Investigation of Factors of Dust Storms and Solutions for Combating (With Emphasis on West Asia...

Geoinformatics Research Institute of the

Univercity of Tehran

Vice President for Science and Technology-

The Headquarter for Water Technology

Development, Drought, Degradation and

Environment

Investigation of Factors of Dust Storms and

Solutions for Combating

(With Emphasis on West Asia Region)

English Version

Report Title:

An investigation about the factors of dust storms and

solutions for combating

(With emphasis on West Asia Region)

Vice President for Science and

Technology

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University of Tehran- Geoinformatics Research Institute (UT-GRI)

Dr. Ali Darvishi Boloorani, Faculty member of the University of Tehran and manager of

Geoinformatics Research Institute (GRI), email: [email protected] & [email protected],

Office: +98(021)61113520, Cell phone: +98(0)9126192724

Mr. Seyed Omid Nabavi, PhD student in Department of Geography and Regional Research,

University of Vienna, Austria, and colleague of GRI, email: [email protected] &

[email protected]

Dr. Hossein Ali Bahrami, faculty member of Agrology Department, Tarbiat Moddares University,

email: [email protected]

Dr. Seyed Kazem Alavipanah, faculty member of Remote sensing and GIS department,

geography faculty, University of Tehran and colleague of GRI, email: [email protected]

Dr. Hossein Mohammadi, faculty member of Physical Geography Department, University of

Tehran, email: [email protected]

Mr. Mohammad Ali, Nezammahalleh, PhD Student of Geomorphology and colleague of GRI,

physical Geography department, University of Tehran, email: [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]








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Contents:

Foreword: 4 1. Introduction 5

2. Desertification and dust storm in North of China, North Africa, and the United States 10 3. Desertification phenomenon and dust storm activities in South West Asia 21 4. Desertification and dust storm phenomena in Sistan Region 38 5. Desertification and dust storm phenomena in Aral Sea Region 42 6. Solutions to combat desertification 46 7. Activities against desertification in China 56 8. Activities against desertification in the WAR 57 9. Fixation of erosional areas in Iran 63 10. Fixation of sand dunes by growing plant species 65 11. Recommendations for future works 65 12. Organizations, scholars, and experts related to studies of dust storms in the WAR 66 13. References 70

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Foreword:

Dust storms are one of the main environmental challenges, particularly in West Asian Region. The

phenomenon has great harmful impacts on the countries of the region including Iran, Iraq, Syria,

Kuwait, and other countries around Persian Gulf. Intensification of the phenomenon in recent years

made it necessary to find a suitable solution to combat against the devastating events. Therefore, the

headquarter of water resources development, drought, erosion and environment assigned a project

entitled “Investigation of Dust Storms in West Asian Region” to Geoinformatic Research Institute

(GRI) of the University of Tehran in order to study the regional phenomenon. United Nations

Environmental Program (UNEP) Regional Office of West Asia (ROWA) also supported this project

because of its regional nature and the need for participation from national, regional and international

organizations.

The output and outcomes of this project entitled “Investigation of Dust Storms in West Asian

Region” is three reports:

Primary Investigation of Dust Storm Sources in West Asia (With an Emphasis on Storms

Came to Iran)

Analysis of Fundamentals, Identification Criteria, and Modeling of Dust Storms (With

emphasis on West Asia Region)

Investigation of factors of dust storms and solutions for combating (With emphasis on

West Asia Region)

Members of the team are greatly thankful to kind cooperation of all professors, students, colleagues,

and the experts who assisted in conduction of this project. The team is also especially grateful to

vice-president for science and technology affairs of Islamic republic of Iran and UNEP-ROWA. All

kinds of criticism and suggestions are warmly welcomed by the team members.

Dr. Hossein Ali Bahrami

Secretariat of the headquarter of

water resources development,

drought, erosion and environment

technologies (vice-president for

science and technology affairs of

Islamic republic of Iran)

Dr. Ali Darvishi Bolourani

The head of International

Geoinformatic Reseach Institute of

the University of Tehran (GRI) and

the executer of the project

Dr. Abdol Majid Hadad

Environemntal Program of United

Nations, Regional Office of West

Asia (UNEP-ROWA)

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1. Introduction

Processes for identifying factors that affect dust storms generation and the solutions for combating

these phenomena are not separable from the activities conducted for determining the sources of dust

storm. Hence, identification of the factors that generate dust storms and the combating procedures

must be based on temporal patterns and spatial distributions of the phenomena in source areas. It

must also be based on related natural and human parameters of these areas. For example, as in the

investigations some agricultural lands are recognized as sources where generate dust particles, the

role of human activities is evident in developing of these areas. It is obvious that the approaches to

combat the dust storm resulted from human devastating activities are different from those originated

from natural factors. In other words, the most efficient methods to control the phenomena are those

with the highest compatibility with natural and human factors.

Definition of desertification is the achievement of United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development (UNCED) in 1992. In this definition, not only generating factors of dust storm and

desertification are similar but the masses of dust are originated from specific regions. These regions

either had been formed as desert areas in geologic times or are developing now in neighboring areas

around these regions. In this definition desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry

sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities

(Kadomura, 2001). Soil erosion by water or wind including dust storm is an example of land

degradation in other supplementary definitions of United Nations Convention to Combat

Desertification (UNCCD). By this way, the desertification phenomenon is the main cause of dust

storm events. However, movements of dust masses increase extents of desert areas. This serves as an

effect that intensifies its cause1. Summarily, investigation of the factors that generate and develop

desert areas can be considered as works about the processes that result in creation of sources of dust

storm and their intensifications. It is necessary to consider management of desert areas and prevent

desertification in order to combat dust storm events. Hence, hereafter the factors of desertification

and related solutions are synonymous to factors of generating dust storms and solutions for

combating dust storm.

- Definitions for desertification

Difficult executive plans in desert areas reveal the fact that rehabilitation of these areas is very hard,

expensive and sometimes impossible (Chen and Tang, 2005). Therefore, specification of factors in

order to prevent development of desert areas is one of the concerns of researchers and authorities in

environmental and natural resources issues (Kertesz, 2009, Croitoru and Sarraf, 2010, Geist and

Lambin, 2004). A way to know the effective factors in a natural phenomenon is the definitions of

that. Although, there is a certain definition of desertification in this report, but there is no consensus

between this definition and others. Different viewpoints about effective factors in development of

desert areas may be one of the causes for the lack of common views. The term of desertification was

first outlined by Lavauden in 1927 in an investigation about pasture areas in the south of Tunisia

(Dregne, 2002). However, in this study the term was just applied to refer to a reduction in forage for

ranching without any attention to causes of desertification. Aubreville (1949) has also applied the

term of desertification in a study about devastated forests of West Africa. Although, he did not

As an effect intensifies its own cause, it would be a positive feedback and in reverse situation it would be negative. 1

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explain factors of desertification but he identified devastating human activities as the main cause for

reduction in forests. Application of the definition in a forest area is indicative of the fact that

desertification is not limited to arid areas. It also shows that human activities in vegetated areas can

also produce this situation in the form of destruction of trees, severe soil erosion, and conversion of

the forests into the areas with no biologic values. The definition of desertification by UNEP in 1990

may be the first formal statement of the factors related to this phenomenon. Based on this definition,

desertification/land degradation, in the context of assessment, is land degradation in arid, semi-arid

and dry sub-humid areas resulting from adverse human impact. Land in this concept includes soil

and local water resources, land surface and vegetation or crops. Degradation implies reduction of

available resource potential by one or a combination of processes acting on land. These processes

include water erosion, wind erosion and sedimentation by those agents, long term reduction in the

amount or diversity of natural vegetation, where relevant, and salinization and sodication

(Kadomura, 2001). A salience in this definition is that human adverse activities are considered as the

only effective factor in development of desert areas with no considerable attention to natural causes.

Figure 1 indicates the contribution of each of the human activities in global scale by UNEP (1997).

Figure 1. Proportion of man-made factors in development of desertification (UNEP, 1997)

As it is shown, overgrazing seems the main cause for expansion of desert areas across the world

except in South and North America where the agricultural activities and deforestation are more

influencing. In the definition of UNEP (1990) the natural processes of desertification are

disregarded. This is while, in two studies (Ginoux, et al 2012, Darvishi, et al 2012) about the sources

of dust storm in West Asia Region (WAR) drought is considered as a major natural factor in

expansion of dust storm sources. Drought decreases soil moisture content, destroys vegetation and

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makes active areas for generating dust storm2. The influence of such cases in the world made United

Nations in 1992 to introduce natural process of climate change in definitions of desertification. In the

recent definition the term of land degradation has more comprehensive and extensive meaning

compared with the definition of UNEP (1990). Therefore, “Land Degradation” means reduction or

loss in arid, semi-arid, and dry subhumid areas, of biological or economic productivity and

complexity of rainfed cropland, or range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting from land uses, or

from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and

habitation patterns, such as: (1) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; (2) deterioration of the

physical, chemical, and biological or economic properties of soil; and (3) long-term loss of natural

vegetation.

- Factors of desertification

It is worthy to mention that the occurrence of dust storm, even in its extremes, is usual and known

phenomena of land ecosystem in desert areas. What makes researches and investigations on

happening of this phenomenon to be necessary in the WAR is the sudden increment of dust storms

with adverse financial and health casualties. Hence, in most of the works about processes of

generating dust storms, the main focus of studies is on the factors that make the occurrence of the

event multiplied in a short time interval. On the other hand, use of the term “factors of

desertification” does not mean these areas are definitely converted into desert regions and

rehabilitation of the influenced areas can be observed in some cases. Given that the beginning of dust

storm can often be observed in the first stages of desertification, whether the final results of

desertification cause complete destruction of biological resources or not, the conditions of these areas

are investigated as factors of desertification. In most of studies, to have a coherent analysis of the

factors of desertification, these are divided into two categories of human and natural factors. In this

report, before analyzing the issues in common categories, we will examine the factors based on their

precedence of occurrence under the name of primary and subsidiary processes. Then, they are

analyzed based on their natural and human origins and also their contribution in desertification.

The primary processes effective in expansion of desert areas, mainly originated from adverse human

activities, are including overgrazing, non-precision agricultural activities, mismanagement of surface

and ground water resources, deforestation, land use change, industrial and chemical pollutions and

also drought (as the only natural agent). These processes in the primary stages influence non desert

areas and destroy continuously environmental resources. This may develop into the complete

destruction of the environmental resources. In addition, as these processes are mainly anthropogenic

(except drought), they are not in cycle of natural elements of ecosystem. Therefore, they don’t have

sensible interaction (feedback) with desertification. However, intensification of desert condition in

some cases makes human populations to utilize natural resources, inappropriately. For instance, with

increasingly reduction in nutrient resources for ranching over the pastures, not only the grazing

would not be declined but it encourages the ranchers to use the vegetations with less nourishment

values. These vegetations might be preserved from grazing before the destruction occurred in

pastures. As another example, a decrease in ground water resources and its salinization for

agriculture does not reduce the use of water by farmers. Instead, it may compel the farmers to use

This is necessary to mention that occurring drought in a few years cannot develop desert areas in a region. The 2

repetition of the phenomenon in many decades continuously along with lots of other conditions may activate the

processes that result in elimination of biologic elements and increment of desert areas and dust storm sources.

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more water for dilution of the resources. This trend may continue to cause salinization and

destruction of agricultural lands.

On the contrary, we have subsidiary processes of desertification that can be results of the

desertification. These processes do not play a major role in desertification in the initial stages of

desert development. Indeed, after the occurrence of primary processes of desertification, e.g.

overgrazing, non precision agriculture, and salinization, a severe destruction of biological resources

and vegetation may be emerged. The result of these processes would be activation of the subsidiary

processes of desertification, e.g. water and wind erosions. The subsidiary processes of desertification

and the primary factor of drought are at the cycle of natural environment and in interaction with

desertification. The terret of these processes is the amount of vegetation (Figure 2).

Figure 2. cycle of subsidiary processes of desertification such as soil erosion (by wind and water) and

the primary process of drought (climate) based on vegetation destruction (D’Odorico, et al 2013).

As it can be seen in the arrows on Figure 2, drought occurs prior to vegetation destruction and

desertification (primary factor). On the contrary, soil erosion will be appeared after the destruction of

vegetation in that region (subsidiary factor). It is worthy to mention that both processes are in a cycle

that can affect each other and at the same time can be influenced by each other. As a result of these

mutual relations, destruction of vegetation will be appeared. The atmospheric element of

precipitation and soil erosion do not just increase desertification but they may alleviate the process of

desertification, in some cases. The precipitation through three relations of hydrologic cycle, surface

energy balance, and dust particles (as a subsidiary factor) can either influence surface vegetation or

be affected by that. As a result of vegetation destruction, about 10 to 35 percent of local moisture

into the atmosphere will be decreased. This is while, in some cases increases in surface albedo

(relation of surface energy equilibrium) due to vegetation destruction can make up for this moisture

decrease through convection flow. It can even increase precipitation in some cases. It is obvious that

this increase in precipitation can reduce the trend of desertification. Dust particles both as a

subsidiary factor in desertification process and as an atmospheric phenomenon can have considerable

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mutual relations in this cycle. Although, movements of dust particles can develop the borders of

desert regions, but its influence in concentration of water vapor, as nuclei, and augment in

precipitation may reduce the speed of desertification trend (D’Odorico, et al 2013). Water erosion in

the lack of proper vegetation cover can remove a considerable amount of surface soil and biologic

elements and intensify desert conditions. As this movement of soil particles is well managed by

stabilization of sedimentary deposits, a suitable area will be provided downstream for growth of

vegetation and agriculture.

This can be concluded that unless the interrelated mutual relations are examined and recognized in

the study region, specification of all processes of desertification cannot be possible. Analysis of the

processes that result in desertification indicates that all these factors are as a result of population

growth in the past centuries. This is while; the researchers have announced this fact that the

decreasing in population takes a long time and may be impossible. Therefore, they attempt to

examine the factors of desertification and subsequently to combat this phenomenon. Hence, the

solutions are attempted to be presented so that they can both meet the requirements of human

population and conserve the environment. Finally, it can be mentioned that some of the social and

environmental factors of desertification, because of difficulties in quantitative measurements of their

contribution, are less investigated in many studies. Some of these factors that strongly recommended

to be examined in future studies are including: population and administrative policies of

governments, attitudes of local communities about exploitation and conservation of natural

resources, physical characteristics of these areas such as slope and position towards flooding flows,

and inflammability of vegetations (Conacher, 2004).

