birthwassorare,anumberofhospitalstaff,includingphysicians,interns,nurses,and

clerks,hadrequestedtobeallowedtoobservewhileshegavebirth.Tompson’sdesireto

includeasupportivefamilymemberinthelaborroomwastreatedassecondarytothe

knowledgethatthemedicalstaffcouldgainfromobservingthebirth.

Tompsonwasnotonlypreventedfromhavinganymeasureofcontroloverthe

environment,butshewasalsoexpectedtoplayapassiveroleinthebirthitself.Her

physicianwasdelayed,andTompsonwastoldtoignoretheurgetopushandwaitforhim

toarrive.Oncehedidarrive,hewastreatedastheprimaryactorinthebirth.Theroomfull

ofobserversgreetedhimincelebratoryfashion,whichTompsoncomparedtoa“triumphal

processionwherethekingentersthecapturedcity”(209).Finallyallowedtopush,

TompsondeliveredherdaughterDeborahwiththreepushes,notearing,andnoscreaming.

Aresidentexcitedlyaskedthephysician,“Doctor,howdidyoudoit?”(210).

ThisdetailedaccountofTompson’sunmedicatedhospitaldeliveriesrevealsthe

constraintsonmaternalagencythatexistedinthelaborroomevenwhenmotherswere

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conscious,unmedicated,andunrestrained.Theaccountalsorevealsmedicalprofessionals’

ignoranceofthenaturalprogressionofchildbirthwithoutinterventions,suchas

medicationandforceps.Italsorevealstheclinicaldetachmentofmedicalprofessionals

whowerenotaccustomedtoconsciouslaboringmothers.Thisexperiencesolidified

Tompson’sviewthatthehospitallaborroomwasaproblematicplacetoseekan

unmedicatedbirth,asitwasorganizedaroundtheassumptionthatchildbirthwas

accomplishedthroughtheactiveworkofaphysician.Themotherwastreatedasthough

shewasnotawareof,norwouldsheremember,thebirth.ThemorethatTompsontriedto

advocateforherselfandtransformthehospitalintoamaternalspace,themoreshe

bumpedupagainstproceduresandpracticesthatunderminedherattemptstogain

autonomy.Becauseshewaitedtoarriveatthehospitaluntiltheendoflabor,andbecause

herphysicianplayedaminorandseeminglyunnecessarypartinthebirth,theexperience

openedTompson’seyestothetruepotentialofthematernalbodyandthewaysthat

dominantmedicaldiscourseandpracticesunderminedit.

Afterthreeunmedicatedhospitaldeliveries,Tompsondecidedtoexerciseher

agencybyavoidingthehospitallaborwardandgivingbirthathomeinstead.She

approachedDr.GregWhite,husbandofLLLfounderMaryWhite,andrequestedthathe

attendherbirthathomewiththeunderstandingthatshewouldgivebirthwithno

medication;shewouldroamfreelyinherhome;shewouldhaveherhusbandintheroom

forsupport;andshewouldhaveherolderchildrencloseathandtogreetthenewaddition

tothefamily.Asitwasherownhome,Tompsonfounditeasiertoassertherauthorityover

herbirthexperiencesandcontrolwhowaspresentforthebirth.Inframingher

expectationsforherbirthinthisway,Tompsonrenegotiatedtherelationshipbetweenthe

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rolesofbirthingmotherandphysician.Herinsistenceongivingbirthathomeconveyed

confidenceinherabilitytogivebirthnaturallywithoutmedicationormedical

interventions.Shewoulddotheactiveworkoflaboringandgivingbirth,whilehewas

presenttooffersupport,observetoensurethatthebirthwasprogressingasitshould,and

interveneifaproblemarose.Thoughherphysician,GregWhite,wasanadvocatefor

unmedicatedbirth,itwaslikelythatTompson’sself-confidenceanddetermination

influencedhisdecisiontoagreetoattendahomebirth.Ininsistinguponherrightto

controlthebirthingenvironmentandconveyingconfidenceinherselfwhilenegotiating

withherphysicianinordertogainhissupport,Tomspontransformedherhomeintoa

maternalspace.

Tompson’sexperiencesgivingbirthtohernextfourchildrenathomewerea

significantdeparturefromtheuncomfortableandunsupportivehospitalenvironment.Her

husbandstayedbyherside,offeringsupportandsharinginthewonderoftheevent.She

wasnolongerconfinedbutwanderedthroughthehouseorintotheyardasshepleased.

Shefeltnoneoftheapprehensioncausedbytheintrusionofstrangers.Tompsonclaimed

thatthosewhohaven’texperiencedahomebirthcannotexpect“tounderstandwhatit

meanstogivebirthtoababyinyourownbed,surroundedbyonlypeoplewholoveand

careaboutyou,andtobeinapositiontotrulycelebrateabirthratherthanjustbravely

endureit”(211).AccordingtoTompson,“theeffectsoftheseunmeasureablesshouldnot

beunderestimated”(211).Shefeltthathomebirths,whichshereferredtoas“custom-

made-deliveries,”bettersuitedherfamilyandintegratedthebabyintofamilylife;her

childrenwereintheroommomentsafterthebirthtovisitthenewsibling,andnoonetook

thebabyaway,whichallowedTompsonandthebabytobondrapidlyandquicklyestablish

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breastfeeding(Tompson210).Byframinghomebirthinthisway,Tompsoninvoked

elementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood,includinglove,nurturance,domesticity,

privacy,andprotection.Ininvokingthecode,Tompsonmakesarhetoricalargumentthat

givingbirthinamaternalspaceisinthebestinterestoftheinfantandthefamily.

Tompson’saccountshowsthemyriadofrhetoricalresourcesandpracticesthatshe

employedtocreateamaternalspaceinwhichherwishesandvoicewereheededinthe

hospitalaswellasthehome.Shewasmoresuccessfulinthehome.Throughthese

experiences,Tompsonlearnedhowrhetoricandthesupportofotherparticipants

contributetothecreationofamaternalspace.Multipleattemptstotransformthehospital

laborwardintoamaternalspacethroughtherhetoricalstrategiesavailable,suchas

negotiationwithphysiciansandcontrollingthetimeofherarrival,gaveherinsightintothe

waythatthemedicalprofession’sperceptionofmothersanditsassociatedstructuraland

materialarrangementsservedtoconstrainmothersandobjectifythem.Tompson’s

subsequentattemptstocreatematernalspacewhilegivingbirthathomerevealedtoher

thatthebirthingexperiencewasmuchmoresatisfyingwhenamotherwasableto

successfullyasserthermaternalauthorityinnegotiationswiththeattendingphysicianto

eliminateunnecessaryinterventions,todecidewhowouldbepresent,andtomoveabout

freelyasshedesired.Shealsolearnedthattheestablishmentofmaternalspacehelped

motherandbabyadjustinthepost-partumperiod.Withfull,unimpededaccesstothebaby,

themother-childbonddevelopedmorerapidly,breastfeedingwaseasiertoinitiate,and

thebabywasintegratedseamlesslyintofamilylife.

Tompsonsharedtheknowledgethatshegainedfromgivingbirthinthematernal

spaceofthehomewithherLLLfellowmembers,includingMaryWhite,EdwinaFroehlich,

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ViolaLennon,andMaryAnnKerwin,whohadalsogivenbirthathome.Ratherthantaking

apassiveroleinchildbirth,womensuchasthefoundersofLLLwhochosetoexperiencea

naturalchildbirthpositionedthemselvesasactiveagentsinthebirthingprocess.These

maternalexperienceswithchildbirthandtheknowledgegainedasaresultwere

foundationaltothedevelopmentofLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.These

experiencesalsoofferedLLLinsightintopracticesandrhetoricalstrategiesthattheycould

employinordertoestablishmaternalspaceandnegotiatewithmembersofdominant

publics,suchasthemedicalprofession.Thoughtheywerelargelyconstrainedfrompublic

lifebytheirsocialrolesaswhite,middle-classhousewivesandmothers,thefounding

mothersofLLLharnessedtheliberatorypotentialofmaternalspacetoempower

themselvestoexperiencemotherhoodontheirowntermsandrejectdominantmedical

practices;insodoing,theyundertookarhetoricalactionthatarguedinfavorofan

alternativeparadigmofwomen’shealthcare,andtheyframedthatactionrhetoricallyasa

decisionmadeinthebestinterestofchildren.

ESTABLISHINGLLLWITHINMATERNALSPACE

FromtheinitialmeetingsofLLL,theorganizationleveragedtheinsightsaboutthe

linkbetweenmaternalauthorityandthehomethatseveralofthefoundersgainedfrom

theirbirthingexperiences.LLL’sfoundersknewthatthematernalspaceofthehomewasa

moreeffectivelocationforexperiencinganaturalchildbirththatfacilitatedaclosebond

betweenmotherandchild,butitwasnotuntilmothersbegantocometothemforadvice

thatthefounderstrulyrealizedthatthepracticesofthemedicalcommunityandthe

dominantpublicplayedasignificantroleinbreastfeedingfailures.Whileholdingmeetings

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withinthehomesofthefounderswasapracticalsolution,thelocationallowedLLL’s

founderstotakeadvantageofthesameaffordancesthatmaternalspaceofferedtobirthing

mothers.ThematernalspaceoftheLLLmeetingpositionedallofthemothersin

attendanceasequalswithsimilarbackgrounds,experiences,andgoals.Whilethemeetings

wereledbyLLLmemberswhohadpreviousexperiencewithbreastfeeding,allmothers

wereallowedtocontributeandsharetheirexperiences.Thematernalspaceofthe

meetingsaffordedprivacy,limitedthepotentialforproblematicinterventionandoversight

bymembersofthemedicalcommunity,andofferedaspaceformotherstowitnessLLL’s

philosophyofnaturalmotherhoodinaction.Thematernalspaceofthemeetingsalso

providedanopportunityforLLL’sfounderstogaininsightintotheobstaclesmothers

encounteredandfurtherdeveloptheirphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood;thus,theLLL

meetingswereasafeparalleldiscursivearenainwhichLLLhoneditscounterdiscourse

priortoreachingouttoalarger,dispersedaudienceofmotherswhowouldformits

counterpublic.Inthefollowingsection,Iwillprovideanoverviewoftheeventsleadingup

tothedevelopmentofthemother-to-motherLLLmeetingsandexplainhowthe

conversationsthattookplacewithintheinitialmeetingshelpedtheorganizationfurther

developtheirphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandtheircounterdiscourse.

InJulyof1956,MarianTompsonandMaryWhitewerebothnursinginfantsatan

outdoorsChristianFamilyMovementpicnicatWilderParkinElmhurst,Illinois,whena

numberofmothersapproachedthemtoexpressadmirationforthenursingmothersand

sharestoriesofstrugglesthatpreventedthemfrombreastfeedingsuccessfully(Lowman,

Revolutionaries13).ThisexperienceatthepicnicmadeTomsponawareofacompletelack

ofsupportforbreastfeedingmothers:“Thiscameasarevelation,anillumination,tome.Up

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untilthen,Ithoughtthatthewomenwhowerebottle-feedingsimplypreferredtofeedtheir

babiesthatway.Ididn’trealizehowmanywomenwereouttherewhowantedto

breastfeed,butgaveupastheyranintodifficulties”(Cahill23).Tompsonwastroubledby

therealizationthatthereweresomanyothermotherswhowantedtobreastfeedbuthad

notbeensuccessfulduetoalackofsupportandinformation(Cahill23).Atthetime,

Tompsonwasnursingherfourthchild,thefirsttobebornathome.Theextremecontrast

betweenherbirthexperiencesinthehospitallaborwardandathomehadrevealedto

Tompsonthatmanymedicalprofessionalsandinstitutionswereillequippedtoassist

motherswhowishedtochallengedominantmedicalpractices.Forthosemothers,thekey

tosuccesswashavingasafeandsupportivematernalspacetopracticemotheringontheir

ownterms.

Followingtheseinteractionsatthepicnic,TompsonandWhitecontactedseveral

womenintheirsocialnetworkwhohadaninterestinbreastfeeding.LikeTompson,some

ofthosewomenhadchosentohavehomebirthsandwereawareofthewaythatthehome

couldbetransformedintoamaternalspacewhenmothersassertagencyandutilizethat

spacebytakingchargeoftheirownmaternalexperiencesandrestructuringdomestic

activitiesaroundtheirbeliefsandfirst-handknowledge.Theyunderstoodthehometobea

potentialsiteofwomen’sempowerment;thus,itwasalogicaldecisiontosettheir

meetingsinMaryWhite’shome.TheprivatespaceofWhite’shomeallowedthefounding

motherstopurposefullycreatematernalspacebyencouragingeachothertoshare

knowledgetheyhadgainedfromfirst-handexperiencesandregardthatknowledgeas

authoritative.Becausewomen’sdomesticactivitieswereundervaluedandscientific

motherhoodtreatedmothersasobedientadherentstophysicians’advice,thedecisionto

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holdmeetingsinWhite’shomeandstructurethosemeetingsaroundthesharingof

experienceswasasubversiveactivitythattreatedmaternalexperienceasasourceof

authorityovermattersrelatedtoinfantfeedingandchildcare.

TheveryfirstplanningmeetingofLLLaffirmedthevalueofeffortstocreate

maternalspacethatallowedwomentosharetheirexperiencesand,inturn,gaininsight

intothewaysthatdominantpracticesanddiscoursewereobstaclestobreastfeedingas

wellasmothering.Theintimate,comfortablesettingpromptedthemotherstoopen-up

abouttheirpositiveandnegativeexperienceswithchildbirthandbreastfeeding.Theyhad

anoutlettoexpressfeelingsthattheydidnotpreviouslyhavetheconfidenceorthe

opportunitytoexpress.MaryAnnCahilldescribedthemeetingasunstructuredandlively,

andsheclaimedthattheconversationsetthetoneforallfutureLLLmeetings:“Oneofthe

mostnoteworthythingstocomeoutoftheeveningwasthesharingthatwentonamong

thewomenabouttheirownpersonalbirthandbreastfeedingexperiences.”(Cahill29).In

thatinitialmeeting,thefoundersidentifiedobstaclestheyhadfaced,suchasalackof

support,problematichospitalpractices,andlackofinformationthatpreventedmothers

fromhavingsatisfyingbirthandbreastfeedingexperiences.Thisintimatepracticeof

mutualsharinginamaternalspacewouldbecomepartofLLL’scorestructure.

WhiletheconversationsamongstLLL’sfoundingmothersduringtheirplanning

meetingshadbeenrevelatoryforthegroup,thesubsequentmother-to-mothersupport

groupmeetingscontinuedtoshedlightonthechallengesthatmothersfaceddueto

dominantpracticesandsocietalpressures.Thefirstofficialmeetingofsupportgroup,

whichhadnonameatthetimeandwassimplyreferredtoasthe“mother’sclub”(Lowman,

Revolutionaries16),tookplaceoneOctobereveningin1956atMaryWhite’shousein

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FranklinPark,IL(Lowman,LLLove15).Themeetingwasattendedbythesevenfounders

andfiveoftheirpregnantfriends.AccordingtoLowman’saccountinTheLLLoveStory,

therewaslittlestructuretotheeveningotherthanTompsonreadingtheReader’sDigest

article“BreastfedisBestFed”tothegrouptosparkdiscussion(Lowman,LLLove15).The

mutualsharingthatoccurredinthisfirstmeetingrevealedthatexperiencedmotherswere

arichsourceofinformation.Notonlydidmotherssharetheirsuccessesbutalsotheir

disappointmentsandstruggleswithbreastfeeding.Thisconversationunderscoredthefact

thatbreastfeedingdoesnothappeninavacuumandthatfactorssuchasthetypeof

delivery,hospitalpolicies,andthemother’sdietcouldimpactthesuccessofbreastfeeding

(Cahill31).ThefoundersofLLLbegantounderstandthattheirchallengeswith

breastfeedingwerenotuniqueandnotonlydidthedominantmedicaldiscoursefailto

addresstheirconcerns,butinmanycases,themedicalprofessionwastheprimaryobstacle

tobreastfeedingsuccess.Thisnewawarenesscreatedanexigenceforthedevelopmentof

LLL’smaternalrhetoricthatframedmothers’resistancetodominantmedicalpracticesasa

consciouschoicemadeforthesakeofthehealthandpsychologicalwell-beingoftheir

children.

Inadditiontocomingtounderstandthecomplexfactors,suchasmedicalpractices

andsocietalexpectations,thatmadeitdifficultformotherstobreastfeed,thefirstLLL

supportgroupmeetinghelpedthefoundersrealizethatbreastfeedingandtheclose

mother-childbondthattheyhopedtoachievethroughbreastfeedingwasanewparadigm

ofmothering.Inordertobesuccessfulinadoptingthisnewparadigm,motherswouldneed

thekindofmutualsupportofferedinthematernalspaceoftheLLLsupportgroup.Despite

thelackofstructureoftheveryfirstsupportgroupmeeting,thefoundersfeltthatitwasa

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success,as“Theyhaddiscoveredtheimportanceofmutualsupport,thepowerof

camaraderie,andthe‘formula’thatwouldpropelLaLecheLeagueintoitsplacein

history—gatheringaccurateinformationandsharingitmother-to-motherinan

environmentofwarmthandacceptance”(Lowman,Revolutionaries16).Theenvironment

wasinspirationaltothemotherswhocametoLLLforassistancebecausethey“looked

forwardtotalkingtootheradults”and“wantedtotesttheirownideasandsharenew

ones”(Cahill31).LLL’smemberswereembarkingonalifestylethatchallengedsociety’s

viewofthewaythatmothersshouldcarefortheirchildren,nurturemother-child

relationships,andmanagetheirtimeinthehome;itwasbeneficialforLLLmembersto

continuallysharetheirviewsandexperiencesasaformofaffirmationandmutualsupport.

LiketheU.S.women’sclubsthatAnneRugglesGereexploredinIntimatePractices,the

domesticsettingoftheLLLmeetingallowedthewomenofLLLtodevelopintimate

relationshipswithoneanotherthatwerefacilitatedbythesharingofpersonalexperience

withmarriageandmotherhood(40).Whilethesharingofsuchexperienceswithinthe

homemayseemaninnocuousactivity,thehistoryofLLLshowsthatwhenmotherscarve

outphysicalandrhetoricalmaternalspaceforthemselvesthatallowsthemtoframethose

experiencesasasourceofauthority,theoutcomecanbequiterevolutionary.

Thestrategyofsharingtheirpersonalexperiencesanduncoveringthesocialand

institutionalfactorsthatcontributedtotheirstrugglesbearsastrongresemblancetothe

workofthefeministconsciousness-raisinggroupsthatdevelopedadecadeafterLLL’s

founding.Feministconsciousness-raisinggroups,whichwouldbepopularizedbytheNew

YorkRadicalWomeninthelate1960s,encouragedwomentogatherinsmallgroupsand

discusstheirpersonalexperiencesandproblems.RuthRosenexplainsthatthesegroups

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helpedwomenunderstandthattheirpersonalproblemsweresharedbymanyother

womenandwereoftentheresultofinstitutionalizedsystemsandoppressions.Rosen

explainsthatthesegroupshadaneye-openingeffect:“Whathaduntilthatmomentseemed

so‘normal’suddenlyappearedartificial,nottosaycoercive”(Rosen4544-4545).The

“personal,”accordingtoRosen,“nolongerseemedapurelyindividualproblem,butthe

resultofdeepcultural,social,andeconomicforcesandassumptions”(4548-4549).This

wasalsotrueofLLL’smother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetings.Themorethatwomen

sharedtheirexperienceswithbreastfeedingandmotherhoodinthoseearlymeetings,the

moreawaretheybecameofthewayinwhichsocialandinstitutionalforcespresented

obstaclesforwomenwhowishedtobreastfeedandexperienceastrongbondwiththeir

children.MothersinLLLsupportgroupmeetingsbegantoseehowtheirpersonalstruggles

withbreastfeedingandmotheringwerefrequentlycausedbyexternalfactors.

BecauseLLL’sfoundersviewedthematernalspaceofthemeetingasaplacein

whichmotherscouldlearnfromoneanother’sexperiencesandrejectdominantpractices,

theyminimizedtheinvolvementofmedicalprofessionalsinthesupportgroupmeetings

andemphasizedtheauthorityofmothers,themutualsharingofexperiences,and

knowledgebornfromexperienceratherthanpasseddownfrommedicalauthorities.

Thoughtheydidrelyonmedicalinformation,whichtheypresentedintheirmeetings,they

wantedtomaintainaseparationbetweenthemedicalprofessionandtheworkoftheir

meetings.WhilesomemeetingswereheldinMaryandDr.GregWhite’shome,GregWhite

triedtolimithisinteractionswiththewomenduringtheirmeetings,asdidDr.Herbert

Ratnerwhosewife,Dr.DorothyRatner,attendedsomeoftheinitialLLLmeetings.Though

shewasaphysician,shekepthercontributionstomeetingsfocusedonherexperiencesasa

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mother(Cahill36).ThatDorothyRatnerdownplayedhermedicalexpertiseand

participatedinmeetingsbysharinghermaternalexperiencesshowsthattherewasan

awarenessthattheLLLsupportgroupmeetingwasmeanttobeamaternalspaceinwhich

motherswereregardedasequalsandmaternalexperiencewastheprivilegedsourceof

authority.AsEdwinaFroehlichpointedout,whenphysiciansattendedLLLmeetings,the

resultscouldbeproblematic:“Anytimewehadadoctorsittinginonameeting,all

questionsweredirectedtothatdoctor.Thatdoctor,forallintentsandpurposes,tookover

themeeting”(Cahill36).Physiciansassertingtheirprofessionalethoswithinthematernal

spaceoftheLLLmeetingwouldhaveunderminedthematernalauthorityofthemothers

present,andthiscouldhavehadanegativeimpactontheirself-confidence.Limitingthe

involvementofmedicalprofessionalshelpedtoprotecttheuniqueaffordancesoftheofthe

mother-to-mothersupportgroup.ItwasquicklyapparenttoTompsonthat“womentalkto

eachotheraboutthesekindsofthingsdifferentlythantheywouldtalktotheirdoctors”

(Cahill33).Oneofthemostbeneficialresultsofmother-to-mothersupportandthelimiting

ofthegroup’sexposuretomedicalexpertisewasthatwomenwerefreetodiscusstheir

expectationsandstruggles.

ThemutualsharingofexperiencesinLLL’ssupportgroupmeetingsunderscoredthe

notionthatmothersfacedavarietyofobstaclestosuccessfulbreastfeeding,including

misinformationfromdoctorsandsocietalpressures;thus,LLL’smother-to-mothersupport

groupmeetingsfunctionedasaconsciousness-raisinggroupforwomeninterestedin

claimingagencyovertheirexperiencesasmothers.Thecamaraderiethatdeveloped

throughthemutualsharingofexperienceswasnecessarytohelpmothersnavigatethe

challengesofembracinganalternativeparadigmofmotheringthatwasnotwell-supported

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bymedicalexpertsorsocietalexpectations.Thesharingofexperiencesinaprivate

maternalspacealsohelpedLLLrefinethephilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,understand

thevalueofpracticaladviceinhelpingmothersadoptthatphilosophy,anddevelop

rhetoricalstrategiesthatforegroundedtraditionalvaluesassociatedwithmotherhood

whilearguinginfavorofitsalternativeparadigmofmothering.

PERSUADINGMOTHERSTORESISTDOMINANTPRACTICES

WhiletheyfoundedLLLtohelpmothersbreastfeedsuccessfully,theconversations

duringtheplanningmeetingsandthefirstfullmeetinghelpedshapethefounders’beliefs

abouttheroleofthemotherandhowmaternalspacecanbeutilizedinsuchawayasto

empowermotherstobreakfreefromtheconstraintsofdominantpractices.However,it

becameclearearlyonthatLLLneededtoprovidemotherswithbothmoralsupportand

practicaladvicetohelpthemnavigatethechallengesthattheywouldfaceasthey

attemptedtobreastfeedandembraceanewparadigmofmothering.Evenifmothershad

cometoLLLhavingalreadymadethedecisiontobreastfeed,LLLneededtoconvincethem

thatbreastfeedingandembracingamorenaturalapproachtomotherhoodwasworththe

effortthatitwouldtaketoovercomechallengesposedbydominantpracticesand

discourses.LLLhadtoconvincemotherstoacceptitsideologyofnaturalmotherhood,

whichemphasizedastrongandlovingmother-childbondandviewedmotherhoodas

naturalandinstinctual.Theyalsoneededtoofferpracticalstrategiesforpracticingnatural

motherhoodandnavigatingthechallengesposedbydominantapproachestochildcareand

infantfeeding.

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Inordertodothis,LLL’sfoundersdecidedtostructurethesupportgroupasaseries

ofthemedmeetings.Whiletheyvaluedamutualsharingofexperiences,thefounders

decidedthataportionofeachmeetingshouldbededicatedtothepresentationof

informationonaspecifictopicthatwascriticaltohelpingmothersbreastfeedsuccessfully

andputLLL’sideasaboutmotheringintopractice.LLL’sfoundersdevelopedaseriesoffive

meetingsdesignedtoofferinformation,techniques,andsupport.Eachmeetingwould

includeatalkorpresentationbyoneofLLL’sfoundersorotherleaders.Thiswouldbe

followedbyunstructuredtimefordiscussion.Techniquesweredemonstratedasneeded.

Whilethethemeswerefocusedaroundpracticaladviceandbreastfeedingtechniques,each

meetingalsomadearhetoricalargumentinfavorofnaturalmotherhood.Asthereisno

remainingmaterialorcontentfromtheinitialseriesofmeetings,myunderstandingofthe

contentofeachmeetingintheseriescomesfromdescriptionsincludedinthevarious

organizationalhistories.Sometopicsofmeetings,suchasweaning,childbirth,andthe

father’srole,werediscussedmoreextensivelythanothersinthefounders’retrospective

accountsofthedevelopmentofthesupportgroupseries.Tosupplementthefounders’

explanationofthemeetingcontent,IdrawuponmyanalysisofLLL’sself-helpmanual,The

WomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,inordertounderstandthewaythatLLLframedtopics,

particularlythebenefitsofbreastfeeding,commonconcerns,andtechniques.In1958,the

contentofLLL’sseriesofmother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetingswastranslatedinto

textinTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,whichIanalyzeinChapterIIIinordertoreveal

howLLLusedmaternalrhetorictoempowerandoffersupporttoageographically

dispersedaudienceofmothers.

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Therhetoricalmessageunderlyingeachmeetinggavemothersthesupportthatthey

neededtoresistdominantpractices.White,middle-classmotherswereexpectedtofocus

theirenergiesonmaintainingacleanandcomfortablehomeduringthepost-WWIIera.

Therewaslessfocusonattendingtotheemotionalandpsychologicalneedsofchildren,

suchasthechild’sneedforphysicalcontactwithhismother.AsCahillpointsout,therewas

“anincongruousreversalofvalues,thehousehadalmostcometobemoreimportantthan

thelittlepeopleinit”(45).Choosingtobreastfeedababynecessarilychallengedthe

expectedfocusonhouseholdchores.Breastfeedingrequiredaphysicalbondwiththebaby

thatscientificmotherhooddiscouraged,soitnecessarilychangedtheconditionsof

mothering.EdwinaFroehlichexplainedthatthegroup“realizedearlyonthatitwaspretty

hardtosucceedatbreastfeedingunlessyouhadanoverallacceptanceoftheideaofbeing

there,inperson,foryourbaby—whatwecalled‘mothering’thebaby”(Cahill66).Thisidea

thatbreastfeedingwasawayofbeingpresenttomeettheemotionalandpsychological

needsofthebabylaidthefoundationofLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,which

theyreferredtoas“motheringthroughbreastfeeding”.Italsoreflectedtheculturalcodeof

motherhoodbyfocusingonthecreationofanenvironmentthatwasnurturingandloving.

Depictingresistancetodominantmedicalpracticesasanactoflovethatwasinthebest

interestofthechildgavemothersthecourageandmotivationtofacethechallengesthat

arosefrompracticinganalternativeapproachtochildcareandmothering.

TheinitialLLLmeetingfocusedontheadvantagesofbreastfeedingandthepositive

impactitwouldhaveonthemother,thebaby,andthemother-childbond(Cahill32).

AccordingtoMaryAnnCahill,it“justseemedright”tobeginthisway(Lowman,LLLove16).

Themeetingemphasizedthatbreastfeedingwasnotmerelyaformofnourishingthebaby,

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butthatbreastfeedinghademotionalandpsychologicalbenefitstothemother-childpair

(WomanlyArt3-5).Thecontent,whichwassupportedbyevidencefrommentalhealth

professionals,pushedbackagainstthedominantunderstandingthatinfantfeedingisa

mechanicalprocesswiththesolepurposeofprovidingphysicalnourishmentwhileitalso

counteredthewidelyacceptedhands-offapproachtomotheringinfavorofamore

emotional,physical,andlovingbond.Thatthisargument,ratherthanbasicbreastfeeding

techniques,wasthefocusoftheinitialmeetingshowsthatthefoundersofLLLrealizedthat

mothersneededtoviewbreastfeedingasawaytofacilitategoodmotheringinordertofeel

theinternalmotivationtonavigatethechallengesthatbreastfeedingposed.Invoking

conceptssuchaslove,protection,andnurturancewhendiscussingthebenefitsof

breastfeedinghelpedmothersfeelthattheywerebeinggoodmothersandexhibitingthe

traditionalvaluesassociatedwithmotherhooddespitethefactthattheywereresisting

dominantpractices.WhileLLL’saudiencewasmadeupofwomenwhohadalreadydecided

thattheywantedtobreastfeed,thefounderswerewellawareofthechallengesthatcaused

evenmotherswhoweredeterminedtobreastfeedtobeunsuccessfulintheirefforts.In

additiontogivingthemotherswhocametoLLLapurpose,theinformationprovidedinthis

meetinghelpedtosupportLLL’sargumentthatmothersshouldrefocustheirenergyinthe

homeoncreatinganurturingmaternalspacebybondingwiththeirchildrenratherthan

viewingtheirprimaryfunctionascompletinghouseholdchores.

