246

Introduction: Neo-Victorianism and Post-Authenticity

1 Ian Sample, ‘Victorian novels helped us evolve into better people, say psychologists’, The Guardian, 14 January 2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2009/jan/14/victorian-novels-evolution-altruism. See also John Sutherland, ‘Believing in 19th century novels’, The Guardian, 14 January 2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/booksblog/2009/jan/14/literature-evolutionary-advantage-university-missouri (both sources accessed 3 October 2009): ‘An article in the New Scientist argues that Victorian delusion gave Britain an evolutionary advantage. The authors have done a multi-factor analysis on characters from classic Victorian fiction such as Dorothea Brooke, Heathcliff and Dorian Gray and uncover the kinds of interlocking ideological beliefs that create cohesion, collective effort, and self-denial for the greater good. We read Victorian fiction and are condescending about the death of Nell – “one would need a heart of stone, etc.” – the “happy ever after endings”, and promote Flashman, not Tom Brown, as our heroic figure. We are proudly unVictorian: disabused, but diffident.’

2 Karen Chase, ‘Introduction’ to Karen Chase (ed.), Middlemarch in the Twenty-first Century (Oxford: OUP, 2006), p. 3.

3 Virginia Woolf, ‘George Eliot’, Times Literary Supplement, 20 November 1919, repr. in The Common Reader (London: Hogarth Press, 1929), p. 213.

4 Henry James, Preface to Vol. 7 of the New York edition of The Tragic Muse (1908), http://www.henryjames.org.uk/prefaces/text07.htm (accessed 29 September 2009).

5 Zadie Smith, ‘The book of revelations’, The Guardian, 24 May 2008, http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/may/24/classics.zadiesmith (accessed 3 October 2009). Smith here refers to James’s complaint that Middlemarch was written with ‘too much refinement and too little breadth’, see Henry James, ‘Middlemarch’ (1873), repr. in section entitled ‘Novels by Eliot, Hardy and Flaubert’ in Stephen Regan (ed.), The Nineteenth-Century Novel (London: Routledge, Open University, 2001), p. 81.

6 James, ‘Middlemarch’, p. 85. 7 Smith, ‘The book of revelations’. 8 Hugh Kingsmill, ‘1932 and the Victorians’, English Review, 9 (1932), p. 684,

quoted in Stefan Collini, ‘“The Great Age”: The Idealizing of Victorian Culture’, Common Reading: Critics, Historians, Publics (Oxford: OUP, 2008), p. 211. See also Robert MacFarlane, Original Copy: Plagiarism and Originality in Nineteenth-Century Literature (Oxford: OUP, 2007), p. 15.

9 Harold Bloom’s The Anxiety of Influence (New York: OUP, 1973) posits that poetic creativity is driven by an anxiety about the poet’s relationship to precursor poets, and that one way of overcoming such anxiety and asserting individuality is actively to misread or revision the work of earlier figures.

Notes

Notes 247

10 Notwithstanding modernist antipathy to the Victorians and Virginia Woolf’s pinpointing of 1910 as the turning point from old to new world aestheti-cism, twentieth-century criticism traced the beginnings of modernism back to the Victorians: Malcolm Bradbury and James MacFarlane’s modernism covers the period 1890–1930, and Vassiliki Kolocotroni, Jane Goldman and Olga Taxidou’s (eds) Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents (Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 1998) reproduces texts from the mid-nineteenth century. See Bradbury and McFarlane, ‘The Name and Nature of Modernism’, in Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarlane (eds), Modernism: A Guide to European Literature 1890–1930 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), pp. 19–55.

11 Smith, ‘The book of revelations’.12 See, for example, F.R. Leavis’s The Great Tradition (London: Chatto and

Windus, 1948) and Raymond Williams’s Reading and Criticism (London: Miller, 1950) and Culture and Society 1780–1950 (London: Chatto and Windus, 1958).

13 See Catherine Belsey, Critical Practice (London: Methuen, 1980), specifically chapters 1 and 2.

14 Cora Kaplan, ‘Perspective: Fingersmith’s Coda: Feminism and Victorian Studies’, Journal of Victorian Culture, 13:1 (2008), p. 53.

15 For the different terminologies see Sally Shuttleworth, ‘Natural History: The Retro-Victorian Novel’, in Elinor S. Shaffer (ed.), The Third Culture: Literature and Science (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1998), pp. 253–68; Mariaconcetta Costantini, ‘“Faux-Victorian Melodrama” in the New Millennium: The Case of Sarah Waters’, Critical Survey, 18:1 (2006), pp. 17–39; Andrea Kirchknopf, ‘(Re)Workings of Nineteenth-Century Fiction: Definitions, Terminology, Contexts’, Neo-Victorian Studies, 1:1 (2008), pp. 53–80, http//www.neovictorianstudies.com

16 Neo-Victorian Studies: see www.neovictorianstudies.com 17 Penny Gay, Judith Johnston and Catherine Waters (eds), Victorian Turns,

NeoVictorian Returns: Essays on Fiction and Culture (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press, 2008), pp. 10–11.

18 See Robin Gilmour, ‘Using the Victorians: the Victorian Age in Contemporary Fiction’, in Alice Jenkins and Juliet John (eds), Rereading Victorian Fiction (Basingstoke: Palgrave – now Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), p. 190. Gilmour cites the standard historical novel (‘modern perspective and . . . modern idiom’); ‘pastiche and parody’; ideological ‘inversion’; ‘subversion of Victorian fic-tional norms’; ‘reworking or completing of a classic’ and the ‘research novel’. As the present study shows, such modes have continued since the start of the millennium and Gilmour’s essay and have been enhanced and modified as neo-Victorianism has developed conceptually and theoretically.

19 Christian Gutleben, Nostalgic Postmodernism: The Victorian Tradition and the Contemporary British Novel (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001), p. 66.

20 [Miriam Elizabeth Burstein], ‘The Little Professor: Things Victorian and Academic’, ‘Rules for Writing Neo-Victorian Novels’, 15 March 2006, http://littleprofessor.typepad.com/the_little_professor/2006/03/rules_for_writi.html (accessed 12 August 2008).

21 Gutleben, Nostalgic Postmodernism, p. 7.22 Nora Hague’s Letters from an Age of Reason (London: Simon and Schuster,

2001) may serve as an entertaining case in point. Hague’s heroine discovers orgasm by reading a sexually-explicit discussion of Henry Maudsley’s (an apt

248 Notes

reflection of the libidinal qualities of reading the novel seeks to produce); later she launches into her first heterosexual relationship, with a fugitive American slave, with remarkable equanimity. But pleasure is not the only sensation with which to assuage modern readers’ desire for the Victorian experience: the heroine is subsequently confined to a lunatic asylum by her parents, who are outraged about her cross-race relationship and can only deem her mad; she consequently suffers nightly sexual assault at the hands of the attendants. Fortunately a rescue party is organized by her feminist, socialist, and other politically progressive friends, and the lovers are reunited. While Hague researched some aspects of the period (but fails to create believable characters), Faye L. Boothe’s Cover the Mirrors (London: Pan, 2007) has no such pretensions: it is, blandly, a bodice ripper about sex, with spiritualism thrown in on the margins to tick a second box.

23 While the modernists themselves and even more immediately after the Victorians authors like Joseph Conrad and H.G. Wells can be seen to use literature as a comment on, engagement with, or subversion of their Victorian precursors, we are taking the more recognizable version of the neo-Victorian to start from the mid-1960s onwards for the purposes of this book. For a useful summary of the ‘Age of Austerity’ as the period in which the neo-Victorian developed see Sarah Gamble, ‘“You cannot impersonate what you are”: Questions of Authenticity in the Neo-Victorian Novel’, LIT: Literature Interpretation Theory, 20:1–2 (2009), pp. 126–40, specifically pp. 126–9.

24 See Jacques Derrida and Elisabeth Roudinesco, ‘Choosing one’s heritage’, in For what tomorrow: A Dialogue, trans. Jeff Fort (Stanford: Stanford UP, 2004), pp. 1–19. For a recent discussion of these ideas within Derrida’s theories see Rosalyn Diprose, ‘Derrida and the Extraordinary Responsibility of Inheriting the Future-to-Come’, Social Semiotics, 16:3 (2006), pp. 435–47.

25 One might take the perpetually reinvented version of the BBC costume drama as a signifier of the endurance of the Victorian – and the longer nineteenth century – within the adaptive sphere, particularly the way in which a post-millennial return to the scenes of earlier Dickens and Austen adaptations has sought to refashion the genre for a new generation. For a discussion of these themes see Chapter 6.

26 The debate between reading this period as nineteenth century rather than Victorian has recently been summarized in Martin Hewitt, ‘Why the Notion of Victorian Britain Does Make Sense’, Victorian Studies, 48:3 (2006), pp. 395–438. Hewitt’s article is a response to various other scholars who have raised ques-tions about the ‘Victorian’ issue. For the purposes of this book and indeed for our classification of the genre as a whole, ‘neo-Victorian’ works far better (if only in terms of catchiness) than ‘neo-nineteenth century’, although there is necessarily some slippage between the two periods in recent fiction.

27 Diana Wallace, The Woman’s Historical Novel: British Women Writers, 1900–2000 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004).

28 Jeannette King, The Victorian Woman Question in Contemporary Feminist Fiction (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).

29 Tatiana Kontou, Spiritualism and Women’s Writing: From the Fin de Siècle to the Neo-Victorian (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).

30 Simon Joyce, The Victorians in the Rearview Mirror (Athens, OH: Ohio UP, 2007).

Notes 249

31 Christine L. Krueger (ed.), Functions of Victorian Culture at the Present Time (Athens, OH: Ohio UP, 2002).

32 Cora Kaplan, Victoriana: Histories, Fictions, Criticism (Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2007).

33 This is particularly noticeable in a frequent return to the work of John Fowles even in recent criticism: see, for example, Joseph Wiesenfarth, ‘The French Lieutenant’s Woman: Goodbye to All That’ in Gay, Johnston and Waters, Victorian Turns, NeoVictorian Returns, pp. 205–14, Lisa Fletcher’s two Fowles chapters in Historical Romance Fiction: Heterosexuality and Performativity (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), pp. 195–236, and Peter Preston, ‘Victorianism in Recent Victorian Fiction’, in Marija Knezevic and Aleksandra Nikcevic-Batricevic (eds), History, Politics, Identity: Reading Literature in a Changing World (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2008), pp. 91–109. A notably more diverse and multi-genre approach is taken in Rebecca Munford and Paul Young’s double special issue of LIT: Literature Interpretation Theory on the theme of Neo-Victorianism, 20:1–2 (2009).

34 David Andress, ‘Truth, Ethics and Imagination: Thoughts of the Purpose of History’, in John Arnold, Kate Davies and Simon Ditchfield (eds), History and Heritage: Consuming the Past in Contemporary Culture (Shaftesbury, Dorset: Donhead, 1998), p. 240.

35 Kenneth Womack, Postwar Academic Fiction: Satire, Ethics, Community (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), p. 6, p. 8.

36 Peter Mandler, History and National Life (London: Profile Books, 2002), p. 147.37 Jonathan Clark, Our Shadowed Present: Modernism, Postmodernism and History

(London: Atlantic Books, 2003), p. 3.38 Peter Widdowson, ‘“Writing back”: contemporary re-visionary fiction’,

Textual Practice, 20:3 (2006), p. 492.39 Michel Faber, The Apple: New Crimson Petal Stories (Edinburgh: Canongate,

2006), p. xii. Further references appear in the text. It might of course be pos-sible that the reader too is fictional here.

40 For further attention to this topic see also the discussion of The Thirteenth Tale in Chapter 1.

41 Mandler, History and National Life, p. 23.42 Richard J. Evans, In Defence of History (London: Granta, 1997), pp. 30–1.43 Michel Faber, The Crimson Petal and the White (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2002),

p. 3. Further references appear in the text.44 Susan Barrett, Fixing Shadows (London: Review, 2005), p. 372.45 David Lodge, Nice Work (1988; London: Penguin, 1989), p. 83.46 Julie Sanders, Adaptation and Appropriation (London: Routledge, 2006), p. 128.47 Ibid, p. 19.48 Kaplan, Victoriana, p. 106.49 A.S. Byatt, On Histories and Stories: Selected Essays (London: Chatto & Windus,

2000), p. 11.50 See Gutleben, Nostalgic Postmodernism.51 James’s text actually reads: ‘“Remember, if you please,” said my friend,

looking at me over his spectacles, “that I am a Victorian by birth and education, and that the Victorian tree may not unreasonably be expected to bear Victorian fruit. Further, remember that an immense quantity of clever and thoughtful Rubbish is now being written about the Victorian

250 Notes

age.”’ M.R. James, ‘A Neighbour’s Landmark’, Collected Ghost Stories (Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions, 2007), p. 281.

52 The statement is usually translated as ‘beneath the signs there lay some-thing of a quite different kind’: see Marcel Proust, Time Regained, trans. Andreas Mayor, Terence Kilmartin, D.J. Enright (London: Random House, 1993), p. 273.

53 D.J. Taylor, Kept: A Victorian Mystery (London: Chatto & Windus, 2006), p. 41. 54 Kaplan, Victoriana, p. 40.55 Jonathan Dee, ‘The Reanimators: On the Art of Literary Graverobbing’,

Harper’s Magazine, (June 1999), pp. 76–84.56 James Harold, ‘Flexing the Imagination’, The Journal of Aesthetics and Art

Criticism, 61:3 (Summer 2003), p. 247.57 Ibid, p. 248.58 Opening sentence of Lytton Strachey’s Preface to Eminent Victorians (1918;

London: Chatto and Windus, 1929), p. vii. 59 Harold, ‘Flexing the Imagination’, p. 250.60 Sanders, Adaptation and Appropriation, p. 126.61 James Wilson, The Dark Clue: A Novel of Suspense (London: Faber and Faber,

2001), p. 472.62 Wayne C. Booth, The Company We Keep: An Ethics of Fiction (Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1988), p. 133.63 Ibid, p. 145.64 Sanders, Adaptation and Appropriation, p. 8.65 Ibid, pp. 27–32.66 Ibid, p. 41.67 Ibid, p. 124.68 Michael Cox, The Meaning of Night (London: John Murray, 2006), p. 3.69 Sanders, Adaptation and Appropriation, p. 129.70 Kaplan, Victoriana, p. 5.71 See, for example, Rosario Arias and Patricia Pulham, ‘Introduction’ to

Rosario Arias and Patricia Pulham (eds), Haunting and Spectrality in Neo-Victorian Fiction: Possessing the Past (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 1–16.

72 Ian McEwan, Saturday (London: Heinemann, 2005), p. 222.73 Lloyd Jones, Mister Pip (London: John Murray, 2007), p. 219. Both McEwan’s

and Jones’s novels were discussed by John Sutherland in his keynote address at the ‘Neo-Victorianism: The Politics and Aesthetics of Appropriation’ conference at the University of Exeter in September 2007; parts of this Introduction were, however, already written for delivery at the conference.

74 Eric Hobsbawm, On History (London: Abacus, 1998), p. 302.

1 Memory, Mourning, Misfortune

1 Steven Rose, The Making of Memory (London: Bantam Press, 1992), pp. 33–4.

2 Cora Kaplan, Victoriana: Histories, Fictions, Criticism (Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2007), p. 14. Kaplan quotes from Freud’s ‘First Lecture’, Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (1909/1910), vol. 11 of The Standard Edition of the Complete

Notes 251

Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, trans. and ed. James Strachey, in collaboration with Anna Freud, assisted by Alix Strachey and Alan Tyson (London: Hogarth Press, 1957), p. 16.

3 Freud defines Nachträglichkeit as a belated response to an earlier incident whose traumatic import is only realized after the event. See Project for a Scientific Psychology (1895/1950), vol. 1 of The Standard Edition (1966), pp. 352–6; discussed by Elisabeth Bronfen in The Knotted Subject: Hysteria and Its Discontents (Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1998), pp. 255–6.

4 Josef Breuer and Sigmund Freud, ‘On the Psychical Mechanism of Hysterical Phenomena: Preliminary Communcation’, Studies on Hysteria, trans. and ed. James and Alix Strachey, assisted by Angela Richards, vol. 3 of The Pelican Freud Library (Harmonsworth: Penguin, 1974), pp. 53–69. First German edition 1895, first English edition 1955; later extended in Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, pp. 9–55.

5 See Toni Morrison’s Beloved (London: Picador, 1987): ‘If a house burns down, it’s gone, but the place – the picture of it – stays, and not just in my remem-ory, but out there, in the world’ (p. 36). As Caroline Rody notes, rememory ‘postulates the interconnectedness of minds, past and present’, thus ‘realizing the “collective memory”’; ‘Toni Morrison’s Beloved: History, “Rememory” and “A Clamor for a Kiss”’, American Literary History, 7:1 (Spring 1995), p. 101.

6 Sarah Blake, Grange House (New York: Picador, 2000), pp. 204–5. Further references appear in the text.

7 Diane Setterfield, The Thirteenth Tale (London: Orion, 2006), p. 240. Further references appear in the text.

8 Wesley Stace, Misfortune (2005; London: Vintage, 2006), p. 357. Further refer-ences appear in the text.

9 Dolores dies at the cusp of the new century, in 1800, aged five (p. 25); Rose is born in 1820 (p. 522). Byron’s relationship with his half-sister Augusta Leigh reputedly culminated in the birth of their daughter, Elizabeth Medora, in 1814.

10 A.S. Byatt, Possession (London: Chatto & Windus, 1990), p. 82. In the novel Maud Bailey, the feminist scholar specializing in the Victorian woman poet Christabel La Motte, discovers the hiding place of Christabel’s love letters to the married fellow poet Randolph Ash when recalling one of her poems about her dolls.

11 In Ovid’s story the nymph Salmacis watches the beautiful youth Hermaphroditus take a sea bath and, overcome by irresistible desire, forces herself on him; in the struggle ‘the two bodies / Melted into a single body / Seamless as the water’; ‘Salmacis and Hermaphroditus’, in Ted Hughes, Tales from Ovid: Twenty-four Passages from the Metamorphoses (London: Faber and Faber, 1997), p. 228.

12 See Dianne Dugaw, Warrior Women and Popular Balladry, 1650–1850 (Cambridge: CUP, 1989), pp. 216–8. For ‘The Female Rambling Sailor’ see also http://folkstream.com/102.html (accessed 10 November 2008). For real-life eighteenth to early-twentieth-century women who imperson-ated men see Julie Wheelwright, Amazons and Military Maids: Women Who Dressed as Men in Pursuit of Life, Liberty and Happiness (London: Pandora, 1989), and Jo Stanley (ed.), Bold in Her Breeches: Women Pirates Across the Ages (London: Pandora, 1995).

252 Notes

13 Dugaw, Warrior Women and Popular Balladry, p. 69, p. 150, p. 152. 14 For Love Hall Tryst’s Songs of Misfortune, produced after the publication of

the novel, and an interview with the author see http://www.puremusic.com/60lovehall.html (accessed 18 November 2008).

15 Emily Jeremiah, ‘The “I” inside “her”: Queer Narration in Sarah Waters’s Tipping the Velvet and Wesley Stace’s Misfortune’, Women, 18:2 (2007), p. 140.

16 Colin Greenland, ‘Skirting the Issues’ [review], The Guardian, 28 May 2005, http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2005/may/28/featuresreviews.guardianre-view16 (accessed 7 September 2009).

17 The quotation is taken from Blake’s Grange House, p. 356. 18 The text is set in 1896–97, thus contemporaneous with the publication of

Studies on Hysteria (1895).19 The title quotation is taken from Thirteenth Tale, p. 7. 20 We are told that the fire at Angelfield, and thus the subject-constitution of

Vida Winter, happened sixty years ago, and that she was sixteen at the time. The reference to the first use of a bicycle (p. 73) during Charlie’s and Isabelle’s childhood would date this time back to the 1890s (when bicycles came into vogue), which would point to the first two decades of the new century as the period during which the Angelfield twins grow up. However, there are no references to the First World War or other historical events. As Setterfield indicates in an interview, the decision to blur historical chronologies was intended: ‘I was certain . . . that it should inhabit an imaginary space poised between the real and the fictional. I wanted to give it a very deliberately “bookish” tone, and to place it at one remove . . . from the reality of con-temporary, everyday life.’ ‘Quality Paperback Book Club: Interview with “13th Tale” author’ (accessed 20 November 2008), http://thebookblogger.com/qpb/2007/03/interview_with_13th_tale_autho.html. In the novel Margaret complains of losing her ‘anchor in time’ (p. 239), which turns Miss Winter’s Yorkshire home into a version of the enchanted space of Satis House, a place where Margaret ‘never looked at the clock’ (p. 284).

