KINGDOM - PLANTAE - Selectial India

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KINGDOM - PLANTAE

All the multicellular eukaryotic plants are placed in Kingdom-Plantae.They are autotrophic i.e. they manufacture

their food by photosynthesis.

Fol lowing plant groups are included in Kingdom-Plantae

( 1 ) ALGAE ( 2 ) BRYOPHY TA (3) PTERIDOPHYTA

( 4 ) GYMNOSPERM ( 5 ) ANGIOSPERM

ALGAE

Term "Algae" was given by Linnaeus.

Phycology - Study of algae.

Father of Phycology - Fristch Book "Structure & Reproduction of algae"

Father of Indian phycology - M.O.P. Iyengar

NATURE -

(1) Algae are found in both fresh and marine water.

(2) Algae are found in many forms like filamentous, colonial.

(3) Algae are surrounded by mucilagenous sheath and below the sheath cell wall is present which is made up of

cellulose and pectin but mainly made up of cellulose, galactans, mannans and mineral like calcium carbonate.

(4) On the basis of structure, algae are thalloid i.e. plant body is not differentiated into root, stem and leaves.

Tissue system is also absent in algae.

(5) On the basis of nutrition, algae are photoautotrophic. They have chloroplast in which photosynthetic pigments

are present. Classification of algae is mainly based on pigments. Chl-a and carotene are universal pigment

of algae.

REPRODUCTION

( 1 ) Vegetat ive ( 2 ) Asexua l ( 3 ) Sexua l

Vegetat ive reproduct ion : -

( i ) Binary fission - Cell is divided into two parts and nucleus is also divided into two parts by mitosis.

eg. Found only in unicellular algae

( i i ) Fragmentation - Filaments break down into small pieces & form new filaments.

eg. All filamentous algae

Asexual reproduction :-

Zoospores are formed in favourable conditions and Aplanospores, hypnospore and akinete etc. are formed in

unfavourable condition.


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Sexual reproduction :-

(i) Male sex organ is called antheridium and female is called oogonium. The sex organs of algae are unicellular

& jacketless. But exceptionally sex organs of green algae Chara (Chara - green algae - known as stone wort)

are multicellular and Jacketed.

The male sex organ of Chara is known as globule and female is known as nucule.

(ii) Plant body of algae is haploid so sexual repro. take place through zygotic meiosis . So their life cycle is

haplontic.But exceptionally brown algae are diploid.

(iii) Algae reproduce by zygotic meiosis i.e. first division in zygote is meiosis so embryo is not formed.

Sexual repro. is of three types

( a ) I s oga mous – Chlamydomonas debaryanum, U loth rix, Ec tocarpus , Spi rogy ra

( b ) An i s ogam ous – Chlamydomonas b raun i i

( c ) Oog am ou s – Chlamydomonas cocc i fera , Sa rgas sum, Volvox, Fucus

Note : (1) Chlamydomanas exhibits complete evolution of sexual reproduction.

(2) In Chlamydomonas debaryanum gametes are flagellated and similar in size.

(3) In Chlamydomonas braunii gametes are motile and dissimilar in size.

The classification of algae is mainly based on the photosynthetic pigments. In addition to this, cel l

wall composition and stored food are also the base of classification.

Algae is divided into following divis ions

( 1 ) CHLOROPHY TA - GREEN ALGAE

( 2 ) PHAEOPHY TA - BROWN ALGAE

( 3 ) RHODOPH YTA - RED ALGAE


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CHLOROPH YTA

Green Algae

Green algae are the most advanced algae. It is believed that green algae are the ancestors of the higher plants.

Habitat : Green algae are cosmopolitan in nature.

Different forms of Green algae (Structure) :

Green algae are found in many forms

( 1 ) Unicellular :-

( i ) Chlamydomonas - Motile unicellular algae. This algae moves with the help of flagella.

( i i ) Chlorella - Non motile unicellular alga.

Calvin discovered "Calvin Cycle" by experimenting on Chlorella.

( i i i ) Acetabularia - Umbrella plant - It is the largest unicellular plant. The diameter of its cell is 10 cm.

Hammerling experimented on Acetabularia.

Note : According to five kingdom system the algae described above should be placed in Protista but due to theirlife cycle is similar to green algae so they are studied in Plantae.

( 2 ) Colonial - Some green algae are found in colonies. They form colony of cells. The number of cells in a colonyis fixed. Colony with fixed number of cells called coenobium.

eg. Volvox - Motile colony

( 3 ) Multicellular filamentous - Mostly the green algae are multicellular and filamentous.

eg. Ulothrix - Known as pond wool

Spirogyra - Known as pond silk

Note : some green algae are heterotrichous i.e. two types of branches prostrate and errect - Fritschiella,Stigeoclonium, Coleochaete (Fritschiella tuberosa has approch to the early land plants).

( 4 ) Multicellular thalloid or Parenchymatous - Some algae are multicellular in length & width.

eg. Ulva - Also called as sea lettuce

Photosynthet ic p igments :

Chlorophyll - Chl 'a' and Chl 'b'

Carotene - carotene

Xanthophyll - Luteaxanthin and Violoxanthin - Yellow coloured

Notes : 1. On the basis of pigments (Chl 'a', Chl 'b', Carotenoids), stored food (starch) & cell wall (madeup of cellulose or pectose), green algae are considered similar to higher plants.

2. Most of the members of green algae have starch as stored food and some have oil droplete also.

3. One or more pyrenoids are also present in chloroplast as storage bodies. Pyrenoids contain proteinbesides starch.

Economic Impor tance :

( 1 ) Food -

Chlorella is used as food, because after Spirulina, Chlorella has largest amount of protein.

( 2 ) Antibiotics -

Chlorellin antibiotic is obtained from Chlorella.

( 3 ) Space research -

In space, Chlorella is used as a source of food and O2 by space travellers

( 4 ) Parasi tic algae -

Cephaleuros algae remains parasitically in the leaves of tea plant and causesdisease 'red rust'.


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PHAEOPHYTABrown algae or Sea weeds

Brown algae are found in marine water.

Brown algae are multicellular filamentous.

Brown algae are the largest in size (upto 100 meter in length).

Largest brown algae - Macrocystis

The vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall usually covered on the outside by a gelatinous coating of algin.

Thallus of brown algae is divided into three parts :-

(i) Lamina (frond) - Leafy part or photosynthetic part

(ii) St ipe - Elongated tubes called trumpet hyphae are present for food conduction in stipe.Trumpet hyphae are analogus to sieve tubes of vascular plants. Due to lamina andstipe brown algae look like leaf (leafy algae).

