Invited paper presented at the 6th African

Conference of Agricultural Economists,

September 23-26, 2019, Abuja, Nigeria

Copyright 2019 by [authors]. All rights reserved. Readers may make verbatim copies of this

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Drivers of Pastoralists’ Participation in Commercial Fodder Producer Groups in Isiolo

County, Kenya

Saada Mohamed Sala*

Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Nairobi Kenya. Email: sdmohamed728@gmail.com * Corresponding author David Jakinda Otieno Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Nairobi Kenya. Email: jakinda1@yahoo.com Jonathan Nzuma

Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Nairobi Kenya. Email: Jonathan_nzuma@yahoo.com Stephen Mureithi Department of Land Resource Management and Agricultural Technology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Nairobi Kenya. Email: stemureithi@yahoo.com

Paper prepared for oral presentation at the 6th

International Conference of African

Agricultural Economists Abuja, Nigeria, September 23-26, 2019

Abstract

Unfavorable climate change is a key threat to pastoral production systems, hence limiting the

livelihood opportunities available to millions of resource-poor pastoralists. However,

adapting livestock production to this threat crucially depends on pastoralists’ active

involvement and ownership of interventions aimed at building their resilience. This study

assessed pastoralists’ participation in commercial fodder groups that produce fodder as an

adaptation strategy to climate change in Isiolo County of Kenya, and the main drivers of

their commitment to this initiative. Data was collected through a household survey on 201

randomly selected fodder group members. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were

applied in data analysis. The findings showed the potential of fodder production as a

sustainable strategy for building the resilience of land, livestock, and livelihoods in the

drylands. It also offers viable opportunities that promote diversified income-earning

activities, especially for women and youth. Results further indicated that access to credit, off-

farm income, access to fodder, land size, and age as main significant factors influencing

households’ commitment to participate in commercial fodder groups. Therefore, community

empowerment through asset creation initiatives is crucial to facilitate pastoralists’ access to

resources, and opportunities towards self-reliance.

Key words: commercial-fodder-groups, pastoralists, Kenya. 1. Introduction and Research Issue

Livestock production, mainly through pastoralism, is an integral part of agriculture in Kenya significantly contributing to national food production, income, and employment. The sector has an overall estimated value of USD 750 million and an annual marketed value of between USD 50–80 million (CELEP 2017). More so, it plays multiple economic, social-cultural and risk management functions to over 14 million pastoralists inhabiting vast drylands of Kenya (Republic of Kenya 2012). Likewise, the sector contributes to the livelihoods of about 268 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (WISP 2010; AU-IBAR 2012). The communal natural rangelands make up the bulk of livestock resources in the drylands, and pastoralists depend on seasonal livestock mobility as a key coping strategy to effectively utilize these resources. These movements contribute to healthy rangelands by stimulating vegetation growth and enhance livestock resistance to diseases (Wanyoike et al. 2018). However, the biomass productivity and carrying capacity of these rangelands are threatened by several factors including land degradation, population pressure, urbanization, and climate change. It is estimated that 24% of the global lands are already suffering from severe land degradation, out of which 25% to 35% are rangelands (UNCCD 2013). Demographic factors such as population pressure and urbanization are other emerging threats to pastoral livelihoods, as the global human population is expected to increase from 7.2 to 9.6 billion by 2050 (UN 2017a). These trends will result in increased encroachment of pastoral grazing lands and land fragmentation, thus restricting livestock mobility and intensifying resource-based conflicts (Republic of Kenya 2010; Ayele et al. 2012). At the same time, the climate is also changing further causing considerable unpredictability in pastoralists’ environments and livelihood strategies. Various studies have documented the complex interrelationships between climate change and livestock sector. On one hand, the livestock sector contributes 14.5% of anthropogenic global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which is a primary cause of climate change (FAO 2018). On the other hand, climate change impacts livestock production directly through heat stress and increased morbidity and mortality; and indirectly through quality and quantity of feed resource and spread of vector-borne diseases and animal parasites (Thornton et al. 2009; Thornton 2010; Grossi et al. 2018; FAO 2018). In order to effectively manage above challenges, livestock production systems in drylands need to adjust to meet the global demand for livestock products, which is expected to

