International Journal of SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

International Journal ofSCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

Volume 5, Number 1 : January – June 2019

EDITORS-IN-CHIEF

T. MOHAMED ILYAS S. BALAKRISHNAN

S. THAMEEMUL ANSARI MOHAMMED OSMAN PASHA

ISLAMIAH COLLEGE PUBLICATIONS

ISLAMIAH COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), VANIYAMBADI

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIESEDITORS-IN-CHIEF

Dr. T. MOHAMED ILYAS Dr. S. BALAKRISHNAN Dr. S. THAMEEMUL ANSARI Dr. MOHAMMED OSMAN PASHAPrincipal Department of Mathematics Department of Commerce Department of HistoryIslamiah College (Autonomous) Islamiah College (Autonomous) Islamiah College (Autonomous) Islamiah College (Autonomous)Vaniyambadi - 635752 Vaniyambadi - 635752 Vaniyambadi - 635752 Vaniyambadi - 635752

EDITORIAL BOARD

INTERNATIONALDr. TAJUL ARIFFIN MASRON Dr. SATHEESH Dr. MAHDI SALEHIUniversity of Sains Malaysia King Abdulaziz University Ferdowsi Univesity of MashhadMalaysia Saudi Arabia Iran

NATIONALDr. V. SHUNMUGASUNDARAM Dr. K. NATARAJAN Dr. B. DEVAMAINDHANBanaras Hindu University T. John College of Pharmacy University of MadrasVaranasi, UP – 221005 Gottieere Chennai – 600005

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REGIONALDr. MAJOR SYED SAHABUDEEN Dr. S. RAJA Md. KAMIL Dr. R. SURESH BABUFormer Principal of Islamiah College Islamiah College (Autonomous) Sir Theyagaraya CollegeDirector, Non-Formal Education Vaniyambadi – 635752 Chennai – 600021Vaniyambadi - 635752

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It gives us an immense pleasure in bringing out the fifth volume of InternationalJournal of Science and Humanities with your incessant support. International Journalof Science and Humanities being published by Islamiah College has been successfullymarching towards its third year by providing a platform for authors in exhibitingtheir talents in the form of their research articles on various disciplines such asEnglish, Chemistry, Bio-Chemistry, Commerce, Management, History, Sociology,Public Administration, Political Science, Physics, Economics and Mathematics.

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Editors in ChiefDr. T. Mohamed Ilyas – PrincipalDr. S. Balakrishnan – Department of MathematicsDr. S. Thameemul Ansari – Department of CommerceDr. Mohammed Osman Pasha – Department of History

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APPEAL

I am delighted to introduce this issue of International Journal of Science andHumanities (IJSH) to the students and research community on behalf of IslamiahCollege (Autonomous), Vaniyambadi, a century old institution serving for the causeof education to socially, economically and educationally weaker sections of the society.The IJSH, is a peer reviewed research journal of interdisciplinary nature that cater theneeds of the teaching and research society. The aim of the journal is not only to provide aspace for leading research work but also provide a platform for the budding researchersto publish their maiden attempt in the field of science and humanities. The objectiveof IJSH is to publish up-to-date, high-quality and original research papers alongsiderelevant and insightful reviews.

The initiative to start this journal was taken by Janab L.M Muneer Ahmed, theSecretary & Correspondent of this College with an aspiration to keep the researchvibrant in this campus. Now, the torch is handed over to me from June 2016 onwards torun this journal on non-profitable basis without compromising its aims and objectives.At this juncture, I appeal to all teaching and research communities to concentrate onboth teaching and research relevant to society, which are symbolically related as thetwo faces of the same coin. I also appeal to all reviewers and editors not to compromisewith the quality of the input and promote this journal to the next level with excellentoutput. Finally, I pray Almighty to provide guidance for development and success ofthis journal. Best wishes and thanks for your contribution to the IJSH.

Mr. L.M. MUNEER AHMEDSecretary & Correspondent

Islamiah College (Autonomous)Vaniyambadi 635 752

India

Table of ContentsPart A: Science

A comparative study on Anti Fuzzy Rings and Anti Fuzzy Ideals

A. Mohamed Ali and V. Anandaraj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 – 8

A comparative study on Fuzzy h-Ideals and h-hemirings

A. Mohamed Ali and C. Nagaraj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 – 15

A comparative study on Fuzzy soft sets, Fuzzy soft Rings andFuzzy soft Ideals

A. Mohamed Ali and K. Uma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 – 22

Phytochemical Screening and Anti-Bacterial Activity ofSenna Alexandrina and Coccinia Grandis Leaf Extracts

M.A. Farook, A. Mubarack Ali, R. Madhan Kumar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 – 37

Kinetics and Mechanism of Oxidation of Citric Acid andAconitic Acid by CrO3 in Aqueous Acetic Acid Medium

M. Venkatachalam, K. Anandaratchagan and V. Ravisankar . . . . . . . 38 – 44

Synthesis and Characterization of Water SolubleBio Macromolecules / Chemically Modified PhosphorylatedChitosan and their Derivatives

Murugaiyan Manimohan, A. Md Azhar baig andMohamed Aboobucker Sithique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 – 54

Kinetics and Mechanism of Oxidation of Malic Acid andCoumalic Acid by CrO3 in Aqueous Acetic Acid Medium

V. Ravisankar, K. Anandaratchagan and M. Venkatachalam . . . . . . . . 55 – 60

Part B: Humanities

Problems and Prospects of Young Entrepreneurs in Vellore District

A. Noor Mohamed and A. Khaleequzzaman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 – 69

A Study on Attitude of Young Entrepreneurs in Vaniyambadi Town

K. Zakir Hussain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 – 81

Impact of E-Resources in Thiruvalluvar University College of Artsand Science, Thiruvennainallur

R. Murugesan and A.P. Shanmugam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 – 86

Role of E-Learning Environment in Information and Knowledge Centres

N. Abdul Latheef and T.K. Thiruvengadamani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 – 94

Relevance of Local History A Case Study of Muslims of Vaniyambadi

D. Abul Fazal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 – 101

Cultivation of Crops in Hyderabad State: Telangana Region - A Study

Mohammad Osman Pasha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 – 113

The Voice of the Subaltern in Upamanyu Chatterjee’sThe Mammaries of the Welfare State

S. Mushtaque Ahmed and S. Thirunaukkarasu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 – 118

Part A:

SCIENCE

International Journal of Science and HumanitiesISSN 2394 9236 Volume 5, Number 1 (2019), pp. 1 – 8c© Islamiah College Publicationshttp://www.islamiahcollege.edu.in

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON ANTI FUZZY RINGSAND ANTI FUZZY IDEALS

A. Mohamed Ali and V. Anandaraj

Department of Mathematics, Islamiah College (Autonomous), Vaniyambadi 635 752,Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India.

Abstract

The main purpose of this paper is to discuss about Anti Fuzzy Rings and AntiFuzzy Ideals.

Keywords: Anti Fuzzy Rings, Anti Fuzzy Ideals.

