Globalization: Another name for neo-colonialization

The Global World and Sub-Saharan Africa

By

Adrij Chakraborty (ID: 66)

(teentitan25@gmail.com

2nd Year)

Subhodeep Basu (ID: 25)

(deep30kolkatarocks@gmail.com

2nd Year)

Akash Pyne (ID: 62)

(akashpyne@refiffmail.com

1st Year)

from

Scottish Church College

Abstract:

Globalization is seen as a great opportunity in today’s world. But is it at all the

boon we think the MNC’s provide us with? This theoretical paper explores the

concepts of Globalization and Neo-Colonialization and tries to relate them.

History shows us that Globalization has a dark side which becomes prominent

in the case of Sub-Saharan African Global Market. This paper deals with the

Globalization of the African markets and finds out exactly how the Western

World is reaping benefits from the idea.

JEL classification:

F61, F63, F66

Keywords: Colonialism, Dependency Theory, Globalization, Neo-

Colonialization, Sub-Saharan Africa

Introduction: The Great Imperial Cover-up

Globalization can be seen as the process or mean by which an increased

proportion of economic, social and cultural activity is carried out across

national borders. The process of Globalization has significant economic,

business and social implications.

Is can further be described in two different perceptions are:

1. The geographical dispersion of industrial and service activities, for

example research and development, sourcing of input, production and

distribution and the cross networking of companies of example through

joint ventures and sharing of assets.

2. From the international monetary fund “globalization is referred to as the

process through an increasingly force flow of idea, people, goods

services and capital leads to the integration of economics and society.

Globalization is perhaps best thought of as a process that results in

some significant changes from market and business to address.

In the same vein, neo-colonialism is a term used by post-colonial which critics

of developed nations, involvement in developing world. Writing within the

theoretical framework of neo-colonialism argue that existing or past

international economic arrangement created by former colonial and

dependence after colonial independence movement.

Globalization as a new name for neo-colonialism actually explains the tricks

and a means by which the world economic powers exploit and tap the

resources of less developed countries (like Nigeria and other sub-saharan

African countries). Due to strong advancement in technology in western world,

they have been able to gain more in bilateral or multilateral most business

engagements or transactions as globalization involves the use of modern

information and business gadget to enhance business transaction in

international trade.1

Those world economic powers such as China, USA, Germany, Japan, France

and so on always gain heavily more than how they give out because their high

competence in the use of technology whereas the weak trading partners like,

Nigeria, Cameron, Ghana and some other sub-Saharan African and many of the

Asian countries are still very far when it comes to the knowledge on use of

those technology like computers.

However, one can say that as a result of unequal partners being the players in

the globalized world today i.e. the rich nations and poor nations, the so called

power countries of the world have been at a very severe disadvantage in

comparison to the rich nations of the world like USA, Japan, and Germany.

Consequently, the developing countries have economically growing at a

stagnant rate reflecting and resulting in

1. Poor standard of living

2. Low per-capita income and output

3. Increasing income inequality

4. Income distribution and poverty

5. Unemployment and underdevelopment

6. Low productivity, and

7. Various circle of poverty and so on.

The above points are the maladies characterizing countries of which

globalization has not been able to expunge rather it deepens it and makes life

easier in industrialized nations of the world.

Development of “Globalization”: Graduation and Theories

1 Globalization as it relates to Neo-Colonialism, ArticlesNG, May 24

th, 2013

Economic globalization, the movement of goods, services, capital and people

across borders, has had many impacts on societies and individuals. This

process is not new, but has picked up considerable momentum in the modern

era. Globalization can be divided into three phases that have relevance for the

global south2:

1800-1914 (the first global century);

1930-1980 (the ISI (Import Substitution Industrialization) phase);

From 1980 to the present (reintegration).

PHASE I:

Five important factors led to increasing globalization during the first phase.

1. New technologies improved transportation and communication.

2. Western industrialization created an increased demand for raw

materials, as well as for luxury items to satisfy the tastes of the

increasingly wealthy elite.

3. Many countries loosened or did away with protectionist policies,

especially high tariffs.

4. Many countries adopted the gold standard for currency, allowing for

more stable exchange rates; this encouraged capital flow between

countries.

5. Attitudes of the governing elite were challenged by thinkers like Adam

Smith who argued against the prevailing mercantilist ideology (which

focused on acquiring wealth and resources and often resulted in

protectionism) and by David Ricardo who introduced the idea

of comparative advantage.

These factors contributed to increasingly open international trade until this era

ended with global conflict in World War I.

