Internet Survey on the Effects of Immigration and Saturated Fat and Cholesterol Intake of Guyanese

GUYANESE DIET/Kishna and Divale

2001 World Cultures 12(2):153-178

Internet Survey on the Effects of Immigration and

Saturated Fat and Cholesterol Intake of Guyanese

Julie Ann Kishna Department of Social Sciences, York College of the City University of New York, Jamaica, NY 11451;

[email protected]

William Divale Department of Social Sciences, York College of the City University of New York, Jamaica, NY 11451;

[email protected]

This study hypothesizes that recent immigrants undergo dietary decline in consuming more fat and cholesterol

as they adjust to the U.S. diet which contains processed foods and foods high in fat and cholesterol. Using the

World Wide Web – an Internet Survey was undertaken. Seven thousand nine hundred and eighty Guyanese e-

mail addresses were located, 1580 of which were rejected due to error. The final response was 821. The

questionnaires, containing questions from a modified version of the Saturated Fat and Cholesterol Avoidance

Scale and the Short Fat Questionnaire were administered via electronic mail. The subjects ranged in age from

13 to 74. ANOVA results revealed that immigration does influence the dietary behavior of the Guyanese

population (p = .004). The consumption of fat and cholesterol is significantly higher for Guyanese who lived

in the US a longer time (p = .020) or Guyanese who began to live in the U.S. at an earlier age.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Internet offers the academic community a growing range of new research

opportunities, including that of conducting Internet surveys and Internet experiments. In

this study, data were collected from a group of Guyanese people worldwide via the

Internet.

Food intake behavior is entirely dependent on certain cultural and lifestyle factors, which

include food production, socioeconomic status, nutrition knowledge, health, religious

belief etc. The purpose of this study was to explore the dietary differences of Guyanese

individuals both in the United States and in their homeland. Our interest is in the cultural

influences on dietary behavior of Guyanese adults.

Immigration usually involves major cultural changes in dietary, social and health related

beliefs and behavior. The pressure to make dietary changes is perhaps greatest on recent

immigrants. While they usually bring their own food habits with them, they may want to,

or have to, modify their dietary practices because of the food supply, economics, and or a

desire to integrate into their new culture. Previous studies have shown that dietary habits

are strongly influenced by culture, ethnicity and place of birth (Pomerleau et. al. 1998).

The affluent diet in North America and Western Europe, according to Pomerleau et al., is

often high in energy dense foods, rich in fat and cholesterol. In contrast, diets in

developing or low-income countries generally contain less fat and cholesterol. It has been

suggested that the westernization of diets of immigrants may not necessarily be beneficial

to their health. Thus, it is important to study the diets of immigrants.


2. Brief Overview of Guyana

Guyana is culturally and historically tied closely to the former British colonies of the

Caribbean, although it is located on the South American continent. Today, the largest

group of people is the East Indians, numbering more than half the population. Afro-

Guyanese make up more than one third of the population. There are also groups of

Chinese and Portuguese in the diverse population. Agricultural products, together with

fish and livestock products, are the main components of the Guyanese diet. Fish are an

important component of the food supply and provide the major source of animal protein

in Guyana. Guyanese predominantly eat locally grown seasonal foods that are not

processed. Locally grown vegetables that are high in carbohydrates, such as cassava,

plantains, and breadfruit, are widely consumed, but are available only in season; green

and yellow vegetables are also plentiful. “Due mainly to emigration to the USA,

Guyana's population growth is in the negative. More than 350,000 Guyanese people have

already immigrated to the USA. Over 100,000 Guyanese have become United States

citizens. The other 250,000 may become citizens upon fulfilling the statutory

requirements of naturalization (http://www.guyanausa.org/guyanausa/home.htm).”

3. Literature Review

Guyanese in the United States are exposed to a variety of cultural patterns and generally

have to modify their attitudes, dietary behaviors, values and norms. According to Marin

et al. (1987) the process of changes in behavior and values labeled as “acculturation”,

occurs when immigrants come in contact with a new group, nation or culture. Previous

research exploring the subject of immigration and the dietary behavior of recent

immigrants has shown that migration to the United States influences the intakes of certain

foods (Wu, et. al. 1996; Trosler, 1997; Gardner, Winkeby and Viteri, 1995). As Trosler

noted, “nutrition has become a significant factor in elucidating human adaptability to

immigration.”

A study by Pomerleau et al. that investigated the relationship between place of birth and

nutrient intake in Ontario in 1998 showed that “in general, immigrants ingested less fat

and cholesterol and more carbohydrate than did nonimmigrants, although large variations

existed by country of birth.” This study indicated that immigrants reported lower fat

intakes than did their Canadian-born counterparts. The likelihood of high fat intake was

also strongly associated with place of birth. ”Immigrants were less likely than

nonimmigrants to report a high fat diet, and those born in the Philippines, Vietnam, and

Guyana had the lowest likelihood of high fat intake compared with nonimmigrants”

(Pomerleau et. al. 1998). Migrants differ from nonmigrants in socioeconomic

characteristics and exposure to other things, which produce adjustments in dietary intake

patterns (Imink, Danjur and Burgos, 1983). Another analysis found that “native born

Chinese students have the lowest intake of fat, saturated fat and cholesterol intake when

compared to the U.S. born Chinese-American students” (Yue-Sun and Bi-Wu, 1997).

