Helinium, XXXIV/2, 1994, pp. 306-321

Patricia C. Anderson

INTERPRETING TRACES OF NEAR EASTERN NEOLITHIC CRAFTACTIVITES : AN ANCESTOR OF THE THRESHING SLEDGE FORPROCESSING DOMESTIC CROPS ?

RÉSUMÉ. — Des microtraces d'utilisation complètes particulières, d'aspect abrasé, ontété observées sur certaines lames lustrées du Proche Orient, à partir du néolithiqueacéramique B final, jusqu'à l'Age du Bronze. A partir d'expériences avec unereconstitution d'un instrument de battage avec silex décrit pour le 3e millénaire,l'observation de traces sur les silex armant les tribulums ethnographiques et d'autresexpériences, il est proposé que ces silex archéologiques particuliers ont servi dans uninstument nouveau à fonction du tribulum, à surface active doté d'un assemblagede lames de silex. L'instruments aurait servi à hacher les tiges et à égrainer les épisdes cultures courantes à ces époques (orge vêtu, blé nu et blé vêtu).

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR EXPLOITATION OF WILD CEREALS

We hâve been studying thé use of Natufian and Aceramic Neolithic glossedtools in thé Near East, in comparison with selected Chalcolithic and BronzeAge tools. Characteristic microscopic polish and striae on many Natufian, Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) and early PPNB tools hâve lead us to interpretmany as used for intensive harvesting of wild cereal stands, although ourharvesting experiments both in their present-day natural environments in Syriaand Turkey, and in southern France, where thé wild cereal seed bas beencultivated experimentally (Anderson 1992) hâve found that there is nomicrowear data allowing us to distinguish cultivation from this pattern ofintensive use (Anderson 1994a, b, c).

The microwear traces show that during thé three above periods, tools werefixed in hafts oriented parallel or obliquely to thé haft body, and used toeut bunches of stems fairly near thé soil, holding stems in thé hand whilepulling thé sickle back towards thé harvester ; polish and linear marks hâvea longitudinal orientation in relation to thé cutting edge. Although some toolswere backed along thé edge which fit into thé haft, thé development ofmicrowear traces in relation to retouch scars on thé active edge shows thatNatufian and Neolithic sickles initially were used without retouching thé cuttingedges, and any retouch was used to re-sharpen an edge in thé course of use.For thèse tools, harvesting was either thé only use, or thé first use of multi-functional tools, (Anderson 1994b, c). Comparison of thé intensiveness ofdevelopment of microwear traces with our expérimental data suggests thé use-life of harvesting inserts was routinely ten hours or much more, although itis difficult to know whether extensive areas of stands or fields were exploitedseasonally or smaller areas were harvested over periods of years. Such lengthy

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use-lives of thèse inserts show optimum adaptation of thé overall tools toharvesting of wild cereals as described above, given attributes of thé blanksmade using thé debitage techniques practiced in each period. Therefore, sicklesare already specialized tools during thé period of wild cereal exploitation.

NEW TECHNIQUES RELATED TO PROCESSING OF DOMESTIC CEREALS

We hâve been looking for évidence of new techniques of cereal exploitationinspired by thé arrivai of domestic cereal grain in Near Eastern sites, whichthé archaeobotanical record shows occurs in thé Middle and Late PPNB.However, at présent, différences in détails in tool construction aside, théharvesting techniques and overall type of tool (above) do not show notabledifférences between wild and domestic cereal (e.g. agricultural) contexts.Similarly, other 'glossed' tools which microwear traces indicate were used inactivities geared towards making of objects (craft activities rather thanprocurement of foodstuffs), such as harvesting of reeds, cutting ochred hide,and working of soft stone (Andersen 1994 a,b), are also common in théNeolithic before and after domestic agriculture.