Given the variety of definitions and the difficulties in measurement of the factors effective in

desertification, it does not appear easy to understand the contribution of each factor. Nevertheless,

here, we have tried to introduce the factors of desertification, as much as possible, in the WAR and

other regions in northern hemisphere (Figure 3). The main focus of this report is upon the conducted

researches about the factors effective in desertification and subsequently formation of dust storm in

the WAR. The analyses of the factors in other regions of the world are mainly based on the

prominent studies. Hence, with more exact studies and in local scales some inconsistencies with the

results of these studies and the next section of this report can be expected.

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Figure 3. Desert regions and the regions under the influence of desertification (United States

Department of Agriculture, 1998)

It is important to note the geographical distribution of regions under the influence of desertification

(Figure 3). The spatial distribution of desert areas (gray color) and the areas susceptible to desert

development (red color) show concentration of these areas in WAR and central Asia (USDA3, 1998).

These conditions make it necessary to pay more attention to the investigations about effective factors

in occurrence of this phenomenon in WAR. This is for finding appropriate solutions in order to

prevent these areas from converting into desert areas and from their attachment to adjacent deserts.

In addition to WAR, United States of America, North of Africa, North of China are either under the

influence of desert conditions or in transient stages into these areas.

2. Desertification and dust storm in North of China, North Africa, and the United States

What can be concluded from the documents related to desertification is the incontrovertible role of

population changes as the major factor and origin (direct or indirect) of other factors, whether natural

or anthropogenic, in this phenomenon. Hence, we take a glance at information about demographic

condition of the regions where are under the influence of desertification. Then, we address the

factors of desertification, in details.

The current changes in human population (UN, 2011) indicate considerable growth rate in different

countries particularly the regions where will be influenced by desertification till 2025 (Figure 4).

Therefore, in the WAR and North Africa, where include the main regions susceptible to

desertification, the population growth rate will be increased to more than 40% in some countries

including Iraq, Afghanistan, Yemen, Chad, Niger, Mali. The results of these circumstances will be an

increase in exploitation of natural resources and regeneration of additional factors of desertification

including overgrazing, non precision agriculture, and inappropriate use of surface and ground water

resources.

3 http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/use/?cid=nrcs142p2_054003

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Figure 4. Population changes until 2025 (UNCCD, 2011) 4

Use of the term “population changes” as one of the main factors of desertification, here, implies that

not only the increasing of population density may destroy biologic resources but, in some cases, the

population decrement due to human casualties and group migration (Exodus) can also develop the

borders of desert regions.

). Due to some http://www.zoinet.org/webThis map is produced by ZOI environmental network using data from UN ( 4

limitation in projecting the map, North and South America is not displayed on. population rate in America is 10 percent

that increase population up to 40 million people till 2025.

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Figure 5. People tendency to permanent migration (in percent) (IOM5, 2011).

Movement of population, particularly in permanent form, and leaving after human activities that may

completely devastate lands is an additional problem that makes it hard or impossible to rehabilitate.

In other words, leaving of devastated lands and concentration of population in adjacent areas makes

the lands ready for development of desert condition in both the immigrant origins and destinations.

Similar to population growth rate, the number of people who tend to migrate permanently is high in

the regions where are susceptible to desertification. Most of the people with the tendency to

permanent immigration are mainly in the regions of African Sahara, countries in the WAR, and

North Africa (Figure 5). The effects of political and social issues cannot be ignored in the tendency

of people for immigration. But, this may be mainly because of destruction of natural resources as the

main source of income for the residents of desert and semi desert areas. On the other hand, regardless

of the causes for the immigration, as they manage to immigrate from the pasture and agricultural

lands, this results in creation and development of desert condition. This is while; these lands are in

the most need for rehabilitation. On the contrary, in cases where the people cannot immigrate, as a

result of a lack of enough motives in the local people and low attention of governments, it would be

difficult to combat development of desert borders. As a result, one of the principal approaches to

combat the desertification and rehabilitation of damaged areas is that the governments and other

global, national and local organizations formulate plans to control population rate, provide aimed

financial support, and educate local people. These plans may aim to prevent sudden changes in

population in damaged areas. Although, it takes a long time to realize such goals, but it seems that

paying no attention to the requirements may weaken other methods of management of desertification

and dust storm.

Given the relative similarities of the dust storm phenomena and sources, we can learn from the

experiences of other regions in combating desertification. Here, we have discussed three regions

afflicted with desertification and dust storms in regional scale.

5 International Organization for Migration

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- Northern half of China

Desert areas of China and the areas susceptible to desertification, mainly located in the northern part

of this country (Figure 6), have covered about 34 % of the country (Lu et al, 2006). Here, the rate of

desertification was 1560 km3/yr in 1970s (Zhu, 1985), about 2100 km3/yr in 1980s (Zhu and Wang,

1990) and about 24606 km3/yr in 1990s (CCICCD7, 1997). In the past decade, Chinese government

with cooperation of international organizations was successful to decrease the rising trend of

desertification to 2000 km2/yr (UNCCD, 2011). However, some researchers believe that the actions

taken to control and reduce desertification are failed and the decrease might be limited to some

portions of China (Chen and Tang, 2005).

Figure 6. desert areas and the areas influenced by desertification in China (UNCCD, 2011).

The population growth is estimated to be less than 10 % till 2025 in China (Figure 4). The policy of

increment in birth rate is not limited to recent years. It was specifically from 1611 to 1911, as the

main policy of government (Qing Dynasty). The policy was also followed in desert and semi desert

areas in north of China. The government had to make some secondary decisions. Some of these

decisions were that the government had encouraged residents of the regions to change the land uses

of the pastures. It was conducted in the form of three landuse change operations from 1802 to 1930.

The realization of the planning that was inconsistent with environmental potential of these vulnerable

areas not only destructed the soil and its biological characteristics, but it exerted an ever increasing

pressure upon the environment. This was in condition that the food requirements of the dense

population make it necessary to develop their ranching (Figure 7). Making such decisions in 1950s

and 1970s as macro-level economic plans with the name of “Great Leap Forward” and “Grain as Key

Link” resulted in changes in land uses of pastures with low productivity and their devastation (Zhou,

). Zhou, et al 2010(/yr 2kmIn some other references this rate is reported about 3600 6 7 Chinese Committee for Implementing UN Convention to Combat Desertification

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et al 2010). Therefore, the researchers believe that the population growth of China and its consequent

effects such as devastating agricultural activities, use of saline water, huge changes in land uses, and

overgrazing are the main causes of border expansion of desert regions (Dorr, 2004, Aoren, 2003 and

Zhou, et al 2010, Wang, et al 2008).

Figure 7. Yearly changes in rate of human population and livestock population in Northeast of China

(Chen and Tang, 2005)

In addition to the considerable population growth in China and its subsequent consequences, the lack

of public awareness about desertification and about their role as human factors in prevention are

other causes in development of this phenomenon. These are also main causes for failure of combat

against expansion of desertification. Most of the researchers believe that these conditions are resulted

from the lack of relationship between the public and authorities. This relationship must familiarize

local people with consequences of demolition of biologic resources and also provide the public with

economic incentives to counter desertification (Chen and Tang, 2005). Hence, local people living in

desert rural areas in North of China ignore the government plans against desertification and use

vegetation cover as fuel (Ci and Liu, 2000). They also remove some herbal medicine with getting out

their roots for selling (Zhou, et al 2010). Development of industrial activities by government has also

influence on extermination of biologic resources. For example, exploitation of coal mines in

northeast of China increased from 10 billion Kg/yr in 1980 to 45.1 billion Kg/yr in 2000. These

increase resulted in destruction of soil and generation of millions of tons of sand and dust blown

deposits. The waste products of dust were exposed to prevailing winds and caused many dust storms

over the region (Chen and Tang, 2005).

Although, destructive human activities can be the main factor for development of deserts in China

(Ding, et al 2007), but climate changes and its fluctuations may strengthen or weaken the influence

of the factors of desertification and consequent dust storms in the region. Yang et al (2007) have

conducted an eminent research to examine effects of climate changes upon the factors effective in

dust storm and upon desert regions for a period of one thousand years. They have used some samples

from icebergs and dust deposits over them, tree-ring, river flows in different periods, and also ancient

documents. The results of the research are presented, in details, for periods of 10 and 100 years and

also for different regions of east, west, and semi arid areas of China. These results indicate a

continuous increase in dust storm in the regions and a significant relation between changes of dust

storm events with temperature and precipitation in the time periods of 100 years. The variables of

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temperature and precipitation with significant negative relations get correlation values of 51 and 63

percent in 100 years periods over some regions.

Finally, what can be considered as principal factor of desertification in China is initially the policy of

population increase as a long time experience in this country. This human factor leads to subsidiary

processes including land use change, pasture destruction, soil salinization and etc. These have

consecutively developed desert areas in north of China. Furthermore, lack of awareness of local

people about desertification, inappropriate government policies in development of economic

activities and disregarding conservation of environmental resources have all intensified destruction

of biological resources. Precipitation fluctuations as a supplementary factor affected the destructed

areas and enforced the desertification processes and consequent events such as dust storm in the

region.

- North Africa

About 40 percent of Africa is under the influence of desertification (Jones, et al 2013). Nearly half of

the regions (one billion hectare) are located around Sahara, in North Africa Desert (Dregne, 2002).

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Figure 8. desertification vulnerability of Africa (Jones, et al 2013).

This figure just shows vulnerability of Africa relative to desertification and the current desert areas

are not depicted on. In this figure, Sahara Desert is in the north and equatorial forests are in the

center, by gray color, and far from desertification influence. However, in the present study Sahara

Desert is one of the main regions in generating dust storms.

Population growth not only in North Africa but in other regions of the continent is as a principal

factor for desertification (Nicholson, et al 1998, Ouma and Ogallo 2007). Le Houérou, (1996)

mentioned the fact that the population of Africa is doubled from the past three decades (Figure 9).

This means an increase in population, which is more than 21 million per year, and the consequent

pressure upon environmental resources. This can be seen by the fact that the most eroded areas of the

continent are coincident with the most populated areas including highland of Ethiopia, Chad, and

Darfur in Sudan (Darkoh, 1998). According to figure 4, population growth in North Africa in 2025

would not be different from the past decades.

If this trend of population growth continues to 2050, half of the agricultural lands of Africa will no

longer be usable and to 2025 just 25 percent of the population can access minimum nutrition

resources (UN, 2007). Same as China, the huge amount of population in Africa led to extra amount

of livestock and inappropriate use of agricultural lands and forest resources. Based on conducted

studies (UNEP 2007) by up to 1992 equal to 25 percent of pastures, agricultural lands, and forest

areas were intensively destroyed. Equal to 15 percent of pastures (194 million hectare) have mostly

influenced by desertification due to grazing.

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Figure 9. Population growth in Africa from 1900 to 2000. ( ) represents population of arid areas in the

south of Sahara Desert, ( ) east Africa, ( ) Sahel Region, and ( ) South Africa from 1190 to 2000

(Le Houérou, 1996)8.

In addition to population growth, processional migration got an especial form in Africa e.g., half of

men in Mali have migrated into neighboring countries or Europe. On the opposite, Nairobi (the

capital of Kenya) has experienced an increase of 800 percent in population due to immigration from

neighboring regions. In this area people were afflicted from 1963 to 2005 by poverty as a result of

drought and development of desert boundaries. Population changes, may be as result of internecine

conflicts and international wars, have led to complete extinction of abandoned areas and destruction

of natural resources in destination areas of migration (Darkoh, 1998).

The countries with the most poverty including Mali, Niger, Central Africa, and Chad are coincident

with the marginal areas of Sahara Desert which mostly affected by desertification. This cannot be

accidental. Indeed, severe poverty in a population more than 40 percent of people in these countries

indicates incontrovertible role of desertification in destruction of environmental resources, i.e., lose

of income resources of human population. Furthermore, it must be mentioned that not only the

severity of poverty is due to desertification, but this phenomenon serve as a factor that make local

people to utilize intensively environmental resources to meet their requirements. In return, this

causes intensification of desertification. In fact, in these regions, the poverty prevailing on the

society reduces access to lands and causes reluctance among people to learn optimal ways for use of

natural resources. It is while, the people living near the regions are dependent upon exploitation of

natural resources to meet their basic needs (UNCCD, 2011, UN, 2007, Darkoh, 1998).

Le Houérou in 1992 based on different references and annual report of FAO. The chart was presented by 8

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Figure 10. People with daily income less than 1.25 USD (UNCCD, 2011)9.

The role of climate changes and its fluctuations in desertification in North Africa is so important that

the convention for protection against desertification was formulated. This convention was as the

result of the concern of global community about occurrence of drought and destruction of

environmental resources particularly in Sahel region10 in 1960s and 1970s (Cullet, 2001). However,

some researchers believe that these drought events were transient and soil dryness could not lead to

desertification (Hellden, 1991, Hellden, 1994 and Tucker, 1991). But, severity of these fluctuations

in precipitation led to destruction of vegetation and erosion of surface soil and, consequently, dust

storm events (Darkoh, 1998).

Determination of precise contribution of each of the processes in occurrence of desertification and

subsequent dust storm in North Africa requires lots of precise investigations and studies. However, it

can be concluded that this region, same as north of China, was disturbed continuously by the

influence of human factors. Occurrence of harsh droughts, such as the events of 1960s and 1970s,

changed the condition for providing huge dust masses.

- United States

In a review of desertification process in United States (US), “Great Plains” and “dust storm” in

1930s emerged as keywords in many studies (Hansen, 2005, Cutler, et al 2007, Allen and Fenster,

1986, Sachs, 1994). The Great Plain region expands from southern Canada and continues from

) http://www.zoinet.org/web/ZOÏ using United Nations data (This map is depicted by 9

Sahel region is located in the boundary between dense vegetation of equatorial region and Sahara Desert in Africa. 10

http://www.zoinet.org/web/

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central areas of the United States towards the south of the country. The semi arid climate with

presence of vast plains and rangelands are characteristics of the region where are suitable for

agriculture and ranching. Until 1930s as a result of World War I in Europe and wet years in 1920s

the pasture areas were intensively used for agriculture, particularly wheat crops. Ranching and

keeping livestock were developed so that the economy of local people were more than ever

dependent upon use of natural resources, particularly vegetation, surface and ground water. The

Golden period of productivity in these agricultural lands suddenly dropped in the beginning of 1930s

with severe drought of this period. As it can be observed in Figure 11, deviation of rainfall from the

mean of 100 years period indicates decline of rainfall in 1930s.