significantly increase in response to rapid population growth, urbanization and income growth (UN 2017a). Adaptation measures could be undertaken at different levels ranging from global, regional, national and farm-level. However, implementation at farm-level is the most critical because local producers are those severely affected by vagaries of climate change due to their lower adaptive capacity (Tripathi & Mishra 2017). Over time, pastoralists have responded by changing their livestock management practices, livestock breeds, animal health, and on and off-farm diversification (Bryan et al. 2013; Rojas-downing et al. 2017; FAO 2018). In particular, pastoralists in Isiolo County of Kenya are increasingly embracing fodder production as an adaptation strategy to reduce feed insecurity during dry seasons and as a complementary livelihood activity. This is following the implementation of the World Food Programme's (WFP) food for asset creation (FFA) project. The project was implemented in thirteen dryland Counties of Kenya, through the National Drought Management Authority (NDMA), with the main objective of boosting the adaptive capacity of pastoralists to withstand shocks, become independent of relief food and attain sustainable diversified livelihoods (WFP 2013 & 2016; Thomas et al. 2016). The project’s concept was anchored on resilience building through asset creation as opposed to disaster risk reduction expenditure such as direct food assistance. This is because substantial investment in resilience building is considered to be more cost-effective and better in stabilizing livelihoods than humanitarian emergency responses (AU-IBAR 2012; Pain & Levine 2012; Muricho et

al. 2019). The asset creation component of the FFA project entailed empowering pastoralist, through a group-based approach, to adopt rainwater harvesting innovations for producing drought-tolerant livestock feeds. These lead to the formation of several fodder producer groups in Isiolo County (WFP 2016). Collective action has been widely recognized as an effective means of fostering rural development and improving risk management strategies hence a vital coping strategy for building the resilience of rural communities (Coppock et al. 2006; Prokopy 2009; Ngigi et al. 2015). As noted by Tripathi and Mishra (2017), group-based approaches facilitate the expansion of social networks and shared learnings and adaptation to climate change among the rural population. However, the effectiveness and sustainability of collective action crucially depend on members’ active participation and commitment (Fischer & Qaim 2014). In order to push for the sustainability of their livelihoods and self-reliance after completion of the FFA project, pastoralists need to own and actively participate in the implementation of these interventions. With this background, this study contributes insights on emerging trends regarding fodder production in the drylands of Isiolo. The study also explores the factors influencing pastoralists’ participation and commitment to fodder producer groups as an adaptation strategy to climate change. The findings from this study contribute to the achievement of Isiolo County livestock strategy 2015-2020, Kenya Vision 2030 Development Strategy for Northern Kenya and other Arid Lands, Malabo commitment of enhancing resilience of at least 30% of households and production systems by 2025, and the United Nations (UN) sustainable development goals (SDGs) of eradicating poverty, reducing hunger and combating climate change (Republic of Kenya 2012 & 2015; AU 2014; UN 2015). In line with the 3rd sub-theme of the 6th African Association of Agricultural Economists Conference ‘Climate change and adaptation,’ this study provides insights on sustainable adaptation strategies to climate change for improving livelihood resilience. 2. Methodology

2.1 Study area

This study focused on Isiolo County (Figure 1) because it is one of the beneficiaries of the FFA intervention. The County is located in northern Kenya where 95% of total land is very

arid with the average rainfall of 580.2 mm annually. It is among the largest livestock producing and marketing hubs in northern Kenya, with an estimated livestock population of 198,424 cattle, 398,903 goats, 361,836 sheep and 39,084 camels (KNBS 2009). Thus, the sector accounts for over 80% of residents’ livelihoods and 70% of the rural labor force hence mainstay of the County’s economy (Republic of Kenya 2013; Iruata et al. 2015). According to Gross County Product (GCP) report, Isiolo County contributes 0.2% to the National Gross Domestic Product (GDP). However, the counties with small share to GDP are considered to be growing at a faster rate and presents opportunities for private sector investment, especially in agriculture and services (KNBS 2019). However, the County is faced with severe vegetation deficit resulting from environmental degradation and recurrent drought patterns. It is one of the most affected Counties by a series of droughts in 2000, 2005/6 and 2008-2011 resulting in significant livestock death. The 2017 dry spell resulted in deterioration of the animal body condition, low birth rates and high mortality rates of over 10% due to starvation (UN 2017b). This depicts the serious threat to livelihoods of approximately 143,294 people, two-thirds of whom are already extremely poor as compared to the national average poverty level of 45% (KNBS 2009). Therefore, pastoralists’ commitment to resilience building initiatives goes a long way to enhance their economic and social status, thus attaining sustained household food security and long term resilience.