PHASE II:

2 The West, The South and The Natural World by Andy Baker, CQ Press (University of Colorado, Boulder), 2014

During the ISI phase, many LDCs turned inward. While some had

followed autarky after WWI, ISI allowed for a more selective approach to

protectionism.

1. With ISI states used high barriers to imports, especially of consumer

goods, so that their own domestic industries could develop. These

barriers included high tariffs, quotas and licensing. In addition, local

currencies were sometimes overvalued, allowing local companies to

import machinery and other capital goods at cheaper prices.

2. They also allowed foreign direct investment, but restricted where such

investment could occur and what could be done with the profits from

such enterprises. Many LDCs were able to stimulate industrial

development of consumer industries following this strategy, but ISI had

negative longer term consequences.

3. During this same time period, some countries (especially in Asia)

pursued a different strategy, called export promotion. These countries

had lower tariffs (to enable cheap importation of raw materials and

capital equipment) and focused on developing industries that could

produce consumer goods that would be sold on the world market. These

countries also undervalued their currency to encourage exports.

LATIN AMERICAN STRUCTURALISM

This was a school of thought that disagreed with Ricardo’s idea of comparative

advantage. These theorists, led by Raul Prebisch, argued that the terms of

trade for primary product exporters (like LDCs) tended to decline compared to

exporters manufactured goods (like the West). This meant that LDCs needed to

produce more and more to buy the same amount of manufactured goods as in

the past. There were two reasons for this: organized labour in the core tended

to boost the price of manufactured goods while the fact that there were few

producers of manufactured goods but many primary product exported, tended

to drive down the price of raw materials and reducing LDC revenue. This school

of thought led to the promotion of ISI as a development strategy.

WORLD SYSTEMS THEORY

Developed by theorists such as Immanuel Wallerstein, this theory divided the

world into core, semi-periphery and periphery based on levels of capital

accumulation, administrative capacity and production of capital-intensive

goods. The international chain of production results in a system that promises

the highest profits and wages for those who produce finished consumer goods.

The core is able to purchase domestic stability through this system of higher

wages and through redistribution of a portion of the exploitative profits earned

by core-based corporations. Peripheral countries cannot do this, and this

explains persistent instability there.

PHASE III:

During the 1980s, Re-integration commenced when countries liberalized their

trade policies by reducing tariffs unilaterally.

1. Preferential trade areas increased and the World Trade Organization

was established. Further liberalization occurred through the

conditionality of International Monetary Fund and World Bank structural

adjustment loans. Trade was also increased through technological

innovations which made transportation and communication easier and

cheaper.

2. Restrictions on the movement of capital were also reduced or

eliminated. Countries became more willing to allow foreign ownership of

companies (foreign direct investment) or at least investment in their

domestic enterprises (foreign portfolio investment).

3. Change in migration flows. While international migration generally has

remained steady, more developed countries allowed more immigrants

from the global south. These migrants frequently remained contact with

their countries of origin and sent remittances to family.

Global reintegration has also been criticized from several perspectives.

1. The opening of African and Asian markets (Less Developed Countries) to

international competition has resulted in losses of local manufacturing

businesses. Those countries that maintained their manufacturing

businesses may have eliminated protections for workers and the

environment to attract or keep foreign business investment. This is

known as the race to the bottom. In response, the fair trade movement

has evolved which promotes products in the West that have followed

fair trade practices (a living wage, green production, humane working

conditions, etc.) during production in LDCs. This movement is still fairly

small.

2. The opening of LDC financial markets to foreign investment creates risks

such as capital flight that can seriously impact LDC economies. Investors

typically withdraw money when they believe their investment is at risk

or when better opportunities arise elsewhere. A few large investors

behaving this way can set a trend that others follow. This risk is

illustrated by the African financial crisis. While larger economies like

those in the West have open economies, their size and the diversity of

investment provide protections that are not present in smaller LDC

economies.

3. Global reintegration often leads to increasing indebtedness by LDC

governments. Debts can be a significant part of the government budget

and often must be repaid in foreign currency which governments can

only obtain through exports or further borrowing.

4. Increased south-north migration frequently leads to a brain drain. The

migrants that are most acceptable to the more developed countries are

those with special skills and education like doctors and engineers. When

these people move to more developed countries, LDCs lose important

human capital.

The concept of Neo-colonialization: What, When, How?