Figure 11. Deviation of annual rainfall from the mean of one hundred years period in Amarillo City,

Texas State (in South of US)

The immediate result of this drought was severe destruction of vegetation and exposure of ploughed

soils to swift southern winds. The soils were transformed by southern wind and caused enormous

dust storms. These masses of dusts are called “Dust Bowl” or “Dirty Thirties” (Hornbeck 2012).

Figure 12 illustrate the approximate extent of these storms.

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Figure 12. the areas under the influence of dust storm of 1930s. Dust Bowl in Great Plains

(Baumhardt, 2003)

Truth Finding Committee responsible for research about this phenomenon rejected the hypothesis of

influence of climate change in formation of this event. The committee attributed this happening to

prevalence of agriculture and ranching activities that were special to humid climates and propagated

inconsistently in semi arid climate of this region. Some causes stated for soil destruction and

occurrence of dust storm events includes: rigorous economic stagnancy of 1930s, sharp decrease in

values of agricultural products and subsequent release of cultivated lands, prevalence of one product

cultivation of winter wheat, in that this prevent saving of water in summer, division of agricultural

lands into smaller pieces, prevalence of feudalism (renting), repeated movements of soil in

cultivation, and finally the severe drought in the form of climate fluctuations (Lockeretz, 1978,

Baumhardt, 2003).

It is noteworthy that with occurrence of more severe drought event in 1950s relative to 1930s (Figure

11), the losses, as reported, to agricultural lands and pastures were less than those in 1930s

(Lockeretz, 1978). This can be because of amendatory and precautious measures taken by authorities

and executed by support of the local people. Exploring and monitoring the exact factors effective on

environmental degradation, they replaced repeated cultivation of wheat-Sorghum by one product

cultivation. By this action the saving of water increased from 20 percent in 1930s to 40 percent in

1950s. Furthermore, they prevented the occurrence of further enormous storms by accurate

irrigation, combining agricultural lands, reforms in land ownership rules, and as the most important

by laughing of soils without disturbance11.

What needs to be discussed separately is population change in the afflicted areas (Baumhardt, 2003).

Unlike many regions of the world faced with drought and desertification, the population of Great

Plain was just adjusted. In other words, decrease in population in destructed regions was reported 12

percent until 1940 (Hornbeck, 2012). In fact, despite of severe degradation of agricultural lands, the

government using economic supports managed to keep the amount of population appropriate to the

environmental capabilities of the area. This was in order to rehabilitate these degraded lands. This is

while, in other regions like Africa with decrease in rainfall, the vegetation, and performance of

In classic method, to increase porosity of soil, its layers are ploughed in different ways. In modified method, the upper 11

layer of soil is removed and after the entrance of air into the soil and mixture of previous layers, the surface soil is came

back to its primary situation.

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agriculture a considerable quantity of local population, due to lack of support, will have to emigrate

collectively.

What can be concluded from the Dust Bowl Event in US in 1930s is that as we assume the influence

of climate changes it is not advised to attribute sudden increase in desertification and dust storm to

this. In fact, basic situation for abrupt changes in occurrence of dust storm is generated by human

destructive activities. After destruction of biological resources, particularly vegetation, a slight

temporal decline in precipitation will convert the region into a source for dust storm. Investigation

about the principal factors affecting desertification and devising some appropriate modification

methods in agricultural, economic and population activities are actions taken by American

authorities in tackling with this phenomenon. Indeed, selecting competent and operational methods,

that are consistent with requirements of the public and capabilities of the environment, led to an

increase in resistance of the ecosystem of the region (human or natural) against drought in the next

decades with a decrease in dust storm events.

3. Desertification phenomenon and dust storm activities in South West Asia

It is noticeable that in most of regional and trans-regional studies about dusts, some dust storms are

mentioned that just occurred in desert areas, e.g., Sahara in Africa (Darkoh, 1998), Gobi in Mongolia

and China (Zhou, et al 2010), Rub Al Khali in Saudi Arabia, and Syria Desert in West Asia (Darvishi

Bloorani, et al 2012). However, the factors generating these phenomena are not clearly considered by

researchers. The occurrence of dust and sand storms in desert areas is somehow normal and most of

the conducted studies are focused on semi arid regions and the regions under the influence of

desertification. Hence, in a review of the studies related to desertification factors in WAR, the works

have been explored that are mainly based on prevailing human and natural factors effective in

generation of dust storms. These factors are prevalent in three main regions as followings:

1. Tigris and Euphrates Basins in Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and partly south west of Iran

2. Sistan Basin in Afghanistan and Iran

3. Aral Sea Basin in central Asia

Based on the previous evidence, these regions that are in semi arid areas of the WAR have mostly

experienced desertification and many dust storm events (Prospero, et al 2002, Ginoux, et al 2012,

Esmaili, et al 2006, Darvishi, et al 2012, Goudie and Middleton, 2006).

- Tigris and Euphrates drainage basins

The watersheds of these two rivers are well known natural features in Middle East (Figure 13).

Highlands of Turkey are the main origins of these two rivers. About 90 percent of Euphrates water

and 45 percent of Tigris are originated from these mountains. About 10 percent of Euphrates water is

from Syria and about 51 and 9 percent of Tigris water are from Iraq and Iran, respectively. It is

worthy to note that the exact and updated information about this statistics is not available. This is not

just for these two watersheds but for other areas in the WAR. The main available information is the

research works, e.g., Dregne and Cho (1992) and UNEP (1992). Based on the studies of Dregne and

Cho (1992) the countries in watersheds of Tigris and Euphrates are vehemently under the influence

of desertification. In Iraq, about 90 % of pasture lands (34.5 million hectares), about 72 % of dry

farming (1.4 million hectares), and about 70 % of irrigated farming (1.25 million hectares) are

influenced by moderate to severe desertification. In Syria, the statistics are, respectively, about 90 %

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(11.9 million hectares), 70 % (3.5 million hectares), and 17 % (110 thousands hectares) (AFED 12,

2008).

Figure 13. watersheds of Tigris and Euphrates (Holmes, 2010).

Based on these statistics, in both countries of Iraq and Syria rangelands are under the influence of

overgrazing and severe degradation of environment. In Iraq there is no difference between land

degradation in dry and irrigated agriculture lands. This condition may be due to enormous

evaporation rate, low quality of irrigation systems, and sometimes saline water. Although,

salinization of soil in Syria is not so high, but dry farming lands are about to converting into desert

areas. According to UNEP (1992) the situation is almost similar in other basins of these rivers in

other countries (Figure 14) (AFED, 2008). UNEP and ISRIC13, with collaboration of scientists and

experts from entire the world and based on its own definition of desertification conducted a research

work in identification of human factors of desertification from 1987 to 1990. The research work is

entitled Global Assessment of Human-Induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD). Based on these

researches, the most important factor of desertification in south west of Iran and south east of Iraq is

the destructive agricultural activities and in highlands of Turkey is demolition of forest vegetation.

12 Arab Forum for Environment and Development 13 International Soil Reference and Information Centre

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Figure 14. the areas under the influence of soil erosion in WAR (UNEP and ISRIC 1990). (a) erosion

resulted from agricultural activities, (e) cultivation of alternative vegetation for combustion and

sheltering, (f) deforestation, (g) grazing of livestock, (i) soil pollution resulted from industrial

activities.

Although, the results of these studies include comprehensive information of desertification factors

for different geographical regions, but have some inconsistencies with the results of other recent

studies, i.e., in Figure 14, the northern half of the study area of this research is introduced as an area

without desertification. This is while by Darvishi et al. (2012) these areas were revealed to be the

main sources in generation of dust storm. The main cause of this inconsistency may be the focus of

UNEP on human factors of desertification. This is while, according to this later research, the main

cause of desertification in northwest of Iraq and east of Syria is severe drought in the region.

Furthermore, according to this figure, destructive agricultural activities are considered as the only

cause of degradation of environmental resources in southern half of the watershed. However, it is

clear that in this region the agricultural activities cannot be the only cause for desertification and

conversion of that area into dust storm sources. Therefore, in order to explore the conducted

researches and studies about southern and northern half of drainage basins of Tigris and Euphrates,

each of these portions are presented in separate sections.

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- Desertification and dust storm phenomenon in northern part of Tigris and Euphrates

Drainage Basin

This basins are coincident with desert regions of northwest of Iraq and southeast of Syria. In recent

years dust sources in the regions are extremely active and affected large areas of the WAR,

especially western and southwestern of Iran and other countries around Persian Gulf (Taghavi and

Asadi, 2008, Mofidi and Jafari, 2011). According to Darvishi et al (2012) the dust sources located in

northwest of Iraq and east of Syria are divided into two sub-clusters in terms of their activity and

effectiveness on the areas where located in their path, i.e., Iran and countries around Persian Gulf

(Figure 15). In this division, the dust sources located in Iraq (A) have more activity and frequency of

occurrence compared with those located in Syria (B). Based on land cover map of the region, most

part of this cluster of dust is composed of desert and semi-desert regions where are almost devoid of

vegetation (Figure 15).

Figure 15. land cover of dust cluster in northern part of Tigris and Euphrates Drainages (Darvishi, et al

2012).

Despite that the predicted population growth for Iraq until 2025 was more than 40 % (Figure 4), the

population density in dust sources of northern part is not much considerable. In other words, in the

most of the regions under the influence of desertification the population growth and density is

considered as effective factors of development of this phenomenon. But, in northern half of Tigris

and Euphrates Drainages population density is low and some desert areas in the region have no

residents (Figure 16).

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Figure 16. population density map of Syria (Izady, 2013a) and the map of population density and

ethnicity composition of Iraq (Izady, 2011). The white color areas have low population density14.

Therefore, main factor of desertification and generation of dust masses in northwest of Iraq and east

of Syria cannot be related to population changes and destructive human activities like other regions

of this study15. More detailed studies indicate that the main factor of numerous dust storms of

previous decade (mainly cluster A) was the severe drought (Darvishi, et al 2012). Some believe such

drought was never experienced in the half past century (Trigo et al, 2010). Based on the available

data, the region is experiencing consecutive droughts from 2004 (from November to April) to its

peak in 2008 (Figure 17). In this year the annual precipitation in some regions decreased to below 20

% of the average (Darvishi, et al, 2012).

are brief because of some limitations in displaying the maps. Original maps are available at The figures 14

http://gulf2000.columbia.edu/maps.shtml

es are considered as main factors of desertification in Population density and increase and destructive human activiti 15

some regions including north of China, North Africa, and central plains of the United States of America. It is obvious

that with focused studies on these regions there is the possibility to identify areas with natural factors like drought.

http://gulf2000.columbia.edu/maps.shtml

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Figure 17. precipitation anomalies of cluster 1 (in percent). In this map the values more than 100 %

represent a multiplication of precipitation (wet year) and the values lower than that represent a fall in

precipitation to below long term average (drought). Letters A and B represent sub-clusters of dust

storm sources in northern half of Tigris and Euphrates Basins.

The spatial extent of the regions affected by drought in the past decade in Syria (ACSAD16, 2011)

and Iraq (IAU17, 2009) deserves for consideration. In the two countries the areas under the influence

of drought in the past decade (Figure 18) are considerably coincident with the devastated areas where

converted into sources of dust in the north of Tigris and Euphrates Basins (Figure 15). Exploitation

of groundwater resources also was increased following this drought event in the region. This was out

of the environmental tolerance in most of the areas and led to a considerable decline in surface and

ground water resources.

Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands 16

Agency Information and Analysis Unit-Inter 17

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Figure 18. the areas under the influence of drought in Syria in the past decade (the upper figure) and

the areas under the influence of drought in 2008 and 2009 (the peak of drought) in Iraq (the lower

figure).

According to Voss et al. (2013) during this drought event the moisture content of the basins

decreased so overwhelmingly that after the relative mitigation of the drought in 2009, the maximum

values of humidity decreased to minimum values before this drought (Figure 19).

The considerable drop in moisture content in the region indicates an inexperienced decrease in soil

surface moisture and the subsequent destruction of vegetation. In addition, it is also representative of

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extreme utilization of groundwater resources. These circumstances, due to use of saline water, could

lead to intensification of desertification and development of incipient dust sources18.

Figure 19. annual mean of moisture content anomalies in Tigris and Euphrates drainage basins 19(in

millimeters).

When the drought occurred in Iraq and Syria, at the same time changes in amount and time of snow

were recorded in highlands of Turkey as the main source for the two rivers. This may have additional

devastating effect upon the pastures and lands surrounding the two rivers. Investigating climatic and

hydrologic information in two periods of 17 years (i.e., 1972-1988 and 1990-2006), Sen et al (2011)

were able to recognize changes in temperature and time of peak flow in the two rivers. According to

their results, temperature increase in Siberia caused a decline in speed and intensity of cold air from

north east towards Turkey and replaced warm air from south to the region. One of the eminent

implications of the effects of the temperature increase on snow melting trend can be observed in

records of maximum river flows in Tigris and Euphrates, i.e., the maximum flow occurs 5 days

before the average in the first half of March. In addition that the sudden snow melting in highlands

result in damaging flooding flows, it reduces the possibility to use the water resources in drought

years, particularly for agriculture. Indeed, in addition to the droughts happened in Tigris and

Euphrates watersheds as a result of climatic fluctuations, the total trend of temperature increase (may

be as a result of climate changes) caused rapid melting of snow covers. This would undoubtedly have

negative impacts upon aridity of agricultural lands and pastures which are dependent on surface

flows downstream. It is worthy to note that the early happening of maximum snow melting and

subsequently maximum surface flows is representative of continuous temperature changes in

regional scale. Through increase in evaporation and changes in local atmospheric flows, this can, as a

separate factor, intensify droughts, desertification, and dust storms.

bout As there are not enough data about soil condition of Iraq and Syria, it is not possible to state certainly a 18

salinization of soil in these areas. However, based on the experiences these conditions can be expected for the region.

The original title of this figure is moisture content of Euphrates River drainage basin. The values of Tigris were 19

mip.fr/en/soa/hydrologie/hydroweb/Page_3.html-http://www.legos.obsthe extent projected at estimated by

http://www.legos.obs-mip.fr/en/soa/hydrologie/hydroweb/Page_3.html

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The natural factors of drought (climate fluctuations) and temperature change (climate changes20)

played a major role in decrease of water flows in Tigris and Euphrates and degradation of their

surrounding lands. Although the natural factors have played the major role, but management of water

resources (human factors) in the countries of the basin might have deteriorated the situations. In

recent years, construction of different storage infrastructures for restore and regulation of water

resources (Figure 20) emerged as an environmental and political problem among the countries of the

region (Kibaroğlu and Kramer , 2011, Yalcinkaya, 2010, Ayboga, 2009, Philip, et al 2006, The

corner House and KHRP 21, 2007, KHRP, 2005).