Thesecondmeetingintheserieswasfocusedontechniquesandmethodsfor

overcomingcommondifficultiesthatbreastfeedingmothersfaced(Cahill32).Asitoffered

solutionsandstrategiesfordealingwithsuchconcernsasbreastinfections,nursingtwins,

handexpressionofmilk,andvariouswaystoholdthebaby(WomanlyArt10-16)it

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presentedbreastfeedingchallengesasroutineproblemstobeworkedthroughand

overcomeratherthanreasonstoceasetheattempttobreastfeed.Thischallengedthe

commonmedicalpracticeofroutinelyrecommendingformulafeedingoraswitchto

formulaatthefirstsignofanissuewithbreastfeeding;additionally,thismeeting

demystifiedbreastfeedingandframeditasawaytosimplifythemother’slifeatthesame

timethatshewasdoingsomethingthatwouldensurethehealthandwell-beingofher

baby.Theprivate,maternalspaceoftheLLLmeetingencouragedthekindofexperience

sharingandtechniquemodelingthatbenefittedbreastfeedingmothers.LLLmembershad

thetimeandspacetopracticethesetechniques;thematernal,mother-centeredspaceof

LLL’smeetingsmadethispossibleinawaythatphysician-centeredspacescouldnot.

Becausemotherswereencouragedtobringtheirbabieswiththemtothemeetings,they

wereabletopracticethetechniques,andmotherswhohadnotyetgivenbirthcouldsee

themmodeled.Inadditiontoaddressingtechniques,thismeetingalsoaddressedoldwives’

talesandothermisinformationaboutbreastfeeding,includingproblemscausedby

erroneousmedicaladvice(Cahill32).Thecontentofthemeetingbuiltonthechallengethat

thefirstmeetingposedtoscientificmotherhood.Evenifphysicianshadtheoretical

knowledgeoflactation,whichfewhad,thisfocusontechniquesandstrategies—howto

recognizewhenthebabyishungry,stylesofholds,andmethodsofhandexpression—made

thecasethatsuchadviceismoreeffectivewhensharedbymotherswhohavepractical

knowledgegainedfrommotheringandpracticingthesetechniquesonadailybasis.

Thethirdmeeting,whichwasfocusedonpromotingnaturalchildbirth,further

developedtheargumentthatmothersshouldnotbethepassiveagentsthatthedominant

medicalpracticeandtheideologyofscientificmotherhoodhadframedthemtobe.This

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particulartopicwasoneofthemorecontroversialaspectsofthemeetingseries(Cahill61;

Lowman,LLLove16)asmanywomenwhowereinterestedinbreastfeedingwerenot

interestedinunmedicatedchildbirthorhomebirths;however,themeetingwasan

opportunitytogivemothersamuchneedededucationonchildbirthwhileexplaininghow

unmedicatedbirthmadebreastfeedingeasier.AccordingtoBettyWagner,“Inthateraa

woman’sbodywasprettymuchunknowntoher.Wehadpregnantwomencomingwho

hadnoideahowtheyweregoingtodeliverthebaby”(Lowman,LLLove16).Clearly,the

informationprovidedinthemeetingfilledacriticalneedforinformationaboutchildbirth.

ThebirthexperiencesofMarianTomspon,MaryWhite,andotherfoundershadplayeda

significantroleintheestablishmentofastrongrelationshipwiththeirbabiesandithelped

theminitiatebreastfeeding.MaryWhiteexplainedthatchildbirth“hastremendousimpact

onthemother-childbondandthesubsequentbreastfeedingrelationship”(Cahill61).Asin

themeetingfocusedonthebenefitsofbreastfeeding,thefocusonthebenefitsofaclose,

physicalmother-childbondinvokedconceptstraditionallyassociatedwithmotherhood,

includingloveandprotection.Motherswhohadbeenconvincedintheprevioustwo

meetingsthatbreastfeedingandestablishingcloserelationshipswiththeirbabieswerein

thebestinterestoftheirbabiesmayhavebeenpersuadedtohaveanatural,unmedicated

childbirth.Severalofthefoundingmotherscouldspeakfromtheirownexperienceswith

strugglingtobreastfeedaninfantdruggedfrombirth,andsuchfirst-handexperiences

werelikelyverypersuasive.Inadditiontomakinganargumentthatnaturalchildbirthwas

inthebestinterestofthebaby,includingthistopicintheseriesofmeetingsmadethe

argumentinfavorofestablishingmaternalauthorityandcreatingmaternalspaces.While

LLL’sleaderswerenotnecessarilyadvocatingforahomebirth,theywereadvocatingfor

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womentohavemoreagencyinthebirthchamber.Inordertoexperienceanatural,

unmedicatedbirth,mothersneededtohavesomecontroloverthespaceinwhichtheygave

birth.Liketheothermeetingsintheseries,thismeetingposedachallengetothewisdom

andvalidityofroutine,widelyacceptedmedicalpractices.

Thefourthmeetingintheseriesfocusedonnutritionandweaning(Cahill32),

anothertopicthatcausedcontroversybecausethefoundersdecidedtopromotebaby-led

weaningratherthanrecommendaspecificageforweaning.Othertopicscoveredinthe

meetingincludedtheproperdietofthebreastfeedingmotherandstartingthebabyon

solidfoods.Theyfeltthatitwasimportanttoaddressthemothers’nutritionbecause“there

weresomanyoldwives’takesassociatedwithwhatanursingmothercouldandcouldnot

eat”(Lowman,LLLove16).Becausethemeetingencouragedbaby-ledweaning,itposeda

rhetoricalchallengetoscientificmotherhood,whichpromoteddetachedmotheringin

ordertofosterindependence.Inpromotingbaby-ledweaning,LLLwasmakingthe

argumentthatbabiesareuniqueindividualswithuniqueneeds(Cahill62).Thisknowledge

wasbornfrommaternalexperience,asthefoundershaddiscoveredthatwhenallowedto

initiateweaningthemselves,babieswouldweanatdifferentages(Cahill62).Thefounders

feltthatbaby-ledweaningallowedbabiestomakeanaturalprogressiontoward

independence.Whenmakingthedecisionaboutwhentowean,MaryWhitesuggestedthat

mothersshouldconsider,“Whatisbestforthischildatthistime?”(Cahill61).Bymaking

thisargument,LLL’sfoundersagaininvokedconceptsassociatedwiththeculturalcodeof

motherhood,includinglove,protection,andnurturance.Thegood,lovingmother,

suggestedLLL,wouldunderstandherbaby’sneedtodevelopathisorherownpaceand

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wouldallowthebabytodecidewhenheorshewasreadytosevertheemotionalbondthat

breastfeedingfacilitated.

Thisargumentinfavorofbaby-ledweaningunderscoredthewayinwhichmaternal

first-handknowledgebornofexperienceprovidedinsightandunderstandingthatthe

medicalprofessionlacked.Baby-leadweaningwasaradicaldeparturefrommedicaladvice,

asmedicaltextbooksatthetimerecommendedweaningnolaterthanninemonths,butthe

reasonsforthesuggestionwerevague(Lowman,LLLove23).Drs.WhiteandRatner,LLL’s

medicaladvisors,couldprovidenoreasonthatbabiesshouldbeweanedataspecifictime,

andaccordingtoFroehlich,thefoundersrealizedthatmedicalprofessionalswerethe

wrongpeopletoconsult(Lowman,LLLove23).“Doctorsweremen,andwhyshouldthey

knowmoreaboutitthanmothers?”sheasked.“Sinceitwasn’tamedicalquestion,their

medicaleducationwasnohelp.Thatwaswhynogoodanswercouldbefoundinmedical

books.Wedecidedthatitwouldbemuchmorelikelytobeawoman,mother,whowould

know”(Lowman,LLLove23).Throughpersonalexperience,LLL’sfoundershaddiscovered

thatbabiesreachedthedevelopmentalstageatwhichtheyarereadytoweanatvarying

ages(Cahill62).LLL’sfoundersarguedthatlettingthebabytaketheleadonwhentowean

wouldofferasenseofsecurityandnurturethemother-childbondthatbreastfeeding

promoteduntilthebabywasdevelopmentallyreadyandindependentenoughtoinitiate

theendofthebreastfeedingbond.ThefoundersofLLLwouldneverhavearrivedatthis

first-handknowledgeofbabies’differingratesofdevelopmentalreadinessforweaningif

theyhadnothadasupportivespaceinwhichtocontinuethenursingrelationshipand

resistthedominantpracticeofinfantfeeding.Thisrealizationthatthefirst-hand

knowledgeofmothersisacriticallyimportantsourceofinformationcontributedtoand

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validatedthefoundingmothers’philosophyofnaturalmotherhoodbyconfirmingtheir

beliefthatmotheringisanaturalprocessthatishinderedbytheinterventionofwell-

meaningbutuninformedphysicians.

Thefifthmeeting,designedforfathersonlyandledbyHerbertRatner,wasdesigned

tohelphusbandsunderstandissuessurroundingbreastfeedingsothattheycouldbe

supportiveoftheirnursingwives(Cahill32).Thefoundersalsofeltthatfathersneeded

supportasthey“weretoooftenneglectedasfarasbabiesareconcerned”(17).The

establishmentofsuchameetingconveyedarhetoricalmessagethatbreastfeedingismore

thansimplyanalternativemethodoffeeding,butthatitisalifestylechoicethatwould

haveanimpactonthewholefamily.AccordingtoBettyWagner,“Thefatherscameaway

fromthesemeetingswithanunderstandingofawife’snewroleasamotherandofher

specialattachmenttothebaby”(Lowman,LLLove17).Thefathers’meetingmadeitclearto

fathersthatthematernalrolethattheirwivestookwhenembracingLLL’spracticesand

approachtomotheringwouldbesignificantlydifferentthantheapproachthatwas

routinelypracticedbymothersandencouragedbymedicalprofessionals.Froehlichclaims

thatwhenthefathers’meetingwasheldatherhome,sheoverheardRatnersaying,“Now

whatisreallyimportantinlife?It’snothavingaspotlesshousesoyourmothercancome

overandinspect.It’syourkidsthatareimportant”(Lowman,LLLove17).Thisalternative

approachtomotheringwouldhavesignificantimplicationsforthestructuringofthehome

environmentandtherelationshipsbeingnurturedwithinit.Thismeetinghelpedto

preparefathersforthenewmaternalrolethatwiveswouldlikelyadoptasaconsequence

oftheirinteractionswithLLL;ithelpedfathersacceptthehomeasasafematernalspacein

whichtheirwivescouldchallengeandrejectsociety’sviewoftheroleofthehousewife.

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Itsoonbecameclearthatmotherswhoattendedthemeetingsweregettingmore

thanknowledgeofbreastfeedingtechniquesfromLLLandthatsomestayedforthe

approachtomothering.Inonecase,amotherwhohadweanedherchildandwasnot

pregnantcontinuedtocometoLLLmeetings.MarianTompsonwasintriguedandasked

herwhyshestillattended.AccordingtoTompson,thewomanrespondedbysaying,

“Marian,youwomenseemtolovebeingmotherssomuch.IamhopingthatifIkeepon

hangingaroundyou,itwillruboffonme”(Cahill34).ThatLLLrepresentedanalternative

approachtomotheringmayhavebeenthekeytothegroup’slongevitybecause,asEdwina

Froehlichclaimed,thefounderswouldhavequicklylostinterestincontinuingthegroupif

itssolefocushadbeenonbreastfeedingtechniques(Cahill67).ItwasFroehlich’sbelief

thatthisdifferentapproachtomotheringalsokeptnewmotherscomingtomeetings:“I

thinkthatiswhythemotherswhoattendedthoseearlymeetingsclungtousthewaythey

did.Theirmaternalinstinctsweretellingthemonething,buttheirdoctorsandthe

prevailingsocietalnormsweretellingthemjusttheopposite”(Cahill66).Thesafe

maternalspaceoftheLLLmeetinggavemothersanopportunitytoexplorethese

conflictinginternalimpulsesandconfirmtheirdesireswithmotherswhoheldsimilar

views.

WhilethefoundingmothersofLLLhadexperiencewithbreastfeedingand

motheringandhadcarefullydevelopedaseriesofinformative,leader-facilitated

discussionsveryearly,theinitialmother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetings,occurring

beforetheorganizationattemptedsignificantpublicoutreach,spurredaperiodof

significantgrowthanddevelopmentinthefounders’understandingsofbreastfeeding,

motherhood,andthekindofsupportthatmothersneeded.Thegroup’sfoundingprinciple

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ofmeetingtheneedsofthebabywasneverinquestion,buttheirunderstandingofthe

needsofbothbabiesandtheirmothersdevelopedrapidlyintheprivatematernalspaceof

LLLmeetings.Thoughwomenhavelongbeenrelegatedtotheprivatesphereandhavehad

toshapetheirrhetoricalactivitiestoandwithinit,thereisaninterestingsideeffecttothis

rhetoricalpractice:issuesdeemedprivateareenclavedfrompublicdiscourseandshielded

fromdebate(Fraser73).Whilealivingroommaynotseemtobethelogicalsettingfora

meetingofagroupthatwouldeventuallyshapepublicopinionaswellasinfluencemedical

practice,thesafematernalspacecreatedbyLLLallowedtheorganizationtogrowand

flourishinanorganicwaythatwouldnothavebeenpossibleifthefoundershadtriedto

immediatelyengagewithpublicdiscourseonmotheringandinfantfeedinginpublicspaces

wheretheyhadnoauthority.AsMarianTompson’sexperiencesshow,attemptsto

transformpublicspaces,suchashospitals,intomaternalspaceswasasignificantchallenge.

Incontrast,thematernalspacecreatedbythefoundersintheirhomesandintheLLL

supportgroupofferedasafe,enclavedspaceformotherstodevelopacounterdiscourse

andrhetoricalstrategiesthatwouldhelpthemassertmaternalauthorityastheyengaged

withmembersofthedominantpublic.

THEGROWTHOFLLL’SHORIZONTALNETWORK

ItquicklybecameobviousthatLLL’smother-to-mothersupportgroupappealedto

mothers.Thefoundingmothershadintendedthegrouptoonlyservefriendsand

acquaintances,anditthereforedidnoadvertising;yet,knowledgeofthegroupspread

quicklybyword-of-mouthinthelocalarea,andstrangerswereshowingupatthemeetings.

Asmanyasthirtytofortywomenwerecrowdingintothehomewherethemeetingswere

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held,soLLLquicklyfounditnecessarytosplitintotwogroups(Lowman,Revolutionaries

16).Afterthefirstseriesofmeetings,LLLbegantwoseriesofmeetingseachmonthin

FranklinParkwiththreeboardmembersleadingeachmeeting,andtheorganizationsent

letterstolocalphysicianstointroducethemtoLLLanditspurposes(LLLNews,1.1:1).LLL

alsodevelopedalocally-distributedpamphletcalled“ForBetterMothers,”which

introducedtheorganizationanditsmission,brieflymadeacaseforbreastfeeding,

providedabriefoverviewofLLL’sseriesofmeetings,andinvitedmotherstoattendalocal

meeting.Withinthefirst18monthsoftheorganization’sfounding,over150womenhad

attendedLLLmeetings,andathirdmonthlymeetingseriesinthewestsideofChicagohad

beenaddedtotheseriesschedule(LLLNews,1.1:5).ThisburgeoninglocalinterestinLLL

providesevidenceofitsexigenceandrhetoricalsuccess.It’sclearthatLLL’smessageabout

breastfeedinganditspromotionoftheauthorityoffirst-handmaternalexperience

resonatedwithmanymothersinthelocalarea,butitsoonbecameclearthatLLL’smessage

wasalsoresonatingwithmothersoutsideofthelocalarea.

LLLwassurprisedbythelargeresponsethattheyreceivedfromoutsidethelocal

area.Withinayearoftheinitialmeetings,newsaboutLLLhadspread,andin1957,the

leaderswereinundatedwithmailandphonecallsfromotherareasofIllinois,neighboring

states,andfromalloverthenation.AccordingtoanarticlepublishedinStorkNewsin1959,

LLLhadreceivedlettersfromover600mothersfromover40statesandinnumerousother

countrieswithin30monthsafteritsfoundingin1956(Lowman,Revolutionaries17).Using

theirexperienceswithbreastfeedingspecificallyandmotheringmoregenerally,theirsocial

consciousness,theirsupportsystems,andtheirconnectionswiththemedicalprofession,

thefoundershadcraftedasuccessfulsystemofsupportforwhite,middle-classhousewives

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whowantedtoreclaimtheirmaternalspacetoexperienceadifferentapproachto

motherhood.By1958,thefoundersdecidedtoorganizemoreformallyintoanon-profit

organizationandcreateoutreachmaterialsformotherswhocouldnotattendlocalLLL

meetings.

Word-of-mouthsharingofinformationaboutLLLwaslargelyresponsibleforthe

growthofitscounterpublic.Ascounterpublicsare“paralleldiscursivearenaswhere

membersofsubordinatedsocialgroupsinventandcirculatecounterdiscourses”(Fraser),

theearlieststagesofLLL’sdevelopmentmarkedLLLasanemergingcounterpublic.Its

meetingsprovidedassafeplacetoinventandrefineitscounterdiscourseasitcirculated

amongstasmallgroupofmothers.ThroughinvolvementwithLLL,thesemothersgained

somesenseofauthorityovertheirownexperiencebytransformingtheirhomesinto

maternalspaces.Theysharedthatexperiencewithothers,introducingthemtoanew

philosophyofmotherhood,whichLLLwouldfurthercultivatewhenwomencametothem

forinformationorassistance.ThisspreadingofthewordaboutLLLwasdescribedby

EdwinaFroehlich:“Therewerewomenwehadhelpedwhohadrelativesinothertowns

whowantedhelp,too.Theywouldpassalongouraddress,andwewouldhearfromthe

relatives.ThensomeofthewomenfromFranklinParkwouldmoveawaytootherstates,

andwordabouttheLeaguegotspreadthatway,too”(Lowman,LLLove23-24).Together,

themotherswhowereinvolvedinLLLsharedandcreatedknowledgeincommunity.This

communalsharing,whichplayedacentralroleintheorganizationalrhetoricofLLL,was

vitaltothetransformativeexperienceofinvolvementwithLLL.Twodecadesbeforethe

publicationofAdrienneRich’sOfWomanBorn,thiswidespreadresponsetoLLL’smessage

aboutthevalueofknowledgebasedonmaternalexperienceindicatesthatwomenwere

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questioningtheestablishedinstitutionofmotherhoodandembracingamoreauthentic

understandingofmotherhood,onethatconstructeditasthesamekindofintellectual

exerciseandchallengeasanyotherformof“difficult,butfreelychosenwork”(Rich280).

LLL’seffortstoembracethephysicalexperiencesofmothers,reclaimthehomeasa

maternalspace,craftanewparadigmofmotherhood,andresistdominantdiscourses

anticipatedRich’sclaim,nearlythreedecadeslater,that“[t]hereisforthefirsttimetodaya

possibilityofconvertingourphysicalityintobothknowledgeandpower”(Rich284).LLL’s

newparadigmofmotheringanditsdevelopmentofmaternalspaceasasiteofmaternal

empowermentencouragedmotherstodojustthat.

CONCLUSION

LLLstartedhiddenawayfrompublicscrutinyinMaryWhite’shome,butit

addressedtheneedsofmotherswhohadbeenmarginalizedfrompublicdiscourseon

motheringandinfantcare;thus,LLLfulfilledaneedofmanywomenwholongedforwhat

seemedtobeamorenaturalexperienceofmotherhoodthantheexperienceofferedbythe

dominantdiscourseofscientificmotherhood.LLL’ssubversiveapproachmaintainedthe

genderedstatusquoofconsigningwhite,middleclassmotherstothedomesticspaceofthe

home,butitallowedthesemotherstosubversivelyestablishmaternalspace.The

establishmentofasafematernalspacewastheinitialstepthatLLLtooktowarddeveloping

acounterpublic.AsFrasersuggestsispossiblewithcounterpublics,theprivate,maternal

spaceofLLL’smother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetingsshieldeditwhileallowingthe

foundingmothersoftheorganizationtocraftanalternativediscoursethatwouldposea

challengetotheideologyofscientificmotherhoodandargueinfavoramorenatural

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approachtomothering.Indevelopingthisargumentanditsphilosophyofnatural

motherhood,LLLwasbeginningtheworkofdevelopingacounterpublic.Unfortunately,

LLL’scounterdiscourseandphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodmarginalizedmothers

whosefamilystructuresandresponsibilitiestotheirfamiliesposedbarrierstostructuring

theirlivesasLLL’sparadigmofnaturalmotherhoodrequired.

DaphneSpainsuggeststhatfullaccessforwomentospaceswherevaluable

knowledgeiscreatedandsharedistheonlysolutiontomarginalizationcausedby

genderedspatialsegregation(Spain5),yetLLLprovidesasuccessfulexampleofa

challengetomarginalizationthroughthesubversivetransformationofdomesticspaceinto

asiteofwomen’sempowerment.Whiletheywerenotyettakingactionsthatdirectly

impactedpublicdiscourseonbreastfeedingandmotherhood,inthefirsttwoyears

followingLLL’sfounding,thefounderswerequietlystrengtheningtheirargumentagainst,

andtheirabilitytoinfluence,thosediscourses.Thoughthesemother-to-mothersupport

groupmeetingsdidnotconstitutewidespreadpublicengagement,theyconvinced

membersoftheauthorityofknowledgestemmingfrommaternalexperience.Thefounders

realizedthatphysicianslackedknowledgeaboutunmedicatedchildbirth,lactation,and

breastfeeding,anditbecamecleartothemthatexperiencedmothershadtheknowledge

andauthoritytomoreeffectivelyaddresstheconcernsofbreastfeedingmothers.LLLtook

advantageoftheempoweringpotentialofmaternalspaceandusedittonurtureother

mothersandsharetheseinsightsaboutmotherhoodwithouttheinterferenceofmembers

ofthedominantpublic.

Throughthesubversiveestablishmentofthemother-to-mothersupportgroup

withinaprivatematernalspace,LLL’sfoundinghelpedtheorganizationtoidentifymanyof

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thecorecomponentsthatitwouldmoveforwardwith,includingaphilosophy,amission,a

placeinwomen’shomes,andabeliefintheauthorityofmaternalexperience.Thefollowing

chapterwillexaminetherhetoricalstrategiesthatLLLusedtoincorporatetheseelements

intotextsaddressedtogeographicallydispersedmotherswrotetoLLLforsupport.In

makingthatmove,LLLtookitsfirstsignificantstepfromthesafe,privatematernalspaceof

thelocalsupport-group,becominganemergingcounterpublicthatemployedmaternal

rhetorictoframematernalexperienceasasourceofauthority.LLL’scounterpublicwould

developtherhetoricalacumentoemploymaternalrhetoricinnegotiationswithmedical

professionalsthatdestabilizedthegenderedspatialinstitutionsofmedicineand

transformedthemintomaternalspacesmorecapableofsupportingbreastfeedingmothers.

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CHAPTERIII

CRAFTINGA“WOMANLYART”:TRANSLATINGMATERNALSPACEANDLOCAL

MOTHER-TO-MOTHERSUPPORTINTOTEXTS

In1958,thefirsteditionofLLL’sbreastfeedingself-helpmanual,TheWomanlyArt

ofBreastfeeding,encouragedmotherstore-evaluatetheirdomesticpriorities.LLL

promotednaturalmotherhood,anapproachtomotheringthatplacedahigherlevelof

importanceonthedevelopmentofthemother-childbondthanondomesticchores,

imploringmotherstofocusontheirchildren’shappiness“nomatterhowmuchtimethis

maydemand”(6).Thisviewofthematernalroleandthemother-childbondconstrained

motherswithinthedomesticsphereandrequiredself-sacrifice,whichwasahallmarkof

post-WWII,mid-twentiethcenturymotherhood(Odland),yetthefoundingmothersfelt

empoweredbytheirexperiencesgivingbirthathomeanddevelopingLLL’sbreastfeeding

supportgroup.Theyhadlearnedthevalueofthehomeasamaternalspacetoassert

authorityandtosubvertdominantdiscourseregardingmotheringandinfantfeeding

practices.

AsIdetailedinthepreviouschapter,LLLdevelopeditsphilosophyofnatural

motherhoodlargelyasanoutgrowthofthefounders’experienceswithnaturalchildbirth

andbreastfeeding.ForindividualLLLmothers,suchasMarianTompson,thehomebecame

asafematernalspacetogivebirthandpracticealternativeapproachestomotheringwhile

resistingthedominantideologyandpracticesofscientificmotherhood.Theirmaternal

experiencespromptedTompsonandtheotherLLLfounderstodeveloptheLLLmother-to-

mothersupportgroupinaprivatematernalspace.Thesupportgroupofferedasafe

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enclaveinwhichtopromoteanalternativeparadigmofmotherhoodthatempowered

motherstoresistdominantpracticesininfantfeedingandchildcare.

Intheageofscientificmotherhood,LLL’smessageaboutmaternalauthorityandthe

importanceofthemother-childbond,aswellasitsapproachtosupportingmothers,

resonatedwithmanywomen,someofwhomlivedoutsideofthelocalarea.Accordingto

EdwinaFroehlich,LLLwasreceivinganaverageoffiftylettersamonthinlate1957,alittle

overayearafteritsfounding(Lowman,LLLove24).Thiswasproblematicforthefounders,

asFroehlichexplains:“Thatwasagreatnumberoflettersforustohandlebecausewewere

allhomewithlittlechildren”(Lowman,LLLove24).Despitethechallenge,thefounders

answeredeachcorrespondentwithapersonalizedletterofferingadviceandsupport.They

quicklyrealizedthatthey“wererepeatingthesameinformationandsuggestionsoverand

overagain”(Lowman,LLLove24).Inresponsetothelargenumberofphonecallsand

lettersreceivedinlate1957andearly1958,LLLdecidedtopublishacourse-by-mailthat

wouldincludethesameinformationcoveredinthelocalseriesofmother-to-mother

supportgroupmeetings.“Wethoughtthatifwecouldgettheinformationwrittendown

andsentout,thatwouldgraduallycutdownonthemail,”Froehlichexplained(Lowman,

LLLove24).Inearly1958,LLLbegandevelopingthecourseasasetof10lessonstobe

mailedseparatelytowomenwhopaidasmallsubscriptionfee.

Inthefallof1958,LLLissuedthecourse-by-mailasonecompleteself-helptext

entitledTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Thebook’spublicationmarkedLLL’semergence

fromtheenclaved,privatematernalspaceofthemother-to-mothersupportgroupintothe

publicsphere.ThetextwasthemediumthroughwhichLLLbegananorganizedeffortto

interactwithandoffermother-to-mothersupporttowomenoutsideofthesuburban

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Chicagoarea,thusfurtherdevelopingacounterpublicofbreastfeedingmotherswho

rejectedthedominantparadigmofscientificmotherhood.

Buildingatextualargumenttoconvincewomentochallengedominantcultural

understandingsofthemother’srole,maternalauthority,andthemother-childrelationship

wasasignificantundertaking.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingneededtoinspiretrustin

theorganization,convincetheaudiencethatthefirst-handexperienceofmotherhoodwas

avalidsourceofknowledgeaboutinfantcare,offeracompellingargumentthatLLL’s

philosophyofnaturalmotherhoodanditsrelatedpracticeswerepreferabletothestatus

quo,andofferpracticaladvicetomotherssothattheycouldsuccessfullyadoptLLL’s

philosophyandpractices.LocalLLLmeetings,whichtookplacewithinamaternalspace

thatallowedforthemutualsharingofexperiences,operatedasavisualconfirmationofthe

validityofLLL’spractices.Intheseriesofface-to-facesupportgroupmeetings,local

motherscouldeasilywatchthebondsformingbetweenthemother-childnursingpairs.

GeographicallydispersedmothersdidnothavethebenefitofseeingLLL’salternative

paradigmofnaturalmotherhoodmodeledbyLLL’ssupportgroupleaders;therefore,in

ordertobuildmaternalconfidenceandadvocatefornaturalmotherhoodamongsttheir

geographicallydispersedaudience,LLLwouldhavetoemployrhetoricalstrategiesto

textuallyrecreatethesafematernalspaceofthemother-to-mothersupportgroup.

Inthischapter,IarguethatinwritingTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLL

adopted,adapted,andsubvertedelementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhoodassociated

withwhite,middle-classmothersofthe1950sinordertoestablishmaternalexperienceas

alegitimatesourceofknowledgeonchildcareandinspiremotherstotrusttheadviceofthe

organization.LLL’smaternalrhetoricemployedthethreepisteisofethos(ethics),logos

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(logic),andpathos(emotion)toconvinceitsaudienceofmotherswhowishedtobreastfeed

topersevereintheireffortstoresistdominantpracticesandembracethemorelovingand

fulfillingalternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhood.Whilethethreepisteishavebeen

frequentlyregardedasindependentrhetoricalproofsthatcanbeaddedtoanargument,I

alignmyselfwithscholarssuchasLisaEdeandAngelaLundsford,whoarguein“On

DistinctionsbetweenClassicalandModernRhetoric”thatthepisteis“areinseparable

strandsthatlinkpeopleengagedindiscourse”(LunsfordandEde42).Inemployingethos,

logos,andpathosasitforegroundedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodinTheWomanlyArt

ofBreastfeeding,LLLcraftedanargumentthattherejectionofdominantpracticesinfavor

ofnaturalmotherhoodwasnotonlyarationalchoice,butthatitwasachoicemadeby

good,lovingmotherswhowishedtoensurethephysicalhealthandemotionalwellbeingof

theirbabies.

ThischapterbuildsonChapterIIbyexploringthewayinwhichmaternalrhetoric

canbeusedtorhetoricallyreframethevalueoftheactivitiesthattakeplacewithin

domesticspacesandcanauthorizeashiftinthoseactivitiesinordertocreatematernal

space.Thus,Iaimtoexplorehow“thelanguagethatdesignatesaspace,thematerialsthat

constructandadornit,andtheactivitiesenactedinsideit”(Enoch,OctologIII,115)canbe

shiftedinordertocreatematernalspace.Inparticular,Iarguethatthewidelyaccepted

domesticactivitiesofwhite,middle-classmotherswereproblematizedbythecritiqueof

domesticityandthedominantparadigmofscientificmotherhoodthatwasembedded

withinLLL’s1958text,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Thiscritiqueofdomestic

activitieswasachievedthroughframingthestatusquoascontradictorytotraditional

valuesassociatedwithmotherhood.LLLcraftedamaternalethosandemployedappealsto

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logicandemotiontoarguethatmothersshouldembraceamorenaturalapproachto

motherhoodthatinvolvedbondingwithbabiesandrespondingtotheiruniqueneeds.

Thus,LLLusedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodtoempowermotherstoresistthe

dominantparadigmofmotherhoodandauthorizethemtochangetheirmaternalbehavior

withinthespaceofthehome.Additionally,thetextmodeledtheuseofmaternalrhetoricto

craftanargumentthatwouldhelpwomengaintheirhusbands’supportfortheireffortsto

breastfeed,adoptthealternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhood,andtransformtheir

homesintomaternalspace.

TocontextualizemyanalysisofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,thenextsection

ofthechapterwillprovideanoverviewofthedevelopmentandwritingofTheWomanly

ArtofBreastfeeding.Iwillnextreviewthedominantconstructionofmotherhoodinthe

post-WWIIeraandexplainhowtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodcanbeleveragedtoargue

fortheauthorityoffirst-handexperience.Ithenanalyzethevariousrhetoricalstrategies

thatLLLusedtoinspiremotherstotrustthefoundersofLLL,toframemothersasthe

appropriateauthoritiesoninfantfeedingandchildcare,andencouragemotherstoembrace

naturalmotherhood.Finally,Iexploretherhetoricalstrategiesandpracticaladvicethat

LLLutilizedasithelpedmotherstransformtheirhomesintomaternalspacesandgainthe

supportoftheirhusbandssothattheywerefreetopracticeanalternativestyleof

parenting.

THEDEVELOPMENTOFTHEWOMANLYARTOFBREASTFEEDING

ThecontentandtoneofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingwastheresultofa

lengthydiscussionanddebateregardinghowbesttoaddressmothersinawaythatoffered

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friendlysupportandhelpedthemtounderstandLLL’sviewofmotheringandputitinto

practice.Theleadersdidnotwanttomerelysharebreastfeedingtechniques;theyalso

wantedtosharetheirunderstandingofanalternativewayofmothering,facilitatedby

breastfeeding,thatwasrootedinacloseemotionalbondbetweenmotherandchild.Onthe

eveningofMarch27,1958,eightmembersofLLL—MaryAnnCahill,EdwinaFroehlich,

MaryAnnKerwin,MarianTomspon,BettyWagner,MaryWhite,andtwounnamedmothers

whohadrecentlyjoinedtheorganization—mettodiscussstructuringLLLasaformal

organization,clarifytheirmissionandgoals,andplanforthewritingoftheircourse-by-

mail,whichlaterbecameTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Themeetingwasalsoattended

byLLL’smedicaladvisors,physiciansGregoryWhite,thehusbandofMaryWhite,and

HerbertRatner,whoservedasmoderatorforthemeeting(“LLLDialogue”199).

AspartofthediscussiononMarch27,1958,theleadersofLLLdecidedhowthey

wouldpositionthemselvesinrelationtoexistingdiscourseandideologiesonmothering

andbreastfeeding.Theyestablishedthattheirprimarygoalwastoencouragemothersto

developaclose,lovingbondwiththeirchildrenthroughbreastfeeding.Thiswasareaction

againstandasignificantdeparturefromtheideologyofscientificmotherhood,which

encouragedstrictsleepingandeatingschedulesanddiscouragedphysicalcontactwiththe

babyinordertofosterindependence.

AsIdetailedinChapterII,thefoundingmothersofLLLviewedthedetached

approachofscientificmotherhoodascontradictorytoamother’sinstinctualdesirefora

strongmother-childbondformedthroughclosephysicalproximitytoone’schild.LLL

offeredanalternativeapproachthroughitsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,which

encouragedthedevelopmentofastrongmother-childbondthatwasfacilitatedthrough

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breastfeeding.Insteadoffocusingsolelyonprovidinginformationregardingbreastfeeding

techniques,LLLwantedtohelpmotherslearnaboutalovingapproachtomothering.

Breastfeeding,claimedonemother,“helpsthegrowthofthisrelationshipthatshouldexist

betweenthemotherandthebaby,andithelpsyoutoseehowdependentthebabyisupon

youandhowyoumustfillhisneeds.Allofthis,ofcourse,islove.Imean,ithelpsthewhole

ideaofloving”(“LLLDialogue”209).ClearlyfortheleadersofLLL,breastfeedingwasnot

regardedasanendinitself;rather,theyperceivedittobeafoundationalstepinbuilding

strongmother-childbonds.Thephysicalbondofbreastfeedinghelpedthemotherdevelop

anunderstandingtheinfant’sneeds,thefirstofwhichLLLunderstoodtobetheneedfor

themotherandmother-love.

Asaresultoflengthydiscussion,LLL’sfoundersmadeanumberofrhetorical

decisionsthatwouldhelpthemtranslatetheworkoftheorganizationintowriting.First,

theycommittedthemselvestoanorganizationalethosgroundedinmaternalauthority

resultingfromfirst-handexperiencewithbreastfeedingandmothering.Second,they

committedthemselvestotheideathatacommunalsharingofexperiencehelpsmothers

gainconfidenceandasenseofpersonalautonomy.Third,theydecidedtodirectalloftheir

effortsatpublicoutreachtowardmotherswhoalreadyhadaninterestinbreastfeeding,as

theyfeltthatthesemotherswouldbeinclinedtosharetheirviewsaboutthenatureof

motherhood;thus,theirpeersupportmodelwouldbestservethisaudience.Indirecting

theirrhetoricaleffortstolike-mindedwomenwhowishedtobreastfeed,thefoundersof

LLLencouragedgroupaffiliation,whichtheybelievedmotherscraved.Theybelievedthat

aswomensharedtheirexperiencesandprovidedoneanotherwithsupport,theywould

becomepartofa“mysticalbody”(“LLLDialogue”25).Finally,theydiscussedspecific,

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practicalrhetoricalstrategies,suchasmaintainingafriendlytoneandavoidingtoomuch

relianceonscientificdata,thattheywouldemploywhilewritingthecourse-by-mail.The

decisionslaidthefoundationforthedevelopmentofLLL’smaternalrhetoric,which

combinedethical,logical,andpatheticappealsandinvokedtheculturalcodeof

motherhood.LLL’smaternalrhetorichelpedtocultivateacounterpublicofbreastfeeding

motherswhoembracednaturalmotherhood,activelychallengedthepracticesofscientific

motherhood,andpromptedthemedicalcommunitytoreviseitspracticesaroundinfant

feedinganditsrelationshiptomothers.

Likelyoneofthemostimportantdecisionsthatledtoitsrhetoricalsuccesswasthe

decisiontotargetanaudienceofsoon-to-bemotherswhoalreadywishedtobreastfeed.

Thiswasastrategicchoicetotapintoagrowingdiscontentwiththeconstraintsof

scientificmotherhoodandadissatisfactionwiththeidealof1950swhite,middle-class

domesticity.“Atleastthosewhohaveattemptedtobreastfeedfeelthatthereisaneedfor

motheringorsomethingislackinginourgeneralacceptedpattern,”onemotherpointed

out(“LLLDialogue”205).TheleadersofLLLclearlyfeltthatmothersinterestedin

breastfeedingweremorepreparedtoembracetheirphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodand

wouldbemorepreparedtofacethechallengeofresistingthedominantdiscourseand

practicesofscientificmotherhood.Becausetheleadersviewedbreastfeedingasameansto

anend,theydidnotwanttospendtheirtimeinmeetingsarguingtheprosandconsof

breastfeeding(“LLLDialogue”205).Withareceptiveaudience,theycouldfocuson

providingsupportformothersattemptingtodevelopastrongmother-childbondthrough

breastfeeding.Theypurposefullychosenottotargetmotherswhoplannedtobottle-feed

because“[t]hereasonswhytheyarebottlefeedinginthefirstplacearetoovariedand

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ratherstrongandinasense,it’smorethanwecanhandle”(“LLLDialogue”211).Atthat

time,LLLwasnotpreparedtotacklethemyriadoffactorsthatledwomentobottle-feed.

Instead,theleadershopedthatthespreadoftheorganization’sapproachtomotherhood

anditsmissionofsupportingbreastfeedingmotherswoulddrawmorewomento

breastfeed.

Inefforttomoreeffectivelysupportawidelydispersedaudienceofmothers,

foundersMaryWhite,EdwinaFroehlich,andMaryAnnCahilldevelopedthecourse-by-

mail,whichwaswrittenbetweenthespringandfallof1958andwasdistributedunderthe

titleTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,withmuchofthesameinformationandrhetorical

messagingthatwassharedintheseriesofsupportgroupmeetings.Thefollowingsections

wereincluded:

• BenefitsofBreastfeeding,whichdiscussedthephysical,psychological,and

emotionalbenefitsofbreastfeeding,

• PlanningforBaby,whichcoveredeverythingfromhouseworktopreparingtohave

anaturalchildbirthinthehospital,

• CommonWorries,whichdiscussedissues,suchasinvertednipples,thatmight

discouragewomenfrombreastfeeding,

• How-To:Techniques,whichcoveredsuchtopicsasthetechniquesofbreastfeeding,

howtoholdthebaby,handexpressionofmilk,andcareforsorenipples,

• TheFather’sRole,whichgaveadviceregardingtheroleofthefatherinthe

breastfeedingfamilywiththegoalofencouragingthefathertosupportthe

breastfeedingmother-childpair,

• Nutrition,whichdiscussedeatinghabitsandgoodnutrition,

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• Andasectioncoveringoddsandends,suchasweaningandstartingsolids.

Thiscontentexploredandexpandeduponmanyoftheassumptionsandidealsthatthe

foundersofLLLhaddevelopedthroughtheirindividualexperienceswithchildbirth,

mothering,andbreastfeedingaswellasthroughtheirearlyeffortstocreateamother-to-

motherbreastfeedingsupportgroup.Itconstructedmotherhoodasnaturalandinstinctual,

butitalsohighlightedthetransformationalandconfidence-buildingpotentialofmother-to-

mothersupport,whichthetextaimedtooffer.Itprivilegedthematernalspaceasthe

logicalsiteforthedevelopmentofknowledgeaboutinfantfeedingandday-to-day

childcare.Itgavepracticaladvicetohelpmotherstransformtheirownhomesinto

maternalspacesinwhichtheycouldconfidentlybreakawayfromproblematicdominant

practices,relyonmaternalinstincttoguidedecision-making,developdeeperrelationships

withtheirfamilies,andfindmorepersonalfulfillment.

Thecontentofthetextpromotedtraditionalgenderrolesandhighlightedbiological

differencesbetweenthesexes,arguingthatbearingandraisingchildrencouldbeasource

ofstrengthforwomenwhowishedtoexperienceadifferentandmorefulfillingapproach

thanthatpromotedbyscientificmotherhood.Additionally,LLLreliedontherhetorical

leveragingofideasassociatedwithsuchtraditionalviewsofgenderandtheculturalcode

ofmotherhoodtodevelopitsownmaternalrhetoricandconnectwithitsaudience,which

neededbothstrongpersonalmotivationandpracticaladviceinordertoeasilyresist

dominantideologiesregardingbreastfeedingandchildcare,embracetheconceptofnatural

motherhood,andcreatetheirownmaternalspaces.

Eventhepracticalsolutionsforfundingtheprintinganddistributionofthecourse

revealsanefforttoadvocateforandsuccessfullysupportmothers.Thefundingtoprintthe

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course-by-mailcamefromtheproceedsofatalkbyDr.GrantlyDick-Read,theinfluential

BritishphysicianwhohadpublishedChildbirthWithoutFearin1942topromotenatural

childbirth.InapproximatelyAugustof1957,EdwinaFroehlichhadreadthatDick-Read

waspreparingforaspeakingtourintheUnitedStates,soshesentaletterrequestingthat

hespeakforanaudienceofmothers.Heagreedtospeakforhisusualfeeof$700.LLLcould

notaffordthisfee,butFroehlichwasdeterminedtotryagainasshefeltwomenwerea

logicalaudienceforDick-Read,despitethefactthathegenerallyaddressedaudiencesof

medicalprofessionals.“Whodeservedtohearhimspeakmorethanus?”Shereasoned,

“Afterall,wewerethewomenwhowerehavingourbabieshisway,sowhywouldn’the

wanttotalktous,too?”(Lowman,Revolutionaries19-20).Froehlichwrotebacktoexplain

theorganization’smissionandrequestheconsidercomingtospeaktoLLLforasmaller

fee.Dick-ReadassuredFroehlichthatifLLLweretohosttheeventandchargeasmallentry

fee,hisnamewoulddrawenoughaudiencememberstocoverhisspeakingfee.The1,250-

seatauditoriumwasfilledonthatnightinOctober1957.AccordingtoFroehlich,LLLhad

providedDick-Read“withthebiggest,mostexcitinggrouponhistour.Hewas

tremendouslypleasedoverthelargeturnoutandinterestshown”(Lowman,LLLove21).

ThefoundersofLLLwerehappywiththeresultsoftheeveningaswell.Aftercoveringtheir

expenses,theorganizationmadeaprofitof$350,whichtheyappliedtothecostofprinting

thecourse-by-mail.Beyondthepracticalimplicationsofthesuccessoftheevening,italso

offeredLLLanopportunitytoshowthatwomennotonlyhadaninterestindiscussing

mattersrelatedtowomen’sandchildren’shealth,butinhostingatalkbyDick-Readthat

wasopentothegeneralpublic,LLLundertookarhetoricalactionthatmadeanargumentin

favorofwomen’sinclusioninsuchdiscussions.

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Oncethefundingforprintingthecourse-by-mailhadbeensecuredandWhite,

Froehlich,andCahillhadfinishedwriting,thecoursewasprintedonfortypagesof8½x11

paper.Withthecourseinhand,thefoundersbegantoreconsidertheirmethodof

distribution.AccordingtoMaryAnnCahill,thefoundershadinitially“designedtheCourse

ByMailsothatwecouldsendeachmotherwhateverpartsshewanted,notnecessarilythe

wholething”(Lowman,LLLove24).However,withthecoursereadyfordistribution,the

foundersdecidedthatsendingoutthesectionsseparatelywasnotthemostbeneficial

approach.Uponreflection,Cahillsays,“werealizedthatthemotherreallyneededthe

wholethinginfrontofher.Shemightonlybewritingabout[sufferingfrom]sorenipples,

butwebegantoseethatsheneededawholebackgroundofinformation—sheneededthe

wholepicture.Andwewantedhertogetmotheringideas—nottowatchtheclockbut

respondtothebaby”(Lowman,LLLove24).Thisrealizationthatamotherstrugglingwith

sorenippleswouldneed“thewholepicture”showsthatLLL’sfoundersrealizedthatthey

couldnottrulysupportmothersunlesstheycouldhelpthemunderstandwhysuch

struggleswereworththeeffort—thatbreastfeedingwasnotsimplyameansoffeedinga

babybutalsoapracticethatfacilitatedaclosermother-childbond.Inordertoprovidethis

contextformothers,thefoundersaddedanintroductiontoLLLanditsphilosophyof

naturalmotherhood,aswellasasectionincludingbriefbiographiesofallofthefounding

mothers,andputtheentirecoursetogetherinawhitefolder.Itwasdistributedbymailfor

afeeof$2.00underthenameCourseByMail,thoughthetitlepageidentifiedthetextas

TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,whichishowitcametobeknown.

TheremainderofthechapterexaminesthewayinwhichTheWomanlyArtof

Breastfeedingcraftedamaternalrhetoricthatcombinedethical,logical,andpathetic

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appealswhileleveragingtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodtopromotebreastfeedingand

naturalmotherhoodandpushbackagainstscientificmotherhoodandtheconceptof1950s

domesticity.LLLuseditsmaternalrhetorictoframemothersasthenaturalauthoritieson

infantfeeding,topresentnaturalmotherhoodasasensibleapproachtomothering

employedbygoodmothers,andtoencouragewomentomodifytheirhomemanagement

activitiesinordertocreatematernalspacesthatreflectednaturalmotherhood.

Additionally,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingmodeledanargumentthatmotherscould

employinordertoprompttheirhusbandstogetonboardwithnewdomestic

arrangements.Inemployingtheserhetoricalstrategiesinthe1958editionofTheWomanly

ArtofBreastfeeding,LLLbegantouniteawidelydispersedaudienceofmothersintoa

counterpublicthatwouldspreadLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,challenge

dominantmaternalpractices,andeventuallygaintheattentionofthemedicalprofession.

MATERNALRHETORICINTHEWOMANLYARTOFBREASTFEEDING

Inordertocraftaneffectiveargumentinfavorofbreastfeedingandnatural

motherhoodinTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLLneededtoaddressandpushback

againstproblematicassumptionsaboutwomenandtheirmaternalrole.Intheprevious

chapter,Iglossedtheconceptof1950sdomesticitytorevealthelinkbetweendomesticity

andscientificmotherhoodandtodrawacontrastbetweentheconceptsofdomesticityand

maternalspace,whichLLLmotherssubversivelyestablishedintheirhomessoastohavea

morenaturalexperienceofmotherhood.Inthissection,Iexploretheconceptofpost-WWII

domesticityinmoredepthwithafocusonthewayinwhichitwasconstructedtextuallyin

popularmedia.Icontrasthowpopularwomen’smagazinesframeddomesticityandhow

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LLLemployedmaternalrhetoricinitsearlytextstoencouragereaderstotransformtheir

homesintomaternalspaces.Insodoing,womenfoundthefreedomandautonomytoreject

dominantpracticesandembracethealternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhood.

LLLemergedfromasocialenvironmentinthepost-WWIIerathatrequired

domesticityofwhite,middle-classmothers.Whilemothershadworkedoutsideofthe

homeduringthewarera,followingthewar,arenewedemphasisondomesticity

encouragedwomentoexittheworkforcetomakeroomformenreturningfromwar.

Popularimagesofwhite,middle-classhomemakerswereidealizedandviewedasasymbol

oftheAmerica’ssuccessfulcapitalism(Coontz;Odland).Often,imagessuchastheCompact

vacuumadvertisementbelow(figure2),depictedhappyhomemakersenjoyingmodern

labor-savingdevices.Inthisparticularimage,amotherandheryoungdaughtersharetheir

delightovertheirnewvacuum.AquicksurveyofissuesofLadies’HomeJournalfrom1957

revealsthatadvertisementsfrequentlydepictedmothersbondingwiththeiryoung

daughtersoverhouseholdchoresandlabor-savingdevices.Thesuggestionwasthatnot

onlydidgoodmothersembracedomesticity,buttheytaughttheirdaughterstodosoas

well.Whilesuchimages,whichcametosymbolizethefreedomofAmerica’scapitalist

system,impliedthatwomenenjoyeddomesticchores,1950sdomesticityandscientific

motherhoodconstrainedmothersandundervaluedtheirknowledgegainedfrom

experience.

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Figure2.CompactadvertisementfromTheLadies'HomeJournal;Jan.1957,74.1,p.20;

personalcopy.

CommunicationsscholarSarahBurkeOdlandprovidesinsightintothetextual

constructionofpost-WWIImotherhoodinpopularmediaaimedatwomen.Inherarticle

“UnassailableMotherhood,AmbivalentDomesticity:TheConstructionofMaternalIdentity

inLadies’HomeJournalin1946,”Odlandrevealsthatintheimmediatepost-WWIIperiod,

motherhoodwasunderstoodtobeanunfulfillingdutycarriedoutbyself-sacrificing

mothersactingontheordersofchildrearingexperts,aswomenwereperceivedtolackthe

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capacitytomakeinformeddecisionsaboutchildcare.AccordingtoOdland,areviewof

1946issuesofLadies’HomeJournalrevealedsixrecurringthemesthatrepresentedthis

constructionofmotherhood:

• Motherhoodwasapatrioticdutythatcouldensurethewell-beingofthe

nation/state(67).

• Thehome,especiallythekitchen,wasthedomainofthemother,whowas

depictedaswhiteandmiddle-class(69).

• Motherhoodrequired“self-sacrificeandhands-onmothering”thatcateredto

the“inclinations,moods,andneedsofthechild”(70).

• Thepaternalisticadviceofchildrearingexpertswasconsiderednecessaryto

guidetheday-to-dayactivitiesofmothers,whowerefrequentlyinfantilized,

dismissed,andblamedbothbyexpertsandindepictionsappearingin

advertisements(72-73).

• Whiledomesticitywasn’trequiredpriortomotherhood,andchildless

womencouldenjoycareers,theywereexpectedtoadheretotraditional

genderrolesandremaininthehomeoncetheybecamemothers(73).

• Motherhoodwaswomen’shighestcalling,andwomen’sdesiresand

ambitionswereexpectedtobesetasidesothatmotherscouldfocusontheir

domestic,maternalroles(75).

Odland’sanalysisofdomesticityasdepictedintheLadies’HomeJournalshowsthat

mothersofthepost-WWIIerawereboundtothehomebyculturalexpectation,andwithin

thehome,motherswerefurtherconstrainedbyaculturalunderstandingthatthedaily

activitiesofmotherswereguidedbyaheavyrelianceonexpertadvice.AsOdlandshows,

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somephysicianstookacondescendingtonetowardmothersandblamedthemforillnesses

andaccidents,andadvertisementsfrequentlyconstructedmothersasuninformedandin

needofexpertguidance.WhilethesethemesappearedinLadies’HomeJournaladecade

priortoLLL’sfounding,theywerestilllargelyrelevanttothedominantideologyof

scientificmotherhoodthatprevailedinthe1950s.ThoughLLL’sfounderswerewhite,

middle-classhomemakers,establishingLLLforthepurposeofsharingexperience-based

knowledgewasaradicaldeparturefromthestatusquo.

Inordertoconvincemotherstoadoptthephilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandits

practices,LLLneededtopresentapersuasiveargumentthatLLL’sleadership,aswellas

mothersmorebroadly,hadthecapacityandauthoritytoofferadviceaboutinfantfeeding

andchildrearing.InTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLLcraftedamaternalrhetoricthat

employedethical,logical,andpersuasiveappealstoarguethatrejectingthedominant

practicesofscientificmotherhoodtoinsteadbreastfeedandestablishaclosemother-child

bondwasasensibleandlovingchoicemadebygoodmothers.Throughtheinterplayof

ethos,logos,andpathos,rhetorssuchasLLL’sfoundersareableto“unitealloftheir

resources—intellect,will,andemotion—incommunicatingwithoneanother”(Lundsford

andEde43).Pathosandlogosareinextricablylinked,claimscholarssuchasLaura

Micciche,JeffreyWalker,AngelaLunsfordandLisaEde,as“howwethinkaboutwhat

constitutesevidenceandgroundsforanargument—indeed,howweevendecidethatan

issuedeservestobe‘argued’—isalreadyshapedbyouremotionalinvestmentsinhow

thingsoughttobe”(Micciche3).Whilelogos“mediatestheperceptions(and

interpretationsofperceptions),”pathostriggers“aphysicallyembodied,psychologically

compulsivewill-to-act”(Walker81).Pathos,claimsMicciche,is“the‘stickiness’that

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generatesattachmentstoothers,toworldview,andtoawholearrayofsourcesand

objects”(1).Itisthestickinessofemotionalattachmentstotraditionalvaluesthatmakes

theculturalcodeofmotherhoodsuchapowerfulrhetoricaldeviceandallowswomento

employthecodetocraftmaternalethos.AsLindalBuchananexplains,“TheMother’s

persuasiveforce,then,stemsfromitsplacewithinthegenderhierarchyandcultural

matrix,itscapacitytostiremotionandinspiretrust,anditsabilitytoencourage

acquiescenceandmutecriticalreflection”(7).

AccordingtoBuchanan,womenrhetors,suchasProgressiveerabirthcontrol

activistMargaretSanger,havefrequentlyreliedontheculturalcodeofmotherhoodtocraft

maternalethos.Sangeremployedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodinorderto“appear

seemly,sensible,andhonorable;toappealtomothersandincitethemtoaction;andto

challengethestatusquoinarelativelynonthreateningmanner”(Buchanan29).While

BuchananwasdescribingtheeffectofSanger’sattemptstodevelopmaternalethos,her

descriptionhighlightsthewayinwhichthethreepisteisofethos,logos,andpathoswere

complementaryinSanger’smaternalrhetoric.Hermaternalethosframedherasseemly

andhonorable,thusshepresentedherselfasagoodmother;however,hermaternal

rhetoricalsoframedherassensible,assheemployedappealstologictorationalizeher

progressiveactivities.Finally,Sangerappealedtomothersinsuchawaythattheywere

incitedtoaction.Tomovemotherstoaction,Sangerlikelyneededtoemployemotional

appeals,astheyhavemorepowerthantheothertypesofappealstoinspiresuchamove

(Walker81).LLL’smaternalrhetoricoperatedsimilarlytoSanger’s,asitframedLLL

mothersasseemlyandtraditional(ethos),presentedtheirresistancetothepracticesof

scientificmotherhoodandtheirsubversionofdomesticityassensible(logos),andargued

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thatthealternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhoodwasamorelovingapproachthat

wouldensurethewellbeingofbabies(pathos).

LLL’srhetoricalstrategieshelpedtheorganizationrecruitanddevelopa

communityofmotherswhowouldbecomeacounterpubliccapableofpromptingthe

medicalprofessiontochangeitsviewsonbreastfeedingandre-evaluateitsrelationshipto

mothers.LLLalsouseditsmaternalrhetorictoargueinfavorofalternativewaysof

behavingwithinandorganizingthehomeinordertoassistmothersincreatingamaternal

spacethatwouldhelpthemsuccessfullyadoptLLL’sapproachtonaturalmotherhood.

DEVELOPINGMATERNALETHOS

OneofthefirsttasksthatLLLhadtoaccomplishinTheWomanlyArtof

Breastfeedingwastodevelopamaternalethosthatwouldframeitsfounders,aswellas

thosemotherswhoembraceditspractices,asgoodmothers.LLLneededtoarguethat

rejectingthestatusquoandadoptingalternativepracticescouldbeamoralandaltruistic

choicebymothersratherthantheactofsocialdeviants,misfits,orthoseotherwiseliving

onthefringesofacceptablesociety,suchasthefreewheelinghipstersofthe1940sorofthe

hedonistic,anti-materialistbeatniksofthe1950s.Therefore,LLLfirmlygroundedits

maternalethosinthemainstreamviewsofsociallyacceptablemoralityanddecency,andit

foregroundedconceptsandvaluesassociatedwiththeculturalcodeofmotherhoodinits

self-representation.AccordingtoCarolynSkinner,“aneffectiveethosisonethat

demonstratesthattherhetor'scharactermatchestheaudience'svalues”(Skinner,“She

Will”255).Rhetorsconstructtheaudiencebysuggestingthattheaudiencenaturally

“already(oratleastshouldalready)privilegethecharacteristicstherhetorbelievesarethe

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mostimportant”(Skinner,“SheWill”242).AsLindalBuchananexplainsinRhetoricsof

Motherhood,womenrhetorsoftendevelopthiskindofconnectionwiththeiraudiencesby

rhetoricallyforegroundingcharacteristicsandvaluesassociatedwiththeculturalcodeof

motherhood;thisallowswomenrhetorstodevelopaneffectivematernalethos.

Mother,accordingtoBuchanan,isagod-termthatisassociatedwithconceptssuch

aschildren,love,self-sacrifice,religion,altruism,home,protection,nourishment,and

morality(8).Buchananclaimsthatthegod-termMotherandthedevil-termWomanexist

onacontinuum(Table).Placingawomantowardthemotherendofthecontinuumcanbe

rhetoricallyadvantageousbecausemotherhoodhasanexaltedstatusinAmericansociety

andithasthe“capacitytostiremotionandinspiretrust”aswellas“encourage

acquiescenceandmutecritiqueandreflection”(Buchanan7).Rhetoricalassociationwith

theWoman-endofthecontinuumcantarnishawoman’sreputationanddemeanher

(Buchanan9).Theinvocationofmotherhoodandtheassociationofrhetorswithelements

oftheculturalcodeofmotherhood“providesrhetorswiththepersuasivemeansthatnot

onlyreflectdominantculturalsystemsandgendercodesbutalsohavethepotentialto

reify,resist,andrevisethem”(Buchanan22).

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Woman

(DevilTerm)

childlessness

work

sex

self-centeredness

materialism

immorality

hysteria

irrationality

extremeemotion

self-indulgence

weakness

thesensualbody

thepublicsphere

Rhetoricsthat

combine

elements

ofthe

Womanand

theMother

Mother

(GodTerm)

children

home

love

empathy

protection

religion

nourishment

altruism

morality

self-sacrifice

strength

thereproductivebody

theprivatesphere

thenation

Table1.TheWoman/MothercontinuumfromBuchanan,Lindal;RhetoricsofMotherhood;

Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUP,2013;p.9.

IarguethatinTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLLleveragedtheculturalcodeof

motherhoodtocraftamaternalethosthatwouldplacetheorganization,itsphilosophyof

naturalmotherhood,anditsalternativepracticesfurtheralongtheMother-endofthe

Woman/Mothercontinuumthanscientificmotherhood(andthusthemotherswho

adheredtoitsstrictschedulinganditshand-offpractices).Bytreatingmothersasthough

theywereirrational,scientificmotherhoodassociatedmotherswiththedevil-term

Woman,justasthemedicalprofessiondidwhentheyframedthematernalbodyasweakby

promotingdruggedchildbirthanddoubtingwhethermotherscouldadequatelyprovide

nourishmenttotheirchildrenbybreastfeeding.LLLpresentedanalternativeparadigmof

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motheringthatplacedmothersmuchfurthertowardtheMother-endofthe

Woman/Mothercontinuum.Insodoing,LLLpresentedaconvincingargumentthatnatural

motherhoodisamorebenevolent,truer,fulfilling,andbeneficialapproachtomothering

thanthedominantapproachthatpromoteddetachment,emphasizedstrictroutines,and

strippedmothersoftheirsubjectivity.

LLLbeganitsethosbuildingprojectinvisualformontheveryfirstpageofThe

WomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Thetitlepage(figure3)featuredthesmilingfacesofall

sevenofthefoundingmothersandtheirchildrengatheredinacozylivingroom.The

positioningofthisimage,asthefirstthingthatreaderscameuponwhenreadingthetext,

madeitclearthatLLLwasnotanameless,facelessorganization,butthatitwasindeeda

groupofyoung,friendly,experiencedmothers.Theplacementofthegroup,infrontofthe

fireplaceinMaryWhite’shome,suggestedthatthiswasawarm,familiar,andcomfortable

environment.Themothersinthepictureappeartohavebeenateaseandcomfortable.

Theywerewell-coiffedandwearingfashionableclothing.Theirdressandstylingwere

appropriateforwhite,middle-classmotherswhoembodiedvirtuessuchasmoralityand

respectability.Theyweresurroundedbyoverflowingbookshelves,whichimpliedthatthey

hadaccesstoknowledgeandanopportunitytopartakeinpersonallyfulfillingactivities;

yettheroomwascozyandclean,whichimpliedthattheystillmaintainedacleanand

comfortablehome.Theirsmilingfacesconveyedthattheywerecontentedwiththeir

maternalexperiences.Theirchildrenseemedhealthyandwell-fed,whichlikelyallayed

fearsabouttheabilityofbreastfeedingtobeanadequatesourceofnutrition.Thechildren

wereheldclose,eitheronthelapsoftheirmothersorstandingnexttothemwhilea

youngersiblingoccupiedhisorhermother’slap.Theimagewasbothwelcomingand

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aspirational;itwelcomedinmotherswhowereintriguedbyLLL’sideasandmission.It

offeredreassurancethatrespectablewomenwhocaredfortheirbabieshadembraced

breastfeedingsuccessfully.