Neocolonialism can be defined as the continuation of the economic model of

colonialism after a colonized territory has achieved formal political

independence. This concept was applied most commonly to Africa in the latter

half of the twentieth century. European countries had colonized most of the

continent in the late nineteenth century, instituting a system of economic

exploitation in which African raw materials, particularly cash crops and

minerals, were expropriated and exported to the sole benefit of the colonizing

power. The idea of neocolonialism, however, suggests that when European

powers granted nominal political independence to colonies in the decades

after World War II, they continued to control the economies of the new African

countries.

3Colonial Africa 1910

4 5

Colonial Africa: 1913 (colonialized) vs. 2010 (globalized)

3 Modern World History: Patterns of Interaction , 1999 by McDougal Littell, page 308

4 Source: Gates Foundation helps bring Coca-Cola and Monsanto (GMO) to Africa, Dr. Roy Schestowitz, June

26th

, 2010 5 The Colonial World: Africa, Egregors (blog): Fela Kuti and the African religion, February 23

rd, 2010

With the granting of independence to colonies, a theory of modernization took

hold. This suggested that independent countries would begin to develop very

rapidly, politically and economically, and would resemble "modern" Western

countries. It soon became clear, however, that this was not happening.

DEPENDENCY THEORY:

It is the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and

underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at

the expense of the former. It is a central contention of the dependency

theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones are enriched by the

way poor states are integrated into the "world system".6

7

Dependency theory first gained prominence as a way to explain the

underdevelopment of Latin American economies in the 1960s. It proclaims that

underdevelopment persisted because highly developed countries dominated

underdeveloped economies by paying low prices for agricultural products and

6 Colonialism, Decolonization, and Neo-Colonialism

Source: Boundless. “Colonialism, Decolonization, and Neo-Colonialism.” Boundless Sociology. Boundless, 14 Nov. 2014. Retrieved 13 Dec. 2014 from https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/economy-16/the-transformation-of-economic-systems-119/colonialism-decolonization-and-neo-colonialism-673-10479/ 7 Dependency Theory Re-visited, Terry Goodwin

flooding those economies with cheap manufactured goods. This resulted in a

perpetually negative balance of payments that prevented underdeveloped

countries from ever becoming competitive in the global marketplace.

Economic Theory8:

1. Economic theorists of postcolonial Africa, such as Walter Rodney and

Samir Amin, combined the Marxist-Leninist concept of colonialism as a

stage of capitalism with the concept of underdevelopment to create the

concept of neocolonialism, which Kwame Nkrumah called "the last stage

of imperialism."

2. According to Rodney and Amin, European countries, and increasingly the

United States, dominated the economies of African countries through

neocolonialism in several ways. After independence, the main revenue

base for African countries continued to be the export of raw materials;

this resulted in the underdevelopment of African economies, while

Western industries thrived. A good example of this process is the West

African cocoa industry in the 1960s:

African subjugation; all over again?

During the 60’s, cocoa production increased rapidly in many African countries;

overproduction, however, led to a reduction in the selling price of cocoa

worldwide. Neocolonial theorists therefore proclaimed that economies based

on the production of cash crops such as cocoa could not hope to develop,

because the world system imposes a veritable ceiling on the revenue that can

be accrued from their production. Likewise, the extraction and export of

minerals could not serve to develop an African economy, because minerals

taken from African soil by Western-owned corporations were shipped to

Europe or America, where they were turned into manufactured goods, which

were then resold to African consumers at value-added prices.

3. A method of neocolonialism, according to the theory's adherents, was

foreign aid. The inability of their economies to develop after

8 Neo-Colonialism, Toyin Falola and Mathew Heaton

Source: href="http://science.jrank.org/pages/7920/Neocolonialism.html">Neocolonialism - Bibliography</a>

independence soon led many African countries to enlist this aid.

Believers in the effects of neocolonialism feel that accepting loans from

Europe or America proved the link between independent African

governments and the exploitative forces of former colonizers. They note

as evidence that most foreign aid has been given in the form of loans,

bearing high rates of interest; repayment of these loans contributed to

the underdevelopment of African economies because the collection of

interest ultimately impoverished African peoples.

4. The forces of neocolonialism did not comprise former colonial powers

alone, however. Theorists also saw the United States as an increasingly

dominant purveyor of neocolonialism in Africa. As the Cold War reached

its highest tensions at roughly the same time that most African countries

achieved independence, many theorists believed that the increasing

levels of American aid and intervention in the affairs of independent

African states were designed to keep African countries within the

capitalist camp and prevent them from aligning with the Soviet Union.