According to Imink, Danjur and Burgos (1983), food intake patterns may have an


immediate impact on immigrants as variables such as a physical availability of specific

foods, food prices and social prestige values of different foods necessitate the change of

food preparation practices.

A number of investigations have examined the relationship of mother’s, and sometimes

father’s, educational attainment to the dietary behavior as it relates to the consumption of

fat and cholesterol; and a positive significant relationship was generally found (Winkleby

et. al. 1994, Axelson 1977; Caliendo and Sanjur 1978). A positive relationship was found

with the females’ educational level and their dietary behavior (Schafer et. al. 1980).

Montero et al. (1999) conducted a study on lifetime dietary change and its relation to

weight increase of Spanish women and found that “a change in the diets of women is due

to migration or marriage...the mean weight gain was greater in those women whose

dietary behavior changed due to migration”

4. HYPOTHESES

It is hypothesized that recent immigrants have healthier diets upon arrival to the U.S., as

they are used to unprocessed foods and a greater proportion of fresh vegetables in the

diet. This current study proposes to test the hypotheses using a sample of Guyanese

subjects. It is reasonable to postulate that:

Recent immigrants undergo dietary degradation, moving to consumption of

more processed food and food high in fat and cholesterol

Education and social class will influence fat and cholesterol intake.

5. METHOD

5.1. Sample

There were two phases to the sampling process. The first phase was the collection of e-

mail addresses. The subjects were located on a Guyanese directory website

(http://www.guyana.com). They were all of Guyanese origin who lived either in Guyana

or other parts of the world. Seven thousand nine hundred and eighty (7,980) e-mail

addresses were located. Each individual address contained other components such as the

name, age, country of birth etc. that had to be deleted. Subsequent to cleanouts of the

addresses, 200 - 400 individuals were sent e-mails each day asking them to complete the

survey at a specified e-mail address. The purpose of the study was explained to the

respondents who were offered then the option of refusing to participate. Approximately 2

weeks later, a reminder was sent asking them to complete the questionnaire if they hadn’t

done so. One thousand five hundred and eighty (1,580) of the addresses were rejected due

to error in the addresses, which caused them to be undeliverable. Five thousand and

seventy nine of the addresses were valid e-mail addresses, however there were no

responses from most of the addresses. As a result, it would be feasible to conclude that


individuals failed to respond, disregarded or discarded the questionnaire after it was sent

the first or second time. The final response was 821. Of the respondents, there were a

total of 391 females and 415 males; 766 of who were of Guyanese origin and 41

individuals who were Guyanese, but were born in other parts of the world. The subjects

ranged in age from 13 to 74. When asked whether they live in the United States, 524

individuals indicated that they do live in the United States, whereas 275 individuals do

not live in the U.S.

V47 What is your gender?

391 48.5

415 51.5

806 100.0

15

821

1 Female

2 Male

Total

Valid

Sy stemMissing

Total

Frequency Valid Percent

What is your gender?

Missing

Male

Female

V44 Indicate the country you were born in.

766 94.9

41 5.1

807 100.0

14

821

1 Guyana

2 Other

Total

Valid

Sy stemMissing

Total


Indicate the country you w ere born in.

Missing

Other

Guyana

Do You Live In The United States?

524 65.6

275 34.4

799 100.0

22

821

I live in the U.S

Do not live in the U.S.

Total

Valid

Sy stemMissing

Total


Do not live in the U

I live in the U.S

Missing


5.2. Limitations of the Sample

This sample was representative of most Guyanese who are middle- to upper-class

individuals. Because this survey was conducted on the Internet via e-mail; and the

questionnaire was only available to a group of people whom access to computers were

available, social class comparison was limited. It would be likely to assume that the

majority of the Guyanese sample that live in Guyana has a higher socioeconomic

background. As a result, they have computers or have access to computers and were able

to complete the questionnaires.

5.3. Instrument

The questionnaires were administered via electronic mail containing questions from a

modified version of the Saturated Fat and Cholesterol Avoidance Scale and the Short Fat

Questionnaire (See Appendix 1. for a copy of the instrument).

Two instruments used that were developed to estimate the nutrient intakes were the

Short-Fat Questionnaire (Dobson et al. 1993) and the Saturated Fat / Cholesterol

Avoidance Scale (Knapp et al. 1988; Gail et al. 1991). The instruments were developed to

estimate the nutrient intakes and provided important information about specific food

sources in eating behaviors. Several studies indicate the reliability and validity of self-

reported dietary instruments (Jacobsen and Bonaa 1990; Pietinen et. al., 1988; Willett et.

al.1985).

Along with these scales, demographic information and acculturation data were sought.

The mean completion time of the questionnaire was approximately 20 minute. A lottery

for $100 was held as an incentive for the completion for the questionnaires.

The main purpose of the ‘Short Fat Questionnaire’ was to have a brief instrument that

people could use to assess their own fat consumption. A secondary purpose was to obtain

a measure that could be used to rank subjects broadly according to their fat intake

behavior. The questionnaire was developed from a series of questions, which form part of

the ‘Facts on fat’ kit. Each part of the kit includes a quiz to help people identify sources

of their diets (Dobson et. al.1993). The questionnaire measured features of saturated fat /

cholesterol avoidance behavior on the basis of intakes of saturated fat and cholesterol

measured by the 24 hour dietary recall. The Fat / Cholesterol Avoidance Scale contained

items that measured the extent to which an individual avoids food sources of saturated fat

and cholesterol. For the Short Fat / Cholesterol Avoidance Scale, a maximum score of 33

indicates a low fat / cholesterol intake and a minimum score equals a high fat /

cholesterol intake.