21 ‘Interview with “13th Tale” author’.22 As trauma experts argue, memories of extreme experiences become ‘dissoci-

ated from conscious awareness and voluntary control’, creating, in Cathy Caruth’s words, a ‘double wound’ when fully remembered; ‘fragments of these unintegrated experiences may later manifest recollections or behav-ioural reenactments’. Caruth, Unclaimed Experience: Tauma, Narrative, and History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1996), p. 3; Bessel A. van der Kolk and Onno van der Hart, ‘The Intrusive Past: The Flexibility of Memory and the Engraving of Trauma’, in Cathy Caruth (ed.), Trauma: Explorations in Memory (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1995), p. 160.

23 Betwixt and Between echoes Albert Camus’s 1937 collection of essays L’envers et l’endroit; Hauntings is the title of Vernon Lee’s Gothic short stories of 1890; Martin Donisthorpe Armstrong is the author of the short story collection The Puppet Show (1922), which includes metafictional tales on ‘The Author and the Critics: A Study in Symbolism’ and ‘Biography: A Study in Circumstantial Evidence’, and in ‘The Uncomfortable Experience of Mr. Perkins and Mr. Johnson’ engages with the Doppelgänger motif, identity and the uncanny. Miss Winter’s titles are also adapted from popular music (Jay Bennett’s Twice is Forever) and film (Jez Butterworth’s 2001 The Birthday Girl). As if to visualize

Notes 253

the metafictional game about reading and writing, Miss Winter’s book titles are displayed on the hardback cover of Setterfield’s novel; see http://www.amazon.co.uk/Thirteenth-Tale-Diane-Setterfield/dp/0752875736.

24 This is already signalled in Miss Winter’s extensive and costly range of Jane Eyre editions: ‘the collection of a fanatic’ (p. 240). Her retreat is set in Yorkshire moorland. In Angelfield, Hester notices the novel lying around the house and returns it to the library, only to come across it again in another location. Jane is reconfigured in Hester (the ‘plain’ governess who falls in love with her employer, Dr Maudsley, leaves to maintain her independence, and is later reunited with him after his wife’s death) and in ‘Shadow’ (the motherless child and poor cousin); Bertha stands model for Angeline; baby Aurelius, the lost ‘heir’ (Eyre), is wrapped into a page from Jane Eyre. The vagaries of literary criticism are mocked when Margaret struggles, and fails, to decipher a symbolic meaning from the page which would shed light on Aurelius’s origins; later she discovers that it was a random page salvaged by Shadow during Adeline’s indendiary in the library.

25 When she first visits the ruin of Angelfield, Margaret is immediately struck by its ‘asymmetrical construction’: ‘The house sat at an awkward angle. Arriving from the drive, you came upon a corner, and it was not at all clear which side of the house was the front.’ (pp. 128–9) At the close of the novel, all the angles are evened out when the new building erected on the site is made to ‘face straight towards you’ (p. 401).

26 The real-life Henry Maudsley (1835–1918) was not an advocate of girls’ education, arguing in ‘Sex in Mind and in Education’ (1874) for a sex-spe-cific training geared to women’s biological function as wives and mothers and warning against subjecting girls to a ‘masculine’ programme of intel-lectual study on the grounds of its permanently damaging repercussions on their physical and mental constitution. While the factual Maudsley invested his efforts in attempting to prevent women from attaining the professional training that would enable them to compete with male physicians like himself, Setterfield’s doctor figure proves willing to learn from and collaborate with Hester and is later shown to have embarked on a lifelong professional partnership with her. For Maudsley’s article and repartees by women doctors see Katharina Rowold (ed.), Gender & Science: Late Nineteenth-Century Debates on the Female Mind and Body (Bristol: Thoemmes, 1996).

27 Dori Laub, ‘Bearing Witness or the Vicissitudes of Listening’, in Shoshana Felman and Dori Laub, Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis, and History (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 57. For trauma analyses in neo-Victorian literature see Marie-Luise Kohlke and Christian Gutleben (eds), Neo-Victorian Tropes of Trauma (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010).

28 George Eliot, Middlemarch (1871–2; London: Penguin, 2003), p. 832. The web metaphor of Eliot’s novel is here applied to the intricate network not of a wider community but a family: ‘Families are webs. Impossible to touch one part of it without setting the rest vibrating. Impossible to understand one part without having a sense of the whole’ (Thirteenth Tale, p. 59).

29 Christian Gutleben, Nostalgic Postmodernism: The Victorian Tradition and the Contemporary British Novel (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001), p. 109.

30 Eliot, Middlemarch, p. 838.

254 Notes

31 The quotation is taken from John Harwood, The Ghost Writer (2004; London: Vintage, 2005), p. 294. Further references appear in the text.

32 The Turn of the Screw is central to the construction of Alice ‘Jessell’ in Harwood’s novel. Three of James’s other ghost stories/novellas serve Viola Hatherley as inspiration and are mentioned in one of the letters Gerard finds: ‘The Way It Came’ (1896) provides parallels with ‘The Revenant’ in the way in which imaginary anxieties become real through obsessive brooding; ‘The Jolly Corner’ (1908) with its Spencer Byron who returns to his family home after a long absence, there to be confronted by the ghost of his alter ego and to wake up in the lap of his friend Alice Staverton, has resonances with Gerard’s experience and might even prompt a reading of the ending which would presume Gerard’s death; in ‘The Altar of the Dead’ (1895) the com-mon cause the apparition of a dead lover makes with the protagonist’s worst enemy has analogies with Alice’s exposure as Anne Hatherley. ‘The Pavilion’, whose decadent writer Denton Margrave is cast in the role of vampire, draws on the motif of the draining of lovers’ energies and vitality in James’s The Sacred Fount (1901), a novel Viola Hatherley debunks as ‘Marie Corelli in fancy dress’ (Ghost Writer, p. 292).

33 Setterfield, Thirteenth Tale, p. 27.34 The Yellow Book ran from 1894–97, ceasing publication the year before

Harwood’s Chameleon, which, as Gerard discovers in the British Library, ran only for that particular year (p. 74), thus resembling The Savoy‘s publication history (1896). The contributors to the issues he examines include avant-garde poets, (anti)decadent writers, and illustrators of the fin de siècle.

35 Whether the echo of the titular protagonist of George Moore’s 1921 novella ‘Hugh Monfert’ (In Single Strictness) is intended is unclear. Moore’s Hugh Monfert also finds himself trapped in a triangular relationship with a sibling pair, but in this case the dilemma he faces is his homosexual desire for the brother.

36 Sigmund Freud, ‘The Uncanny’ (1919), in Victor Sage (ed.), The Gothick Novel: A Selection of Critical Essays (Basingstoke: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1990), pp. 76–8.

37 Jacques Le Goff, History and Memory, trans. Steven Rendall and Elizabeth Cla man (New York: Columbia UP, 1992), p. 98. First published in Italian in 1977.

38 Suzanne Nalbantian, Memory in Literature: From Rousseau to Neuroscience (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 2.

39 See Heike Bauer, English Literary Sexology: Translations of Inversion, 1860–1930 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).

40 Cathy Caruth, ‘Introduction’ to ‘Trauma and Experience’, in Caruth, Trauma: Explorations in Memory, p. 8.

41 ‘Interview with “13th Tale’ author’. 42 Nalbantian, Memory in Literature, p. 81.

2 Race and Empire

1 Homi K. Bhabha, ‘Signs Taken for Wonders’ (1981), in Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin (eds), The Postcolonial Studies Reader (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 34–5 (emphases in original).

Notes 255

2 Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’ (1987), in Patrick Williams and Laura Chrisman (eds), Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993), pp. 82–3.

3 Edward W. Said, Culture & Imperialism (London: Chatto & Windus, 1993), pp. 1–2.

4 Rhys in a 1969 interview, quoted in Elizabeth R. Baer, ‘The Sisterhood of Jane Eyre and Antoinette Cosway’, in Elizabeth Abel, Marianne Hirsch and Elizabeth Langland (eds), The Voyage In: Fictions of Female Development (Hanover: UP of New England, 1983), p. 132.

5 The genre is defined by Ashraf H.A. Rushdy as ‘contemporary novels that assume the form, adopt the conventions, and take on the first-person voice of the antebellum slave narrative’, Neo-Slave Narratives: Studies in the Social Logic of a Literary Form (New York: OUP, 1999), p. 3.

6 For female neo-slave narratives see Heidi Slettedahl Macpherson, Courting Failure: Women and the Law in Twentieth-Century Literature (Akron, Ohio: University of Akron Press, 2007), pp. 55–103.

7 Philip Hensher, The Mulberry Empire (London: Flamingo, 2003), pp. 152–3. 8 Marie-Luise Kohlke, ‘Sexsation and the Neo-Victorian Novel: Orientalising

the Nineteenth Century in Contemporary Fiction’, in Marie-Luise Kohlke and Luisa Orza (eds), Negotiating Sexual Idioms: Image, Text, Performance (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2008), p. 68.

9 Spivak, ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’, p. 194. 10 In Ghosh’s The Ibis Chrestomanthy ‘lascar’ is defined by its indeterminacy

and hydridity. See http://www.ibistrilogy.com/content/pdf/the_ibis_chresto-mathy.pdf, p. 18 (accessed 14 January 2009).

11 Jabberwock [Jai Arjun Singh], ‘Opium, giant whales and khidmatgars: a conversation with Amitav Ghosh’, 19 June 2008, http://www.ultrabrown.com/posts/opium-giant-whales-and-khidmatgars-a-conversation-with-amitav-ghosh (accessed 14 January 2009).

12 See Ravinder Gargesh, ‘South Asian Englishes’, in Braj B. Kachru, Yamuna Kachru, and Cecil L. Nelson (eds), The Handbook of World Englishes (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), pp. 90–116.

13 Ghosh in Jabberwock, ‘Opium’. 14 Ghosh, Ibis Chrestomathy, p. 1. 15 Ibid., p. 2. 16 Ghosh in Jabberwock, ‘Opium’ (emphasis in original). 17 Ibid. 18 Amitav Gosh, Sea of Poppies (London: John Murray, 2008), p. 45. Further

references appear in the text. 19 Homi K. Bhabha, ‘Cultural Diversity and Cultural Difference’ (1988), in

Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin, Postcolonial Studies Reader, p. 209 (emphasis in original).

20 J.P. Mittal, History of Ancient India: A New Version (New Delhi: Atlantic, 2006), p. 173.

21 Ghosh in Jabberwock, ‘Opium’. 22 Laura Fish, Strange Music: A Novel (London: Jonathan Cape, 2008), p. 111.

Further references appear in the text. 23 Ahdaf Soueif, The Map of Love (1999; London: Bloomsbury, 2000), p. 96.

Further references appear in the text.

256 Notes

24 For the historical context see Frederik Wakeman, ‘The Canton Trade and the Opium War’, in John K. Fairbank (ed.), Late Ch’ing, 1800–1911, Part I, vol. 10 of The Cambridge History of China (Cambridge: CUP, 1978), pp. 173–4; and Jean Chesneaux, Marianne Bastid, and Marie-Claire Bergère, China from the Opium Wars to the 1911 Revolution, trans. Anne Destenay (New York: Pantheon, 1976).

25 A heroic figure in The Mahabharata who marries five brothers; see John Dowson, A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, and Literature (London: Trübner, 1879), pp. 94–7.

26 Ghosh in Jabberwock, ‘Opium’. 27 Ibid. 28 Said, Culture & Imperialism, p. xxx. 29 Christine Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul,

1971), p. 79. 30 The Barrett’s Jamaican plantation labourers at Cinnamon Hill were paid

‘two bits or sixpence’, as compared with the more usual ‘four bits or a shilling’, but faced with labour unrest and the Baptist and Presbyterian ministers’ support for fairer wages, Sam Barrett conceded the point. See Jeannette Marks, The Family of the Barrett: A Colonial Romance (1938; Westport: Greenwood Press, 1973), p. 463, p. 466.

31 Ibid., p. 642. 32 The real-life Sam(uel Moulton) Barrett caused some concern for the

Presbyterian minister, Hope Masterton Waddell, about his wage policy at Cinnamon Hill. Waddell was also asked by a black member of his church to intervene in Sam’s seduction of his daughter Mary Ann, who had been given a necklace and earrings; he advised the father to shame the master by publicly crushing the trinkets. Mary Ann’s age and the nature of their relationship are uncertain. Sam resented Waddell’s interference and in 1838 upheld his uncle Samuel Barrett Moulton Barrett’s earlier exclusion of the minister from Cinnamon Hill, but agreed to a reconciliation in 1840, and after contracting yellow fever asked to be given the last sacra-ment. Ibid., pp. 456–7, pp. 480–93; R.A. Barrett, The Barretts of Jamaica: The Family of Elizabeth Barrett Browning (Armstrong Browning Library of Baylor University, The Browning Society: Wedgestone Press, 2000), p. 95; Julia Markus, Dared and Done: The Marriage of Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning (London: Bloomsbury, 1995), p. 94.

33 Some of Barrett Browning’s real-life correspondence is presented in the novel not in epistolary form but, with slight alterations, as Elizabeth’s thoughts, such as the passage on the Emancipation Bill and its consequences for Jamaican planter society on p. 23; see her letter to Mrs Martin, 27 May 1833, quoted in Barrett, The Barretts of Jamaica, p. 89. In our subsequent discussion ‘Elizabeth’ refers to Fish’s character and ‘Barrett Browning’ to the writer.

34 In her Acknowledgements Fish includes Philip Kelly and Ronald Hudson (eds), Diary of EBB: The Unpublished Diary of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 1831–1832 (Athens, OH: Ohio UP, 1969) among her inspirations for Barrett Browning’s writing style.

35 Laura Fish, ‘Strange Music: Engaging Imaginatively with the Family of Elizabeth Barrett Browning from a Creole and Black Woman’s Perspective’,

Notes 257

Victorian Poetry, 44:4 (Winter 2006), p. 507. The novel closely follows the biographical sources indicated in the Acknowledgements.

36 Elizabeth Barrett Browning, ‘The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim’s Point’ (1856 version), repr. in Fish, Strange Music, Stanza XVI, p. 210.

37 Ibid., Stanza XXVI, p. 212. 38 Markus, Dared and Done, p. 92. 39 Marjorie Stone, ‘Elizabeth Barrett Browning and the Garrisonians: “The

Runaway Slave at Pilgrim’s Point”, the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society, and Abolitionist Discourse in the Liberty Bell’, in Alison Chapman (ed.), Victorian Women Poets (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer/The English Association, 2003), p. 34, p. 39.

40 Friday, 10 January 1845, in Daniel Karlin (ed.), Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett: The Courtship Correspondence 1845–1846. A Selection (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), p. 1.

41 Easton Lee, ‘Strategy’, From Behind the Counter: Poems from a rural Jamaican experience (1996; Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers, 1998), pp. 130–1, Stanza 3, lines 10–11, 14–15.

42 Samuel Barrett Moulton Barrett bequeathed his servant Rebecca Laslie £100, but tied the legacy to a clause which made the payment subject to the executors’ (his brother Edward and nephew Sam’s) arbitrary decision (‘such Legacy shall only be payable in case my Executors shall consider her conduct and attention during my illness shall have merited such a Mark of my approval’); see Marks, Family of the Barrett, pp. 460–1, and Barrett, The Barretts of Jamaica, p. 97.

43 Fish, ‘Engaging Imaginatively’, p. 509. 44 Ibid., pp. 509–10. 45 Elizabeth’s comment in the novel, ‘I live as a blind poet, only inwardly’,

is adapted from a letter to Browning of March 1845: ‘I have lived only inwardly, – or with sorrow, for a strong emotion. Before this seclusion of my illness, I was secluded still . . . I am, in a manner, as a blind poet’, in Karlin, Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett, p. 34.

46 Elizabeth Barrett inherited £8000 from her Jamaican Uncle Samuel and her grandmother Elizabeth Barrett Moulton Barrett; Markus, Dared and Done, pp. 93–4.

47 Ibid., p. 112. Similarly, Barrett Browning was to extol the cross-class friend-ship between mistress and maid in Aurora Leigh, attacking the exploitation of working-class women by upper-class ladies, and yet treat her own servant Elizabeth Wilson shabbily, denying her a wage rise after ten years of service – one is reminded of Sam’s underpayment of the Jamaican ‘apprentices’ – and forcing her to choose between her children and her continued employ-ment with the Brownings. See Margaret Forster, Elizabeth Barrett Browning: A Biography (New York: Doubleday, 1988), pp. 272–3, pp. 315–16.

48 Markus, Dared and Done, p. 107. 49 Ibid., pp. 106–7. 50 Joseph Phelan, ‘Ethnology and Biography: The Case of the Brownings’,

Biography, 26:2 (Spring 2003), pp. 261–82. 51 Markus suggests that Edward Barrett feared that the Barrett blood was

racially tainted (Dared and Done, pp. 105–6). 52 ‘The master’s look’: Barrett Browning, ‘Runaway Slave’, Stanza XX, p. 211.

258 Notes

53 Fish, ‘Engaging Imaginatively’, p. 515. 54 Barrett Browning, ‘Runaway Slave’, Stanza IV, p. 207. 55 ‘They dragged him – where I crawled to touch / His blood’s mark in the

dust’, ibid., Stanza XII, p. 209. 56 Ibid., Stanza XIV, p. 209. The first line of the stanza (‘Grief seemed too good

for such as I’) is here rendered in its original 1846/8 version (Stanza XV), ‘Mere grief’s too good for such as I’; see The Victorian Age, ed. Carol T. Christ and Catherine Robson, vol. E of The Norton Anthology of English Literature, 8th edn, ed. Stephen Greenblatt (New York: Norton, 2006), p. 1088.

57 An echo of the first line of Stanza XXXI, p. 213. 58 Barrett Browning referred to her poem as a ‘rather long ballad’; quoted in

Ann Parry, ‘Sexual Exploitation and Freedom: Religion, Race, and Gender in Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s “The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim’s Point”’, Studies in Browning and his Circle, 16 (1988), p. 120.

59 Stone, ‘Elizabeth Barrett Browning and the Garrisonians’, p. 54. 60 Barrett-Browning, ‘Runaway Slave’, Stanza I, p. 206. 61 Ibid., Stanzas XXIX, XXXIV, XXXV, pp. 213–14. 62 ‘[M]y black face, my black hand’, ‘I am black, I am black’, ‘we who are

dark, we are dark’, ‘We were black, we were black’, ‘My face is black’; ibid., Stanzas III, IV, VI, VIII, XIII, XV, XVI, XXVIII, XXXI, pp. 206–10, p. 213.

63 Ibid., Stanza XXXI, p. 213. 64 Dale Spender, ‘Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony’, Women of Ideas &

What Men Have Done to Them (1982; London: Pandora, 1990), pp. 273–9. For a fictional treatment of the political links between abolitionism and North American feminism see Marge Piercy’s Sex Wars: A Novel (2005).

65 Barrett Browning, ‘Runaway Slave’, Stanzas XXIX and XXXI, p. 213; Stone, ‘Elizabeth Barrett Browning and the Garrisonians’, p. 52.

66 Susan Brown, ‘“Black and White Slaves”: Discourses of Race and Victorian Feminism’, in Timothy P. Foley, Lionel Pilkington, Sean Ryder, and Elizabeth Tilley (eds), Gender and Colonialism (Galway: Galway UP, 1995), p. 129.

67 Stone, ‘Elizabeth Barrett Browning and the Garrisonians’, pp. 46–53. 68 For a comparison with Beloved see Marjorie Stone, ‘Between Ethics and

Anguish: Feminist Ethics, Feminist Aesthetics, and Representations of Infanticide in “The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim’s Point” and Beloved’, in Dorota Glowacka and Stephen Boos (eds), Between Ethics and Aesthetics: Crossing the Boundaries (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), pp. 131–58; Elizabeth H. Battles, ‘Slavery through the Eyes of a Mother: The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim’s Point’, Studies in Browning and his Circle, 19 (1991), pp. 93–100; and Tricia Lootens, ‘Publishing and Reading “Our EBB”: Editorial Pedagogy, Contemporary Culture, and “The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim’s Point”’, Victorian Poetry, 44:4 (Winter 2006), pp. 499–500. As Barbara Christian notes, there is, however, a fundamental difference between the female slave who kills her master’s child, the product of rape, and Sethe, who kills the child she had with a slave lover; see her ‘Beloved, She’s Ours’, Narrative, 5:1 (1997), p. 42.

69 Ibid., pp. 41–2. 70 Markus, Dared and Done, p. 92. 71 Barrett Browning, ‘Runaway Slave’, Stanza XXXIV, p. 214. See also the

graphic description of the child’s earlier struggle for life, Stanzas XVII and XX, pp. 210–1. In the original 1846/8 version ‘his master’s right’ is rendered

Notes 259

‘the master-right’ (Stanza XVIII), highlighting the child’s embodiment of the system of slavery (see Norton Anthology of English Literature, 8th edn., vol. E, p. 1088).

72 Sarah Brophy, ‘Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s “The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim’s Point” and the Politics of Interpretation’, Victorian Poetry, 36:3 (1998), pp. 278–80.