Figure 1: Map of Kenya showing Isiolo County Source: Adapted from Nato et al. (2018).

2.2 Sampling and data collection

The study purposively selected three wards in Isiolo County (Isiolo Central, Oldonyiro and Kinna) based on the presence of several fodder producer groups under the WFP’s FFA project. A list of the fodder group members was obtained from the FFA project’s master register and used as a sampling frame. Subsequently, 201 respondents were randomly selected from each group proportionate to the group size. The group leaders and Action Aid Kenya (AAK) field monitors were consulted to help mobilize the selected members with

whom a household survey was done. Key informant interviews were held with the fodder group leaders, staff from the County Department of Agriculture, NDMA and AAK. Two focus group discussions each comprising 22 members drawn from different fodder groups in Kinna and Oldonyiro wards were conducted (as illustrated in Figure 2). Data was collected on household's household socio-economic characteristics, institutional factors, fodder group's structural composition, and activities undertaken. A semi-structured questionnaire and checklists were used in data collection, and subsequently, data was analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative methods.

Figure 2: A focus group discussion session in Oldonyiro ward, Isiolo County Source: Survey Data (2018).

2.3 Binary Probit model estimation

In literature, various approaches have been used to measure individual participation in collective action. These include frequency of meeting attendance, money contributions, and quantity of collective sales through cooperatives (Fischer & Qaim 2014; Prokopy 2009). In the current study, we assessed commitment based on if a member voluntarily contributed money to support some of the group activities in the last year. The cash contribution approach was preferred because it represents an active way of facilitating the group’s operations, hence contributing towards the achievement of its shared objectives (Prokopy 2009). Variations in individual participation are influenced by various factors which are dynamic and specific to the contextual nature of social processes. Cash contribution was captured as a dummy variable taking a value of one for those who contributed and zero otherwise. A binary probit model was fitted to assess factors influencing cash contribution to the fodder group. This model is more preferred by many researchers because of its flexibility to allow correlated variables to explain the latent variable. This relaxes the condition of independence from irrelevant alternatives of the logit model (Train 2009). The model specification was as follows: 𝑦∗ = 𝛽𝑖 +𝛽2𝑥2+ …+ 𝛽𝑘𝑥𝑘+ ɛ (1) In Equation (1), 𝑥𝑖 is the vector of observed variables including age, household size, land size, livestock holdings, off-farm income, social capital, extension service, credit, weather information, group age, and group size; explaining the latent variable, andɛ is the unobserved component of the latent variable. The Probit model assumes that the error term follows a

standard normal distribution (Greene 2011). The probability of an individual member

contributing cash to fodder group 𝑦 =1 is derived as follows: 𝑃𝑟(𝑌𝑖∗ = 1 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥) = 𝑃𝑟(𝑌𝑖∗ > 0 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥) = 𝑃𝑟(𝑥ꞵ + ɛ > 0 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥) = 𝑃𝑟(ɛ > −𝑥ꞵ) = 1− N(− 𝑥ꞵσ ) (Integrate) σ =1 following a standard normal distribution. = Ф(𝑥𝛽) (2) 3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Socio-economic characteristics of respondents

Some of the key features of pastoralists interviewed are summarized in Table 1. Results indicate that over ninety percent of the respondents were female, the majority of who are in their middle age. Table 1: Sample characteristics

Variable Statistic

(n = 201)

Gender of respondents (% female) 91.00

Average age of respondents (years) 38.33 (11.52)

Average household size (numbers) 6.42 (2.67)

Respondent's average years of schooling 2.00 (3.61)

Average land size owned (ha) 3.28 (4.94)

Average tropical livestock units (TLUs) 11.32 (13.25)

Average annual household income (Kshs) 16,512.00 (31,496.00)

Proportion of off-farm income in total household income (%) 16.00

Access to extension services in the last 12 months (% of respondents) 32.84

Access to weather information (%) 54.73

Access to credit in the last 12 months (% of respondents) 43.28

Membership to other development groups (% of respondents) 39.30

Notes: 1). Standard deviations are in parentheses. 2). TLU computed as cattle = 1, camels = 1, donkeys = 0.8, goats and sheep = 0.2 & poultry = 0.04 (WISP, 2010). 3). 1 USD$= Kenya Shillings (Kshs) 100.53 at the time of the survey. Source: Survey Data (2018).