Figure 20. Reservoir constructions built in Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (Kibaroglu and Scheumann,

2011)

A common point that weakens the reliability of the results of the present works is the ethnic and

political biases. It can be concluded that in all the studies this was admitted about the two rivers that

the impoundment and regulation structures play a devastating role. This is resulted from a decline in

discharge and quality of water. For instance, Kibaroglu and Scheumann (2011) investigated the

history of political circumstances prevailing on the region in combat against the crisis. Despite their

avocations of the policies of Turkey in this regard, they stated that if these conditions are continued

and all the current and planned projects are completed on Tigris and Euphrates, exploitation of the

Getting a definite conclusion about occurrence of climate changes in each region requires very complicated studies. 20

This cannot be demonstrated by common analyses and methods in a region. So, the term of climate change here is just

relying on the previous researches and does not definitely confirm that. 21 Kurdish Human Rights Project

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water resources will be more than inflows into the rivers till 2040. Given economic, political, and

social crisis in the countries of the region and the lack of friendly relationships among them, it is

hardly possible to solve the problems in the near future. The results of all these events, particularly

the drought of 2007-2009, can be found in the recorded information about destruction of more than

40% of agricultural lands in the north of the basins (IAU22, 2009, ACSAD, 2011). In another

example, despite of low population density in northwest of Iraq and east of Syria, the consecutive

consequences of drought and water resources decline have forced more than 4000 families to

immigrate from damaged areas. The peak of the immigration i.e., 267 families in a simultaneous

movement, was from 2007 to 2009 when coincide with the greatest decline in precipitation (IOM23,

2010).

Finally, the principal cause of desertification and dust storm in northern half of Tigris and Euphrates,

particularly the desert areas between them, can be attributed to drought. This is while; the destruction

of coastal areas between the two rivers was additionally due to decrease in surface flows, flooding,

and decline in quality of water. Population changes and abandon of the affected areas have

supplemented the factors of desertification. Consequently, this resulted in more destruction of

environmental resources and intensification of desertification factors and dust storms in the region.

- Southern half of Tigris and Euphrates Basins

One other region that is overwhelmingly under the influence of desertification and generates masses

of dust storm in WAR is southern half of Tigris and Euphrates Watershed in southeast of Iraq

(Darvishi, et al 2012). The region is extended from north of Baghdad to mouth of Shatt al-Arab

River (Arvand Rood) in northwest of Persian Gulf. This region, called also as Mesopotamia, in terms

of vegetation situation is in semi-desert category and in some portions in desert category (Figure 21).

Agency Information and Analysis Unit-. Inter 22

23.International Organization for Migration

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Figure 21. surface cover in dust storm sources in southeast of Iraq. This is coincident with southern

half part of watershed of Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (Darvishi, et al 2012).

Unlike the northern half of the watershed, a considerable quantity of population resides in

southeastern plains of Iraq (Figure 16). Hence, in primary evaluations unlike the northern half,

human devastating activities can be considered as one of factors of desertification in the southeast of

Iraq. In fact, the region and the mountainous areas of northern Iraq was the ancient Fertile Crescent24

zone that attracted lots of population (Jaradat, 2002). Essential difference of cultivation in southern

half of the watershed compared with dry agriculture of upstream is its dependence upon ground and

surface water resources (Schnepf, 2003). This is while most of the ground and surface water

resources are largely saline (Kibaroglu and Scheumann, 2011). After the ground and surface flows

are transported in a long distances from their origins in Turkey highlands into the plains and terminal

basins, they get more salt progressively. This is mainly due to evaporation and wastewater of

agriculture. Moreover, fresh groundwater tables are positioned in the vicinity of saline waters of

Persian Gulf in one hand and groundwater resources are also overused of for agriculture. As a result,

the saline waters proceeds towards water tables of fresh water. The consequence of these

circumstances can be found in the studies of Al-Jiburi and Al-Basrawi (2011). They indicated that

the ground water resources are considerably salty in southern half of watershed of Tigris and

Euphrates (Figure 22).

d pass over Iraq, Turkey and Syria This is a crescent like region that is extended from southeast regions of Iran an24

towards the eastern coast of Mediterranean Sea

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Figure 22. underground water saltiness rate in downer mesopetomia (Al-Jiburi and Al-Basrawi, 2011)

According to Figure 21 and 22, the main area of dust storm source are located in southeast of Iraq.

The area is coincident with ground water tables where in the best situation has brackish water and in

the most parts has Salty, very salty and Brine water. Dregne (2010) maintain that the salinity of

water in coastal areas of Tigris and Euphrates is an essential and ancient problem for farmers in use

of surface water resources. In other words, the farmers have serious difficulties in use of surface and

ground water resources. Using of both the resources leads to overwhelming salinization of

agricultural lands.

The destructive effects of this salinization in water resources of the region can be clear when we pay

attention to extensive agricultural activities. From about 9.5 million hectares of arable lands in Iraq

(half of this is just allocated to subsistence agriculture and grazing), about 2.5 million hectares (more

than half of the lands with the ability for mass production) are located downstream Tigris and

Euphrates Watershed. The later lands are under the influence of irrigated agriculture, mainly

dependent upon surface and under surface water). It is evident that agricultural activity that is just

irrigated by saline water will results in destruction and lowers the productivity (Schnepf, 2003).

In addition to the overuse of fertile lands of the region, in the last 30 years management and planning

of agricultural activities in Iraq was changed greatly particularly in the southern half of the

watershed. These changes served as a separate factor in intensification of desertification

phenomenon. In 1980s the main attempt by government of Iraq was that encourage the private sector

to participate more actively in production of agricultural goods, particularly wheat. As a result of this

policy, these goods increased about 14 and 28 percent relative to 1970s. Paying more attention to

basic agricultural goods such as wheat leads to propagation of one product agriculture. This, in turn,

caused loss of soil moisture content in warm period and extreme erosion. Given population growth in

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Iraq in 1980s in one hand and the war between this country and Iran that compelled many work

forces to join in military as soldiers on the other hand, the increase in production could not meet the

needs and the government had to import (nearly 70%) these basic goods. After Persian Gulf War and

sanctions against Iraq from 1990 to 2003 and also separation and autonomy of Kurdish regions with

fertile lands from the country, the imports of agricultural goods was replaced by domestic production

over the southeast farm lands. It is evident that increase of demand induced cultivation of lands

where were previously used for grazing of as non-agriculture lands. However, these lands didn’t

have the capability for mass production of agricultural products. Thus, cultivation of the areas

without using advanced methods, lack of access to fertilizers and pesticides, lack of required

machineries, and also the lack of awareness of optimized exploitation by farmers all resulted in

salinization, severe erosion and destruction of fertile regions of southeast of the country (Schnepf,

2003).

Based on the studies of Gibson (2012) in the two periods of war and sanctions in 1980s and 1990s

not only the extent of cultivated areas did not decrease, but the cultivated areas increased in some

regions. However, the productivity of the land regressively decreased in the periods. The

implications of the destruction can easily be observed after the Bath regime was dismissed in 2003

when the law of mandatory cultivation was abrogated. Indeed, this can be said that a large part of

active sources of dust in south of Iraq are the agricultural lands that were under cultivation of one

product agriculture in a long time, mainly using saline water for irrigation. These areas were

abandoned and degraded severely after the mandatory rules were abrogated (Figure 23).

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Figure 23. (the left figures) the illustration of the figures from left to right and from up to down are

vegetation changes in center and parts of southern Iraq in war between Iraq and Iran 1980-1988, the

initial sanction of United Nations in 1999-2000, and severe sanctions in 2000-2003 and the years

after the war between Iraq and United States of America (Operation Iraqi Freedon) in 2003 to 2011;

(the right) agricultural lands in three periods in beginning of sanctions (1991), Saddam dismissal

(2003), years after war (2011) (Gibson, 2012).

Although, during the war of Iraq and Iran the agricultural areas of southern Tigris and Euphrates

have not influenced, but it has considerable negative impacts on marshland areas. During 8 years of

the war the marshland areas were as front line of military battles. The two sides used to dry the

marshes for better performance of military operations. During the period, a huge part of central

marsh lands, Hur Al Hoveizeh and Al Hemmar were disappeared due to military battles (UNEP,

(2001) Patrow). In addition to the war in the region, the marshland areas same as agricultural ones

were influenced by defective decision makings of central government. These defective decisions

were so that with control of surface flows contributed in destruction of this environmental region

(Figure 24).

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Figure 24. dams and water regulation structures in southeast of Iraq, located in upstream of Hor Al

Hoveyzeh, Hor Al Hemmar, and Central Marshlands (the blue color in the image).

Figure 24 illustrates some parts of southeastern Iraq with structures that impound and regulate water

flow of the rivers. In addition to upstream dams of the two rivers, Iraq government had decided to

build structures to control surface flows in southeast of the country. The primary goals of these

constructions were: (1) control of upstream wastewater into agricultural lands (2) decrease in

entrance of salt and polluted waters into the marshlands of southern Iraq and decline of agricultural

activities on dried areas, (3) development in exploitation of oil fields of the area and expansion of

cultivated lands in upstream areas of marshlands, in response to international sanctions. However,

political hostilities and conflicts against population of the region in 1991 was another purpose of

these constructions. Hence, these policies were executed in order to control water resources and

agricultural activities as the only income of local people of the region. Development of these water

constructions, with drying of agricultural lands downstream of the dams, expanded cultivated areas

initially. But, due to decrease in water flow over time, as a result of drought and dam building in

other countries, and increase in salt a considerable area of the lands newly cultivated were converted

into salty and decertified areas (Al-Ansari and Knutsson, 2011, (UNEP (2001) Partow, H).

Moreover, marshlands in extreme areas of the watershed were dried, up to 2003, into 10 % of its

initial extent due to a decrease in inflow water. This destruction is so severe that even after large

areas of the land is reclaimed (in desertification section of the report it will be discussed in more

details), the difference between the initial land and the reclaimed one is considerable (Figure 15).

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Figure 25 . Marshlands in southeast of Iraq (left picture) in 1973 and 2011 (IAU, 2012), remained

lands (dark green) and destructed lands (pale green). Historical stages in destruction of the

marshlands of Mesopotamia (Fitzpatrick, 2004).

In figure 25, in addition to destructed areas of marshland, the different stages in degradation of

vegetation are also depicted. The first essential changes in ecosystem of the region were occurred

through drainage operations in 1980s and 1990s. A considerable parts of marshland areas were dried.

Due to extreme evaporation and movement of salts to the surface, the area became considerably

salty. This is while with leveling and grading operations up to 2003 some of these vulnerable areas

were cultivated and irrigated again via reclamation operations.

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Figure 26. changes in marshlands of southeastern Iraq (Darvishi Bloorani, et al 2012).

Despite of extensive activities for reclamation of marshlands in southeast of Iraq in the recent

decade, a large area of the reclaimed region is again destructed and under the influence of erosion,

mainly due to the severe droughts in 2007 and 2009 (Figure 26). In this figure, the stages of severe

destruction of marshlands (2000 and 2003), reclamation of some parts (2006) and further destruction

of the reclaimed areas (2009) is depicted. In the recent years, some areas of marshland where had

been destructed in the past decades served as the sources of dust storms. These areas transferred huge

masses of dense dusts into southwest of Iran and the countries around Persian Gulf.

The regions under the influence of desertification and dust storm sources in southeast of Iraq are

located in an area where had been residential densely by human populations. Human factors of

desertification played a major role in destruction of the region unlike the northern half of Tigris and

Euphrates. The intensified cultivation from the past and the salt surface and subsurface water are the

principal factors of desertification in southeastern Iraq. In the recent decades, the policies of Iraq

central government in extreme exploitation of the lands of the area for agriculture in war and

sanction periods have intensified desert conditions in south of Tigris and Euphrates. Furthermore,

building a variety of hydro structures, impoundment of surface flows, drying of agricultural lands

and marshlands in southeast of Iraq are some other destructed areas under the influence of human

factors of desertification. Occurrence of severe drought, as natural factor of desertification, can be

considered as factors destructed reclaimed marshlands, intensified desertification and formed dust

storm sources southeast of Iraq.

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4. Desertification and dust storm phenomena in Sistan Region

Sistan Region has a water body downstream as Hamoon Plain. It was under the influence of

desertification and an active source of dust storm in past decades (Goudie and Middleton, 2006).

Hence, in most of desertification studies, the researchers paid more attention to this part of Sistan

Basin. The marshy land of Hamoon25 is located downstream of Sistan Basin (Figure 27). The plain is

equal to 2500 square kilometers (about 5 % of the entire basin) and in high water years entire of the

basin or a large part would be inundated (Beek, 2008). Helmand River provides a huge proportion of

water for Hamoon Lake. It originates from Hendookesh Highlands and passes all its way in east-west

direction in Afghanistan and reach the water body. Other major rivers of the water body are Khash,

Farah and the Arashkan Rivers.

Figure 27. Helmand Basin and hydro-structures built on that in Afghanistan (Beek, 2008)

Unlike other water bodies and terminal plains, salt content of Hamoon Lake is very low and it is a

freshwater resource. The main reason of this is washing of salts via flooding flows of Hirmand and

its transfer through Shile Passage into God e Zerreh Swamp. The freshwater resource, occasional

inundations of the rivers of the region, and water level changes of Hamoon, regardless of minor

damages, made these coasts, particularly delta of Helmand River, fertile and high population

intensity in historical periods. Archaeological surveys in Hamoon Plain have indicated that an

ancient civilization had been formed in a city entitled Burnt City about 5000 years ago and

dependent upon Hamoon Lake (UNEP, 2006). The present statistics also indicate that a large

population, about 400000 people who some are Afghan refugees, are inhabitants in a boundary

between Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan (Beek, 2008). It is noteworthy that majority of the

Puzak, Chong Sorkh. -e-Hamoon Hirmand, Hamoon Saberi, Hamoon Baringak, HamoonHamoon Plain is divided into 25

In addition, as the flow of water is submerged into Hamoon Plain (once in every 8 to 10 years) a depression entitled God

e Zerreh in Afghanistan would receive some of the flooding flow and salts (UNEP, 2006).

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population in Sistan Basin are living in the vicinity of Hamoon Lake within border of Iran. This is

while around the coast of the lake in Afghanistan and also along the rivers of the basin there are no

considerable population intensity due to economic and security issues (Izady, 2013b).