(iii) Hold fas t - Help in attachement.

e.g. Fucus, Dictyota, Ectocarpus

Pigments :

Chlorophyll - Chl 'a' , Chl 'c'

Carotene - Only carotene

Xanthophylls - Mainly Fucoxanthin

Note : The amount of Fucoxanthin is more in brown algae due to which these algae are brown in colour.(Xanthophylls are mostly yellow but fucoxanthin is brown)

Stored food :

Laminarin and mannitol - both are derivatives of carbohydrates.

Phycocol lo ids :

On cell wall of brown algae some colloid substances like fucinic acid, alginic acid and fucoidin arepresent which are known as phycocolloids.

Phycocolloids protects brown-algae against dessication and shocks. Phycocolloids are used in ice-cream asthickening agent. Alginates, salts of alginic acid used for dentury measurement.

Alginates or Alginic acid - Obtained from Laminaria, Fucus, Macrocystis.

Alginates are used in the manufacturing of soap, ice-cream, polish, cream and plastic.

Special Point : (1) Life cycle of Ectocarpus and kelps are diplohaplontic, life cycle of Fucus is diplontic.

(2) Zoospores and gametes are pear shaped and have two unequal laterally attahced flagella.

(3) Sex repro. may be brown algae isogamous, anisogamous or oogamons.

Specia l name :

( 1 ) Sargas sum -

It is known as Gulf weed because Sargssum is a free floating alga. It grows rapidly in North Atlantic ocean andcovers thousands of hectares of area. Therefore this region is called as sargasso sea.

( 2 ) Lamina ria (Ke lps ) -

It is called as Devil's Aprin.

Iodine and Bromine - Obtained from Laminaria.


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RHODOPHYTARed Algae

(1) Red algae are ancient algae

eg. P o l y s i ph on i a

(2) There is no motile stage found in life cycle of red algae and BGA i.e. cilia & flagella are absent.

(3) Red algae mainly found in marine water with greater concentration found in the warmer areas. But exceptionally

Batrachospermum is found in fresh water (river) and Porphyridium is found on land.

(4) Red algae are multicellular but exceptionally Porphyridium is unicellular.

(5) Cell wall of red algae is complex and made up of cellulose & pectin.

The cell wall of red algae is also complicated like blue green algae. Their cell wall has many different type of

substances such as xylan, galac tose, polyuronic ac id, polysu lphate es ters .

But in some algae calcium carbonate is also present in the cell wall. Due to which their thallus become stony.

These algae form lime stone & coral reefs

e.g. Cora l l ina and Li thothamnion

Pigments :

Chlorophyll - Chl 'a' and Chl 'd'

Carotenes - carotene

Phycobilins - R - phycoerythrin (red coloured) and R - phycocyanin (blue coloured)

(1) On the basis of pigments red algae is similar to blue green algae.

(2) Colour of red algae changes according to depth in sea this is called as Gaudikov's effect.

(3) When red algae are present on the surface of the sea then their colour is blue and when they are at the bottom,

their colour is red. At the surface of sea the amount of R - phycocyanin is more while in depth the amount of

R - phycoerythrin is more.

Penetration power is maximum in ultra violet and violet light. R-phycoerythrin is only pigment to absorb ultra

violet and violet light. Due to phycoerythrin red algae are deepest algae.

(4) Gaudikov's effect is also found in Blue - Green algae.

(5) Red algae not always red, it may be blue coloured also.

e g . Batrachospermum - This is a blue coloured algae.

Stored Food :

Floridean starch - floridean starch is structurally similar to glycogen and amylopectin

Phycocol lo ids :

Agar -Agar, carrageenin and funori phycocolloids are found in the cell wall of red algae.

Reproduct ion :

( 1 ) Vegetat ive - By fragmentat ion

( 2 ) Asexual - Non motile spores [By monospore, carpospores, tetraspore]


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( 3 ) Sexual reproduct ion -

(I) Sexual reproduction is oogamous and accompanied by complex post fertilization developments.

(II) The female sex organs are called carpogonia.

(III) The male sex organs of red algae are known as spermatangia . Non motile spore like gametes are

formed in spermatangia which are known as spermatia.

(iv) Life cycle of Polysiphonia is diplobiontic and Batrachospermum is haplobiontic

Specia l points and Economic impor tance

( 1 ) Harveyella - It is a colourless parasitic alga. It remains as parasite on other alga.

( 2 ) Porphyra - It is an edible algae.

( 3 ) Gelidium and Gracilaria - Agar - Agar colloid is obtained from these. It is used to prepare culture medium

to grow microbes and in prepartion of ice creams and Jellies.

( 4 ) Chondrus crispus - It is also called Irish moss. Carrageenin colloid is obtained from this alga. It is used as

gelating agent in food industries (i.e. to make the food item viscous)

Capsule of medicines is also prepared from carrageenin.

HABITAT OF SOME IMPORTANT ALGAE

( 1 ) Terrestrial - The algae found in moist soil & wall.

eg. Terrentofolia

( 2 ) Epiphytes - Algae which are present on plants

eg. Protococcus

( 3 ) Endophytes - Algae which are present inside plants

eg. Coleochaete nitelum (in Nitella plant)

( 4 ) Epizoic - Algae which are present on animals

eg. Cladophora (present on Mollusca shell)

Cyanoderma and Trichophilus (Blue green algae) (Present on sloth bear)

( 5 ) Endozoic - Algae which are present inside the body of animals

eg. Zoochlorella and Zooxenthellae (inside the Hydra)

( 6 ) Parasites - Algae that live as parasite and causes diseases

eg. Cephaleuros (algae remains in the leaves of tea plant)

Cephaleuros causes red rust disease of tea

( 7 ) Thermophilic - Algae found in hot water.

eg. Chlorella

( 8 ) Cryophytes - Algae which are present in polar regions & Low Temperature.

eg. Chlamydomonas (some species)

Haematococcus nivalis (It develops red snow in polar region.)

( 9 ) Epiphloephytes - Algae arise on bark of trees.


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THALLOPHYTA

(1) The term "Thallophyta" was given by "Endlicher" . According to two kingdom classification, all the algae,

fungi and prokaryotes were placed in thallophyta, because their plant body is thallus.