73 Jean Rhys, Wide Sargasso Sea (1966; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), p. 133. 74 Fish, ‘Engaging Imaginatively’, p. 517. 75 It is in Rome, in the opera, that Anna is first able to grieve for her husband,

and that she has her first, unknown, encounter with Layla and Sharif. On her later trip to the Sinai, she is equally moved by a singer performing in the desert.

76 Roszika Parker, The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine (London: Women’s Press, 1984).

77 As Waïl S. Hassan points out in ‘Agency and Translational Literature: Ahdaf Soueif’s The Map of Love’, the novel ‘enacts a poetics of translation on several levels – plot, theme, language, and discourse’, PMLA, 121:3 (2006), p. 757. For a discussion of the novel’s hybridity see Amin Malak, ‘Arab Muslim Feminism and the Narrative of Hybridity: The Fiction of Ahdaf Soueif’, Alif, 20 (2000), pp. 140–83.

78 The spelling of ‘Omar is rendered as in Soueif’s novel. Kate Pullinger uses a different spelling for her similarly named character in The Mistress of Nothing.

79 Edward Said, Orientalism (1978; London: Penguin, 2003). For the central role of Said’s arguments to Soueif’s novel see Mariadele Boccardi, The Contemporary British Historical Novel: Representation, Nation, Empire (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pp. 107–8. For the novel’s engagement with postcolonial theory see Anastasia Valassopoulos, ‘Fictionalising Postcolonial Theory: The Creative Native Informant?’, Critical Survey, 16:2 (2004), p. 43.

80 Ahdaf Soueif, ‘Talking about The Map of Love’, interview with Paula Burnett, EnterText, 1:3 (2001), p. 98, p. 101, http://arts.brunel.ac.uk/gate/entertext/issue_3.htm. For the mythical context see Tara D. McDonald, ‘Resurrecting Iris in Ahdaf Soueif’s The Map of Love’, in Metka Zupancˇicˇ (ed.), Hermes and Aphrodite Encounters (Birmingham, AL: Summa Publications, 2004), pp. 163–70.

81 Gertrude Bell, Isabella Bird, Menie Muriel Dowie, Amelia Edwards, Mary Kingsley among others.

82 Soueif, ‘Talking about The Map of Love’, p. 102. 83 Quoted in Ray Strachey, The Cause: A Short History of the Women’s Movement

in Great Britain (1928; London: Virago, 1988), p. 67. 84 After 1812; see the paintings reproduced and discussed in Ruth Bernard

Yeazell, Harems of the Mind: Passages of Western Art and Literature (New Haven: Yale UP, 2000).

85 See the early-twentieth-century French postcards of the Algerian harem (woman) analysed in Malek Alloula’s The Colonial Harem, trans. Myrna Godzich and Wlad Godzich (1986; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003).

86 John Marlowe, Anglo-Egyptian Relations 1800–1956, 2nd edn. (London: Frank Cass and Co, 1965), p. 179; Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the

260 Notes

Liberal Age 1798–1939 (1962; London: OUP, 1967), p. 201; Peter Mansfield, The British in Egypt (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971), p. 172; M.W. Daly, Modern Egypt, from 1517 to the End of the Twentieth Century, vol. 2 of The Cambridge History of Egypt (Cambridge: CUP, 1998), p. 243; Roger Owen, Lord Cromer: Victorian Imperialist, Edwardian Proconsul (Oxford: OUP, 2004), p. 346.

87 Owen, Lord Cromer, p. 228. 88 George Bernard Shaw, ‘Preface for Politicians’, John Bull’s Other Island

and Major Barbara: also How He Lied to her Husband (London: Archibald Constable & Co, 1907), p. lvi.

89 For the factual letter quoted and discussed in Soueif’s novel (pp. 415–19, 493–4) see Clara Boyle, Boyle of Cairo (Kendal: Titus Wilson and Son, 1965), pp. 62–4.

90 Ibid., p. 62. 91 Ibid., pp. 62–3; Map of Love, pp. 417–19. 92 Boyle, Boyle of Cairo, p. 63. 93 Indeed, while Daly’s 1998 Modern Egypt underplays the British reprisals

as ‘unarguably . . . inept’ (p. 243), and Owen’s 2004 biography seeks to exonerate Cromer from responsibility (pp. 336–7), John Marlowe’s Cromer in Egypt (London: Elek Books, 1970) not only boasts two photographs of the Denshawai floggings and executions, but makes the extraordinary claim that Egyptian protest was caused by the British public response to the event: ‘Left to themselves, it would probably not have occurred to the nationalist leaders to make very much of an issue about the hanging and flogging of a few peasants’ (p. 266).

94 Boyle, Boyle of Cairo, p. 62. 95 Soueif, Preface to Mezzaterra: Fragments from the Common Ground (London:

Bloomsbury, 2004), p. 4. 96 Said, Orientalism, pp. 2–3. 97 See Lucie Duff Gordon’s Letters from Egypt (1865; London: Virago, 1983)

and Last Letters from Egypt (London: n.p., 1875); Charles and Susan M. Bowles’s A Nile Voyage of Recovery (London: n.p., 1897).

98 See Letters from Egypt, p. 18, p. 288; for the cross-dresser see p. 96. 99 Passages from Anna’s diary are placed in italics in the novel; this and

subsequent emphases are in the original. 100 Bhabha, ‘Signs Taken for Wonders’, p. 35, see the opening epigraph to this

chapter.101 Lady Stanhope’s maid Hester Williams was denied permission to marry her

lover, Hanah Massad, ‘a great favourite with his mistress’, who was promptly dismissed from her service; Joan Haslip, Lady Hester Stanhope: A Biography (London: Cobden-Sanderson, 1934), p. 224. Duff Gordon’s maid received various offers of marriage; see Letters from Egypt, 20 January 1864, p. 108.

102 Katherine Frank, Lucie Duff Gordon: A Passage to Egypt (London: Tauris, 2007), p. 292.

103 Quoted in Forster, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, p. 302.104 Duff Gordon countenanced (sexual) slavery and child marriage in her

Egyptian friends and herself had two slaves; when one of these, the Sudanese girl Zeyneb, started questioning Duff Gordon’s authority, she was hastily passed on to another family (Letters from Egypt, 9 April and 1 December

Notes 261

1863, pp. 51–2, pp. 82–3). For Victorian travellers’ acquiescence with Middle-Eastern slavery see Billie Melman, Women’s Orients: English Women and the Middle East, 1718–1918, 2nd edn. (Basingstoke: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1995), pp. 146–8.

105 Frank, Lucie Duff Gordon, pp. 293–4. 106 Ibid., pp. 293–6, p. 308. 107 The prohibition enables Pullinger to circumvent the problem of how Sally

would respond to a polygamous marriage. Seclusion in the home would also have disabled her from working; her idea that she might contribute to the family economy is at odds with contemporary reality. Duff Gordon recorded in a letter of 12 May 1863 that Mabrouka, Omar’s first wife, had only once set foot outside the door of her marital home (Letters from Egypt, p. 60).

108 We refer to the fictional character as Lucie. Duff Gordon cites many instances of forced labour, dispossession, gratuitous imprisonment, and brutal reprisals against the local population. Her letters were intercepted, and she herself was threatened by an emissary of the Pasha (Frank, Lucie Duff Gordon, p. 345); in the novel an attempt is made to bribe Omar into killing her.

109 Kate Pullinger, The Mistress of Nothing (London: Serpent’s Tail, 2009), p. 57. Further references appear in the text.

110 Writing to her husband on 3 January 1864 Duff Gordon records sharing a cabin with Sally and Omar, who slept at their feet; Letters from Egypt, p. 90.

111 Instead of spending the winter months with her, Alexander Duff Gordon departed on a hunting expedition with his daughter after the briefest of visits; Frank, Lucie Duff Gordon, pp. 288–90.

112 Quoted in ibid., p. 294. 113 Catherine Wynne, ‘Navigating the Mezzaterra: Home, Harem and the

Hybrid Family in Ahdaf Soueif’s The Map of Love’, Critical Survey, 18:2 (2006), p. 60.

114 Duff Gordon, Letters from Egypt, 20 January 1864, p. 108; see also 7 February, pp. 111–12. The reference is to Martineau’s Eastern Life, Present and Past (London: Edward Moxon, 1848).

115 For a colour reproduction see http://www.orientalist-art.org.uk/lewis39.html116 For a colour reproduction see http://www.tate.org.uk/servlet/

ViewWork?workid=8680117 Anna’s reference is to Edward William Lane’s 1850 translation of The

Thousand and One Nights. Compare with Duff Gordon: ‘it’s the reverse of all one’s former life when one sat in England and read of the East. “Und nun sitz ich mitten drein” [and now I’m right in there] in the real, true Arabian Nights, and don’t know whether “I be as I suppose I be” or not’, Letters from Egypt, 10 December 1862, p. 34 (emphasis in original).

118 Inderpal Grewal, Home and Harem: Nation, Gender, Empire, and the Cultures of Travel (London: Leicester UP, 1996), pp. 127–8.

119 Yeazell, Harems of the Mind, pp. 1–2. 120 Fawwaz established her feminist reputation with her manifesto article

‘Fair and Equal Treatment’ (1891) and a biographical dictionary of notable women, Scattered Pearls in the Generations of Secluded Women (1894).

262 Notes

She contributed to Hind Nawfal’s women’s magazine Al-Fatah. Sonia Dabbous, ‘“Till I Become a Minister”: Women’s Rights and Women’s Journalism in pre-1952 Egypt’, in Naomi Sakr (ed.), Women and Media in the Middle East: Power Through Self-Expression (London: I.B. Taurus, 2004), p. 41; ‘Fair and Equal Treatment’ is translated in Margot Badran and Miriam Cooke (eds), Opening the Gates: A Century of Arab Feminist Writing (London: Virago, 1990), pp. 221–6.

121 Writing under the pseudonym Bahithat Al-Badiya, Malak Hifni Nasif collected her articles and political speeches in her book Al-Nisa’iyat (‘Feminist Texts’). She used the Nationalist Congress in Heliopolis in 1911 to proclaim the feminists’ demands. Margot Badran, ‘Egyptian Feminism in a Nationalist Century’, Mujeres Mediterránneas – Femmes Mediterranées – Mediteranean Women – Dones Mediterrànies, http://www.mediterraneas.org/article.php3?id_article=178 (accessed 2 January 2009).

122 Dabbous, ‘Till I Become a Minister’, p. 41; Hind Nawfal, ‘The Dawn of the Arabic Women’s Press’ (1892), in Badran and Cooke, Opening the Gates, (pp. 217–19), p. 218.

123 Dabbous, ‘Till I Become a Minister’, pp. 41–2.124 Inaugurated in 1909, the real-life lecture series at the Egyptian University

included Malak Hifni Nasif among the speakers. See Badran, ‘Egyptian Feminism in a Nationalist Century’.

125 Dabbous, ‘Till I Become a Minister’, p. 41.126 Qasim Amin, The Liberation of Women and The New Woman: Two Documents

in the History of Egyptian Feminism, trans. Samiha Sidhom Peterson (1992; Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 2000). Amin advocated women’s education and an end to seclusion as a precondition for national progress. His condemnation of the ignorant, hyper-sensual wife only concerned with pleasure and material goods, and strategic references to women’s maternal role as educators of men and marital function as com-panions and co-equals drew on arguments similar to those co-opted by Mary Wollstonecraft and the Victorian women’s movement.

3 Sex and Science

1 Mary Jacobus, Evelyn Fox Keller and Sally Shuttleworth, ‘Introduction’ to Body/Politics: Women and the Discourses of Science (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 3.

2 Jeannette King, The Victorian Woman Question in Contemporary Feminist Fiction (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 6.

3 Marie-Luise Kohlke, ‘Sexsation and the Neo-Victorian Novel: Orientalising the Nineteenth Century in Contemporary Fiction’, in Marie-Luise Kohlke and Luisa Orza (eds), Negotiating Sexual Idioms: Image, Text, Performance (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2008), p. 67.

4 Christian Gutleben, Nostalgic Postmodernism: The Victorian Tradition and the Contemporary British Novel (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001), p. 173.

5 Michel Foucault, ‘The Repressive Hypothesis’, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1: The Will to Knowledge, trans. Robert Hurley (London: Penguin, 1990), p. 49.

Notes 263

6 For the Cleveland Street Scandal see Donald Thomas, The Victorian Underworld (London: John Murray, 1998), p. 102.

7 W.T. Stead, ‘The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon’, Pall Mall Gazette, 6, 7, 8, 10 July 1885.

8 Andrew Davies’s 2002 BBC version of Tipping the Velvet lends enormous prominence to Waters’s quirky dildo while neglecting her book’s central symbol, the oyster; in his 2008 ITV adaptation of Affinity Margaret Prior is implausibly equipped with a fiancé (see our discussion in Chapter 6).

9 Barry has been the subject of a number of biographies, most recently Rachel Holmes’s Scanty Particulars: The Mysterious, Astonishing and Remarkable Life of Victorian Surgeon James Barry (London: Penguin, 2002).

10 Angela Carter, Nights at the Circus (London: Vintage, 1984), p. 7. 11 Engaging with aspects of both genres, Hottentot Venus explodes the categories

of the neo-slave narrative and the neo-Victorian novel. For details of the former see Ashraf H.A. Rushdy, Neo-Slave Narratives: Studies in the Social Logic of a Literary Form (New York: Oxford UP, 1999), and Judith Misrahi-Barak (ed.), Revisiting Slave Narratives: Les avatars contemporains des récits d’esclaves (Université Montpellier III: Coll. ‘Les Carnets du Cerpac’ no. 2, 2005).

12 Emily Martin, ‘Science and Women’s Bodies: Forms of Anthropological Knowledge’, in Jacobus, Keller, and Shuttleworth, Body/Politics, pp. 69–82.

13 Londa Schiebinger, Nature’s Body: Sexual Politics and the Making of Modern Science (London: Pandora, 1993), pp. 143–83.

14 Susan Griffin, Pornography and Silence (1981; London: Women’s Press, 1988), pp. 8–81.

15 Laura Mulvey, ‘Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema’ (1975), Visual and Other Pleasures (London: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 14–26.

16 Lisa Z. Sigel, Governing Pleasures: Pornography and Social Change in England, 1815–1914 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 2002), p. 162.

17 The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first English usage of the term to 1842 (OED online).

18 Sigel, Governing Pleasures, pp. 50–80. 19 Jane M. Ussher, Fantasies of Femininity: Reframing the Boundaries of Sex

(London: Penguin, 1997), p. 179; also Judith Butler, ‘The Force of Fantasy: Feminism, Mapplethorpe, and Discursive Excess’, Differences, 2:2 (Summer 1990), pp. 105–25, and Ann Brooks, Postfeminisms: Feminism, Cultural Theory and Cultural Forms (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 205–9.

20 Rosemary Tong, Feminist Thought: A Comprehensive Introduction (London: Routledge 1992), p. 113; also Sarah Gamble (ed.), The Routledge Companion to Feminism and Postfeminism (London: Routledge, 2001), p. 297.

21 Charlene Y. Senn, ‘The Research on Women and Pornography: The Many Faces of Harm’, in Diana E.H. Russell (ed.), Making Violence Sexy: Feminist Views on Pornography (Buckingham: Open UP, 1993), pp. 181–2.

22 Michel Foucault, ‘The Means of Correct Training’ and ‘Complete and Austere Institutions’, Discipline and Punish, in Paul Rabinow (ed.), The Foucault Reader (London: Penguin, 1991), pp. 188–224.

23 Gérard Genette, Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Cambridge: CUP, 1997), p. 2.

24 Barry Reay devotes a chapter of his book on Hannah Cullwick and Arthur Munby (the cross-class relationship parodied in The Observations’ dyad of

264 Notes

mistress and maid) on the semiotics of hands: ‘Dorothy’s Hands: Feminizing Men’, Watching Hannah: Sexuality, Horror and Bodily De-formation in Victorian England (London: Reaktion Books, 2002), pp. 125–42.

25 The term ‘Hottentot’ originates from the Dutch word for stutterer and referred to the click sounds of Khoi speech, a complex language Dutch settlers found it difficult to master. See Rachel Holmes, The Hottentot Venus: The Life and Death of Saartjie Baartman: Born 1789 – Buried 2002 (London: Bloomsbury, 2007), p. 10, and ‘The Heroine’s Note’ in Barbara Chase-Riboud, Hottentot Venus (2003; New York: Anchor, 2004), n.p. Further references to the novel appear in the text.

26 The cartoon associates the British obsession with Baartman not only with sexual prurience but also with cannibalism: while the Scottish soldier on the right attempts to peep under Saartjie’s apron, blissfully unaware of the vulnerability to imminent attack of his own buttocks, the female spectator bends down to get a better view not of Baartman’s but of the other Scotsman’s privates, who himself can conceive of Baartman only as consumable victuals.

27 Critical accounts render her names differently. For details see Clifton Crais and Pamela Scully, Sara Baartman and the Hottentot Venus (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2009), p. 9, p. 107. To distinguish between the factual per-sonality and the fictional subject we will use the surname, sometimes in conjunction with Saartjie, to refer to the real-life woman, and Sarah (some-times with the surname) when discussing Chase-Riboud’s protagonist.

28 M. G[eorges] Cuvier, ‘Extrait d’Observations Faites sur le Cadavre d’une femme connue à Paris et à Londres sous le nom de VÉNUS HOTTENTOTE’, Mémoires du Muséum d’Histoire naturelle (Paris: A. Berlin, 1817), pp. 259–74.

29 Sadiah Qureshi, ‘Displaying Sara Baartman, the “Hottentot Venus”’, British Journal for the History of Science, xliii (2004), p. 246.

30 Holmes, Saartje Baartman, pp. 169–83. 31 ‘A Conversation with Jane Harris’, included in the US Penguin’s ‘Book

Clubs/Reading Clubs’ review: http://us.penguingroup.com/static/rguides/us/observations.html (accessed 2 September 2009).

32 The first edition of this enormously popular manual was published in 1859–61; the novel is set in the early 1860s: Jane Harris, The Observations (London: Faber and Faber, 2006), p. 112. Further references to the novel appear in the text.

33 Martin, ‘Science and Women’s Bodies’, p. 69. 34 Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor, vol. 1: The London

Street-Folk (1851; London: Frank Cass & Co, 1967), p. iii. Thanks are due to Allison Neal for drawing our attention to the parallels with Mayhew.

35 Mayhew, London Labour, pp. 1–2. 36 See Cesare Lombroso and Guglielmo Ferrero, Criminal Woman, The

Prostitute, and the Normal Woman, trans. and introduced by Nicole Hahn Rafter and Mary Gibson (Durham: Duke UP, 2004; published originally as La donna delinquente in 1893 and first published in English in 1895), Part III: ‘Pathological Anatomy and Anthropometry of Criminal Woman and the Prostitute’, pp. 105–56.

37 See W.H. Flower’s ‘Account of the Dissection of a Bushwoman’, Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1 (1867), pp. 189–208.

Notes 265

38 Hannah Cullwick (1833–1909), char-woman, cook, housemaid, and house-keeper, and Arthur J. Munby (1828–1910), barrister, diarist, minor poet, amateur photographer and ‘collector’ of working-class women, entertained a relationship from 1854 until Cullwick’s death in 1909. Prompted by Munby, Cullwick started to keep a diary recording her working days. Munby also encouraged Cullwick to read eighteenth-century classics like Clarissa and to learn French. See Liz Stanley, Introduction to Liz Stanley (ed.), The Diaries of Hannah Cullwick: Victorian Maidservant (London: Virago, 1984), pp. 1–34. For the social, sexual, and racial (master/slave) contexts see Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context (London: Routledge, 1995); Reay, Watching Hannah; and Diane Atkinson, Love and Dirt: The Marriage of Arthur Munby and Hannah Cullwick (New York: Macmillan, 2003).

39 In his diary Munby recorded his encounters and conversations with as well as observations of working women; see Derek Hudson, Munby: Man of Two Worlds: The Life and Diaries of Arthur J. Munby 1828–1910 (London: John Murray, 1972).

40 Cameron’s (1815–79) late-Victorian photography revolutionized the art; see Julian Cox and Colin Ford, with contributions by Joanne Lukitsh and Philippa Wright, Julia Margaret Cameron: The Complete Photographs (London: Thames & Hudson in association with the J. Paul Getty Museum and The National Museum of Photography, Film & Television, 2003).

41 See Munby’s various photographs of Cullwick, in McClintock, Imperial Leather, pp. 135–6.

42 Ibid., p. 103. 43 Théaulon, Dartois and Brasier, The Hottentot Venus, or The Hatred of

Frenchwomen, trans. and repr. in T. Denean Sharpley-Whiting’s Black Venus: Sexualized Savages, Primal Fears, and Primitive Narratives in French (Durham: Duke UP, 1999), pp. 127–64. In the play a young Frenchwoman passes herself off as the Hottentot Venus in order to attract the attention of her cousin, who is determined only to marry an exotic foreigner.