Theories of Nkrumah and Fanon:

If the forces of neocolonialism were so obvious to many theorists at the time,

why then could independent African countries not simply recognize them and

steer toward economic models that would allow them to be more competitive

in the world market? Most students of neocolonialism had theories about the

continuing drain of African resources. Perhaps the two most prolific were

Kwame Nkrumah and Frantz Fanon.

Nkrumah:

The most important factor allowing for the perpetuation of neocolonialism:

"balkanization" of the continent due to European colonialism.

Colonizers had broken Africa into dozens of administrative units in order to govern it

more effectively, and the colonial boundaries had become the lines within which

African countries had been given independence.

The interests of Africa were being damaged by the need of each new country to fend

for itself. For instance, the fact that each produced and exported its cocoa crop

independently was what resulted in lower prices.

African unity would help to strengthen African countries' bargaining power on the

world market, as well as in international politics. If Africans aligned with each other,

rather than with the various Western countries that wished to exploit them, the

future could be safeguarded.

Concerted efforts toward industrialization should complement agricultural and

mineral exports in order that African countries become able to produce their own

finished goods and reduce their reliance on European and American manufactured

products. By enacting such policies, the spell of neocolonialism could be broken,

ushering in an era of distinctly African "socialism."

Fanon:

Fanon took much of the basis for neocolonialism for granted, seeing the exploitative

tendencies of Western countries as inherent to their capitalist nature. He saw no

place for Africa in this system.

The African petty bourgeoisie, which had received power from the exiting colonial

government, was the primary cause of neocolonialism in Africa.

The Africans who took power at the time of independence had been favored by

European powers because they were willing to effect a smooth transition from

colonialism to neocolonialism. Since they were generally of the Western-educated

middle class who had in many ways benefited from the colonial system, they had the

most to gain from a continuation of colonial economic policies.

They were collaborating with the colonial power to ensure that the interests of both

would continue to be met after the declaration of formal political independence; this

class of Africans had betrayed the masses on whose backs the various nationalist

movements had been borne.

In order to achieve complete and final independence for African countries, "a rapid

step must be taken from national consciousness to political and social

consciousness" by the masses in order to check the power of the governing class;

this had merely replaced the colonial administration as the most direct exploiters of

African people.

Violent revolution was the only means to drive oppressive neocolonial forces from

the world.

“Globalization” in Sub-Saharan Africa: Ashanti and the gold [Case

Study]:

‘The era of globalisation’ is fast becoming the preferred term for describing the

current times. Globalisation has brought many good things to the world, such

as the ability to travel, the wider distribution of educational resources, HIV-

AIDS awareness, the use of Internet and other technologies and international

sporting competitions just to name a few. However, it also has brought with it

some detrimental consequences that have significantly impacted upon the

developing world. In the case studies that follow the term ‘neo-colonialism’ (or

‘new-colonialism’) is used to describe the re-colonisation of Africa that is taking

place through the ‘capitalist market controllers’ – namely, the corporations.

Historically, when colonisation in Africa took place in the nineteenth century,

the colonial powers extracted Africa’s precious resources to build up their own

empires at the expense of African people through “direct colonial rule” and a

“policy of divide-and-conquer”9. Today similar atrocities continue as the

continent is pillaged through the imposition of corporations, funded by the

lifestyles of Western consumers10.

To illustrate this argument, there are a plethora of cases to examine. The ‘neo-

colonial’ corporate controversies surrounding gold in the Dominican Republic

of Congo (DRC) or the Cocoa Trade in West Africa is considered11.

The Company forms part of leading mining conglomerate Anglo American,

along with Anglo Platinum, and De Beers, a leading diamond producer, and all

others who attract tireless amounts of global condemnation for the grave

consequences of their compromises that impede upon the poorest of the poor.

The neo-colonial ties to the gold mining industry are a problem that the world

would probably prefer to ignore. The gold industry is fuelled by consumerist

ideologies.

The DRC is the small town of Mongbwalu. Since the war ended in 2003, the

9 Schraeder 2004, pp 57-59

10 Hoogvelt, 2002

11 Neo-Colonialism – The Recolonialization of Africa, boycottneocolonialism.blogspot.in (blog article), Christy,

2009

Government has been unable

to secure the area, which has led to the rebel group, Nationalist and

Integrationist Front (FNI) controlling the gold hotspot. The Journal of African

Business together with the UN argue that the FNI is responsible for mass

crimes against humanity in the forms of violence, murder and rape of women

and children whilst “recourse profiteering” is taking place .