1. Introduction

The concept of a fuzzy set was first introducted by Zadeh. Fuzzy set theory has beenshown to be a useful tool to describe situations in which the data are imprecise orvague. Fuzzy sets handle such situations by attributing a degree to which a certainobject belongs to a set. The fuzzy algebraic structures play a major role in mathematicswith wide applications in many other branches such as theoretical physics, computerscience, control engineering information science, coding theory, topological spaces,logic, set theory, group theory, real analysis, measure theory etc. The notions of fuzzysub near-ring and ideal were first introduced by Abou-Zaid and Kim et al. In Hong etal, introduced the concept of fuzzy ideals of near-ring and obtained some useful resultsin near-rings. In Biswas introduced the concept of anti-fuzzy subgroups of groups,Kim and Jun studied the notion of anti-fuzzy R-subgroups of near-ring, and Kim et al.studied the notion of anti-fuzzy ideals in near-rings. In Shabir and Rehman introducedthe concept of anti-fuzzy left (right, lateral) ideals, anti-fuzzy quasi-ideals, anti-fuzzybi-ideals and anti-fuzzy generalized bi-ideals in ternary subgroups, Jun et al. introducedthe concept of generalized anti-fuzzy bi-ideals in ordered semigroups.

2. Fuzzy Rings and Anti Fuzzy Rings with Operators

Definition 2.1. Let R be a ring, a fuzzy set A of R is called a fuzzy ring of R if

(i) A(x − y) ≥ min(A(x), A(y)), for all x, y ∈ R.

2 A comparative study on Anti Fuzzy Rings and Anti Fuzzy Ideals

(ii) A(xy) ≥ min(A(x), A(y)), for all x, y ∈ R.

Definition 2.2. Let R be a ring, a fuzzy ring A of R is called a ring with operator (readas M - fuzzy ring) iff for any t ∈ [0, 1], At is a ring with operator of R (i.e M-subring ofR), when At , φ. Where At = {x ∈ R : A(x) ≥ t}

Definition 2.3. Let A be M - fuzzy ideal of R, is a M - fuzzy subring of R such that

(iii) A(y + x − y) ≥ A(x)

(iv) A(xy) ≥ A(y)

(v) A((x + z)y − xy) ≥ A(z)For all x, y, z ∈ R.

Note that A is a M - fuzzy left ideal of R if it satisfies (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), and A is saidto be a M - fuzzy right ideal of R, if it satisfies (i), (ii), (iii) and (v).

Definition 2.4. Let R be a ring, a fuzzy set A of R is called anti fuzzy subring of R, if forall x, y ∈ R

(AF1) A(x − y) ≤ max{(A(x), A(y))}

(AF2) A(xy) ≤ max{(A(x), A(y))}

Definition 2.5. Let R be a ring, a fuzzy ring A of R is called an anti-fuzzy subring withoperator (read as anti M-fuzzy subring) iff for any t ∈ [0, 1], At is an anti-ring withoperator of R (i.e anti M-fuzzy subring of R), when At , φ.

Where At = {x ∈ R : A(x) ≤ t}

Definition 2.6. Let A be a M-fuzzy anti ideal of R, if A is an anti M-fuzzy subring of Rsuch that the following conditions are satisfied

(AF3) A(y + x − y) ≤ A(x)

(AF4) A(xy) ≤ A(y)

(AF5) A((x + z)y − xy) ≤ A(z)For all x, y, z ∈ R.

Note that A is an anti M - fuzzy left ideal of R if it satisfies (AF1), (AF2), (AF3) and(AF4), and A is called an anti M - fuzzy right ideal of R, if it satisfies (AF1), (AF2),(AF3) and (AF5).

A. Mohamed Ali and V. Anandaraj 3

Theorem 2.1. Let R be a M-ring and a fuzzy set A on R is anti M-fuzzy ring in R if andonly if Ac is a M-fuzzy ring in R.

Theorem 2.2. Let R be a M-ring and A be a M-fuzzy subring in R. Then A is an antiM-fuzzy ideal in R if and only if Ac is a M-fuzzy ideal in R.

Definition 2.7. Let R be a M-ring and a family {Ai = i ∈ I} of M-fuzzy ideal of R, thenthe intersection

⋂i∈I

Ai of M-fuzzy ideal of R defined by

⋂i∈I

Ai

(x) = inf{Ai(x) : i ∈ I}, for all x ∈ R

Theorem 2.3. Let R be a M-ring, {Ai = i ∈ I} be a family of M-fuzzy ideal of R, then⋂i∈I

Ai is an M-fuzzy ideal of R.

Definition 2.8. Let R be a M-ring and {Ai : i ∈ I} be a family of anti M-fuzzy ideal of R,then the union

⋃i∈I

Ai of anti M-fuzzy ideal of R defined by

⋃i∈I

Ai

(x) = sup{Ai(x) : i ∈ I}, for all x ∈ R

Theorem 2.4. Let R be a ring, and {Ai = i ∈ I} be a family of anti M-fuzzy ideal of R,then⋃i∈I

Ai is an anti M-fuzzy ideal of R.

Definition 2.9. Let R and S be two M-ring and f is a function from R onto S

(i) If B is a M-fuzzy ring in S, then the pre-image of B under f is a M-fuzzy ring in R,defined by f −1(B)(x) = B( f (x)), for each x ∈ R

(ii) If A is a M-fuzzy ring of R, then the image of A under f is a M-fuzzy ring in S definedby

f (A)(y)

supx∈ f −1(y)

A(x) , if f −1(y) , φ

= 0 , otherwise

For each y ∈ S

Theorem 2.5. Let R and S be M-ring and f : R → S , be an M-homomorphism from Ronto S and


(i) If B is an M-fuzzy ring of S, then f −1(B) is an M-fuzzy ring of R.

(ii) If A is an M-fuzzy ring of R, then f (A) is an M-fuzzy ring of S.

Theorem 2.6. Let R and S be M-ring and f : R → S , be an M-homomorphism from Ronto S and

(i) If B is an M-fuzzy ideal of S, then f −1(B) is an M-fuzzy ideal of R.

(ii) If A is an M-fuzzy ideal of R, then f (A) is an M-fuzzy ideal of S.

3. Fuzzy Normal HX Ring

Definition 3.1. Let R be a ring. Let µ be a fuzzy set defined on R. Let R ⊂ 2R − {φ}

be a HX ring. A fuzzy HX subring λµ of R is called a fuzzy normal HX ring on Ror a fuzzy normal ring induced by µ if the following conditions are satisfied. For allA, B ∈ R, λµ(AB) = λµ(BA), where λµ(A) = max{µ(x) / for all x ∈ A ⊆ R}.

Theorem 3.1. If µ is a fuzzy normal subring of a ring R then the fuzzy subset λµ is afuzzy normal HX subring of a HX ring R.

Theorem 3.2. Let µ and η be any two fuzzy sets defined on R. Let λµ and γη be any twofuzzy normal HX subrings of a HX ring R then the intersection of two fuzzy normal HXsubrings, λµ ∩ γη is also a fuzzy normal HX subring of a HX ring R.

Theorem 3.3. If λµ, γη, φµ∩η are fuzzy normal HX subrings of a HX ring R induced bythe fuzzy sets µ, η, µ ∩ η of R then φµ∩η = λµ ∩ γη.

Theorem 3.4. Let µ and η be fuzzy sets of R. Let R ⊂ 2R−{φ} be a HX ring. If λµ and γη

are any two fuzzy normal HX subrings of R then λµ ∪ γη is a fuzzy normal HX subringof R.