44 As Deborah A. Thomas argues in ‘Miss Swartz and the Hottentot Venus Revisited’, Thackeray Newsletter, 36 (1992), pp. 1–5, the illustration entitled ‘Miss Swartz rehearsing for the Drawing Room’ in chapter 21 of Vanity Fair, in which one of her hands demonstratively points to her large rump empha-sized by the bustle of her dress, can be read as a reference to Baartman.

45 Carter’s short story problematizes Baudelaire’s ‘Black Venus’ cycle in which his Creole lover Jeanne Duval is associated with the Hottentot Venus; see Jill Matus, ‘Blonde, Black and Hottentot Venus: Context and Critique in Angela Carter’s “Black Venus”’, in Alison Easton (ed.), Angela Carter (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), pp. 161–72.

46 Sartje is adopted by the New Woman protagonist Rebekah and integrated into her family of four white boys when the mixed-raced child is rejected by her biological parents, Rebekah’s husband and their black servant.

47 See ‘Thoughts drifting through the fat black woman’s head while hav-ing a full bubble bath’, in which the female speaker puns on the term ‘steatopygous’ and expresses the desire to ‘place [her] foot / on the head of anthropology’, in Grace Nichols, The Fat Black Woman’s Poems (London: Virago, 1984), p. 15.

266 Notes

48 Elizabeth Alexander’s ‘The Venus Hottentot’ also invokes Sylvia Plath in its celebration of the rage of the abused woman, who fantasizes about rising from the operating table: ‘I’d spirit / his knives and cut out his black heart, / seal it with science fluid inside / a bell jar’ for display in a museum; The Venus Hottentot (Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 1990), pp. 6–7.

49 Suzan-Lori Parks, Venus (1990; New York: Theatre Communications Group, 1997). Parks emphasizes Venus’s self-destructive desires: her love affair with the ‘Baron Docteur’, a version of Cuvier (originally played by a black actor) and her self-commodification have provoked controversy; see Jean Young, ‘The Re-Objectification and Re-Commodification of Saartjie Baartman in Suzan-Lori Parks’s Venus’, African American Review, 31:4 (Winter 1997), pp. 699–708. Parks engages metadramatically with the contemporary textual construction of the ‘Hottentot Venus’ and her erotic appeal by incorporating Théaulon, Dartois and Brasier’s Vaudeville play within the plot when one of the characters impersonates Venus in order to recapture the waning affections of her fiancé. The threat of a German doctor in possession of a female ‘Hottentot’ corpse who will beat him to the publication of the first ever dissection report persuades the Baron Docteur to hand Venus over to assassins. The objectification and murder of an early-nineteenth-century black woman is here implicitly associated with the cultural, scientific, and racial politics that would lead to the Holocaust of the 1940s. Part of the play is set in Tübingen, a historic university town in Southern Germany, the alma mater of the Romantic poets Hölderlin and Mörike, the philosophers Schelling and Hegel, and the scientists Kepler and Alzheimer. Parks evidently wants her audience to remember that academic institutions carry their own legacy of racism.

50 Zoë Wicomb, David’s Story (2000; New York: Feminist Press, 2001), p. 1. The all-to-easy equation of Baartman with black South Africa is problema-tized when David’s search for his Griqua (Khoi) roots uncovers his likely descendancy from Cuvier, while the black female comrade in the liberation movement whom he helps to victimize is associated with Baartman and Krotoa, a Khoisan woman employed by Jan Van Riebeck (the seventeenth-century governor of the Cape), whose interracial marriage to the Danish surgeon Pieter van Meerhoff was the first of its kind. The narrator’s refusal to include David’s ‘stories’ of Baartman and Krotoa is a political response to the claim to ‘speak for’ the two women. The novel has a dual time-line, the 1880s to 1920s and the early 1990s. See Dorothy Driver’s Afterword (pp. 215–54), and Kai Easton, ‘Travelling through History, “New” South African Icons: The Narratives of Saartjie Baartman and Krotoä-Eva in Zoë Wicomb’s David’s Story’, Kunapipi, 24:1–2 (2002), pp. 237–50.

51 Maria Cristina Nisco, ‘Dark Histories, Bright Revisions: Writing the Black Female Body’, Nebula, 3:1 (April 2006), pp. 67–70. For other crea-tive instances of ‘re-membrance’ see Anca Vlasopolos, ‘Venus live! Sarah Bartmann, the Hottentot Venus, re-membered’, Mosaic, 33:4 (2000), pp. 128–43.

52 Zola Maseko, The Life and Times of Sara Baartman: ‘The Hottentot Venus’ (Icarus Films, 1999), see http://icarusfilms.com/new99/hottento.html.

Notes 267

53 Crais and Scully, Sara Baartman, pp. xiii–xiv. The book provides fascinating new insights, such as dating Baartman’s birth back to 1777, as opposed to 1789, and gives fuller details of her employment history in Cape Town and her private circumstances; quantities of missing (or incomplete) references, however, lend it a semi-fictionalized appearance.

54 Holmes (Saartjie Baartman, p. 118) asserts (without providing a source) that after Dunlop’s death Hendrik Cesars reconstituted himself as Henry Taylor. The complexities of the relationship between the three creators of the ‘Hottentot Venus’ are quasi-sentimentalized with the (unreferenced) specu-lation that Dunlop left his belongings to Baartman and Cesars (p. 115).

55 Anne Fausto-Sterling, ‘Gender, Race, and Nation: The Comparative Anatomy of “Hottentot” Women in Europe, 1815–1817’, in Londa Schiebinger (ed.), Feminism & the Body (Oxford: OUP, 2000), p. 204, pp. 221–2.

56 Susan B. Iwanisziw, ‘The Shameful Allure of Sycorax and Wowski: Dramatic Precursors of Sartje, the Hottentot Venus’, Restoration and 18th Century Theatre Research, 16:2 (2001), p. 3.

57 As Yvette Abrahams points out, ‘steatopygia’ has yet to be defined; see ‘Images of Sara Bartman: Sexuality, Race, and Gender in Early-Nineteenth-Century Britain’, in Ruth Roach Pierson and Nupur Chaudhuri, with the assistance of Beth McAuley (eds), Nation, Empire, Colony: Historicizing Gender and Race (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1998), pp. 221–2.

58 Fausto-Sterling, ‘Gender, Race, and Nation’, p. 216. 59 These anxieties continue in the twenty-first century with the rise of

labiaplasties: the cosmetic alteration or excision of the labia majora or minora when considered to be ‘too over-developed’ to suit a female body beautiful whose primary function is the accessibility of the vagina (The Perfect Vagina, dir. Heather Leach, Channel 4, 17 August 2008). See also the Manhattan Center for Vaginal Surgery’s representations of ‘defective’ and ‘corrected’, aesthetically and functionally ‘enhanced’ and ‘rejuvenated’ vulvas, http://www.centerforvaginalsurgery.com/nycla-biaplasty/labiaplastypictures.htm; for feminist counteractivities see New View Campaign, http://newviewcampaign.org/default.asp (both sources accessed 23 September 2009).

60 Lombroso and Ferrero, in Criminal Woman, The Prostitute, and the Normal Woman, constructed the female criminal – as also the female genius (p. 84) – through bodily (particularly facial and genital) anomalies (p. 49, p. 54, pp. 136–8, pp. 141–2), deploying photography as scientific proof of their claims, and pronouncing female criminals and prostitutes alongside lesbians, ‘savages’, primates, and children as atavistic. Ultimately, even the ‘normal’ woman had a ‘natural’ disposition towards deviance. See David G. Horn, ‘This Norm Which Is not One: Reading the Female Body in Lombroso’s Anthropology’, in Jennifer Terry and Jacqueline Urla (eds), Deviant Bodies: Critical Perspectives on Difference in Science and Popular Culture (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1995), pp. 109–27.

61 For the conceptual link, in the scientific imagination, between genital ‘abnormalities’, race, and sexual deviance see Jennifer Terry, ‘Anxious Slippages between “Us” and “Them”: A Brief History of the Scientific Search for Homosexual Bodies’, in Terry and Urla, Deviant Bodies, pp. 139–48.

268 Notes

62 Some physicians believed that a disposition towards nymphomania could be detected from the (négroid) ‘animal organization’ of the body such as ‘small eyes, large, broad nose and chin, thick lips, and the disproportion-ate size of the posterior position of her head’; see John Tompkins Walton, ‘Case of Nymphomania Successfully Treated’, American Journal of Medical Science, 33:1 (1857), p. 47, quoted in Carol Groneman, ‘Nymphomania: The Historical Construction of Female Sexuality’, in Terry and Urla, Deviant Bodies, p. 220.

63 In ‘The Hottentot and the Prostitute: Toward an Iconography of Female Sexuality’, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1985) Sander Gilman draws attention to Edouard Manet’s representation of Emile Zola’s prostitute Nana in L’Assommoir (1877), which prompted his 1877 painting Nana and in its turn, together with his earlier Olympia (1863), inspired Zola’s depiction of Nana in his eponymous novel of 1880 (pp. 104–7); also discussed in Gilman’s Sexuality: An Illustrated History (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1989), pp. 287–307. See Abele De Blasio’s illustration ‘Steatopygia in an Italian prostitute’ (1905) reproduced in Gilman’s books (p. 100; p. 303).

64 Hortense J. Spillers, ‘Mama’s Baby, Papa’s Maybe: An American Grammar Book’, Diacritics, 17:2 (Summer 1987), p. 67.

65 Holmes, Saartjie Baartman, p. 15. 66 Qureshi, ‘Displaying Sara Baartman’, p. 247. 67 To Mrs Francis Smith, Cape Town, Sunday Night, Oct. [1909]), in

S.C. Cronwright-Schreiner (ed.), The Letters of Olive Schreiner 1876–1920 (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1924), p. 290.

68 In his autopsy report Cuvier referred to Baartman as ‘notre Boschismanne’ (‘Extrait d’Observations’, p. 264, p. 270, p. 271), a racial categorization challenged by Johannes Müller in ‘Ueber die äusseren Geschlechtstheile der Buschmänninen’, Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und Wissenschaftliche Medicin (1834), p. 324.

69 Schiebinger, Nature’s Body, p. 145, p. 148. For scientific constructions of the Great Chain of Being in relation to Baartman see also Stephen Jay Gould, The Flamingo’s Smile: Reflections in Natural History (1985; London: Penguin, 1987).

70 See Richard Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard UP, 1978), pp. 273–5.

71 Qureshi, ‘Displaying Sara Baartman’, p. 235. 72 See a contemporary account in Altick, Shows of London (p. 269): ‘He found

her surrounded by many persons, some females! One pinched her, another walked round her; one gentleman poked her with his cane; and one lady employed her parasol to ascertain that all was, as she called it, “nattral.”’ This scene is reproduced in Chase-Riboud (p. 106).

73 Qureshi, ‘Displaying Sara Baartman’, p. 238. For the exhibition of Zulus, which prompted Dickens to write his essay on ‘The Noble Savage’ (Household Words, 1853), see also Bernth Lindfors, ‘The Hottentot Venus and other African attractions in nineteenth-century England’, Australasian Drama Studies, 1 (1983), pp. 90–5.

74 Qureshi, ‘Displaying Sara Baartman’, p. 237. Caroline Camancini, the ‘thirty-inch fairy’, one of Sarah’s best friends in Chase-Riboud, is based on

Notes 269

the real-life Miss Crackham, the ‘Sicilian Fairy’ (Qureshi, ibid., pp. 236–7; see also Altick, Shows of London, pp. 253–87). As Abrahams points out, ‘white freaks were always exhibited as oddities, whose value lay in the way they were distinguished from the rest of their species. Black people, on the other hand, were exhibited as typical of their race’ (‘Images of Sara Bartman’, p. 225).

75 Crais and Scully cite a figure of 5–10,000 (Sara Baartman, p. 67). 76 Qureshi, ‘Displaying Sara Baartman’, p. 241; see also our discussion of the

1833 act and its aftermath in Chapter 2. 77 Charles Williams, ‘Prospects of Prosperity’ (1810), repr. in Holmes, Saartjie

Baartman, (unnumbered) plate 9. 78 Baartman’s act consisted in playing the guitar, singing and dancing, thus

blending the freak show with aspects of her earlier career in Cape Town, where she had been an evening entertainer. Holmes argues that the ‘key to her popularity was not in the scale of her physical endowments . . . but in her music, in the way she moved and in her skills as an entertainer’ (Saartjie Baartman, pp. 34–5, 69–70).

79 See ibid., pp. 76–109, for details of the court case. Some of the depositions and speeches are reproduced in Chase-Riboud, chapter 11.

80 Qureshi, ‘Displaying Sara Baartman’, p. 247. 81 Ibid., p. 248. 82 Easton, ‘Travelling through History’, pp. 244–5; Holmes, Saartjie Baartman,

p. 171, p. 177, p. 187; Crais and Scully, Sara Baartman, pp. 149–69. 83 Zoë Wicomb, ‘Shame and Identity: The Case of the Coloured in South Africa’,

in Derek Attridge and Rosemary Jolly (eds), Writing South Africa: Literature, Apartheid, and Democracy, 1970–1995 (Cambridge: CUP, 1998), p. 93.

84 Qureshi, ‘Displaying Sara Baartman’, p. 251. 85 ‘Paris: La Venus Hottentote’, Affiches, annonces et avis divers ou Journal

Général de France, 18 September 1814, p. 15, quoted in Holmes, Saartjie Baartman, pp. 18–19. The factual Baartman had a lover in Cape Town, whom she lost under less dramatic circumstances: while in the service of Cesars, she lived with Hendrik van Jong, a Dutch army drummer working for a British battalion, and had a child with him. The child died and the relationship dissolved after Hendrik’s battalion was posted elsewhere. This was Baartman’s second of three children, all of whom died (Crais and Sully, Sara Baartman, pp. 46–7).

86 She referred to her four sisters and two brothers in the court case. One of her brothers rebelled against Cornelius Muller; Crais and Scully, Sara Baartman, p. 25, p. 100.

87 Ibid., pp. 21–40. 88 Holmes, Saartjie Baartman, p. 25. A degree of racial ambiguity is retained in

the novel when Hendrik Caesar boasts of his Hottentot ancestry, which his brother hotly denies.

89 Crais and Scully, Sara Baartman, pp. 54–6. 90 The historical Dunlop died in 1812. In 1814 Baartman was taken to Paris by

Taylor, who increased the length of her daily performances from six to ten hours, and appears to have sold her to a handler of animals, S. Réaux, who increased Baartman’s shifts to twelve hours, followed by additional private performances (Holmes, Saartjie Baartman, pp. 127–31). Crais and Scully

270 Notes

draw attention to a French emigrant with the same surname (Jean Reaux), who acted as a ballet master in Cape Town’s African Theatre in 1805–11, speculating whether this might have been the same man as, or a relative of, Baartman’s later master (pp. 51–3, p. 127).

91 There is no factual record of Baartman ever having married; see Crais and Scully, Sara Baartman, pp. 108–9. They speculate, however, about a fourth child conceived in England, possibly by Dunlop.

92 The historical Baartman did not appear in court but was interviewed separately by Zachary Macaulay (who features in the novel) and four other men; Robert Wedderburn did not contribute to the case (Holmes, Saartjie Baartman, pp. 101–2).

93 Crais and Scully, Sara Baartman, pp. 86–9. Abolitionist leaders like Macaulay had business interests in the Sierra Leone Company and upheld the apprenticeship system, thus perpetuating slavery.

94 The real-life Baartman remained illiterate (Holmes, Saartjie Baartman, p. 13). 95 Mulvey, ‘Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema’, p. 17. 96 Réaux arranged for Baartman to model for Georges and Frédérik Cuvier,

Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Henri de Blainville and other scientists in the Jardin des Plantes for three days in February 1815. Distressed at being expected to undress, she resisted all attempts to make her discard the handkerchief with which she covered what the scientists most desired to behold. In his dissection report Cuvier was later to represent her forcible exposure as a pleasure entertained cottequishly: ‘she had the complai-sance to undress and to allow herself to be painted in the nude’; ‘Extrait d’Observations’, p. 264 (trans. Heilmann).

97 Griffin, Pornography and Silence, p. 29. 98 See Holmes, Saartjie Bartman, p. 137; for his portrait of Baartman see

p. 145. In Chase-Riboud Nicolas Tiedemann admits to having temporarily purloined Sarah’s skull; Baartman’s skull did indeed disappear for some months in 1827 (see Qureshi, ‘Displaying Sara Baartman’, p. 245).

99 Frederick Tiedemann, ‘On the Brain of a Negro, compared with that of the European and the Orang-Outang’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, cxxvi (1836), p. 519, p. 521, pp. 525–6.

100 Henri de Blainville, ‘Sur une femme de la race hottentote’, Bulletin du Société Philomatique de Paris (1816), p. 189.

101 De Blainville, ‘Sur une femme de la race hottentote’, pp. 184–90; Cuvier, ‘Extrait d’Observations’, pp. 259–74; Chase-Riboud, Hottentot Venus, pp. 233–6. Chase-Riboud closely follows parts of de Blainville’s report, which first engages with Baartman’s personal history and then relates the specificities of her body to that of the orangutan. The report’s second part reveals de Blainville’s pornographic obsession and his growing irritation with Baartman’s refusal to allow him to ‘cartograph’ her body at closer range: ‘As for the organs of generation, although he feels that it would have been important to observe them with care, M. de Blainville was unable to do so sufficiently; here is what he saw’ (p. 187); ‘In the ordinary position . . . no trace of any pedicle formed by the big labia could be seen . . . but in certain positions . . . one saw hanging between the thighs a fleshly append-age of at least a thumb in length, which M. de Blainville supposes with sufficient probability to have been the nymphae; but he can’t assure us of

Notes 271

this’ (p. 187; compare with Chase-Riboud, p. 235); ‘Her buttocks are really enormous . . . When touching them, it is easily determined that the great-est part of their mass is cellufat; they tremble and quiver when this woman is walking, and when she sits down, they flatten themselves and strongly project themselves backwards’ (p. 187; see Chase-Riboud, p. 235); ‘The per-son who exhibited her . . . reports that Saarah has a strongly pronounced venereal appetite and that, one day, she threw herself forcefully on a man she desired; but M. de Blainville is somewhat skeptical about this anecdote. . . . Saarah seems good, gentle and timid, very easy to guide when you please her, sullen and stubborn in the opposite case. She appeared to have a sense of modesty, or at least to feel very uncomfortable with exposing herself in the nude . . . For this reason it was impossible to persuade her to let [her organs of generation] be examined in any sufficient detail. M. de Blainville says he has observed in her little steadiness of purpose; one may think she is quiet, powerfully occupied by something, and suddenly a desire will spring up in her which she will immediately seek to satisfy. Without being a choleric, she easily takes to opposing people; thus, she had conceived for M. de Blainville a kind of hatred, probably because he approached her, tormenting her further by taking details of her appearance; to the point where, however much she liked money, she refused what he offered her with the aim of rendering her more docile’ (p. 189; trans. Heilmann).

102 Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Frédéric Georges Cuvier, Histoire Naturelle des Mammifères, avec des figures originales coloriées, dessinées d’après des animaux vivants; publié sous l’autorité de l’Administration du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle (Paris 1824–47), vol. 1, facing p. 1 (frontal portrait by Léon de Wally, 1815, entitled ‘Femme de Race Boschismann’, repr. in Holmes, Saartjie Baartman, plate 14) and p. 3 (side portrait by Nicolas Huet, 1815, see Holmes, p. 145). In Chase-Riboud Georges Cuvier is credited for authoring the book, adding another layer to his exploitation of Baartman.

103 Baartman died in late December 1815, officially of smallpox, most probably from the combined effects of overwork, influenza and bronchitis, possibly pneumonia, and alcohol abuse. Holmes (Saartjie Baartman, pp. 152–8) sug-gests that Réaux, who had been approached by Cuvier about the sale of her body in the event of her death, hastened her demise by encouraging her drinking habit. Cuvier was granted a special licence to seize and dissect her body (ibid., p. 155). His report was later reproduced, in abbreviated version, under the title ‘Femme de Race Boschismanne’, in his brother’s Histoire Naturelle des Mammifères (pp. 1–7) to provide a commentary to the lithographs.