However, during thé PPNB, when domestic grain is exploited, we find thatharvesting tools are more frequently transformed after use for harvesting cerealsthan in earlier times, by removal of thé working edge or extremities by burinblows, other intentional breakage, and retouch. Complex, distinctive microweartraces characteristic of heavy abrasion appear in addition to, and are apparentlysuperimposed over, bright polish, leading us to infer they represent re-use ofharvesting tools. We hâve not observed thèse traces to be experimentallyassociated with thé varions activities described above (Anderson 1992, 1994e ;Anderson & Inizan 1994). However, in several regards thèse 'new' tracesresemble those described for ethnographie threshing sledge éléments (Skakun1993 ; Ataman 1992 ; Anderson & Inizan 1994 ; see also Yerkes this vol.).We hâve seen similar traces on a large sample of fragmented Canaanean bladesfrom Bronze Age sites from thé third millenium, Kutan in Iraq, Amuq-JudaidehF in Syria, and Megiddo in Israël (Anderson & Inizan 1994) and Kashkashokin Syria, leading us to propose thé third millenium tools were used first toharvest, then broken or truncated and re-used as inserts in an instrument withthé function of thé ethnographie threshing sledge or 'tribulum'.

USE OF INSTRUMENTS TO THRESH AND CHOP

Third millenium texts describe an oxen-drawn threshing instrument, in useat that time (Grégoire, in Anderson & Inizan 1994). Ethnographie threshingsledges known to us hâve inserts made of métal or of basait, flint, obsidianor other stones, with or without a cutting edge, which were hammered orforced into adapted grooves or holes sculpted into thé wood in thé under(working) surface of two or three planks assembled to make thé instrument

308 P- C. ANDERSON

(Yerkes this vol ; Ataman 1992 ; Whallon 1978). Sometimes bitumen wasapplied to thé threshing sledge undersurface (Ataman 1992).

The ethnographie threshing sledge flint shown in fîg. 1 was inserted in aslot in a sledge made of two planks, and was probably drawn by two oxento thresh and chop wheat, barley, and puises, as are most present-dayethnographie threshing tools of this type. It has traces of thé bitumen usedon thé instrument under surface. The sledge was weighted by stones or persons,pulled in a circle, over heaps of eut plants (stems and seed heads). Its actionon seed heads frees naked (free-threshing) grain, breaks up hulled barley andglume wheats into spikelets ; its action chops straw into coarse to fine segments.In thé Neolithic to Bronze Age situations, like ethnographie ones, thé choppedstraw was presumably used for fodder and fuel, and is visible as temperingmaterial in mudbrick and mortar from building structures.

DESCRIPTION OF MICROWEAR TRACES

The distinctive features of thé microwear traces shared by thé ethnographietools and thé prehistoric ones under discussion, include thé following :

1. thé obtuse angle of thé cutting edge itself has often been more or lessflattened or facetted by use, or rounded, with edge damage on one faceor alternating, tending to one face or thé other.2. thé polish, observed with 200 x magnification, forms a band extendingfrom thé edge parallel or obliquely to it, can often be invasive and well-developed back from thé edge, but at its greatest extent, it gradually fadesinto thé unused part of thé tool surface.3. thé very edge and thé adjacent ventral and dorsal surfaces hâve a'cratered' appearance, with a fiât, semi-brilliant, rough-textured microwearpolish, forming a semi-compact pattern (trame) with extensive polishedareas.4. particularly on thé archeological tools zones of smooth, bright, fiât,compact polish occur, but appear to be partially abraded away.5. with respect to linear features a distinctive attribute of thé traces isfréquent comet-forms, made up of superficial wide, long striae or shorttroughs with a U-section which stretch out in one direction from craters

FIG. 1. — Blade from Anatolian threshing sledge (dots indicate location of gloss).FIG. 2. — Blade and bitumen used in reconstructed third millenium-type threshing sledge depictedin fîg. 7.FIG. 3. — Fragmented Canaanean blade from Kashkashok.FIG. 4. — Fragmented Canaanean blade from Kutan.FIG. 5. — Fragmented Canaanean blade from Judaideh F.