Theorem 3.5. Let R be a ring. Let µ and η are fuzzy sets of R. If λµ, γη, φµ∪η are fuzzynormal HX subrings of a HX ring R induced by µ, η, µ ∪ η of R then φµ∪η = λµ ∪ γη.

Theorem 3.6. Let λµ and γη be fuzzy normal HX subrings of HX rings R1 and R2

respectively then λµ × γη is also a fuzzy normal HX subring of a HX ring R1 × R2.

Theorem 3.7. Let λµ and γη be fuzzy subsets of the HX rings R1 and R2 respectively,such that λµ(A) ≤ γη(Q1) for all A ∈ R1,Q1 being the identity element of R2. If (λµ × γη)is a fuzzy normal HX subring of R1 × R2 then λµ is a fuzzy normal HX subring of R1.


Theorem 3.8. Let λµ and γη be fuzzy subsets of the HX rings R1 and R2 respectively,such that γη(A) ≤ λµ(Q) for all A ∈ R2,Q being the identity element of R1. If (λµ × γη)is a fuzzy normal HX subring of R1 × R2 then γη is a fuzzy normal HX subring of R2.

4. Fuzzy Ideals of Near-Rings

Definition 4.1. A fuzzy set µ of R is called a fuzzy subnear-ring of R if for all x, y, a ∈ Rthe following conditions are satisfied:

(F1a) µ(x + y) ≥ µ(x) ∧ µ(y),

(F1a′) µ(−x) ≥ µ(−x),

(F1b) µ(xy) ≥ µ(x) ∧ µ(y).

Moreover, µ is called a fuzzy ideal of R if µ is a fuzzy subnear-ring of R and

(F1c) µ(y + x − y) ≥ µ(x),

(F1d) µ(xy) ≥ µ(y),

(F1e) µ((x + a)y − xy) ≥ µ(x).

Definition 4.2. A fuzzy set µ of R is called an (∈, ∈ ∨q) fuzzy subnear-ring of R if for allt, r ∈ (0, 1] and x, y, a ∈ R, the following conditions are satisfied:

(F2a) xt ∈ µ and yr ∈ µ imply (x + y)t∧r ∈ ∨qµ,

(F2a′) xt ∈ µ implies (−x)t ∈ ∨qµ,

(F2b) xt ∈ µ and yr ∈ µ imply (xy)t∧r ∈ ∨qµ.

Moreover, µ is called an (∈, ∈ ∨q) fuzzy ideal of R if µ is an (∈, ∈ ∨q) fuzzy subnear-ringof R and

(F2c) xt ∈ µ implies (y + x − y)t ∈ ∨qµ,

(F2d) yr ∈ µ and x ∈ R imply (xy)r ∈ ∨qµ,

(F2e) at ∈ µ implies ((x + a)y − xy)t∧r ∈ ∨qµ.

Theorem 4.1. A fuzzy set µ of R is called an (∈, ∈ ∨q) fuzzy subnear-ring of R if andonly if for any x, y, a ∈ R,


(F3a) µ(x + y) ≥ µ(x) ∧ µ(y) ∧ 0.5,

(F3a′) µ(−x) ≥ µ(x) ∧ 0.5,

(F3b) µ(xy) ≥ µ(x) ∧ µ(y) ∧ 0.5.

Moreover, µ is an (∈, ∈ ∨q) fuzzy ideal of R if µ satisfies the above conditions and

(F3c) µ(y + x − y) ≥ µ(x) ∧ 0.5,

(F3d) µ(xy) ≥ µ(y) ∧ 0.5,

(F3e) µ((x + a)y − xy) ≥ µ(a) ∧ 0.5.

Definition 4.3. A fuzzy set µ of R is called an (∈, ∈ ∨ q)-fuzzy subnear-ring of R if forall t, r ∈ (0, 1] and for all x, y, a ∈ R,

(F4a) (x + y)t∧r∈µ implies xt∈ ∨ qµ or yr∈ ∨ qµ,

(F4a′) (−x)t∈µ implies (−x)t∈ ∨ qµ,

(F4b) (xY)t∧r∈µ implies xt∈ ∨ qµ or yr∈ ∨ qµ.

Moreover, µ is called an (∈, ∈∨q) fuzzy ideal of R if µ is an (∈, ∈∨q) fuzzy subnear-ringof R and

(F4c) (y + x − Y)t∈µ implies xt∈ ∨ qµ,

(F4d) (xy)r∈µ and x ∈ R imply yr∈ ∨ qµ,

(F4e) ((x + a)y − xy)t∧r∈µ implies at∈ ∨ qµ.

Definition 4.4. Let µ and ν be fuzzy sets of R. The product of µ and ν is defined by

(µ ◦ ν)(x) =∨x=ab

(µ(a) ∧ ν(b))

and (µ ◦ ν)(x) = 0 if x cannot be expressed as x = ab.

Definition 4.5. Let µ and ν be fuzzy sets of R. Then the sum of µ and ν is defined by

(µ + ν)(x) =∨

x=a+b

(µ(a) ∧ ν(b))

and (µ + ν)(x) = 0 if x cannot be expressed as x = a + b.


5. Anti Fuzzy Ideals in Near-Rings

Definition 5.1. A near-ring N is an algebraic system (N,+, .) consisting of a non-emptyset N together with two binary operation addition “+” and multiplication “.” such that

1. (N,+) is a group,

2. (N, .) is a semigroup,

3. (x + y).z = x.z + y.z for all x, y, z ∈ N.

Definition 5.2. Let (N,+, .) be a near-ring. A subset A of N is said to be an ideal of N if

(1) (A,+) is a normal subgroup of (N,+)

(2) AN ⊆ A,

(3) n1(n2 + a) − n1n2 ∈ A, for all a ∈ A and n1n2 ∈ N.

Definition 5.3. A fuzzy set f in X of the form

f (y) =

s ∈ (0, 1) if y = x,1 if y , x.

is called an anti-fuzzy point with support x and value x and is denoted by xs.

A fuzzy set f in X is said to be non unit if there exists x ∈ X such that f (x) ≤ 1.

Definition 5.4. A fuzzy subset f of a near-ring N is called an anti-fuzzy subnear-ring ofN if for all x, y ∈ N :

(1) f (x − y) ≤ max{ f (x), f (y)} and

(2) f (xy) ≤ max{ f (x), f (y)}

Definition 5.5. A fuzzy subset f of a near-ring N is called an anti-fuzzy ideal of N if forall x, y, a ∈ N,

(1) f (x − y) ≤ max{ f (x), f (y)}

(2) f (y + x − y) ≤ f (x),

(3) f (xy) ≤ f (x) and


(4) f (x(y + a) − xy) ≤ f (a).

If f satisfies (1),(2) and (3), then it is called an anti-fuzzy right ideal of N. If fsatisfies (1),(2) and (4), then it is called an anti-fuzzy right ideal of N.

Definition 5.6. For any two anti-fuzzy ideals f and g of N. The product f ◦ g is definedby

( f ◦ g)(x) =

infx=ab{max( f (a), g(b))}

1 otherwise

Conclusion

In this paper we have discussed fuzzy rings and anti-fuzzy rings with operators alsofuzzy and anti-fuzzy ideals in near-rings.