104 Cuvier, ‘Extrait d’Observations’, p. 263 (trans. Heilmann).105 In 1834 the German scientist Johannes Müller still maintained that

elongated labia were part of the natural anatomy of Khoikhoi women and that length depended on age; see ‘Ueber die äusseren Geschlechtstheile der Buschmänninen’, pp. 320–21, pp. 339–40, pp. 343–44. Cuvier had contested the trope of racial-qua-anatomical difference by emphasiz-ing that the ‘Hottentot apron’ had been artificially produced by genital manipulation, and that the practice was authorized by the Pope after Catholic missionaries found that prohibition interfered with conversion efforts (‘Extrait d’Observations’, p. 267). He also challenged the idea that

272 Notes

indigenous women might have found any enjoyment in the practice: Baartman was ‘unlikely to have taken pleasure in procuring for herself an ornament of which she was ashamed and which she took such care to hide’ (p. 268, trans. Heilmann). See also Richard Burton’s brief account of West African customs and his ‘Notes on the Dahoman’, Selected Papers on Anthropology, Travel and Exploration (London: A.M. Philpot, 1924), pp. 122–3.

106 Cuvier, ‘Extrait d’Observations’, p. 259.107 Ibid., p. 266; ‘my Venus Hottentot’ is ‘this woman’ in the original, echo-

ing Cuvier’s repeated reference to ‘notre Boschismanne’; there is no direct address to his fellow scientists.

108 Crais and Scully, Sara Baartman, p. 145. 109 Nicholas Hudson, ‘The “Hottentot Venus,” Sexuality, and the Changing

Aesthetics of Race, 1650–1850’, Mosaic, 41:1 (2008), p. 34.110 Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man (1871; London: Penguin, 2004), Part

III, ch. 19, pp. 645–6. 111 Cuvier, ‘Extrait d’Observations’, p. 271, trans. Fausto-Sterling, ‘Gender,

Race, and Nation’, p. 224. 112 Austen was in London during Baartman’s time and visited the exhibits in

Bullock’s Liverpool Museum, wondering whether she herself might not be a suitable specimen to be placed on display there. See David Nokes, Jane Austen: Life (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997), pp. 374–5, p. 410. Baartman performed in Bath in 1811 (Crais and Scully, Sara Baartman, p. 105). However, there is no indication that Austen saw, or commented on, her exhibition in either location.

113 See Edward Said, ‘Consolidated Vision’, Culture and Imperialism (London: Chatto & Windus, 1993), pp. 73–229.

114 The concept of the ‘noble savage’ often served to justify colonial exploita-tion. For Rousseau’s misappropriation of his contemporary Peter Kolb’s much more benevolent depiction of the African population of Cape Hope see Andreas Mielke, ‘Contextualising the “Hottentot Venus”’, Acta Germanica, 25 (1997), pp. 154, 156–7.

115 Sigel, Governing Pleasures, p. 50.116 Fawn M. Brodie, The Devil Drives: A Life of Sir Richard Burton (London: Eyre &

Spottiswoode, 1967), p. 195. 117 These are the names cited in Belinda Starling’s Afterword to The Journal

of Dora Damage (London: Bloomsbury, 2006), p. 446. Further references appear in the text.

118 Further members were Edward Vaux Bellamy, Sir Edward Brabooke, Charles Bradlaugh, Frederick Popham Pike, William Simpson Potter, George Powell, Henry Ricketts, Simeon Solomon, George Augustus Sala, and E. Villine. Sigel, Governing Pleasures, p. 51, p. 53, p. 57, p. 58; Frank McLynn, Burton: Snow upon the Desert (London: John Murray, 1990), p. 240.

119 Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, Journal: Mémoires de la vie littéraires (Monaco: Imprimerie Nationale, 1956), vol. 5, 7 April 1862, p. 89.

120 Quoted in Ian Gibson, The Erotomaniac: The Secret Life of Henry Spencer Ashbee (London: Faber and Faber, 2001), p. 32.

121 Steven Marcus, The Other Victorians: A Study of Sexuality and Pornography in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (1964; London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1966), p. 37.

Notes 273

122 Agnes Lavy was the bookbinder, and Elisabeth Lavy, according to a family memoir, became an ‘ardent suffragette’; see Gibson, The Erotomaniac, p. 132, p. 134.

123 See Gibson, The Erotomaniac, p. 59, p. 65, p. 66; James Pope-Hennessy, Monckton Milnes: The Flight of Youth 1851–1885 (London: Constable, 1951), pp. 157–60.

124 Sigel, Governing Pleasures, pp. 79–80.125 Marie-Luise Kohlke, ‘De Corporis et Libri Fabrica: Review of Belinda

Starling, The Journal of Dora Damage’, Neo-Victorian Studies, 1:1 (Autumn 2008), p. 197; http://www.neovictorianstudies.com/.

126 For the Ladies’ London Emancipation Society see Clare Midgley, Women Against Slavery: The British Campaigns, 1780–1870 (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 180–1. Prominent members also involved in the women’s rights movement included Frances Power Cobbe, Harriet Martineau, and Harriet Taylor.

127 For the ‘prurient gaze’ of English abolitionists see Colette Colligan, ‘Anti-Abolition Writes Obscenity: The English Vice, Transatlantic Slavery and England’s Obscene Print Culture’, in Lisa Z. Sigel (ed.), International Exposure: Perspectives on Modern European Pornography 1800–2000 (New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2005), pp. 67–73.

128 W[illiam] Roberts, Book-Hunter in London: Historical and Other Studies of Collectors and Collecting (London: Elliot Stock, 1895), p. 228; Gibson, The Erotomaniac, p. xi.

129 Mulvey, ‘Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema’, p. 19.130 For subversive uses of female needlework see Roszika Parker’s The Subversive

Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine (London: Women’s Press, 1984); for examples of embroidered book covers see p. 73 and Plates 44 and 96.

131 Dorothy and Mary Wordsworth purportedly covered books in this way; see Maggs Bros Ltd, Bookbinding in the British Isles: Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century (London: Maggs Bros, 1996), p. 132. According to Charles Southey’s Life and Correspondence of the Late Robert Southey (1850, quoted from Nixon), Robert Southey’s daughters (Sara Coleridge, Dora Wordsworth and Edith May Southey) bound ‘from 1200 to 1400 volumes’ in cotton garments; for an example from Southey’s ‘Cottonian Library’ see Howard M. Nixon, Five Centuries of English Bookbinding (London: Scolar Press, 1978), p. 194. For further examples (including a volume bound by ‘Mrs Wordsworth’) see the British Library ‘Database of Bookbindings’ (accessed 26 October 2008), http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/bookbindings/Results.aspx?SearchType=AlphabeticSearch&ListType=CoverMaterial&Value=117. We are grate-ful to Dennis Low, Crystal Lake, and other NASSR scholars for guiding us towards these sources.

132 Mary Reynold’s (1890–1977) inventive bindings included a split kid glove for Paul Éluard and Man Ray’s Les Mains libres (1937), a thermometer for Raymond Queneau’s Un Rude hiver (1939), typewriter paper for Jean Cocteau’s La Machine à écrire (1941), a corset stay for Alfred Jarry’s Le Surmâle (1945), and a pottery cup handle in the shape of a serpent for Queneau’s Saint Glinglin (1948). See Hugh Edwards (comp.), ‘Books Bound by Mary Reynolds’, Surrealism & its Affinities: The Mary Reynolds Collection

274 Notes

(Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 1973), pp. 82–103. For images see Susan Glover Godlewski, ‘Book Bindings by Mary Reynolds: A Selection’, Chicago Institute of Art, http://www.artic.edu/reynolds/bindings/index.php and her ‘Warm Ashes: The Life and Career of Mary Reynolds’, Mary Reynolds and the Spirit of Surrealism, Museum Studies, 22:2 (1996), pp. 102–29, available online from the Chicago Institute of Art, http://www.artic.edu/reynolds/essays/godlewski4.php (both sources accessed 16 October 2008).

133 Kohlke, ‘De Corporis et Libri Fabrica’, p. 196.134 Ellic Howe and John Child, The Society of London Bookbinders 1780–1951

(London: Sylvan Press, 1952), pp. 208–10, p. 219.135 While camped on the Red Sea in 1855, Burton’s trek was attacked by Somali

warriors and a spear pierced his cheek; he retained a visible scar; Brodie, The Devil Drives, p. 123, p. 126. Starling cites Brodie in her Afterword (p. 448 n. 1) and evidently drew on Brodie in her depiction of Knightley.

136 Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830–1980 (London: Virago, 1987), pp. 75–8. Isaac Baker Brown, expelled from the Obstetrical Society in 1867, mutilated girls from age ten to mar-ried women seeking relief from the newly implemented divorce act in the period 1859–1866; the novel is set in the years 1859–60.

137 Brodie, The Devil Drives, p. 286. For further details on the information in this paragraph see pp. 88–91, pp. 194–95, pp. 208–9, p. 296.

138 For a conceptualization of neo-Victorian bio-fiction see Cora Kaplan, Victoriana (Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2007), pp. 37–84. Further fictional recreations of Burton are presented in Philip Hensher’s The Mulberry Empire (2003) in the adventurer Alexander Burnes, and in Iliya Troyanov’s The Collector of Worlds, trans. William Hobson (London: Faber and Faber, 2008). Troyanov explores the dichotomy between the ‘real’ man (curious, intrepid, genial, but always of a kindness unparalleled by others) and his mask of the cynic capable of violence and murder, as mediated by the voices and perspectives of his Indian and Arabic-African servants: ‘I didn’t think he was a terrible man: it was the man he pretended to be that terrified me’ (p. 384). This echoes Brodie’s assessment that Burton’s ‘inhumanity was more pretended than real’ (The Devil Drives, p. 244).

139 Marina Warner, Phantasmagoria (Oxford: OUP, 2006), p. 32.140 For a discussion of Anatomical Venuses see Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual

Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), pp. 44–7; Elaine Showalter, Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siècle (London: Bloomsbury, 1991), pp. 128–9; Elisabeth Bronfen, Over Her Dead Body: Death, femininity and the aesthetic (Manchester: Manchester UP, 1992), pp. 100–1; Warner, Phantasmagoria, pp. 31–6.

141 From the mid-nineteenth century bookbinders started imprinting their acronyms on their designs; Ruari McLean, Victorian Publishers’ Book-Bindings in Cloth and Leather (London: Gordon Fraser Gallery, 1974), pp. 13–14. However, as a female bookbinder, and a woman working for the sex trade, Dora cannot leave her mark but instead becomes a ‘marked’ woman.

142 Starling here engages with Thomas Carlyle’s satirical book about the sym-bolic nature of clothes, Sartor Resartus, first published in Fraser’s Magazine (1833–34).

Notes 275

143 In Chopin’s story a young Louisiana mother, an orphan of uncertain provenance, is abandoned by her husband after giving birth to a dark-skinned child. After her suicide he discovers that his mother was of mixed race; the child reflects his own heritage. See ‘The Father of Désirée’s Baby’ (Désirée’s Baby’), in Kate Chopin: The Awakening and Other Stories, ed. Pamela Knights (Oxford: OUP, 2000), pp. 193–8.

144 See Marcus, The Other Victorians, pp. 197–216.145 Starling’s grammatical error (‘le peau’) may derive from her use of Brodie, in

whose biography the Goncourt brothers’ journal entry recording Hankey’s desire for a young girl’s hide is rendered incorrectly (The Devil Drives, p. 196).

146 The real-life founder, in 1874, of the Society (not, as in Starling, Union) of Women Employed in Bookbinding was Mrs Paterson; Peter Gordon and David Doughan, Dictionary of British Women’s Organisations, 1825–1960 (London: Woburn Press, 2001), p. 185.

147 In Waters’s Fingersmith (London: Virago, 2003), too, books and bindings are associated with the female body and human hides (p. 209). Maud comments on her entrapment (and Sue’s), saying that ‘the habits and the fabrics that bind me will, soon, bind her. Bind her, like morocco or like calf. . . . I have grown used to thinking of myself as a sort of book’ (pp. 250–1). Unlike Knightley, however, Mr Lilly has no personal sexual interest in the business, which he pursues with clinical precision and detachment.

148 See Gretchen Holbrook Gerzina (ed.), Black Victorians: Black Victoriana (New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2003), in particular Figures 8, 17, 29.

149 See Hélène Cixous’s manifesto for écriture feminine, ‘The Laugh of the Medusa’ (1976), in Elaine Marks and Isabelle de Courtivron (eds), New French Feminisms: An Anthology (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1981), pp. 245–64, especially p. 246.

150 Starling references this quotation to Brodie’s The Devil Drives, but this particular version derives from Pope-Hennessy’s Flight of Youth, p. 119. The Goncourt brothers (Journal, vol. 5, pp. 92–3) record in their diary for 7 April 1862 that Hankey was hoping to receive the tanned skin from the thighs of two women or, preferably, the skin of a young girl stripped from the living body: ‘la peau sur une jeune fille vivante . . . mon ami [Burton] . . . m’a promis de me prendre une peau, comme ça, pendant la vie’.

151 Houghton Commonplace Books, Trinity College, Cambridge, quoted in Gibson, The Erotomaniac, p. 31.

152 Sigel, Governing Pleasures, p. 80.153 Stuart Jeffries, ‘The Naked and the Dead’, Guardian online, 19 March 2002,

http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2002/mar/19/arts.highereducation (accessed 13 August 2008).

154 In Bürger’s poem the titular heroine bemoans the failure of her fiancé to return from the battlefield; her death wish recalls Wilhelm, whose spectre arrives on a ghostly horse to reclaim her. The poem ends with the couple galloping away, illustrating the line repeated five times that ‘Die Toten reiten schnell’ (‘The dead ride fast’). See ‘Lenore’, Gedichte von Gottfried August Bürger (Leipzig: Philipp Reclam, 188[?]), pp. 35–42. In von Hagens’s rider exhibit two flayed corpses sit astride a ghostly horse which is rearing upwards towards

276 Notes

the spectator; see ‘Selected exhibits from Body Worlds, the anatomical exhibition of real human bodies’, exhibit 1, Guardian online, http://www.guardian.co.uk/gall/0,,669680,00.html (accessed 13 August 2008).

155 ‘Lenore’ (1831), Edgar Allan Poe, ed. Philip Van Doren Stern (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977), pp. 611–12.

156 Edgar Allan Poe, ‘The Philosophy of Composition’, ibid., p. 557.157 The official Body Worlds website – http://www.koerperwelten.com/en.html –

is a model of consumer commodification: a ‘Prelude’ on ‘The Human Saga’ (a celebration of the exhibition’s decade-long success) leads to details of forthcoming ‘Exhibitions’, followed by a page on ‘Body Donation’ with a contact address for (von Hagens’s) Institute for Plastination housed at the International Body Donor Office, where the interested public may donate their bodies for future exhibitions. Three further pages offer information on the plastination process, the inventor (with a hagiographic account of von Hagens’s ‘life for science’ and political sacrifices for the principle of free speech) and his institute. The final pages take us to the ‘Store’, where we can buy Body Worlds mousepads and keyrings, and a ‘Media’ section with press reports returns the reader thematically to the first page.

158 See Over Her Dead Body.159 ‘Selected exhibits from Body Worlds’, exhibit 7, Guardian online, http://

www.guardian.co.uk/gall/0,,669680,00.html (accessed 13 August 2008).160 Ibid., exhibit 8, http://www.guardian.co.uk/gall/0,,669680,00.html

(accessed 13 August 2008).161 Jeffries, ‘The Naked and the Dead’. The idea has a long tradition: as Warner

(Phantasmagoria, p. 36) notes, wax models of the human body, entering the fairground in the late eighteenth century, ‘made knowledge itself a form of entertainment’.

162 Quoted in Iain Bamforth’s Introduction to The Body in the Library: A Literary Anthology of Modern Medicine (London, Verso: 2003), p. ix.

4 Spectrality and S(p)ecularity

1 Isobel Armstrong, Victorian Glassworlds (Oxford: OUP), pp. 3–5. 2 A.S. Byatt, On Histories and Stories: Selected Essays (London: Chatto & Windus,

2000), p. 151. 3 See our discussion of both these critics’ texts in the Introduction, pp. 9–10. 4 See Gary Day, ‘The Victorians in the Rearview Mirror and Victoriana: Histories,

Fiction, Criticism (review)’, Journal of Victorian Culture, 13: 2 (Autumn 2008), especially p. 311 where Day comments: ‘But the absence of religion from both books suggests that we do not always use history to express our current anxieties.’

5 ‘Imagining the Real: Close Encounters Between Fiction and History’, keynote lecture delivered at the ‘Adapting the Nineteenth Century’ conference, University of Wales, Lampeter, 22 August 2008. This chapter was already in draft before Duncker’s paper, but we are grateful to her for the conversa-tion we had about the possibilities of a ‘neo-Tractarian’ text, and for her confirmation concerning the perhaps troubling absence of religious crises in neo-Victorianism arising in part from our post-Christian framework.

6 Armstrong, Victorian Glassworlds, p. 11.

Notes 277

7 Ibid. 8 Julian Wolfreys, Victorian Hauntings: Spectrality, Gothic, the Uncanny and

Literature (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), p. x. 9 Ibid, p. ix.10 Catherine Belsey, Culture and the Real: Theorizing Cultural Criticism (London:

Routledge, 2004), p. 5.11 Ronald Pearsall, The Table-Rappers: The Victorians and the Occult (1972;

Stroud: Sutton, 2004), p. 57.12 Tatiana Kontou, Spiritualism and Women’s Writing: From the Fin de Siècle to

the Neo-Victorian (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 2.13 A notable recent exception to this critical lack is Rosario Arias and Patricia

Pulham (eds), Haunting and Spectrality in Neo-Victorian Fiction: Possessing the Past (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).

14 Wolfreys, Victorian Hauntings, pp. x–xi.15 Jodey Castricano, Cryptomimesis: The Gothic and Jacques Derrida’s Ghost

Writing (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s UP, 2001), p. 6.16 Sarah Waters, Affinity (1999; London: Virago, 2000), p. 17. Further references

appear in the text.17 Opening sentence of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist

Manifesto, trans. Samuel Moore (1888), introduction and notes by Gareth Stedman Jones (London: Penguin, 2002), p. 219.

18 Charles Palliser, The Unburied (London: Phoenix, 1999), pp. 104–5. Further references appear in the text.

19 Waters, Affinity, p. 7.20 For a discussion of the detective elements of Palliser’s story see Catherine

Mari, ‘Desperately Looking for the Truth: The Traps and Trappings of Crime Fiction in Charles Palliser’s The Unburied’, in François Gallix and Vanessa Guignery (eds.), Crime Fictions: Subverted Codes and New Structures (Paris: Paris-Sorbonne UP, 2004), pp. 89–97.

21 Belsey, Culture and the Real, p. 9.22 Susana Onega, ‘An Obsessive Writer’s Formula: Subtly Vivid, Enigmatically

Engaging, Disturbingly Funny and Cruel. An Interview with Charles Palliser’, Atlantis, XV:1–2 (May–November 1993), p. 281.

23 Ibid, p. 282.24 Jem Poster, Courting Shadows (London: Sceptre, 2002), p. 58. Further references

appear in the text.25 A.S. Byatt, The Children’s Book (London: Chatto and Windus, 2009), p. 594.

Further references appear in the text.26 See, for example, James Wilson’s Consolation: A Novel of Mystery (London:

Faber and Faber, 2008), which, like Byatt’s novel, is set during the period of the children’s literature boom during the late-Victorian and Edwardian periods; another recent text, Charles Elton’s Mr Toppit (London: Viking, 2009), while not strictly neo-Victorian, exploits the idea of the Victorian / Edwardian children’s writer and children’s fiction.

27 For a history of the development of the museum and its building see John Physick, The Victoria and Albert Museum: The History of its Building (Oxford: Phaidon / Christie’s, 1982). The museum was renamed in 1899.

28 Judith Roof, ‘Display Cases’, in John Kucich and Dianne F. Sadoff (eds), Victorian Afterlife: Postmodern Culture Rewrites the Nineteenth Century (Minneapolis / London: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), p. 104.

278 Notes

29 Charles Saumarez Smith, ‘Museums, Artefacts, and Meanings’, in Peter Vergo (ed.), The New Museology (London: Reaktion Books, 1989), p. 9.

30 George Eliot, Middlemarch (1871–2; London: Penguin, 2003), p. 264.31 Byatt, On Histories and Stories, p. 162.32 Rachel Hore, The Glass Painter’s Daughter (2008; London: Pocket Books,

2009), p. 228. Further references appear in the text.33 See Ruskin’s ‘The Nature of Gothic’ (1853), in Dinah Birch (ed.), John Ruskin:

Selected Writings (Oxford: World’s Classics, 2004), pp. 32–63.34 Patmore’s poem ‘The Angel of the House’ was originally published in 1854

and then in expanded form in 1862. The term has been widely adopted to refer to the wifely and motherly ideal represented by a Victorian woman devoted to her children and submissive to her husband.

35 For a discussion of stained glass and the manufacture of glass for the construc-tion of the Great Exhibition site, see Nance Fyson, Decorative Glass of the 19th and early 20th Centuries: A Sourcebook (Newton Abbot, Devon: David & Charles Books, 1996), especially pp. 19–89. For details of the number of stained glass exhibitioners see Robert Ellis, Official Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue (London: Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851, 1851), especially ‘Class 24: Glass’, vol. 2, pp. 697–709.