Figure3.TitlepagefromTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding;FranklinPark,IL:LaLeche

LeagueInternational,1958.Ltd.ed.replica;personalcopy.

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Inadditiontoincludingavisualimageinthebeginningofthetext,theconclusionof

TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingfurtheredthedevelopmentofmaternalethosthrough

theinclusionofabiographysectionthatpaintedtextualportraitsofeachofthefounding

mothers.ThesedescriptionswouldhavebeenathomeinacontemporaryissueofLadies’

HomeJournal.MarianTompsonwasdescribedasthesoft-spoken,serene,andpetite

motheroffivedaughterswhoalsohappenedtoserveaspresidentoftheorganization.

MaryWhitewasdescribedasarelaxed,funnydoctor’swifeandmotherofsevenandthe

“OfficialHeadofResearch”forLLL(30).EdwinaFroehlich,whowassaidtohavecrackling

blueeyes,wasthewarmandarticulatemotherofthreeboyswhoservedasthe

organization’ssecretary.MaryAnnKerwin,amotheroftwowholookedlikeacollegeco-

ed,servedasthe“exceptionallyconscientiouslibrarian”forLLL(30).BettyWagner,a

motheroffivewhoservedasLLL’streasurer,was“blessedwithanuncommonlygood

shareofgoodcommonsense”(30).ViolaLennon,amotheroffour,wasdescribedasbeing

smartand“smart-looking”(30).Mary-AnnCahillwasthe“red-hairedandchic”motherof

sixwhohadagiftfortakingdiscussions“beyondmerewordstowarm,human

understanding”(30).ThesedescriptionsofLLL’sfoundingmembersvividlypaintedthem

asunique,experiencedindividualmotherswithavarietyofskillsandtalents.

MothersreadingthetextcouldlikelyrelatetooneormoreofLLL’sfounders.The

factthateachfounderhadmultiplechildrenofferedadditionalassurancesthatreaders

weregettingadvicefromexperiencedmothers.Referencestotheirlookshelpedthemseem

modernandattractive,whichunderminedanymisconceptionthatbreastfeedingmothers

weredowdyorthatrejectingtrendsinchildcareandinfantfeedingmadeone

unfashionable.Thefocusontheirpersonalities,characteristics,andtalents—Viola

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Lennon’sintelligence,EdwinaFroehlich’swarmth,MaryWhite’shumor,MarianTompson’s

serenity,BettyWagner’scommonsense,Mary-AnnCahill’sunderstanding,andMaryAnn

Kerwin’sconscientiousness—helpedtheaudienceviewLLL’sleadershipasacollectionof

uniqueindividualswithsharedvaluesandbeliefs.TheimplicationwasthatLLL’sideology

ofnaturalmotherhoodanditspracticesweresuitedtoandsuitableforawidevarietyof

women.Thetextseemedtosuggestthattherewasnoparticulartypeofwomanwhowould

bebettersuitedthanotherstoLLL’sviewsandpractices.Inreality,however,thefounders

ofLLLwereahomogenousgroupofwhite,middle-classCatholicwomen.Theaffordances

oftheirlifestylemadeiteasiertoembraceanalternativeapproachtomotheringandinfant

feedingthatrequiredconstantandclosecontactwiththeirinfants.

Inadditiontodevelopingamaternalethosofcompetent,moral,andlovingmothers

ofhealthychildren,thesevisualandtextualrepresentationsofLLL’sfoundershelpedtheir

audiencemakeaconnectionwithLLL.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingfurtherdeveloped

itsmaternalethosandencouragedthisconnectionbyframingtheorganizationasa

friendlyneighbor.Theorganizationaimedtofosterasenseofmother-to-mother

communicationandsupport,evenfromadistance.Inordertodoso,LLLdecidedthatit

wasimportanttoshowempathyandusenaturallanguagethatwouldbeappropriatefora

conversationbetweenfriends(“LLLDialogue”25).InwritingTheWomanlyArtof

Breastfeeding,LLLdevelopedafriendlytonethatmadeapointofplacingtheleadersofLLL

andthemothersintheiraudienceonequalfooting.Theopeninglineofthetextconstructed

theorganizationas“aneighborwithsomethinginherhandandhearttosharewithyou.

Callita‘wayofmothering’”(WomanlyArt1).“Seeherasawomanwithababyinherarms

andasmileonherface,”theintroductioncontinues,“proudofherselfandlongingtoshare

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withyouthewealthofallshehasexperiencedandlearned.Shehassuccessfullynursedher

baby”(WomanlyArt1).LLL’sleadershipwantedwomentoviewtheorganizationasthey

wouldafriendlyneighborwhowashappytoshareadvicebaseduponhersuccessful

experiencewithmothering.Bydescribingtheknowledgegainedfromthefirst-hand

experienceofhavingsuccessfullynursedababyintermsofwealth,LLLframedmaternal

experienceasavaluableresourcethatcouldnotbeprovidedbymedicalprofessionals

unlesstheyhappenedtobenursingmothersthemselves.Thisgoalofsharingexperience-

basedknowledgeinafriendlywayinvokedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodbysuggesting

thattheorganizationwasempatheticandaltruistic.ThisimageryputLLL’sleadershipand

thereaderonlevelfooting.Theimageryofasmilingmotherwithherbabyinarmsalso

subtletyconveyedthemessagethatitwasfulfillingandrewardingtoresistthedominant

practiceofbottle-feedingandignoretheadvicetoavoidholdingthebabyandinstead

establishaphysicallyclosemother-childbond.Clearly,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding

carefullyemployedvisualandtextualimagerytoconveyamaternalethosthatframedthe

organizationasawholesome,loving,friendly,altruistic,empathetic,capable,and

responsiblemotherwhofoundhappinessandfulfillmentinherchoicetomotherinamore

naturalway.

ESTABLISHINGMATERNALAUTHORITYANDINSPIRINGSELF-CONFIDENCE

Theabsenceofconfidenceinwomen’sabilitytomakedecisionsaboutchildcarewas

perhapsthelargestobstaclethatLLLhadtoovercomeinTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.

DevelopingmaternalethostoconvincemothersthatLLL’sleaderswererespectable,good

motherswasperhapsamoremanageabletask.Toconvincemotherstoembracenatural

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motherhood,LLLneededtoconvincereadersthattheirmaternalexperiencesmadethe

foundersofLLLanauthoritativesourceonbreastfeedingandchildcare.Theyalsoneeded

toconvincereaderstoviewthemselvesasnaturalauthoritiesonthecareoftheirown

childrenandtobelievethattheyhadthecapacitytomakeinformeddecisionsabouttheir

children’suniqueneeds.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingmadeappealstologic(logos)

andemotion(pathos),ordeeplyheldvalues,inordertoconvincemothersthatnatural

motherhoodwasthelogicalapproachtomotheringandthatitwouldbettermeetthe

complexneedsofindividualbabies.SpecificrhetoricalmovesthatLLLemployedasit

developeditsmaternalrhetoricincludedcontextualizingthelossofmaternalconfidence,

outliningwhatitbelievedtobethelogicalrolesoffirst-handmaternalknowledgeand

medicalscienceinchildcare,makingpatheticappealstomaternaldesiresandfears,linking

thefulfillmentofmaternaldesirestoLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,and

referencingtheBiblicalcharacterofEvetoarguethatmotherhoodwouldcomenaturallyif

societalpressuresdidnotinterfere.

WhileLLLcarefullyemployedvisualandtextualimagerytoconstructamaternal

ethosfortheorganizationthatframedthefoundersasrespectable,competent,loving,

happy,nurturingmothers,italsoneededtoframeexperiencedmothersasauthoritieson

mattersrelatedtoinfantfeedingandchildcare.Evenwhenrhetorssharevalueswith

membersoftheiraudience,duetosocialnormsandmores,audiencemembersandrhetors

maynotagreethatactionstakenorsuggestedbytherhetorreflectsharedvalues.Thisis

trueofLLL,whichwasdevelopedinaneraduringwhichmotherswereexpectedto

passivelyacceptandinstitutephysicians’adviceaboutchildcareandinfantfeeding;

therefore,itwouldhavebeenchallengingtoconvincewomentoacceptadvicefromother

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mothersormaketheirowninformeddecisionsabouttheday-to-daycareandfeedingof

children.AsSkinnerexplains,“Shiftingtheaudience'svaluesmaybeparticularlynecessary

forrhetorswhoseveryactofspeakingisascontroversialasthechangetheyadvocate”

(242).Inordertoshiftthevaluesofitsaudienceandconvincethemtotrustinmaternal

authorityoverchildcareandinfantfeedingandembracenaturalmotherhood,LLLneeded

toshowthatthepracticesassociatedwithscientificmotherhoodwereillogicaland

contradictedthevaluesthattheorganizationanditsaudiencehelddear.Italsoneededto

provideevidencethatnaturalmotherhoodwasamoresensibleapproachtomotheringthat

betterreflectedtheirsharedvalues.

TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingsuggestedthatthemedicalizationofchildcarehad

negativelyimpactedmothers’viewsofthemselvesandtheirchildren(1).AsIdetailedin

ChapterII,themedicalprofessionviewedwomenashavingweakbodiesthatnecessitated

routineinterventioninchildbirthandsupplementationinthecaseofbreastfeeding.

Medicatedchildbirthhadbecomesoprevalentthatmanyphysicianshadneverattendedan

unmedicatedbirth.ThebirthexperiencesofMarianTompson,whohadendurednegative

experiencesgivingunmedicatedbirthinahospitalandhadenjoyedthepositiveexperience

ofgivingbirthathome,showedthatthefieldofmedicinedidnottrustwomen’sbodiesto

functioncorrectly.

Unsurprisingly,theattitudeofphysicianstowardmothershadanimpactontheir

self-confidence.LLL’sfoundersfeltthatwomen’sfaithintheirinstinctualabilitytocarefor

theirchildrenhadbeenharmedbytheexpectationthattheywouldstrictlyadheretothe

adviceofphysicians.TheintroductionofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingmadethispoint

bydrawingacomparisonbetweenthelossofmaternalconfidenceandtheeffectonone’s

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abilitytowalkifitweresubjecttothislevelofscrutiny:“wetakeourabilitytowalkfor

granted.Imagine,though,ourlossofconfidence,perplexity,andperhapscompletefailure

ofthisnaturalfunctionifwewereconstantlybeingquestionedorcriticized”(WomanlyArt

1).Thispassageemployedbothlogicalandemotionalappeals.AsOdlandshowed,popular

mediahadinfantilizedmothersanddepictedthemasincompetent(72-73).Byattributing

failuretobreastfeedtoself-doubtcausedbythisconstantcriticism,thetextgavearational

explanationformothers’struggleswithbreastfeeding.Italsomadeanemotionalappealby

encouragingmotherstoreflectontheharmthathadbeendonetothembythedominant

ideologyofscientificmotherhood.Additionally,byusingtheplural,first-personpronoun

“we,”LLLcreatedacommunalbondwithitsaudience.Italertedreaderstothefactthat

leadersofLLLcouldunderstandandrelatetotheemotionalturmoilthatmothersfaced

whentheyfailedintheirattemptstodosomethingthatwaspresumedtocomenaturally.

Thepronoun“our”showedthatthelossofmaternalconfidencewasnotaunique

experience,butthatitwasasharedlossresultingfromthechallengesofthesocialcontext.

Becauseitwasasharedloss,itwouldtakealargemovementofwomenpushingback

againstthecauseofthatlossinordertohelpmothersregainconfidence.

NotonlydidTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingexposethecauseofmothers’

difficultieswithbreastfeeding,italsorevealedthewayinwhichscientificmotherhoodhad

harmedthemother-childrelationship.LLLleadersbelievedthatthecomplexityofformula

feeding,withitschartsandscales,couldcauseamotherto“begintoregardherbabyasa

complexdigestivesysteminsteadofamostdependentbut‘feeling’person”(WomanlyArt

1).Here,LLLmadealogicalappealbyprovidingareasonedexplanationoftheproblematic

wayinwhichbottle-feedingmechanizesinfantfeedingandthusencouragesmothersto

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developadetachedviewthatunderstandsbabiesaseatingmachines.Tostrengthenthis

logicalargument,thetextmadeanemotionalappealbypointingoutthatscientific

motherhoodtreatedbabiesasthoughtheywere,oroughttobe,independentanddevoidof

feelings.Additionally,itunderscoredthewaythatthedominantapproachdiscouraged

mothersfromdemonstratingempatheticunderstandingoftheirbabies.Thisaspectof

scientificmotherhoodhadrealeffects,asitencouragedmotherstotakeahands-off

approachtomotheringthatLLLarguedwasunfulfillingforbothmothersandbabiesand

affectedthepsychologicalwell-beingofboth.Incontrasttothisviewofbabiespromotedby

scientificmotherhood,LLLarguedthatbreastfeedingwasasimplewaytomeetboththe

nutritionalneedsofbabiesandwhatLLLconsideredtobebabies’otherprimaryneed:the

psychologicalneedforthecomfortandphysicalpresenceoftheirmothers.

TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingpushedbackagainstthedamagedonebythe

privilegingofmedicalknowledgeoverfirst-handexperiencebyfirmlydefiningwhatLLL

believedtobetheappropriateroleofexperienced-basedmaternalknowledgeandtherole

ofmedicalknowledgeinchildcare.Eventhetext’stitleforegroundedmaternalagencyand

revealedanunderstandingofbreastfeeding,andmotheringbyextension,asapractice

motivatedbyaninternaldriveorinstinctratherthanexternalforcessuchasthestrictrules

ofscientificmotherhood.LLLsuggestedthatbreastfeedingwasanartratherthanascience,

anditwaspassedfromwomantowoman.Thecontrastdrawnherebetweenartand

sciencewasastrategicwaytochallengethelogicoftheone-size-fits-allapproachto

childcareandfeedingthatwasprevalentunderscientificmotherhood.Framing

breastfeedingasanartimpliedthatwhilebreastfeedinginvolvedphysiologicalprinciples

andtechniquesthatcouldbetaught,especiallybyexperiencedmothers,breastfeedinga

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babywasauniqueexperiencethatchangedaccordingtothenutritionalandpsychological

needsofindividualbabies.

Doctors,theintroductiontoTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingclaimed,hadvery

littletodowithbreastfeeding(WomanlyArt2).Toestablishtheauthorityofmothersover

breastfeedingandchildcaredecisions,LLLcarefullyexplainedtheroleofphysiciansinthe

historyofinfantfeeding:“Themedicalprofessioninitsroleofassistingorsubstitutingfor

Nature,tackledtheproblemoffindinganacceptablemilkforthebabywhocouldnotget

breastmilk”(WomanlyArt1).Thesuggestionherewasthatthemedicalprofessionshould

onlyinterveneininfantfeedingiftherewasamedicalreasonthatthebabycouldnotnurse.

Theproblem,accordingtoLLL,isthat“somehowtheexceptionbecametherule”(Womanly

Art1).Incontrastingtheaffordancesofknowledgegainedfromfirst-handexperiencewith

thatofthemedicalprofession,LLLwasmakingalogicalappealtoitsaudience,prompting

readerstodosomedeductivereasoning.Formulafeedingwasmeanttobeasolutiontoa

problemthatpreventedthenaturalandidealmethodoffeedingfrombeingemployed.Why

routinelyemploythesolution,particularlyasitofferedfewerbenefits?Clearlydefiningthe

appropriateroleofphysicians,whichwastointerveneonlywhenmedicallynecessary,

helpedsupporttheargumentthatmotherswerethenaturalauthoritiesontheunique

needsoftheirbabiesandthattheyshouldthereforetakeamoreactiveroleinmaking

decisionsaboutthecareoftheirownchildren.

TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingfurtherdevelopeditslogicalargumentinfavorof

maternalauthoritybypromptingitsaudiencetoconsiderhowmotherslearnedto

breastfeedbeforethemedicalprofessionexisted.Thetextsuggestedthatthemyriadof

decisionsmothersneededtomakeaboutinfantcareandtheconflictingadvicethat

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mothersreceivedmadecontemporarymotheringmuchmorecomplexthanitwouldhave

beenforEve.LLLblamedtheoveruseofinfantformulaandthestrictpracticesofscientific

motherhoodforunderminingmaternalself-confidence.Itarguedthatwhilemothers

shouldhavebeenconsideredthenaturalauthorityoninfantcareandfeeding,societal

forceshadunderminedtheirabilitytounderstandthenaturalroleofmotherinthe

relationshipbetweenmotherandchild.Accordingtothetext,mothershad“strongoften

unfulfilledyearnings”andthatignoringthe“naturalinclinationsofamothertoholdand

nurseherbaby”(WomanlyArt2)couldhavenegativeconsequencesfortheirpsychological

health.Breastfeedingincreasesthehormoneprolactin,whichelevatesemotionsandbuilds

motherlylove(WomanlyArt4).Byemphasizingthisphysiologicaleffectandits

relationshiptomaternallove,LLLmadeapatheticappealtomothers’desirestohave

strongbondswiththeirchildrenandimpliedthatfollowingphysicians’advicetobottle-

feedmightobstructthedevelopmentofthedesiredmother-childbond.

LLL’sfoundersknewthatinorderforamothertoresistthedominantviewofthe

irrationalityandweaknessofmothers,“Themostimportantthingshemustdo,andthe

hardest,istolearntohavefaithinherselfasamother”(WomanlyArt18).Timeand

experience,accordingtoLLL,weretheonlythingsthatcouldtransformanuncertain

mothertoaconfidentone(WomanlyArt18),butwhataboutthefirst-timemother?How

couldshebeginmotheringwithconfidence?Whiletimeandexperiencearetheprimary

vehiclesthroughwhichamotherwouldgainconfidenceinhermaternalabilities,LLL’s

philosophyofnaturalmotherhoodofferednewmothersanalternativeframeworkfor

understandingthemselvesastherightfulauthoritiesoverroutinematterssuchasthecare

andfeedingofchildren.

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LLLusedanumberofthemestoargueinfavorofnaturalmotherhood,including

foregroundingreligionandnature.FortheCatholicfoundersofLLL,naturewasassociated

withreligion,anditwasunderstoodtobetheresultoftheintentionaldesignofacreator.

WhileProtestantsoutnumberedCatholics,over90%ofAmericanadultsidentified

themselvesasChristiansinthe1950s(Newport),soinvokingBiblicalimagerywasawayto

createcommongroundwiththeaudience.TheintroductiontoTheWomanlyArtof

BreastfeedinginvokedtheBiblicalstoryofEveinefforttomaketheclaimthat,wereitnot

forsocietalfactorsthatinhibitwomenfrombeingintunewiththeirnaturalbodies,

breastfeeding,aswellasmothering,wouldcomeaseasilyasbreathing:“HowdidEve

manage?Certainlyshedidn’tjoinaleague.Evehaditeasy.Herbabycame.Themilkcame.

Shenursedherbaby”(WomanlyArt1).ByinvokingtheBiblicalstoryofEve,thefirst

womanincreation,thetextpresentedaparadeigma,aformofinductivereasoningthat

suppliesamodelasanexampleinordertoconstructaparadigm(EdeandLunsford42).

Thisparadeigmamakesalogicalappealbypointingoutthatpriortothedevelopmentof

themedicalprofession,womensuchasEvewereabletobreastfeedandmother

successfullywithoutexpertadvice.Incontrast,womenofthecontemporaryperiodhad

accesstoscientificadvice(fromexpertswithnofirst-handexperience),buttheyalsohad

difficultybreastfeedingsuccessfully.Theimplicationisthatrelianceonmisguidedscientific

expertisestrippedmothersofconfidenceinnatureandmaternalinstinct,preventing

successfulattemptstobreastfeed.InreferencingEve,thefirstwomanincreation,LLLwas

suggestingthat,iflefttotheirowndevicesandwithnointerferenceofphysicians,mothers

wouldnaturallydevelopanunderstandingofhowtofeedandnurturetheirbabies.Not

onlywerethetext’sreadersaskedtousereasoningskillstocontemplatehowmothers

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throughouthistorycopedwithouttheoversightofmedicalprofessionals,butthetextmade

apatheticappealbyinvokingtheBiblicalstorytoencouragedmotherstoreflectondeeply

heldreligiousbeliefs.Religiousvaluesandbeliefoftenfunctionaspatheticappeals,asthey

inspirestrongemotionalfeelingsandincitepeopletoaction.Byinvokingreligion,thetext

waspromptingmotherstoviewthematernalbodyasanintelligentdesign;thus,bylinking

religionandbreastfeeding,LLLmadeanargumentthatmotherswerethenatural

authoritiesonchildcareandfeeding.

TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingmadeaneffectiveargumentthatscientific

motherhoodwasharmfultomothersandchildren,butitneededtoalsopresentavery

strongargumentinfavorofitsalternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhood.Pathetic

appealstomaternaldesiresandfears,accompaniedbyscience-basedevidenceinsupport

ofbreastfeeding,wereacentralaspectofthisargument.Mothersgenerallydesiretohave

healthychildren,whichiswhysomemotherswouldhavelikelybeenhesitanttoactively

resistthedominantpracticesofthemedicalprofession.LLLprovidedevidencetoallay

thesefearsbyreferencingmedicalexpertswhohighlightedtheimportanceofaclose

mother-childbondinensuringthelong-termwell-beingofchildren.Thisfocusonaclose,

physicalbondbetweenmotherandchildwascontrarytothenotion,popularizedunder

scientificmotherhood,thatadetachedrelationshiphelpedbabiesdevelopindependence.

Incontrast,LLLpointedtoevidencethatshowedthatdetachedrelationshipscouldimpede

healthypsychologicaldevelopment.LLLclaimedthattheconsequencesofanimpaired

mother-childrelationshipcouldbesevere,as“themannerinwhichababy’searlyneedsare

metoftengreatlydetermineshisgoodorbadresponsetopeopleandthingslaterinlife”

(WomanlyArt2).Suchaclaimlikelypromptedanemotionalresponseinmothersand

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perhapsmovedthemtoembraceLLL’salternativepracticesinefforttoensuretheir

children’sfuturephycologicalwell-being.LLLfurthermotivatedmothersbyquoting

severalphysicianswhodescribedadditionalbenefitsofbreastfeeding,includingalower

riskofallergiesandeczema(3-4).AccordingtoLLL,notonlywasastrongearlymother-

childrelationship,whichcouldbefacilitatedthroughbreastfeeding,amorefulfilling

experienceforboththemotherandthebaby,butitwasnecessaryforthepsychological

welfareandfuturehealthofthebaby.Theargumentbeingmadewasthatagood,loving

motherwouldnaturallychoosetobreastfeedtoensurethatherbabywasgiventhebest

startinlife.

Inadditiontousingpatheticappealsandscientificevidencetoconvincemothersto

rejectdominanttrendsinfavorofbreastfeedinganddevelopingclosemother-childbonds,

LLLemployedlogicalappealsandsecond-personpronounstoengagemothersandprompt

themtofeelpersonallycompelledtobreastfeed.Thefollowingpassage,inwhichthetext

arguedthatbreastfeedingcompensatedforthenewborn’slostphysicalconnectiontothe

motherfollowingbirth,isaprimeexample:

Puttingyourinfanttoyourbreastisyourveryfirstactofloveforhimafteryou

deliverhimintotheworld.Itisthesecondimportantstepinyourroleasmother.

Thus,theintimatesharingofyourbodywhichyouandyourbabyexperiencedwhile

youcarriedhiminyourwombissomewhatprolongedforanotherfewmonths.

(WomanlyArt5)

Thisargumentthatbreastfeedingisthenaturalphysicalprogressionofthemother-child

relationshipwasapowerfulone.Itmadeapatheticappealbyforegroundingloving

maternalfeelingsandinvokingelementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood,includinglove,

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nourishment,protection,andthereproductivebody.Additionally,thetextmadeanappeal

tologicbyimplicitlysuggestingthatbabieswhowerenotbreastfedweremissingoutona

naturalstageofinfantdevelopment.LLLarguedthatnatureintendedtheretobeastrong

physicalattachmentandwouldallowthebabytogainindependencegraduallyovertime.

Theuseofthepronoun“you”inthepassageabovewasastrategicrhetoricaldecisionthat

furtherconnectedthereadertotheargumentinfavorofbreastfeedingandnatural

motherhood.Inusingthepronoun“you”tomakethisargument,thetextmadethereader

feelthatshewasbeingpersonally,directlyaddressed.Itdrewthereaderintothesceneand

madeherfeelknownintimatelyinawaythataphrasesuchas‘themother’wouldnot.

Somemothersmayhaveexperiencedfeelingsofguiltwhenreadingthispassageiftheyhad

notbreastfedpreviouschildrenoriftheyhadconsideredbottle-feeding;however,The

WomanlyArtofBreastfeedingwaswrittenformotherswhoalreadyhadaninterestin

breastfeedingandwhoorderedthetextformoreinformation.Forthosemothers,thetext

likelyprovidedsomeaffirmationofthedecisiontobreastfeed;however,eventhose

mothersneededstrongmotivationtobreastfeedandpracticeamorenaturalapproachto

motherhoodbecauseresistingthestatusquowouldhavebeenchallenging.

Naturally,thisfocusonthegradualdevelopmentofachild’sindependenceposeda

significantchallengetothebasicassumptionsofscientificmotherhood.LLLrejectedthe

notionthatbabiesshouldgaintheirindependenceasearlyaspossiblebysuggestingthat

theroleofamotheristoprovideprotection,nourishment,andcomfort—allconcepts

associatedwiththeculturalcodeofmother—untiltheindividualchildreaches

independenceathisorherownrate.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Thetext

recommendedthatmothersletbabiestaketheleadonwhentowean:“Hestillneedsyou,

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notjustthesucking,andifhe’sgottenallhewantswhenhe’slittle,byarelaxed,easy-going

mother,he’llbemuchlessdemandingbytheendofhisfirstyear”(WomanlyArt27).This

argumentforbaby-leadweaningmadeitclearthatLLLviewedbreastfeedingasmorethan

simplyamethodoffeedingbabies,butthatbreastfeedingcouldhelpestablishandnurture

arelationshipbetweenmotherandchild.

Byestablishingwhatitbelievedtobetheappropriateroleofmaternalfirst-hand

knowledgeandmedicalscienceinchildcare,makinglogicalappealsinsupportof

breastfeeding,craftingpatheticappealstomaternalvaluesandemotions,andinvoking

religionandnaturetoarguethatmotherswerethenaturalauthoritiesonchildcare,LLL

craftedaconvincingmaternalrhetoricthatauthorizedtheorganizationtoengagein

mother-to-motherbreastfeedingsupportandencouragedmotherstobreastfeedandadopt

analternativeparadigmofmotherhood.

MATERNALRHETORICANDTHEDEVELOPMENTOFMATERNALSPACE

OncemotherswereconvincedtotrustLLL,toembraceLLL’sphilosophyofnatural

motherhood,andtofeelmoreconfidentintheircapacitytomakedecisionsabout

motherhood,LLLstillneededtoconvincethemtomakethepracticallifestylechanges

neededtobreastfeedsuccessfullyandpracticethealternativeparadigmofnatural

motherhood.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingrhetoricallyleveragedtheculturalcodeof

motherhoodandconceptsassociatedwiththerolesoffatherandhusbandinorderto

persuadefamiliestoreorientthemselvestowardamorefamily-centeredlifestylethat

wouldsupportbreastfeedingandthedevelopmentofstrongmother-childbonds.Whilethe

advicethatLLLgavewaspractical,itwascontrarytothedominantviewofthedomestic

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roleofthemothers.Inorderformotherstodevelopthehomeintoaprivatematernal

space,breastfeedsuccessfully,andadoptamorenaturalapproachtomothering,theyand

theirhusbandsneededtorevisetheirunderstandingsoftheirrolesinthehome.By

employingmaternalrhetoric,LLLhelpedfamiliesmoveawayfromanunderstandingofthe

maternalrolebasedon1950sdomesticitysothattheycoulddeveloptheirhomesinto

maternalspacesinwhichmotherscouldfeelconfidentabouttheirdecisions,assert

maternalauthority,andbuildstrongbondswiththeirchildren.

Toeffectivelycraftanargumentinfavoroftransformingfamilylifetoreflectthe

alternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhood,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedinghighlighted

theproblematicnatureof1950sdomesticity.Dedicationtodomesticity,whichOdland

definedasthemanagementofthehouseholdanddailychoresunrelatedtochildcare(67),

wasexpectedofwomeninthe1950s.Domesticityandscientificmotherhoodwere

complementary.Infact,accordingtoRimaD.Apple,theideologyofscientificmotherhood

regardedhousekeepingtobeafull-timescientificprofession(1782).Acomplementary

themethatcharacterizedthedominantviewofmotherhoodintheperiodwasthat

maternalself-sacrificewasarequirementofmotherhood.Mothers,accordingtoOdland,

wereexpectedto“placetheirdesiresanddreamsaside,willinglysacrificingtheirownlives

fortheirchildren’sneeds”(71).Thisapproachtomotheringseemedtohavebeenvery

child-centered,asmotherswereexpectedfocusonactivitiessuchasdiapering,bathing,

feeding,anddressingtheirownchildren(Odland70).Advertisementsdepictedgood

mothersascookingandbakingfoodthattheirchildrenenjoyed.Underthismodelof

motherhood,“amother’sworkwasneverdone”and“hercommitmenttohands-on,self-

sacrificingperformance”hadtobeunwavering(Odland71).Thechild-centeredfocusofthe

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motherandtheendlesslengthstowhichshewasexpectedtogo,withnoconsiderationof

theself,mademotherhoodaninconvenienceandaconstraint.

Incontrasttothefocusonself-sacrificialdomesticityunderscientificmotherhood,

LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodfocusedmoreonfosteringclosefamily

relationshipsthanonattendingtothephysicalenvironmentofthehome.LLL’spractical

advicetoinTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingencouragedmotherstoadoptanapproachto

householdmanagementthatcreatedamaternalspacethatwasbothchild-centeredand

mother-centered.Insteadofframingthematernalroleasonefocusedondutyandself-

sacrifice,LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodframedmotherhoodasapleasurableand

fulfillingexperience.LLLsuggestedthatarevisedapproachtomotheringwasnecessaryin

partbecausetheexistingparadigmwasnotsatisfyingorfulfillingformothers:“Time,

however,andstrongoftenunfilledwomanlyyearningsarenowdemandingwetake

anotherlookatourbabiesand‘mothering’”(WomanlyArt2).Whilethereisanelementof

biologicalessentialismtothisclaim,thetextemphasizedthatmothersshouldfeelhappy

andfulfilled.Personalfulfillmentwasanimportantelementintheconstructionofmaternal

space,whichrequiredthatmothersbeabletofindcomfortandpersonalfulfillment.

