Korean Reliquaries: Votive Objects of Buddhism, 1991, Korean Culture, 12, 4-11

Korean Culture 12:4 Winter 1991, pp.4-11

Paula Swart

Examples of Korean Buddhist reliquaries have often been discovered accidentally inside pagodas during restoration projects. These reliquaries can take a variety of forms, butmost commonly their form is based upon those very same pagodas (Korean t'ap derived from the Sanskrit word stupa).

The Buddhist custom of enshrining funerary relics inside reliquaries dates back probably to the period of the historical Buddha Sakyamuni. According to Buddhist legend, the Buddha ordained that, upon his death, his cremated asheswere to be kept in a stupa, a sepulcher or burial mound of pre-Buddhistic date. The oldest stupas were simple masonry mounds, spherical or elliptical in shape, with a circular orrectilinear base. The flattened apex was topped by an honorific umbrella.

As the burial mound of the Buddha and by extension a symbol of his continued presence on earth, the stupa became a powerful symbol for Buddhism and came to represent the goal of nirvana. Since representations of the Buddha in human form developed only at a later date, the stupa was the earlyfocus of Buddhist cultic practices, a symbolic object of


veneration, and formed the sacred nucleus of temples. Monks and laity alike would worship the stupa by making offerings and carrying out the rite of circumambulation, circling the stupa in clockwise manner.

Reliquary set from three-story stone pagoda at PulgukTemple, Unified Silla Kingdom, mid-eighth century. Outer

case, gilt bronze, ht. 17.8 cm., w. 18.8 x 18.6 cm.

(12-4, p. 5)

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Pagoda of Punhwang-sa, Kyongju, North Kyongsang Province. Ht.: 9.3 m. National Treasure no. 30. Silla Kingdom (634). Oldest datable pagoda in Korea, stone cut to look like brick.

(12-4, p. 6)

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Types of Reliquaries

Stupas can be divided into three categories based on their purpose: sariraka, a burial mound for the Buddha and other saintly men; paribhogika, a container for objects used by the Buddha; and uddesika, to commemorate a sacred place, which played an important part in the life of Sakyamuni.

Emperor Asoka (273-232 B.C.) is said to have erected 84,000 stupas to hold portions of the Buddha's remains. Early examples of the Indian stupa include the great stupa at Sanchi, located in Central India. Originally built in the third century B.C., it has been rebuilt many times, each time the new layer enclosing the old. Its present height is 54 feet and the diameter of the base is 120 feet.

With the spread of Buddhism to the northeast Asian countriesof China, Korea and Japan and the southeast Asian countries of Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, and Indonesia, thousands of stupas were constructed. The various forms of these stupas all derived from the original Indian shape of the third century B.C.


Three-story Sokka (Sakyamuni) pagoda, Pulguk Temple. 7.38 meters. Unified Silla Kingdom, 751 A.D. Kyongju, North Kyogsang Province, National Treasure no. 21.

The relic holders encased in the center of these stupas often were miniature models of the stupa itself, with its round or square base and solid hemispherical dome, topped bya square railing or solid box from which rise a series of umbrellas.

Buddhist scriptures like the Lotus Sutra encouraged devoteesto make images and to erect stupas. Bronze models, probably made for export as early as the sixth century in India, weretaken back by pilgrims to their homeland, thus allowing for faithful copying of these sacred but unfamiliar structures.



One of the earliest known Indian reliquaries, dating to the second century B.C. and made of steatite, was found in the relic chamber of a stupa located southeast of Sanchi in the district of Bopal. It contained fragments of human bone and teeth. From the first to second centuries A.D., several Indian reliquaries are known, which take either a stupa-shape, or are in the form of a round box, which is left plain or decorated with figures in relief. These early reliquaries have some characteristics in common, which set apattern that would continue over many centuries in various Buddhist countries. For example, the reliquary is usually placed inside a container or series of containers of decreasing value. An excellent example of this practice is illustrated by the recent find of T'ang dynasty reliquaries from the foundations of the Famensi pagoda in Shanxi province, China, in 1987. Eight nesting containers were manufactured to enshrine the fingerbone of (12-4, p. 7) Sakyamuni. These containers were executed in sandalwood, gilt silver, and pure gold embellished with pearls and gems.The innermost container, made of pure gold, took the shape of a single-story square stupa with four small gates.

Bone Fragments

A second characteristc of early reliquaries is that the innermost reliquary contains grain-like bone fragments, called sarira (Korean sari), collected in a small container of crystal or glass. It is not uncommon to find jewelry, beads, coins, and precious stones placed in between the various caskets. These deposits are often a combination of relics and precious objects.

These characteristics are also pertinent to Korean reliquaries, which thus continue these old Buddhist traditions. Buddhist art in India was conservative and traditional and, to a degree, limited in expression by iconographic considerations. Therefore, we should not expectto see too many changes over a long period of time in the shape or syle of the reliquaries.