36 See http://www.norfolkstainedglass.co.uk/Glossary/glossary.shtm (accessed 10 September 2009).

37 Byatt, The Children’s Book, p. 245, see our previous discussion.38 Ruskin, ‘The Lamp of Memory’ (1849), in Birch, John Ruskin, p. 18.39 John Harwood, The Séance (London: Jonathan Cape, 2008), p. 57. Further

references appear in the text.40 John Harwood, The Ghost Writer (2004; London: Vintage, 2005), p. 4. Further

references appear in the text.41 George Levine, Darwin Loves You: Natural Selection and the Re-enchantment of

the World (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2006), p. 1.42 Elijah Farrington and Charles F. Pidgeon, Revelations of a Spirit Medium, or,

Spiritualistic mysteries exposed: a detailed explanation of the methods used by fraudulent mediums, by A. Medium (St Paul, MN: Farrington & Co, 1891).

43 Hilary M. Schor, ‘Sorting, Morphing, and Mourning: A.S. Byatt Ghostwrites Victorian Fiction’, in Kucich and Sadoff, Victorian Afterlife, p. 247.

5 Doing It with Mirrors

1 Patricia Waugh, Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction (London: Routledge, 1984), p. 2.

2 Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, trans. Sheila Faria Glaser (1984; Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004), pp. 6–7, p. 10.

3 Michael Mangan, Performing Dark Arts: A Cultural History of Conjuring (Bristol: Intellect, 2007), p. 114. We are grateful to Tamsin Kilner O’Byrne for drawing our attention to this book.

4 Linda Hutcheon, ‘Historiographic metafiction: “the pastime of past time”’,A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction (1988; London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 105–23.

5 Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, The Secrets of Conjuring and Magic (1878), quoted in Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, p. 99.

Notes 279

6 For the first use of magic lanterns to create spectral effects see Etienne Gaspard Robertson’s late-eighteenth-century ‘Fantasmagorie’, discussed in Mangan, ibid., pp. 123–5, and Marina Warner, Phantasmagoria (Oxford: OUP, 2006), pp. 147–50.

7 Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, p. xix, pp. xvi–xxii. 8 Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, p. 12. 9 Ibid., emphasis in original. 10 The earliest use of ‘prestige’ meaning ‘deceits, impostures, delusions, cou-

sening tricks’ dates back to 1656; from 1832 the term could refer to ‘Machines by which phantasmagoria and oracular prestiges were played off,’ OED 2009 online. In his novel The Prestige (1995; London: Orion, 2004) Christopher Priest draws on it as a symbol of ‘prestidigitation’ or sleight of hand: ‘Chris Priest interviewed by Don Iffergrin’ (October 2006), http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/christopherpriest/pres_qa.htm (accessed 25 March 2008).

11 The Prestige, dir. Christopher Nolan, screenplay by Jonathan and Christopher Nolan (Warner Bros Pictures and Touchstone Pictures, 2006), 1:52:54–1:52:56. Further references appear in the text.

12 The title quotation is taken from The Prestige, 0:54–0:56. 13 Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, pp. 104–5. This differentiation is contradictory,

given that Robert-Houdin prided himself both on his art of prestidigitation and his mechanical inventions.

14 Priest, The Prestige, p. 64.15 Tesla was an eccentric scientist and inventor among whose discoveries is

the principle of alternating current. See ‘Chris Priest interviewed by Don Iffergrin’. As Nolan states in his ‘Special Features: Director’s Notebook’ (The Prestige), 1:50–2:13: ‘There is an interesting relationship in the film between the scientists of the day who were essentially the new magicians . . . and the way in which magicians . . . co-opted the imagery of science . . . to sell old tricks in a new way.’

16 For Priest’s (considerably less dramatic) description of the three stages of the magician’s performance see The Prestige, p. 64; for the pledge, which he calls ‘the Pact of Acquiescent Sorcery’, see pp. 32–4.

17 As Mangan notes, the disappearance and reappearance of objects so central to conjuring tricks bears resemblance to Freud’s ‘fort’/‘da’ paradigm as dis-cussed in Beyond the Pleasure Principle; see Performing Dark Arts, pp. 145–6.

18 ‘The film-maker almost more so than the novelist has a very close relation-ship with the magician in terms of the way in which we are using the release of information, what we tell the audience when, the point of view we are drawing them into . . . we use those techniques to fool them’ (‘Special Features: Metaphors of Deception’, 14:03–14:22).

19 ‘A good illusion works very much like a novel . . . I was trying to think . . . if there was a story that could be told . . . so that the various secrets . . . are unravelled in the way that a magician unravels the secrets of a trick.’ (Priest, ‘Special Features: Metaphors of Deception’, 12:13–12:36). With its Gothic overkill and Frankensteinian ending Priest’s novel is, however, less effective, and metatextual, than Nolan’s film.

20 Priest features the ‘original’, the Chinese magician Ching Ling Foo (The Prestige, p. 36); Burger’s choice of the ‘copy’ (the Chinese-American Chung Ling Soo) for his adaptation is a further intertextual joke on the doubling of

280 Notes

the magician figure. See Frank Cullen, with Florence Hackman and Donald McNeilly, Vaudeville, Old & New: An Encyclopedia of Variety Performers in America (New York: Routledge, 2007), pp. 223–5.

21 Michael Cox, The Meaning of Night (London: John Murray, 2006), p. 1. 22 H. Rider Haggard, She (1887; Oxford: OUP, 1991), p. 5.23 Kim Newman, ‘The Grand Illusion’, Sight and Sound, 16:12 (2006), p. 16, p. 19.24 For the brothers’ collaborative approach see Dan Shewman’s interview,

‘Nothing Up Their Sleeves: Christopher and Jonathan Nolan on the Art of Magic, Murder and The Prestige’, Creative Screenwriting, 13:5 (2006), pp. 60–5.

25 The Illusionist was premiered on 27 April 2006 (Newport Beach International Festival), The Prestige on 17 October 2006 (Rome Film Festival and Hollywood); see the Internet Movie Database information available at http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0443543/ and http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0482571/ (both accessed 25 March 2008).

26 Priest, The Prestige, p. 116, p. 204. 27 Houdini toured Europe and America with the aim to expose spiritual-

ists, publishing A Magician Among the Spirits (New York: Harper) in 1924. See Kenneth Silverman, ‘A Magician Among the Spirits’, Chapters 11–16, Houdini!!! The Career of Ehrich Weiss (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), pp. 247–384.

28 Sarah Waters, Affinity (1999; London: Virago, 2000), p. 98. Further references appear in the text.

29 Terry Castle, The Apparitional Lesbian: Female Homosexuality and Modern Culture (New York: Columbia UP, 1993), p. 60.

30 Margaret’s first glance at Selina, through the ‘eye’ of the prison cell’s door, invokes the artefactual nature of the object of desire: ‘I was sure that I had seen her likeness, in a saint or an angel in a painting of Crivelli’s’ (p. 27). See, for example, Carlo Crivelli’s ‘Annunciation with St Emidius’ (1486), National Gallery, London, http://www.artchive.com/artchive/C/crivelli/annunciation.jpg.html (accessed 29 December 2009). Waters’s reference to Crivelli is, of course, ironic, given that the trance-like state in which Selina presents herself, clutching a violet in a shaft of sunlight, serves the purpose of seducing Margaret and initiating her into her new life as a ‘believer’, thus making her an agent of Selina’s liberation.

31 For Waters’s intertextual engagement with The Turn of the Screw (1898) see Ann Heilmann, ‘The Haunting of Henry James: Jealous Ghosts, Affinities, and The Others’, in Rosario Arias and Patricia Pulham (eds), Haunting and Spectrality in Neo-Victorian Fiction: Possessing the Past (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 121–5.

32 Tatiana Kontou, Spiritualism and Women’s Writing: From the Fin de Siècle to the Neo-Victorian (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pp. 190–1.

33 Thomas Hardy, The Hand of Ethelberta. 1876; London: Macmillan, 1975, p. 226.34 Henry James, The Turn of the Screw (1898), in The Turn of the Screw: Henry

James, ed. Peter J. Beidler (Boston: Bedford Books, 1995), p. 65.35 For a brief discussion see M.L. Kohlke, ‘Into History through the Back Door:

The “Past Historic” in Nights at the Circus and Affinity’, Hystorical Fictions: Metahistory, Metafiction, ed. Ann Heilmann and Mark Llewellyn, special issue of Women, 15:2 (2004), p. 157.

Notes 281

36 ‘I knew . . . that, careful as I have been – still and secret and silent as I have been, in my high room – she [mother] had been watching me, as Miss Ridley watches [in Millbank Prison], and Miss Haxby.’ (p. 223) For a discussion of the novel’s panopticism see Mark Llewellyn, ‘“Queer? I should say it is criminal!”: Sarah Waters’ Affinity’, Journal of Gender Studies, 13:3 (2004), pp. 204–10; Lucie Armitt and Sarah Gamble, ‘The haunted geometries of Sarah Waters’s Affinity’, Textual Practice, 20:1 (2006), pp. 142–9; and Heidi Slettedahl Macpherson, Courting Failure: Women and the Law in Twentieth-Century Literature (Akron, Ohio: University of Akron Press, 2007), pp. 48–53.

37 They have been known to blind matrons by sticking knitting needles through the eye-hole (p. 23).

38 In The Bostonians the Southern lawyer Basil Ransome succeeds in persuad-ing the spiritualist Verena Tarrant to abandon the feminist hysteric Olive Chancellor, who is desperately in love with her, for (an inequitable) marriage; Verena is as much under Basil’s spell and command as Selina is under Ruth’s.

39 For the concept of ‘romantic friendship’ acting as a cover for female same-sex relationships see Lilian Faderman’s Surpassing the Love of Men (London: William Morrow, 1981).

40 Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, p. 3.41 Ibid., pp. 5–6. Scarlett Thomas, The End of Mr Y (2006; Edinburgh: Canongate,

2007), n.p. Further references appear in the text. 42 Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, p. 122.43 Ibid.44 Edwin A. Abbott, Flatland (1884; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986).45 James Clerk Maxwell, ‘Recollections of Dreamland’ (June 1856, under

‘Occasional Poems’), ‘Lines written under the conviction that it is not wise to read Mathematics after one’s fire is out’ (10 November 1853, under ‘Serio-Comic Verse’), ‘A Poem in Dynamics’ (19 February 1854, ‘Serio-Comic Verse’), in Lewis Campbell and William Garnett, The Life of James Clerk Maxwell, with a Selection from his Correspondence, and Occasional Writings, and A Sketch of his Contributions to Science (London: Macmillan and Co, 1882), pp. 599–601, pp. 622–8.

46 Samuel Butler, Evolution, Old and New; Or, the Theories of Buffon, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, and Lamarck, as Compared with that of Charles Darwin (London: A.C. Fifield, [1879]).

47 Samuel Butler, ‘Nothing Good or Ill, etc.’, in Further Extracts from the Note-Books of Samuel Butler, ed. A.T. Bartholomew (London: Jonathan Cape, 1934), p. 31. See Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2: ‘there is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so.’

48 Samuel Butler, Unconscious Memory, with an introduction by Professor Hartog (London: Jonathan Cape, 1880), p. 176.

49 Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1997), p. 158.

50 Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, p. 91. 51 William Paley, Natural Theology; or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of

the Deity. Collected from the Appearances of Nature (1802), quoted in Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, p. 91.

52 Butler, Evolution, p. 26.

282 Notes

53 Ibid., p. 31. For a refutation of Paley see pp. 24–33. 54 One of the examples Freud discusses in his 1919 essay on ‘The Uncanny’, in

Victor Sage (ed.), The Gothick Novel: A Selection of Critical Essays (Basingstoke: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1990), is an involuntary, recurrent return to a place from which one seeks to escape, pp. 83–4.

55 See ‘The Mouse Genome’, Nature, 420:510, 5 December 2002, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v420/n6915/full/420510a.html, and The Abbie Lathrop Collection at the John Staats Library, Jackson Laboratory Cancer Centre, http://library.jax.org/archives/personal_papers/lathrop.html (both sources accessed 28 December 2008).

56 Book I (paragraph 5) of Homer’s The Iliad, trans. Samuel Butler (Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand, 1942) contains an appeal to ‘King Apollo . . . of Sminthe’ (p. 8).

57 The Matrix, dir. and written by Andy Wachowski and Larry Wachowski (Groucho II Film Partnership, 1999). In the film’s dystopian universe Butler’s idea of machine dominance has been realized; humans are bred to power the machines and are kept in perpetual bondage through computer simula-tion. The name of Thomas’s author, Thomas E. Lumas, has some resonances with that of the film’s hero, Thomas A. Anderson, whom Ariel replicates in her ‘redeemer‘ function; Ariel’s mentor figure, Apollo Smintheus, is sugges-tive of Morpheus; the Starlight men resemble the agents, and Baudrillard’s Simulation and Simulacra plays a role also in The Matrix.

58 Cellarius [Samuel Butler], ‘Darwin Among the Machines’, The Press, 13 June 1863, repr. in The Note-Books of Samuel Butler: Author of ‘Erewhon’, ed. Henry Festing Jones (London: A.C. Fifield, 1919), p. 44.

59 In the Preface to Erewhon: Over the Range (1872; London: Jonathan Cape, 1908) Butler refers to ‘The Mechanical Creation’, a revised version of the piece published in the Reasoner, 1 July 1865, which he adapted for the ‘Book of the Machines’ chapters (23 and 24) of Erewhon.

60 Butler, Erewhon, p. 247.61 Donna Haraway, ‘A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-

Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century’, Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (London: Free Association Books, 1991), p. 150, p. 149.

62 Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, pp. 5–6. See our introductory paragraph on the novel.

63 The Illusionist, dir. and written by Neil Burger (Momentum Pictures, 2006), 1:31:32–1:31:49. Further references appear in the text.

64 Newman, ‘Grand Illusion’, p. 19. For the involvement of real-life magicians in The Illusionist see ‘Special Features’, 0:31–1:01, 8:37–8:39, 19:17–20:40.

65 The scientist David Brewster explained in lectures published in 1832 how hovering spectral forms (‘Dr Pepper’s Ghost’) could be produced with angling sheets of glass placed both below and above stage; see Warner, Phantasmagoria, pp. 152–3, and Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, p. 125. In The End of Mr Y (p. 45) Lumas’s protagonist refers to Dr Pepper’s Ghost as one of the ways in which the fairground doctor produces his illusions, but like Eisenheim’s professional colleagues he remains mystified as to how he creates his special effects. See also ‘Special Features’, The Illusionist, 1:05:03–1:05:26.

Notes 283

66 For the equivalent description in Millhauser’s ‘Eisenheim the Illusionist’ see The Barnum Museum (1990: London: Phoenix, 1998), pp. 219–20. (Further references appear in the text.) Here there is only one phantom, which stabs itself.

67 Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, pp. 116–17. For stills see http://dvdtoile.com/Film.php?id=12290 (accessed 30 December 2009).

68 Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, p. 126.69 See also Millhauser, ‘Eisenheim’, p. 218. For a description of Robert-Houdin’s

‘Marvellous Orange Tree’ see Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, p. 104. 70 The precise nature of the death of Crown Prince Rudolf and his young

lover, Mary Vetsera, at Mayerling in January 1889 remains unresolved. See Brigitte Hamann, Rudolf: Kronprinz und Rebell (Wien, Amalthea Verlag, 1984), pp. 437–95. Elizabeth (‘Sissi’) was assassinated in 1898.

71 Mary Kinzie, ‘Succeeding Borges, Escaping Kafka: On the Fiction of Steven Millhauser’, Salmagundi, 92 (1991), p. 115.

72 Charles Gregory, entry on Phineas Taylor Barnum in Justin Wistle (ed.), Makers of Nineteenth Century Culture 1800–1914: A Biographical Dictionary (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982), pp. 29–31.

73 ‘The story goes’, ‘One version of the story’, ‘Some said . . . others said . . . Arguments arose’ (p. 216, p. 217, p. 237) are some of the many examples throughout the text.

74 Pedro Ponce, ‘“a game we no longer understood”: Theatrical Audiences in the Fiction of Steven Millhauser’, Review of Contemporary Film, 26:1 (2006), p. 100, p. 101.

75 Jean-Eugène Robert-Houdin, Mémoirs of Robert-Houdin, Ambassador, Author and Conjuror, Written by Himself, trans. Lascelles Wraxall (1859; London: T. Werner Laurie, 1942), pp. 49–65. For Torrini’s non-existence see Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, pp. 113–4, and Silverman, Houdini, p. 271.

76 Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, p. 117.77 Ibid., p. 145.78 Silverman, Houdini, p. 3; for the story of the duel see Ruth Brandon, The Life

and Many Deaths of Harry Houdini (London: Mandarin, 1995), p. 8.79 Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, pp. 154–7. 80 See Burger’s ‘Commentary’, 1:08:23–1:08:38. 81 Ronald Bergan, Eisenstein: A Life in Conflict (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press,

1999), pp. 19–22. 82 See Mangan, Performing Dark Arts, chapter 7, especially pp. 116–8, p. 138.83 Richard Allen, Projecting Illusion: Film Spectatorship and the Impression of

Reality (Cambridge: CUP, 1995), p. 3.84 See Baudrillard’s opening quotation to this chapter, Simulacra and Simulation,

p. 10.

6 The Way We Adapt Now

1 Linda Hutcheon, A Theory of Adaptation (London: Routledge, 2006), p. xi. 2 Robert Giddings and Keith Selby, The Classic Serial on Television and Radio

(Basingstoke: Palgrave – now Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), p. 124.

284 Notes

3 Andrew Davies’s 2008 BBC adaptation of Sense and Sensibility started with a striking echo of Ang Lee’s and Emma Thompson’s 1995 version: as if to pay homage to the previous adaptors Davies too furnished Austen’s third, in the original text rather bland and underdeveloped, sister with tomboyish independence and a spirit of adventure which mark her out as a ‘girl of the future’; a portent of the late-Victorian New Girl and even perhaps a comic avatar, in Regency costume, of the contemporary viewer. For Austen adapta-tions more generally see Linda Troost and Sayre Greenfield (eds), Jane Austen in Hollywood, 2nd edn. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2001); Gina Macdonald and Andrew Macdonald (eds), Jane Austen on Screen (Cambridge: CUP, 2003); Linda V. Troost, ‘The nineteenth-century novel on film: Jane Austen’, in Deborah Cartmell and Imelda Whelehan (eds), The Cambridge Companion to Literature on Screen (Cambridge: CUP, 2007), pp. 75–89; and Claire Harman, Jane’s Fame: How Jane Austen Conquered the World (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2009), especially the chapter ‘Jane AustenTM’, pp. 243–81.

4 Deborah Cartmell and Imelda Whelehan, ‘A practical understanding of literature on screen: two conversations with Andrew Davies’ in Cartmell and Whelehan, The Cambridge Companion to Literature on Screen, p. 239. See also Davies’s specific comment that after watching the 1982 TV version of Bleak House’s death of Jo (the crossing sweeper) ‘I felt I had to rip it off; or to put it more respectably, offer a kind of homage to the earlier adaptation’ (p. 239).

5 See Kamilla Elliott, Rethinking the Novel/Film Debate (Cambridge: CUP, 2004), p. 1.

6 Ekchart Voigts-Virchow, ‘Heritage and literature on screen: Heimat and herit-age’, in Cartmell and Whelehan, The Cambridge Companion to Literature on Screen, p. 123.

7 Elliott, Rethinking the Novel/Film Debate, p. 1. 8 John Gardiner, ‘Theme-park Victoriana’, in Miles Taylor and Michael

Wolff (eds), The Victorians since 1901: Histories, representations and revisions (Manchester: Manchester UP, 2004), p. 167.

9 Colin Sorensen, ‘Theme Parks and Time Machines’, in Peter Vergo (ed.), The New Museology (London: Reaktion Books, 1989), p. 66.

10 John Gardiner, The Victorians: An Age in Retrospect (London: Hambledon and London, 2002), p. 161.

11 Juliet John, ‘Dickens and the Heritage Industry; or, Culture and the Commodity’, in Dinah Birch and Mark Llewellyn (eds), Conflict and Difference in Nineteenth-Century Literature (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 157–70.

12 Taken from Dickens World homepage: http://www.dickensworld.co.uk/ (accessed 20 October 2008).

13 See http://www.dickensworld.co.uk/events.php (accessed 13 September 2009).14 See David Barndollar and Susan Schorn’s ‘Revisiting the Serial Format of

Dickens’s Novels; or, Little Dorrit Goes a Long Way’, in Christine L. Krueger (ed.), Functions of Victorian Culture at the Present Time (Athens, OH: Ohio UP, 2002), pp. 157–70.

15 Sergei Eisenstein, ‘Dickens, Griffith, and the Film Today’, in Gerald Mast, Marshall Cohen, and Leo Braudy (eds), Film Theory and Criticism (New York: OUP, 1992), pp. 395–402.