Pastoral women play a significant role in livestock management as they are often tasked with the responsibility of going up hills and mountains to collect pasture for the homestay lactating livestock. This burden increases during the dry seasons and becomes strenuous demanding more time and labour (Kaufmann et al. 2012). Therefore, a higher proportion of women engaging in fodder producer groups is attributed to the proximity of the group farms to their homesteads and their availability to undertake group farm activities thrice a week. This is contrary to men who are always away from home hence their lower participation. Furthermore, male pastoralists are widely known for their high preference to engage in large scale commercial livestock-based activities (Place & Kariuki 2005), thus less interest in fodder production which is still small-scale with limited commercialization. This corroborates the findings of Peishi (2018), which showed that women engagement in FFA projects is motivated by the proximity of FFA activities to their home, the need to improve

their livelihoods and benefits associated with the assets created. Additionally, participation in FFA programmes is reported to support women’s empowerment through; women playing key leadership roles in the groups’ committees; expand their social networks; providing opportunities for income generation; and improved technical skills and confidence. Likewise, strong women participation in community-based range rehabilitation is considered instrumental in building the resilience of dryland communities and sustainability of interventions (AU-IBAR 2012). The mean household size was about 7 persons, which is slightly higher than Kenya’s national mean of 4 persons per household (KNBS 2009). This might be associated with the polygamous culture that is commonly practiced among the pastoralists. The average number of years of formal education was 2 years, indicating high illiteracy level among the respondents. The average land size holding was approximately 3.3 hectares. The mean tropical livestock unit (TLU) was 11.32 showing the significance of holding large herd to pastoralists as they as a store of wealth and social status in the society (Barrett et al. 2004; WISP 2010). The average household annual per capita income is about Kshs 16,512, with more than half from livestock keeping. This implies that most pastoral households live below the minimum poverty threshold of USD 1.9 per day as defined by the World Bank (2015). Moreover, only a quarter of the respondents had off-farm income, mainly sourced from retail businesses and casual jobs, contributing about 16% to their total annual household income. Access to extension services was poor with only a third of the respondents with access, and is mainly provided by various individual non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the County government. More than half of the respondents had access to early warning information regarding changes in weather conditions majorly from the traditional elders. Pastoralists rely heavily on various traditional weather forecast to predict possible climate outlook in the near future (Barrett et al. 2004). The results further indicate that at least a third of the respondents also belong to other developmental groups besides fodder groups. Households’ access to credit was about 43% but solely from women groups as opposed to formal financial institutions. Social groups play a critical role among pastoralists as it facilitates access to funds and loan services through merry go-rounds and table banking respectively. It also enhances access to markets, trainings and business skills (Place & Kariuki 2005). 3.2 Fodder production and marketing in Isiolo County

Table 2 shows the key characteristics of fodder groups. The groups have been in existence for an average of 5 years growing fodder, and their formation was mostly facilitated by the FFA project between 2009 and 2017. This is consistent with previous studies, which reported that formation of most developmental groups in Central and Northern Kenya are supported by external actors like government and NGOs (Place & Kariuki 2005; Coppock et al. 2006). Each group had about 50 members on average, the majority of whom were female members. Four-fifths of the sampled fodder groups were formally registered with the Ministry of Social Services of the Republic of Kenya. This enabled them to access external resources and assistance from NGOs and government's development funds like women and youth funds. It also facilitated the opening of bank accounts for saving incomes from the group's businesses. The groups' management structure comprises of a chairperson, secretary, and treasurer who are appointed by members. They acted as liaison people between the donors, local implementing partners, and the fodder groups. Table 2: Fodder group characteristics

Variables Statistic (n=20)

Average number of years a group has been in existence 5.30 (2.70)

Average number of group members 49.90 (48.62)

Percentage of groups formally registered 80.00

Average group farm size (ha) 9.70 (12.08)

Group farm tenure system (%):

Private with title deed 5.00

Communal 75.00

Allotment Letter 20.00

Average quantity of fodder produced (bales) 56.95 (89.98)

Average quantity of grass seed produced (kgs) 35.00 (119.39)

Percentage of respondents buying fodder from own group 48.76

Average selling price for hay (Kshs):

Group members 283.33 (44.38)

Neighbors 316.67 (112.55)

Traders 366.67 (115.47)

Average selling price for grass seeds (Kshs) 700.00 (141.42)

Note: Standard deviations in parentheses Source: Survey Data (2018).