Buddhism first reached Korea around 372 A.D. through the kingdom of Koguryo, located in northern Korea and Manchuria.The Paekche kingdom in the southwest adopted Buddhism shortly after in 384. In this case, it was introduced from the Eastern Chin dynasty (317-420 A.D.) in the southern halfof China. Buddhism was finally introduced to the Silla kingdom in the fifth century and was officially adopted by King Pophung in 528. Under his patronage Buddhist art started to flourish.

With the completion of the unification of the Korean peninsula in 668 A.D. by the Silla, a long period of internal peace and prosperity began, which formed the basis for the development of highly sophisticated Korean forms of Buddhist art. From then on, the main source of artistic impulse and imagination in Korea was Buddhism. The Silla dynasty was closely associated culturally and politically with T'ang-dynasty China (618-906). Kyongju, the capital of Silla, was modelled after the Chinese capital of Changan. Numerous temples and monasteries were founded and Korean monks would travel to Changan to study in Buddhist temples. The introduction of Buddhism to Korea required the building of temples to enshrine the objects of worship. The temples had two main components: the Main Hall (taeungjon), which contained Buddhist statues, and the pagoda (stupa), which enshrined the relics of the Buddha Sakyamuni. The worship ofrelics constituted the oldest and most traditional form of Buddhist worship, as we have seen from the situation in India, where the image of the Buddha developed at a much later date.

In fashioning and creating reliquaries in Korea, Chinese models were used, which were probably observed by Korean monks travelling and studying in China. Therefore, to understand the development of Korean Buddhist reliquaries and how they functioned within tradition, it is necessary tocompare them with reliquaries made and used in China during each period. According to literary sources and archeologicalevidence, the construction of stupas in China probably


originated during the Three Kingdoms period (220-265), and this custom flourished later during the Sui (581-618) and T'ang (618-906) dynasties.

Kyongju Pagodas

Some of the finest early examples of Korean reliquaries werediscovered in pagodas located in the Kyongju area, the Sillacapital. The pagoda on the grounds of Punhwang-sa, located on the outskirts of Kyongju, is the oldest datable Korean pagoda (634). This pagoda, erected during the reign of QueenSondok, is a square structure originally nine stories in height made of stones cut to look like bricks, probably in imitation of Chinese brick pagodas. On the sides of the pagoda are blind doors guarded by figures carved in relief. In 1915, when the surviving three stories were restored, it was discovered that the pagoda contained a reliquary, found between the second and third stories. It contained valuable Buddhist relics, gold and precious ornaments, coins, scissors, belts, and even a needle case and needles, believed to be the personal belongings of Queen Sondok.

A fine example of a bronze reliquary dating to the early Unified Silla period was found in 1960, during the restoration of the western pagoda at the site of Kamun Temple. Kamun-sa in North Kyongsang Province on the coast ofthe Eastern Sea was constructed at the instigation of King Munmu and completed in 682. This temple was the embodiment of King Munmu's wish to defend the nation against possible invasion even after his death. The temple site commands a panoramic view of the underwater tomb of King Munmu. Today all that remains are two square stone pagodas, originally located on the east and the west sides in front of the south-oriented main hall of the temple. These immense pagodas are considered to be the largest three-story pagodasin Korea. A reliquary believed to have been made around 680 A.D. was discovered in the third story of the west pagoda. The outer casket is decorated with detachable bronze relief figures of the sach'onwang or four (12-4, p. 8) Heavenly Kings. The inner reliquary consists of a crystal flaming


pearl, placed on a lotus at the center of a square platform surrounded by a balustrade. Four devas playing musical instruments are placed at the corners facing inward. The base has openwork panels, creating two niches on each side. These contain relief figures of guardians and devotees. Registered as Treasure no. 366, this reliquary is now on display at the National Museum in Seoul.

Of slightly later date is a reliquary with outer case, whichwas discovered in 1942 inside a three-story pagoda at a sitebelieved to be that of Hwangbok-sa on Nangsan (Mt. Nang) at the eastern outskirts of Kyongju. The pagoda was originally erected upon a rear terrace as a relic repository and not asa pagoda attached to the main hall. This three-story stone pagoda is of a conventional undecorated type on a two-tieredpedestal. It has been designated National Treasure no. 37.