16 Giddings and Selby, The Classic Serial, p. 9.

Notes 285

17 Ibid., p. 9 and p. 13; see also pp. 12–13 for details of the regularity with which nineteenth-century novels were adapted for radio and TV.

18 Ibid., pp. 188–9.19 Robert MacFarlane, Original Copy: Plagiarism and Originality in Nineteenth-

Century Literature (Oxford: OUP, 2007), p. 8.20 For a detailed discussion of this aesthetic concept see Walter Benjamin, ‘The

Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’, in Hannah Arendt (ed.), Illuminations (London: Fontana, 1992), pp. 211–44.

21 See Nancy Armstrong, Fiction in the Age of Photography: The Legacy of British Realism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1999).

22 Gyles Brandreth, Oscar Wilde and The Candlelight Murders (London: John Murray, 2007), pp. 71–4.

23 The characters are taken from The Pickwick Papers (1837), Oliver Twist (1838; Oliver, Mr Bumble), ‘A Christmas Carol’ (1843; Mrs Fezziwig), and David Copperfield (1850; Uriah Heep, Mr Micawber).

24 Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, trans. Sheila Faria Glaser (1984; Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004), pp. 1–3, pp. 12–14.

25 Susan M. Pearce (ed.), Museums and the Appropriation of Culture (London: Athlone Press, 1994), p. 1.

26 Andreas Huyssen, Present Pasts: Urban Palimpsests and the Politics of Memory (Stanford: Stanford UP, 2003), p. 3

27 Brian Moore, The Great Victorian Collection (1975; London: Paladin, 1988), p. 9. Further references appear in the text.

28 See David Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country (Cambridge: CUP, 1985), pp. 10–13.

29 Seamus Deane, ‘The Real Thing: Brian Moore in Disneyland’, Irish University Review, 18:1 (1988), p. 74.

30 See ibid., p. 74; see also Cora Kaplan, Victoriana: Histories, Fictions, Criticisms (Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2007), p. 2.

31 United Nations Association in Canada, ‘UNA Canada presents a Sense of Belonging’, http://www.unac.org/sb/en/hostcommunities/montreal.aspn (accessed 3 October 2009).

32 See Gary Edson (ed.), Museum Ethics (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 36–89.33 See Norman Palmer, ‘Museums and Cultural Property’, in Vergo, The New

Museology, pp. 172–204.34 Asa Briggs, Victorian Things (1988; Gloucestershire: Sutton, 2003), p. 377.35 Kaplan, Victoriana, p. 1.36 Ibid.37 Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country, p. 96.38 Ibid., p. 241.39 Huyssen, Present Pasts, p. 3.40 Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country, p. 249.41 Jacques Le Goff, History and Memory, trans. Steven Rendall and Elizabeth

Claman (New York: Columbia UP, 1992), p. 1. First published in Italian in 1977.

42 Part of Victoria Wood’s Midlife Christmas, BBC 1, 24 December 2009.43 Elizabeth Gaskell, The Cranford Chronicles (London: Vintage, 2007).44 Flora Thompson, Lark Rise to Candleford: A Trilogy (London: Penguin, 2008),

composed of Lark Rise (1939), Over to Candleford (1941), Candleford Green

286 Notes

(1943). The trilogy was later dramatized by Keith Dewhurst, Lark Rise to Candleford (London: Hutchinson, 1980).

45 For Cranford viewing figures see http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2008/03_march/31/cranford.shtml (accessed 20 September 2008); Lark Rise viewing details can be found via a BBC Press Release in January 2008: http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2008/01_january/25/lark.shtml (accessed 20 September 2008).

46 Hutcheon, A Theory of Adaptation, p. 4.47 Ibid., p. 6.48 Giddings and Selby, The Classic Serial, p. ix.49 See Robert Hewison, The Heritage Industry: Britain in a Climate of Decline

(London: Methuen, 1987).50 James Thompson, ‘The BBC and the Victorians’, in Taylor and Wolff, The

Victorians since 1901, p. 163.51 Chris Loutitt has recently written of the need to see such adaptations ‘in the

context of the period’s [the mid-2000s] political and ideological mood’, argu-ing that the BBC adaptations of Cranford and Bleak House are ‘clearly cultural products of the Blairite era’: see ‘Cranford, Popular Culture and the Politics of Adapting the Victorian Novel for Television’, Adaptation, 2:1 (2009), pp. 35, 36.

52 The bucolic adaptation of the adventures of Ma and Pop Larkin in ITV’s serialization of Bates’s novels and stories has long served as a classic model of the family-focused classic adaptation.

53 H.J. Massingham, ‘Introduction’ to Thompson, Lark Rise to Candleford, pp. 9–10.

54 See Giddings and Selby, The Classic Serial, pp. 80–103.55 Sarah Cardwell, Adaptation revisited: Television and the classic novel (Manchester:

Manchester UP, 2002), p. 1. See also Cardwell’s essay ‘Literature on the small screen: television adaptations’, in Cartmell and Whelehan, The Cambridge Companion to Literature on Screen, pp. 181–95.

56 Cardwell, Adaptation revisited, p. 2.57 See Frederic Jameson, Postmodernism: Or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism

(Durham, NC: Duke UP, 1991), especially chapter 9.58 Cardwell, Adaptation revisited, p. 185.59 Ibid, p. 186.60 Ibid., p. 209.61 Ronald R. Thomas, ‘Specters of the Novel: Dracula and the Cinematic

Afterlife of the Victorian Novel’, in John Kucich and Dianne F. Sadoff (eds), Victorian Afterlife: Postnodern Culture Rewrites the Nineteenth Century (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), p. 307.

62 Ibid., p. 292.63 See Sharon Aronofsky Weltman, ‘Victorians on Broadway at the Present

Time’, in Krueger, Functions of Victorian Culture at the Present Time, pp. 79–94; and Weltman’s ‘Victorians on the Contemporary Stage’, Journal of Victorian Culture, 13:2 (2008), pp. 303–9. For Weltman’s interpretation of The King and I in relation to its original sources see ‘The King and Who? Dance, Difference, and Identity in The King and I and Anna Leonowens’, in Birch and Llewellyn, Conflict and Difference in Nineteenth-Century Literature, pp. 171–85. For recent plays in the UK see Warwick sociologist Steven Fuller’s Lincoln and Darwin – Live for One Night Only! (2008) and Three Women after the Soul of William James

Notes 287

(2009; the three women are Harriet Martineau, Darwin’s French translator Clemence Royer, and Helena Blavatsky), http://blogs. warwick.ac.uk/swfuller/entry/new_play_three/ (accessed on 3 October 2009).

64 Libretto, The Woman in White (London: Really Useful Group, 2003), p. 39.65 Robert Stam, Literature through Film: Realism, Magic, and the Art of Adaptation

(Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), p. 3. See also Stam’s essay ‘Beyond Fidelity: The Dialogics of Adaptation’, in James Naremore (ed.), Film Adaptation (New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2000), pp. 54–76.

66 Judith Mackrell, ‘Because Wilde’s worth it: Dorian Gray re-imagined as a gay aftershave model for our times?’, The Guardian, 12 June 2008, http://www.guardian.co.uk/stage/2008/jun/12/dance.culture (accessed 3 October 2009).

67 Ibid.68 Ibid.69 Cartmell and Whelehan, ‘A practical understanding of literature on screen’,

p. 240.70 Malcolm Bradbury, Cuts (1987; London: Arena, 1988), pp. 16–17.71 Cartmell and Whelehan, ‘A practical understanding of literature on screen’,

p. 239.72 In September 2009 Davies’s adaptation received seven Emmys: Andrew

Clark, ‘BBC drama Little Dorrit takes seven Emmy awards’, The Guardian, 21 September 2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/tv-and-radio/2009/sep/21/emmy-awards-little-dorrit-30-rock-mad-men (accessed 3 October 2009).

73 See Alaistair Jamieson, ‘BBC Costume Drama Little Dorrit sees audiences slide only halfway through its run’, Daily Telegraph, 23 November 2008, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/3507849/BBC-costume-drama-Little-Dorrit-sees-audience-slide-only-halfway-through-its-run.html (accessed 3 October 2009).

74 For details see Leigh Holmwood, ‘Bonnets and bodices lose attraction for BBC’, The Guardian, 10 January 2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2009/jan/10/television-bbc-drama (accessed 3 October 2009).

75 See Cartmell and Whelehan, ‘A practical understanding of literature on screen’, pp. 241–2.

76 Boyd Tonkin, ‘Why BBC costume drama needs to go beyond bodices’, The Independent, 7 November 2008, http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/features/why-bbc-costume-drama-needs-to-go-beyond-bodices-997577.html (accessed 3 October 2009).

77 Jakob Loethe, ‘Narrative Vision in Middlemarch: The Novel Compared with the BBC Television Adaptation’, in Karen Chase (ed.), Middlemarch in the Twenty-First Century (Oxford: OUP, 2006), p. 178.

78 Ibid.79 Ibid, p. 179.80 Ibid., pp. 180–1.81 Ibid., pp. 182–3.82 ‘Mendes to direct Middlemarch film’, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertain-

ment/6577101.stm (accessed 20 April 2007).83 Cartmell and Whelehan, ‘A practical understanding of literature on screen’,

p. 242.84 Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country, p. 96.85 Elizabeth E. Guffey, Retro: The Culture of Revival (London: Reaktion Books,

2006), p. 8.

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Index

Abbott, Edwin A. 191–2Flatland 191–2

abolitionism 82–91, 108, 123, 136, 138

abusechild 107sexual 38–9, 125, 191see also incest; rape

academia 10, 17–18, 107–8, 150–2, 182, 191, 228

accuracyin historical detail 21literary 35

adaptation 8, 9, 10, 16–18, 22, 31, 211–43

of the classics 226, 234–6musical 166, 232theory of 8, 22–3, 32, 211TV 8, 27, 31–2, 212, 221–37

aesthetics 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 13, 14, 27, 130, 161, 216, 222

feminine 132afterlife

cultural 2–3literary 2

alchemy 169Alexander, Elizabeth

‘The Venus Hottentot’ 120Alexander, Michael 228allusion 28Amenábar, Alejandro

The Others 65America 45American Anti-Slavery Society 90Amin, Qasim

The Liberation of Women 103The New Woman 103

anamnesis 34anarchism 108Anatomical Venus 136, 137, 141

anatomy 37ancestral heritage 28

see also domestic space – ancestral home

Andress, David 10angelology 163–7 Anglicanism 78, 126Anthropological Society of

London 131anthropology 121

see also ethnographyanti-imperialism 122appropriation 4, 9–10, 17, 19, 26–7,

29, 31, 114Arabian Nights 96, 101, 102Armstrong, Gillian

Death Defying Acts 185Armstrong, Isobel 30, 143–5, 152

Victorian Glassworlds 30, 143army

imperial 95Arnold, Matthew 27

‘Dover Beach’ 25, 27Arts and Craft Movement 131, 134Ashbee, Henry Spencer (aka ‘Pisanus

Fraxi’ and ‘Walter’) 131, 138, 139

astronomy 76Atwood, Margaret

Alias Grace 91Austen, Jane 40, 130, 135, 212

Pride and Prejudice 1, 2, 241Australia 55–6, 59authenticity 1, 15, 19, 22, 30, 96,

108, 114, 145, 175, 190, 235bodily 50, 108, 114meta- 148post- 1, 23–4, 182 and theme parks 214–16

authorship 34, 45, 47–8

Note: illustrations are referenced in bold.

311

312 Index

autobiography 40fictional 34, 40see also genre

automata 63, 207

Baartman, Saartje 20, 29, 110, 114, 120–31, 132, 134

Baden-Powell, Robert 162ballads 39Barndollar, David 215Barnes, Julian

Arthur & George 68Barnham, Phineas Taylor 206Barrett, Andrea

The Voyage of the Narwhal 68, 123Barrett family 69

and slave ownership 81–91Barrett, Richard 86Barrett, Samuel 82–4Barrett, Susan

Fixing Shadows 15–16Bates, H. E. 230Baudelaire, Charles

Les Fleurs du Mal 120Baudrillard, Jean 31, 174–7, 183–4,

189, 190, 192, 199, 210hyperreality 31, 174, 175, 196–8,

219third order simulation 31, 176,

184, 192–3, 220belatedness 3, 14, 28, 34, 148Belsey, Catherine 3, 153Bendyshe, Thomas 131Bernard Yeazell, Ruth 102Bergson, Henri 64Bhabha, Homi 29, 66, 70, 73–4, 97Bildungsroman 25biofiction 82, 121biography 20, 21–3, 36, 47–8, 92,

108biology 37, 41Blaine, David 201Blake, Sarah

Grange House 28, 35, 36, 41–7, 48, 51, 53, 64

Blake, William 164Blakley, Claudia 227Bloom, Harold 3

anxiety of influence 3

Blunt, Wilfred 95body, the

female 29, 106–42politics of 29maternal 42subjected to scientific

discussion 106–42Bolt, Christine 81bookbinding 108, 131–40Booker Prize

see Man Booker PrizeBooth, Wayne C. 22Boston Female Anti-Slavery

Society 82, 90Bourne, Matthew 233–4

Dorian Gray 233–4, 236Bowie, David 180Bowker, Peter

Desperate Romantics 235Boyd, Harry 95Boyle, Clara 95Bradbury, Malcolm

Cuts 236–7Brandreth, Gyles

Oscar Wilde and the Candlelight Murders 108, 217–19

Breuer, Josef 34Brewster, David 202Briggs, Asa 224British Museum 58, 59Broadway 232 Bronfen, Elisabeth 141Brontë, Anne

The Tenant of Wildfell Hall 42 Brontë, Charlotte 12, 136

Jane Eyre 2, 9, 34, 41, 42, 49, 53, 55, 65, 67, 82, 86, 120, 130

Villette 12–13, 55Brontë, Emily

Wuthering Heights 34, 41–2, 49, 65Brophy, Sarah 91Browning, Elizabeth Barrett 19, 20,

29, 82–91, 98Aurora Leigh 98–9‘The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim’s

Point’ 82–9Browning, Robert 82, 85Bürger, Gottfried August

‘Lenore’ 141

Index 313

Burger, Neil The Illusionist (film) 31, 176,

201–9, 240Burne-Jones, Edward 164Burstein, Miriam Elizabeth (aka ‘The

Little Professor’) 6–7, 11, 14Burton, Richard 131Butler, Samuel 192–3

‘Darwin Among the Machines’ 198

Erewhon 192, 198Evolution, Old and New 192, 193Note-Books 192

Byatt, A. S. 8, 22–3, 143–4Angels & Insects 171The Children’s Book 30, 156–63,

166–7, 169Possession 8, 18, 22–3, 35, 38, 162,

165Byron, George 37, 94

Caine, Michael 180Callow, Simon

The Importance of Being Oscar 215The Mystery of Charles Dickens 215

Cambridge 23, 182 Cameron, Charles Duncan 131Cameron, Margaret 118Campion, Jane

The Piano 9, 69Canada 220–2Cannibal Club 131, 140canonical literature 4, 22, 25

neo-Victorian 9–10capitalism 77, 220–9, 244Cardwell, Sarah 231Carlyle, Thomas 164Carroll, Lewis 136

Alice in Wonderland 56, 58, 63, 168Carter, Angela

‘Black Venus’ 120Nights at the Circus 108

Castle, Terry 185Castricano, Jodey 148, 172Cesars, Hendrik 123Cesars, Peter 125Chambers, Emma 228Chapman, Maria Weston 82characterization 7, 20

Chase, Karen 1–2, 240Chase-Riboud, Barbara

Hottentot Venus 29, 110, 111, 113, 116, 120–31, 135, 136, 138

The President’s Daughter 124Sally Hemings 124

Chatterton, Thomas 74childhood 54, 125, 156–63

parental relationship 34, 155–63trauma 34

children 84children’s literature 161–3China 66, 68, 78, 206Chopin, Kate

‘Desiree’s Baby’ 138Christian, Barbara 90Christianity 77, 151, 169–70Cixous, Hélène 140Clark, Jonathan 11class 106, 188

and caste 77system 77–8working 45, 98, 116–20,

131, 188see also servants

clitoridectomy 135collection

intuitionist and decisionist positions 225

politics of 107, 121, 157, 220–8see also exhibition culture

Collins, Wilkie The Woman in White 21–2, 42, 49,

52, 65colonialism 8

see also postcolonialismConan Doyle, Arthur 153Conrad, Joseph 130consciousness 192, 194

see also mindcontemporary fiction 27Corelli, Marie 68costume 39, 99costume drama 27, 64, 107, 211,

226–36Cox, Michael

The Meaning of Night: A Confession 23, 182

see also authenticity, post-

314 Index

Cox, Renée Valerie 120Crais, Clifton 120, 129–30Cranford (BBC TV) 32, 236–7,

238, 242criminology 121Cromer, Lord 95cross-dressing 39, 118cryptomimesis 148–50, 161, 168,

172Cullwick, Hannah 118cultural imagination 20culture

high vs. low debate 23, 31–2Cuvier, Frédéric and Geoffroy

Saint-HillaireNatural History of Mammals 128

Cuvier, Georges 116, 121–31, 136, 138

Dabouss, Sonia 103Darwin, Charles 128, 129, 245

On the Origin of Species 198Voyage of the Beagle 80

Darwin, ErasmusZoonomia 192

daughter 41–7Davies, Andrew 31, 212, 213,

236–44and Charles Dickens 32and Sarah Waters 31–2, 242–4Bleak House (BBC) 32, 215,

237, 239Little Dorrit (BBC) 32, 237, 238,

239, 243–4Middlemarch 240

Day, Gary 145death 62‘Declaration of Independence’

89, 124‘Declaration of Sentiments’ 89Dee, Jonathan 20democracy 92, 98Dench, Judi 227Denshawai/Dinshawi Affair 95Derrida, Jacques 8, 146, 148, 192,

193despotism 99detective fiction 16–17,

18, 108

Dickens, Charles 25–7, 136, 146, 212, 238–9

adaptations of 212, 215–16Bleak House 19, 118Great Expectations 25, 26–7, 33, 34,

35, 41, 43, 50, 55, 62, 63, 65, 67, 76, 118

see also Jones, Lloyd Mister PipHard Times 215A Tale of Two Cities 215

Dickens World 31, 176, 213–14, 244

‘Dickensian’ 7, 37, 201, 213Disneyfication 32Disneyland 175–6, 223divorce 107domestic space 28, 35, 52, 65,

117–20, 156–63ancestral homes 19, 28,

35–65, 67country house 59Eastern 101–3feminization 35libraries within 36, 48, 51, 63and servants 116–20

doubles 63, 176, 178, 181, 183–4Douglas, Frederick

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas 89

Drewe, Robert The Savage Crows 68

Duff Gordon, Lucie 69, 96, 98Du Maurier, Daphne

Rebecca 49Duncker, Patricia 145

James Miranda Barry 107–8Dunlop, Alexander William 123, 125

East India Company 79EastEnders 216, 237Eco, Umberto 223ecriture feminine 134editor

as literary technique 23education 118edutainment 141–2Egypt 28, 68, 91–104Eisenstein, Sergei 215Elgar, Edward 166

Index 315

Eliot, George 2, 3, 12, 16, 130, 242Middlemarch 1–2, 3, 16, 54, 55,

93–4, 161, 240, 242Eliot, T. S. 67Elliott, Kamilla 212

novel/film debate 212–13Elzer, Jan Michiel 125Emancipation Act 81empathy 189

historical 88, 220Empire 29, 66–105, 205–6, 222–5England 56, 59epistemology 4, 92erotica 110essentialism 130ethics

and collection/exhibition 123–4and historical fiction 3, 4, 10, 13,

19, 20, 87–9ethnography 116, 117, 121, 122, 207Eugenides, Jeffrey

Middlesex 41Evans, Mark

Bleak Expectations (radio) 238Evans, Richard 13–14evidence 19

see also detective fiction; researchevolution 192exhibition culture 107, 116, 121, 123,

157–9, 161–2, 172–3, 206, 225exoticism 128

Faber, Michel 11, 13, 14, 17, 23The Apple: New Crimson Petal

Stories 12, 14The Crimson Petal and the

White 11–12, 13, 14, 17, 23, 107

fabrication 19, 31, 34fairy story 143–4faith 30

see also religionfamily relations 41–63, 65Farrell, J. G.