Figure 28. population intensity of Hamoon Plain (Izady, 2013b). Population within the border of

Afghanistan is not depicted on this figure.

One other physical characteristic of the region is blowing of the wind known as 120-day or Levar

Wind. This wind blow in a northwest-southeast direction in summer under the influence of high

pressure in north and northeast of Iran and a low pressure on Sistan Plain (Mofidi, 2013). In most of

the cases, the occurrence of the swift flow is concomitant with dense dust storms. With the

prevalence of desertification condition in the region it operate more overwhelmingly and destructive

(Figure 29).

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Figure 29. the general path of 120-day Wind and dust storms from dry plain od Hamoon (Khosravi,

2010).

However, based on the high population concentration around Hamoon (such as southeast of Iraq) the

role of human activities can be considered as one of the principal factors of desertification in the

region. In addition, unlike southeast Iraq, the rivers entering into the plain are not permanent and

surrounding water bodies and deltas are experiencing extreme fluctuations. Indeed, the agricultural

activities of the plain are affected by the extreme fluctuations of water levels and surface flows as the

nature of the region. In wet periods with water inundations entire of the plain or some part of that

was submerged and converted into a lake where its coasts were used for agriculture. While in some

other years, with a decrease in surface flows, the bed of Hamoon and its delta were converted into a

dry desert susceptible for erosion (Figure 30).

Figure 30. satellite image of Hamoon in 1976 and 2001 (Partow, 2003)

Building impoundment and regulation structures (as human factors) upon the rivers of Sistan Basin

(particularly Helmand) are likely to reduce surface flows in the region. The most important dams on

the basin in Afghanistan are Arghandab and Kajaki that were built in 1952 and 1953, respectively, by

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United States of America (Rashki, et al 2012) (Figure 27). These dams were initially constructed for

generation of electricity and development of agriculture. Due to incompetent management and

internal and external wars in the country, they are now performing far from their main functionality

and not much important in reduction of surface flow (UNEP, 2006). Hence, the importance of human

factor of dam building in reduction of surface flow and drying of Hamoon Lake may be negligible.

The main cause of these fluctuations may be the amount of precipitation in highlands of Afghanistan

as the main input into the rivers. Barlow et al. (2005) emphasize that each synoptic system has two

separate sectors of ascending and descending air masses. They believe that unusual increase in air

temperature in Indian Ocean and subsequent ascend of air from this water body are concomitant with

descending of air upon south west of Asia particularly on Afghanistan and Iran. Obvious results of

such a process would be very severe droughts in the region. Based on the last studies, precipitation

fluctuations from 1985 to 2004 caused two periods when the extent of Hamoon Lake was decreased

overwhelmingly in 1985-1988 and 2000-2004. Between the years of 1988-1993 and 1994-1999, the

extent of Hamoon Lake was more than average and up to average, respectively (Delft hydraulics

2006). Rashki (2012) used satellite images and ground stations in order to examine the role of

reduction in the extent of Hamoon in intensification of desert condition and formation of dust

masses. Nevertheless, their results are inconsistent with findings of Delft hydraulics institute (2006)

in specifying periods of increase and decrease in extent of Hamoon Lake. The reason of this

inconsistency may be the fact that Rashki (2012) have more focused on Puzak and Baringak, while

in the other study the extent of entire lake has been studied. However, coincidence of dust storm

events of the region with changes in extent of Hamoon Lake is indicative of the prominent role of the

water bodies in intensification or weakening of desert condition downstream the basin and

occurrence of dust storm events (Figure 31).

Figure 31. the extent of dried areas in Hamoon Puzak and Hamoon Baringak (in %) and number of

days with dust storms in Hamoon Plain (Rashki, 2012)

Additional studies by Rashki et al (2012) are indicative of continuation of drying in Hamoon Lake

bed and intensification in occurrence of dust storm events in east of Iran until 2010. It was so that

just in 2008, more than 120 days with dust storms were recorded. This is while the number is 47 days

in an average of 40 years (Figure 32). Simultaneity of intensification of dust storm events in Hamoon

and Iraq and Syria may be typical of an extensive and severe drought. Statement about such a

drought involves more supplementary and detailed investigations.

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Figure 32. Number of days with dust storms (with visibility less than 2 km), recorded at Zabol Station

in Hamoon Hirmand Delta (Rashki et al, 2012)

The main cause of intensification in desert condition in the region is drought in Afghanistan, severe

reduction in surface flow of Sistan Basin and drying of Hamoon Lake. However, the role of

agricultural activities in destruction of cultivated lands and acceleration of soil erosion cannot be

ignored. According to the information hardly available (due to security issues in the region), about

120000 hectares of lands in the region are now cultivated. If the recent drought is continued and

hydro-structures are reconstructed in Afghanistan, the cultivated lands may convert into desert

regions and permanent sources of dust storms. Hence, based on the conducted studies, the best

solution to cope with these conditions is that reduce cultivated lands to about 21000 hectares (Delft

hydraulics, 2006).

As it was mentioned, desertification and dust storm in Hamoon Plain is resulted from severe drought

in Afghanistan, reduction of surface flow, drying of Hamoon Lake and the surrounding delta. The

role of constructed dams on the rivers of Sistan Basin and agricultural activities seems to be less

effective in generating desert condition in the region. However, getting more deterministic results

involves more detailed investigations. Presence of concentrated cultivation over delta section of

Hamoon Lake has been effective on intensification of desert condition.

5. Desertification and dust storm phenomena in Aral Sea Region

The area among the border of Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan one of the most extensive basins and the

fourth largest lake of the world, entitled Aral Sea, is included; the lake has a basin about 2.7 million

square kilometers and an area about 68300 square kilometers (UNEP, 2005). Amu Darya and Syr

Darya are the main rivers of this drainage basin (Figure 33). Approximately 68 and 32 % of water

flow from highlands of Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Afghanistan and other countries of

Central Asia (proportional to 51, 25, 10, 9, and 5 %, respectively) are conveyed into this lake by the

two rivers (Chatterjee, 2007).

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Figure 33. drainage basin of Aral Sea (UNEP and ENVSEC, 2011)

Although in different parts of Aral Sea the influence of desertification processes such as erosion and

saltification require more examination, but same as Sistan Basin the most obvious result of the

processes is observable in terminal part at Lake of Aral. In other words, majority of studies in

relation to desertification in the basin were mainly focused upon drying of Aral Sea, erosion and

destruction of surrounding deltas.

Figure 34. the process of drying at Aral Sea (UNEP and ENVSEC 2011)26 and the occurrence of dust

storms as a result of desertification (Earth Observatory, 2010)27

In the second half of twentieth century (particularly in 1960s) Aral Sea has experienced essential sea

level changes. A retrogressive decadence is continuing till now. Direct result of the sea level decline

and drying of surrounding deltas is severe dust storms (Figure 34). This in turn can be a cause for

intensification of desertification in neighboring regions (Micklin, 2007).

As it was mentioned earlier, similar aspect of Aral and Sistan Basin is drying and desertification in

downstream water bodies. This is while; it seems the principal causes of drying in the two lakes are

completely different. Population density maps in Aral Basin indicate well distribution of human

population over the region (Figure 35). Concentration of human population is mainly along rivers

d. The original picture has more details, for needs and restrictions of this study some parts have been remove 26

earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=43299 27

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and on deltas. In other words, in Sistan Basin population concentration is low in upstream areas; this

is because of different problems in Afghanistan as the origins of the rivers of the basin and the

absence of required possibilities for development of human societies. Therefore, reduction of surface

flow and drying of Hamoon cannot be attributed to human activities upstream. This is while in Aral

Basin human societies are greatly concentrated in nearest locations relative to river flows. So, the

principal reason for drying of Aral might be reduction of surface flows as a result of development of

agricultural activities (human factor) in neighboring countries (Aladin, 2007).

Figure 35. population concentration in Central Asian Region (UNEP and ENVSEC, 2011)

In order to revive decaying economy of Central Asian countries including Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan,

Tajikistan, and others, the government of Soviet Union in 1960s made it mandatory that cotton must

be cultivated in some fertile lands (UN, 2011). Need for huge volume of water for continuous

irrigation is one of the characteristics of this product. Hence, the government has decided to

construct diversion canals to convey river flow towards the lands previously had dry condition

(UNEP and ENVSEC, 2011). Karkum Canal is an eminent huge construction that conveys a

considerable volume of water (500 million cubic meters) towards the previously dry lands in

Turkmenistan. Approximately 90 % of the water conveyed by this canal and other constructions

upon Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers are consumed for agricultural activities particularly cotton

and recently wheat (Chatterjee, 2007). In 1950 to 1990, the area of the cultivated portions

surrounding Amu Darya and Syr Darya has experienced unprecedented increase, about 150 and 130

%, respectively. It is noteworthy that some countries including Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and

Uzbekistan are increasingly dependent upon incomes from agricultural products. As in the countries

about 20, 25, and 28 %, respectively, of gross domestic product are provided by these goods (UNEP

and ENVSEC, 2011). Although, the prosperity of agricultural activities in the region saved economy

of the countries, but reduction and pollution of surface flow are destructive consequences of the

activities dependent upon irrigation. Both the reduction and pollution of surface flows exacerbate

desertification processes in Aral and the riparian areas of the flows downstream. Consequence of the

reduction in water flow of Aral Basin can easily be observed in drying out of the terminal lake.

Decay of Amu Darya and Syr Darya by salinization and entrance of wastewater into the rivers are

considered as environmental crisis in the region. The final consequence of these crises will be

appeared in the near future (UN, 2011). Based on researches (Spoor, 1998) the salinity ratio in

agricultural wastewater and the primary water used (the water entered into farms for irrigation) is

between 3.3 and 7.1 gallon per liter along Amu Darya River. This salinity along with municipal

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wastewater has such enormous destructive potential that may convert the reclaimed lands again into

dry areas (Spoor, 1998).

Multiple use of agricultural wastewater downstream of Aral Basin has more devastating impacts. The

extent of lands with high salinity was increased about 57 % just in a decade, from 1990 to 2000, on

Amu Darya Basin (increased from 1.16 to 1.82 million hectares). The situation was more violent in

the lands irrigated by Syr Darya River, i.e., the value was 79 % (increased from 0.34 to 0.61 million

hectares) (UNEP, 2005). In the recent years there were attempts to rehabilitate Aral Lake and to

reform agricultural techniques in the region. These works have obtained some achievements such as

reclamation of northern Aral (IFAS28, 2003). Because of some factors, devastation of agricultural

lands of the water body and its coastal regions was not far from expected. These factors are including

dependence of the region economy on agricultural activities, political discords in the region, and also

the need for enormous volume of water to rehabilitate Aral Sea (Micklin, 2007).

Temperature change is another influencing factor in the region. As it was mentioned about Tigris and

Euphrates, increase in temperature affects the temporal distribution of surface flows resulted from

snow melting. The increase makes a shift in maximum flow of the region from middle of the warm

season to the early of warm season. This condition is obviously recorded both the rivers. Although,

the total flow discharged was not altered in the two rivers, inter-annual fluctuations indicate increase

in surface flows in the early of warm period (Sulton, 2009). The result of this condition is

deterioration of the effects of dryness when the water is absent in the middle and the late of warm

period.

Figure 36. Regions under the influence of desertification in Aral Sea Region

Figure 36 indicate the areas affected by desertification in Aral Sea Basin. Majority of the areas of

dust storm generation (the yellow arrows in the figure) are coincident with dried portions of Aral Sea

and also the coasts of the basin. These areas in long time didn’t have biological potential under the

influence of cultivation. As a result, principal factor of desertification and formation of dust storm

sources in Aral could be due to high population density. The consequence of this influence is

extreme exploitation of water resources and agricultural lands. This, in turn, led to drying out of

. International Fund of Rescue of Aral28

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terminal water bodies and vehement devastation of previously fertile lands on the coasts of the rivers.

Temperature increase, changes in seasonal intensity of surface flows and increase of dryness in the

middle of warm season are also other factors of intensification of drying condition and desertification

in the region.

As a conclusion of these studies on desertification in different areas of the world, this can be said that

human factors, particularly population density and movements, play an incontrovertible role in the

destruction of biological resources. Indeed, in most of the regions under the influence of

desertification, the human needs for water, soil, and vegetation resources to meet their requirements

for subsistence cause destruction of soil surface and vegetation. In these regions soil productivity has

a decaying trend that impedes regrowth of natural and agricultural vegetation. Consequently, erosion

of bare soil by water and wind flows is inevitable. In addition to human factors, drought is also an

important cause of desertification. This appears as main factor in some regions such as Hamoon.

Although getting more exact results about the factors of desertification and appropriate solutions

involves detailed studies. For this we need to consider the followings:

1. Inadequate information to show a clear description of desertification and the proportion of

natural and human factors is one of the major defects of the conducted studies, particularly in

the WAR. In most of the researches because of the rareness in available data, the researchers

explained the influence of these factors in general conclusions. For the same reason, there is

not the possibility to show a clear and precise explanation of desertification, especially in the

WAR. This is while; the principal goal of the studies about the factors of desertification is

precise segregation of the effective factors and determining the proportions of these factors.

This targeted to provide suitable solutions to combat desertification and then dust storms. In

other words, as long as the exact identification of desertification factors is not realized, use of

the combat methods cannot be optimistic. Hence, in addition to individual works in research

centers, the required information for the exact segregation of the factors must be obtained by

operational and field works in local scales. By this way and creation of comprehensive

database, not only the solutions for combating desertification would be more competent, but

possible changes in the expansion of the affected areas would be more accurate.

2. Disregarding conduction of studies with comprehensive approach is another defect of the

available researches. In many of the studies in this field the mere attention to the human or

natural factors of desertification presented some results that did not have the integrity and

confidence for operational and execution stages to combat the disaster. As a result, one of the

opportunities is comprehensive study of desertification factors. It is noteworthy that the

success of any execution plan is greatly dependent upon investigations about exact

characteristics of dust storm sources including water, soil and vegetation resources.

6. Solutions to combat desertification

The aim of the works mentioned here is mainly achievement of required information for taking

efficient method in combating desertification and subsequently decreasing dust storm events. In

other words, the success of presented solutions in execution stages is related essentially to precision

and accuracy of the studies in research stages. These are particularly important in recognition of the

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factors of dust storm generation and characteristics of the sources. Spatial-temporal properties of the

desertified areas are appeared as another important issue. In fact, recognition of the factors in

destruction of biologic resources is one of the essential elements for tackling this phenomenon.