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in thé tool surface (figs. 6, 8-12, 16-18 ; see arrows), and are orientedparallel to or at a slight angle with thé active edge.

RECONSTRUCTION OF TOOL MOTION ; PROPOSITION OF CONTACT MATERIALS

The above data show that ail thé tools moved in a longitudinal manner butin only one direction (i.e. thé single direction of comet-shaped features showthé tools did not move in a sawing or back-and-forth direction) and werehafted parallel or obliquely to thé working surface. The traces correspond toa dragging motion against a compact, abrasive surface such as soil, and theirbrightness and flatness suggest sliding contact with plant material (i.e. mineral-rich stems such as cereals) on such a surface. The orientation, location anddifférent morphologies of thé above use-traces show a use-motion for thé objectsin question and properties of thé contact material(s) which exclude thépossibility thé tools were used to hoe soil, eut turfs (Van Gijn 1992), harvestnear thé ground or carve stone or clay objects (Andersen 1994b, c). Conversely,most of thé striae and polish features which are characteristic of thé aboveuses are not présent on thé tools.

COMPARISON OF ETHNOGRAPHIC AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL TOOLS

The ethnographie threshing sledge inserts functioned with edge-loading fromthé weight and thé weighting of thé sledge (edge-facetting or rounding), whichcaused them to be dragged over heaps of plant material. The tool edges cameinto occasional contact with thé threshing floor of compacted soil or stone.The similarity of traces suggest that thé archaeological tools were used in amanner similar to thé ethnographie ones, although a few différences in théinstrument or thé contact materials are suggested :

thé fact their edges are less rounded than thé ethnographie ones mayindicate that they carried less loading or pressure, or that thé workingsurface was différent (i.e. softer). The ethnographie tools hâve traces, seenat 200 *, which hâve a more dull, matt appearance than thé thé semi-bright polish on thé archaeological tools, and lack thé bright and smoothbackground areas seen on thé latter (Anderson & Inizan 1994).

However, we know that thé thirty or so ethnographie threshing-sledge flintswe hâve examined were not used first as sickle inserts. If we accept théhypothesis that thé Neolithic and Bronze Age tools discussed hère were usedin a plant-processing activity, we need to evaluate whether thé différence intraces with thé ethnographie inserts is due to thé fact thé archeological toolshad a double use for economy of raw material - first to harvest, then to threshor chop plants - or rather because threshing was thé only use of thé tools,but was carried out in conditions producing more and brighter gloss (i.e. asofter or more humid threshing floor). The construction of thé instrumentand thé mode of insertion of thé inserts may also account for différences in

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traces and différences in morphology of archeological tools, which tend tobe larger than thé ethnographie ones, particularly in thé case of thé fragmentedCanaanean blades.

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE THRESHING INSTRUMENT

Sumerian texts (Grégoire in Anderson & Inizan 1994) describe an instrumentof a construction and mode of insertion of thé stone (undoubtedly flint)éléments which are différent from ethnographically-known examples of threshingsledges. The description of thé Sumerian instrument appears to better accountfor microwear and morphological attributes (figures) of thé archeological toolsfrom thé Bronze Age, and in some respects those from thé Neolithic.

According to Grégoire (in Anderson & Inizan 1994), thé texts may beinterpreted as indicating that :

1. logs, perhaps poplar, of rather small diameter (eg. 5 cm.) were usedto construct thé threshing sledge, not planks. Thèse were bound togetherwith leather straps.2. this sledge or 'raft-like' instrument was pulled by oxen.3. stone blades were inserted in bitumen thickly spread between thénarrow logs, filling thé interstices between thé logs.4. only 50 to 80 blades were used to arm this threshing-sledge, whereasethnographie sledges like those above, with inserts slotted in planks, arelikely to hâve hundreds or even thousands of inserts.