(2) In thallophyta the male sex organs are called as Antheridia and female sex organs are called as Oogonia. Sex

organs are unicellular & Jacket less [Jacket - layer of sterile cells]

(3) The sexual reproduction in thallophyta is isogamous, anisogamous and oogamous .

(4) In thallophyta, sexual reproduction takes place through zygotic meiosis, therefore embryo is not formed.

Demerits of Two kingdom classif ication :

(1) In two kingdom classification Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes placed in the same group.

(2) In this system photosynthetic green algae and non photosynthetic fungi are placed in same group i.e. plantae.

(3) In two kingdom system unicellular and multicellular organism are placed together.

(4) On the basis of cell wall bacteria were considered as plant and put in plantae.

(5) Position of Euglena is not fixed.


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Buds (n)

Protonema

Mosses

Spores(n)

Sporic Meiosis

GAMETOPHYTE(n)

Antheridia Archegonia

Antherozoids(n)

(n)

Egg(n)

(n)

Spore mother cells(2n)

Zygote(2n)

MitosisSporophyte Embryo (2n)

Gametophytic generation

Liver worts&

Horn worts

Sporophytic generation

Germination

(n)

(2n)

BRYOPHYTA The term "Bryophyta" was proposed by "Robert Braun" .

The study of Bryophytes is known as Bryology.

Hedwig is considered to be the father of Bryology. But according to some scientist it is believed

that Cavers is the father of Bryology.

Father of Indian Bryology is Prof. Shiv Ram Kashyap.

Genera l charac teris tic s :

1. Bryophytes are the first land plant. It is believed that, they originated from aquatic plant and they come onland through water. Because some bryophytes have characters similar to aquatic plants (eg. presence of aircanal)

2 . Bryophytes are known as amphibians of the plant kingdom, because these plants can live in soil but are dependenton water for fertilization.

3 . Bryophytes are not considered as the successful land plants because vascular tissue is absent and they needwater for fertilization. Due to the absence of vascular tissue bryophytes can not grow very tall. The process ofwater conduction in bryophytes takes place with the help of parenchyma. Parenchyma is a living tissue.

4 . Roots are absent in bryophytes. Stem like and leaf like structure of bryophytes are functionally similar to thestem and leaves of higher plants.

5 . Bryophytes are sciophytes, i.e. bryophytes prefer to grow in moist (wet) and shady places.

Life cycle of Bryophytes :

1. The main plant body of bryophyte is haploid. It produces gametes, hence is called a gametophyte.

2 . Sex organs are formed on gametophyte. Sex organs are multicellular and jacketed in bryophytes. Malesex organs are called as antheridium and female sex organs are called as archegonium. Archegonium is flaskshaped.

3 . The male gametes of bryophytes are motile. These motile male gametes are called as antherozoids. Antherozoidsare usually comma shaped and biflagellate. Female gamete is called egg.


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4. In Bryophyta, fertilization is performed by zoodiogamy i.e. male gamete swims into water to reache the female

gametes and fertilizes it.

5 . Oogamous types of fertilisation is found in bryophytes. As a result of the fertilization, a diploid zygote is formed.

Zygote does not undergo reduction division (meiosis) immediately) This zygote initiates the sporophytic generation.

Sporophytic generation is a diploid stage.

6 . Zygote formed sporophyte by mitosis, which is known as sporogonium.

Cell present in sporophyte function as spore mother cells. Now meiosis takes place in sproe mother cells, result

of it haploid spores are formed.

7 . The germination of spores is direct or indirect. In Liverworts & Hornworts the germination of spore is

direct i.e. each spore forms a gametophyte after germination i.e. each spore forms one thallus.

But the germination of spores in Mosses is indirect. In mosses a multicellular filament is formed after

the germination of spore. This filament is known as protonema. Now buds are formed on protonema.

Each bud develops and form a gametophyte plant. Indirect germination is best for survival. Mosses are

gregarious in nature because they appear in group.

Note : Protonema develop from spores is called as primary protonema and the protonema developed from

parts other than spores are known as secondary protonema.

Sexual reproduction in bryophytes is oogamous type and life cycle is halplodip lont ic

type.

In Bryophyta the sporophyte is depend on gametophyte. This is a unique character of

b ryophy ta .

Bryophyta is d ivided in to three classes

1. Hepaticops ida 2. Anthocerotops ida 3. Bryopsida or Musci

HEPATICOPSIDA – LIVER WORTS

(i) All the bryophytes included in this class have shape like liver (eg. Marchantia) or flat (eg. Riccia) so they are

known as liverworts.

(ii) Plant body of this group is thallus like and dorsiventral. Rhizoids and scales are present on thallus.. Rhizoids are

unicellular and unbranched. Scales are multicellular.

(iii) The leafy members (eg Porella) have tiny leaf like appendages in two rows on the stem like structures.

(iv) The sporophyte of Liverworts is completely depend on gametophyte i.e. it is depend on gametophyte for

food, water and habitat.

(v) The sporophyte of Liverworts is made up of foot, seta and capsule. (Except Riccia sporophyte is made

up of only capsule).

(vi) Elaters are present in sporophyte of some members of liverworts. (eg. Marchantia - In Marchantia nurse

cells are modified in to elaters) Elaters are hygroscopic and they help in dispersal of spores.

Eg. of Liverworts -

Riccia, Marchantia , Cryptothallus, Riella, Pellia, Porella


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Note : (1) In Bryophytes, sporophyte of Riccia is the simplest.

(2) Asexual (vegetative) reproduction in Liverworts takes place by fragmentation of thalli, or by the

formation of specialised structures called gemmae (sing. gemma). Gemmae are green, multicellular,

asexual buds, which develop in small receptacles called gemma cups located on the thalli. The

gemmae become detached from the parental body and germinate to form new individuals.

Eg. Marchantia

(3) During sexual reproduction male and female sex organs are produced either on same (eg. Riccia)

or on different thallus (Eg. Marchantia)

ANTHOCEROTOPSIDA – HORNWORTS

(i) The plant body of this group is also thallus like. Scales are absent but rhizoids are present on thallus. Rhizoids

are unicellular and unbranched.

(ii) The sporophyte of Hornworts is divided into foot and capsule.

(iii) The sporophyte of Hornworts is not completely depend on its gametophyte i.e. it is semiparasite because its

sporophyte is photosynthetic therefore it can manufacture its own food. So it does not depend on gametophyte

for food, it depends only for water and habitat.