However, developing indices and systems for monitoring spatial and temporal changes of desertified

and desertifing areas can be considered as another necessary measure to check expansion of desert

boundaries. The importance of the on time detection of desert boundaries expansion would be clear

when conversion of an area from semidesert state into desert one means complete destruction of that

area. In such situations it would be very difficult or impossible to return to the previous conditions.

Hence, in every ecosystem non-desert (with good vegetation cover) and desert (without vegetation)

are known as stable condition while semiarid conditions are unstable or bi-stable (Figure 37 a).

Figure 37. different states in an ecosystem (D’Odorico, 2013). a: stable and unstable, b: resiliency to

its previous state (transient)

Based on this fact, if a region is fallen in a desert condition, despite of its negative effects on human

and natural ecosystem, the ecosystem will reach a stable state that it can be difficult to return to its

previous transient or unstable state (semidesert). On the other hand, the closer is an ecosystem to the

extreme of curve, more difficult would be its return to the previous state. This is called less resilient

condition. Although, the state of a region in non-desert condition is stable for ecosystem but it is less

stable relative to desert condition. This is well illustrated in Figure 37 b representing the sharper

slope of the curve towards desert condition. In fact, disregarding densely vegetated areas, they will

take the same trend taken by desert areas. So, they convert from desert condition into semidesert and

eventually into complete degradation and desertification (D’Odorico, 2013). Therefore, recognition

of efficient indices to diagnose spatial and temporal distribution of desert condition and possible

changes is a subject in the studies aimed at tackling desertification. Obtaining deterministic indices

of desertified or transient areas provides the authorities with necessary information to select accurate

and appropriate ways. First, we explore the indices for assessment of desertification and then

consider the practical solutions for combating the phenomena.

- Desertification monitoring indices

As it was mentioned, degradation and decline of soil productivity are the main consequence of

desertification. As a result, in some studies, the detection of influenced areas by desertification is

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accomplished by indices for measuring vegetation growth changes. Normalized Difference

Vegetation Index (NDVI)29 is the most applicable index. Lin et al (2006) used this index and MODIS

satellite images to measure annual dimensions of desert areas in China from 2000 to 2005. In another

study, Kundu and Dutta (2011) examined desertification condition in Rajesttan State in northwest of

India by NDVI from AVHRR images30. They also estimated the correlation between precipitation

and NDVI. They attributed vegetation decreases to human factors for areas where vegetation has

negative relation with precipitation. In contrast, they attributed increment of vegetation to climatic

fluctuations for areas with positive correlation (i.e., natural factors).

Figure 38. The areas under the influence of desertification in north China from 2000 to 2005 (Lin, et al

2006)

), where NIR is Near Infrared and R is Red portion of electromagnetic spectrum. )R) / (NIR+RNDVI= (NIR−( 29

http://glcf.umd.edu/data/gimms 30

http://glcf.umd.edu/data/gimms

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Figure 39. Correlation coefficient of precipitation and NDVI in Churu, Rajestan State and (B) the trend

of change in the region

This may not be possible to determine the human or natural causes of desertification in a region just

by relying on the correlation between two datasets of precipitation and vegetation. However, the

results of the study indicate that changes in NDVI may be influenced by occasional variations in

precipitation. This is while; the vegetation changes do not mean definite changes in climate,

permanent destruction and desertification in the region31. Rain-use efficiency index is a method for

eliminating the effects of temporal climatic fluctuations resulted from vegetation indices. The index

is resulted from the coefficient between amount of vegetation and precipitation of a region. To

obviate this problem, Symeonakis and Drake (2004) believe that use of NPP32 index, as useful and

useable energy stored in plants, is more competent than NDVI. Although, NPP is derived from

NDVI, but in NPP equation (equation 1) sum of the values of NDVI are calculated in longer time

intervals to eliminate the slight fluctuations in datasets. It is noteworthy that, the values of NPP that

have initially been used to determine the regression equation are calculated through field surveys or

other information sources.

𝑁𝑃𝑃 (𝐾𝑔𝐶

𝑎

𝑡) = (𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑁𝐷𝑉𝐼) ± 𝑐 Equation (1)

Where, NPP is net primary production index, Kg C is kilogram Calory, b and c are gain and offset,

respectively. Using this equation and based on the coefficient between the NPP index and

NPP/Rainfall index, Symeonakis and Drake (2004) estimated desert condition prevailing on center

and south of Africa for 1996 (Figure 40). From the results of rain-use efficiency this can be

concluded that the values of this index are low in all the arid and semiarid regions. The main reason

This does not deny influence of climate changes on destruction of soil biological capacity. But, it implies that in 31

desertification studies we should eliminate occasional changes of climate. It also notes the fact that approval of climate

change for a long time involves more comprehensive investigations than just examination of trends of data.

Net primary production 32

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for this may be the slight growth of vegetation due to overwhelming evapotranspiration in such

regions. Nevertheless, the values of this index in arid regions affected by desertification are less than

non-desertified regions. Finally, though in this study just one map was drawn, but for better

understanding of desertification trend in the region it seems necessary to calculate the index for

several consecutive years and even for several decades. Doing so may have great ability for

monitoring the trend of changes.

Figure 40. the amount of effective precipitation (dry matter in kilogram per hectare per year in

millimeter) in central and south Africa in 1996 (Symeonakis and Drake, 2004).

Although, vegetation growth is somewhat representative of soil health and high productivity, but

some plants like Chañar as halophyte plant adapted to desert areas cannot be a good criterion for

biological health for an area (Collado, 2002). Hence, Symeonakis and Drake (2004) recommended

other indices in addition to NDVI for monitoring of desert condition. They maintain that runoff

coefficient (ratio of runoff flow to effective storm rainfall, i.e., the total rainfall that can produce

surface flow) is one of the most competent indices to recognize destructed areas33. This is evident

that destructed areas which lose their vegetation have more coefficient of surface flow relative to the

surrounding regions. They also presented an additional relation to assess rate of soil erosion

(equation 2).

VceSkOFE 07.066.12 Equasion (2)

unoff. Details of these methods are out of the scope of this The study used complicated relations to acquire surface r 33

paper. Runoff data can be collected from NECP and ECMWF.

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Where, E is amount of soil erosion in millimeter, k is the coefficient of erodibility, OF is the amount

of surface flow, S is slope of region, and Vc represents percent of vegetation. The areas susceptible

to erosion and destruction in Africa have been depicted using these two indices (Figure 41).

Figure 41. (A) the areas under the influence of desert condition based on surface runoff coefficient and (B) based on

intensity of erosion (Symeonakis and Drake, 2004).

In figure (41-A), there is a black color circle in the northeast Africa where has the most destruction

of biological resources based on runoff coefficient. This area in figure (41-B), which shows the

desertification map based on soil erosion, is depicted as a vulnerable region. As the data from these

maps be considered simultaneously, it is clear that the area has semiarid condition with very sparse

vegetation cover. As a result, as long as the surface runoff is increasing in the area (Figure 41-A), all

the conditions lead to severe erosion of surface soil (Figure 41-B).

Xiao et al (2006) work presented the criteria for measuring desertification in northeast China (Inter

Mongolia). In this study, changes in soil texture are considered as a criterion to determine the rate of

destruction in biological resources. Indeed, premise of the research is that in the areas under the

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influence of desertification processes texture of the surface soil undergoes changes from silt and clay

into coarser grains of sand. From the view point of remote sensing image analysis, each of the soil

textures has particular behavior in electromagnetic spectrum. As silt and clay increase in soils with

finer grain sizes, the reflected flux will be decreased. In contrary, the increment of sand coarse grains

in soil, there will be an increase in the reflected flux34. In this study, the trend of changes in the

boundaries of desert areas is measured by GSI (Grain Size Index, equation 3) using Landsat TM amd

ETM+ images for 1993 and 2000, respectively.

BGRBRGSI / Equasion (2)

Where, R, G, and B are Red, Green, and Blue bands of Landsat imager, respectively. In this relation

the numerator is used to differentiate vegetation from barren areas. The difference of these two bands

in the areas with dense vegetation cover is negligible, while for non-vegetated areas this has

maximum values. On the other hand, the changes of denominator are related to diameter of grain

sizes. As a result, using this index not only the quality of vegetation and its changes is revealed, but

soil texture and its changes over time can also be discerned. The output range of this equation is from

minus zero to 0.2 or more. Water bodies and vegetation covers have minus values close to zero and

desert areas have values close to 0.2 or more. By this way, it is possible to clearly determine the

boundaries of desert and destructed areas (e.g., figure 42). One of the implications of the results is

concentration of desert regions around the surface flows. It is likely that the destructed agricultural

lands are dependent upon the river flows.

Figure 42. GSI equation used in northeast China (Xiao, et al 2006)

Abdul Jabbar et al (2010) determined vegetation changes in marshlands of southeast Iraq. In this

study, addition to using NDVI, they introduced Temporal Classification Comparison (TCC) as a

competent index to distinguish vegetation changes, water bodies, and finally expansion in desert

areas. They classified high spatial resolution images (such as Landsat) in different time periods to

specify environmental changes, particularly in water bodies and vegetation. In figure 43, the stages

Despite the facts, according to Clark (1999) in some regions increase in grain size shows decrease in reflected flux. 34

This could be due to other parameters like humidity and etc.

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of degradation in marshlands of Iraq can be observed. This is while; the classification of images

(1973) indicates considerable proportion of vegetation in marshland areas. In 1990, the water bodies

and densely vegetation covers were replaced by clay soils and agricultural lands. In 2000, addition to

more destruction of water bodies and dense vegetation covers, the desert areas (Sebkha) can clearly

be observed in floodplains of previous decades.

Figure 43. classification of surface vegetation covers in marshlands of southeastern Iraq (Abdul Jabbar, 2010)

Fadhil (2009) determined the rate of sand dune expansion in central areas of Iraq by Normalized

Differential Sand Dune Index (NDSDI) from Landsat (equation 4 and Figure 44).

2/2 SWIRRSWRIRRNDSDI Equasion (4)

Where, R and SWIR2 are red and shortwave infrared (between 2.08 and 2.35) bands in Landsat

Imager, respectively. The range is as -1<NDSDI>1. Sand covered areas have negative values,

vegetated areas are positive and the water bodies show the highest frequency of positive values. As

the results, from 1990 to 2000 the sand covered areas in central Iraq have vigorously increased. This

is typical of intensification of desertification and dust storm events in the country.

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Figure 44. ten year changes of sand dunes in central Iraq (Fadhil, 2009)

Despite of the capabilities of the indices, many of them rather to indicate desertification are just able

to specify the boundaries of the areas where either are completely desertified or destruction of

biological resources is in final stages. However, the main purpose of such studies is quick

recognition of vulnerable areas to take appropriate approaches in order to prevent degradation of

natural and human resources and to advise a planning for rehabilitation. Taking a precautious

measure to happening of desertification, Sepehr et al. (2007) specified most of the factors effective in

destruction of biological resources. They attempted to determine the relative importance and weights

of each factor. They classified different regions by a variety of indices. In addition to determining

desertified areas, they suggested the areas vulnerable relative to this phenomenon. Here, each factor

that is effective in desertification, e.g., soil texture, is considered as a layer. According to this

method, all the factors as layers are assigned weights, from 1 as the least effective to 2 as the most

effective. This weighting is based on the magnitude of their influence in desertification (by expert

opinion). Then, using geometric mean, the different layers were converted into one of the main

indices, e.g., soil quality index (equation 5).

nnx LayerLayerLayerIndex

1

21 ...* Equasion (5)

Where, x represents the indices obtained from layers, and n is the number of layers applied to

provide the index of interest. Using this equation, they offered 6 indices of Soil Quality, Climate,

Vegetation, Erosion, Ground Water, and Demography. Then, the information layers obtained from

these indices were combined again using equation 5 to give the final layer. The final combined layer

indicated, as it can be seen in Figure 45, intensity of desertification in Fidoye–Garmosht plain in Fars

province, southwest Iran.

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Figure 45. intensity of desertification in Fidoye–Garmosht Plain southwest of Iran (Sepehr, 2007)

- Approaches to combat desertification and dust storm

Taking competent approaches in combating against desertification and subsequently dust storms

involves assumption of the fact that the dust storms are resulted from both human and natural factors.

Hence, the solution for this problem can be the most efficient if they are presented as a package

containing environmental, social, economic, cultural and even political solutions. All the factors led

to generation and development of deserts are must be considered as a whole. One-factoral

approaches cannot be optimistic for the solution. For example, mere focus on rehabilitation

operations in devastating areas and stabilization of erodible regions, disregarding the deficiencies of

local people may just solve the problem temporarily and cannot make definite treatment. Moreover,

the emphasis on the use of the method of stabilization for the regions under the influence of erosion

may be just efficient for cases which dust storm sources are limited and desertification factors are

just restricted in the surrounding areas. In occurrence of huge pervasive dust storms especially in the

WAR, this can be observed that wind-blown deposits are originated from vast areas in thousands of

kilometers. The natural and human influencing factors of these storms are derived from trans-

boundary vast areas. Therefore, for combating huge dust storms due to desertification, priority must

be given to the approaches that are economically operational in vast areas. In most of the studies, the

emphasis is upon the operational works and activities for combating at the dust storm sources where

are coincident with the desertification phenomenon. Nevertheless, in the recent years some new

advanced technologies may be coming to confine the event of dust storms through direct checking of

the moving dust particles. It seems there must be more researches to find out about the applicability

of new technologies and their possible environmental effects.

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Here, it will be attempted to choose some successful experiences from the regions afflicted by this

problem. These experiences include novel methods of combating desertification, particularly those

emphasizing on management of human activities. Since the examples of the activities in America

have been mentioned in the section of factors of desertification and the lack of considerable activities

in Africa, we avoid discussion about the activities in these two regions. Hence, the activities done in

China as a country with huge experiences in tackling with desertification are reviewed. Finally, we

have tried to assess the operations that recently carried out in WAR.

7. Activities against desertification in China

About 34 % of China has high potential to convert into desert. So, the country has begun one of the

most extensive plans against desertification since 1987. In the recent years, all desertification

activities of China have been focused on three domains: (1) promotion of science and technology

related to desertification, (2) the adoption of programmatic approaches appropriate to the condition

of each region, (3) securing policy and legislation support to guarantee the programs. Based on

conducted planning, the first stage of research works must lead to formulation of theoretical

principles. These make the necessary background for recognition and modeling of temporal pattern

and spatial distribution of desertification and its generating causes. Moreover, finding of

technologies appropriate to circumstances of a region and finally establishment of monitoring,

forecasting and early warning systems is the other goals of this stage of studies. In the second stage,

the activities against desertification got more practical perspectives. By this way, the appropriate

approach to the natural and human condition of a region will be taken based on the findings of

studies and researches in this stage. The set of actions that are carried out in the third stage are

allocated to formulation of the laws and making policies. The laws and policies somehow advocate

the actions conducted in previous stages.