Guided by Grégoire's data and by our observations of traces on tools fromthis period, we experimentally reconstructed a version of a 'third-milleniumtype' threshing sledge (Anderson et al. in prep.), of which thé upper (non-working) surface is shown in fig. 7. We conducted preliminary experimentswith this tool to thresh thé two main crops of thé third millenium, hulledbarley and free-threshing wheat, which are also thé two major 'advanced'domestic cereal-types found both PPNB and more récent sites containing toolswith thé spécial traces discussed hère.

A horse was used to pull thé instrument in our experiment, as oxen werenot available. Perhaps thé beginning of thé use of draft animais cannot beproven, as even modem animais used for this only sometimes carry tracesin their bone morphology, solid évidence, based on âge curves and spécialarticular déformations for thé use of draft animais occurs at Cheikh Hassanin Syria, at thé end of thé fourth millenium (Uruk) (see E. Vila-Meyer inAnderson & Inizan 1994 and pers. comm.). If thé Neolithic context in whichthèse tools were found precludes thé use of (newly-domesticated) oxen as draftanimais, we found thé instrument, even weighted, could be pulled by a personor persons.

We found this construction held inserts of thé width of Canaanean blades(figs. 3-5), whereas hafting in slots, used for thé smaller ethnographie inserts,

312 P. C. ANDERSON

would appear more difficult for fîxing thèse tools. Furthermore, most Canaaneanblade fragments with thé microwear traces described above also carry bitumenremains, some of which are nearly a centimètre thick (fig. 3), indicating awide area of insertion, and most of thé blade surface was apparently insertedin thé sledge, because thé part with gloss which protruded from thé instrumentwas usually no wider than one centimeter (see figures 3-5). This would hâverequired very deep grooves and thick planks, had they been hafted as werethé ethnographie inserts, but we found such wide inserts were easily accomodatedby thé 'raft-like' construction used in our experiment, with thé blades solidlyhafted in spaces between thé logs which were entirely filled with bitumen. Theconcave imprint in thé bitumen présent on some Canaanean blades (fig. 3 :thick arrows) may be interpreted as caused by pressure against a round objectsuch as a log, and inserts removed from thé expérimental 'Sumerian-type'threshing sledge had bitumen adhering which carried a similar imprint (fig.2, thick arrows) of thé (round) log against which it was fixed. A number of50 to 80 inserts, as stated in thé texts, also represented thé maximum of thélarge blade segments which could effectively fit into thé under surface of théexpérimental sledge.

RESULTS OF THE USE OF THE EXPERIMENTAL THRESHING SLEDGE

The threshing floor was prepared in an even area of a clay-rich field at Jalèsby cleaning plant material, wetting and rolling thé surface, and letting it drya day or two in thé sun.

Very fine straw like that found in mudbrick from thé Neolithic, was effectivelyproduced after an hour or so for each crop and first hulled barley, then free-threshing durum wheat was threshed, as described earlier for ethnographieexamples. The time taken should be considered as of only descriptivesignificance, and reflects merely particular characteristics of our experiment :many factors would undoubtedly cause variation in time needed to finishchopping and threshing thé plants, such as instrument weight and active surfacearea, pulling speed, and thickness of plant material on thé threshing floor atthé outset.

FIG. 6. — Wear traces seen on thé blade depicted in fig. 1 (200 x magnification ; arrows indicatecharacteristic linear traces and wide, comet-shaped features).FIG. 7. — Reconstructed third millenium sledge on threshing floor, with logs bound usingleather strips and blades inserted in bitumen between thé logs on thé instrument under surface.FIG. 8. — Microwear traces on expérimental threshing sledge insert after three hours of use.Arrow indicates comet-shaped feature (200 x magnification).FIG. 9. — Linear traces and comet-shaped feature on a blade from thé expérimental threshingsledge depicted in fig. 7 (200 x magnification).