Mothersneededtoexperienceasenseoffreedomandrespitefromtheoppressive

demandsofsocialexpectationinordercreateasafespacetobondwiththeirchildrenand

attendtotheirhealthandemotionalwell-being.

TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingencouragedmotherstorelaxandenjoytheirtime

inthehome.Motherswhowereaccustomedtofocusingtheirenergyonhouseholdchores

mayhavefeltthatrelaxingtheirstandardsforcleanlinessinordertorelaxandenjoymore

timewiththefamilywasasignthattheywerebadmothers.Inordertocombatthisnotion,

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thetextforegroundedmaternalprotectionandnurturancewhenitwarnedthatfocusingon

whatwasbestforthebaby’semotionalandpsychologicalwell-beingmaynotallowthe

mothertokeephouseatherformerstandards,sosheshouldresignherself“tolivinga

moreeasy-goingkindoflife”(WomanlyArt6).Theideathatmothersshouldliveaneasy-

goingkindoflifeseemedcontrarytogoodmothering,asitwasarejectionofself-sacrifice

anddomesticity;however,theeasy-goinglifestylefreedthemothertofocusonthebaby’s

emotionalwell-being,whichwouldensurehisfutureemotionalhealthandhelphim

developintoaproductivememberofsociety.LLLfeltthatbreastfeedingfacilitatedaneasy-

goingapproachtomotherhoodbecausetherewerenobottlesandrubbernipplesto

sterilizeandbecauseitrequiredmothertositandrelax:“NursingyourbabyisNature’s

wayofhelpingyourelaxandrest.[…]Whenyourbabygetshungryyoustoprightinthe

middleofsomebusyworkandwithaclearconsciencerestcomfortablywithyourbabyand

nursehim”(WomanlyArt6-7).ThisadvicebyLLLwasaclearrefutationofthenotionthat

motherhoodrequiredperpetualself-sacrifice.Additionally,thisadvicehelpedmothers

transformtheirhomesintomaternalspaces,asitfreeduptimeforthemtospendwith

theirchildren.MotherswhosoughtassistancefromLLLthroughreadingTheWomanlyArt

ofBreastfeedinglikelywerereassuredbythenotionthatmotherscouldrelaxandenjoy

theirtimewiththeirchildrenwithoutguiltratherthanexhaustthemselvesbytryingto

motherinfantswhilekeepingspotlesshomes.

LLLofferedsomepracticaladvicetohelpmothersadoptamoreeasy-goinglifestyle

thatwouldmakeiteasiertomaintainthatmaternalspace.TheWomanlyArtof

Breastfeedingsuggestedanumberoftime-savingmethods,includingeasymeal-prepand

givingupbakinginfavorofservingfreshfruitsandvegetables.Suchstrategieshelped

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mothersfocustheireffortsondevelopingstrongmother-childtiesthatwerebeneficialto

theemotionalhealthoftheirbabies.“Whenyouholdhimcloseandnursehimthatwhich

heneedsmostisgivenbacktohim,”LLLclaims,“Youmeanmuchmoretohimthanaclean,

whitebed;snug,warmcovers;therightroomtemperature”(WomanlyArt4).Inmaking

thisargument,LLLforegroundedelementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhoodincluding

love,nurturance,andprotectiontoarguethatgoodmotherswouldputasideconcernsfor

thestateofthehomeanddevotethemselvesfirsttotheirbabies’emotionalneeds.LLL

accompaniedthisclaimwithquotesfrommedicalexpertslinkingtheemotionalwelfareof

babiestostrong,lovingtieswiththeirmothers.Whilethenotionthatthehomeshouldbea

placetodevelopalovingmother-childbondmayseemobvioustopresent-dayaudiences,

formothersintheeraofscientificmotherhood,thedomesticspacewastobeasterile

environmentwiththeprimarypurposeofkeepingthechildsafe.LLLsuggeststhatmothers

usetheirtimegettingtoknowtheirbabies,because“Themoreofyourtimeyougivehim

now,ungrudgingly,thelessdemandinghewillbeashegrowsolder”(WomanlyArt6).The

reminderthatchildrenwhofeltsecurewouldbemoreemotionallyandpsychologically

healthyinthefutureprovidedanexigenceformotherstoembracenaturalmotherhood,

anditencouragedmotherstotransformtheirhomesintomaternalspaceswheretheywere

abletofocusonthedevelopmentofthemother-childrelationshipandmeettheunique

needsoftheirchildren.

Inadditiontoofferingmotherspracticaladvicetohelpthemcreatematernalspace,

LLLalsocraftedanargumenttoconvincehusbandstobuyintotheirwives’effortsto

breastfeed,embracenaturalmotherhood,andtransformthehomeintoamaternalspace.

Thiswasacriticalrhetoricalmove,assuccessfulbreastfeedingandconstructionofasafe

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maternalspacewithinaheterosexual,two-parenthouseholdrequiredthatfathersbe

supportiveofmothers’efforts.LLLcouldhaveleftmotherstotheirowndeviceswhenit

cametogarneringthesupportoftheirmalepartners,butinstead,LLLmodeledan

argumentthatwomencouldemployinordertoconvincetheirhusbandstoinvest

themselvesinthelifestylechangesthatmothershopedtomake.

InalengthysectionofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLLharnessedconcepts

traditionallyassociatedwithmasculinityandtheroleofhusbandandfathertodevelopan

argumentthatwomencouldadoptinordertoconvincetheirhusbandstoacceptand

supportthedecisiontorejectthestatusquoandbreastfeed.Byforegroundingconcepts

suchasprotection,strength,andconfidence,LLLencouragedfatherstoprotecttheir

breastfeedingwivesfrompeopleandsituationsthatcouldunderminetheirattemptsto

breastfeedandmothertheirchildrenonalovingway.

ThefoundersofLLLunderstoodthatfatherslikelyfeltthattheyhadverylittlepart

toplayinthefeedingandcareofabreastfedinfant,andtheymayhaveevenfeltalienated

bytheclosemother-childbondthatbreastfeedingfacilitated.TheWomanlyArtof

Breastfeedingmadeitclearthatfathersneededtoknowthattheycouldprovideaunique

andessentialkindofsupport.Thetextassumedthatfatherswantedtoprotectthe

breastfeedingmotherandchildpairbutneededguidanceonwhatitwasthattheywere

guardingagainst.LLLsuggestedthatthekeytogainingafather’ssupportwastoinvoke

conceptsassociatedwithmasculinityandtherolesofhusbandandfather.Thefatherwould

feelengagedifheknewhowtochannelhisurgetoprotecthisfamily.Thetextsuggested

thatfathersshouldbeencouragedtoprotectthebaby’srighttoitsmother’smilk,toprotect

hiswifefromdiscouragingpeopleandinfluences(especiallyhisfamilymembers),andto

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protectherfromherownself-doubtsbyfrequentlyencouragingandpraisingher

(WomanlyArt18).Thefatherherewasframedasthestrongpillarthatprovidedhisfamily

withsupport.Ratherthanbeingalienated,thefatherwasreassuredthathissupportwas

instrumental.Asupportivehusbandwhorespectedandprotectedhiswife’seffortsto

breastfeedanddevelopastrongmother-childbondwasakeyelementinthecreationofa

maternalspaceinwhichthemothercouldfeelconfidentinherchoicetopracticean

alternativeparadigmofmotherhood.

Inadditiontorevealinghowfatherscouldbeconvincedthattheyhadavitalroleto

playinthesuccessoftheirwives’attemptstobreastfeed,thetextalsomodeledthe

developmentofanargumenttoconvincefatherstotakeanactiveroleinfamilylifeandto

viewtimespentwithhisfamilyasanotherwayofprovidingsupportandprotection.The

textemphasizedthat“thereshouldbeareorientationonthepartofbothparentsaway

fromsomeofthemoreself-centeredpursuitsofthepasttowardfamily-centeredliving”

(WomanlyArt19).Thetextsuggestedthatfatherswouldbecomemoreinvolvedinfamily

lifeandfindmorepersonalfulfilmentiftheyunderstoodthevalueofsharedparentingand

wereencouragedtosharein“thejoysofparenthood”(WomanlyArt20).Thehomein

whichthehusbandtookaninterestinandengagedwiththewife,becomingacompanion

whosharedtheexperienceofparenting,wasmorelikelytobecomeasafematernalspace

thanoneinwhichthehusbandremainedanaloofobserver.Bysupportinghiswifein

creatingafamily-centeredlifeandsharingtheexperienceofparenting,thefatherwas

helpingtocreateamaternalspacethatsupportedhiswife’seffortstoembracethe

paradigmofnaturalmotherhood.

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Inadditiontoencouragingfatherstoprotecthiswife’seffortstobreastfeed,to

providesupportandcompanionship,andfocusonfamily-centeredliving,TheWomanlyArt

ofBreastfeedingreveledthewaysinwhichgenderedbinariescouldbeemployedto

convincefatherstoactashelpmatesandshareindomesticchores.Byappealingtotheir

senseofmasculineself-confidenceandtheirrolesasprotectors,thetextsuggestedthat

fatherscouldbeencouragedtopartakeindomesticchoreswithoutfeelingasthoughtheir

masculinitywasunderthreat.LLLencourageditsaudiencetodo“whatcomesnaturally—

withoutworryingtoomuchaboutlosingourmasculinityontheonehandorourwomen’s

rightsontheother”(WomanlyArt19).Insteadofworryingaboutthedangertohis

masculinity,thetextarguedthataself-confidentmanwhoisassuredofhismasculinity

“knowsthathisdignityandstaturearenotinjeopardywhenheperformsakitchenchore”

(WomanlyArt20).LLLassureditsaudiencethattraditionalgenderroles—thoseof

membersofthe1950swhite,suburban,middle-classfamily—wouldstillbeintactiffathers

weretodohouseholdchoresbecause“Whilethepregnantornursingmotherofnecessity,

staysathome,thefather,ofnecessity,willgooutandmakealiving”(WomanlyArt19).The

textthensuggestedonewaytoensurethatfathersdidnotfeelathreattotheirmasculinity

wouldbetoreassurethemthattherewouldstillbea“naturaldivisionoflaborwithinthe

family”astheir“greaterbrawn”madethemidealforthehandlingofhomeimprovement

tasks(WomanlyArt19).Highlightingthefather’sphysicalstrengthcouldreassurehimthat

hismasculinitywasnotendangeredbyhelpinghiswifearoundthehouse.Infact,thetext

suggestedthathouseworkcouldbeframedasawaythatthefathercouldprotectthe

motherandensurethattheirchildrensawthematernalroleasvaluable.Thiswas

important,asavoidinghouseworkandtreatingitaswoman’sworkwouldleadtoa

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downgradingofthevalueofthemother’sroleinthechildren’seyes(WomanlyArt20).

Ensuringthatthemother’sroleinthehomewasvaluedwasanotherwayinwhichthe

fathercouldhelphiswifetransformthehomeintoamaternalspaceandprotectthe

sanctityofthatspacesothatshecouldbesuccessfulinhereffortstoresistthedominant

ideologyandpracticesofmotherhoodandinsteadembracenaturalmotherhood.

Ratherthansermonizingorposingachallengetotheirmasculinity,TheWomanly

ArtofBreastfeedingmodeledanargumentthatassuredfathersthattheirmasculine

characteristicsprovidedvitalsupportandstrengthtothebreastfeedingmother-childpair.

ThiseffortbyLLLtoensurethatfatherswereencouragedtotakeamoreactiverolein

parentingreflectswhatseemstohavebeenatrendinwhichthelivesofmenwere

influencedbythecultureofdomesticity.Thetrendledanumberofpublicintellectualsof

the1950stosoundthealarmoveracrisisinAmericanmasculinity.HistorianJamesGilbert,

authorofMenintheMiddle:SearchingforMasculinityinthe1950s,attributesthepanic

overtheseemingcrisisinmasculinitytoarapidlychangingsocietythatwasincreasingly

domesticandsuburban.Gilbertexplainsthatsomeconcernedoverthestateofmasculinity

inthe1950sbelievedthat“womenwereintrudingintomaleinstitutionsandfeminizing

Americanlife,”andthey“pouredworryandwoeintoAmerica’sgrowingcultureof

domesticity”(217).WhileIhavepreviouslyexplaineddomesticityintermsofthe

expectationsplacedonmothers,domesticityseemedtobecomeapervasivethemeinthe

1950swayoflife.Gilbertexplainsthatdomesticityinfluencedlifeinvariousways,

including“incompanionatemarriages,inthesuburbs,inmaledomesticworklikedo-it-

yourselfprojects,orincorporationswherecooperation,notcompetition,definedthedaily

rules”(Gilbert219).Whilepublicintellectualsmayhavebeenconcernedoverthe

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implicationsthatthetrendtowarddomesticityhadonmasculinity,particularlythatof

white,urban,middle-classmen,thereisnoevidencethatmanyaveragemenweregreatly

concernedoverthesedevelopmentsandtheeffectsthatithadontheirownmasculinity

(Gilbert219).TherolethatTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingsuggestedfathersshouldtake

reflectedatrendtowardmen’sgreaterinvolvementindomesticmatters,andithelped

fatherstoembracethischangingviewofthefather’srolewithoutfeelingthattheir

masculinityhadbeenchallengedorundermined.

LLL’srhetoricalemploymentofgenderedbinaries,callingupondominant

constructsofmotherhoodanditscorollaryfatherhood,helpeditdevelopaneffective

argumentinfavorofthedevelopmentofmaternalspace.Byprovidingamodelargument

thatmotherscouldemployinordertoinvolvefathersmorefullyinfamilylifeandconvince

themtoshareinhouseholdchores,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedinghelpedmothersto

transformtheirhomesintomaternalspacesinwhichtheyhadmoreautonomyovertheir

maternalexperiencesandcouldfocusondevelopingfamilialrelationshipsratherthan

fulfillingsociety’sexpectations.

CONCLUSION

Itisasignificantundertakingtotranslatetheworkofaface-to-facesupportgroup

intowriting,butIarguethatLLLwaslargelysuccessfulinitsattemptatcraftinga

breastfeedingmanualthatreflecteditsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandits

supportivepractices.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingwassuccessfulinpartbecauseit

developedamaternalrhetoricthatframedLLLmothersasgood,lovingmothers,argued

forthelogicofnaturalmotherhood,craftedemotionalappeals,andidentifiedwithits

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audienceofmothersbyhighlightingtheirsharedvaluesandbeliefs.Craftingsucha

convincingtextualargumentwasasignificantsteptowardestablishingacounterpublic

thatcouldbringaboutchangeinthedominantdiscourse.WhileLLLcraftedpowerful

argumentsinfavorofbreastfeedingandnaturalmotherhoodbyrhetoricallyleveragingthe

culturalcodeofmotherhood,itrecognizedthatmotherswouldalsoneedtobepersuaded

tomakethekindsofpracticalhouseholdchangesthatwerenecessaryinorderto

breastfeedsuccessfullyandnurtureastrongmother-childbond.

Becauseofthepervasivenessof1950sdomesticity,whichframedmotheringas

sacrificialandviewedhousekeepingasascience,itwascriticalthatLLLcraftedapowerful

argumentinfavorofitsalternativeapproachofnaturalmotherhoodandofferedadvice

helpmotherssuccessfullycreatematernalspace.LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood

valuedmaternalinstinctovergeneralizedmedicalexpertiseinmattersofroutinechildcare;

however,mothershadbeentrainedunderscientificmotherhoodtomistrusttheirown

maternalfeelingsanddesiresanddevotetheirtimeinthehometomaintaininghigh

standardsofcleanliness.Inordertofeelconfidentenoughtotrustintheirowninstincts

andlearntorespondtotheirbabies’individualneeds,ratherthanfollowstrictschedulesof

caretakingactivitiesprescribedbyphysicians,mothersneededtohavethefreedomto

spendtimewiththeirchildren.Tohelpmothersguiltlesslyfreethemselvesfromthe

oppressivedevotiontocleanlinessexpectedfrommothersandinsteadcreatematernal

spaceintheirhomes,inTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLLemployedrhetorical

argumentsthatleveragedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodtoargueinfavorofastronger

emphasisonfamilybondingthanoncleanliness.Additionally,becauseitisdifficulttofully

developasafematernalspaceifotheradultsoccupyingthatspacedonotholdthesame

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valuesorsupportthemother,LLLmodeledhowwomencouldpersuadementoassisttheir

wivesincreatingandmaintainingamaternalspace.Therhetoricalargumentsinfavorof

restructuringthefamilylifestyletocreateamaternalspacehelpedmothersnavigatethe

practicalchallengesthattheywouldfaceathomewhenfirstattemptingtobreastfeedand

practiceanalternativeapproachtomothering.Inhelpingitsaudienceofmotherscreate

safematernalspaces,LLLtookacriticalsteptowarddevelopingintoacounterpublicthat

wouldonedayresistandchangethestatusquo.

Inthenextchapter,IwillexplorethewayinwhichTheWomanlyArtof

Breastfeedingofferedmothersarhetoricaleducation,intheformsofscriptsandmodeling,

tohelpthembuildtheirownmaternalrhetoricthatleveragedtheculturalcodeof

motherhoodinordertosuccessfullynavigateinteractionswithmembersofthemedical

professioninordertocreatepublicmaternalspaceinthehospital.

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CHAPTERIV

THEREVOLUTIONARIESWOREPEARLS:RHETORICALEDUCATIONINEARLYLALECHE

LEAGUETEXTS

In1958,whenplanningtheirpublicoutreach,LaLecheLeague’sfoundersmadea

decisiontoavoidthedirecttargetingofphysicians,andinsteadtheyhopedthattheir

effortstosupportmotherswouldgraduallycatchtheattentionofthemedicalcommunity

asitinteractedwithincreasingnumbersofbreastfeedingmothers.AdecadeafterLLL

publishedTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingin1958,therewasampleevidencethatLLL’s

counterdiscoursehadintersectedwiththedominantdiscourseofmedicine,andasaresult,

theattitudesandpracticesofthemedicalcommunitywereundergoingatransformation.In

the1960s,LLLwasreferencedintheAmericanJournalofNursingnumeroustimes,

frequentlyasahelpfulresourcebynurseswritingletterstotheeditor.Inaddition,LLL

receivedrecognitionfromTheJournalofPediatricsin1968whenLeeForrestHill,the

formerAmericanBoardofPediatricsPresident,praisedLLL’seffortsinaneditorial.

AccordingtoHill,the“dedicatedwomen’sorganization”deservedthecommendationofthe

medicalandnursingprofessionsforitsattempts“torestorewhatiscalledbysome,‘the

lostartofbreast-feeding’”(Hill162).Hepointedoutthat,incontrast,“Perhapsthemedical

andnursingprofessionsshouldfeelsomeembarrassmentthatundertheirguidancebreast-

feedinghasbeenpermittedtodeclinetothelowincidenceof25percent,whenithasbeen

repeatedlydemonstratedthatthemajorityofwomencannursetheirbabiesiftheywish”

(Hill161).Thiseditorialmakesitclearthatadecadeafterthepublicationofthefirstissue

ofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLL’sworkhadpromptedself-reflectionamongst

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leadersofthemedicalprofessionandinspiredthemtorethinktheirapproachtoinfant

feeding.

InPerfectMotherhood,medicalhistorianRimaD.ApplecreditsLLLwithhelping“to

pushthemedicalprofessionandUnitedStatesculturetoaccommodatebreastfeeding”

(137),notbyresistingtheimportanceoftheprofessionbutby“utilizingmedicaland

scientificadvicetosupportitsstands”(138).ShecreditstheactivitiesofLLL,alongwith

thelatereffortsoftheBostonWomen’sHealthBookCollective,withhelping“tovalidate

women’spersonalandfamilialhealth-careexperiencesandtoalterthebalanceof

relationshipswithincontemporarymedicalpractice”bypushingfor“amoreequal

partnershipbetweenmedicalprofessionalsandpatients”(PerfectMotherhood139).While

ApplerecognizesLLL’stransformationalimpactonthemedicalprofessionandthe

Americanpublicmorebroadly,sheattributesthisimpacttoitsrelianceonmedicaland

scientificexpertstosupportitsarguments.WhileIagreewithApple’sclaimthatmedical

andscientificevidencedidcertainlystrengthenLLL’sargumentinfavorofbreastfeeding,

anoverlookedbutsignificantfactorleadingtotheorganization’sspreadwasits

employmentofmaternalrhetoric,whichitleveragedinordertoauthorizeresistanceto

dominanttrendsinbreastfeedingandmothering.Maternalrhetoricaccountsforthespread

ofLLL’sideasandpracticesamongstitsgrowingcounterpublicofbreastfeedingmothers,

butitalsoplayedasignificantroleinthedevelopmentoftherelationshipbetweenLLL’s

counterpublicandthemedicalprofession.Inthischapter,IaimtoexplorehowLLLarmed

membersofitscounterpublicwitharhetoricaleducationthathelpedthememploy

maternalrhetoricinindividualinteractionswithmedicalprofessionals.Thiseducation

enabledwomentoconstructmaternalethos,establishmaternalspacewithinclinicsand

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hospitals,andauthorizeresistancetodominantpracticessothatmothersweresupported

intheireffortstobreastfeed.

WhileLLLhadgainedtheattentionofthemedicalcommunity,whichbeganto

rethinkitsattitudetowardandunderstandingofinfantfeedingaccordingly,theinitial

spreadofLLL’sphilosophyandpracticeslargelyoccurredasaresultofindividualactionby

motherswhoturnedtoLLLforsupport.Inturn,theyspreadtheirknowledgetoother

mothersandexposedmedicalprofessionalstoanincreasingnumberofsuccessful

examplesofbreastfeedingmothers,yettheseindividualactsofresistancebybreastfeeding

mothersdidnotoccurinisolationandwithoutasupportnetworktoleanonforrhetorical

strategiesandencouragement.IarguethatLLLwasarhetoricallysavvyorganizationthat

preparedmothers,themembersofitsgrowingcounterpublic,tobesuccessfulastheyacted

individuallytopubliclyresistdominanttrendsinmotheringandinfantfeedinginthefirst

decadeaftertheorganization’sfounding.

AccordingtoNancyFraser,counterpublicsaremembersofsubordinatedsocial

groupswhohavecometogetherwithina“paralleldiscursivearena”andhavebegunto

“inventandcirculatecounterdiscourses;”insodoing,they“helpexpanddiscursivespace”

(Fraser67).Suchcounterpublicshavea“dualcharacter”inthattheyfunctionas“spacesof

withdrawalandregroupment”,yet,theyalso“functionasbasesandtraininggroundsfor

agitationalactivitiesdirectedtowardwiderpublics”(68).LLLcertainlyfunctionedinthis

way,asthelocalmother-to-mothersupportgroupoperatedasasiteformothersto

withdraw,shareknowledgebasedonmaternalexperiences,developthephilosophyof

naturalmotherhood,andobservethemodelingofbreastfeedingtechniquesandnatural

motherhood.Inthepreviouschapter,IexploredthewaythatTheWomanlyArtof

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Breastfeedingemployedmaternalrhetorictopersuademotherstobreastfeedandadopt

thephilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.Additionally,IdetailedhowLLLusedrhetorical

strategiestoconvincebothmothersandfatherstotransformthehomeintoamaternal

spacethatwouldprovideasafespaceformotherstopracticeanalternativeparadigmof

motherhood.Inthischapter,IwillanalyzeearlyLLLtextstorevealhowtheyoperatedasa

rhetoricaltraininggroundsforLLL’sgrowingcounterpublicofmothers.Throughoutreach

materialssuchasLaLecheLeagueNews,abimonthlynewsletterfirstpublishedinthe

summerof1958,andthebreastfeedingsupportmanualTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,

LLLtrainedmotherstoemploymaternalrhetorictonegotiateconflictsandassertmaternal

agencyintheirpublicinteractions,particularlywiththemedicalestablishment.Itwas

criticalthatmothersbepreparedtoassertthemselvesrhetoricallywithmembersofthis

audience,asmedicalprofessionalsarethefirstandperhapskeymembersofthepublic

whommothersneededtoconvincetosupporttheirattemptstobreastfeed.Bydeveloping

maternalethosintheirinteractionswithmedicalprofessionals,motherscouldtransform

doctors’officesandhospitalmaternitywardsintomaternalspacesinwhichtheycouldgain

supportfortheireffortstobreastfeedsuccessfullyandpracticeanalternativeparadigmof

mothering.

Thischapteraddstothediscussion,ledbyscholarssuchasAmyKoerberandSarah

Hallenbeck,ofthewayinwhichwomenoutsideofthemedicalprofessionhavecontributed

tochangingdisciplinaryunderstandingsofthecapabilities,functionality,andsuitabilityof

women’sbodiesthroughindividualactsofresistance.AmyKoerber’s“RhetoricalAgency,

Resistance,andtheDisciplinaryRhetoricsofBreastfeeding”examinesthewaythat

mothers,manyofthemLaLecheLeaguemembers,attheturnofthetwentieth-firstcentury

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enactedrhetoricalagencybyresistingthedominantpracticesaroundpublicbreastfeeding

andtherebychangingthatdiscourse.Koerbercalledforotherfeministscholarstocontinue

thisworkbyexploring“thelong-termeffectsoftherhetoricalagencyandresistancethat

womenenactagainstmedicaldiscourseonaspectsoflifesuchasinfantfeeding”(100).

SarahHallenbeck’sClaimingtheBicycle:Women,Rhetoric,andTechnologyinNineteenth

CenturyAmericatookupthiscallbyexaminingthewayinwhichthecollective,yetnot

centrallyorganized,rhetoricalactivitiesofnineteenth-centurybicycle-ridingwomenledto

arevisedunderstandingofthecapabilitiesofwomen’sbodies.

Thischapterbuildsonthisscholarshipbyexploringhowwomen’sindividualactsof

resistancecanreshapediscourseandpracticesaroundwomen’shealth.Iexaminetheway

thatLLLarmeditscounterpublicofbreastfeedingmotherswiththerhetoricalstrategies

necessarytotransformhospitalsanddoctors’officesintomaternalspacesinwhich

mothersweresupportedintheireffortstoresistthestatusquobybreastfeeding.While

KoerberandHallenbeckfocusedtheiranalysisonthewaysinwhichwomenpublicly

resistedthestatusquotoaffectchangeinmedicaldiscourse,thischapterfocuseson

rhetoricalstrategiesemployedbymotherswithinphysicalspacesunderthecontrolof

membersofthemedicalprofession.IarguethatLLLofferedscriptstohelpmothers

navigatepublicinteractionswiththoseindividuals,particularlymedicalprofessionals,who

mightundermineordenigratetheirattemptstobreastfeedandpracticeLLL’salternative

paradigmofmotherhood.Insodoing,LLLcraftedacounterpublicpreparedtoinfluence

themedicalprofessiontoreviseitsunderstandingofinfantfeedingandre-evaluateits

perceptionoftheroleofmothersinchildcare.

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TounderstandthewayinwhichLLLofferedarhetoricaleducationtohelpmothers

navigatepublicinteractionswiththosewhohadconflictingviewsoninfantfeeding,this

chapterexaminesthe1958and1963editionsofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingaswell

asissuesofLaLecheLeagueNewspublishedbetween1958and1961.LaLecheLeague

News,LLL’sbimonthlynewsletterfirstpublishedinthesummerof1958,extendedthe

effortsofthe1958editionofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Thelatterpublicationwas

largelyconcernedwithconvincingmotherstoadoptthephilosophyofnaturalmotherhood

andbreastfeeding,andithelpedmotherstransformtheirhomesintomaternalspacesthat

wouldmoreeffectivelyallowmotherstopracticenaturalmotherhood.Meanwhile,La

LecheLeagueNewsfrequentlysharedstoriesandofferedstrategiestohelpwomen

navigatethepracticalconcernssurroundingthepubliclivesofbreastfeedingmothersand

babies,anditalsoservedasanavenuethroughwhichLLLwouldofferarhetorical

educationandestablishanetworkofbreastfeedingwomen.Anexaminationofthe

recurringthemesinthesetextswrittenbyLLL’sfoundersandinthecorrespondencethat

LLLchosetopublishrevealsthemeansthroughwhichLLLdevelopedacounterpublicof

motherswhowerepreparedtorhetoricallyassertmaternalagency.Throughmodelingand

scripts,thetextstaughtmothersrhetoricalstrategiessuchasaudienceanalysisand

argumentationbasedonlogicalappeals.Theymodeledthedevelopmentofmaternalethos

andtheadaptationofthatethosforvariousaudiences,particularlyphysicians,nurses,and

hospitalstaff,aswellasthegeneralpublic.

Intheremainderofthechapter,Iwillreviewtheoriesofmaternalrhetoricsand

ethosthatguidemyinterpretationofLLL’stext,andIwillprovideatextualanalysisto

showhowLLLhelpedmothersemploymaternalrhetoric,emphasizingtheimportanceof

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ethos,innegotiationsandrenegotiationswithvariousmembersofthemedicalprofession.

Theserhetoricalstrategieshelpedmotherscreateamaternalspacewithinmedicalclinics

andhospitalwardssothattheycouldassertmaternalagencyandshapetheoutcomesof

publicinteractionswiththosewhohadthepowerandauthoritytounderminemothers’

initialeffortstoestablishbreastfeeding.Finally,Iwillexploreevidenceofthewayinwhich

LLLandthearmyofmotherswhomadeupLLL’scounterpublicsuccessfullychallenged

scientificmotherhood,reshapeddominantmedicalpractices,andgraduallychangedthe

publicperceptionofbreastfeeding.

MATERNALRHETORICINLLL’SRHETORICALEDUCATION

Inearlierchapters,IarguedthatLLL’slocalmother-to-mothersupportgroup

functionedasaparalleldiscursivearenaforLLL’scounterdiscoursetodevelopandgrow,

andthosemeetingsallowedindividualmothersanempowering,safeplacetoencounter

andpracticeLLL’salternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhoodand“motheringthrough

breastfeeding”.IdetailedrhetoricalstrategiesthatLLLemployedtopersuadebothmothers

andfatherstomakechangesinhomearrangementsandfamilystructuresthattransformed

theirhomesintomaternalspacesinwhichmotherswereempoweredtobreastfeedand

practicemotheringontheirownterms;however,asmostmothersgavebirthwithina

hospitalandattemptedtoestablishbreastfeedingwhilethere,LLLneededtohelpmothers

transformhospitalmaternitywardsintomaternalspacesinwhichtheycouldasserttheir

authorityandgarnersupportfortheirattemptstoinitiatebreastfeeding.