This is where gold producer, AngloGold Ashanti, comes into the picture. They

produce what is commonly called ‘blood gold’ or ‘dirty gold’, similarly to ‘blood

diamonds’, which contributes to the amassing negative attention from non-

profit organisations, human rights groups and other activists.

AngloGold had been involved entering into financial arrangements with the

FNI, the armed rebel group that controls the Mongbwalu area where

AngloGold Ashanti operates12. This rebel group is accused of committing on-

going serious human rights violations. Through AngloGold’s financial

arrangements, it could be argued the mining conglomerate essentially has

blood on its hands because of their aid that is assisting this rebel faction in

payment for gold. They are not just moving dirty gold, but they are funding a

rebel group to obtain it.

13

12

New York based Human Rights Watch (HRW), ‘The Curse of Gold’, 2005 13

AAP Finance 2009, ‘AngloGold Ashanti earns $US150m in first quarter’, AAP Finance News Wire, 15 May 2009, p. 1, Retrieved May 22, 2009, (ProQuest). Amnesty 2003, ‘Document - Democratic Republic of Congo: "Our brothers who help kill us": Economic exploitation and human rights abuses in the east’, Amnesty International website, viewed 22 May 2009, PDF p. 3. AngloGold Ashanti 2006, ‘Report to Society’, AngloGold Ashanti website, viewed May 15, 2009.

AngloGold publicly declared they follow the voluntary principle of Corporate

Social Responsibility (CSR), which some argue, is principle that is used to

prevent mandatory external investigations of their company. Given the

willingness to pay off rebels to gain access to the golden area, it is little wonder

that these allegations are made. This is a clear example of using the

weaknesses of Africa’s people to keep the well-off shareholders happy on their

yachts and in their dream houses. Therefore it legitimises the argument that

corporations like these, are the new colonisers of today. The argument can be

strengthened by the voices of the local people who do not reap the benefits

that DRC’s gold has to offer.

"We are cursed because of our gold. All we do is suffer. There is no benefit to

us.”

- Congolese gold miner

The foreign companies like AngloGold, who are the real beneficiaries, disregard

the poverty stricken locals who were born on the land. The first quarter of

2009 saw AngloGold’s earnings, despite global recession, soar to US$150

million, and the company, admits this is due to the increase of value (the

weakening of local currencies probably because of the economic crisis). The

gold commodity’s value today in a capitalist market, in conjunction with its

‘CONGO: Tragic History’ (n.a), Journal of African Business, February 1, 2009, Iss. 350, pp 56-58, Accessed May 15, 2009 (ProQuest). Curtis, M 2007, Anglo American: The Alternative Report, War On Want website, Viewed 15 May, 2009. Davies, E 2005, ‘Curse of Gold has fuelled slaughter and rape in Congo’, The Independent, London: Jun 2, 2005, p. 19, Accessed 19 May 2009, (ProQuest). Earthworks 2009, ‘Press Release’, viewed, May 22, 2009 . HRW 2005, ‘The Curse of Gold’, Human Rights Watch website, viewed 15 May 2009. Laska, J 2009, ‘Of Blood and Gold: How Canadian Mining Companies Loot the Congo’, Towards Freedom website, viewed May14, 2009. No Dirty Gold 2004, ‘Campaign Allies’, No Dirty Gold website, viewed 15 May, 2009.

widespread availability to the average Westerner, as uncovered by this case

study, highlights a new scramble for Africa through a corporate means in the

DRC.

On top of this issue of company credibility, are also the issues of

environmental damage, which are also debilitating lives of poor Africans

through things such as cyanide poisoning, which is an area that goes beyond

the scope of this study.

“We strive to form partnerships with host communities, sharing their

environments, traditions and values. We want communities to be better off for

AngloGold Ashanti having been there”

- AngloGold Ashanti

“Analysts suggest the resource wars in the DRC are partially fuelled by the fact

that Western multi-nationals – with the help of host governments – are able to

invade an underdeveloped nation, and take its wealth right out from under the

feet of the general population...any Western mining project in the DRC should

be looked upon with caution and scepticism.”

- John Laska, “Towards Freedom”

Inference:

Globalization is somehow looked on as an unmitigated “good” by some

economists. However that is not quite the case. The poorest countries in the

world are still not a part of this ever growing “global village”, and as a result

have been heavily sidelined in the global economy, causing poverty to

increase.