(iv) In hornworts on the basal part of capsule, a special, type of meristem is present. Due to the activeness of this

meristem, the capsule grows rapidly. It grows like the horn of animals.

eg. Notothy lus , Anthoce ros

BRYOPSIDA OR MUSCI – MOSSES

(i) All the Mosses are included in this class. The plant body of mosses is made up of stem like, leaf like and rhizoids(roots like). The Rhizoids present in the plants of this class are multicellular, branched and obliquely septate.

Note – The presence of leaves in gametophyte is the unique character of Moss because in plant kingdom anygametophyte do not have leaves. They consists of upright selender axis bearing spirally arranged leaves.

(ii) Vegetative reproduction in mosses is by fragmentation and buding in the secondary protonema. During sexualreproduction, sex organs are produced at tha apex of the leafy shoots.

(iii) The sporophyte of moss in bryophyta is highly developed while the sporophyte of liverwort is the simplest. Thesporophyte of moss is divided into foot, seta, capsule.

(iv) The sporophyte of mosses is also semiparasite like, that of Hornworts. i.e. it is photosynthetic. The moses havean elaborate mechanism of spore disperal.

Eg. of Mosses :

F u n a r i a - Rope moss or Cord moss

P o l y t r i c h u m - Hair cap moss

Da w s on i a - Australian moss - The highest bryophyte - 45 cm.


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B u x b a u m i a - Saprophytic moss - Photosynthesis absent.

S p h a g n u m -

- Bog moss - It likes to grow on acidic bog.

Quaking bog

- Carpet moss or Turf moss & It spreads like a carpet on bog due to which, the swamp cannot be

easily seen.

- Peat moss & It is a fossil fuel that obtained from bog. The formation of peat takes place by the

fossilization of Sphagnum. Sphagnum grows in acidic bog. The number of bacteria are less in

bog due to which the degradation of dead cell could not takes place. Hence it is present in the form

of fossil.

- Absorbent cotton & Sphagnum can absorb water in very high amount, therefore it is used in

the form of absorbent cotton in Europe.

– Bryophytes in general are of little economic importance but some mosses provide food for herbaceous

mammals, birds and other animals. Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long

been used as fuel, and because of their capacity to hold water as packing material for trans-

shipment of living material. Mosses along with lichens are the first organisms to colonise rocks and

hence, are of great ecological importance. They decompose rocks making the substrate suitable

for the growth of higher plants. Since mosses form dense mats on the soil, they reduce the impact

of falling rain and prevent soil erosion.


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PTERIDOPHYTATerm pteridophy ta was proposed by Haecke l

The s tudy of pteridophytes i s known as pteridology.

Pteridophytes are known as rept i les of p lant kingdom.

1. Pteridophytes are also called as vascular cryptogames . Pteridophytes are vascular plants i.e. xylem and

phloem are present in it. In pteridophytes, vessels in xylem and companion cells in phloem are absent.

But exceptionaly xylem of Pterid ium, Selag ine l la and Mars i lea contains false vessels.

Note :- Secondary growth is absent (due to absence of cambium) in pteridophytes but exceptionally

secondary growth i s present in s tem of Isoetes .

2. Pteridophytes are used for medicinal purpose and as soil binders. They are also frequently grown as ornamentals.

3 . Pteridophytes are called as the first successful terrestrial plants i.e. they are more adapted terrestrial plants

as compared to bryophytes. Because -

(i) Vascular tissue is present in pteridophytes.

(ii) They have roots.

4 . Pteridophytes are not completely successful terrestrial plants because they need water for fertilization,

so pteridophytes grow in shady and moist places.

5 . In pteridophyta, the plant body is completely differentiated in to root, stem and leaves.

The primary root remains alive for short period. After some time it is replaced by adventitious roots.

Stem is erect or prostrate. When in pteridophytes stem is underground, which is known as rhizome.

On the basis of leaves, pteridophytes are of two types -

First in which stem is smaller while leaves are larger. They are known as macrophyllous Pteridophytes.

eg. Pteridium, Pteris, Marsilea

Second, in which stem is larger and leaves are smaller. They are called as microphyllous Pteridophytes.

eg. Equisetum, Lycopodium, Selaginella

LIFE CYCLE OF PTERIDOPHYTES

1. Plant is sporophyte . i.e. diploid.

2 . Most of the pteriophytes are homosporus i.e. only one type of spores are formed during reproduction.

eg. Psilotum, Lycopodium, Equisetum, Pteridium, Dryopteris, Adiantum, Pteris.

Exception - Some pteridophytes are heterosporus i.e. two types of spores microspores and megaspores.

eg. Selaginella, Isoetes, Marsilea, Salvinia, Azolla, Stylites, Pillularia, Regnellidium

3. Formation of spores takes place in sporangia. Sporangia are formed at the abaxial surface of leaves.

4 . The leaves on which sporangia are formed are called sporophylls (reproductive leaves) and normal photosynthetic

leaves are called tropophylls (vegetative leaves). Sporangia are present in groups, these groups are called

sorus (Plural-sori). Sori are found on sporophylls.

Note :

In pteridophyta, sporophylls are also photosynthetic. This is a unique character of pteridophyta.

5. Spore mother cells are present in sporangia. Spores are formed in these spore mother cells by meiosis

and these spores start the gametophytic generation.


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Embryo(2n)

Egg

Sporophylls

Meiosis

Spore(n)

Sporophytic generation

Zygote(2n)

Sporophyte(2n)

Sporangia

Spore mother cells

Gametophyteor Prothallus

Gametophytic generation

Antheridia

Archegonia

Antherozoids

Fertilization(Zoodiogamy)

(n) (n)

(n)

(n) (n)

(2n)

(2n)

(2n)

6. In pteridophyta, the germination of spores is exosporic i.e. germination takes place out side the sporangia

(in soil)

7 . In soil, a gametophyte is formed by the germination of each spore, which is known as prothallus. The formation

of gametophyte takes place in the soil therefore it is free (independent) and mostly photosynthetic. These

gametophyte require cool, damp, shady places to grow. Because of this specific restricted requirement and

the need for water for fertilisation, the spread of living pteridophytes is limited and restticted to narrow geographical

regions.

8 . There is no relation between the main sporophytic plant and prothallus. Prothallus (gametophyte plant) is

made up of tha l lus and rh izoids . It is non vascular.

Note : In plant kingdom, gametophyte i s a lways non vascular

9. In homosporus pteridophytes gametophyte is monoecious but in heterosporus pteridophytes the gametophyte

is dioecious.