LLLuseditstextualoutreach,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingandLaLeche

LeagueNews,toinstructmothersindevelopingargumentsthatwouldappealtodiffering

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audiences.ThemodelsandscriptsthatLLLofferedforinteractingwithmedical

professionalssuggestedmakingappealsprimarilytoreasonandtotheaudience’s

perceptionofthemother.ThisapproachreflectedtheAristotelianrhetoricaltraditionin

whichargumentscouldbeclassifiedasappealstologos(logic),pathos(emotion),and

ethos(perceptionofthespeaker’smoralcharacter).LLL’sscriptsandmodelsemployeda

varietyofpersuasivemethods,includinglogicalappealstoexampleandsyllogismaswell

aspatheticappeals,buttheyprimarilyemphasizedthedevelopmentofmaternalethos.The

textsinstructedmotherstodevelopmaternalethostoframethemselvesasgoodmothers

byforegroundingaspectsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhoodintheirconversationswith

medicalprofessionals.Suchmethodsofethosdevelopmentcanbeemployedtosoftenthe

progressiveaimsofmothers,asLindalBuchanan’sRhetoricsofMotherhooddetails.

MargaretSanger,forexample,authorizedherbirthcontrolactivismandmadeherself

appeartobe“seemly,sensible,andhonorable”byshowing“sensitivitytogenderedscripts,

codes,andvaluesoftheperiod”(Buchanan29).Likewise,LLLemployedconceptsand

valuestraditionallyassociatedwithmotherhoodinscriptedinteractionsbetweenmothers

andmedicalprofessionalssothatmotherscouldconstructethosassensible,thoughtful,

andgoodmothers.

InbothTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingandLaLecheLeagueNews,LLLused

storiesandscriptstohelpmothersdeveloprhetoricalstrategiestonavigateinteractions

withmedicalprofessionals.TheserhetoricallysavvymodelsrevealthatLLLwasawarethat

differingaudiencesandsituationsrequireddifferentrhetoricalappeals.Thesescripts

reliedheavilyonappealstologicandmaternalethosincommunicationswithphysicians

andnurses,butasthetextsreveal,theconstructionoftheseappealswasacomplicated

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matter.ThiswasparticularlyapparentinthewayinwhichLLL’sscriptsdeveloped

maternalethos.

Becauseofthedifferingrolesthatmedicalprofessionalsperformedinthehospital,

LLLneededtooffermodelsandscriptsthatreflectedafluidandadaptablematernalethos.

InspiredbyNedraReynolds’scholarshipexploringtheroleofsocialpositioninginethos

construction,Buchananarguesthat“ethosisafluid,ratherthanastableorconsistent,

rhetoricalartifactandthataspeaker’sshiftinglocationsandalliancesmaycallforchanging

constructionsofcharacter”(Buchanan31).Whilechangingone’sethostoadaptitto

varyingaudiencescanbeproblematic,asitiswithMargaretSanger’srhetoric(Buchanan

31),failuretoadaptethostotheaudiencecanalsobedetrimental.Carefulconsiderationof

theaudienceiscritical,asCarolynSkinnerexplains:“Becauseaneffectiveethosisonethat

demonstratesthattherhetor'scharactermatchestheaudience'svalues,shapingthe

audienceanditsvaluescancontributetoapositiveperceptionoftherhetor”(Skinner,“She

Will”255).Whileitmaysometimesberelativelysimpletoidentifyandforegroundvalues

thatappealtoahomogenousaudience,asLLLdidwhenitemployedmaternalrhetoricin

TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedinginordertoreachmotherswhohadaninterestin

breastfeeding,morecomplexrhetoricalstrategizingwouldbeneededinordertoconstruct

aneffectiveethosforaheterogenousaudience.

Maternalethosconstructedforaheterogenousaudiencewithdifferingvaluesand

rolesrequiresmorecomplexvaluenegotiationsbetweentherhetorandtheaudience.In

WomenPhysiciansandProfessionalEthosinNineteenth-CenturyAmerica,Skinnersuggests

thatinthesekindsofsituations,itmaynotbepossibletocraftethos“inresponsetoa

coherentandidentifiablesetofvalues”(39).Instead,ethosmaybecomposed“inadynamic

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contextthatincludesmultiplecompetingideasaboutthe‘best’virtues”(Skinner,Women

Physicians39).Insuchcases,ethosformation“frequentlyinvolvesvaluenegotiationsand

oftenreciprocitybetweenrhetorandaudienceidentityconstructs”(Skinner,Women

Physicians39).AccordingtoSkinner,womenphysiciansofthenineteenthcenturyhadto

undertakesuchvaluenegotiations,balancingthecompetingmasculinevirtuesassociated

withtheprofessionalphysicianandfemininevirtuesassociatedwithwomen,inorderto

craftanethosoftheprofessionalwomanphysician.

WhilemembersofLLL’scounterpublicwerenotseekingtocrafttheprofessional

ethosofadisciplinaryinsider,suchvaluenegotiationswereacriticalaspectofinteractions

betweenmedicalprofessionalsandmothers,andtheywerecriticaltotheestablishmentof

maternalspaceinthehospital.Scientificmotherhoodframedgoodmothersaspassive

adherentstoexpertadvicewhileLLL’snaturalmotherhoodframedmothersasthenatural

authoritiesonthecareoftheirownchildren.LLLdidnotencouragerejectionofmedical

expertisebutinsteadencouragedmotherstoexerciseautonomyinmakingdecisionsabout

childcare.Inordertocraftmaternalethosthatmedicalprofessionalswouldfind

persuasive,motherswouldneedtoemployrhetoricalstrategiestorenegotiatetheirrolein

decisionsconcerningchildcare.Inordertorenegotiatetheirmaternalidentityandcraftan

effectivematernalethosasgoodandcompetentmothers,membersofLLL’scounterpublic

neededtoconsidertheaudience’spre-existingunderstandingofmothers’identityas

passiveadherentstoexpertise,thelikelyvaluesandsocialrolesofaudiencemembers,

materialandspatialarrangementsofthespace,andbalanceofpowerwithinthosespatial

arrangements.

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Thiskindofmultifacetedconsiderationofdynamicssuchasaudienceandthe

affordancesofthelocationrequiresanecologicalawarenessoftherhetoricalsituation.Like

Skinner,authorsKathleenJ.Ryan,NancyMyers,andRebeccaJonesviewethosconstruction

asnegotiatedandco-constructed.Theyarguethatecologicalawareness,facilitatedbya

“feministecologicalmindset,”aidsintheproductionoffeministecologicalethēthat

“operateasfluid,evolving,andnegotiatedrhetoricalactswithworldlyimplications”(11).

Ryan,Myers,andJonesunderstandethostobe“negotiated,andrenegotiated,embodied

andcommunal,co-constructedandthoroughlyimplicatedinshiftingpowerdynamics”

(11).ThisunderstandingofethosisevidentintherhetoricaleducationthatLLLofferedto

mothers,particularlyasaguidetonavigateandshiftthepowerdynamicsofthehospital

duringthepost-partumperiodinordertocreatematernalspace.

Inofferingscriptsandmodelsthatinstructedmotherstoemploymaternalrhetoric

intheirinteractions,LLLengagedinwhatSkinnertermeda“processofcollectiveethos

formation”throughwhich“similarlysituatedrhetorscollaborateonorcompeteoverthe

characteristicsmembersofthatgroupwilldemonstrate”(WomenPhysicians180).Skinner

explainsthat“becauserhetorsfromgroupshistoricallyexcludedfromapowerfuldiscourse

areoftenseenasprecedentsorasrepresentativesoftheirgroups,marginalizedspeakers

andwritersfrequentlyfindthemselvesoutlininganethosforotherslikethem,whether

theywanttoornot”(180).Tounderstandtheprocessofcollectiveethosformation,

Skinnerencouragesotherscholarstoexplorehow“ethosisformedcollectivelyandhowit

functionscollectively”(180).Inthischapter,ItakeupSkinner’scalltostudytheformation

andfunctioningofcollectiverhetoricbyexamininghowLLLengagedinaprojectof

collectiveethosdevelopment.LLLwillinglysetouttohelpbreastfeedingmothersdevelopa

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maternalethosthatwouldhelpthemnavigateindividualinteractionswithmembersofthe

dominantpublic,particularlymembersofthemedicalprofession.LLL’smodelsandscripts

recognizedtherelationalpowerdynamicsbetweenmothersandmembersofthepublic,

particularlythemedicalprofession,andusedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodand

rhetoricalappeals,particularlymaternalethos,tosubtlyshiftthoserelationshipdynamics.

Asmothersemployedthesemodelsandscriptstocreatematernalethosintheir

interactionswithphysicians,theyslightlyshiftedthebalanceofpowerintheir

relationshipswithphysicianstocreatematernalspaceinthematernityward,andthey

graduallyshapedtheprofession’sunderstandingofbreastfeedinganditsviewofmothers.

ThescriptingthatwasprovidedinLLL’stextsaidedwomeninnavigatingthetricky

powerdynamicsandrelationshipswithmedicalprofessionals,thefirstmembersofthe

dominantpublicthattheywouldencounterasbreastfeedingmothers,andmembersofthe

publicmorebroadly.Whomevertheywereaddressinginthescripts,atemperedapproach

toresistanceseemedtobeacriticalaspectoftherhetoricalmodelthatLLLpresentedinLa

LecheLeagueNewsandTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Thetemperedapproachisa

practicalrhetoricalstrategywhenwomenspeakinlocationsandsituationsinwhichtheir

authoritytospeakisormaybecalledintoquestion.LikethewomenoftheWomen’s

ChristianTemperanceUnion(WCTU)ofthenineteenthcentury,LLL’sleadersfeltthat

“theircausecouldbebestservedbyusingasubtle,non-threatening,yetpersuasive

approach,andtheyconsciouslychosetoworkonwomen’sbehalfinthatmanner”

(Mattingly21).AsMattinglyexplains,womenoftheTemperancemovementtempered

theirprogressiveactivitiesandadvocacybyincorporating“bothtraditionaland

progressiveideaswithintheirpresentations”inawaythatwas“carefullycraftedtoappeal

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toawidelydiverseaudience”(7).LLL’stextsrecommendedasimilarapproachthattook

intoaccountthepower-imbalancethatexistedininteractionsandrelationshipsbetween

mothersandmedicalprofessionals.TheWCTUreliedonspecificoutlinesandproper

procedurestohelpassurewomenspeakers,addresstheirneeds,andhelpthemdealwith

problems(Mattingly66).LLLsimilarlyofferedstoriesandscriptstohelpwomenassert

theirmaternalauthorityinawaythatdidnotseemlikerejectionofmedicalexpertisebut

insteadreframedtheconversationsothatmothers’actsofresistancetodominantmedical

practicesalignedwiththevaluesandvaryingrolesofmedicalprofessionals.

ThistemperedapproachthatLLLadoptedwasexemplifiedinthetitleThe

RevolutionariesWorePearls,oneofLLL’sorganizationalhistories.Intheforeword,Judy

Torgus,along-timeLLLmemberandleader,wrotethat“Theyworetheirpearlsandhats

andwhitegloves,theyreferredtoeachotherasMrs.GregoryWhiteandMrs.John

Froehlich,buttheydidindeedstartarevolution”(Lowman,RevolutionariesWorePearls,

vii-viii).Asthisquotesuggests,LLLwascarefultoabidebysocialnormsandconventions

ascamouflageforitssubversiveactivitiessolongasthosegenderedsocialnormsand

conventionsdidnotharmtheirmissionorconflictwiththeirphilosophyofnatural

motherhood.Whiletheiradvocacyforbreastfeedingandnaturalmotherhoodwas

revolutionary,conservativedressandtheuseofgenderednamingconventionstempered

theethosofLLL’sfounderssotheyseemedtoberespectableandwholesome1950s

womenratherthanradicalnon-conformists.Thiscompliancewithsocialnormsallowed

LLLtoappealtoabroadaudience.

EvenargumentsbaseduponreasonwerepresentedinatemperedmannerinLLL’s

scripts.Appealstologicincommunicationswithmedicalprofessionalswereaprevalent

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partofLLL’sscriptedinteractionsandmodels.Onesuchmodel,asummaryofamother’s

lettertoLLL,appearedintheJuly-August1959issueofLaLecheLeagueNews.Amother,

whowasbreastfeedingherfourthbabyafterbottle-feedingthefirstthree,usedthe

physician’sownrecordstoarguethatthenursinginfant’sweightgainoflessthanapound

amonthwasnotaconcern,asthedoctorseemedtothink.Themothercheckedthedoctor’s

weightrecordsandshowedthedoctorthatherfive-year-olddaughter,whowasbottle-fed

andwhohadnohealthproblems,andnotedthatshehadasimilarrateofgain.Themother

arguedthatthisslowweightgainmayhavebeenafamilytrait,andthedoctoragreed,

despitethefactthatthemother’sthree-year-oldhadgainedweightmuchmorequickly.

Themothersuccessfullymadearationalappealtoexamplehere,whichisaformof

inductiveargumentation(BizzellandHerzberg172).Ifthedoctor’sownrecordsrevealed

thatoneofthemother’spreviouslybottle-fedbabieshadasimilarpatternofweightgain

andwasnowahealthyfive-year-old,thenthemothercouldmakeaninductiveargument

thatherbreastfedbaby,whowasexhibitingasimilarpatternofweightgain,wouldalso

likelybehealthy.Thismotherwasastuteinherunderstandingofthekindoflogical

reasoningthatmightswaythedoctor.Thisstrategicrelianceonthedoctor’sownrecords

andexpertise,thoughitwasanactofresistance,didnotofferoffensetothedoctorbecause

itreliedonhisownobservations.

Framedbytheideologyofscientificmotherhoodasapassiveadherenttothe

physician’sexpertise,thismothersubtlynegotiatedwithhimtopresentherselfasan

intelligentmothercapableofdrawinginformedconclusionsaboutherchild’shealth.While

shepresentedanargumenttocounterthedoctor’sconcerns,herappealtoinductive

reasoningbasedonthedoctor’sownrecordswasatemperedapproachthatdidnot

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attempttounderminethedoctororrejecthisauthority.Shedidnotdevelopanethosasa

rebel-mother;instead,shepresentedherselfasaconcernedmotherwhowasnotonly

conscientiousbutalsorespectedtheauthorityofphysiciansandtheirvaluingof

quantitativeevidence,akeycomponentofscientificmotherhood.Herphysicianwaslikely

morewillingtoacceptherargument.Shelikelyseemedtotrulyhaveherchild’sinterestat

heart,asshewasdeterminedtoprovidethebestnutritionpossibleforherchild,butshe

alsopresentedherselfascompetent,level-headed,andwell-informed.Themothersubtly

shiftedthebalanceofpowerinthephysician’sofficetocreateamorematernalspacein

whichshewasabletoassertmaternalauthorityandnegotiatewiththedoctorovermatters

concerningthehealthofherchild.

LLLtextssuggestedthatinteractionswithphysicianswouldbemoresuccessfulif

mothersdevelopedamaternalethosthatexhibitedrespectfortraditionalgenderrolesand

gendereddivisionsoflabor,particularlytheexpectationthatprivate,domesticspaceisthe

domainofthemother.RhetoricallysuccessfulmothersinLLL’stextsfrequentlypresented

themselvesastraditionalmotherswhilerejectingdominantpracticesanddiscourses

surroundingbreastfeeding.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingofferedscriptsthatreflected

thiskindofcarefulconstructionofmaternalethoswhilenavigatingconversationswith

physiciansinpreparationforgivingbirthandbreastfeedinginthehospital.Whenmothers

cameincontactwithphysicianswhowereonlyfamiliarwithbreastfeedingonatheoretical

levelandwhocouldnotofferanypracticaladvice,themanualsuggestedthatmothers

should“reassurehimthatyouhaveawonderfulbookfromexperiencedmothers,whohave

eveninvitedyoutowriteorphonethemaboutanypracticalproblemsthatmightcomeup”

(WomanlyArt20[1963]).Whilethisstatementexudedself-confidenceandimpliedthat

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mothershaveauthorityoverbreastfeeding,itdidsoinawaythattappedintotraditional

notionsaboutgenderedroles,divisionsoflabor,andassumptionsaboutwomen.It

confirmedassumptionsaboutthedifferencesbetweenwomen’skindsofknowledge,based

ondomesticexperienceandconcernedwithpracticalmatters,andmen’sknowledge

concernedwiththeoryandscience.AsReynoldsexplains,“Whenaknowerislocatedasa

femaleinthisculture,knowledgeisexperienced,constructed,andrecalledin

nonhierarchical,nonlinear,andnonobjectiveforms.Inotherwords,femaleknowersadapt

totheirmarginalizedpositionsbyseeingdifferently—andlearningdifferentthings”(330).

LLL’sscriptcapitalizedonsuchgenderedwaysofknowingtoframebreastfeedingasa

woman’sconcern,andthescriptimpliedthatthemalephysiciannaturallydidnothavethe

first-handknowledgetocoachwomenthroughtheexperienceofbreastfeeding.Other

women,whowereframedasthenaturalsourceofinformationonthesubject,couldbe

relieduponforadvice.Thisargumentestablishedtheauthorityofmothersover

breastfeeding,andthismayhaveappealedtobusyphysicianswhowerelikelygratifiedto

havetheresponsibilityforcoachingwomenthroughtheexperienceofbreastfeedingtaken

outoftheirhands.

Bothoftheseaboveargumentsexhibitedanethos-buildingtacticthatmadeasubtle

shiftintheidentityconstructofthemother.Skinnerclaimsthatethosformationmay

involve“reciprocitybetweenrhetorandaudienceidentityconstructs”(WomenPhysicians

39).Inherstudyofnineteenth-centurywomenphysicians,Skinnerobservedthatthe

authorityofwomenphysiciansreliedinpartona“reciprocitybetweentheethosofthe

speakerandoftheaudience[…]inwhichtheassertionofprofessionalauthoritybywomen

physicianssuggestedthataudiencemembersoughttoadoptthecomplementaryroleof

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obedientpatient”(WomenPhysicians176).LLL’smodelsandscriptsprovideadifferent

viewofthereciprocalrelationshipbetweentheethosofthepatientandthephysician.In

theseexamples,thepatientwasabletoclaimabitmoreautonomyindecisionmakingby

maintainingrespectforthephysician’sethosasamedicalexpertandconstructingherown

maternalethosbyshowingherselftobecompetentandsensible.Atthesametime,she

framedbreastfeedingasanon-medicalwoman’sissueaboutwhichshefeltconfident.

Insteadofdenyingtheimportanceofmedicalexpertise,LLLofferedascriptthatwould

allowmotherstoshifttheresponsibilityforofferingbreastfeedingsupportawayfrom

physicianstoothermotherswhileframingthisshiftaswaytolightenthephysician’s

burden.Byframingherselfandothermothersmorebroadlyasthenaturalexpertsonsuch

mattersasbreastfeeding,thisscripthelpedmothersgainmoregroundininteractionswith

physiciansintheiroffices,thustransformingthedoctor’sofficeintoamaternalspacein

whichmothersconsultedwithphysiciansratherthanactingasobedientadherentsto

physicians’advice.

NotonlydidLLLinstructmotherstodevelopmaternalethosthatexhibiteda

respectformedicalauthoritywhilepracticingresistancetodominantmedicalpractices,

butLLLalsoadoptedthisstrategyaspartofitsownorganizationalethos.LLLavoided

givingoffensebypayingrespecttophysiciansandmedicalwaysofknowingwhilealso

preparingmotherstoengageinactsofresistanceagainstdominantdiscourseandpractices

ofmedicine.ThroughoutLaLecheLeagueNewsandTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLL

reliedonquotesfrommedicalexpertstooffersupportfortheorganization’sclaimsabout

breastfeeding.ThisrelianceonmedicalexpertisetoimbueLLL’sphilosophyofnatural

motherhoodanditspracticeswithasenseofauthoritywasastrategicone.Ina1963note

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toLLL’sletter-writingmothers,membersofLLLtaskedwithcorrespondingwithmothers

whowrotetoLLL,theorganizationwarneditsletter-writersagainstgivingmothersdirect

orders.Instead,theyweretoldtoreferenceandquotephysiciansorcitematernal

experiencewithoutgivinginstructions:

Ifadoctorhastoldthemothertostartsolidswedon’tsay,“Don’tgivethe

babyanysolids.”Rather—"Therearemanydoctorswhobelieveitisnot

necessarytostartsolidsuntilatleast3months,amoung[sic]themHerman

Meyerwell-knownpediatricianwhohaswrittenabookfordoctorsonInfant

Foods.”Or,“Weknowfromexperiencethatearlysolidsisnotonlynot

necessarybutcanseriouslyaffectthemilksupply—myown…babieshave

thrivedbeautifullyonbreastmilkalone,etc.”(“InstructionsforLetter

Writers”).

Therespectformedicalexpertisewaspreserved,andLLLcouldavoidanylawsuitsorlegal

claimsarguingthatLLLhaddispensedmedicaladvice.Additionally,membersofthe

generalpublicwhowereaccustomedtotheauthoritativeroleofthephysicianunderthe

dominantideologyofscientificmotherhoodweremorelikelytoacceptLLL’sarguments

andthepracticesofnaturalmotherhoodiftheyweresupportedbythemedicalexperts.

WhileLLLavoidedgivingdirectinstructions,theyofferedmodelsofsuccessbysharing

personalexperience.Theviewsofsupportivephysiciansandthepersonalexperiencesof

LLL’sfounderswereusedinterchangeablyhere,whichframedpersonalexperiences,

especiallythepersonalexperiencesofmultiplemothers,asvalidevidence.Thissuggests

thatwhileLLLtempereditsrhetoricwitharespectfortheexpertiseofphysicians,it

balancedthatrespectwitharegardformaternalauthority.LLLavoidedaffrontingthe

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medicalprofessionbyrespectingtraditionalviewsongenderedwaysofknowing,butit

placedvalueonmaternalwaysofknowing,arguingthatwhileitwasdifferent,itwasno

lesslegitimateoruseful.Placingthedisciplinaryknowledgeofphysicianswhoadvocated

forbreastfeedingonequalfootingwiththeexperiencesofmotherspresentedamodelfor

motherstofollowintheirowninteractionswithphysicians.

ThoughLLLreliedonandvaluedmedicalexpertise,itwasselectiveaboutitschoice

ofphysicianstociteasevidence.Certainly,conflictingviewpointsexistedinthefieldof

medicine;however,LLLchoosethoseexpertswhoseviewsandvaluesalignedwithitsown.

TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingassuredmothersthattheyalsohadthisrighttochoose

theirownpersonalphysicians.“Yourrightandprivilegeasapatient,”themanualasserted,

“isthechoiceofadoctorsympathetictoyourneedsanddesires”(WomanlyArt20[1963]).

Bypointingouttomothersthattheyhadtherighttochoosethemedicalexpertsthat

tendedtothemandtheirchildren,LLLwasshowingmothersthattheyhadmoreagency

andauthorityovertheirmaternalpracticesthanthedominantideologyofscientific

motherhoodwouldsuggest.Therighttochoosemedicalprofessionalswhoalignedwith

theirownviews,shapedbyLLL’sideologyofnaturalmotherhood,gavemothersinLLL’s

counterpublicasenseofagencythattheycouldcarrywiththemintotheirinteractionswith

physicians.

Whileitmightseemthatmotherswhoassertedsomematernalagencyand

presentedastrong,confidentmaternalethosgroundedinwomen’swaysofknowingmight

offendorannoyphysiciansintheageofscientificmotherhood,LLL’sscripts,basedonthe

experiencesofanumberofitsfounders,suggestedthatphysiciansweremorewelcoming

ofmaternalconfidencethanmightbesupposed.Mothersmighthavefeltthattheywereata

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disadvantagewhenitcametomakingdecisionsabouttheneedsofthebaby,particularly

whenthereweremedicalcomplicationsthatrequiredaphysician’sintervention;however,

TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingmaintainedthatwhiledoctorsmadedecisionsthatwere

influencedbyamyriadoffactors,suchashospitalregulationsandhisownviewsand

experiencesasaphysician,themotheralsoplayedacrucial,thoughlikelyunacknowledged,

roleinthephysician’sdecision-makingprocess.

Accordingtothemanual,thedoctorwhoperceivedthemothertobelukewarmin

regardstobreastfeedingmighthavebeeninclinedtoadvisethemothernottostartor

continuebreastfeeding(WomanlyArt89[1963]).Amotherwhodiscussedbreastfeeding

withthephysicianinthiswaypresentedanethosasamothermotivatedbyasenseofduty

ratherthanastrongdesiretonourishandnurtureherbaby.Actinginthismanner

regardingbreastfeedingsuggestedthatthemotherdidnotseebreastfeedingasnurturing

butmerelyanalternativemeansofprovidingsustenance.Thesuggestionherewasthat

whenmothersdidnotseemparticularlymotivatedtobreastfeed,thenthedoctorwas

likelytorecommendbottle-feedingasamorereliableoptionwithwhichhewasmore

familiar.Incontrast,themanualexplainedthat“ifyouareveryearnestaboutnursingyour

baby,hemaytakethisintoconsiderationandgoalongwithyou.Sobesuretolethimknow

howyoufeelaboutit”(WomanlyArt89[1963]).Thisearnestreassurancewasanethical

appealthatpresentedthemotherassincerelyconcernedforthewell-beingofherbaby.

Themotherwhomadesuchanappealwouldseemtobeagood,lovingmotherwillingto

sacrificeherselfforthegoodofherchild.Thesuggestionwasthatastrongmaternalethos

ofanengaged,motivatedmotherwhofeltconfidentinherabilitycouldhaveperhaps

persuadedthephysiciantoletthehertaketheinitiativeandleadtheway.Inthiscase,the

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motherwouldhavebeensuccessfulinemployingmaternalrhetorictoassertconfidencein

hermotheringandauthorityoverthecareofherchild,whilethephysician’srolewas

reframedasthatofasupportivemedicalconsultant.

Motherswerelikelyfrequentlyunawareoftheswaythattheyhadoverthe

physicians’choicesabouthowtoproceedwiththetreatmentofthebaby.Scientific

motherhoodhadgiventheimpressionthattheknowledgeandadviceofphysicianswas

beyondtheinfluenceofmothers,whowereframedaspassiveconduitsforthedoctor’swill.

Inhighlightingthemother’sabilitytosubtlyinfluencethephysicianthroughthecareful

craftingofhermaternalethos,LLLwashelpingmotherstoasserttheiragencyina

temperedway.Themessagethatmothersreceivedwasthattheirresistancetothestatus

quoofmedicalpracticeandproceduredidnotrequirethemtobemilitantor

confrontationalintheirinteractionswithphysicians;instead,theycouldinfluencethe

physician’sdecision-makingprocessbyconveyinganearnestandconfidentattitude

towardbreastfeeding.Inthisway,motherstookasubtleapproachtorestructuringtheir

relationshipswithphysiciansbymakingsubtleshiftsinbehaviorandattitudethatwould

helpthephysiciandevelopanewviewoftheirmaternalidentities.

Wheninteractingwithotherhospitalstaff,somepartsofTheWomanlyArtof

Breastfeedingadvocatedforanapproachthatwassimilartothatrecommendedfor

interactionswithphysicians:atemperedapproachthatwasfriendlyandpositivewhile

beingfirm.Thetextwarnedmotherswhoweredealingwithoppositionthattheyshould

not“antagonizethehospitalpersonnelbythrowingyourweightaroundandtellingthem

howtoruntheirhospital.Youcan’twin”(WomanlyArt58[1963]).Instead,theysuggested

thatmothersbefirmintheirinsistenceonbreastfeeding,“butotherwisegoslowontrying

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tobucktheestablishedroutines;smileandsmile,andgetoutofthereasfastasyourdoctor

willletyou”(WomanlyArt58[1963]).Thistemperedapproachdemonstratedmaternal

self-confidenceandafirmdesiretonourishherchildbybreastfeedingwhilealso

respectingthemedicalestablishment.LLLrecognizedthatpushingtoohard,tooquickly

againstnormalpracticesandproceduresmightseemtobearejectionofthemedical

profession,andthusitwouldlikelyunderminemothers’effortstogainthesupportof

medicalprofessionals.

Whenmothersweremetwiththeskepticismandraisedeyebrowsofhospital

personnel,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingsuggestedthatmothers“cheerfullyandfirmly

letthemknowyoumeanit.Taketheattitudethatyouarebeingquiteprogressive”

(WomanlyArt53[1963]).Afriendlydemeanorwasmorelikelytoelicitcompliancewith

themother’swishesthanexpressionsoffrustrationoranger.Suchdisplaysofnegative

emotionmighthavemadethemotherappearself-centeredandunconcernedforherbaby,

asshewasresistingattemptsbymedicalprofessionalstoensurethatherbabyreceived

nourishment.Toavoidthiskindofself-presentation,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding

suggestedthatotherissuescouldbedealtwithinalettertothehospitaladministration

afterwards,andsuchletters“maymakeiteasierforthenextbreastfeedingmother

deliveringinthehospital”(WomanlyArt58[1963]).Savingothercomplaintsandwaiting

toadvocateforamoresupportiveenvironmentuntilafterleavingthehospitalkeptthe

peace,anditallowedagoodrelationshiptoexistbetweenthemotherandthenursingstaff,

whosesupportofmother’sdecisionswasofparticularimportancetothecreationofa

maternalspaceinwhichshecouldexercisesomeauthorityoverhealthcaredecisions.

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WhileLLLrecommendedamaternalethosthatpresentedmothersasconfident,

friendly,anddeterminedtonourishtheirchildrenbybreastfeeding,whilealsorespecting

medicalexperts,therewereinstancesinwhichthisapproachwasnoteffective.Thestoryof

EdithaGrice,publishedintheMay–June1959issueofLaLecheLeagueNews,illustrates

thechallengesthatmothersfacedwhenthepoliciesofthehospitalandprejudicesofthe

nursingstaffconflictedwiththemother’sdesire.Grice,amotheroftwins,wasdetermined

toexclusivelybreastfeedthem.Griceseemedtohavebeenself-assuredanddetermined,

whichreflectedthekindofmaternalethosthatLLL’sscriptsdevelopedintheirscripted

interactionswithphysicians;however,insteadofbeingreceptiveandlettingthe

determinedmothertryitherway,thenursingstaffpushedback,tellingherthatitwas

impossibletobreastfeedtwins.AccordingtoGrice,thenurses“objected—saidthebabies

wouldloseweightandevenfedthemformulaatfirstagainstmyorders”(LLLNews,2.1:2).