As shown in Table 2, the average groups’ fodder farm size was 9.7 hectares, majority of which are communally owned by the groups, but exclusive to non-members. Fodder production in Isiolo is majorly undertaken on a small-scale with high potential for upscaling. African fork tail (Cenchrus Ciliaris) and Maasai Love grass (Eragrotis superba) are common rangeland grass species planted because of their high tolerance to drought and harsh climatic conditions in the drylands (Lugusa et al. 2016). The groups adopted rainwater harvesting innovations such as micro-catchment structures like Zai-pits and semi-circular bunds, and macro-catchments like trapezoidal bunds and terraces in fodder growing. These innovations are associated with high water infiltration, reduced loss of seeds by wind and increased fodder productivity. This is a good indication of growing efforts towards the rehabilitation of the land that has for a long time been previously left bare and unproductive, as shown in Figure 3. On average, the groups produced 57 bales of hay and 35 kilograms of grass seeds in the last planting season. Fodder and grass seed processing was also done although limited. The seeds are harvested, sun-dried and packaged in sacks. The grass is harvested using hand tools like machetes and baled by manually compressing it into wooden boxes and bales tied using sisal threads. The baled hay and packed grass seeds are stored in the group's fodder store or on the farm for future reseeding, sale and consumption. The fodder market in Isiolo is relatively small and still underdeveloped hence presents more opportunities for growth. Currently, there are two established fodder marketing channels: primary market constituting group members while secondary markets are neighboring livestock keepers, local traders and local NGOs. Nearly half of the respondents bought fodder from their own fodder group, thus most hay was sold through the primary markets. The hay prices vary with the marketing channels and specific actors involved. The low purchase price for group members is one of the benefits enjoyed by the members and it acts as an incentive to encourage group participation. The average selling price of grass seeds was Kshs 700. However, the fodder marketing structure is mainly informal and transactions are based on spot cash payments. This is similar to other fodder markets in most drylands of Kenya (Nyangaga et al. 2009).

Figure 3: A mature grass farm in Oldonyiro Ward, Isiolo County Source: Survey Data (2018).

Recurrent droughts, limited stores, inadequate inputs, and intrusion was noted as the main factors constraining fodder production. Droughts result in low fodder production. Most groups did not have appropriate stores for hay and grass seeds. Inadequate technical skills on fodder agronomy due to infrequent visits by the County extension officers were another challenge affecting fodder production. The groups also noted the invasion of group farms by both domestic animals and wildlife due to poor fencing materials. To counter this, some groups contribute money for hiring a guard to look after the farm while others used a rotating schedule where members guard the farm on shifts. These findings resonate well with that of past studies in other drylands of Kenya (Nangole et al. 2013; Lugusa 2015). 3.3 Factors influencing individual commitment to fodder producer groups

Pastoralists’ commitment to the fodder producer groups was assessed based on their monetary contributions to support fodder producer activities. In order to ascertain lack of correlations among variables hypothesized to influence cash contribution to the fodder groups, variance inflation factors (VIFs) were computed. As shown in Table 3, the mean VIF was 1.42, which is less than the threshold of 10, suggesting the absence of multicollinearity and suitability of the hypothesized variables in the probit model (Gujarati 2004). Table 3: Variance Inflation Factors

Variable VIF Tolerance = 1/VIF

Log of group age 1.84 0.54

Log of household size 1.58 0.63

Log of group size 1.57 0.64

Access to extension services 1.49 0.67

Log of total livestock units 1.46 0.68

Buying fodder from own group 1.44 0.7

Log of respondents age 1.44 0.7

Access to weather information 1.33 0.75

Access to credit services 1.27 0.79

Number of groups belonged to 1.23 0.82

Proportion of off-farm income 1.21 0.83

Log land size owned 1.16 0.86

Mean VIF 1.42

Results in Table 4 shows the estimated coefficients, marginal effects, and p-values from the binary probit model. The continuous variables were converted in the logarithm form in order to reduce outliers (Wooldridge 2010). The marginal effects are computed at means for continuous variables, and a discrete change from 0 to 1 for dummy variables. Table 4: Probit results of determinants of pastoralists’ cash contributions to fodder