References

[1] Abou-Zaid, S. (1991), On fuzzy sub near-ring and ideals, Fuzzy sets and System,44(1), 139 – 146.

[2] Bhakat, S.K. and Das, P. (1996), (∈, ∈ ∨q)-fuzzy subgroup, Fuzzy sets andSystems, 80, 359 – 368.

[3] Jeong, W.K. (1991), On anti-fuzzy prime ideals in BCK-algebras, Journal of theChungcheong Mathematical Society, 33 (4), 593 – 601.

[4] Liu, W.J., Fuzzy invariant subgroups and fuzzy ideals, Fuzzy sets and systems, 8,133 – 139.

[5] Ren, Y.C. (1985), Fuzzy ideals and quotient rings, Fuzzy Math, 4, 19 – 26.

[6] Yao, B. (2008), Fuzzy theory of groups and rings (M), Beijing: Science Press.

[7] Yin, Y.T.W. (1985), Fuzzy ideals and fuzzy quotient rings (J), Fuzzy Math., 4, 19– 26.

[8] Zadeh, L.A., Fuzzy sets, Information and Control, 8 (3), 338 – 353.


A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON FUZZY h-IDEALSAND h-HEMIRINGS

A. Mohamed Ali and C. Nagaraj


Abstract

In this paper, The main purpose of this paper is to discuss about Fuzzy h-Idealsand h-hemirings.

Keywords: h-ideal, Hemirings, h-Hemiregularity.

1. Introduction

Zhat et al. introduced the concept of h-hemiregularity of a hemiring and gave acharacterization of h-hemiregular hemirings in terms of fuzzy right and fuzzy lefth-ideals. As a continuation of the paper, we consider the characterizations of h-hemiregular hemirings and h-intra-hemiregular hemirings. We introduce the conceptsof fuzzy h-bi-ideals and fuzzy h-quasi-ideals of a hemiring, and give some of theirproperties. We provide the notion of h-intra-hemiregularity of a hemiring as ageneralization of the notion of intra-regularity of a ring. Further, we investigatethe characterizations of h-hemiregular hemirings, h-intra-hemiregular hemirings andhemirings that are both h-hemiregular and h-intra-hemiregular in terms of fuzzy left,fuzzy right h-ideals, fuzzy h-bi-ideals and fuzzy h-quasi-ideals.

2. Fuzzy h-Ideals of Hemirings

Definition 2.1. A fuzzy left ideal µ of S is called a fuzzy left k-ideal if for all x, y, z ∈ S

x + y = z→ µ(x) ≥ min{µ(y), µ(z)}.

A fuzzy right k-ideal is defined analogously. The basic properties of fuzzy k-idealsin semirings are described by Baik and Kim.

10 A comparative study on Fuzzy h-Ideals and h-hemirings

Definition 2.2. A fuzzy left ideal µ of a hemiring S is called a fuzzy left h-ideal if for alla, b, x, z ∈ S

x + a + z = b + z→ µ(x) ≥ min{µ(a), µ(b)}.

A fuzzy right h-ideal is defined similarly. Of course, every fuzzy left (respectively,right) h-ideal is a fuzzy left (respectively, right) k-ideal. The converse is not true.

From the Transfer Principle in fuzzy set theory, it follows that a fuzzy set µ definedon X can be characterized by level subsets, i.e. by sets of the form

U(µ; t) = {x ∈ X|µ(x) ≥ t},

where t ∈ [0, 1]. Namely, as it is proved, for any algebraic system U = (X,F), whereF is a family of operations (also partial) defined on X, the Transfer Principle can beformulated in the following way:

Definition 2.3. Let µ and ν be fuzzy sets in a hemiring S. Then the h-product of µ and νis defined by

(µ ◦h ν)(x) = supx+a1b1+z=a2b2+z

(min{µ(a1), µ(a2), ν(b1), ν(b2)})

and (µ ◦h ν)(x) = 0 if x cannot be expressed as x + a1b1 + z = a2b2 + z

Lemma 2.1. If µ and ν are fuzzy left h-ideals in a hemiring S, then so is µ ∩ ν, whereµ ∩ ν is defined by

(µ ∩ ν)(x) = min{µ(x), ν(x)}

for all x ∈ S . Moreover, if µ and ν are a fuzzy right h-ideal and a fuzzy left h-ideal,respectively, then µ ◦h ν ⊆ µ ∩ ν.

2.1. h-Hemiregularity

Definition 2.4. A hemiring S is said to be h-hemiregular if for each a ∈ S , there existx1, x2, z ∈ S such that

a + ax1a + z = ax2a + z.

It is not difficult to observe that in the case of rings the h-hemiregularity coincides withthe classical regularity of rings.

Lemma 2.2. Let S be a hemiring and A, B ⊆ S , then AB = AB.

Lemma 2.3. If A and B are, respectively, right and left h-ideals of a hemiring S, thenAB ⊆ A ∩ B.

A. Mohamed Ali and C. Nagaraj 11

Lemma 2.4. A hemiring S is h-hemiregular if and only if for any right h-ideal A andany left h-ideal B we have AB = A ∩ B.

Theorem 2.1. A hemiring S is h-hemiregular if and only if for any fuzzy right h-ideal µand fuzzy left h-ideal ν we have µ ◦h ν = µ ∩ ν.

3. The Characterizations of h-Hemiregular Hemirings and h-Intra-Hemiregular Hemirings

Definition 3.1. Let µ and ν be fuzzy subsets in a hemiring S . Then the h-product of µand ν is defined by

(µ ◦h ν)(x) = supx+a1b1+z=a2b2+z

(min{µ(ai), ν(bi)|i = 1, 2}

and (µ ◦h ν)(x) = 0 if x cannot be expressed as x + a1b1 + z = a2b2 + z.As a generalization, we introduce the h-intrinsic product of fuzzy subsets in a

hemiring as follows.

Definition 3.2. Let µ and ν be fuzzy subsets in a hemiring S. Then the h-intrinsic productof µ and ν is defined by

(µ �h ν)(x) = supx+∑m

i=1 aibi+z=∑n

j=1 a′jb′j+z

(min{µ(ai), µ(a′j), ν(bi), ν(b′j)|i = 1, ...,m; j = 1, ..., n})

and (µ �h ν)(x) = 0 if x cannot be expressed as x +

m∑i=1

aibi + z =

n∑j=1

a′jb′j + z

By directly calculation we obtain immediately the following result.

Lemma 3.1. Let S be a hemiring and A, B ⊆ S . Then we have

1. A ⊆ B if and only if χA ⊆ χB.

2. χA ∩ χB = χA∩B

3. χA �h χB = χAB

3.1. FUZZY H-IDEALS IN HEMIRINGS

Definition 3.3. A fuzzy subset µ in a hemiring S is called a fuzzy left h-ideal if for allx, y, z, a, b ∈ S we have


(i) µ(x + y) ≥ min{µ(x), µ(y)}

(ii) µ(xy) ≥ µ(y)

(iii) x + a + z = b + z→ µ(x) ≥ min{µ(a), µ(b)}

Definition 3.4. A fuzzy subset µ in a hemiring S is called a fuzzy h-bi-ideal if for allx, y, z, a, b ∈ S we have

(i) µ(x + y) ≥ min{µ(x), µ(y)}

(ii) µ(xy) ≥ min{µ(x), µ(y)}

(iii) µ(xyz) ≥ min{µ(x), µ(y)}

(iii) x + a + z = b + z→ µ(x) ≥ min{µ(a), µ(b)}

Definition 3.5. A fuzzy subset µ in a hemiring S is called a fuzzy h-quasi-ideal if for allx, y, z, a, b ∈ S we have

(i) µ(x + y) ≥ min{µ(x), µ(y)},

(ii) (µ �h χS ) ∩ (χS �h µ) ⊆ µ,

(iii) x + a + z = b + z→ µ(x) ≥ min{µ(a), µ(b)}.