WhenGriceinsistedthatthebabiesbeexclusivelybreastfed,thenurses“broughtbottles

eachtimewiththebabiesbecausetheywantedtheirbabiestogetenoughliquid”(LLL

News,2.1:2).Thesenursesclearlyfeltownershipovertheinfantsandtheactivitiesthat

occurredwithinthehospital,andtheydevelopedanadversarialrelationshipwithGrice.

Thisadversarialrelationshipcanlikelybeattributedtothedifferencebetweenthe

roleofthephysicianandtheroleofthenurseinthehospitalandthedifferentwaysthese

professionalswouldlikelyhaverespondedtothisrequest.Justasthemother’sattitude

couldhaveasignificantimpactonthemedicaladvicethatphysiciansprescribed,the

mother’sattitudehadthepotentialtosignificantlyimpactthenursingstaff’ssupport,or

lackthereof,forthemother’sattemptstobreastfeed.Whilephysiciansattendedbirthsand

occasionallyexaminedthemotherandbaby,itwasthenursingstaffwhooversawthe

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operationsofthematernitywardandthecareofinfants.Theyweremorelikelytobe

challengedorinconveniencedbychangestonormalroutineandpractices.Anotherfactor

thatlikelyaffectedGrice’sexperiencewiththenursingstaffwasthebreak-downofthe

reciprocalrelationshipbetweentheethosofthepatientandtheethosofthenursingstaff.

ThenursesmayhaveviewedGriceasaproblematic,obstinatepatientratherthanasa

motherattemptingtoactinthebestinterestofherchildren.Griceviewedthenursesas

territorialandunwillingtoallowhertoexerciseauthorityoverdecisionsaboutthecareof

herchildren.Inthehospitalward,mothersneededtobeabletoconvincenursesthatthey

sharedgoalsandvalues.LLLsuggestedrhetoricalstrategiestohelpmothersnavigate

relationshipdynamicsandsustainagencyinmaternitywards.Thedifferencesbetweenthe

roleofnursesandphysicians,aswellasthenatureoftherelationshipofthemotherand

thenurse,requiredsomewhatdifferentrhetoricalstrategies.

Ratherthanplacingthemselvesinadversarialrelationshipswiththenursingstaff,

orbeginningtheirrelationshipswithnursingstaffbydictatingexpectations,TheWomanly

ArtofBreastfeedingsuggestedthatmothersattempttoarrangebeforehandtohavethe

doctorgiveorders.Thetextadvisedmothersthatdoctorsmaygrantarequesttoprohibit

bottle-feeding“evenifhe’slukewarmaboutbreastfeeding,ifyouaskhimtodoit.Sodoask

himaboutitaheadoftimeandremindhimaboutit,ifheagrees”(WomanlyArt54[1963]).

Thegrantingofsucharequestfreedmotherstoenterintotheirrelationshipwiththe

nursesonmoreequalfootingandallowedthemtoattempttobuildcamaraderiewith

nursesovertheirsharedgoaloffollowingthedoctor’sordersandensuringthatthebaby

wasfed.Nurseshadquitealotofcontroloverthecareofinfantsinthehospital,

particularlyinhospitalsthatdidnotallowforbabiestoroomwithmothers;when

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breastfeedingmothershadtorelyonnursestobringtheirbabiestothemtobenursed,it

wasintheirbestinteresttohavethedoctor’sordersandtogarnerthesupportofnurses

throughrhetoricalmeans.

WhileLLLpromotedconfidence,friendliness,andfirmnessinscriptedinteractions

withmedicalprofessionals,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingtaughtmotherstoconsider

thevaluesandconcernsoftheiraudience,particularlythenursingstaff.Physician’sorders

mighthelpgarnernurses’cooperation,butinabusyhospitalward,mothersmightstill

havehadtoemployrhetoricalstrategiestoensurethatthenursessupportedtheirefforts

andfollowedthedoctor’sorders.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingsuggestedasubtle

approachtoremindnursesofthedoctor’sordersinthefollowingscript:

Itwon’thurttomentioncasuallytothenursethatyou’regladyourbabyisn’t

gettinganyformula—sinceyou’llbecompletelybreastfeedinghim,any

formulagivennowcouldleadtohisdevelopinganallergytocow’smilkwhen

itisreintroducedintohisdietseveralmonthslater.Thenursingstaffmaynot

knowthisfactaboutallergies,andthroughbusyforgetfulness,orsimplyout

ofthegoodnessoftheirhearts,theymaythinktheyaredoingyourbabya

kindnessbygivinghimabottleortwoduringthosefirstdaysbeforeyour

milkcomesin.Knowingthisallergyfactmayhelpthemrememberthe

doctor’sorders.(WomanlyArt54[1963]).

Thisbriefscripttookasubtle,temperedapproachtoremindingthenurseofthedoctor’s

orderswithoutdictating.Ratherthanframingthenurseasanadversary,thisscriptframed

thenurseasapartnerwhosharedthegoalofprovidingthebabywithagood,healthystart

inlife.Thescriptalsoencouragedethosreciprocitybetweenthemotherrhetorandthe

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nurseaudience.Motherswhoemployedthisscriptpresentedamaternalethosofcaring

andconcernedmotherswhohavethoughtfullyconsideredtheimplicationsoftheir

decisiontobreastfeedonthehealthoftheirbabies,andtheyweremakingasyllogistic

argumentastowhytheirbabiesshouldnotreceivesupplementalformula.Ifformula

supplementationofabreastfedbabycouldleadtofutureallergies,thenthisparticular

breastfedbabyshouldnotreceivesupplementalformula.

Theforegroundingofmaternalconcernoverherbaby’shealthandthelogical

argumentpresentedinthisscriptcouldhaveledtoasenseofidentificationand

camaraderiebetweenthemotherandthenurse.Thenursecouldhavecertainly

sympathizedwiththisconscientiousmotherinherconcernoverthedevelopmentofamilk

allergyinanursingbaby.Themother’sexpressionofreliefthatformulawouldbeavoided

wasagentleremindertothenursethattherewerelegitimatemedicalreasonsforavoiding

formula.Nursesatthattimewouldhavebeeninthehabitofgivingformulatobabies,and

theywouldlikelyhaveseenfewerbreastfeedingbabies.Thiskindofsubtleinteraction

wouldlikelyhavehelpedbusynursesmovingthroughtheirroutinestobemindfulofthe

differingneedsofthebreastfeedingbaby.Italsoremindednursesthatexclusive

breastfeedingwasn’tsolelyaprogressivefad,butthattherewerepotentialhealth

consequencestosupplementingabreastfedbabywithformula.Ininvokingthespecterof

possiblenegativehealthimpacts,thisscriptalignedthegoalsofthemotherwiththegoals

ofthenurse,thuscreatingareciprocalrelationshipbetweentheethēofthemotherandthe

nurse.Theresultofsucharenegotiationoftherelationshipbetweenmothersandthe

nursingstaffwasthatthematernitywardwastransformedintoamaternalspaceinwhich

motherscouldsubtlyasserttheirdesiresandgainthesupportofthenursingstaff.For

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EdithaGrice,whoclashedwiththenursingstaffwhentryingtoinitiatebreastfeedingwith

hertwininfants,thiskindoftemperedapproachmighthavehelpedtoheadofftheconflict

beforeitbegan.WhileGricedidmanagetosuccessfullybreastfeedhertwinsforsixmonths

despitethechallengesthenursingstaffpresented,atemperedapproachthatdeveloped

maternalethosinnegotiationwiththenursingstaffcouldhavehelpedheravoidsomeof

theearlyobstaclestobreastfeeding.

Thescriptingofinteractionsbetweenmedicalprofessionalsandmothers

constitutedarhetoricaleducationtohelpmothersnavigaterelationshipsthatcouldeither

supportorunderminetheirattemptstoestablishbreastfeeding.Suchscripting—which

fosteredamaternalethosforegroundingmaternalself-confidence,nurturance,and

protectionoftheirbabies—framedtherelationshipbetweenmothersandmedical

professionalsasapartnership.ItallowedmotherswhoadheredtoLLL’sviewsand

embracedtheirpracticestoengageinactsofresistanceinsuchawaythattheyrecognized

theethosoftheprofessionalswithwhomtheywerespeaking,andthustheywerelikelyto

garnerthesupportofthemedicalprofessionratherthaninspireskepticismorstrife.Such

scriptedinteractionshelpedmothersassertmaternalauthorityandcouldhelpthem

establishmaternalspaceinlocationsoutsideofthesafe,maternalspacesoftheLLL

mother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetingandthehomeofthemotherwhohadembraced

LLL’sparadigmofnaturalmotherhood.

COLLECTIVERHETORICALACTIONANDTHEBUILDINGOFACOUNTERPUBLIC

WhiletheearlytextsofLLLassistedbreastfeedingmothersindevelopingrhetorical

strategiestonavigateinteractionswiththepublic,particularlymembersofthemedical

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profession,thetextsalsohelpedLLLtomakethetransitionfromalocalsupportgrouptoa

counterpublicwithaninternationalreach.BothTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingandthe

bimonthlynewsletterLaLecheLeagueNewsplayedacriticalroleinthegrowthand

developmentofthatcounterpublic.AccordingtoLLLfounderMaryAnnCahill,mothers

benefittedfromtheconstantreassuranceandreinforcementthatthenewsletterprovided

(Lowman,LLLove26).Thenewsletter,whichhad600subscribersatthetimeofthe

May/June1961issue(Lowman,LLLove26),servedtheneedofbreastfeedingmothers“to

beconstantlyencouragedtohearaboutothermotherswhothoughtthatnursingababy

wasworthwhile”(Lowman,LLLove26).Inadditiontoofferingsuchencouragement,La

LecheLeagueNewshelpedtobuildanetworkofbreastfeedingmothersandadvocates.The

newsletterincludedanumberofexamplesofcorrespondenceinwhichmotherswroteto

saythattheyhadpassedontheircopiesofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Onemother

wrotetosaythatwhenshepassedonhercopytohersister,shefeltasthoughshehadshe

hadlosther“bestrighthandman”(LLLNews,1.6:1).Anothermotherclaimedthatafter

beingridiculedinthehospitalforchoosingtobreastfeed,sheplannedtotakecopiesofThe

WomanlyArtofBreastfeedingwithheronhernexthospitalvisitto“encouragemore

nursingmothers”(LLLNews,1.6:1).Theinclusionofsuchtestimonialsinthenewsletter

showedthatLLL’smother-to-mothersupportnetworkgrewasaresultofindividualefforts

tofurtherthecauseofLLL.

SarahHallenbeck’sstudyofthecollectiverhetoricofnineteenth-centurybicyclists

showsthatevenwithoutcentrally-organizedcoordinationandguidance,suchasthat

providedbyLLLtobreastfeedingmothers,counterdiscoursescanflourishandleadtoa

revisionofthemedicalprofession’sunderstandingofthewomen’sbodies.Whatisrequired

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forcollectiverhetorictomakesuchatransformationalimpact,accordingtoHallenbeck,is

thatthedistributedactsoftheindividualactorsbevisibleandlegibleandthatthewidely

distributedaudiencerecognizetherelatednessoftheseindividualactsandinterpretthem

similarly.Forthistowork,claimsHallenbeck,“eachindividualrhetormustalignherself

withelementsofthenetworkinwhichsheoperates”(xviii).Suchnetworkbuildingcan

happeninanorganicwaywithdispersedindividualsandgroupsfindingoneanother

throughsharedinterestsandgoals;however,IarguethatLLL’sbimonthlynewsletter,La

LecheLeagueNews,andTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingfunctionedinsuchawayasto

buildacentrallyorganizednetworkthatpromoteditsideasandpracticesandprepared

motherstoemploymaternalrhetoricinordertoresistdominanttrendsofinfantfeeding

andchildcare.

WhileLLLhelpedmothersdeveloprhetoricalethosintheirowninteractionswith

medicalprofessionals,theorganizationwasalsobuildingacounterpublicofmotherswho

engagedincollectiverhetoricalaction.Inherstudyofthemethodsthatnineteenth-century

womenphysiciansusedtodevelopprofessionalethos,CarolynSkinnershedslightonthe

wayinwhichethoscanbecollectivelydevelopedanddeployed(WomenPhysicians178).

AccordingtoSkinner,collectiveethosformationoccurswhen“rhetorscollaborateonor

competeoverthecharacteristicsmembersofthatgroupwilldemonstrate”(178).Justas

womenphysiciansofthenineteenthcenturycollaboratedtodevelopanethosforwomen

physicians,theauthorsofLLL’searlytextscollaboratedwithmotherstodevelopanethos

forthebreastfeedingmother.Thescriptsandmodels,someofwhichwerethepublished

accountsoftheexperiencesofwomenwhowrotetoLLL,werenotonlyanefforttohelp

womendeveloptheirownmaternalethos,italsorepresentedacollaborativeeffortto

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developacollectiveethosforthebreastfeedingmotheringeneralandmembersofLLLin

particular.ByutilizingLLL’smodelsandscripts,thearmyofmotherswhomadeupLLL’s

counterpublicgraduallychangedthemedicalprofession’sperceptionofmothers.Skinner

claimsthat“theethoschoicesanindividualrhetormakesinfluencenotonlyhisorher

immediatecommunicativesituationbutalsothebroadercontextandthepersuasive

optionsavailabletootherpotentialspeakersandwriters”(178).Eachtimethatamother

followedLLL’sadviceandemployedmaternalethosandtemperedrhetoricalstrategies

thatleveragedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodinherinteractionswithmedical

professionals,thatmotherwasnotonlyrenegotiatingherrelationshipwiththatparticular

doctorornursetocreateamaternalspaceinwhichshecouldassertmaternalauthority,

butshewasalsolikelyopeningthedoorforothermotherstodothesame.Gradually,these

individualactsofmaternalethosformationshiftedthemedicalprofession’sviewnotonly

ofbreastfeedingbutoftheroleofmothersinchildcaremorebroadly.

ThespreadofLLL’scounterpubliccanbetracedthroughthenewsletterLaLeche

LeagueNews.Thenewsletterincludedpublishedexcerptsfrommothers,fathers,and

medicalprofessionalswhowrotetotheorganization.Italsoreportedondevelopments

withintheorganizationandnotedmilestonesintheorganization’sspread,suchas

attentionthattheorganizationreceivedinthepress.Between1958and1961,LLLreceived

agooddealofattentionfromlocalnewspapersandsmallcirculationmagazines,someof

whichhadtiestotheCatholicchurch.Earlyon,itwasoftenmembersofLLLwhobrought

theorganizationtotheattentionofthesepublications.In1958,thehusbandofanLLL

memberwroteanarticlepromotingtheorganization.ItwaspublishedinMarriage

Magazine,“asmallMidwestcirculationreadbyyoungCatholicfamilies”(Lowman,LLLove

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31).Inanothersuchcase,amotherwrotetocolumnistMarciaWinnoftheChicagoTribune

in1959torecommendLLL.Withinaweekoftheletter’spublication,LLLreceived150

lettersfrommothers,doctors,andnurses(LLLNews,2.2:3).In1959,Ladies’HomeJournal

recommendedLLLtoamotherwhowrotetothemagazineforadvice(LLLNews,1.6:2).In

additiontothesereferencestoLLL,asurveyofissuesofthenewsletterrevealsthatby

1961LLLhadbeenmentionedatleast25othertimesbyavarietyofpublications,including

theChild-FamilyDigest,HeraldofHealth,BabyTalk,Prevention,FamilyCircle,Christian

Parent,TheChicagoSun-Times,GeneralPractice(thejournaloftheAmericanAcademyof

GeneralPractice),andInfantFoodsandFeedingPractices,abookthatattributedarisein

interestinbreastfeedingtoLLL.TherecognitionthatLLLreceivedfromthesemany

publicationsshowsthatitwasenteringintothepublicconversationonbreastfeeding

severalyearsbeforeLeeForrestHill’s1968JournalofPediatricseditorialrecognizedLLL

foritseffortstosupportbreastfeedingmothersandrestorelostknowledgeof

breastfeeding.

FollowingthepublicationofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingandLaLecheLeague

Newsin1958,LLLquicklydevelopedintoanengagedcounterpublicwithaninternational

reach.BythetimethattheJan./Feb.1958LaLecheLeagueNewswaspublished,LLL’s

foundershadreceivedcorrespondencefrommothers,doctors,andnursesin36states,the

DistrictofColumbia,Canada,Germany,England,Austria,andSouthAfrica.Frequently,

lettersarrivedinhigherthanaveragenumbersasaresponsetopublications(LLLNews,

1.5:1).AfteramotherwrotealettertothesyndicatedcolumnofphysicianHaroldT.

Hyman,publishedintheLacrosseTribuneofLacrosse,Wisconsin,LLLreceivedover100

letters,50ofwhichwerewrittenindirectresponsetothearticle(LLLNews,1.1:4).InMay

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of1960,LLLreceivedover800lettersfollowingthepublicationofthearticleintheFamily

Circle(Lowman,Revolutionaries46).MuchofthecorrespondencethatLLLreceivedwas

frommotherswhosharedtheirsuccessesandstruggleswithbreastfeeding.Somemothers

reportedpositiveinteractionswithmedicalprofessionalswhileothersreported

disappointingexperienceswiththemedicalestablishment.Medicalprofessionalsalso

wrotetoofferpraisefortheworkoftheorganization.Thiscorrespondenceshowsthat

LLL’semploymentofmaternalrhetoricinitsadvocacyforbreastfeedingandnatural

motherhood,aswellastherhetoricaleducationthatLLLofferedtomothers,wasmaking

animpact.

OneOklahomamother,whoalsohappenedtobeaphysician,wrotetoexpressher

viewofthecriticallyimportantnatureofLLL’ssupport:“Iamadoctorandanursing

mother,andIwantyoutoknowthatwithoutthehelpofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding

mybabywouldhavebeenabottlebaby”(LLLNews3.3:4).Sheclosedherletterwitha

requesttopurchasetwoadditionalcopiesofthetext.Suchstoriesillustratethewayin

whichthehorizontalnetworkthatLLLhadbeenbuildingthroughitstextualoutreach

intersectedwithandtransformedthemedicalprofession,whichunderscientific

motherhoodhadbeenconstructedasaverticallyoriented,top-downauthority.Through

individualinteractionswithbreastfeedingmotherswhoweresuccessfulinlargepartdue

tothesupportofLLL,themedicalprofession’sviewofbreastfeedingandtheroleof

mothersindecisionsaboutchildcarebegantoevolve.Whiletherehadbeensome

breastfeedingadvocatesinthemedicalprofessionpriortoLLL’sfounding,theincreasing

demandforbreastfeedingsupportbegantochangethemedicalprofessionatthelocallevel,

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andthesemicro-transformationsbegantoreshapethemedicalprofessionatthemacro-

level.

WhilethecorrespondencepublishedinLaLecheLeagueNewsshowedthatthe

organization’scounterdiscoursewasspreadingrapidlyandimpactingthemedical

profession,therecordofsalesofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingwerealsoimpressive.

WithinsixmonthsoftheprintingofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedinginthefallof1958,

LLLhadsoldallofthe1,000copiesthathadbeenprinted(Lowman,Revolutionaries17).

Theseinitialcopiesweresoldprimarilytomothers,butmedicalprofessionalsalso

purchasedcopies.Oneobstetricianorderedadozenforhispatients,aformerchaplain

orderedsixcopiestobesenttoaColoradohospital,andnaturalchildbirthgroupsalso

purchasedcopies(LLLNews,1.5:1).In1960,LLLprintedanother5,000copies.Overa

periodofthreeyears,LLLsoldapproximately17,000copiesoftheoriginaleditionofThe

WomanlyArtofBreastfeeding(Lowman,Revolutionaries44).ThesecondeditionofThe

WomanlyArtofBreastfeedingwaspublishedin1963,aroundthesametimethatReader’s

Digestpublished“TheyTeachtheJoysofBreastfeeding,”thechapterofKarenPryor’sbook

NursingYourBabythatfocusedonLLL.InpartbecauseoftheattentionthattheReader’s

Digestarticlereceived,LLLsold10,000copiesofthesecondeditionofTheWomanlyArtof

Breastfeedinginthefirsttwomonthsfollowingitspublicationin1963(Lowman,

Revolutionaries47).

AnadditionalmeasureofLLL’ssuccesswastheincreasingfrequencywithwhich

membersofLLLweresoughtoutfortheirexpertise.Between1958and1961,LLL’s

foundershadbeenaskedtospeakforsuchaudiencesastheNationalHealthConvention,

RosaryCollege,YoungChristianWorkers,theIllinoisCommitteeonMaternalandInfant

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Health,andtheSouthSuburbanChildbirthEducationAssociation(LLLNews,1.1,2.4,2.6).

ThatthefoundersofLLLwereinvitedtospeakforsuchgroupsshowsthatnotonlywasits

counterpublicexpanding,butitwasgrowinginprominenceaswell.LLL’sefforttoframe

maternalexperienceasasourceofknowledgeandauthorityonmattersofinfantfeeding

washavinganimpactonpublicandmedicalperceptionsofbreastfeeding.Infact,some

professionalswithaninterestinbreastfeedingchosetotraveltotheFranklinParkarea

specificallytomeetthefoundersofLLLandlearnfromtheorganization.In1959,four

nurse-midwivestraveledfromOttawa,CanadatospendtimewithLLL.Theytookthe

knowledgethattheygainedfromtheirmeetingwithLLLandincorporateditontotheir

childbirthclasses(Lowman,Revolutionaries36).In1964,TheAmericanJournalofNursing

publishedanarticlethatexaminedtheeffortsofLLLfromanurse’sperspective.JanetIorio,

AssistantProfessorofNursingatSetonHall,explainedthatsheandothernursesspenttime

withanLLLgroup.Themotherswhohadsharedtheirexperiencescausedthenursesto

realizethatmotherswereoftenconfusedbyinconsistentmedicaladvice,andinresponse,

thenursesestablishedguidelinesforclearandconsistentadviceregardingbreastfeeding

(Iorio119).Thisaccountshowsthatnotonlyweresomenurseswillingtosupport

breastfeedingmothers,butthattheywerealsowillingtoestablishnewpoliciesand

routinesinordertodoso.Thiswillingnessofnursestobetteraccommodatebreastfeeding

mothersbychangingpoliciesandprocedureswasasteptowardthetransformationofthe

maternitywardintoamaternalspacewherebreastfeedingmotherscouldasserttheir

wishesandreceivesupportfromnurses.

TheattentionthatLLLreceivedfrommagazinesandnewspapers,thesignificant

amountofcorrespondencethatLLLreceived,thespreadofLLLgroups,thesalesofThe

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WomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,andsubscriptionstoLaLecheLeagueNewsshowthatLLL’s

counterdiscoursestruckachordwithmothersandsomemembersofthemedical

profession.Whilecorrespondencefrommotherssometimesreporteddisappointing

responsesfromtheirattemptstogainthesupportofmedicalprofessionals,manymore

motherswrotetoreportpositiveresponses.Thehorizontalnetworkofbreastfeeding

motherswasgrowing,andtheverticalnetworkofthemedicalestablishmentwas

beginningtotakenotice.

THEIMPACTOFLLLONDOMINANTPRACTICESANDSOCIALNORMSSURROUNDING

INFANTFEEDINGANDMOTHERHOOD

LLL’sface-to-facemeetingsandtextualoutreachinthe1950sandearly1960s

producedacounterpublicthatwouldprofoundlyalterthemedicalprofessioninthecoming

years.WhileitisdifficulttoquantifyLLL’spreciseimpacts,anexaminationoflarge-scale

trendsintheratesofbreastfeedingandchangingattitudesofthemedicalprofession

towardthemother’sroleindecision-makingsuggestsasignificantcorrelationbetweenthe

advocacyofLLLandtheshiftawayfromthedominantattitudesandpracticesofscientific

motherhood.

LLLcontinuedtogrowrapidlyandgarnertheattentionofthemedicalprofession

andthepublicmorebroadlythroughoutthe1960s,anditcontributedtoagradualincrease

intherateofbreastfeeding.Inthe1950s,whenLLLwasformed,thebreastfeedingratehad

fallenagreatdeal.AccordingtoadatapublishedbytheNationalcenterforHealth

Statistics,priorto1950,58.9%ofwomenintheUnitedStateshadbreastfedtheirfirst

child;intheperiodof1956to1960,thatnumberhadfallento43.1%andwasona

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continuingdownwardspiral(Hirschman,etal.11).ThankslargelytoLLL’sinfluence,the

trendwaseventuallyreversed.By1980,thebreastfeedingratehadrisento55%(Eckhardt

andHendershot410).Trendsindemographicsofbreastfeedingmothersalsochanged,

perhapsinpartduetothefactthatLLL’seffortswereaimedprimarilyatwhite,middle-

classmothers.AccordingtoLindsayGartmanBaker,inthe1940sasignificantlylarger

percentageofblackmothersbreastfedtheirbabies(25).Atthattime,breastfeedingwasas

associatedwithmothersoflowsocioeconomicstatuswhocouldnotaffordbreastmilk

substitutes.Bythemid-1960s,forthefirsttimesincebreastfeedingtrendshadbeen

recorded,whitewomen-initiatedbreastfeedingatahigherratethandidblackwomen,and

highlyeducatedmiddle-classwhitewomenbreastfedatahigherratethananyother

demographic(Baker25).Barkerattributesthischangingtrendtotheavailabilityof

informationandsupportamongstthesedifferentdemographics(Baker25).Thistrend

alignswiththenatureofLLLanditsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.LLLwasfounded

bymiddle-classwhitewomenwhohadtheabilitytofocusthebulkoftheirtimeandefforts

onthecareandfeedingoftheirchildren;economicallydisadvantagedwomenandworking

motherswerenotaswell-servedbyLLL’sattitudesandphilosophy.LLL’scounterpublic

wascomprisedchieflyofwhite,middle-classwomenwhocoulddevotethemselvestothe

alternativeparadigmofmotheringofferedbyLLLandhadthesocialandeconomic

leveragetoemploytherhetoricalstrategiesthatLLLtaughtintheirearlytexts.

WhileLLL’smodeldidnotserveallmothersequally,itwascriticaltothesuccessof

breastfeedingmotherswhowereinapositiontobenefitfromitssupport.Inher1971

dissertationTheRelationshipofInformationandSupporttoBehavior:TheLaLecheLeague

andBreastfeeding,socialpsychologistAliceKahnLadassetouttouncovertheimpactof

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LLL’smodelofbreastfeedingsupportonmother’sattemptstobreastfeed.Ladasstudied

responsestointerviewsandquestionnairesregardingthebreastfeedingexperiencesoftwo

disparategroupsoffirst-timemothers:membersandnon-membersofLLL.Ladasfound

thataccesstoeitherinformationaboutbreastfeedingoraccesstobreastfeedingsupport

didseparatelycontributetoahigherrateofsuccessamongstbreastfeedingmothers;

however,thehighestrateofsuccessofbreastfeedingmothersresultedfromaccesstoboth

informationandbreastfeedingsupportaswasprovidedunderLLL’smodel(Ladas2).This

studyshowedthatLLL’smethodofofferinginformationandsupportmayhavehada

significantlinktoanincreaseintherateofsuccessfulbreastfeedingmothers;thus,the

organizationunderminedthebottle-feedingpracticesofscientificmotherhood.

WhilethecontributionsofLLL’scounterpublicplayedasignificantroleintherateof

mothersinitiatingbreastfeeding,LLL’schallengetoscientificmotherhoodalsoshiftedthe

attitudeofthemedicalprofessiontowardmothersmorebroadly.AccordingtoRimaD.

Apple,physiciansinthe1970sfeltthattheywerebeingpushedbysocialtrendstoinvolve

mothersinthedecision-makingprocess(Apple,PerfectMotherhood143).Thebabyboom

endedinapproximately1960,andasbirthratesdeclined,hospitals,asconsumer

businesses,foundthattheyneededtoincreasinglyaccommodatethedesiresofmothersto

drawthemtotheirmaternitywards(Apple143);thus,hospitalspurposefullysetoutto

offeranenvironmentthatallowedmotherstoexercisematernalauthorityandcreate

maternalspaceinthematernityward.LLL’scounterpublic,thenaturalchildbirth

movement,thecountercultureofthe1960sand1970s(Apple143),andmedicalstudies

affirmingtheimportanceofaclosephysicalconnectionbetweenmothersandbabiesinthe

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immediatepost-partumperiod(Martell),hospitalshadtoincreasinglyaccommodate

mothers’decisionsregardingmedicalcareandcreatefamily-centeredenvironments.

LLLitselfbecameawell-respectedauthoritytowhichthemedicalprofessionturned

forinformationonbreastfeeding,andeventually,LLLandthemedicalprofessionofficially

partneredtobettersupportbreastfeedingmothers.In1973,LLLhelditsfirstPhysicians’

BreastfeedingSeminar,whichtheAmericanMedicalAssociationsurveyesinorderto

decidewhetherornottograntaccreditationtoLLLforthepurposeofprovidingcontinuing

educationcreditstophysicianswhoattendedtheseminar(Lowman,LLove64).One

physicianreportedlyaskedLLLtocontinuetheseminarsbecausetherewas“noplace[sic]

elsefordoctorstogetthiskindofinformation”(Lowman,LLLove64).MarianTompson

wasdoubtfulthatLLLwouldreceiveaccreditation,saying“Aftersomanyyearsofbeing

outsidetheestablishment,Ijustcouldn’tbelievethattheywouldacceptus”(Lowman,

LLLove64);however,theAMAdidindeedgrantLLLaccreditationfollowingthatinitial

physicians’seminar.ThisachievementmarkedamajormilestoneinLLL’sgrowing

influenceonmedicalprofessionals.

Theabilitytotakeatemperedapproachtoadvocacyandrhetoricallyoccupythe

middle-groundislikelywhatledtotherapidgrowthofLLLandtotheincreasingly

widespreadembraceofitsviewsandpractices.AlittleoveradecadeafterLLL’sfounding,

LeeForrestHill,PresidentoftheAmericanBoardofPediatricswasadmonishingthe

medicalprofessionforlettingbreastfeedingfalloutoffavoronitswatchandpraisingLLL

forrevivingthepractice(Hill162).It’snotlikelythatLLLwouldhavehadsuchsuccessful

outcomesiftheyhadadoptedamoremilitantstyleofresistancetomedicalauthorityand

discourse.