. 6

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MICROWEAR TRACES AND COMPARISON OF ETHNOGRAPHIC, EXPERIMENTAL ANDARCHEOLOGICAL TOOL DATA

The microwear traces on thé blades from this expérimental sledge (fîgs. 2,8 and 9), which effectively threshed and chopped duram wheat and hulledbarley for three hours in ail, are similar to those on thé prehistoric tools,and somewhat smoother and brighter than those on thé ethnographie inserts(fig. 6), but this could be accounted for by différences in thé threshing floorsin each case (granularity, compactness, humidity, etc.), or perhaps by différencesin thé stacks of plants threshed (thickness, humidity, etc.).

Hundreds of fragmented Canaanean blades we hâve studied carry thèsemicrowear traces and are nearly identical in morphology, from thé NineviteV at Kashkashok in thé Khabur in Syria (fig. 3, fig. 10) ; from Kutan in Iraq,Eski Moussoul (fig. 4, fig. 11) and from Amuq (Judaideh F) in northern Syria(fig. 5, fig. 12), suggesting thé circulation of thèse imported blades was in directrelation to thé manufacture and use of threshing instruments (Andersen &Inizan 1994).

What of thé older tools? Sortie aspects of thé experiment help proposehypothèses as to threshing or chopping instruments which may hâve existedin thé pre-third millenium contexts from which several blades with such traceshâve been found (figs. 13-18). Skakun bas observed traces such as thèse onflint tools from thé Bulgarian Chalcolithic (Skakun 1993) and Neolithic(personal communication) and was thé first to describe and interpret such tracesas due to use as threshing sledge inserts. We hâve found two blades fromthé 7th millenium of Ali Kosh (Bayât) with bitumen traces (fig. 13, fig. 16),having microwear traces like those described hère.

Although to date we hâve seen only twenty or so Neolithic blades withthèse traces, we hâve examined only small samples of glossed tools from PPNBcontexts with domestication ; further observations may well show that suchtraces occur more frequently. For example, traces seen on thé ethnographieand thé expérimental blades used in threshing instruments, are similar to thoseillustrated for a small flake from Late Neolithic Feyda in Syria, and a bladesegment from thé late PPNB of Magzalia (Anderson 1994b, fig. 14, fig. 17),and a dozen blades from El Kowm, some of which are thick and fragmentedwith retouch or rounding of edges (Anderson in press). Another blade withsuch traces was found in a preliminary sorting of a Middle PPNB level ofHalula in thé Upper Euphrates ; this level corresponds to thé earliest appearanceof domestic cereals in thé Euphrates area known at présent : barley, bread-wheat and emmer and einkorn wheats (M. Molist & G. Willcox pers. comm.).

NEOLITHIC ARTISANRY AND POSSIBLE RECONSTRUCTIONS OF THE INSTRUMENTAND ITS USE

Nearly ail thé objects mentioned above hâve bitumen traces opposite thé activeedge ; many hâve had their edges reinforced by retouch. Ail appear to hâve

12

FIG. 10. — Microwear traces on thé Canaanean blade fragment depicted in fig. 3 fromKashkoshok (200 x magnification).FIG. 11. — Microwear traces on a Canaanean blade fragment from from Kutan (see fig. 4)(200 x magnification).FIG. 12. — Microwear traces on a Canaanean blade fragment from Judaideh (see fig. 5)(200 * magnification).

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been used for another purpose (harvest ?), subsequently many were reducedin length before thé use producing thé microwear traces presently underdiscussion ; last, they were retouched in thé course of this (second ?) use (seeAndersen & Inizan 1994).