Lemma 3.2. A fuzzy subset defined on U has the property P if and only if all non-emptylevel subsets U(µ; t) have the property P.

Lemma 3.3. Let S be a hemiring. Then the following conditions hold:

1. µ is a fuzzy left (resp. right) h-ideal of S if and only if all non-empty level subsetsU(µ; t) are left (resp. right) h-ideals of S.

2. µ is a fuzzy h-bi-ideal of S if and only if all non-empty level subsets U(µ; t) areh-bi-ideals of S.

3. µ is a fuzzy h-quasi-ideal of S if and only if all non-empty level subsets U(µ; t) areh-quasi-ideals of S.

Lemma 3.4. Let S be a hemiring and A ⊆ S . Then the following conditions hold:

1. A is a left (resp. right) h-ideal of S if and only if χA is a fuzzy left (resp. right)h-ideal of S.


2. A is an h-bi-ideal of S if and only if χA is a fuzzy h-bi-ideal of S.

3. A is an h-quasi-ideal of S if and only if χA is a fuzzy h-quasi-ideal of S.

Lemma 3.5. A fuzzy subset µ in a hemiring S is a fuzzy left (resp. right) h-ideal of S ifand only if for all x, y, z, a, b ∈ S we have

1. µ(x + y) ≥ min{µ(x), µ(y)};

2. χS �h µ ⊆ (resp. µ �h χS ⊆ µ);

3. x + a + z = b + z→ µ(x) ≥ min{µ(a), µ(b)}.

Lemma 3.6. Let µ and ν be a fuzzy right h-ideal and a fuzzy left h-ideal of hemiring S,respectively. Then µ ∩ ν is a fuzzy h-quasi ideal of S.

Lemma 3.7. Any fuzzy h-quasi-ideal of a hemiring S is a fuzzy h-bi-ideal of S.

3.2. H-HEMIREGULAR HEMIRINGS

Definition 3.6. A hemiring S is said to be h-hemiregular if for each x ∈ S , there existsa, a′, z ∈ S such that x + xax + z = xa′x + z.

Lemma 3.8. A hemiring S is h-hemiregular if and only if for any right h-ideal R andany left h-ideal L of S we have RL = R ∩ L.

Theorem 3.1. A hemiring S is h-hemiregular if and only if for any fuzzy right h-ideal µand any fuzzy left h-ideal ν of S we have µ �h ν = µ ∩ ν.

Lemma 3.9. Let S be a hemiring. Then the following conditions are equivalent.

1. S is h-hemiregular.

2. B = BS B for every h-bi-ideal B of S .

3. Q = QS Q for every h-quasi-ideal Q of S .

Theorem 3.2. Let S be a hemiring. Then the following conditions are equivalent.

1. S is h-hemiregular

2. µ ⊆ µ �h χS �h µ for every fuzzy h-bi-ideal µ of S .

3. µ ⊆ µ �h χS �h µ for every fuzzy h-quasi-ideal µ of S .



1. S is hemiregular.

2. µ ∩ ν ⊆ µ �h ν �h µ for every h-bi-ideal µ and every fuzzy h-ideal ν of S .

3. µ ∩ ν ⊆ µ �h ν �h µ for every h-quasi-ideal µ and every fuzzy h-ideal ν of S .


1. S is h-hemiregular.

2. µ ∩ ν ⊆ µ �h ν for every fuzzy h-bi-ideal µ and every fuzzy left h-ideal ν of S .

3. µ ∩ ν ⊆ µ �h ν for every fuzzy h-quasi-ideal µ and every fuzzy left h-ideal ν of S .

4. µ ∩ ν ⊆ µ �h ν for every fuzzy right h-ideal µ and every fuzzy h-bi-ideal ν of S .

5. µ∩ ν ⊆ µ�h ν for every fuzzy right h-ideal µ and every fuzzy h-quasi-ideal ν of S .

6. µ ∩ ν ∩ ω ⊆ µ �h ν �h ω for every fuzzy right h-ideal µ, every fuzzy h-bi-ideal νand every fuzzy left h-ideal ω of S .

7. µ ∩ ν ∩ ω ⊆ µ �h ν �h ω for every fuzzy right h-ideal µ, every fuzzy h-quasi-idealν and every fuzzy left h-ideal ω of S .

Definition 3.7. A subset A in a hemiring S is called idempotent if A = A2. A fuzzy subsetµ in a hemiring S is called idempotent if µ = µ �h µ.

Lemma 3.10. A hemiring S is h-hemiregular if and only if the right and left h-ideals ofS are idempotent and for any right h-ideal R and any left h-ideal L of S , the set RL isan h-quasi-ideal of S .

Theorem 3.5. A hemiring S is h-hemiregular if and only if the fuzzy right and fuzzy lefth-ideals of S are idempotent and for any fuzzy right h-ideal µ and any fuzzy left h-idealν of S , the set µ �h ν is a fuzzy h-quasi-ideal of S .

4. Conclusion

Since Zadeh proposed the notion of fuzzy sets, his ideas have been applied to variousfields. In the paper, we applied these ideas to hemirings. We introduced the conceptsof fuzzy h-bi-ideals and fuzzy h-quasi-ideals of a hemiring, and gave some of theirproperties. We provided the notion of h-intra-hemiregularity of a hemiring as ageneralization of the notion of intra-regularity of a ring.


References

[1] Aho, A.W. andUllman, J.D. (1979), Introduction to Automata Theory, Languagesand Computation, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.

[2] Baik, S.I. and Kim, H.S. (2000), On fuzzy k-ideals in semirings, Kangweon-Kyunki Math. J., 8, 147 – 154.

[3] Beasley, L.B. and Puliman, N.J. (1988), Operators that preserve semiring matrixfunctions, Linear Algebra Appl., 99, 199 – 216.

[4] Beasley, L.B. and Puliman, N.J. (1992), Linear operators strongly preservingidempotent matrices over semirings, Linear Algebra Appl., 160, 217 – 229.

[5] Bogdanov, I.I. (2001), The Nagata-Higman theorem for hemirings, Fundam Prikl.Mat., 7, 651 – 658.

[6] Cohen, G., Gaubert, S. and Quadrat, J.P. (1988), Algebraic system analysis oftimed Petri nets, in: Idempotency, Cambridge University Pros. Cambridge, 145 –170.

[7] Dubois, D. and Prade, H. (1980), Fuzzy Sets Syst.: Theory and Applications,Academic Press, New York.