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It’sundeniablethatLLLcontributedsignificantlytotheshiftawayfromthestrict

top-downmodelofscientificmotherhoodinwhichmotherswereexpectedtoactas

obedientadherentstotheadviceofphysicians.Bycraftingtextsthathelpedmothers

developtherhetoricalstrategiestonavigateinteractionswithmedicalprofessionalsand

creatematernalspace,LLLeasedthepathforbreastfeedingmothers.Whiletempering

theiractsofresistancecouldnotensurethatthattheiraudiencewouldsupporttheir

efforts,thedevelopmentofmaternalethosmadetherevolutionaryactivitiesofLLL

mothersmorepalatable.Throughtheemploymentofmaternalethosinindividualactsof

resistance,membersofLLL’scounterpublicofbreastfeedingmothersparticipatedina

collectiveethosbuildingprojectthatcompelledchangeinthemedicalprofessionandin

perceptionsofwomen’sroles.

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CHAPTERV

CONCLUSION:“WECAMEWANTINGTOLEARNTHEARTOFBREASTFEEDING.WE

FOUNDAWAYOFLIFE.”

Inher1976examinationofthemodernexperienceofmotherhood,OfWomanBorn,

AdrienneRichcritiquedtheinstitutionofmotherhoodasasocialconstructionthat

“ghettoizedanddegradedfemalepotentialities”throughoutrecordedhistorybyinvesting

allwomenwith“magicalpowers”forthepurposeofcontrollingthem(13).Whilethe

institutiondoesnotreflecttherealityofthelivedexperiencesofmothers,ithasstillshaped

theirlivesinsignificantways(Rich42).Thisinstitution,claimedRich,hadcausedharmby

placingstrictexpectationsonmothersasaformofsocialcontrol,butitfailedtoreflectthe

realitythatmotherhoodisauniquerelationshipbetweeneachwomanandchild.Rich

calledforthedestructionoftheinstitutionofmotherhoodandexpressedhopethatwomen

wouldbeabletobreakawayfromtheviolencedonetowomenandchildrenunderthe

strictconfinesoftheinstitution:

Whatisastonishing,whatcangiveusenormoushopeandbeliefinafutureinwhich

thelivesofwomenandchildrenshallbemendedandrewovenbywomen’shands,is

allthatwehavemanagedtosalvage,ofourselves,forourchildrenevenwithinthe

destructivenessoftheinstitution:thetenderness,thepassion,thetrustinour

instincts,theevocationofacouragewedidnotknowweowned,thedetailed

apprehensionofanotherhumanexistence,thefullrealizationofthecostand

precariousnessoflife.Themother’sbattleforherchild—withsickness,with

poverty,withwar,withalltheforcesofexploitationandcallousnessthatcheapen

190

humanlife—needstobecomeacommonhumanbattle,wagedinloveandpassion

forsurvival.Butforthistohappen,theinstitutionofmotherhoodmustbe

destroyed.(280)

Evenwithintheconfinesoftheinstitutionofmotherhood,accordingtoRich,mothershad

beenabletorebelinsomewaysbyexperiencingpowerfulemotions,trustingintheir

instincts,andfindingcouragewithinthemselves.

Theideologyofscientificmotherhood,thedominantideologyofmotherhoodinthe

earlytwentiethcentury,causedthekindofinstitutionalviolenceagainstmothersand

childrenthatRichsodespairedofinOfWomanBorn.Theideologyofscientificmotherhood

madeitdifficultforwomentotrusttheirinstinctsandexperiencematernaltendernessand

passion.Itdiscountedmaternalinstinct,relyinginsteadonstrictprescriptionsforthecare

andfeedingofchildren.Themother-childbondwashamperedbytheideology,asthe

routinelyprescribedadvicewastoavoidfrequentlyholdingtheinfantinorderto

encourageindependence.Whilesomemothersstruggledundertheconfinesofscientific

motherhood,afewpushedback,asdidthefoundersofLLL.

Atatimewhenmothershadlostconfidenceintheirabilitytomakesounddecisions

aboutthecareoftheirownchildrenandwerediscouragedfromdevelopingstrongmother-

childbonds,thefoundersofLLLrebelledbybreastfeeding,nurturingstrongmother-child

bonds,anddevelopingtheirownideologyofnaturalmotherhoodtocounterscientific

motherhood.LLLresistedthedominantpracticesofchildcareandinfantfeedingthathad

beenpopularizedunderscientificmotherhood,butthefoundersoftheorganization

realizedthatforsuchresistancetobesuccessful,mothersneededasupportivenetwork

aroundthem,andtheyneededpracticaladvicetonavigatethechallengesofbreastfeeding

191

andpracticinganalternativeparadigmofmotheringinasocialclimatethatdidnotsupport

theseefforts.Throughthedevelopmentofacounterpublic,LLLwasabletohelpmany

womenrestorewhattheyhadlost,includingautonomy,trustinoneself,andself-

confidence;thus,twodecadesbeforeRich’sOfWomanBornwaspublished,LLLhad

embarkedonanefforttocombatthestrict,confininginstitutionofscientificmotherhood

andhelpwomenregainsomeofwhathadbeenlosttothem.

Whiletheorganizationsuccessfullychallengedtheoppressionofmothersby

scientificmotherhood,paradoxically,asexplainedintheintroductionofthisproject,much

ofthecriticismleveledatLaLecheLeaguebyfeministscholarshashighlightedthewayin

whichtheorganizationrequireddomesticityofmothersanddiscouragedmothers’active

involvementinthepublicsphere.BerniceHausmanobservedthatfeminists“warily

approachLeagueasanideologicallysuspectorganizationwithrigoroussocialcontrolsover

thewomenwhobecomeinvolvedwithit—muchlikeacult”(161).Eventhosescholars,

suchasHausman,whoacknowledgedthesignificantrolethatLLLplayedinshapingthe

historyofinfantfeedingandrecognizedthattheorganizationcould,anddid,empower

somemothers,viewitasaparadoxicalorganizationthatconstrainedmotherswhile

empoweringthem.This“boundedliberation”(131),accordingtoChristinaBobel,both

empoweredmotherswhileitalsoconstrainedthemwithintherealmofdomesticity.

Thisdissertationprojectconfirmsfeministscholars’assessmentoftheparadoxical

natureoftheorganization,butitalsoilluminatesthewayinwhichtheorganization’s

rhetoricalpowerresidedinleveragingthepositionofmothersonthemarginsas

disciplinaryoutsidersbyrhetoricallyforegroundingtraditionalvaluesassociatedwith

motherhoodandarguingthattheirstatusasoutsidersprovidedthemwithexperience-

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basedknowledgethatwasvitaltosuccessinbreastfeeding.Inefforttohelpmothersassert

theirmaternalauthority,LLLhelpedmotherstransformtheirhomesintomaternalspaces

thatoperatedassafeenclavestopracticeanalternativeparadigmofmotherhoodand

rejectstatusquopractices,suchasbottle-feeding.

WhileLLLdidempowersomemotherstoresistdominanttrendsinmothering,

creatematernalspace,andbreastfeedsuccessfully,overitshistory,theorganizationhas

marginalizedmotherswhowerenotwhite,middle-classhomemakers.Womenofcolor,

singlemothers,lesbianmothers,workingmothers,andbottle-feedingmothersareamong

thosewhodidnotfitintoLLL’smodeloftheidealmother.Becausetheycouldnottakeon

thematernalroleprescribedinLLL’sparadigmofnaturalmotherhood,whichLLL

promotedasgoodmothering,thesemotherswereframed,throughexclusion,as

inadequate.Theorganization’sproblematicmessaging,exclusionarypractices,and

paradoxicalnaturehavebeendiscussedbyotherfeministscholars;therefore,this

dissertationfocusedprimarilyonunderstandinganunexploredaspectofthe

organization—thewayinwhichLLL’semploymentofmaternalrhetoricempowered

mothersandledtoashiftinthemedicalprofession’sunderstandingofbreastfeedingand

itsrelatedpractices.ThesuccessofLLL’smaternalrhetoricandthecollectivematernal

ethosthatitscounterpublicdevelopeddependedlargelyuponthesocialpositioningofits

targetaudienceofwhite,middle-classhomemakers.

ThehistoryofLLL’ssuccessfuladvocacyforbreastfeedinganditsownphilosophyof

naturalmotherhoodprovidesevidencethatcounterpublicscanbeahighlyeffective

solutiontotheproblemsposedbydisciplinarygatekeepingandgenderedspatial

segregation.Counterpublicsoftendevelopinenclavedsafespaces,whichFrasercalls

193

“paralleldiscursivearenas”(67).AreviewofLLL’searlyorganizationalhistoryandan

analysisofitsearlytextualoutreachrevealsthewayinwhichchangesindominant

practicesanddiscoursescandevelopastheresultofthecollectiverhetoricalactivitiesof

counterpublics.Eachchapterofthisdissertationhascorrespondedtoastageinthe

developmentofacounterpublicthatwouldeventuallyintersectwithandtransformthe

medicalprofession’sunderstandingofandattitudetowardbreastfeedingandtheroleof

mothersindecision-making.

Theearlieststage,thedevelopmentoftheparalleldiscursivearenaofthelocal

mother-to-mothersupportgroup,witnessedtheestablishmentoftheorganizationandthe

developmentofLLL’scounterdiscourse,includingitsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.

Thisstagebeganwhenmotherswhohadfacedsimilarstruggleswiththeirattemptstodefy

dominantpracticeandbreastfeedcametogetherinamaternalspacewiththeintentionof

offeringoneanothermutualsupport.Theyrecognizedthatsupport,orlackthereof,had

playedasignificantroleintheirattemptstobreastfeed,andtheywantedtoofferthat

supporttomotherswithintheirlocalareainamoreformalandorganizedway.

Whilethisdomesticmother-to-mothersupportgroupprovidedapracticalsolution

totheissueoflackofknowledgeablesupport,anditprovidedasafematernalspaceforthe

foundingmotherstoshareandcomparetheirexperiences,italsofunctionedinamanner

similartothefeministconsciousnessraisinggroupsthatdevelopedinthelater1960s.In

sharingandcomparingtheirexperienceswithchildbirthandbreastfeeding,themothers

whoattendedthoseinitialLLLmeetingswereabletoanalyzethedominantdiscourse

aroundinfantfeedingandchildcareandidentifythewaysinwhichalocalmother-to-

mothersupportgroupcouldaddressthefailureofthemedicalprofessiontoaccommodate

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theneedsofmothers.Someofthefoundershadoptedtogivebirthathomeandhad

discoveredthattheprivatespaceofthehomecouldbetteraccommodatetheneedsofthe

unmedicatedbirthingmotherthancouldahospitalmaternityward.Throughtheir

conversationsaboutchildbirthandbreastfeeding,themembersofLLLwereabletoanalyze

moredeeplywhatdreweachofthemtothedecisiontobreastfeedandseekoutanatural

childbirth,andasaresultoftheseconversations,LLLdevelopedaphilosophyofnatural

motherhood.Instarkcontrasttothemodelofscientificmotherhood,thephilosophyof

naturalmotherhoodunderstoodmotherstobeintuitiveaboutthebiologicalandemotional

needsoftheirchildren.LLL’sfoundersbelievedthatthemother’snaturalintuitionand

confidenceinone’smotheringhadbeenharmedbytheexpectationthatgoodmothers

followstrictprescriptionsforthecareandfeedingoftheirchildren.Theestablishmentof

theinitiallocalmother-to-motherbreastfeedingsupportgroupwithinamaternalspace

wasarhetoricalactiontothisharmposedbyscientificmotherhood.Thesharingthattook

placewithinthematernalspaceofthemother-to-mothersupportgroupvalidatedmaternal

experienceasasourceofknowledgeandasgroundsformothers’authorityoverthecareof

children.LLLbelievedthatbabieshaduniqueneedsandthatattentivemotherswho

practicedanaturalapproachtomotherhoodwoulddevelopastrongunderstandingoftheir

babies’needsbydevelopingclosemother-childbonds.ThesafematernalspaceoftheLLL

meetingenabledtheorganizationtodevelopthephilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodthat

assumedthatmothershadaninstinctualunderstandingoftheirchildren’sneedsanda

desiretomeetthoseneeds;thus,naturalmotherhoodframedmothersasthelogical

authorityoverthecareoftheirownchildren.InthematernalspaceoftheLLLmeeting,

wherebabiesandchildrenwerewelcome,notonlydidnewmothersbenefitfromthe

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knowledgeandsupportofexperiencedmothers,buttheyalsowitnessedthebenefitsofthe

strongmother-childbondthatwastheresultofbreastfeedingandamoreresponsive,

naturalapproachtomotherhood.

ThesecondsignificantdevelopmentinLLL’sevolutionasacounterpublicinvolved

thebroaderrecruitmentofmothersthroughthedistributionofTheWomanlyArtof

Breastfeeding,atextaimedatsharingLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandoffering

atextualalternativetotheface-to-facemodelofmutualsupport.Thechallengeof

translatingtheworkoftheface-to-facesupportgroupintotextwascomplex,asthe

informationsharedinthemeetingwasonlyoneaspectofthedynamicthatmadetheface-

to-facegroupsuccessfulinprovidingsupportandrestoringconfidenceinmaternalwaysof

knowingbaseduponexperienceandcommunalsharing.Camaraderie,anegalitarian

sharingofexperience-basedknowledge,andvisualmodelsofsuccessfulnursingand

motheringundertheparadigmofnaturalmotherhoodwereaspectsofthelocal,face-to-

facemeetingthatweremoredifficulttotranslate.Intheattempttocommunicatethese

elementstoawidelydistributedaudience,LLLusedavarietyofrhetoricalstrategies:it

createdamaternalethosfortheorganizationbyassociatingthefounderswithelementsof

theculturalcodeofmotherhood;italignedthephilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodwiththe

BiblicalfigureofEve,therebymakinganappealtologicandassociatingnatural

motherhoodandmaternalinstinctwithmorality;itcharacterizedtheorganizationnotasa

groupofmoreexperiencedmotherssupplementedbyamedicaladvisoryboardbutasa

friendlyneighborwhowantedtosharetheknowledgeshehadgainedfromherexperience;

ittargetedanaudiencemadeupofonlymotherswhowerealreadyinclinedtobreastfeed,

therebyappealingtolike-mindedwomenwithsimilar,thoughperhapsunexplored,

196

attitudestowardthedominantparadigmofscientificmotherhood;anditleveragedthe

culturalcodeofmotherhoodtoconvinceboththemotherandthefathertomakepractical

changesinthehomethatwouldtransformthehomeintoaprivatematernalspace.

Instructionincreatingamaternalspaceinvolvednotonlyamaterialrearrangement

ofthehomebutalsoarestructuringoffamilydynamicsandre-evaluationoftheprimary

roleofwifeandmotherinsideofthehome.KayeLowman,theauthoroftheorganizational

historiesTheLLLoveStoryandTheRevolutionariesWorePearls,describedtheimpactof

LLL’ssevenfoundersandtheirphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodinthisway:“Theyhave

changedourlives,thesesevenwomenwhofoundedLaLecheLeague.Wecamewantingto

learntheartofbreastfeeding.Wefoundawayoflife”(Lowman,LLLove75).LLL’smodelof

naturalmotherhoodwascertainlyasignificantshiftawayfromthestatusquo.Ratherthan

focusondomesticchores,amarkerofmaternalidentityinthe1950s,LLLencouraged

motherstoconcentrateonthedevelopmentofthebondbetweenmotherandchild,

particularlyinearlyinfancy.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingemployedrhetorical

strategiestoconvincemothersthatarestructuringofthehome,withlessfocuson

domesticchores,astrongerfocusonthedevelopmentofstrongfamilybonds,anda

supportivehusbandactingasanengagedco-parent,wasnecessaryandbeneficial.Thetext

alsomodeledrhetoricalstrategiesthatwomencouldemployinnegotiationswithhusbands

inordertogarnertheirsupport.Yet,ratherthanchallengingthegendereddivisionoflabor

inreimagingroleswithinthehome,LLLreaffirmeditbyemphasizingtheunique,nurturing

roleofthemotherandhermaternalbiology.Thebiologicalessentialisminherentinthe

organization’sphilosophyanditsreaffirmationthatthehomeistheappropriateplacefor

mothersservedtoalienatesomemothersandresultedinmuchcriticismfromfeminist

197

scholars;however,forthefoundersofLLL,thehomewasasiteofliberationfromthe

oppressionsofthemedicalestablishmentduringchildbirthandinthepost-partumperiod.

Additionally,forthemembersofLLL,themother-to-mothersupportgrouphadbeenasite

ofmaternalempowerment,soincomposingTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLLnot

onlyaimedtooffersupporttowomenwhowishedtobreastfeedbutalsotopersuade

motherstoresistthestatusquoandpracticeamorenaturalapproachtomotherhoodin

thematernalspaceoftheirhomes.Justasthelocalmother-to-mothersupportgrouphad

operatedasa“paralleldiscursivearena”(Fraser)forthedevelopmentofLLL’s

counterdiscourse,thematernalspaceofthehomeprovidedasafeenclaveinwhich

individualmotherscouldpracticematernalagency.Inassistingmothersincreatingthese

maternalspaces,LLLdevelopedintoahorizontalnetworkcomprisedofanarmyof

motherswhowerewell-versedinLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandwell-armed

withtherhetoricalandpracticaltoolsnecessarytocreatetheirownsafeenclavesinwhich

toembraceandpracticeanalternativeparadigmofmothering.

ThethirdstageofthedevelopmentofLLLasadistinctcounterpublicinvolvedits

interactionwiththedominantpublic.JustasLLLusedtextualoutreachtopersuade

motherstoadoptLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandprovidedthemwiththe

rhetoricalmeansandpracticaladvicetodosowithintheirownhomes,LLLusedtextssuch

asTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingandLaLecheLeagueNewstoprovidemotherswith

therhetoricaltrainingnecessarytomoveoutintothepublicandeffectivelyengagewith

andresistthedominantdiscourseinatemperedwaythatforegroundedconceptsand

valuestraditionallyassociatedwithmotherhood.Muchoftheseeffortsatrhetorical

educationinLLL’searlypublicationswerefocusedonhelpingwomennavigateinteractions

198

withmedicalprofessionalsinthehospitalintheimmediatepost-partumperiod.LLL

offeredscriptsthathelpedmotherscraftmaternalethosthatreliedonwhatRyan,Myers,

Jonesdescribedasan“ecologicalmindset”(11)inordertorenegotiatethebalanceof

powerbetweenmothers,physicians,andothermedicalprofessionals.Additionally,LLL’s

counterpublicofbreastfeedingmothersengagedinaprojectofcollectiveethosformation

thatwouldgaintheattentionofthemedicalprofessionandprompttheprofessiontorevise

itsunderstandingofbreastfeedingandofthecapacityofmotherstotakeamoreactiverole

inmakingdecisionsaboutchildcare.

CarolMattinglyarguesthattheuseofatemperedapproachtoactivismbymembers

oftheWomen’sChristianTemperanceUnionmadetherhetoricmoreacceptabletoabroad

publicthananapproachthatblatantlychallengedthestatusquo(21).IarguethatLLLwas

rhetoricallysavvyenoughtoteachmotherstodevelopamaternalethosgroundedinideals

associatedwiththeculturalcodeofmotherhoodandthatpaidrespecttoexpertiseand

subtlyframedtheexpert’sknowledgeasgroundsforresistancetothestatusquo.The

scriptsthatLLLprovidedtoreadersmodeledaudienceawarenessandtheadaptationof

maternalethosforvaryingaudienceswithinthemedicalprofession.Thesescriptshelped

mothersrenegotiateandre-framerelationshipswithmedicalprofessionals,andinso

doing,thesemothersemployedmaternalethostocarveoutmaternalspacewithinphysical

spacescontrolledbythedominantpublic,inthiscasethemedicalprofession.Inthisway,

LLLprepareditshorizontalnetworkofmotherstointeractwiththedominant,traditionally

top-downmedicalprofessioninsuchawaythatcausednoaffronttotheprofessionbut

insteadbegantoreshapeboththepracticeswithinthegenderedinstitutionalspacesof

199

medicineandthemedicaldiscoursesurroundinginfantfeedingandtheroleofmothersin

makingdecisionsabouttheirchildren’shealthcare.

WhileIexplorethethreestagesofdevelopmentofLLL’semergenceasa

counterpublic(formation,spread,engagementwiththedominantpublic),Idonotmeanto

suggestthatthebuildingofcounterpublicshappensindefinedanddistinctstages.Inthe

periodIexamined,primarily1956-1963,thespreadofLLLthroughtextualsupportand

engagementwiththedominantpublicoccurredsimultaneously.Muchofthefoundational

scholarshipthatexploresthenatureanddevelopmentofpublics(Habermas)and

counterpublics(Fraser)doessoprimarilythroughanabstractexplorationofthetheoryof

theirtrajectoryandtheirimpacts.ThisstudyofLLLprovidesanoverviewofthewayin

whichaparticularcounterpublicgrewfromtheideaofasmallgroupofindividualsand

thenspreadinsuchawayastointersectwithandalterdominantdiscourseandpractices

aroundinfantfeeding.Followingthe1960s,LLLcontinuedtodevelopastrongerandlarger

counterpublicbyreachingouttomothers,offeringthemsupportandeducation,and

preparingthemtoengagerhetoricallywithadominantpublicthatmaynothavebeen

preparedtounderstandoraccommodateitsphilosophyandpractices.Eventually,LLLno

longeroperatedascountertothedominantdiscourseoninfantfeedingbutwasinstead

acceptedasanauthorityontheissueofbreastfeedingbythemedicalprofession.

Oneimplicationofthisstudyisthatthefieldofrhetoricalstudiesshouldmore

closelyexaminetheparadoxicalmessagingofconservativeorganizationsthatseemsto

constrainasmuchasitempowers.ScholarssuchasCarolMattingly,LisaShaver,and

CharlotteHogghaveexploredthewayinwhichconservativewomenhaveusedthe

rhetoricalmeansavailabletothemtoadvocateonbehalfwomenandimprovetheirlives

200

whenmoreradicalapproachesmayhavefailed.Thisdissertationbuildsontheirworkby

suggestingthatconservativerhetoricalstrategiesemployedbywomen’sorganizationscan

leadtorapidandradicalchangeindominantviewsofwomenandtheirroles.LLLhaslong

beenregardedasaparadoxicalorganization,simultaneouslyempoweringand

disenfranchisingmothers,andthereisincontrovertibleevidencethatthiswassometimes

thecase;however,acloserexaminationrevealsthattheparadoxicalnatureofLLLandits

rhetoricwasperhapsthekeytoitssuccess.AsLindalBuchananexplainsinRhetoricsof

Motherhood,maternalrhetoricsareparadoxical,astheirpowerliesintappingintothose

ideasandconceptsthatwetraditionallyassociatewithmotherhoodinordertoauthorize

activitiesthatmightotherwisebedeemedastoocontroversialorrevolutionarytobe

acceptable(5).InLLL’scase,itsabilitytoharnesselementsoftraditionalmotherhoodand

usethemtosubvertunderstandingsofwhatitmeanstobeagoodmotherwasits

rhetoricalstrength.

Anotherwaythatthisdissertationcontributestofeministrhetoricalscholarshipis

thatitproblematizesthenotionthatonlywomen’sfullandequalaccesstodisciplinary

sitesofknowledgecanaffectchangeinthebeliefsandpracticesofadominantpublic.

Genderedspatialsegregationisgenerallythoughtofbyfeministscholarsasabarrierthat

limitswomen’sabilitytoaffectchangeandchallengethestatusquo.Itisforthisreason

thatDaphneSpainarguesthatthemarginalizationofwomenbydisciplinaryauthorities

canonlybefullyandeffectivelychallengedwhenwomenhavefullaccessandequal

involvementindisciplinarycentersofpower(5).Anumberoffeministrhetoricalscholars

haveexploredtherhetoricalstrategiesthatwomenhavehistoricallyusedtoauthorize

theirentranceintomaledominatedprofessionsandtherebyreshapethoseprofessions.

201

Thesescholarshaveexploredthewayinwhichwomenhaveusedtherhetoricalmeans

availabletothemtoarguefortheirfullandequalparticipationindisciplinaryor

professionalspaces,frequentlyafterlengthy,orevenmultigenerational,efforts(Wells;

Enoch;Skinner;Buchanan;Mountford;Applegarth;Moseley).Forexample,bothSkinner

andWellsexploretheentranceofwomenphysiciansintothemedicalprofessioninthe

nineteenthcentury,andasSkinnerexplains,oncewomengainaccesstomale-dominated

locationsandpositionsofauthority,theystillmaynotbeviewedasequalsandmust

developethos,sometimesfromtheirmarginalizedpositions,toarguethattheyhave

authorityandexpertise.

Equalaccesstopositionsofauthorityalongwithequalrespectandinfluenceon

disciplinaryknowledgeis,ofcourse,theideal;however,ifchangeisonlytooccurfrom

advocacyandagitationalactivitiesthattakeplacefromwithinthediscipline,changemay

bedelayedforasignificantamountoftime.AsSarahHallenbeckrevealsinClaimingthe

Bicycle:Women,Rhetoric,andTechnologyinNineteenth-CenturyAmerica,thecollective

rhetoricalactivitiesoflaypersonscanpromptadisciplinetoreviseitsunderstandingand

practices.Initsearlyhistory,LLLsparkedasimilarlaypersons’movementbydevelopinga

counterpublicofbreastfeedingmothers.AsthisstudyofLLLsuggests,counterpublicsand

theirassociatedcounterdiscoursesthatbeginonthemarginsofadisciplinarydiscourseare

abletointersectwiththedominantdiscoursesandeventuallytransformthem.

Inadditiontoprovidinganexampleofthewayinwhichcounterpublicscanshape

dominantdiscourse,thisstudyalsorevealsthesignificantrelationshipbetweenthe

genderingofspaceandtherhetoricaltoolsthatareavailabletoaidtherhetorinthe

developmentofethos.ThisprojectbuildsontheworkofscholarssuchasSpain,Jack,

202

Enoch,Mountford,andJohnsonwhohaveexploredtherhetoricityofgenderedspace,such

astheWW-IIerafactory(Jack),andthewayinwhichwomenhavebeenpulledintoand

pushedoutofpubliclife,aswellasfeministscholarssuchasSkinner,Reynolds,andRyan,

Myers,andJoneswhoarguethatethosisasocialconstructthatisco-constructedand

negotiated.Iarguethatmoreattentionshouldbefocusedontherolethatphysically

genderedspacesplayinthedevelopmentofwomen’srhetorics.Themeansthroughwhich

marginalizedrhetorsareabletorenegotiaterelationshipsandassertagencyinphysical

locationswheretheyaredisadvantageddisciplinaryoutsiders,suchasbreastfeeding

mothersinthematernityward,arealsoanunderexploredareaoffeministrhetorical

scholarship.

Icalluponmyfellowrhetoricianstodelvemoredeeplyintotherhetorical

affordancesoffemininegenderedspaces,particularlymaternalspace.Traditionally,the

homehasbeenviewedasaspaceofconstraint,butforthefoundingmothersofLLLand

manymembersthereafter,thehomehadthepotentialtobeanempoweringmaternal

spacethatofferedrespitefromtheconstraintsthatthemedicalprofessionandsociety

morebroadlyplacedonmothersandtheirbodies.Motherswereabletocarryforwardthe

self-confidenceandsenseofauthoritythatthematernalspaceofthehomeofferedandtake

itoutintotheworld,employingmaternalrhetoricandnegotiatingamaternalethosthat

enabledthemtocarveoutmaternalspacewithinthegenderedinstitutionofmedicine.

Maternalspace,whichiscreatedthroughmothers’beliefs,values,andactivities,

offersalensthroughwhichrhetoricalscholarscanexaminewomen’sunderappreciated,

everydayactivitiesasrhetoricalactionandactivism.Studyingthewaythatwomencreate

maternalspacecanshedlightonthewaythatwomenempowerthemselvesandassert

203

agencyastheygoabouttheireverydaylives,bothwithinandoutsideofthehome,while

alsopotentiallyimprovingthelivesofotherwomenthroughtheirefforts.

204

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APPENDIX

COPYRIGHTPERMISSION

Figure4.CopyrightpermissionfromBuchanan,Lindal."PermissiontoReplicateWoman/MotherContinuumTablefromRhetoricsofMotherhood”ReceivedbyJennyMoore,17April2020.Email.

214

VITA

JennyL.MooreOldDominionUniversity,DepartmentofEnglish5000BattenArts&Letters,Norfolk,Virginia23539ProfessionalExperience AdjunctFaculty,WritingandCommunications,UniversityofMarylandGlobal

Campus,Spangdahlem,Germany.2018-2020. OnlineAdjunctFaculty,Writing,SouthernNewHampshireUniversity Manchester,NH.2018-2020. AdjunctInstructorofEnglish,DiabloValleyCollege

PleasantHill,CA.2013-2015. OnlineAdjunctInstructorofEnglish,IvyBridgeCollegeofTiffinUniversity

Toledo,OH.2010-2013. TeachingAssistant,NortheasternStateUniversity Tahlequah,OK.2005-2007. WritingCenterCoordinator,NortheasternStateUniversity. Tahlequah,OK.2005-2007.Education PhDinEnglish(Rhetoric),May2020.OldDominionUniversity,Norfolk,VA. MAinEnglish(CompositionandRhetoric),December2009.NortheasternState

University,Tahlequah,OK.GraduateCertificateinWritingProgramAdministration,December2009.

NortheasternStateUniversity,Tahlequah,OK.BAinEnglish,December2004.NortheasternStateUniversity,Tahlequah,OK.

SelectedPresentations

“Where‘TheRevolutionariesWorePearls’:TheSubversiveUseofMaternalSpaceAnd1950sDomesticityintheCounterdiscoursesofLaLecheLeagueInternational.”FeminismsandRhetorics2019,CoalitionofFeministScholarsintheHistoryofRhetoricandComposition,November2019,JamesMadisonUniversity,Blacksburg,VA.

“Promoting‘MotheringthroughBreastfeeding’:ShapingMedicalDiscourseandMaternalPracticethroughLaLecheLeague’sMother-to-MotherSupportGroup.”2018VirginiaColloquiumontheRhetoricofHealthandMedicine,June2018,GeorgeMasonUniversity,Fairfax,VA.

“MakingaCaseforMaternalAgency:ExploringtheRhetoricalInvitationtoPartnershipandConfidenceinEarlyLaLecheLeaguePublications.”FeminismsandRhetorics2015,CoalitionofFeministScholarsintheHistoryofRhetoricandComposition,October2015,ArizonaStateUniversity,Tempe,AZ.