The Siege of Krishnapur 68fatherhood 43Fausto-Sterling, Anne 121femininity 73feminism 28, 104, 119–20, 126

Fielding, Henry 39film 4, 5, 6, 9, 31, 188–210First World War 159–61, 229, 235Fish, Laura

Strange Music 29, 68–9, 78, 81–91, 92

Flaubert, Gustave 130Forster, Margaret

Lady’s Maid 98Foucault, Michel 107, 111Fowles, John 8

The French Lieutenant’s Woman 8, 154

freak shows 114, 123, 127, 129, 206Freedman, James 201French, Dawn 227–8Freud, Sigmund 34, 43, 63, 64, 65,

181fort/da game 181

Galton, Francis 128garden 51, 52Gardiner, John 213Garrison, William Lloyd 90Gaskell, Elizabeth 227, 236

Mary Barton 67Gay, Penny 5gaze, the

imperial 98, 121–2politics of 29, 111–12and reading 111–12, 131, 149-50,

189scientific 118–20, 121–2, 127white male 89–91, 121–2,

131–40gender 8, 38–41, 66, 106–42

dysphoria 64gender-bending 39Genette, Gérard 111genre

autobiography 28, 34diaries and journals 28, 34, 36,

45, 69dramatic monologue 83letters 69, 92–3patchwork texts 28romance 162science fiction 191travel writing 100, 103–4

316 Index

Ghosh, AmitavIbis Chrestomathy 70Ibis Trilogy 70Sea of Poppies 28, 68–9, 70–81, 78,

83, 105ghosts 84

see also spectralityghost story 55Giamatti, Paul 203Giddings, Robert 211–12, 215, 229Gilbert and Sullivan

Iolanthe 233Gilmour, Robin 5Gladstone, W. E. 236glass, use of as metaphor 4, 30,

143–73as mirror 37, 56, 143–73stained glass 163–7

global literature 25, 93global politics 29Goncourt brothers 48Gothic literature 34, 42, 49, 61Graeme, Kenneth 162Grand Exposition Universelle 158Great Exhibition 164Great Famine (Ireland) 42, 45, 64Grenville, Kate

The Secret River 68Grenville, Lord 123Griffin, Susan 110, 127Gutleben, Christian 6, 7, 18, 55

Hagens, Gunther von 141–2Haggard, Henry Rider

She 182Hankey, Frederick 131Hapsburg Empire 206, 208Haraway, Donna

‘Cyborg Manifesto’ 198Harding, John Wesley (aka Wesley

Stace) 39Hardy, Thomas

The Hand of Ethelberta 187Tess of the d’Urbervilles 82

harem 94–5, 101–3Harold, James 20–1Harper, Francis

‘The Slave Mother: A Tale of Ohio’ 89

Harris, JaneThe Observations 29, 110, 111,

112, 116–20, 125, 130–1, 140Harris, Lyle Ashton 120Harwood, John

The Ghost Writer 28, 35, 55–63, 65, 168

The Séance 30, 167–72haunting

see also spectrality Hegel, G. W. F. 128Hensher, Philip

The Mulberry Empire 68heritage culture 8, 28, 213–18, 229,

234, 240heritage industry 31–2, 213–18,

229–30, 234heritage tourism 222hermaphroditism 39, 41, 121heterosexuality 39, 107Hewison, Robert 229historical fiction

as a genre 4, 6, 15, 23–4, 155as romance 68and women writers 9

historians 10–11, 150–5historical figures

uses of within neo-Victorianism 19–20

historiography 11, 30, 66, 70, 150–5history

and imagination 10–11Victorian 8

Hobbes, Thomas 74Hobsbawm, Eric 27Hodgson, John Studholme 131Holmes, Rachel 120–1, 122homosexuality 39, 121, 139–40, 185Hore, Rachel

The Glass-Painter’s Daughter 30, 163–7

Houdini, Harry 185, 207, 208Huet, Nicolas 128humanism 146Hume, David 74Hutcheon, Linda 32, 211, 228, 244Huxley, Thomas Henry 128Huyssen, Andreas 225

‘memory fatigue’ 225–8

Index 317

hybriditybodily 73cultural and adaptive 216gendered 39linguistic 35, 69see also languageand postcolonialism 66–105and resistance 70–81spiritual 73

hysteria 33–4, 38–9, 135, 185–6, 208

identityblack female 84–86, 121–3black male 108community 79female 29

ideology 77–8illegitimacy 45illusion

magical 202optical 38, 198textual 19, 202see also magic

Illusionist, The (film)see Burger, Neil

imagination 64, 84, 93, 100imperialism 29, 67, 110, 121

see also empire; slaveryincest 37, 41, 43, 49–50, 51indebtedness 25independence 92India 28, 66, 68, 78industrialization 27inheritance 28, 34, 35, 38, 53, 188

familial 34–65paternal 53

interculturalism 76, 91internationalism 25intersexuality 38intertextuality 17–18, 38Ireland 45Islam 93Iwanisziw, Susan 121

Jacobs, HarrietIncidents in the Life of a Slave

Girl 89Jacobus, Mary 106Jamaica 68, 81–91

James, Henry 2, 9, 20, 55‘The Aspern Papers’ 20The Bostonians 189The Turn of the Screw 34, 42, 55,

57, 63, 65, 82, 151, 168, 186TV adaptation 229What Masie Knew 44

James, M(ontague) R(hodes) 18, 151James, William 64Jameson, Frederic 231

nostalgia film 231Janet, Pierre 64Jay, Ricky 201Jefferson, Thomas 124, 128John, Juliet 214Johnson, Aaron 201Johnston, Judith 5Jones, Lloyd 24

Mister Pip 24–7, 68Joyce, Simon 9, 144

Kaplan, Cora 4–5, 9, 18, 20, 24, 33–4, 144–5, 224

Keller, Evelyn Fox 106Khoisan (also Knoekhoe/

Khoikhoi) 114, 116, 121, 122, 124King, Jeanette 9, 106–7Kingsmill, Hugh 2–3Kitchener, Lord 95Kneale, Matthew

English Passengers 68Kohlke, Marie-Luise 68, 107Kontou, Tatiana 9, 147, 187Krueger, Christine 9

Lacan, Jacques 192–3Language 28, 70, 95, 195

Arabic 70Bengali 70bilinguism 74Chinese 70English 74–5etymology 96experimental 69Hindu 70Laskari 70malapropism 72miscommunication 72monolinguism 75

318 Index

Language – continuedmultilinguism 71, 91pidgin 70polyvocalism 73Urdu 70

Lark Rise to Candleford (TV) 32, 226–7, 242

Laub, Dori 54laudanum 79Law, the 24, 71, 73, 126Leavis, F. R. 3Lee, Easton 83Lee, Vernon 168LeFanu, Sheridan 153legacy

financial 60Le Goff, Jacques 64, 226–7lesbianism 107, 121, 181, 185–6, 189Levine, George 169Lewis, Frederick Christian

‘Sartjee the Hottentot Venus’ 115Lewis, John Frederick 96, 100

The Reception 100, 101The Siesta 102

The Liberty Bell 82Ligon, Richard

True and Exact History of the Island of Barbados 121

Lincoln, Abraham 128Locke, John 74Lodge, David

Nice Work 16, 237London 57, 59, 61, 79, 130, 168London Society of Bookbinders 134Lothe, Jacob 240Lowenthal, David 225The Lustful Turk 95, 138

Macarthur, J. W. S.Notes on an Opium Factory 79

madness 46, 51, 67, 87, 117, 119–20magic 30–1, 174–210, 211

as metafictional 174–6and film-making 181‘In a Flash’ trick 180‘mirror trick’ 201–2misdirection 175, 176, 179, 186trick 31Victorian 178, 180

magic realism 80, 220Man Booker Prize 24, 68Mangan, Michael 174, 175, 176Mandler, Peter 10–11, 13marginalization 17market

literary and cultural 27, 31, 213

mainstream 31, 213Markus, Jane 86marriage 39, 80, 94, 99, 101–2,

118, 125, 126Martin, Emily 110Martin, Valerie

Mary Reilly 82Property 83

Martineau, Harriet 100Marxism 149Maseko, Zola 120Massingham, Hugh 230Mason, Daniel

The Piano Tuner 68master/slave relationship 76–81,

90, 97matrilineal heritage 28, 41–7,

168Maudsley, Henry 52Maxwell, James Clerk 192Mayhew, Henry

London Labour and the London Poor 117

McClintock, Anne 118McEwan, Ian 24–7

On Chesil Beach 24, 25Saturday 25, 26–7

McFarlane, Robert 216medicine 52, 59medievalism 30, 163–7, 235Melville, Herman

‘Benito Cereno’ 79The Encantadas 79Moby Dick 79

Mendes, Sam 241memory 28, 33–63, 67, 167

cultural 8, 28, 75familial 28, 33–63fatigue 225traumatic 49, 56

mesmerism 170

Index 319

metafiction 4, 6, 17–18definition of 31see also magic

metahistory 4, 6, 28metanarrative 28metaphor

embroidery 93–4, 132metaphysical 31Michelet, Jules 13Mill, John Stuart 94, 245Millhauser, Steven

‘Eisenheim the Illusionist’ 31, 176, 184, 201–09

Milnes, Richard Monckton 131, 140

mindgames 190travel 190–201

misogynism 128modernism 3modernity 3, 159Moore, Brian

The Great Victorian Collection 32, 213, 220–26, 244

Morris, William 163, 235Morrison, Toni 88, 124

Beloved 68, 90‘re-membering’ 88, 124

Motherhood 41–7, 55biological 46, 55, 61spectral 65

Mother–daughter relationship 41–7

Moulton, Charles 86mourning 28, 33–65, 67, 148Mrs Beeton’s Book of Household

Management 116Multilinguism

see languageMulvey, Laura 110, 127Munby, Arthur 118murder 62, 108, 183, 203

child 108Musée de L’Homme 116museology 159, 220, 222Muséum d’Histoire 116mutilation

genital 110Mwangi, Ingrid 120

myth Classical 38, 196Egyptian 93family 37foundational 75origin 174power of 75

Nalbantian, Suzanne 65Naldrett, Sally 98narrative

linearity 51style 28

narrative voice 14–15, 39–40, 187narrator 15, 38, 40, 92

first-person 40, 69gendered 38, 83–4multiple 83third-person 40, 92–3unreliable 24

nationalism 92, 103, 104natural History Museum 127necromancy 170necrophilia 132neo-Edwardianism 156neo-slave narrative 68Neo-Victorian Studies 5neo-Victorianism

definition of 5–6, 8–10, 23–4, 244–5and faux-Victorian 5and historical fiction 6and ‘Little Professor’s Rules’ 6–7and post-Victorian 5, 6, 25and retro-Victorian 5

neuroscienceand memory 33, 35and reading 1–2

New Historicism 171New Scientist 1Newman, John Henry 164

The Dream of Gerontius 165–7Newtonian physics 193, 195New Woman 40, 96

Arabic 95–103Nichols, Grace

Fat Black Woman’s Poems 120Nolan, Christopher

The Prestige (film) 31, 176, 178–84, 186, 201, 206, 240

320 Index

Nolan, Jonathan 183Northern Rock 230Norton, Edward 201nostalgia 18, 26, 32, 34, 55, 56, 64,

107, 157, 162, 228, 236and fetishization 107

Nunn, Trevor 32nymphomania 121

Oliver Twist (TV adaptation) 216Onega, Susana 154opium 68, 76

First Opium War 68, 78optical illusion 198orientalism 68, 79, 91–104, 107

Victorian 28, 67, 91–104orphans 60Ovid

Metamorphoses 37, 38, 40

painting 59–60, 61, 95Paley, William 194Palliser, Charles

The Quincunx 35, 154The Unburied 30, 150–6

panopticism 189paratextuality 110–16parenthood

adoptive 43biological 43

Park, Susan-LoriVenus 120

parody 108past 3

function of 3pastiche 22–3, 64, 108, 150, 173Patmore, Coventry 164Pearce, Susan 220Pearsall, Ronald 147performativity 50periodization 8–9philanthropy 119photography 15, 95, 118, 159, 168,

217, 234phrenology 117physiognomy 117, 130, 136piracy 77plagiarism 22Plath, Sylvia 191

Poe, Edgar Allan‘Lenore’ 141

poetry 22–3, 38, 82–91political correctness 6politics 3, 5, 6popular culture 39pornography 29, 32, 95, 108, 121

book trade in 108, 131–40ethnographic 132

postcolonial 24, 26, 66–105theory 29, 66–105

Poster, JemCourting Shadows 30, 150–8

postmodernism 11, 18, 27, 64, 175, 200, 211, 217

poststructuralism 191, 193pregnancy 46, 83, 118Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood 50, 57,

134, 235Prestige, The (film)

see Nolan, ChristopherPriest, Christopher

The Prestige (novel) 31, 178, 182

Priestly, J. B.An Inspector Calls 209

prostitution 74, 107, 116, 119, 121

Proust, Marcel 18Pugin, Augustus 163psychic investigation 168–70psychoanalysis 28, 195psychology 40, 46

evolutionary 1Pullinger, Kate

The Mistress of Nothing 29, 68, 82, 91, 99–104

Pushkin, Alexander 130

quantum physics 176, 191, 193–4queer 39Qureshi 122, 124

race 29, 66–105racism 125

scientific 129–30rape 52–3, 79, 83, 86, 87–8, 90,

110–11, 131scientific 111, 129

Index 321

readers 2, 4, 11–14, 17–18, 23, 57–8, 88, 105, 114, 173, 176

academic and non-academic 17–18, 228

as observers 111–12, 155reading 4, 12–14, 57–8, 59, 111–12,

125, 170, 176, 178real vs. fictional debate 20–2realism 1, 2, 3, 4, 12, 13, 34, 155,

157, 217reality 58, 146, 194–6

virtual 196, 211reform

social 93–4religion 30, 72–3, 77, 145–73, 194

and fanaticism 78repetition

historical 43research 16, 92, 165responsibility

marital 47moral 47, 79

restorationas metaphor for neo-

Victorianism 152Revelations of a Spirit Medium 171‘re-vision’ 91–104, 106, 173rewriting 28, 82Reynolds, Mary 133Rhys, Jean 8

Wide Sargasso Sea 8, 67, 82, 83, 91Richardson, Samuel 40Robert-Houdin, Jean Eugène 175, 207romance 55, 162

family 50Roof, Judith 158Rose, Steven 33, 35Rousseau, 131Rowlandson, Thomas

The Pasha 95Royal Geographic Society 131Ruskin, John 163, 166–7, 232

Said, Edward 29, 80Culture & Imperialism 67Orientalism 92, 96

Sample, Ian 1, 2Sanders, Julie 16, 17, 21, 22, 24Saumarez Smith, Charles 159, 167

Savoy Magazine 57Sawalha, Julia 227scepticism 30Schiebinger, Londa 110, 122Schor, Hilary 171Schorn, Susan 215Schreiner, Olive 122

From Man to Man 120The Story of an African Farm 34

science 29, 30, 62, 106–42, 170methodologies 119see also gaze, scientific

scientist/s 30scopic culture 143–5scopophilia 29, 107, 110–16, 127scopopornia 128Scott, Walter 13Scully, Pamela 120, 129–30séance 30, 147, 204Second World War 226secularism 30, 151–5Selby, Keith 211–12, 215, 229Self, Will

Dorian 234self-help 118Senn, Charlene 110sensation fiction 18–19, 54servants 46, 75, 98–9, 116–20, 188

relationship with mistress 117–20, 188

Setterfield, Diane 65The Thirteenth Tale 28, 35, 36,

47–55, 56, 64, 176, 177, 178Sewell, Rufus 203sex 8, 29, 106–42

and exploitation 119sexology 64, 121, 141sexuality 24, 40

and libertinism 108and repression 23

Shafts 108Shakespeare, William 219

Hamlet 192Shaw, George Bernard

‘The Denshawai Horror’ 95‘Preface for Politicians’ 95

Shelley, Mary 130Frankenstein 34

Shuttleworth, Sally 106

322 Index

sibling relationships 43, 48–50, 51, 63and rivalry 35, 59

Sigel, Lisa 110, 131–2, 140sisterhood 52, 60, 178slavery 29, 69, 77, 80–1, 122, 123

apprenticeship system 81sexual 81–91, 122

Smith, Zadie 2, 3, 4Society for Psychical Research 171Soo, Chung Ling 182, 206Sorensen, Colin 214Soueif, Ahdaf

The Map of Love 28–9, 68–9, 78, 91–105

Mezzaterra 96South Africa 111, 116, 122, 130South Kensington Museum (Victoria

and Albert Museum) 157spectrality 24, 25, 30, 55–63, 143–73specularity 30speech

see voiceSpiller, Hortense 122

and pornotropic 122spiritualism 9, 30, 60, 156–72, 181,

184, 185–6, 204Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty 29,

66–7, 69, 80, 86–7, 98Stace, Wesley

Misfortune 28, 35, 37–41, 48, 51, 57, 64

Stam, Robert 233Starling, Belinda

The Journal of Dora Damage 29, 108, 109, 110, 131–40

stereotype 95steatopygia 121Sterne, Laurence

Tristram Shandy 40Stevenson, Robert Louis

Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde 49, 82

Stone, Marjorie 89–90Stoker, Bram

Dracula 1, 34, 172storytelling 27, 36–7, 43, 44, 48,

58–60, 149, 188Stowe, Harriet Beecher

Uncle Tom’s Cabin 89

Strachey, Lytton 21subaltern/ity 28, 29, 66, 67–105,

139, 189see also voice

subjectivity 29, 224–5Summerscale, Kate

The Suspicions of Mr Whicher 108supernatural 59Swinburne, Algernon Charles 131

tattoos 135Taylor, D. J. 16

Kept: A Victorian Mystery 16–19, 22, 23, 40

Taylor, Harriet 94Taylor, Henry 123taxidermy 122technology 76, 208, 211, 214–15television 211

see also adaptationTennant, Emma

Tess 82Two Women of London 82

Tennyson, Alfred 42, 136Tesla, Nikola 180Thackeray, William Makepeace 18

Vanity Fair 40, 120thanatica 110Thatcher, Margaret 5, 237The 1900 House (TV series) 226The Edwardian Country House

(TV series) 226theatre 31theme park culture 213–18Thierry, Jacques-Nicolas-Augustin 13Thomas, Ronald 231–2Thomas, Scarlett

The End of Mr Y 31, 176, 190–201, 210, 221

Thompson, Flora 226, 227, 236Thompson, James 230Tiedemann, Frederick 128, 129time travel 195Tonkin, Boyd 239Toryism 132Tractarianism 151transculturalism 91–104transgression 188

sexual 39, 107

Index 323

translation 91transvestism 39, 107trauma 28, 36–65, 67, 86–8

domestic and familial 29, 36–65historical 29, 87theories of 28and witnessing 37, 47–55, 63, 64,

87, 88Tremain, Rose

The Colour 68trickery 170–1

see also magicTrollope, Anthony 216, 230, 237Troyanov, Illiya

The Collector of Worlds 68Turner, J. W. M. 21–2Turkey 64twins 48, 176–8

Uncanny, the 42, 55, 63, 194utopianism 190

ventriloquism 22–3, 86, 147, 200Vickers, Salley

Mr Golightly’s Holiday 200Victoria, Queen 8, 79Victorian

defining the 3–4, 21novel 2, 4, 12, 17, 27, 93–4, 155, 171readers 1, 2, 12sexuality 107stereotypical 6–8, 47values 5, 40

Victorian Farm (TV series) 226Victorian fiction 1–3

as precursor text 16–17, 35, 155Victorian Studies 32Victoriana 17, 32, 33, 213, 222–8violence 51, 77, 131

see also rapevoice 70, 104

literary 97of the subaltern 29, 97–9, 104

Voigts-Virchow, Eckhart 212–13Voltaire 128voyeurism 114, 116

Wachowski, Andy and LarryThe Matrix 198

Walker, AliceThe Color Purple 91

Walker, MargaretJubilee 68

Wallace, Diana 9Walpole, Horace

The Castle of Otranto 49Waters, Catherine 5Waters, Sarah 8, 19, 31, 176

adaptations of novels for TV 31–2, 107, 242–4

Affinity 19, 31, 149–50, 173, 176, 181, 184–90, 190, 210, 242, 243

Fingersmith 4, 139, 242The Little Stranger 65Tipping the Velvet 108, 242, 243

Waugh, Patricia 31, 174Webber, Andrew Lloyd 233

The Woman in White 32, 232–3Webber, Julian Lloyd 233Wicomb, Zoe 124

David’s Story 120widowhood 72, 80Widowson, Peter 11Wilde, James Plaisted 131Wilde, Oscar 19, 136, 217–19, 233–5Williams, Raymond 3Wilson, A. N.

A Jealous Ghost 82Wilson, James 22

The Dark Clue: A Novel of Suspense 21–2

Wolfreys, Julian 146–8, 172Womack, Kenneth 10women’s rights 101–4, 106–7women’s writing 9, 29, 36–7, 41–8,

57–9, 65, 91, 119–20Wood, Victoria 227Woolf, Virginia 2, 16, 146

Orlando 40To the Lighthouse 16

Wordsworth, Dorothy 132writing, acts of 36, 41, 44, 49, 56–7,

59, 65, 91, 119, 125–7Wynne, Catherine 100

Yellow Book 57

Žižek, Slavoj 146