The gilt bronze outer case, which contained relics of great intrinsic and artistic value, have representations of ninety-nine pagodas in embossed dot lines on its four sides.Inside the lid of the relic box, which measures 30. sq. cm, is an incised inscription 3610 characters long with a date


equivalent to A.D. 706. The dedicatory inscription reads as follows:

King Sinmun died July 2, 692. The succeeding king, his son Hyoso Wang, built a hall of meditation, a Buddhist temple, and a three-story pagoda. On June 1, 700, the mother of the king died, and King Songdok succeeded to the throne. On May 30, 706, King Songdok placed four sariras, a pure gold Amitabha statue and a volume of Buddhist sutras in the second story of the aforementioned pagoda in commemoration of three deceased royal members: King Sinmun, Queen Mother Sinmok Taehu, and King Hyoso. 1

Gilt bronze reliquary, reportedly discovered in North Cholla Province. Unified Silla, eighth or ninth century. Ht.: 14.5 cm., National Museum of Korea.

Glass sarira bottle, fromWaggung-ri, Ikson, North Cholla Province. Ht.: 7.7cm. Unified Silla, eighthcentury, National Trasureno. 123, National Museum of Korea.



The actual contents of the box included two solid gold (12-4, p. 9) figures, a square silver sarira box that enclosed asilver gilt box (a cube of between one and two sq. in.), a number of glass beads, two bracelets, two silver and two gilt bronze mounted cups, some gold strings, and a number ofpieces of bamboo. The seated image, complete with throne andopenwork flame-shaped nimbus, is believed to be that of the Amitabha mentioned in the inscription. The figure is modelled in the style of the contemporary T'ang dynasty in China with its particular form of stylized drapery. The significance of this find is that these Buddhist statues belong to a small group of about ten scriptures from the Silla period that can be dated with total accuracy.

Oldest Printed Document

Situated in the main courtyard of Pulguk Temple is the three-story stone Sokka pagoda measuring 7.38 meters high, which is regarded as the most elegant stone pagoda in Korea (National Treasure no. 21). It constitutes the basic formulafor Korean pagodas with its stair-stepped eaves, low slopingroofs and plain surface. Several items of value, including asilver reliquary set, were discovered in 1966 in the Sokka (Sakyamuni) pagoda during restoration work. The square gilt bronze outer case, with openwork sides and roof-shaped top and base, contained a silver covered bowl, which is the actual receptacle of the relics. It is embellished with chased designs and encrusted with precious stones. The find also included the world's oldest printed document, the Dharani Sutra (Scripture of Codes).2 The custom of burying Dharani Sutras in pagodas together with relics of the Buddhadates from the Silla period.


Lid of gilt bronze outer case with inscription, Unified Silla Kingdom, late seventh century. Size 30 x 30 cm. Fromthree-story stone pagoda at site of Hwangbok Temple, Kuhwang-dong, Kyongju, Kyongsangbukto.

Gold sarira case, from Wanggung-ri, Iksan, North Cholla Province. Eighth century. Ht.: 9.8 cm, w.:7.2 x 6 cm. National Treasure no.123, National Museum of Korea, Seoul.

A very intricate gilt bronze reliquary dating to the eighth or ninth century was allegedly discovered in Namwon of NorthCholla province. The round base, similar to the lotus pedestal of a Buddhist statue, supports the square box of the reliquary. The four sides have an openwork design portraying a Buddha (12-4, p. 10) image surrounded by a lotus vine. Four lotus stalks spread out from the corners ofthe box to support a heavenly general seated on a flower. A double-tiered canopy tops the cover, extending its height to14.2 cm.

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During restoration work in 1959 an interesting looking gilt bronze reliquary, dating to the eighth or ninth century, wasdiscovered inside the five-story brick pagoda at Songnim Temple. The reliquary was shaped like a palanquin with four corner pillars supporting the roof structure and encased in a tortoise shaped stone container. A green glass cup, containing a glass sarira bottle, is located on the two-tiered base, which is surrounded by a balustrade. Gold plates cut in the shape of lotus petals decorate the base and top part in a manner that is somewhat reminiscent of thegolden Silla crowns. Pendants are suspended from each cornerdown to the base. This unique reliquary has been designated as Treasure no. 325.

A gold reliquary, glass sarira bottle, gold sutra case and gold plates inscribed with Buddhist scriptures were among the relics discovered in the five-story stone pagoda at Wanggung-ri, Ikson, in December, 1965. The first story of the pagoda contained two square cavities, in which various objects were found, including a gold statue of Buddha, various jade beads, and a gilt bronze outer case. These objects dating to the ninth and tenth centuries of the Unified Silla dynasty were of such importance that they wereregistered as National Treasure no. 123.


Stone stupa of priest Chigwang, Koryo dynasty, A.D. 1085. Ht.: 6 m., Kyongbok Palace, Seoul, from a temple site near Wonju.

The sides of the gold casket are decorated with a hammered design outlining floral motifs (probably a stylized lotus), and there is a lotus-shaped knob on the domed lid. A slender-neck bottle of dark green glass with a lotus bud shaped stopper was found on a lotus pedestal within the goldreliquary. The sutra, consisting of nineteen leaves of thin gold sheets, was preserved in a sutra box. Each sheet of thesutra panels, measuring 14.8 x 13.7 cm., has seventeen linesof characters in Chinese regular script. The text of the Prajnaparamita Sutra (Sutra on the Perfection of Wisdom) is



executed in repousse, created probably by hammering over an elaborately carved wooden block.