We cannot demonstrate thé overall shape of thé Neolithic instrument ortool into which thèse inserts were hafted. We think that thé regularity of thétraces, thé fact they always indicate a long uni-directional motion underpressure, and thé présence of bitumen remains, points to their having functionedhafted in a composite instrument. If, on thé contrary, we consider they werehafted in a slot in a sickle-type haft which was drawn by hand in one directionto chop, split or de-grain plant material on thé ground, thé pressure andregularity of thé use-motion shown by thé traces would be hard to accountfor. In addition, such a tool would function efficiently for chopping strawonly if a sawing (back-and-forth) motion were used, not a uni-directional,pulling motion (experimented by J. Gibaja, Barcelona, pers. comm.). Thisactivity produced microwear traces unlike those on our tools because theyreflect thé bi-directionality of thé working motion and lack craters, wide shallowstriae or troughs, comet-tail forms and traces showing a uni-directional,longitudinal motion, which we observed systematically on archeological,ethnographie and expérimental tools described hère. Sawing straw on a firmsurface by hand does not produce thé abrasion and spécial linear traces seenon archaeological tools (experiment by L. Astruc, pers. comm.).

The Neolithic and Chalcolithic tools with thèse traces, although larger thanalmost ail of thé ethnographie inserts seen by us or published by others, aresmaller in dimension and especially in width than thé Canaanean blades. Thisleaves open thé question of their hafting method. They may hâve been haftedin bitumen between small logs, straight branches or even reeds, in a smallerversion but in thé général manner of thé reconstructed third millenium threshinginstrument. This appears to be a far more likely option than imaginingproducing and assembling planks to make a threshing instrument during théNeolithic. Another possibility ( A. Handley pers. comm.) is that thé Neolithicinstrument resembled a smaller version of our expérimental instrument, whichused hafting principles like those for sickles : thé inserts may hâve been haftedin slots in straight hafts, like sickles (and even hâve been used as sickles),then many of thèse straight hafts actually bound together with leather or végétalbindings to make a composite instrument (tools used to eut hide, for exampleinto strips, are présent in thé Neolithic sites).

For each site in which we hâve seen blades or flakes having this wear, hulledbarley, free-threshing wheat, and often emmer and einkorn are présent in théarcheobotanical remains. A composite instrument constructed according to anyof thé methods above would hâve functioned more or less rapidly, dependingon weight (for example, weighted by one or two stones, as in our experiment),on active surface area, and on pulling speed, to thresh and chop cereals andpuises. It is clear it would be far more likely to succeed in thèse tasks than

Fio. 13. — Blade from Ali Kosh Bayât (dots indicate location of gloss).FIG. 14. — Neolithic blade fragment from Magzalia (Iraq) (broken Une shows location ofbitument).FIG. 15. — Neolithic blade with bitumen from El Kowm (Syria) (dots show location of gloss).

318 P.C. ANDERSON

single hafted tools used by hand to work on thé ground, and thé microweartraces also argue for a larger instrument (to allow for thé application of pressureon thé blade edge and a dragging, uni-directional motion).It would, due to pressure transferred to thé inscris, break up seed heads forhulled barley, emmer and einkorn, and directly release grain from free-threshingwheat. It would also break off thé rather résistant barbs on hulled barley,producing a product ready for animal consumption or beer-making (G. Willcoxpers. comm.). Perhaps more significantly, thé Bronze Age, Chalcolithic andNeolithic tools we hâve seen which carry thèse traces hâve efficient cuttingedges, (unlike certain ethnographie threshing sledge inserts). Therefore thèseolder instruments would hâve been well-adapted to producing large amountsof chopped straw. The fact there were less-pronounced traces of facetting androunding of thé active edges on thé Neolithic tools described hère than forsome of thé ethnographie inserts, and for thé expérimental tools coming fromthé non-weighted portions of thé instrument (fig. 7, middle and front). Thissuggests variables such as thé lighter weight of a Neolithic instrument, as wellas, as seen earlier, thé condition of thé threshing floor (différent thickness ofplant materials, différences in humidity and hardness of thé surface) anddurations of use, hâve caused thé différences in degree of development of traces,although thé général use is similar in each case.