The Long Fat / Cholesterol Scale (sum of variables 1 – 19) was scored from 24 – 77.

High fat / cholesterol Intake is assigned the lower value and low fat / cholesterol intake is

assigned the higher value. Four questions taken from the Center for Disease Control’s

Health Risk Survey of College Students were used to form a Healthy Food Consumption


Scale (sum of variables 20 – 23) had scores from 3 – 16. A low score indicates low intake

of healthy food and the higher score indicates a high intake of healthy foods. Three

additional questions taken from the CDC scale were used to form an Unhealthy Food

Consumption Scale (sum of Variable 24 – 26), which has scores from 1 –12. A low score

indicates a low unhealthy food intake and a high score indicates a high unhealthy food

intake.

5.4. Reliability

A Body/Mass Index was also constructed using data on height and weight. Reliability

analysis was conducted to study the properties of measurement scales and the items that

make them up. The Reliability Analysis procedure that was calculated on a number of

questions for each of the four scales and tested their reliability as well as provided

information about the relationships between individual items in the scale. With

Reliability analysis, the extent to which the items in your questionnaire are related to

each other, an overall index of the repeatability consistency of the scale as a whole, and

identifying problem items that should excluded from the scale can be determined.

For the Long Fat / Cholesterol Scale (sum of v1-v19), Cronbach Alpha was conducted to

test the reliability of the scale. Alpha was 0.8061. However, when variable 17 was

removed (what type of milk do you drink or use in cooking or use in tea?), Cronbach

Alpha was 0.8119, which is tested to be more reliable. Cronbach Alpha on the CDC

Healthy Food Consumption was 0.5620. If variable 21 were to be removed (yesterday,

how many times did you drink fruit juice?), alpha would be 0.5900. This is plausible

because many people drink fruit juices regardless of other dietary behaviors, and most

fruit juices contain sugar and if taken in excess, could be unhealthy. Reliable Coefficients

of the CDC Unhealthy Food Consumption was 0.3820. Cronbach alpha could be 0.4722

if variable 26 was removed (yesterday, how many times did you eat cookies, doughnuts,

pie or cake?). There were no differences in our results when the variable for each of the

scales was removed and tests were conducted before and after the deletion of each

variable.

Data on the absolute and relative intake of fat / cholesterol obtained from the

questionnaire was compared and analyzed using analyses of variance (ANOVA) and t-

tests. Analyses of variance were performed on the each of the scales with each of the

independent variables of: 1) Mother’s education (v. 37); 2) Respondent’s birthplace

(v.44); 3) Age when lived in the US (v.46); 4) How people tend to describe the individual

racially (v.44). Independent sample t-tests were used for variable 39 (whether or not the

subject was born in the US) and gender (v.47) the Short Fat Scale, Long Fat Scale, and

the CDC Healthy and Unhealthy Food Consumption Scales.

6. RESULTS

Independent sample T-tests (table 1) were used to test the respondent’s age when they

began living in the United States with the CDC Healthy Food Consumption Scale (sum of


v.20 – v23), CDC Unhealthy Food Consumption Scale (sum of v. 24-26), Long Fat Scale

(sum of v.1-19) and Body Mass Index (BMI). In this table, significance was achieved

only for the BMI (P=.04) and the Healthy Food Consumption Scale. (p=.007, on the

healthy food consumption scale, the lower score denotes a healthier diet and the higher

score is the unhealthy diet). There were 524 individuals who indicated that they lived in

the U.S. and 274 who do not live in the U.S. The subjects who reported that they do not

live in the U.S. have a higher intake of high fat foods (mean of 7.73) as opposed to the

subjects who do not live in the United States (mean of 8.19). Guyanese who do not live in

the U.S. have a significantly higher consumption of healthier foods. The BMI is also

significant, since that is a two-tailed test. Since the test direction can be predicted, e.g.,

the larger BMI with a Higher Fat intake, a one tailed probability can be used. One tail is

½ the two tails. Thus in the test, the BMI prob. is .04 which is significant.

Table 1. Respondents that reported they live in the U.S. compared with respondents

that do not live in the U.S.

How old were you when you began living in the United States?

494 24.07 4.95

266 23.44 4.37

524 51.22 7.39

274 50.43 6.93

524 7.73 2.23

274 8.19 2.37

524 3.84 1.07

274 3.83 1.11

How old were you when you began living in the United States? I live in the U.S Do not live in the

U.S. I live in the U.S Do not live in the U.S.

I live in the U.S Do not live in the U.S. I live in the U.S Do not live in the U.S.

Body Mass Index

Long Fat / Cholesterol Scale (Sum v1-v19)

CDC Healthy Food Consumption CDC UnHealthy Food Consumption

N Mean Std.