In heterosporus pteridophytes -

Mi crospore s fo rm - Male gametophyte

Megaspore s fo rm - Female gametophyte

10. The formation of sex organs takes place on this gametophyte. Male sex organs are called as antheridiumand female sex organs are called as archegonium. The formation of male gametes takes place in Antheridiawhich are called as antherozoids.

Antherozoids are spiral and multiflagellate but exceptionaly antherozoid of Selaginella are spindle shapedand in Lycopodium is curved (comma) and biflagellate. Egg is formed in archegonium.

11. Fertilization takes place by zoodiogamy and zygote is formed as a result of fertilization. Zygote developsand forms an embryo. Now this embryo develops and forms a sporophytic plant with root, stem, leaf .

Type of sexual repro duction in pteridophyta is oogamous .

Their life cycle is diplo-haplontic type.

The unique character of life cycle of Petridophyte is - Independent alternation of generationi.e. sporophyte and gametophyte are independent of each other.


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Pter idophy ta i s di v i ded in to 4 classe s

1. Ps i lops i da 2. Lycops ida 3. Sphenops ida 4. Pterops i da

1 . Ps i lops ida :

The most ancient vascular plants are placed in this class. The plants in this class have many primitive

characters -

(i) Their plant body is differentiated in to stem (rhizome), scaly leaves and rhizoids.

Only one living genus is present in this class - Psilotum A living fossi l

Rhynia and Horneophyton – Fos s i l p lan ts

2 . Lycops ida :

(i) Club mosses are placed in this class.

(ii) The plant body of club mosses is differentiated into root, stem and leaves. Leaves are green and

photosynthetic and known as tropophylls.

(iii) Sporophylls are present in group at the tip of plant. This groups is called as strobilus or cone.

L y c op od i u m - Common club moss or Ground pine or Trailing evergreen

It is a medicinal plant. It is used as tonic in Homeopathic medicines.

S e l a g i n e l l a - Little club moss or spike moss or Bird's nest moss or Resurrection plant.

Selaginella bryopteris - It is known as "Sanjeevani"

3 . Sphenops ida

(i) In this class Horse tai ls are included.

(ii) The plant body of horse tails are differentiated into root, stem or rhizome & scaly leaves.

(iii) Silica is present in the epidermis of stem and leaves. Due to silicated surface, leaves become rough.

If two horse tail plants collide, then there is a dangerous chance of fire in the forest.

(iv) The formation of sporangia takes place on special branches of stem called as sporangiophores.

Sporangiophores are arranged in a group and form a long and condensed cone. This cone is formed

at the apical part of aerial stem.

e.g . Equ isetum (P ipe )

4 . Pterops ida :

(i) This is the largest group of pteridophytes.

(ii) They are commonly called as ferns. Most of the pteridophytes are ferns .

(iii) Ferns are megaphyllous (macrophyllous) i.e. rhizome is small and leaves are compartively larger and

these leaves are known as 'Fronds '.

(iv) Multicellular hair are present on the young leaf and young rhizome of ferns which are called as ramenta.

They are for protection.

(v) There is no difference between tropophylls and sporophylls in fern i.e. every leaf of fern forms sporangia

at the time of reproduction. Therefore cones are not produced in ferns.


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Examples of Ferns :

P t e r i d i u m - They are called "Braken fern" or "Sun fern"

Dry op t e r i s - Also called as Brook shield fern'

A d i a n t u m - Wa lki ng fe rn

This name is given to them due to rapid vegetative reproduction. Vegetative

reproduction in Adiantum takes place by means of leaf tip. It spreads very

fast.

O s m u n d a - Royal fern or flowering fern

Op h i o g l o s s u m - Adder's tongue fern

M a r s i l e a - Pepper wort fern

A z o l l a - Aquatic fern (Smallest pteridophyte and biofertilizer)

A l s op h i l a - Tree fern (Largest pteridophyte)

P t e r i s -

Sa lv i n i a -

SOME IMPORTANT POINTS :-

( 1 ) Selag ine l la and Sa lv in ia * In heterosporus pteridophyts Selaginella and Salvinia the female

gametophytes are retained on the parent sporophyte for variable periods.

* The development of the zygote in to young embryos takes place with

in the female gametophyte. Genera like Selaginella and Salvinia possess

partially endosporic development of embryo.

* This event is a precursor of seed habit considered an important step

in evolution.

( 2 ) S e l a g i n e l l a * Ligulate leaves (tongue shaped) are present in it

Function - Ligule is secretory structure, which secretes water and keeps

the sporangium and the young leaf moist.

( 3 ) In some pteridophytes sporangia are not formed on lower surface of sporophylls -

* In some pteridophytes sporangia are formed at the axil of leaf.

e g . S e l a g i n e l l a

* In some pteridophytes sporangia are formed in spike.

e g . Op h i o g l o s s u m

* In some pteridophytes sporangia are formed in sporocarp.

e g . Mars i le a, Azol l a , Sa lv i n ia

( 4 ) In some pteridophytes prothallus is saprophytic and the heterosporus pteridophytes like Selaginella and Salvinia

gametophytes are not called prothallus.


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GYMNOSPERM1 . The gymnosperms (gymnos = naked, sperma = seed) and plants in which the ovule are not encloded by any

ovary wall and remain exposed, both before and after fertilization.

2 . Study of Gymnosperm known as Gymnospermology.

l Main plant body of Gymnosperm is divided in to Root, Stem and leaves.

l The roots are generally tap roots.

Note : - Roots in some genera have fungal association in the from of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some

others (Cycas) small speciallised roots called coralloid roots are associated with N2-fixing cyanobacteria.

l The stems are unbranched (Cycas) or branched (Pinus, Cedrus).

l The leaves may be simple or compound.

l In Cycas the pinnate leaves persist for a few years.

l The leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted to extreme condition.

l In conifers the needle like leaves reduce the surface area, their thick cuticle and sunken stomata also help

to reduce water loss.

3 . Gymnosperm & Angiosperm are collectively included under spermatophyta i.e. seed bearing plants.

4 . Gymnosperms are naked seeded plant i.e. no fruit formation takes place in these plant.

i.e. in gymnosperm embryo & seed formation takes place but no fruit formation occur.

5 . Gymnosperms are very limited in distribution. They are mainly found in cold regions.In India Gymnosperms are

found on Himaliayan mountains. They occur on slopes of mountain in cold region therefore gymnosperms are

xerophyte .