[8] Dutta, T.K. and Biswas, B.K. (1994), Fuzzy prime ideals of a semiring, Bull.Malaysian Math. Soc., 17, 9 – 16.


A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON FUZZY SOFT SETS,FUZZY SOFT RINGS AND FUZZY SOFT IDEALS

A. Mohamed Ali and K. Uma


Abstract

In this paper, The main purpose of this paper is to discuss about Fuzzy softsets, Fuzzy soft Rings and Fuzzy soft Ideals.

Keywords: Fuzzy soft sets, Fuzzy soft rings, Fuzzy soft ideals.

1. Introduction

Maji et al. investigated the applications of soft set theory to a decision making problem.Roy and Maji proposed the concept of a fuzzy soft set and provided its propertiesand an application in decision making under an imprecise environment. Chen et al.presented a definition for soft set parameterization reduction and showed an applicationin another decision making problem. Kong et al. further studied the problem of thereduction of soft sets and fuzzy soft sets by introducing a definition for normal parameterreduction. Maji et al. defined and studied several operations on soft sets. The mainpurpose of this dissertation is to introduce the basic notations of soft rings, which areactually a parameterized family of subrings of a ring, over a ring R. Moreover, theconcept of the soft ring homomorphism is introduced and illustrated with a relatedexample. Molodtsov initiated soft set thorny as a new mathematical tool for dealing withuncertainties. In recent times, researchers have contributed a lot towards fuzzificationof soft set theory. It is well known that the concept of fuzzy sets, introduced by Zadeh,has been extensively applied to many scientific fields. In 1971, Rosenfeld applied theconcept to the theory of groupoids and groups.

2. Preliminaries of Soft Sets

Definition 2.1. A pair (µ, A) is called a soft set over X, where µ is a mapping given by

µ : A→ P(X).

A. Mohamed Ali and K. Uma 17

In other words, a soft set over X is a parameterized family of subsets of the universe X.For ∀ε ∈ A, µ(ε) may be considered as the set of ε−elements of the soft set (µ, A) or asthe set of ε−approximate elements of the soft set. Clearly, a soft set is not a set. Forillustration, Molodtsov considered several examples.

Definition 2.2. Let (µ, A) be a soft set over X, a pair (Aµ, X) is called the duality of(µ, A), where Aµ is a mapping given by:

Aµ : X → P(E), x 7→ Aµ(x) = {ε ∈ E|x ∈ µ(ε)}

for all x ∈ X.

Definition 2.3. Let µ, v ∈ S P(G), if µ(x) ⊆ v(x) for all x ∈ G, then µ is said to becontained in v (or v contains µ), and we write by µ ⊆ v.

Definition 2.4. Let µ, v ∈ S P(G), the union and intersection of µ and v, denoted by µ∪vand µ ∩ v respectively, is defined as follows: ∀ x ∈ G,

(µ ∪ v)(x) = µ(x) ∪ v(x)

(µ ∩ v)(x) = µ(x) ∩ v(x)

Definition 2.5. Let G,H be groups and f a function from G into H, and let µ ∈ S P(G)and v ∈ S P(H). Define the soft sets f (µ) ∈ S P(H) and f −1(v) ∈ S P(G) by: for ∀ y ∈ H.

f (µ)(y) =

⋃f (x)=yx∈G

µ(x) if f −1(y) , ∅

∅ if f −1(y) = ∅

and for ∀ x ∈ G,Then f (µ) is called the image of µ under f and f −1(v) is called the preimage (or inverseimage) of v under f .

Definition 2.6. We define the binary operation ◦ and the unary operation −1 on SP(G)as following:∀µ, v ∈ S P(G) and ∀x ∈ G,

(µ ◦ v)(x) =⋃x=yz

y,z∈G

(µ(y) ∩ v(z)),

µ−1(x) = µ(x−1)

We call µ ◦ v the product of µ and v, and µ−1 the inverse of µ.

18 A comparative study on Fuzzy soft sets, Fuzzy soft Rings and Fuzzy soft Ideals

3. Fuzzy Soft Rings

Definition 3.1. Suppose that U is an initial universe set and E is a set of parameters.Let P(U) denotes the power set of U. A pair (F, E) is called a soft set over U where Fis a mapping given by F : E → P(U).

Clearly, a soft set is a mapping from parameters to P(U), and it is not a set, but aparameterized family of subsets of the universe.

Definition 3.2. Let U be an initial universe set and E be the set of parameters. LetA ⊂ E. A pair (F, A) is called fuzzy soft set over U where F is a mapping given byF : E → P(U), where P(U) denotes the collection of all fuzzy subsets of U.

Definition 3.3. Let X be a group and (F, A) be a soft set over X. Then (F, A) is said tobe a soft group over X iff F(a) < X, for each a ∈ A.

Definition 3.4. Let X be a group and ( f , A) be a fuzzy soft set over X. Then ( f , A) is saidto be a fuzzy soft group over X iff for each a ∈ A and x, y ∈ X.

(i) fa(x, y) ≥ T ( fa(x), fa(y))

(ii) fa(x−1) ≥ fa(x)

That is, for each a ∈ A, fa is a fuzzy subgroup in Rosenfeld’s sense [9].

Definition 3.5. Let ( f , A) be a soft set over a ring R. Then ( f , A) is said to be a soft ringover R if and only if f (a) is sub ring of R for each a ∈ A.

Definition 3.6. Let (ϕ, ψ) : X → Y is a fuzzy soft function , if ϕ is a homomorphismfrom x → y then (ϕ, ψ) is said to be fuzzy soft homomorphism. If ϕ is an isomorphismfrom X → Y and ψ is 1-1 mapping from A on to B then (ϕ, ψ) is said to be fuzzy softisomorphism.

Theorem 3.1. Let ( f , A,R) and (g, B,R) be two fuzzy soft rings. If ( f , A,R)∧(g, B,R) isnon-null, then it is a fuzzy soft ring.

Theorem 3.2. Let ( f , A,R) and (g, B,R) be two fuzzy soft rings. If ( f , A,R)u (g, B,R) isnon-null, then it is a fuzzy soft ring.

Theorem 3.3. Let ( fi, Ai,R)i∈J be a family of fuzzy soft rings. Then we have thefollowings:


(i) If ∧i∈J( fi, Ai,R) is non-null, it is a fuzzy soft ring.

(ii) If ui∈J( fi, Ai,R) is non-null, it is a fuzzy soft ring.

(iii) If {Ai : i ∈ J} are pairwise disjoint and⊔i∈J

( fi, Ai,R) is non-null, then it is a fuzzy

soft ring.

Theorem 3.4. Let ( f , A,R) be a fuzzy soft set. Then ( f , A,R) is a fuzzy soft ring if andonly if all a ∈ A and for arbitrary α ∈ (0, 1] with ( fa)α , ∅, the α−level soft set ( f , A,R)α

is a soft ring in the classical case.

Theorem 3.5. Let ( f , A,R) and (g, B,R) be two fuzzy soft rings. If gx ≤ fx, for allx ∈ B ⊂ A, then (g, B,R) is a fuzzy soft subring of ( f , A,R).

Theorem 3.6. Let ( f , A,R) and (g, B,R) be two fuzzy soft rings. If ( f , A,R)u (g, B,R) isnon-null, then it is a fuzzy soft subring of ( f , A,R) and (g, B,R).