Deviation


Analysis of variances (ANOVAS) of the number of years lived in the United States with

CDC Healthy Food Consumption Scale and the CDC Unhealthy Food Consumption

Scale are shown in table 2. The number of years lived in the U.S. has a subscale of 1-11

(1=2 years or less, 2=3-4 years, 3=5-7 years, 4=8-10 years, 5=11-15 years, 6=16-20

years, 7=21-25 years, 8=26-30 years, 9=31 years or older, 10= I was born in the U.S, 11=

I do not live in the U.S.). The score range on the health risk good survey is 3-16. The

lower score indicated the lower intake of healthy foods and the higher score is the higher

intake of healthy foods. This table shows that immigrants’ diets tend to decrease upon the

arrival to the United States and as they continue to live in the U.S. for a longer period of

time, their diets are adjusted to the American diet. There is dietary degradation for

individuals who lived in the U.S. at an earlier age. The individuals that do not however,

live in the U.S. have a mean of 8.19, which implies that they are healthier. The chance

that this was due to random sampling error is 4 percent. Recent immigrants had a

significantly worst diet (mean=4.36) as well as individuals who were born in the U.S.

(mean = 4.71) in comparison with the native born Guyanese still living in Guyana

(mean=3.83) when the ANOVA was repeated on the CDC unhealthy food consumption

scale (p=.02).

Independent Samples Test

1.749 .081

1.817 .070

1.465 .143

1.495 .135

-2.721 .007

-2.671 .008

.047 .963

.046 .963

Equal v ariances

assumed

Equal v ariances

not assumed

Equal v ariances

assumed

Equal v ariances

not assumed

Equal v ariances

assumed

Equal v ariances

not assumed

Equal v ariances

assumed

Equal v ariances

not assumed

Body Mass Index

Long Fat / Cholesterol

Scale (Sum v1-v 19)

CDC Healthy Food

Consumption(Sum

v20-v 23)

CDC UnHealthy Food

Consumption (Sum

v24 - v26)

t Sig. (2-tailed)

t-test for Equality of Means


Table 2 Age of respondent when they began living in the U.S.

Age when began living in the US?

How old were you when you began living in the United States?

Do not live in the U

I was born in the U.

31 years or older

26-30 years

21-25 years

16-20 years

11-15 years

8-10 years

5-7 years

3-4 years

2 years or less

Freq

uenc

y

300

200

100

0

How old were you when you began l iving in the United States?

11 10

11 17

10 86

17 163

86 97

163 56

97 66

56 274

66 8.50

274 8.19

791 7.89

11 4.36

11 4.55

10 4.30

17 3.94

86 3.93

163 3.82

97 3.70

56 3.52

66 3.83

274 3.83

791 3.83

2 years or less

3-4 y ears

5-7 y ears

8-10 y ears

11-15 years

16-20 years

21-25 years

26-30 years

31 years or older


Total

2 years or less

3-4 y ears

5-7 y ears

8-10 y ears

11-15 years

16-20 years

21-25 years

26-30 years

31 years or older


Total

CDC Healthy Food

Consumption Scale

(Sum v20-v23)

CDC Unhealthy Food

Consumption Scale

(Sum v24 - v 26)

N Mean


Healthy Food Consumption Scale: Score Range 3 – 16

Low Score = Low Consumption of Healthy Foods; High Score = High Consumption of Healthy Foods

Unhealthy Food Consumption Scale: Score Range 1 – 12

Low Score = Low Intake of Unhealthy Foods High Score = High Intake of Unhealthy Foods

Analysis of variances was also conducted for the amount of education attained by both

the mother and the father with the Body Mass Index, the Long Fat / Cholesterol Scale

(sum of v.1- v.19), the CDC Healthy Food Consumption Scale (sum of v.20-v.23) and the

CDC Unhealthy Food Consumption Scale (the sum of v.24 –v26) shown on table 3. The

table consisted of subscale of 1-4 (1= he did not finish high school, 2= he graduated from

high school or attained a GED, 3=he had some education after high school and 4= he

graduated from college). There were 728 respondents. Two hundred and twenty fathers

indicated that they completed college with a mean score of 4.02 for the CDC unhealthy

food consumption with a significance of .024. One hundred and twenty seven mothers

indicated that they completed college with a mean score of 3.96 for the CDC unhealthy

food consumption with a significance of .023.

Education did not seem to influence the parents’ fat/cholesterol score. There was an

increase in score as education level increased only in the CDC unhealthy food

consumption scale. The results for both the mothers and the fathers do not support our

hypothesis that education does influence the dietary behavior. The higher the education

level is, the unhealthier the dietary behaviors tend to be for both the mother and the father

as indicated in the unhealthy food consumption scale.

ANOVA

2.915 .002

1.850 .056

Between Groups

Between Groups

CDC Healthy Food

Consumption Scale

(Sum v20-v23)CDC Unhealthy Food

Consumption Scale

(Sum v24 - v 26)

F Sig.


Father’s and Mother’s Education

How much education does your father have?


Not Sure

He graduated from co

He had some educatio

He graduated from Hi

He did not f inish hi

Freq

uenc

y

300

200

100

0

How much education does your mother have?