6 . All gymnosperm are vascular plants. Therefore vascular tissue present i.e. xylem & phloem. Xylem lack vessels

& phloem lacks companion cells .

Note :-

l Exceptionally in xylem of Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia true vessels are present.

l Secondary growth takes place in gymnosperms stem, so Gymnosperms stem is woody.

7 . Most of the gymnosperms are arborescent (woody and tree habit) - but some are present as shrub.

e g . E p h e d r a

Some Gymnosperm are liana or woody climbers.

e g . Gnetum ula


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LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERM -

1. In Gymnosperms main plant body is sporophyte (diploid). All Gymnosperm are dioecious. i.e. male & female

plants are separate, but exceptionally Pinus is monoecious.

2 . All Gymnosperms are heterosporus. At the time of reproduction two types of spores are formed.

l Microspores form – Male gametophyte

l Megaspores form – Female gametophyte

3 . These two types of spores are formed in different sporangia.

l Microspores are formed in Microsporangia.

l Megaspores are formed in Megasporangia. Integumented megasporangia are also termed as ovule.

4 . Both types of sporangia are formed on different sporophylls.

l Microsporangia are formed on Microsporophyll.

l Megasporangia are formed on Megasporophylls.

5 . Both types of sporophylls are found in groups & form male cone (strobilus / Microsporangiate) & female

cone(Macrosporangiate).

6 . Meiosis takes place in cells of microsporangium & megasporangium and form microspore & megaspore

respectively.

7 . In Gymnosperm and angiosperm germination of spores is endosporic i.e. germination of spore takes place

with in sporangia.

8 . Male gametophyte is formed after germination of microspore. Male gametophyte is also known as pollen grain.

Male gametophyte forms male gamete.

9 . In lower gymnosperm, male gametes are motile & multiciliate, but in higher gymnosperm and angiosperm

male gametes are non motile due to the absence of cilia and flagella. They do not require water for fertilization.

l Main body of ovule is made of a diploid tissue called as nucellus.

l A cell of nucellus acts as megaspore mother cell which undergoes meiosis and forms four haploid

megaspores, out of which only one remains functional and rest three degenerate.

l This megaspore further develops into female gemetophyte or endosperm.

l The cells of female gametophyte or endosperm behave like arcegonial intials and form two or more

archegonia.

l Archegonia - It forms egg.


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(F)

(G)(H)

Integument

Nucellus

Micropyle

Endosperm(Female Gametophyte)

(Ovule)

(Ovule)

(Endosperm)

10. Pollen grains (Male gametophyte) reach at the micropyle of ovule by wind, called as anemophilly. After pollinationmale gametophyte (pollen grains) are stored in the pollen chamber of ovule.

FERTILIZATION &

Two types of fertilization take place in gymnosperms

( 1 ) Zoodio - siphonogamy & This type of fertilization occurs in lower gymnosperms. Male gametes are motile and

transfered to female gamate by pollen tube.

(2 ) Siphonogamy & This type of fertilization occur in higher gymnosperms. Male gametes are non motile transferred to

female gamete (egg) by pollen tube. After Pollination male & female gametes are fused & form a diploid zygote.

l In gymnosperm single fertilization takes place so only zygote is formed through fertilization. In Angiosperm

double fertilization takes places so two product are formed after it (i) Zygote (ii) Endosperm.

l In gymnosperm, endosperm is formed before fertilization by megaspore so it is haploid but in angiospermendosperm is formed after fertilization by triple fusion (sec. nucleus (2n) + male gamete (n). So, endospermof angiosperm is triploid.

l In angiosperm, fertilization take place by siphonogamy.

Gymnosperm + Angiosperm = Siphonogama


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Sporophyte (2n) Sporophyte (2n)

Male cone (2n) Female cone (2n)

Microsporophylls (2n) Megasporophylls (2n)

Microsporangium (2n) Megasporangium (Ovule) (2n)

Meiosis in microspore mother cells Meiosis in megaspore mother cell

Microspores (n) Megaspores (n)

Germination Germination

Male gametophyte (Pollen grain) (n) Female gametophyte (n) (Endosperm)

Male gametes (n) Archegonia (n)

Female gamete (egg) (n)

Fertilization

By

Zoodio–siphonogamy

OR

Siphonogamy

Zygote (2n)

Mitosis

Embryo (2n)

Seed

Sporophyte (2n)

LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERM

D i p l o i d

H a p l o i d

D i p l o i d


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DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE –

1. Embryo is formed by the development of diploid zygote. After embryo formation ovule is changed into seed.

l Embryo enclosed in ovule because development of spore is endosporic.

l Seeds are not formed in pteridophyta because germination of spore is exosporic i.e. embryo develops

outside the sporangia.

2. Embryo is enclosed in seed. Seed absorbs water & bursts. Now embryo germinates and forms a new diploid plant.

Note :- Different types of polyembryony are found in gymnosperm i.e. in single seed more than one embryosare produced.

LIFE CYCLE :

Li fe cyc le of Gymnosperm & angiosperm is diplont ic because gametophyt ic generat ion is short

lived. Gametophyte is very reduced & depends on its sporophyte.

SOME IMPORTANT POINTS :

1. Antheridia is absent in gymnosperm & angiosperm i.e. pteridophyte is last group having antheridia.But archegonia is also absent in angiosperm. So gymnosperm is last group having archegonia.

2 . During evolution Gametophyte becomes reduced & sporophyte becomes well-developed.

Very reduced – In Angiosperm

Game tophyt e

Well developed – In Moss

Very reduced – In Thallophyta (Only zygote)

Sporophyte

Well developed – In Angiosperm

Gymnosperms are divided into two groups

(1) Cycadophyta (Lower Gymnosperm) (2) Coniferophyta (Higher Gymnosperm)

CYCADOPHYTA

(A) The plants of this group are megaphyllous or macrophyllous with circinate vernation.

(B) Presence of Ramenta.

(C) Male gamete is motile.

Cycadophyta is divided into three orders

( i ) Cycadofi ll icales or Pteridospermae : -

This order is completely extinct. Plant of this order known as seed fern.

eg. Lyginopteris - Fossil plant

( i i ) Benettitales :-

(a) It is also a completely extinct group.

eg. Williamsonia - fossil plant

Note : Its fossils were discovered by Prof. Birbal Sahani


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( i i i ) Cycadales -

(a) Presently living cycadophytes are included in this order.