The results of these types of research activities, in the first stage, is the identification of resistant

plant species and devise of monitoring, forecasting, and early warning systems for different regions

of China. The de-desertification of three north (Northeast, North and Northwest China) or Great

Green Wall are eminent examples in operational activities against desertification. Although, the

operations have been initiated before planning and aiming at combating desertification, when the

planning was conducted, it appeared in new configurations. In some parts of northern China, the plan

had considerable achievements including increase in vegetation cover from 5.05 % at the beginning

to 6.05 % in 2001. The achievements of several other operational activities are the results of the

changes in aiming against desertification that was begun in 1991 and was also relatively successful

in the form of 10 year project entitled “A National Plan to Combat Desertification”. The occurrence

of several devastating dust storms in 2000 resulted in formulation of another project in this year to

continue the de-desertification programs. This was mainly carried out by planting of saplings in

suburb of Beijing. Furthermore, another project was executed from 1999 to 2002 to convert

agricultural marginal lands into pasture and forest regions. This project was adopted warmly by

farmers. Based on this project, the farmers get financial supports and foods for the lands that they

converted into forest areas. Finally, the prominent example of the legal support of the activities was

approval of the Law on Preventing and Combating Desertification (LPCD) by national congress of

China in 2001. It was executed in 2002. Based on the law, three main steps must be taken till 2050:

(1) preventing the intensification of desertification (from 2002 to 2010), (2) decreasing the

dimensions of desert areas (2010 -2030), and (3) development of resistant biomes in vulnerable areas

(2030-2050).

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Despite of all the activities and successes in China, there are many problems that impede full

achievement of the goals. One is the lack of a unified decision making organization for de-

desertification activities. Although, State Forestry Administration (SFA) of China is responsible for

formulating the activities related to desertification, but about 18 other ministries and organizations

are influencing the decision making processes. Deficiencies in financial resources are another reason

for failure of de-desertification projects in the country. For example, the costs required for

reclamation was 750 Yuan per hectare, and the maximum funding performed for this was just 75.

The third obstacle is a top-down development approach or a mandatory development plan from

government to the public in executing local and regional projects, instead of participatory

development with local people. This is not only for this country and also not only for desertification

activities. In many of developing countries, development projects are executed by mandatory process

and top-down approaches. The importance of local people participation in planning is disregarded in

contexts of the execution projects. This was the reason for failure of many mega-projects. As it was

mentioned, the limited participation of local people who are involved in desertification problems is

another important obstacle in achievement to the goal of combating against devastation of biological

resources (Lu, et al 2006).

Therefore, about desertification and de-desertification phenomenon in China it can be concluded that

despite of several decades of experiences in combating against desertification and some successes

obtained, the country was not able to achieve the specified goals. This is because of the lack of

adequate financial support, may be due to the vast extent of desert areas affected, the limited

participation by local people in formulating the programs, and also the lack of unification among the

organizations. These are also the tips that must be regarded in planning for de-desertification efforts

not only in China but in other countries afflicted by the phenomenon.

8. Activities against desertification in the WAR

As it was mentioned in the section of the extent of desertification, the WAR is faced with extreme

vulnerability of bio-resources. The countries of Iraq, Syria, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan have

watersheds and vast plains where are extremely devastated. There areas are now in the center of

considerations for combating against desertification activities and dust storm events. In this section,

we try to scrutinize some works previously carried out. This scrutinizing is mainly focused on

Mesopotamia and briefly on Sistan Watershed and Aral Lake Basin.

- Activities against desertification in Sistan Watershed

Sistan Watershed has very complicated environmental circumstances, particularly in Hamoon Lake

as the terminal area of the drainage (Figure 46). Now, Afghanistan does not have stable political and

social condition. In addition, the main destruction of biological resources is occurred surrounding

Hamoon Plain as the terminal basin. Most of the studies were mainly concentrated on Hamoon for

water resource management in borders of Iran. Due to poverty in the region, people need to use

natural resources, e.g., agriculture in deltas and fisheries in Hamoon water body. On the other hand,

the policies of Afghan government are focused on agricultural activities. Therefore, Hamoon and

surrounding deltas are increasingly devastating. The direct result of this can be observed in

desertification and formation of huge dust storms in the region. In one hand, this is necessary to meet

the substantial needs of local people, and on the other, this is also essential to protect natural

resources for sustainable development. Therefore, Water Research Institute (WRI) of Iran with the

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collaboration of research consortium of the Netherland managed by Delft Hydraulic research group

(2006) made an effort to predict forthcoming condition related to changes in agricultural activities

and its impacts on water resources of the region.

Figure 46. position of Hamoon Lake (Beek, et al 2008)

Based on the conducted studies, about 36 % of the people in the region are dependent on water

resources for their subsistence, i.e., agriculture and fisheries. Furthermore, the unemployment rate

has been estimated about 50% for this region. In such condition, development of agricultural

activities seems to be necessary. Total cultivated agricultural lands have been estimated to be about

120,000 hectares. Central government of Iran plan to increase the agricultural lands up to 125,000

hectares in order to solve unemployment problem. This is while water resources are scarce in the

region and even access to water for drinking can just be possible by using chahnimeh (small lake)

(Figure 46) that water storage is about 950 million cubic meters in them. The maximum volume of

water available is about 5.935 million cubic meters per year. This value often decreases up to 1.196

with sharp declines in surface flow. But, the required water for agricultural activities covering now

an area of 120,000 hectares is about 2.096 million cubic meters. What is notable here is that even if

the required water for agricultural purposes with the present volume (2.096 cubic meters) is supplied,

about 50% of the area of Hamoon Lake will be disappeared. These conditions are clearly indicative

of the fact that there are water shortage and pressure on water resources in the region. Therefore, this

is not feasible to increase agricultural activities without regarding the resources. In order to

investigate the different alternatives and their impacts on development of agricultural activities and

natural ecosystem of the region particularly Hamoon water body, the research group for the region

outlined the integrated water resources management. They also have explored different conditions of

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water allocation to agriculture and other sectors using RIBASIM software model35. In execution of

this model they analyzed the situation of supply and demand in water resources and agricultural

sector in base case. They also outlined five different strategies: (1) building storages (chahnimeh 4)

merely to supply drinking water requirements; (2) adhering the conditions of the first strategy in

addition to the possibility to exploit the water storage under construction for agriculture; (3)

developing irrigated cultivated areas from 120000 hectares into 245000 hectares (the increase of

125000 hectares) without using the water storages under construction; (4) adhering the conditions of

the third strategy in addition to the possibility to exploit the water storage under construction for

agriculture; (5) decreasing irrigated cultivated areas from 120000 into 21000 hectares in order to

monitor changes in Hamoon. Basing the planning on the ecosystem and economic condition of this

region in 1970s as ideal conditions occurred in the region, the impacts of current conditions on the

five strategies were investigated in 7 economic and ecosystem perspectives. These 7 perspectives

are: (1) rate of guarantee in supplying drinking water; (2) rate of the coefficient between supply and

demand for required water in agriculture sector; (3) rate of production in agricultural sector; (4) rate

of production in fisheries sector (aquatics of Hamoon); (5) vulnerability in ecology of Hamoon; (6)

vulnerability in health of local people (under the influence of dust storm events); (7) the number of

years with minimum profit about 50 % in agriculture and fisheries in 1970s.

The results from executing the model based on the present state and the five strategies are as follows,

ecosystem and economic conditions resulted from:

1. the present state: given the coefficient of 0.63 between supply and demand in agriculture

sector, this is now undoubtedly infeasible to meet the requirements of the sector from these

resources. Any increase in the area of agricultural lands just deteriorates the situation.

2. the first strategy (building new water reservoir merely for drinking use): if this strategy is

taken the agricultural sector, as it is expected, will be damaged and, however, the guarantee

for supplying drinking water will be the most. The Hamoon will also be affected by these

changes.

3. second strategy (building new water reservoir for simultaneous use in drinking and

agricultural sectors): taking this strategy causes prosperity and enhancement in agricultural

sector and a decline in securing of drinking water supply. However, the condition may be

improved by legislation of some particular laws concerning exploitation of the reservoir.

4. the third strategy (development of agricultural areas without application of the reservoir

under construction): although by this strategy the agricultural activities will to some extent be

developed, but the rate of securing access to water resources will be declined to unacceptable

level of 0.42 for agriculturists. Furthermore, ecosystem of Hamoon is severely devastated,

return period of drying in Hamoon Saberi is affected and this increases the risk of dust

storms. The return period of Hamoon overflow will be dropped to 17 years (for time of

studies this was 11 years) that increases thickness of salt masses.

5. the fourth strategy (development of agricultural areas using the storages under construction):

although the strategy can improve farming in the region, but the rate of securing supplying

aulics and WRI, Delft hydr( Integrated Water Resources Management for the Sistan Closed Inland Delta, Iran“Refer to 35

2006)” to see more for use of the model and data.

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water is retained 0.45 % that is due to constant capacity of the water storage under

construction. Moreover, the rate of accessibility of local people to drinking water resources

may be decreased. This can be improved by reforms in some laws.

6. fifth strategy (decreasing the cultivation area under irrigation to 21000 hectares): if this

strategy is taken, though the agricultural sector will undergo enormous deficiencies but the

guarantee for supplying water in drinking and the remained farming areas will be increased.

This is noteworthy that the results are estimated with the assumption that the input of water from

Afghanistan into Iran will not be altered in the following years. In the case of increase in exploitation

from surface and ground water resources and decrease in input water into Hamoon, the destructions

can be more severe than those can be appeared due to surface flow changes inside Iran. The reason is

that the main part of water entering into Hirmand is originated from Afghanistan. Hirmand is the

only surface flow from inside Iran which affects the water body.

As final result of the study this can be stated that more than the influence of shortage in resources

upon the agricultural activities what may be more influential is the present water fluctuations in the

resources. These variations cause severe alterations in the extent of farming lands and subsequently

more erosion. Furthermore, the agricultural activities with the present extent (120000 hectares) can

just be accomplished by building new water storages. Any increase in that can lead to severe

destruction of biological resources. Even with supplying the required water for agricultural activities,

Hamoon will be fallen in extent. This means increase of areas prone to generating dust storms.

Finally, this can be said that any changes in regulation or impoundment of surface flows in

Afghanistan make it impossible to supply water for agricultural activities in Iran. These are

conditions that emphasize on mutual cooperation between the two countries to determine their water

right in order to achieve a sustainable development, particularly in agricultural sector.

- Activities against desertification Tigris and Euphrates Watershed

As it was mentioned in section of factors of desertification, a considerable part of the processes,

particularly the human ones, are occurring downstream of Tigris and Euphrates drainage. These

situations led to increasingly destruction of vegetation covers and marshlands in southeast of Iraq.

Hence, one of the prominent activities against desertification phenomenon in the WAR was executed

here by support of international institutions in order to rehabilitate the marshlands (Figure 47).

Financial funding in the project entitled “Support for Environmental Management of The Iraqi

Marshlands” was underwritten based on an agreement between this country and Japan with supports

by Italy. The project was executed by UNEP and the Iraqi experts from 2004 to 2009 (UNEP, 2010).

The overall goals of the operational research are:

1- Scrutiny on the present state of marshlands to determine goals, to collect updated

information, and to allocate the proper tools for measurement and management.

2- Enhance the required capabilities for Iraqi decision makers and agents of local people in

entire aspects of management of marshland areas including political and administrative

perspectives, and the tools for estimation and monitoring of performance.

3- Recognition of Environmentally Sound Technology (EST) to supply drinking water and to

meet the needs of local people, management of wetlands and making them practical in pilot

areas.

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4- Recognition of basic needs to determine a framework and making coordination in order to

formulate a management plan for marshland areas in long time. This plan should be based on

the consequences of the studies in pilot sites and relationships among different management

sectors.

Figure 47. limitation in rehabilitation of marshland areas in southeast of Iraq (UNEP, 2010).

To achieve the determined goals, the research and executive activities were conducted in three

phases as follows (Figure 47):

- First phase (2004): rehabilitation of marshlands with financial support of 11 million USD by

Japan. This is including determination of appropriate strategy to execute operation,

collaboration with other organizations for collecting data, making of the works guidelines,

setting of the infrastructures to make the project operational, and performing pilot study and

awareness.

- Second phase (2006): the research work was made operational in two separate stages with

financial support of approximately 2 million USD by Italy and Japan. The purposes of this

phase are outlined in three titles:

1- Collection and analysis of the available data from all sources of water, environmental

condition, landuse, and sharing of information to treat the deficiencies in management of

marshland areas.

2- Design of an information foundation of Iraq marshlands to provide different organizations

with access to these data, and

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3- Devise and development of proper hardware in national and state levels and strengthening the

present capabilities in collection, management and analysis of data.

- Third phase (2007): this was performed by financial support of 900,000 USD by Japan. The

purposes of the phases are:

1- Attempt to find alternate energy sources to provide the residents of pilot areas with drinking

water supply via EST.

2- Enhancing quality of water and conditions of wetlands in pilot areas by EST, and

3- Making decision makers, executives and local people aware of the environmental issues of

marshlands through expert teams and local competent people for comprehensive management

of marshlands.

Although, absolute achievement to the goals is somewhat difficult because of the insecurity problems

in Iraq and severe droughts in the past decades, but this research and operational projects is one of

the most eminent activities against desertification in WAR. The salient point about this project is that

it is based on management procedures and reforming biological behaviors of local people. Some of

the achievements of the project are including identification of the best solutions to combat against

factors of destruction in health and biological resources of the region, getting more easily access to

healthy drinking water, improvement in conditions of wastewater removal in pilot study areas,

reviving ecosystem infrastructures in the region, collecting required data for marshland management,

and creation of training and information infrastructure for Iraqi decision makers for better monitoring

of marshland areas36. Addition to these achievements, the most important outcome of the project is

revival and rehabilitation of a considerable part of aquatic and vegetation areas of the marshlands in

southeast of Iraq (Figure 48). The realization of this can incontrovertibly be very effective to prevent

further destruction of biological resources and subsequently dust storm occurrences in the region37.

”. nagement of The Iraqi MarshlandsSupport for Environmental MaRefer to “ 36

This is appropriate to note that much of the rehabilitated areas were again destroyed by the drought event from 2007 to 37

2009.