Different Materials

Apart from gold, silver and gilt bronze reliquaries, there are also a number of reliquaries made of wood, steatite and ceram (12-4, p. 11) ics dating to the Unified Silla period. In addition some of the finds include also groups of miniature pagodas made of steatite or ceramic. For example areliquary found in the stupa of the Haein Temple site, Hapchon, Kyongsangnamdo, included 100 clay miniature stupas dating to 895 A.D.

During the succeeding Koryo dynasty (918-1392 A.D.), Buddhism continued to be patronized by the nation's rulers and remained the official religion. The Buddhist temples became important centers of learning and art.

The reliquaries dating to the Koryo period do not display great changes in style from the preceding Unified Silla period, but are simply the natural continuation of traditional religious objects.

In 1961 a gilt bronze reliquary was discovered inside the second story of the western five-story pagoda in Kwangju, South Cholla Province. The basic design of this tenth century Koryo example is roughly of the same type as Treasure no. 366 created around 680 A.D. It consists of a square box with openwork panels. Here the guardians of the four directions are not attached to the outer case, but are placed on the corners of the platform facing outwards. The outer case has applique decorations of four bodhisattvas cast in slight relief. The guardians are dressed in militaryuniforms, while the bodhisattvas have halos and wear necklaces. Four bells are hung at the corners of the eaves. It is believed that these relics were enshrined in the pagoda at the time of its dedication in the early part of the Koryo period.


A dated example of a Koryo sarira reliquary was found on Mt.Kumgang. The inner sarira casket executed in gilt silver bears an inscription dating it to 1390. It has the form of an egg-shaped stupa on a tiered lotus base, decorated with standing Buddha figures in gilt silver. Each panel of the octagonal shaped outer casket is adorned with a standing gilt Buddha with incised details against a silver background. The outer sarira casket was placed in a bronze bowl, dated to 1391, which in turn was deposited in a large,wide porcelain bowl 17.1 cm. in height. This discovery underlines that even in the fourteenth century, Korean Buddhist devotees adhered to the tradition of placing the reliquaries in a series of outer containers of decreasing value.

Buddhist Influence

As late as the thirteenth century, Buddhism still exerted a very strong influence on Korea. The reprinting of the voluminous Tripitaka (Buddhist Canon) was ordered by the royal court. In the year 1251 the carving of the 81,137 wooden printing blocks of the Tripitaka was completed. Near the end of the Koryo dynasty the Buddhist church started to lose much of its power. During the succeeding Choson dynasty(1392-1910) the rise of Confucianism weakened the position of the Buddhist church even more. Despite this change in patronage, Buddhism remained firmly rooted in Korean culture, and sarira containers continued to be fashioned anddeposited in stupas.

A Choson dynasty sarira reliquary in the shape of a nine story gold square stupa was discovered in the stupa of SujonTemple site at Yangju, Kyonggi-do. It was placed in a ribbedceladon glazed bowl and contained a sarira crystal bottle. The gilt silver sarira casket of hexagonal shape has a roof and stands on a lotus base with openwork panels. This fine reliquary dating to the fourteenth or fifteenth century is registered as Treasure no. 259 and is now housed in the National Museum of Korea, Seoul.


Religious art is by definition traditional and conservative,and Buddhist art forms are no exception. Considering its symbolism and meaning to the worshipper, the stupa is in fact closer to the essence of Buddhism than is the later development of worshipping the Teacher in human form. Although we find Buddhist statues among the relic deposits, or as decoration to the exterior of the reliquary, the very core of the reliquary is not the Buddha figure, but a small crystal, glass or gold container, enclosing the grain-like bone fragments that are the ultimate symbol of nirvana. It is this tradition which we find continued in Asia and particularly in Korea. Regardless of the minor changes in exterior embellishment, the essence of the reliquary, the sarira receptacle itself, remained unchanged over many centuries.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

PAULA SWART is curator of Asian Studies at the Vancouver Museum. A specialist in Chinese Buddhist art, she was prompted by recent research trips to Korean museums to work on Korean Buddhist art as well.

Notes

1. Evelyn McCune, The Arts of Korea, An Illustrated Story, p. 96.

2. The Dharani Sutra is believed to have been printed before 751, the year in which the Sokka pagoda was constructed,and it is regarded as the oldest Buddhist text printed with wooden blocks in the world. Examination of the style of the Dharani Sutra reveals that it was made in the middle of the eighth century.

Korean Cultural Center, Los Angeles

Korean Reliquaries: Votive Objects of Buddhism, 1991, Korean Culture, 12, 4-11

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