What would be thé impetus for inventing such a tool in thé Near EasternNeolithic at thé eve of domestication? We hâve microwear data from manyof thé glossed tools from thé sites which indicate that cereals were harvestedby cutting near thé ground, therefore with an appréciable stem length. Bundlesof this harvested crop may hâve been processed on compacted clay surfacescommon in and around thèse Near-Eastern sites, not only to process grain(for human and animal consumption) but also to more efficiently producelarge quantities in a minimum volume of fmely-chopped straw, for animalfodder and particularly (?) temper for mudbrick, corresponding to observedincreased building activity, and thé use of domestic animais. Threshing grainwithout chopping straw requires pressure to produce thé percussion necessary,but not necessarily thé action of cutting edges (for example, this task canalso be accomplished by trampling or by sledges with non-cutting inserts suchas chunks of basait. The use of inserts with cutting edges in thé varionsarcheological periods we hâve discussed, ail of which use chopped straw fortemper in mudbrick, suggests thé (chopping) function of thé instrument mayhâve been of gréât importance to thé artisans of thé time, and may hâve largely

FIG. 16. — Wear traces on thé blade from Ali Kosh Bayât (200 x magnification) (see fig. 13).FIG. 17. — Wear traces on thé blade from Magzalia (200 * magnification).FIG. 18. — Wear traces on thé blade from El Kowm (200 x magnification).

.. •** *n

320 P. C. ANDERSON

inspirée thé invention of thé instrument. Although such an instrument wouldhâve provided little advantage for threshing wild cereals over merely drying,causing spontaneous disarticulation of spikelets (fragile rachis) in earlierperiods, it would represent a gréât increase in efficiency, once domestic cerealswere threshed (with semi-solid rachis for einkorn and emmer wheats, and solidrachis for hulled barley and free-threshing wheat).

Therefore thé tools shed light on artisanal activity during thé Neolithic ofthé Near East. They indicate an instrument which would increase thé speedof grain-processing, particularly in view of thé change in thé morphology ofcereal seed heads and facilitate thé production of chopped straw, which isknown to be related to thé artisanry of building at thé sites, and probablyto other uses including those discussed above.

The principles involved in thé construction and use of such an instrument,according to thé various options indicated by thé microwear traces discussedhère and as suggested by thé results of experiments, represent significantartisanal development in hafting of multiple inscris in such a way as to makea working surface composed of cutting éléments, rather than a linear edge.This represents a major breakthrough in craft know-how and conceptualization,and, as we hâve argued, would produce technical results for thé tasks describedabove which were différent from tools or techniques in use at thé sites priorto domestication. Further study of such objects and further expérimentationshould help clarify thé détails of thé significance of thé invention anddevelopment of this type of instrument.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank Frank Hole, Nikolai Bader, Danielle Stordeur, AntoineSuleiman, Luc Bachelot, Miquel Molist and Robert Braidwood for letting us studyobjects mentioned in this note Jacques and Marie-Claire Cauvin for allowing us tostudy inserts from an Anatolian threshing sledge and then to use thé sledge duringour experiments as a comparison ; and Jean-Pierre Grégoire and Anthony Handleyfor having conceived and carried out thé reconstruction of thé third millemum sledge.Discussions with J-P Grégoire and A. Handley, as well as with J.-J. Ibanez-Estevez,G. Deraprahamian, D. Helmer, D. Stordeur, G. Willcox, N. Skakun, R. Yerkes andA. van Gijn hâve been of gréât help to this work, as hâve comments from FùsûnErtûg-Yaras on an earlier version of this paper. Participation in thé group on plant-working traces in thé Neolithic, a thème commun of thé Centre de RecherchesArchéologiques in Valbonne, bas helped in expérimental data and description ofmicrowear traces presented hère. We thank Madeleine Rivière for having carried outthé Une drawings. Photos were taken with a Zeiss Axioscop by thé author. Weacknowledge support of this research by thé CNRS (GDR 743, Paris, UPR 7537,Jalès) and thé Minister of Foreign Affairs, Paris (Mission d'El Kowm, Mission dePréhistoire en Anatolie).