Not Sure

She graduated from c

She had some educati

She graduated from H

She did not finish h

Freq

uenc

y

400

300

200

100

0


Table 3. Father’s Education


222 24.29

137 23.63

126 23.75

208 23.56

693 23.84

230 51.23

141 51.23

137 50.73

220 50.13

728 50.81

230 8.03

141 7.69

137 7.58

220 8.01

728 7.87

230 3.77

141 3.71

137 3.85

220 4.02

728 3.85

He did not f inish high

school

He graduated f rom High

school or attained a GED

He had some education

af ter high school

He graduated f rom

college

Total


school




af ter high school

He graduated f rom

college

Total


school




af ter high school

He graduated f rom

college

Total


school




af ter high school

He graduated f rom

college

Total

Body Mass Index


Scale (Sum v1-v 19)

CDC Healthy Food

Consumption(Sum

v20-v 23)

CDC UnHealthy Food

Consumption (Sum

v24 - v26)

N Mean

ANOVA

.402

.364

.148

.024

Between Groups

Between Groups

Between Groups

Between Groups

Body Mass Index


Scale (Sum v1-v 19)CDC Healthy Food

Consumption(Sum

v20-v 23)CDC UnHealthy Food

Consumption (Sum

v24 - v26)

Sig.


Table 3b. Mother’s Education

Independent T-tests were calculated with the Body Mass Index, the Long Fat/Cholesterol

Scale (sum of v.1- v.19), the CDC Healthy Food Consumption Scale (sum of v.20-v.23)

and the CDC Unhealthy Food Consumption Scale (the sum of v.24 –v26) shown on table

4. Seven hundred and sixty five individuals indicated that they were born in Guyana and

forty-one stated that they were not born in Guyana. For this table, significance was found


293 24.32 45

151 23.59 39

121 22.70 36

121 23.82 64

686 23.78 64

306 51.46 67

158 50.51 69

130 49.88 65

127 49.99 67

721 50.71 69

306 7.84 15

158 7.91 14

130 7.54 16

127 8.27 16

721 7.87 16

306 3.71 8

158 3.95 8

130 3.94 8

127 3.96 9

721 3.85 9

She did not f inish high

school

She graduated f rom High


She had some educat ion

af ter high school

She graduated f rom

college

Total


school




af ter high school

She graduated f rom

college

Total


school




af ter high school

She graduated f rom

college

Total


school




af ter high school

She graduated f rom

college

Total

Body Mass Index


Scale (Sum v1-v 19)

CDC Healthy Food

Consumption(Sum

v20-v 23)

CDC UnHealthy Food

Consumption (Sum

v24 - v26)

N Mean Maximum

ANOVA

.018

.100

.071

.023

Between Groups

Between Groups

Between Groups

Between Groups

Body Mass Index


Scale (Sum v1-v 19)CDC Healthy Food

Consumption(Sum

v20-v 23)CDC UnHealthy Food

Consumption (Sum

v24 - v26)

Sig.


for the long fat/cholesterol scale and the CDC unhealthy food consumption scale. Due to

a limited number of people who weren’t Guyanese, the data had to be collapsed into one

variable, which was other (n=41). However, although there was an unequal sample size,

the results were significantly high (p=.01) for the long fat/cholesterol scale and (p=.000)

for the CDC unhealthy food consumption scale and illustrate that Guyanese natives do

have a lower fat/cholesterol intake than foreign-born individuals.

Table 4 Country of Birth

Table 5 looks at gender differences as it relates to fat/cholesterol consumption. The scales

used were the Body Mass Index (BMI), the Long fat/cholesterol scale, Health Risk Good

Country of Birth

729 23.87

39 23.16

765 51.08

41 48.10

765 7.85

41 8.46

765 3.78

41 4.71

Indicate the country

you were born in.Guyana

Other

Guyana

Other

Guyana

Other

Guyana

Other

Body Mass Index


Scale (Sum v1-v19)

CDC Healthy Food

Consumption

CDC UnHealthy Food

Consumption

N Mean


.361

.367

.010

.006

.092

.127

.000

.000

Equal v ariances

assumed

Equal v ariances

not assumed

Equal v ariances

assumed

Equal v ariances

not assumed

Equal v ariances

assumed

Equal v ariances

not assumed

Equal v ariances

assumed

Equal v ariances

not assumed

Body Mass Index


Scale (Sum v1-v19)

CDC Healthy Food

Consumption(Sum

v20-v 23)

CDC UnHealthy Food

Consumption (Sum

v24 - v26)

Sig. (2-tailed)

t-test for

Equality of

Means


Survey, and the Health Risk Bad Survey. A high level of significance was shown only for

the BMI (p=.000), long fat/cholesterol scale (p=.011), and the Health Risk Good Survey

(p=.007). In this table, there is consistency in the consumption of more fat/cholesterol in

males than in females for the three scales. Three of the four scales show males with

significantly higher BMI, higher fat/cholesterol consumption, and eating more unhealthy

foods. The BMI showed that females have a mean score of 23.14 and males have a mean

of 24.44, which implies females have a better body mass. A high score of 51.60 was

shown for females on the long fat/cholesterol scale (low fat/cholesterol intake) and a low

score of 3.73 for females on the CDC Unhealthy Food Consumption Scale, which

indicates a lower consumption of fat and cholesterol.