(b) All the plants of this group are living fossils.

Zamia pygmea - Smallest Gymnosperm

C yc a s - Fern palm or Sago palm

Sago is obtained from its stem.

The diameter of its ovules is 7 cm. Its ovule, male gametes, egg and

male cone are largest in plant kingdom. In embryo of cycas two cotylesonsare present. In cycas male gamates are top shaped.

In Cycas female cone is absent.

CONIFEROPHYTA

Four orders are included in this group

( i ) Ginkgoales :-

(a) It is the oldest order of coniferophyta. Maximum plants of this group are extinct.

Ginkgo biloba - living fossil - It is also known as "Maiden hair tree".

Note : Exceptionally Ginkgo biloba belongs to higher gymnosperm but its male gametes are motile.

( i i ) Cordai ta les : -

(a) It is completely extinct group

eg. Cordaites

( i i i ) Coni ferales :-

(a) Conifers are included in this group. (b) It is the largest group of gymnosperm

Examples of Coniferales -

( a ) Pinus (Pines) :-

Pinus species – A resin "turpentine" is obtained from it. Turpentine is used in varnish.

Pinus gerardiana – It is known as "chilgoza pine"

Pinus roxburghii – It is known as "chirpine".

( b ) C e d r u s – It is known as deodar.

( c ) Ta x u s – It is known as Yew tree. An anticancer medicine "Taxol" is obtained

from its bark.

( d ) Ta xodium ma xica nus – The stem of this plant is thickest in the plant kingdom.

(e ) Abies ba lsamea – A resin "Canada balsam" is obtained from it. It is used to

manufacture permanent slides in biology laboratory.

( f ) Junipe rus v i rg in iana – An oil is obtained from this tree - "Cedar wood oil". It is used ascleansing fluid in biology laboratory. This oil is also used inmicroscope to increase the resolving power. This oil is used as

nail polish remover.


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( g ) Araucar ia spec i es

Araucar ia exce l sa – Christmas tree

Ornamental plants

Araucaria araucana – Monkey puzzle tree

( h ) Sequoi a spec i es – The plants in this genus are heavy. Therefore they are called asfather of forest.

Sequoia g iganteum – It is called Red wood tree or Sherman tree. It is the largestgymnosperm. There is only one tree of this species and that is inCalifornia (America)

( i ) M e t a s e q u o i a – It is a living fossil. This plant is present in china valley.

( i v ) Gnetales -

(a) They are the most advanced gymnosperms.

(b) Exceptionally members of this group have vessels in xylem.

(c) Archegonia is absent in the members of this group.

e g . (1) Gne tum (2 ) We lw i t sch ia

(3) Ephedra – Exceptionally archegonia is present in Ephedra.

E p h e d r a - This gymnosperm is commonly found in Rajasthan. Ephedra is a medicinal plant. Ephedrine (Medicine)

is obtained from it. It is an effective medicine in asthma. Athletes misuse it, so ephedrine is restricted for them.

Cycadofillicales were first seeded plants. First time seed habit was established in this group. In generalway seed habit was originated from those pteridophytes which are now extinct. These pteridophytes

were ancestor of cycadofillicales.

Some heterospones pteridophyes Selaginella and Salvinia show origin of seed habit.

There is mainly two requirements for seed formation

(1) Plant should be heterosporus (2) Germination of megaspore should be endosporic


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HISTORY OF TAXONOMY1 . Moreover, the biologists considerebly depend on taxonomic studies of fossils connecting links for drawing

evolutionary relationships among the organisms.

2 . Linnaeus : -

Carl Von Linne was born in Sweden. As a child, he developed an interest in plants. On persuasion he joined the

medical school, though his parents wanted him to be a minister. Medical course being closely related to plants

then, Linne continued with the collection, study and description of plants. After completing medical degree in

1739, he went to Holland and became the personal physician of a wealthy government official. There he also

studied and described all the plants of his employer's garden. At the age of 22, he published his first paper on

sexuality of plants. Later he published 14 treaties and also brought out famous Systema Naturae from which

all fundamental taxonomical researches emanated. His system of classification was a simple scheme for arranging

plants for identifying them again. Linne with his lectures and publications in Latin become Carolus Linnaeus.

3 . De Jussieu brothers – Antoine, Bernard and Joseph - France :

Book of De Jussieu brother is "Genera Plantarum Secundum Ordines Naturals Disposita". De Jussieu brother

proposed the first complete natural c lassification of plant kingdom. They classified plant kingdom in

three groups -

1 . Acotyledonae 2. Monocotyledonae 3. Dicotyledonae

Note : De Jussieu brothers employed the characters of embryo in taxonomy propose the significance of vascular

tissue in taxonomy.

4 . Hutchinson (1926), England :

Hutchinson was also related with Royal Botanical Garden. Hutchinson proposed phylogenetic classification of

flowering plants. In his book "The families of flowering plants", he described 411 families of flowering plants.

Hutchinson for the first time stated that monocots are more advance than the dicots.

5 . Takhta jan, 1966 (Russ ia ) :

In his book "Flowering plants - Origin and dispersal", he proposed new names to some plants groups -

Angiosperms = Magnol i ophyta

Dicots = Magnoliatae

Monocots = Liliatae

There is one famous statement of Takhtajan about the importance of Phylogeny in taxonomy-

"Taxonomy w ithout phylogeny is like bones w ithout f le sh".

6 . Haeckel proposed three kingdom classification and copeland proposed four kingdom classification.

7 . John Lindley - England :

First distinguished the Cryptogams and Phanerogams. The name cryptogames was first used by Linnaeus

and the name phanerogams was first used by Theophrastus .

8 . • Adolf Engler and Karl Prantl gave a phylogenetic system in their book "Die Naturalichen pflanzen families".

• They classified flowering plants on the basis of floral morphology, like characters of petals, perianth etc.

• According to them monocots are more primitive than dicots which is actually not correct according to phylogeny.

9 . Erns t Mayr (1904-2004) :

• Ernst Mayr was a Evolutionary biology biologyst who has been called. "The Darwin of the 20th century".

• He studied various field of biology like oonithology, taxonomy, zoogeography, evolution, systematics and the

history and philosophy of biology, so he is also assumed the title "Alexander Agassiz professor of zoology

emeritus."

• Mayr was awarded the three prizes biology called as triple crown, they are Balazen prize, International prize

and the crafoord prize.