Theorem 3.7. Let (g1, B1,R) and (g2, B2,R) be fuzzy soft ideals of a fuzzy soft ring( f , A,R). Then (g1, B1,R) u (g2, B2,R) is a fuzzy soft ideal of ( f , A,R) if it is non-null.

Theorem 3.8. Let (g1, B1,R) and (g2, B2,R) be fuzzy soft ideals of a fuzzy soft ring( f , A,R). If B1 and B2 are disjoint, then (g1, B1,R) t (g2, B2,R) is a fuzzy soft ideal of( f , A,R).

Theorem 3.9. Let (gi, Bi,R)i∈J be a family of fuzzy soft ideals of fuzzy soft rings ( f , A,R).Then we have the followings:

(i) ∧i∈J(gi, Bi,R) is a fuzzy soft ideal of ( f , A,R) if it is non-null.

(ii) ui∈J(gi, Bi,R) is a fuzzy soft ideal of ( f , A,R) if it is non-null.

(iii) If {Bi : i ∈ J} are pairwise disjoint, then⊔i∈J

(gi, Bi,R) is a fuzzy soft ideal of ( f , A,R)

if it is non-null.

4. Fuzzy Soft Ideals

Definition 4.1. Let (R,+, ·) be a ring and E be a parameter set and A ⊆ E. Let J be amapping given by J : A → P(R). Then (J , A) is called a soft left ideal over R if andonly if for a ∈ A. J is a left ideal of R i.e.


1. x, y ∈ J(a)⇒ x − y ∈ J(a).

2. x ∈ J(a), r ∈ R⇒ r · x ∈ J(a).

Definition 4.2. Let (R,+, ·) be a ring and E be a parameter set and A ⊆ E. Let J be amapping given by J : A → P(R). Then (J , A) is called a soft right ideal over R if andonly if for a ∈ A. J is a right ideal of R i.e.

1. x, y ∈ J(a)⇒ x − y ∈ J(a).

2. x ∈ J(a), r ∈ R⇒ x · r ∈ J(a).

Definition 4.3. Let (R,+, ·) be a ring and E be a parameter set and A ⊆ E. Let J be amapping given by J : A→ P(R). Then (J , A) is called a soft ideal over R if and only iffor a ∈ A. J is a ideal of R i.e.

1. x, y ∈ J(a)⇒ x − y ∈ J(a).

2. x ∈ J(a), r ∈ R⇒ r · x ∈ J(a), x · r ∈ J(a).

Definition 4.4. Let (R,+, ·) be a ring and E be a parameter set and A ⊆ E. Let J bea mapping given by J : A → [0, 1]R, where [0, 1]R denotes the collection of all fuzzysubsets of R. Then (J , A) is called a fuzzy soft left ideal over R if and only if for eacha ∈ A, the corresponding fuzzy subset Ja : R→ [0, 1] is a fuzzy left ideal of R i.e.

1. Ja(x − y) ≥ Ja(x) ∗ Ja(y),

2. Ja(x · y) ≥ Ja(y), ∀x, y ∈ R.

Definition 4.5. Let (R,+, ·) be a ring and E be a parameter set and A ⊆ E. Let J bea mapping given by J : A → [0, 1]R, where [0, 1]R denotes the collection of all fuzzysubsets of R. Then (J , A) is called a fuzzy soft right ideal over R if and only if for eacha ∈ A, the corresponding fuzzy subset Ja : R→ [0, 1] is a fuzzy right ideal of R i.e.

1. Ja(x − y) ≥ Ja(x) ∗ Ja(y),

2. Ja(x · y) ≥ Ja(x), ∀x, y ∈ R.

Definition 4.6. Let (R,+, ·) be a ring and E be a parameter set and A ⊆ E. Let J bea mapping given by J : A → [0, 1]R, where [0, 1]R denotes the collection of all fuzzysubsets of R. Then (J , A) is called a fuzzy soft ideal over R if and only if for each a ∈ A,the corresponding fuzzy subset Ja : R→ [0, 1] is a fuzzy ideal of R i.e.


1. Ja(x − y) ≥ Ja(x) ∗ Ja(y),

2. Ja(x · y) ≥ max{Ja(x),Ja(y)} ∀x, y ∈ R.

Theorem 4.1. Let (F , A), (G, B) and (H ,C) be any three fuzzy soft sets over (U, E).Then the following holds:

(i) (F , A)∪(G, B) = (G, B)∪(F , A).

(ii) (F , A)∩(G, B) = (G, B)∩(F , A).

(iii) (F , A)∪(G, B)∪(H ,C) = (G, B)∪(F , A)∪(H ,C).

(iv) (F , A)∩(G, B)∩(H ,C) = (G, B)∩(F , A)∩(H ,C).

Theorem 4.2. Let (R, A) be a fuzzy soft set over R, then (R, A) is a fuzzy soft ring overR if and only if for each a ∈ A, x, y ∈ R the following conditions hold:

(i) Ra(x − y) ≥ Ra(x) ∗ Ra(y)

(ii) Ra(x · y) ≥ Ra(x) ∗ Ra(y)

where Ra is the fuzzy subset of R satisfying (C1) corresponding to the parameter a ∈ A.

Theorem 4.3. Let (S, A) and (T , B) be two fuzzy soft rings over R. Then (S, A)∩(T , B)is a fuzzy soft ring over R.

Theorem 4.4. Let (S, A) and (T , B) be two fuzzy soft rings over ring R. Then(S, A)∪(T , B) is a fuzzy soft ring over R if A ∩ B = ∅.

Conclusion

In the present paper the theoretical point of view of fuzzy soft sets inring and ideal arediscussed. The work is focused on soft rings, fuzzy soft rings, soft ideals and fuzzysoft ideals. These concepts are basic supporting structures for development of soft settheory. One can extend this work by studying other algebraic structures. In this paper,the concept of fuzzy soft ring is introduced and its characteristic properties are studied.Further, the notions of fuzzy soft ideal of a fuzzy soft ring and idealistic fuzzy soft ringare introduced.


References

[1] Ahmad and Kharal (2009), On fuzzy soft sets, article ID 586507, 6 pages.

[2] Jayanta Ghosh, Bivas Dinda and Samanta, T.K. (2011), Fuzzy Soft Rings andFuzzy Soft Ideals, Int. J. Pure Appl. Sci. Technol., 2(2), 66 – 74.

[3] Dixit, V.N., Kumar, R. and Ajmal, N. (1992), On Fuzzy Rings, Fuzzy Sets andSystems, 49, 205 – 213.

[4] Feng, F., Jun, Y.B. and Zhao, X. (2008), Soft Semirings, Computers andMathematics with Applications, 56 2621 – 2628.

[5] Liu, J.L. andYan, R.X. (2008), Fuzzy Soft Sets and Fuzzy Soft Groups, in: ChineseControl and Decision Conference, Guilin.

[6] Maji, P.K., Biswas, R. and Roy, A.R. (2001), Fuzzy Soft Sets, J. Fuzzy Math.,9(3), 589 – 602.

[7] Maji, P.K., Biswas, R. and Roy, A.R. (2003), Soft Set Theory, Computer Math.Applic., 45, 555 – 562.