Today we do not have forceful domination of human and physical capital by

dictators or army regimes. Rather a few MNCs, corporate bodies and

investment hubs are fast establishing a new form of control: exerting power

influence over local & national governments to enact policies that strengthen

business rather than protecting rights of local people. Thus exploitation of the

local labor force, Export of country’s important resources & most importantly

dependence of developing countries over their wealthy counterparts have

increased manifold.

World trade or interestingly ‘’free and fair trade” is the instrument used for

establishing this form of control. Not surprisingly a few rich countries and

corporations are today dominating the global scenario. The sub-Saharan

African countries are characterized even today by poor living standard,

increasing income inequality, low productivity, lower per-capita income etc.

Globalization has indeed failed to eliminate these afflictions and has on the

contrary deepened them. World economic powers have been sadly successful

it seems in exploiting and tapping the resources of these lesser developed

countries. Owing to strong advancement in technology in the western world

they have emerged as strong players and winners nonetheless, in most

business transactions in the globalized world.

Globalization can be visualized to be a world of marginalization and exclusion,

rather than an opportuinity. Today not only are indigenous people & nations

affected but vast sectors of the world’s population too are suffering. In a way

the big corporations are in fact forming their own colonies.

Globalization is thus an extremely efficient form of exploitation with

established mechanisms & international institutions, which engulf the LDCs in

a vicious circle of debt & increasing poverty creating an absolute economic

dependency without any option for revolt. Revolt in such a scenario could lead

to the elimination of economic aid causing a crisis which dependent neo-

colonized countries are not willing to risk. So for people who feel colonialism is

a thing of the past, it’s time for them to rethink.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Globalization as it relates to Neo-Colonialism, ArticlesNG, May 24th, 2013

The West, The South and The Natural World by Andy Baker, CQ Press (University of

Colorado, Boulder), 2014

Modern World History: Patterns of Interaction , 1999 by McDougal Littell, page 308 (Source:

Gates Foundation helps bring Coca-Cola and Monsanto (GMO) to Africa, Dr. Roy

Schestowitz, June 26th, 2010)

The Colonial World: Africa, Egregors (blog): Fela Kuti and the African religion, February 23rd,

2010

Colonialism, Decolonization, and Neo-Colonialism (Source: Boundless. “Colonialism,

Decolonization, and Neo-Colonialism.” Boundless Sociology. Boundless, 14 Nov. 2014.

Retrieved 13 Dec. 2014 from https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-

sociology-textbook/economy-16/the-transformation-of-economic-systems-119/colonialism-

decolonization-and-neo-colonialism-673-10479/)

Dependency Theory Re-visited, Terry Goodwin

Neo-Colonialism, Toyin Falola and Mathew Heaton (Source:

href="http://science.jrank.org/pages/7920/Neocolonialism.html">Neocolonialism -

Bibliography</a>)

Schraeder 2004, pp 57-59

Hoogvelt, 2002

Neo-Colonialism – The Recolonialization of Africa, boycottneocolonialism.blogspot.in (blog

article), Christy, 2009

New York based Human Rights Watch (HRW), ‘The Curse of Gold’, 2005

AAP Finance 2009, ‘AngloGold Ashanti earns $US150m in first quarter’, AAP Finance News

Wire, 15 May 2009, p. 1, Retrieved May 22, 2009, (ProQuest).

Amnesty 2003, ‘Document - Democratic Republic of Congo: "Our brothers who help kill us":

Economic exploitation and human rights abuses in the east’, Amnesty International website,

viewed 22 May 2009, PDF p. 3.

AngloGold Ashanti 2006, ‘Report to Society’, AngloGold Ashanti website, viewed May 15,

2009.

‘CONGO: Tragic History’ (n.a), Journal of African Business, February 1, 2009, Iss. 350, pp 56-

58, Accessed May 15, 2009 (ProQuest).

Curtis, M 2007, Anglo American: The Alternative Report, War On Want website, Viewed 15

May, 2009.

Davies, E 2005, ‘Curse of Gold has fuelled slaughter and rape in Congo’, The

Independent, London: Jun 2, 2005, p. 19, Accessed 19 May 2009, (ProQuest).

Earthworks 2009, ‘Press Release’, viewed, May 22, 2009 .

HRW 2005, ‘The Curse of Gold’, Human Rights Watch website, viewed 15 May 2009.

Laska, J 2009, ‘Of Blood and Gold: How Canadian Mining Companies Loot the

Congo’, Towards Freedom website, viewed May14, 2009.

No Dirty Gold 2004, ‘Campaign Allies’, No Dirty Gold website, viewed 15 May, 2009.