Table 5 Gender


367 23.14

400 24.44

391 51.60

414 50.31

391 7.83

414 7.93

391 3.73

414 3.94


Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Body Mass Index


Scale (Sum v1-v19)

CDC Healthy Food

Consumption

CDC UnHealthy Food

Consumption

N Mean


.000

.000

.011

.011

.560

.560

.007

.007

Equal v ariances

assumed

Equal v ariances

not assumed

Equal v ariances

assumed

Equal v ariances

not assumed

Equal v ariances

assumed

Equal v ariances

not assumed

Equal v ariances

assumed

Equal v ariances

not assumed

Body Mass Index


Scale (Sum v1-v19)

CDC Healthy Food

Consumption(Sum

v20-v 23)

CDC UnHealthy Food

Consumption (Sum

v24 - v26)

Sig. (2-tailed)

t-test for

Equality of

Means


7. DISCUSSION

In this study of Guyanese people living inside and outside of the United States, we

examined dietary patterns in a sample of adults. We looked at the mother’s and father’s

educational attainment, respondents’ birthplace (v.44), age when began living in the U.S.

(v.46) and how people tend to describe the individual racially (v.44). A parallel pattern

was found on parents who acquire a higher education with the consumption of more

foods that are unhealthier with more fat and cholesterol.

The findings from this study support our hypotheses that recent immigrants undergo

dietary decline upon arrival to the United States by consuming more fat and cholesterol

as they adjust to the U.S. diet, which contains more processed foods and foods high in fat

and cholesterol.

The results show that sex and age are major contrasting factors in the level of intake of

fat and cholesterol. There was consistency in the consumption of more cholesterol and fat

in males than in females and intakes decreased as the person aged. Dietary fat and

cholesterol intake was consistently higher for males than for females, and the older

persons consumed less cholesterol than did the young. This could be a result from the fact

that as people age, their lives are more reflective of their past behaviors than of new ones.

Along with the differences in intake by sex and age, the data showed consistent

differences in intake by place of birth. Native born Guyanese consumed less fat and

cholesterol than did those that were born in the U.S.A.

8. IMPLICATIONS

In conducting a study as such, the Guyanese public can now be aware of their dietary

practices on the consumption of fat and cholesterol as it relates to migration; along with

all other immigrant populations, especially to the minority immigrant population who has

become adjusted to the American diet. The findings of this study illustrate that dietary

intervention programs ought to be implemented to benefit individuals from other ethnic

groups (recent immigrants in particular), in helping them to avoid saturated fat and

cholesterol food sources upon arrival to the United States. These programs may help to

improve the dietary behaviors of immigrants and reduce the number of diseases caused

by the intake of fat and cholesterol.

9. REFERENCES CITED

Axelson, J.M.

1977 Food habits of north Florida teenagers: Their food preferences, meal

patterns, and food and nutritional intakes.

Bartholomew, A. M., E. A. Young, H. W. Martin, and H. P. Hazed

1990 Food frequency intakes and sociodemographic factors of elderly Mexican


Americans and non-Hispanic whites. Journal of the American Dietetic

Association 90:1693-1696.

Bjarne, J. K., and K. H. Bonaa

1990 The reproducibility of dietary data from a self-administered questionnaire:

The

Tromso Study. International Journal of Epidemiology 19:349-353.

Caliendo, M.A, and D. Sanjur, D.

1978 The dietary status of preschool children: An ecological approach” Journal of

Nutritional Education 10:69-72.

Canez, B. O., and D. R. Sallis

1997 Ethnic Differences in a Saturated Fat/Cholesterol Avoidance Scale. Poster

presented at the 1997 National Minority Research Symposium. New Orleans,

Oct. 15-18.

Desmond, S. M., J. H. Price, S. M. Roberts, M. J. Pituch, and D. Smith

1991 Perceptions of cholesterol in black and white adolescents. Health Value

15(5):12-19.

Fitzfibbon, M. L., M. R. Stolley, M. E. Avellone, N. Chavez, and S. Sugerman

1996 Involving parents in cancer risk reduction: A program for Hispanic American

families. Health Psychology15(6):413-422.

Frank; G. C., M. Zive, J. Nelson, S. L. Broyles, and P. Nadar

1990 Fat and cholesterol avoidance among Mexican-American and Anglo preschool

children and parents. Journal of American Dietetic Association 91:954-

958, 961

Haffner, S. M., J A. Knapp, H. P. Hazuda, M. P. Stern, and E. A. Young

1985 Dietary intakes of Macronutrients among Mexican Americans and Anglo

Americans: The San Antonio Heart Study. The American Journal of Clinical

Nutrition 42:1266-1275.

Marin, G; F. Sabogal, B. Marin, R. Otero-Sabagol, and E. Perez-Stable

1987 Development of a Short Acculturation Scale for Hispanics. Hispanic Journal

of Behavior Science 9(2):183-205.

Nicklas, T. A., L. Myers, C. Reger, B. Beech, and G. S. Berenson

1998 Impact of breakfast consumption of nutritional adequacy of the diets of young

adults in Bogalusa, Louisiana: Ethnic and gender contrasts. Journal of

America Dietetic Association 98(12):1432-1438.

Obson, A., R. Blijlevens, H. Alexander, N. Croce, R. Heller, N. Higginbotham, G. Pike,

R. Plotnikoff, A. Russel, and R. Walker

1993 Short Fat Questionnaire: a self-administered measure of fat intake behavior.

Australian Journal of Public Health 17(2):144-148.

Oliveria, A, R. C. Ellison, L. L. Moore, M. W. Gillman, J. Garrahie, and M. R. Singer

1992 Parent - child relationships in nutrient intake: The Framingham Children’s

Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 56:593-598.

Pietinen, P., A. M. Hartman, E. Haapa, L. Rasanen, J. Haapakoski, J. Palmgren, D.