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SOME SPECIAL POINTS

1 . ( i ) Cladogram : Family tree (line diagram) representing evolutionary relationship

(Ancestory of evolution) of organisms.

( i i ) Dendrogram : Family tree based on numerical taxonomy.

2 . Based on the structure of plant body and the method of sexual reproduction, bryophytes are divided intothree classes-Hepaticae (Hepaticopsida), Anthocerotae (Anthoceropoida) and Musci (Bryopsida).

3 . The Pteriophyta is divided into four classes, viz. Psilopsida, Lycopsida, Sphenopsida and Pteropsida, on thebasis of organisation of plant body including the nature of leaf, vascular system, and location of sporangia.

A typical pteriodphyte as represented by fern has a plant body differentiated into distinct underground stem likerhizome, bearing roots, and aerial shoot with leaves. It helps the plant to regenerate if the aerial parts aredestroyed by fire or animals. The pteridophytes have primitive vascular system. Adiantum, yet another well-known fern shows a characteristic mode of multiplication. Whenever its leaf tip comes in contact with soil itdevelops adventitious roots and forms a new plant. as such it is also called the walking fern. You might haveobserved a similar mechanism of vegetative propagation through runners and suckers.

The leaves are of two types. Some ferns have simple leaves with a single vein whereas the others have compoundleaves, comprising several leaflets (pinnules) like the flowering plants. The compound leaves in Adiantum withblack shining petiole are beautifully arranged to provide appearance of a maiden's hair. hence it is also giventhe name maiden hair fern .

4 . Gymnosperms are divided into three classes-Cycadopsida, Coniferopsida and Gnetopsida on the basis of natureof leaves, wood, vascular system and reproductive structures.

SOME INFORMATIONS RELATED TO BIOTECHNOLOGY WITH RESPECT TO BACTERIA AND FUNGI–

1. Different varieties of cheese are known by their characteristic texture, flavour and taste, the specificity comingfrom the microbes used. For example, the large holes in swiss cheese are due to production of a large amountof CO

2 by a bacterium named Propionibacterium sharmanii.

2 . "Toddy" a traditional drink of some parts of southern India is made by fermenting sap from plams with the helpof microbes.

3 . Streptokinase produced by the bacterium Sterptococcus and modified by genetic engineering is used as a clotbuster for removing clots from the blood vessels of patients.

4 . Cyclosprin A, that is used as an immunosuppressive agent in organ-transplant patients is produced by thefunges Trichoderma polysporum. Statins produced by the yeast Monascus purpureus have been commercialised

as blood-cholestrol lowering agent.

BOTANICAL GARDENS, HERBARIA AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE

(1) Oldest botanical garden is "Padua Botanical Garden" Italy (Established -1545).

(2) Largest Botanical garden in the world is Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, Surrey, England, established byWilliam Aiton, 1759.

(3) Largest herbarium of the world is ‘‘Museum of Natural History’’ – Paris – with a collection of 8880000specimens.

(4) Large st Botanical Garden of Asia is Indian Botanical Garden, Sibpur, Kolkota . Established by RobertKyd, 1786.

* Largest herbarium of Asia is Central National Herbarium located in Indian Botanical Garden, with a

collection of 25 lakh specimens.

* Indian Botanical Garden is famous due to the presence of "Great Banyan Tree" in its campus.


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* In campus of Indian Botanical Garden Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is present which is established

by William Rouxburgh 1890.

* BSI Botanical Survey in India is done by BSI

(5) National Botanical Garden, Lucknow. National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) is located in NationalBotanical Garden.

(6) Forest Botanical Garden, Dehradun - Forest Research Institute (FRI)is located in Forest Botanical Garden.

(7) Lloyd Botanica l Garden – Darjeeling.

(8) CDRI - Central Drug Research Institute - Lucknow

(9) CAZRI - Central Arid Zone Reserch Institute - Jodhpur

(10) CIMAP - Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Lucknow

(11) IARI - Indian Agriculture Research Inst. (Pusa Inst.) - New Delhi

(12) Birbal Sahni Institute of Paleobotany (National inst. of paleobotany) - Lucknow

CLASSES OF ALGAE AND THEIR MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

C la s s e s Com mon M a j o r S to red Cel l Wal l F l age l l a r Ha b i ta tN am e P igmen ts Food Number and

Posi tion ofIns e rt i ons

Chlorophyceae Green Chlorophyll Starch Cellulose 2-8, equal, Fresh wateralgae a,b apical brackish

water, saltwater

Phaeophyceae Brown Chlorophyll Mannitol, Cellulose 2,unequal, Fresh wateralgae a,c, laminarin and algin lateral (rare) brack

fucoxanthin -ish water,salt water

Rhodophyceae Red Chlorophyll Floridean Cellulose Absent Fresh wateralgae a,d, phyco- starch (some),

erythrin brackishwater, saltwater(most)

Name of Algal cell Shape of Chloroplas t

l C h a r a Discoid

l F r i t s c h i e l l a Plate like

l C h a l a m y d o m o n a s Cup-shaped

l U lo t h r i x Girdle shaped

l Sp i r og y r a Ribbon / Spiral shaped

l Z y g n e m a Stellase

l Oe d o g o n i u m Reticulate


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ORGANISMS WITH THEIR TA XONOMIC CATEGORIES

Com mon B iolog ic a l Genus Fami l y O rd e r C l a s s Phy lumN am e N am e Div is i on

Man Homo Homo Hominidae Primata Mammalia ChordataSapiens

Housefly M u s c a Musca Muscidae Diptera Insecta Arthropodadomestica

Mango Mangifera Mangifera Anacardiaceae Sapindales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae

Wheat Triticum Triticum Poaceae Poales Monocotyledonae Angiospermaeaestivum

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE F IVE KINGDOMS

Five Kingdoms

Mon e ra P ro t i s ta Fung i P lan tae An im a l i a

Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Cell wall Noncellulosic Present in Present Present Absent(Polysaccharide some (without cellulose) (cellulose)+ amino acid

Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Presentmembrane

Body Cellular Cellular Multiceullar/ Tissue / Tissue / organ /organisation loose tissue organ organ system

Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophicnutrition (chemosynthetic (Photosynthe- (Saprophytic/ (Photosynthet- (Holozoic /

and photosynth- tic) and Hetero- Parasitic) tic) Saprophytic etc.)etic) and Hetero- trophictrophic (sapro-phytic / para-sitic)

Ch ara c te rs

KINGDOM - PLANTAE - Selectial India

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