groups

Variable Coefficient Marginal Effects

Constant 0.089 (-1.774) -

Log age of respondent (years) 1.227** (-0.518) 0.235

Log household size (numbers) -0.427 (-0.315) -0.082

Log land size owned (ha) 0.410*** (-0.129) 0.079

Log tropical livestock units (TLU) 0.003 (-0.106) 0.001

Proportion of off-farm income (%) 0.895* (-0.462) 0.172

Number of groups belonged to -0.840*** (-0.296) -0.161

Buy fodder (1 = from own group) 0.842*** (-0.321) 0.162

Access to extension services (1 = yes) -0.195 (-0.330) -0.037

Access to weather information (1 = yes) 0.068 (-0.256) 0.013

Access to credit (1 = yes) 0.713** (-0.290) 0.137

Log group age (years) -0.923** (-0.369) -0.177

Log group size (numbers) -0.496*** (-0.153) -0.095

Number of observations (n) 201

Wald Chi-square (12) 59.810

Prob > Chi-square 0.000

Log pseudo likelihood -68.803

Pseudo- R2 0.345

Notes: 1). Robust standard errors are in parentheses. 2). Significance level: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.

Source: Survey Data (2018).

Age significantly increased the likelihood of individual commitment to fodder producer groups by 24%. This is because of age may be an indicator for more experience in livestock keeping, exposure to climate-induced shocks and accumulation of local knowledge on its adverse effects. Thus, old members tend to be more committed in order to mitigate some of the challenges experienced. This result corroborates the observation by Hassan and Nhemachena (2008) that age positively influence household's uptake of adaptive strategies to mitigate climate variability. Moreover, Muricho et al. (2017) also noted that older household heads were likely to be more resilient to climate-induced shocks because of more experience accrued over the years. A percentage change in land size significantly increased the likelihood of individual commitment to fodder groups by 8%. The member’s commitment could be motivated by the need to learn more technical skills on fodder agronomy so that they can replicate it in their own farms. Furthermore, the FFA project provides opportunities for people to graduate out of dependency on assistance, through skills training and the promotion of income-generating activities. Household access to large land sizes is also a necessary condition for growing own fodder and crops, which they can sale for income to cater for food and spare some for groups. This concurs with Sseguya et al. (2013) who noted that community members with large land

sizes were more likely to participate in food security groups in Uganda as a means of augmenting access to resources. Similarly, Ngigi et al. (2015) noted land size to increase the likelihood of household undertaking a coping strategy in the face of multiple shocks. The proportion of off-farm income in total household income was significantly associated with a higher degree of individual commitment to group activities. This is because such households have access to more income to supplement livestock income hence more likely to make a contribution to the fodder group. This result is consistent with that of Deressa et al. (2009) who reported that non-farm income increases the likelihood of farmers to adopt climate adaptation strategies. Similarly, farmers with more off-farm income are more likely to join groups because they are able to pay for membership fees, perform group activities and further access credit facilities (Ayieko et al. 2015). Results further show that individuals buying fodder from own fodder groups are more likely to make cash contributions to the group by 16%. This is to be expected considering that, fodder groups served as a primary fodder market for most respondents because of its close proximity to members’ homesteads. It also offered members relatively low fodder prices as compared to other actors, and flexible payment mode where one could buy on credit and pay later. These act as an incentive to encourage member commitment to the groups’ shared goals. As noted by Berhe et al. (2016), access to livestock feed either through hay production or hay purchase significantly contributed to the income levels of the pastorals and agro-pastorals in northern Ethiopia. Membership in social groups decreases the probability of individual willingness to offer cash contribution to fodder group by up to 16%. This is plausible because most of the respondents also belonged to other developmental groups like women groups, to which they were also expected to make some form of cash contributions. Moreover, women groups offered more varied services like table banking to their members and had been in existence for a longer time than fodder groups. Therefore, the accumulated trust and additional benefits offered by these other social groups are likely to reduce member's commitment to fodder group. This is consistent with Wollni & Fischer (2014) who observed that an increasing number of organizational memberships lowered household’s patronage to coffee cooperatives in Costa Rica. On the other hand, social capital was found to be an important post-shock recovery tool that empowers households to rebuild livestock assets especially for the asset-poor households (Ngigi et al. 2015). Having access to credit services positively influenced individual commitment to the fodder group by 14%. This is expected considering the fact that credit facilities were mainly offered by the fodder groups and other development groups through the table banking initiatives. This facility enabled members to expand production, business and buy food thus motivation to commit to the group. This finding is consistent with that of Fischer and Qaim (2012), who reported that credit access eases the cash constraints of members, hence increases money available for them to pay for the fodder group activities. The group characteristics like age and size were found to negatively influence member commitment to the group initiatives. A percentage change in group age reduced the likelihood of contributing money for common activities by 18%. This could be because members have already realized some of the expected benefits from the group as group ages, hence may tend to be less committed. Also, with time, some members tend to develop new interests and ambitions that are different from the initial shared goals of the groups. For instance, some members graduate from the projects once they have attained the necessary skills to start their own fodder farms, and engage in other economic ventures; some of which may compete with or act at cross-purpose with the original group’s intentions. They become inactive though they are still part of the group. However, this is contrary to the finding of