Albanes, J. Virtamo, and J. K. Huttunen

1988a Reproducibility and validity of dietary assessment instruments: A self

administered food use questionnaire with a portion size picture booklet.


American Journal of Epidemiology 128:655-666.

1988b Reproducibility and validity of dietary assessment instruments: A

qualitative

food frequency questionnaire. American Journal of

Epidemiology 128:667-

676.

Schafer, R.B, R. A. Reger, A. H. Gillespie, and C. E. Roderuck

1980 Diet quality of selected sample of women and socio-demographic and socio

psychological correlates. Home Economy Research Journal 8:190-199.

Willett, W. C., L. Sampson, M. J. Stampfer, B. Rosner, C. Bain, J. Witschi, C. H.

Hennekens, and F. E. Speizer

1985 Reproducibility and validity of a semiquantitative food frequency

questionnaire. American Journal of Epidemiology 122:51-65.


10. APPENDIX 1. QUESTIONNAIRE SENT TO SUBJECTS

Saturated Fat /Cholesterol Avoidance Scale

1. When you eat chicken, how often do you remove the skin? (Chicken skin)

0. Never 0

1. Occasionally 0.5

2. Usually 0.5

3. Always 1.0

4. Never eats chicken 1.0

2. What type of milk do you usually use? (Milk type)

0. Whole milk 0

1. Chocolate milk 0

2. Low fat milk 0.5

3. Evaporated or condensed milk 0.5

4. Skim, non-fat or powdered milk 1.0

5. Never used milk 1.0

3. Which type of hamburger meat do you usually eat? (Beef fat)

0. Regular 0

1. Lean 0.5

2. Extra-lean 1.0

3. Never eats hamburger 1.0 4. What type of fat or oil do you use most often in cooking? (Fat oil)

0. Lard 0

1. Meat fat 0

2. Butter 0

3. Shortening 0.5

4. Margarine 0.5

5. Vegetable oil 1.0

6. Never use fat or oil in cooking 1.0 5. How often do you trim the fat off your meat before you eat it? (Trim fat)

0. Rarely or never 0

1. Sometimes 0.5

2. Always or almost always 1.0

3. Never eats meat 1.0 6. How often do you eat eggs? (Times per month)

0. 27+ 0

1. 5 – 26.9 0.5

2. 0 – 4.9 1.0 7. Which do you use: butter or margarine?

0. Butter 0

1. Margarine 0.5

2. Both 1.0 8. Do you use stick margarine or tub margarine?

0. Stick 0

1. Tub 1.0

2. Both 0.5


9. When you eat refried beans, what type of fat are they made with? (Bean fat)

0. Lard 0

1. Bacon grease 0

2. Shortening 0.5

3. Vegetable oil, PAM, etc. 1.0

4. None 1.0

5. Never eat refried beans 1.0

Short Fat Questionnaire

10. How often do you eat fried food with a batter or breadcrumb coating?

0. six or more times a week

1. three to five times a week

2. once or twice a week

3. less than once a week

4. never

11. How often do you eat gravy, cream sauces or cheese sauces?





4. never

12. How often do you add butter, margarine, oil, or sour cream to vegetables, cooked rice or

spaghetti?





4. never

13. How often do you eat vegetables that are fried or roasted with fat or oil?





4. never 14. How many times a week do you eat sausages, patties, salamis, meat pies, hamburgers or bacon?





4. never 15 How do you spread butter/margarine on your bread?

0. thickly

1. medium

2. thinly

3. don’t use butter or margarine


16. How many times a week do you eat chips or French fries?





4. never

17. How often do you eat pastries, cakes, sweet biscuits or croissants?





4. never

18. How many times a week do you eat chocolate, chocolate biscuits or sweet snack bars?





4. never

19. How many times a week do you eat potato crisps (potato chips), corn chips or nuts?





4. never 20. How often do you eat cream?





4. never

21. How often do you eat ice cream?





4. never

22. How many times a week do you eat cheddar, edam, or other hard cheese, cream cheese or cheese

like camembert?





4. never 23. What types of milk do you drink, or use in cooking, or use in tea and coffee?

0. condensed

1. full - cream

2. full - cream and reduced fat

3. reduced fat

4. skim (no fat)

5. none


24. How much of the skin on your chicken do you eat?

0. most or all of the skin

1. some of the skin

2. none of the skin

3. I am a vegetarian 25. How much of the fat on your meat do you eat?

0. most or all or the fat

1. some of the fat

2. none of the fat

3. I am a vegetarian Health Risk Survey

The next seven questions ask about the food you ate yesterday. Think about all the meals and snacks you

ate yesterday from the time you got you got up until you went to bed. Be sure to include food you ate at

home, on campus, at restaurants, or anywhere else.

26. Yesterday, how many times did you eat fruit?

0. 0 times

1. 1 time

2. 2 times

3. 3 or more times

27. Yesterday, how many times did you drink fruit juice?

0. 0 times

1. 1 time

2. 2 times

3. 3 or more times

28. Yesterday, how many times did you eat green salad?

0. 0 times

1. 1 time

2. 2 times

3. 3 or more times 29. Yesterday, how many times did you eat cooked vegetables?