TRACES OFNEAR EASTERN NEOLITHIC CRAFTACTIVITIES 321

BlBLIOGRAPHY

ANDERSON, P. C., 1992. Expérimental cultivation, harvesting and threshing of wild cereals andtheir relevance for interpreting thé use of Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic artefacts, in :ANDERSON, P. C. (éd.), Préhistoire de l'agriculture : nouvelles approches expérimentaleset ethnographiques, Paris (Monographie du CRA 6), 179-210.

ANDERSON, P. C., 1994a. La moisson à Aswad vue à travers des microtraces d'utilisation surun échantillon d"outils lustrés', in : H. de CONTENSON et al. Aswad et Ghoriafé. Sitesnéolithiques en Damascène (Syrie) aux 8e et 7e millénaires avant l'ère chrétienne. IFAPO,Damascus and Beirut, 221-230.

ANDERSON, P. C., 1994b. Reflections on thé significance of two PPN typological classes inlight of expérimentation and microwear analysis : flint 'sickles' and obsidian 'Cayonu tools',in : GEBEL,H-G. & S. KOSLOWSKT (eds), Neolithic chipped stone industries of thé FertileCrescent. Studies in Early Near Eastern production, subsistence, and environment I. Berlin,ex oriente, 61-82.

ANDERSON, P. C., 1994e. Insights into plant harvesting and other activities at Hatoula, as revealedby microscopic functional analysis of selected chipped stone tools, in : LECHEVALLIER,M. & A. RONEN (eds), Le gisement de Hatoula en Judée occidentale, Israël. Mémoireset travaux du Centre de Recherche Français de JérusalemS, Paris, Association Paléorient,277-293.

ANDERSON, P. C., (in press). Technologie agricole et artisanat à El Kowm 2 : l'apport desmicrotraces d'utilisation, in : Stordeur, D. (éd.), Une île dans le désert, ADPF, Paris.

ANDERSON, P. C. & M-L. INIZAN, 1994. Utilisation du tribulum au début du IIIe millénaire :des lames 'cananéennes' lustrées à Kutan (Ninivé V) dans la région de Mosoul, Iraq.Paléorient 20/2, 85-103.

ANDERSON, P. C., A. L. VAN GIJN, J-P. GRÉGOIRE, A. HANDLEY, J. J. IBANEZ & N. SKAKUN,(in prep). Prehistoric crop processing tools and thé origin of thé threshing sledge :examination of thé évidence from thé Neolithic and Bronze Age using microwear analysis,ethnography and expérimentation.

ATAMAN, K.,1992. Threshing sledges and archaeology, in : ANDERSON, P. C. (éd.), Préhistoirede l'agriculture : nouvelles approches expérimentales et ethnographiques, Paris (Monog-raphie du CRA 6), 305-320.

GIJN, A. L. VAN, 1992. The interprétation of 'sickles' : a cautionary taie, in : ANDERSON, P.C. (éd.), Préhistoire de l'agriculture : nouvelles approches expérimentales et ethnogra-phiques, Paris (Monographie du CRA 6), 363-372.

SKAKUN, N. N., 1993. Agricultural implements in thé Neolithic and Eneolithic of Bulgaria,in: ANDERSON, P. C., S. BEYRIES, M. OTTE & H. PLISSON (eds.), Traces et fonction :les gestes retrouvés, Liège (ERAUL 50), 361-368.

WHALLON, R. J., 1978. Threshing sledge flints. A distinctive pattern of wear. Paléorient 4,319-324.

Patricia C. ANDERSONUPR 7537, CNRSInstitut de préhistoire orientale, Jalès,07460 Berrias, France