Ayieko et al. (2015) who noted that the duration of group existence is associated with perceived trust, stability, and organization. Moreover, a percentage change in group size was found to reduce the probability of individual commitment to group activities by 10%. This is plausible because larger groups increase transaction costs arising from high communication, monitoring, and enforcement costs. In addition, large groups are faced with challenges of sharing responsibilities and benefits equitably, and decreased trust among members, which negatively affect governance; thus considered as an incentive for free rider problem that might lead to lower levels of commitment (Wollni & Fischer 2014; Paumgarten et al. 2012). 4. Conclusion and Policy Implications

This study assessed pastoralists’ participation and commitment to commercial fodder producer groups as an adaptation strategy to climate change in Isiolo County of Kenya, and the main drivers of their commitment to this initiative. The results show that pastoralism is still the main source of livelihood in the study area, with few households engaging in off-farm activities. It is also worth noting that women dominated the fodder groups suggesting changing roles of women in pastoralist communities. Overall, pastoralists have low development indices as revealed by the low literacy level and per capita income, in addition to limited access to credit and extension services. These findings underscore the need for more investment in human capital development and provision of requisite institutional and support services such as adult education, extension services, and credit facilities. Results also demonstrated the potential of fodder production as a productive and sustainable strategy for building the resilience of land, livestock, and livelihoods in the drylands. Out scaling fodder production is essential to bring more unproductive land under sustainable productive use. However, this will require considerable investment by the County government in enhancing provision of extension services on more viable techniques for fodder production, conservation and value addition. This can be done through organizing platforms such as fodder conferences and exhibitions for awareness creation and sharing of ideas and experiences, hence sensitizing pastoralists on the value of fodder commercialization. The emerging fodder value chain and markets present more employment opportunities in fodder processing, transporting and trading particularly for women and youth. Therefore, pastoralists’ easy access to infrastructures like appropriate hay baling machinery, storage bans, and markets can play a vital role in accelerating fodder commercialization. The results further indicated that access to credit facilities, off-farm income, land size, buying fodder and age are the most significant factors that encourage and promote households’ commitment to resilience building initiatives. This suggests the importance of resource endowments in reducing climate vulnerability and enhancing climate-resilient economic development of pastoral livelihoods. The County government should strengthen access to socially inclusive financial services by undertaking strategic partnerships with relevant financial service providers. Fodder groups should also be encouraged to seek for credit facilities collectively since social capital is considered as a form of collateral. The growth in mobile banking platforms such as M-pesa and M-shwari services provide more opportunity for accessing affordable credit facilities. The County may also boost the groups’ table-banking initiative by ensuring easy access to development funds such as women and youth fund. This is because financial inclusion plays an integral role in stimulating household’s investment in alternative livelihoods to better manage climate-induced shocks. Combating climate change through restoration of degraded lands requires cooperation and partnership at local, national, regional and international levels. Therefore, there is a need by the national and County government as well as development partners to harmonize and direct

funds for emergency responses to support sufficient fodder production ex-ante. Nonetheless, the success of such initiatives requires pastoralists taking responsibility and actively participating in the implementation. There is a great potential for livestock finishing business to compliment and support fodder commercialization. Therefore, supporting women and youth to engage in such enterprises and others like beekeeping and small retail trading is critical towards attaining equitable livelihoods and sustainable development. The results of this study showed that women dominated the fodder production in Isiolo County. This calls for a more gendered analysis focusing on women’s motivation for engaging in fodder production, and how their participation contributes to women empowerment among the pastoralist communities.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank TripleL (Land, Livestock, and Livelihoods) project for funding data collection. References

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