0. 0 times

1. 1 time

2. 2 times

3. 3 or more times

30. Yesterday, how many times did you eat hamburger, hot dogs, or sausage?

0. 0 times

1. 1 time

2. 2 times

3. 3 or more times

31. Yesterday, how many times did you eat French fries, or potato chips?

0. 0 times

1. 1 time

2. 2 times

3. 3 or more times

32. Yesterday, how many times did you eat cookies, doughnuts, pie, or cake?

0. 0 times

1. 1 time

2. 2 times

3. 3 or more times


33. I go on eating binges a couple of times a week.

0. True

1. False

34. I sometimes force myself to vomit after eating

0. True

1. False

35. I‘m willing to starve myself to be even thinner than I am

0. True

1. False

36. People say I’m a thin person, but I feel that my thighs and backside are much too big.

0. True

1. False

Demographic Questions

37. How much education does your mother have?

0. She did not finish high school

1. She graduated from high school or attained a GED

2. She had some education after high school

3. She graduated from college

4. Not sure

38. How much education does your father have?

0. He did not finish high school

1. He graduated from high school or attained a GED

2. He had some education after high school

3. He graduated from college

4. Not sure

39-40. What is your age in years? (Use two columns on the answer sheet. For example, if you are 19,

fill-in bubble “1” in column 35 and fill-in bubble “9” in column 36.

41. Were you born in the United States?

0. yes

1. no

42. How do other people tend to perceive you racially (Not ethnically because that is the next

question)?

1. Black or African-American

2. Hispanic or Latino

3. White or European-American

4. Asian-American

5. Native-American Indian 43. How would you describe yourself ethnically or culturally?

1. Black or African-American (Describe the group, i.e., American Black, Jamaican, Haitian,

African born, Puerto Rican, Dominican, etc. )

2. Hispanic or Latino (Describe the group, i.e., Puerto Rican, Dominican, etc. )

3. White or European-American (Describe the group, i.e., Russian, Italian, etc. )

4. Asian-American (Describe the group, i.e., Chinese, Korean, etc. )

5. Indian (Describe the group, i.e., Indian, Guyanese, Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc. )

6. Native-American Indian (Describe the tribe, i.e., Iroquois, Cherokee, etc. )

7. Other, e.g., one that we have missed. Please describe: )


44. If you were not born in the United States, please indicate the country you were born in. 0. Bangladesh / India

1. Colombia

2. Dominican Republic

3. Ecuador

4. Guyana

5. Jamaica

6. Haiti

7. Nigeria

8. Puerto Rico

9. Other – please indicate country _________________________________

Answer the following questions only if you were not born in the United States.

45. How old were you when you began living in the United States?

0. 2 years or less

1. 3 – 4 years

2. 5 – 7 years

3. 8 – 10 years

4. 11 – 15 years

5. 16 – 20 years

6. 21 – 25 years

7. 26 – 30 years

8. 31 years or older

46. How many years have you lived in the United States?

0. 2 years or less

1. 3 – 4 years

2. 5 – 7 years

3. 8 – 10 years

4. 11 – 15 years

5. 16 – 20 years

6. 21 – 25 years

7. 26 – 30 years

8. 31 years or older

11. APPENDIX 2. Text of Email Messages Sent to Sample

First Message:

Dear Sir or Madam:

We would like your help in a study we are conducting on the saturated fat and cholesterol

in the diet of Guyanese people. We located your email address on one of the links on the

www.Guyana.com web site.

The study has two phases. You have been selected to participate in the first phase by

going to the following web site and completing a questionnaire, which will take about ten

minutes. To show our appreciation for your help, we will hold a lottery and award $100.

U.S. to one of the people who completes the questionnaire. The questionnaire is

http://www.guyana.com/


completely anonymous. Do not put your name anywhere on it. Include your email

address and we can notify you if you are the winner.

In the second phase of the study we will be going to Guyana to survey school children.

We have received permission from Dr. Dale Bisnauth, the Minister of Education to

conduct this study in Guyanese schools, although this is not a government project and we

are not connected to any political party or point of view.

The questionnaire can be found at:

http://intercom.virginia.edu/SurveySuite/Surveys/consumption

We thank you in advance for your help.

William Divale, Ph.D.

Professor of Anthropology

York College, CUNY

Jamaica, NY 11451

[email protected]

Julie Kishna, Research Assistant

York College, CUNY

[email protected]

Second Message:

Dear Sir or Madam:

We recently sent you an email asking for your help in completing a questionnaire online.

This is just a polite reminder, if you have not already done so, to please go to the web site

and complete the questionnaire. As you may recall, we are conducting a study on the

saturated fat and cholesterol in the diet of Guyanese people. We located your email

address on one of the links on the www.Guyana.com web site.

The questionnaire takes about ten minutes to complete. To show our appreciation for

your help, we will hold a lottery and award $100. U.S. to one of the people who

completes the questionnaire. The questionnaire is completely anonymous. Do not put

your name anywhere on it. Include your email address and we can notify you if you are

the winner.

The questionnaire can be found at:

http://intercom.virginia.edu/SurveySuite/Surveys/consumption

http://www.guyana.com/


We thank you in advance for your help.

William Divale, Ph.D.

Professor of Anthropology

York College, CUNY

Jamaica, NY 11451

[email protected]

Julie Kishna, Research Assistant

York College, CUNY

[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

Internet Survey on the Effects of Immigration and Saturated Fat and Cholesterol Intake of Guyanese

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