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Figure 48. rehabilitated areas of marshland in southeast Iraq after revival operations.

It is worthy to note that UNEP with collaboration of UNESCO38 has endeavored to protect

marshlands in long time since 2009. This may guarantee revival and protection of a considerable part

of Iraqi marshlands as one of the valuable ecosystem reserves in the WAR.

Despite that a radical combat against desertification causes, management procedures of human

activities can play a major role in preventing expansion of destructed desert areas, fixation methods

must be used to counter rapidly against the causes, in some parts with emergency situation. Hence, in

the next parts, the researches about fixation of erosional deposits in Iran, as a country with

experience in this field, are reviewed.

9. Fixation of erosional areas in Iran

Investigation and researches about desertification return back to 1930s and the first practical actions

to counter the phenomenon were initiated in late 1950s. The first governmental organization entitled

Soil and Water Conservation Committee was responsible for desert issues in the country. This

organization has now its responsibilities under the name of organization of desert affairs under the

supervision of Iranian Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization (FRWO).

The first operation for fixation of sandy windblown deposits was conducted in 1950 in 40 hectares of

Khuzestan Plain (Hamidyeh, Albaravyeh, and Albaji) using oil mulch. In another case, in 1961 a

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 38

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large area in Haresabad, north of Khorasan Province in the northeast Iran, was detected as the areas

afflicted with the problem of sand movements. Here, the fixation of a considerable area was made by

different actions including planting trees. With more experience learned by research institutes in the

country, many actions were devised and applied for the fixation of sand movements. Some of these

actions are mulching, control of surface flows, establishment of windbreakers, and planting saplings

and seedlings.

- Fixation of moving sands by mulching

Oil mulch (Hydrocarbon colloid) is a by-product of petroleum. This material in some countries such

as Iran was very cheap and in some cases for free in fixation of sand dunes. The first use of oil mulch

returns back to 1890s in Russia. Iran was the first to use this material in the Middle East. The main

aim of the use is to cement soil particles and subsequently prepare condition for re-growth of

vegetation cover (Amiraslani and Dragovich, 2011). The eminent case of this have observed in

Kerman Province of Iran so that the mulching before vegetating could increase germination up to

three times (Jafarian, 2006). Unlike what it might be expected, in Iran not only there is no evidence

of negative effects of mulching, but the positive effects of that on increase of biological activities,

moisture content, and soil organic matter is reported in many regions (Pouyafar and Askari

Moghadam, 2006). From 1960s to 1990s about 190,000 hectares of desert areas in Iran was fixated

by this method. These activities were contributed to increase of vegetation and preventing

movements of sand masses and development of desert areas (Amiraslani and Dragovich, 2011).

- Fixation of sand covers by controlling surface flows

Although, rainfall is negligible in desert areas and formation of surface flows is not as much as those

in humid areas, but due to sparse vegetation even regular rainfall events may lead to devastating

flooding. Hence, one of the principal methods for the fixation of sand masses is to control the speed

of surface flow by vegetation cover or by creating natural brakes. Watershed and aquifer

management operation in Gareh Bygone Plain in 1980s is a successful example for fixation of

erosional deposits by the control of surface flows. Management of surface flow not only decreased

considerably the movements of sand particles into adjacent areas, but has many positive results.

These results are increase in ground water resources up to 25 %, promotion in production of barley

from 700 kg per hectare to more than 2150 kg per hectare, augment of vegetation in pastures,

development of apiculture, and finally development of job opportunities in the region (Amiraslani

and Dragovich, 2011).

- Fixation of moving sand dunes by building windbreakers

Similar to surface flows of water, the swift flow of wind cause considerable erosion in desert areas.

Hence, in most of the desert areas of Iran it is tried to decrease the speed of wind by natural (e.g.,

trees) or non-natural (e.g., walls or fences) brakes. Although the method is frequently used in many

regions of Iran, but due to its relatively limited applicability and also not recording its information

there is not available evidence about the exact results of the procedures. However, in many regions

where dried woods of dead trees are used as windbreakers, which are consistent with ecosystem of

the region, the rate of movements of sand particles have been declined greatly (Amiraslani and

Dragovich, 2011).

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10. Fixation of sand dunes by growing plant species

Re-vegetating of trees and shrubs is itself additional optimal goals in the methods of fixation of

eroded areas. In fact, in many of the de-desertification activities the main objective is to restore

native vegetation covers of an area in surfaces of the soils under erosion. This is in order for

preventing additional destruction of those areas and rehabilitating that area into its previous normal

condition. In some other regions with more relatively suitable conditions for growth of vegetation,

the shrubs and herbs including Haloxylon persicum, Calligonum comosum, Smirnovia iranica,

Astragalus squarrosus, Panicum antidotale are planted and preserved under supervision and in

controlled condition. Among these species persicum is more frequently used in desert areas of Iran,

except in foothills of Zagros, coastal areas of Bushehr and Hormozgan with higher average

precipitation. For example, application of persicum and Calligonum comosum in Reza Abad Region,

Semnan Province of Iran, has improved physical-chemical conditions of soil including structure,

organic matter and nutrients. Furthermore, it also caused increasing growth of native plant species

such as Stipagrostis pennata (Zehtabian, et al 2006).

11. Recommendations for future works

Investigation about the activities against desertification as the main factor in development of the

areas prone to generation of dust storms has implications for future studies.

1- A variety of indices and methods are introduced to measure the intensity and magnitude of

desertification. But almost all the methods are confined to a limited region and a given period

of time in many of the researches. Hence, it seems necessary that researchers, with the

purpose of establishing a comprehensive database for desertification processes in the WAR,

detect competent indices for monitoring changes in desert areas susceptible to dust storm

activities by constitution of local research groups. It is evident that if the goal is achieved, not

only spatial changes in destructed areas will be revealed, but the suggested activities against

desertification will be more updated and more consistent with the circumstances of the

region.

2- Suggesting solutions against desertification involves precise field works and just doing

researches cannot outline competent methods for combating desertification. For example, in

some destructed areas some agricultural products are cultivated that require a plenty of water

during their growth. One of the solutions to avoid more destruction of ground water resources

and salinization of the soils is that convert these crops into more resistant ones in desert areas.

Nevertheless, in such suggestions it is necessary to consider some additional issues. These

issues are productivity of the alternative crops, available market for sales, and accessibility to

the inputs of agriculture. Such a comprehensive examination in projects of de-desertification

is possible just by conducting field surveys and close mutual relationship with local people

and their participation.

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12. Organizations, scholars, and experts related to studies of dust storms in the WAR

Subject: meteorological data including visibility

Organization or people: United States Center for Climate Studies (NNDC)

Descriptions: meteorological data particularly visibility is essential for studies of dust storms. Given

the current restrictions in relationship between regional organizations, use of this international

database is recommended.

Address: http://www7.ncdc.noaa.gov/CDO/cdo

Subject: aerosol density data

Organization or people: aerosol robotic network for measurement of aerosols, AERONET

Descriptions: AERONET ground stations are very precise sources in characterizing of dusts. These

data can be used for identification of dust masses and also validation and verification of simulation

models of dust storms.

Address: http://aeronet.gsfc.nasa.gov

Subject: reception of aerosol density data

Organization or people: Giovanni information center

Descriptions: this database provides access to data of TOMs sensor that indicate aerosol density.

These data are available with NetCDF format type as an applicable and compatible type in some

software including ESRI-ArcGIS.

Address: http://gdata1.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/daac-bin/G3/gui.cgi?instance_id=toms

Subject: atmospheric aerosol data in vertical profile

Organization or people: CAlIPSO sensor data

Descriptions: using these data, a considerable part of limitations in exploring vertical dispersion of

aerosols, particularly dust particles, will be obviated.

Address: http://www-calipso.larc.nasa.gov/

Subject: geology, agrology, and hydrology maps and papers in Iraq and relation with Iraqi experts

Organization or people: Iraq organization of geological data survey (GEOSURV-IRAQ)

Descriptions: shortage of access to earth related data is the major shortcoming of present studies. A

plenty of thematic and geologic maps of Iraq and also related articles can be obtained by referring to

this organization. There are maps available about quaternary deposits, mineralogy, geomorphology,

hydrology, geological hazards and etc. at different scales of 1:250000, 1:500000, and 1:1000000.

Many of the researchers here are faculty members in universities of Iraq. This is an opportunity to

make scientific cooperation with these experts.

Address: http://www.geosurviraq.com/en/index.html

Subject: access to algorithms and data for modeling dust storm phenomenon

Organizations and people:

- Atmospheric research center of marine forces of United States of America (COAPMS)

- Center for meso-scale models of Europe (research plan, MACC -II)

- Center of super calculations of Barcelona (BSC-DREAM)

Descriptions: modeling of dust storms is one of the important stages of the researches. Using the

algorithms of these models a considerable part of the modeling framework will be accomplished.

http://www7.ncdc.noaa.gov/CDO/cdo

http://aeronet.gsfc.nasa.gov/

http://www.geosurviraq.com/en/index.html

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Moreover, using the outputs of these models for formulation of a more competent model can be one

of the important achievements of the forthcoming researches.

Addresses:

Atmospheric research center of marine forces of United States of America (COAPMS)

http://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/aerosol

Center for meso-scale models of Europe (research plan, MACC -II)

http://www.copernicus-atmosphere.eu/

Center of super calculations of Barcelona (BSC-DREAM)

http://www.bsc.es/earth-sciences/mineral-dust-forecast-system/bsc-dream8b-forecast/north-

africa-europe-and-middle-ea-0

Subject: data and information on agrology and desertification

Organization or people: international soil information institute (ISRIC)

Descriptions: this is an influential institute in providing soil information and atlases and some data of

desertification.

Address: http://www.isric.org/

Subject: the studies published by United Nations and other institutes in Iraq

Organization or people: information analysis center of UNs (JAPU, Iraq)

Descriptions: the center is responsible for analysis and publication of information obtained as a result

of the research works conducted in Iraq by UNs. There are a vast amount of reports, maps, and

atlases related to Iraq in this database.

Address: http://www.japuiraq.org/

Subject: data and information about changes of water bodies

Organization or people: center for geophysics, space and ocean studies (LEGOS)

Descriptions: this center produces a variety of data including changes of water bodies in different

areas of the world. Given the present limitations in access to hydrologic data of the countries in the

WAR, using data of this center can be useful in conduction of the researches.

Address: http://www.legos.obs-mip.fr/

Subject: operational experiences in desertification activities

Organization or people: forest, rangeland, and watershed management of Iran (FRWO)

Descriptions: practical experiences can be used in desertification activities. This organization is the

principal authority in charge of executing de-desertification activities in Iran. Field work experience

of the researchers from this organization can be very helpful.

Address: http://www.frw.org.ir

Subject: practical and research experiences in desert areas

Organization or people: Arabian countries center for studies of arid and drylands (ACSAD)

Descriptions: this center is responsible for different studies related to problems of arid areas

including desertification and water resources shortcomings. Hence, the experiences of the

researchers and data obtained from other countries of Middle East in this center can be helpful in

conduction of future researches.

Address: http://www.acsad.org/

Subject: scientific consultations

http://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/aerosol

http://www.bsc.es/earth-sciences/mineral-dust-forecast-system/bsc-dream8b-forecast/north-africa-europe-and-middle-ea-0

http://www.bsc.es/earth-sciences/mineral-dust-forecast-system/bsc-dream8b-forecast/north-africa-europe-and-middle-ea-0

http://www.isric.org/

http://www.japuiraq.org/

http://www.legos.obs-mip.fr/

http://www.frw.org.ir/

http://www.acsad.org/

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Organization or people: Dr. Paul Ginoux

Descriptions: he is one of the pioneers on the studies of recognition and also explanation of aerosols

effects in the atmosphere. One of his invaluable efforts is compilation of dust storm models, their

verification and validation, and also identification of dust storm sources in different regions of the

world.

Address: http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/pag-homepage

http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/paul-ginoux-recognized-for-pioneering-research-on-dust-aerosols

Subject: scientific consultations

Organization or people: Prof. Steven A. Ackerman

Descriptions: he is specialist in studies of dust storm by means of remote sensing data. He presented

algorithms for identification of dust particles particularly for MODIS data. Many investigations have

also been conducted by him about the effects of aerosols on energy balance of the earth.

Address: http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/wxwise/ack.html

Subject: scientific consultation

Organization or people: (Emeritus) Prof. Andrew Goudie

Descriptions: he is a prominent professor on studies of dust storm with approach of field work and

the principles of geomorphology.

Address : http://www.geog.ox.ac.uk/staff/agoudie.html

Subject: scientific research consultation

Organization or people: Dr. Nicholas Middleton

Descriptions: most of his researches are allocated to identification of desert areas and desertification

phenomenon. One of his eminent work is participation in producing global atlas of desertification

(1997).

Address: http://www.geog.ox.ac.uk/staff/nmiddleton.html

Subject: scientific consultation and gaining gel and hydrogels of soil fixation

Organization or people: Dr. Gholam Ali, Falzi, Hakim Sabzevari University (0098-9373537388)

Descriptions: he helped to gain gels and nanopolymeric hydrogels for fixation of soil. These

materials are tested in and examined in laboratory. These have also been used in real environment in

desert areas of Aran, Bidgol, and Kashan.

Address: [email protected]

Subject: official and research relationship with international and Iraqi organizations involving in the

phenomenon

Organization or people: research institutes of Iraq

Descriptions: in the following some of the influential organizations and institutes of Iraq in different

natural events including dust storms are listed. Relation with these organizations will be helpful not

only in research domains but in administrative affairs.

Iraqi Ministry of Environment

Website: http://www.moen.gov.iq/

Email: [email protected]

Tele: 7901486756

Ministry of water resources

http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/pag-homepage

http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/paul-ginoux-recognized-for-pioneering-research-on-dust-aerosols

http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/wxwise/ack.html

http://www.geog.ox.ac.uk/staff/agoudie.html

http://www.geog.ox.ac.uk/staff/nmiddleton.html


http://www.moen.gov.iq/

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Website: http://www.mowr.gov.iq/english


Tele: 0096417720240

Ministry of health

Website: http://moh.gov.iq/english/


Tele: 07702428166

Ministry of higher education and scientific research

Website: http://www.en.mohesr.gov.iq


Nature Iraq

Website: http://www.natureiraq.org/site/en/


Ministry of municipalities and Public works

Website: http://www.mmpw.gov.iq/


http://www.mowr.gov.iq/english



http://www.moen.gov.iq/


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