[8] Molodtsov, D. (1999), Soft Set Theory-First Results, Computer Math. Applic.,37 (4/5), 19 – 31.

[9] Rosenfeld, A. (1971), Fuzzy Groups, J. Math. Anal. Appl., 35, 512 – 517.

[10] Zadeh, L.A. (1965), Fuzzy Sets, Information and Control, 8, 338 – 353.


PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING ANDANTI-BACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF SENNA

ALEXANDRINA AND COCCINIA GRANDIS LEAFEXTRACTS

M.A. Farook∗, A. Mubarack Ali, R. Madhan Kumar

Department of Biotechnology, Islamiah College (Autonomous), Vaniyambadi 635 752,Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India.e-mail : [email protected]

Abstract

The phytochemical analysis of the various solvents extract such as Chloroform,Hexane, Propanol and Ether were tested for 14 phytochemicals like Alkaloids,Flavonoids, Saponin, Terpenoids, Glycoside, Amino Acid, Phenol, Carbohydrate,Tannins, Quinones, Phlabotanins, Anthocyanin, Oxalate and Coumarin for Sennaalexandrina and Coccinia grandis. The zone of inhibition for Senna alexandrinasolvent extracts for Chloroform (8 mm), Hexane (8 mm), Petroleum Ether (5mm), Propanol (5 mm) for Staphylococcus aureus bacterium and Propanol (8 mm),Petroleum Ether (8 mm), Hexane (6 mm), Chloroform (4 mm) for Pseudomonasaeruginosa bacterium are shown. The antibacterial activity of Coccinia grandisfor Propanol (16 mm), Petroleum Ether (10 mm), Chloroform (8 mm), Hexane (7mm) for Staphylococcus aureus and Propanol (13 mm), Petroleum Ether (6 mm),Chloroform (6 mm), Hexane (5 mm) for Pseudomonas aeruginosa are shown. Theresults of the study indicate that both Senna alexandrina and Coccinia grandispossesses phyto-constituents having antibacterial activity thus it can be utilized asa natural plant based antimicrobials.

Keywords: Senna alexandrina, Coccinia grandis, Staphylococcus aureus,Pseudomonas aeruginosa, solvents extract, Alkaloids, Flavonoids, Saponin,Terpenoids, Glycoside, Amino Acid.

1. Introduction

In Indian culture, medicinal plants are valuable resources used to cure varieties of humanand animal diseases, especially in the rural areas where modern or allopathic medicineis impracticable and unaffordable. India has one of the most diverse geographicalfloras in the world and has a cultural diversity with traditional healing being integralto each ethic group. In modern era antibiotics are the primary drugs used in thetreatment or elimination of several pathogens from the infested or effected host. The

24 Senna Alexandrina and Coccinia Grandis Leaf Extracts

development of antibiotic resistant pathogens against the conventional drugs result infresh challenges because infectious diseases previously under control are re-emergingwith more virulence. Therefore, there is an urgent need for discovery and developmentof new drugs with high efficacy against the pathogens and minimal side effects to thehost. Plants and plant based preparations have been used in traditional practice totreat various kinds of diseases. Plant derived compounds could be used as a differentmechanism of fighting pathogens from established antimicrobials and also possess aclinical value in treating diseases caused by resistant strains of pathogens. The presentwork is carried out to assess the qualitative and quantitative analysis of phytochemicaland antimicrobial activity. The plant Senna alexandrina and Coccinia grandis are seenabundantly in local. Both the plant show many medicinal properties to treat disease likeJaundice, Diabetes, Wound healing, Ulcer and skin disease etc., traditionally the plantis also used for many medicinal purposes. Hence to analyze the medicinal property ofSenna alexandrina and Coccinia grandis.

1.1. Senna alexandrina

Senna alexandrina is a shrub that reaches 0.51, rarely two meters in height with abranched, pale-green erect stem and long spreading branches bearing four or five pairsof leaves. These leaves form complex, feathery, mutual pairs. The leaflets differ from4 to 6 pairs, fully edged with a sharp top. The midribs is equally divided in base of theleaflets. The flowers are in interior blossoms, big in size, yellow colored that tends tobrown. S. alexandrina legume fruits are horned, compressed and flat and contain aboutsix seeds (Fig. 1). Historically, it was used as tea dust and also serves as a fungicide.The distribution of Senna alexandrina extends to the warm, dry areas of northern centralAfrica via Sudan, Egypt, and east to South India via Arabia. The commercial drugscome mainly from Sudan and India.

1.2. Coccinia grandis

Coccinia grandis, the ivy gourd, also known as scarlet gourd, tindora, and kowai fruit,is a tropical vine. It grows mostly in tropical climates and is commonly found in Kerala,where it forms a part of the local cuisine. Coccinia grandis is cooked as a vegetable. Thisplant is a perennial climber with single tendrils and glabrous leaves. The leaves have 5lobes and are 6.58.5 cm long and 78 cm wide. Female and male flowers emerge at theaxils on the petiole and have 3 stamens (Fig. 2). The nativity of C. grandis extends fromAfrica to Asia, including India. C. grandis fruits have been used to treat fever, asthma,bronchitis, leprosy, jaundice and possesses mast cell-stabilizing, anti-anaphylactic andantihistaminic potential. In Bangladesh the roots are used for osteoarthritis and jointpain. These products are claimed to help regulate blood sugar levels. Some researchsupports that compounds in the plant inhibit glucose-6-phosphatase which is used as keyliver enzymes involved in regulating sugar metabolism so that sometimes recommendedfor diabetic patients.

M.A. Farook, A. Mubarack Ali, R. Madhan Kumar 25

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Collection of Plants

The fresh and healthy leaves of Senna alexandrina and Coccinia grandis were collectedfrom Ilayanagaram village, Vaniyambadi (Fig.1 & Fig.2). The leaves were identifiedand authenticated by Dr. N.P.M Mohamed Tariq, Assistant professor of Biotechnology,Islamiah College (Autonomous), Vaniyambadi. After identification, the plant materialwas processed for extraction.

Figure 1: Senna alexandrina Figure 2: Coccinia grandis

2.2. Preparation of Plant Extract

The leaves of Senna alexandrina and Coccinia grandis were thoroughly cleaned withwater to remove dust particles and shade dried at room temperature and reduced tocoarse powder using a mechanical mixer. The powder was subjected to extraction bymaceration using various solvents like Chloroform, Hexane, Propanol and PetroleumEther to obtain their respective extracts. To 10 gm of the dried plant powder in 100ml solvent (Chloroform, Hexane, Propanol and Petroleum Ether) was added and stirredoccasionally in orbital shaker. The mixture was filtered on the second day and thesolvent was evaporated at room temperature for 18-24 hours to obtain a solid mass,which are stored in refrigerator (4◦C) for further use.

2.3. Phytochemical Screening

2.3.1 Alkaloids

(a) Mayer’s test

1 ml of extract and 1 ml of Mayer’s reagent are added. Appearance of white creamyprecipitate indicates the presence of Alkaloids (Rimjhim Sheel et al., 2014).


(b) Wagner’s test

1 ml of extract and 1ml of Wagner’s reagent are added. Appearance of reddish brownprecipitate indicates the presence of Alkaloids (Joseph BS et al., 2013).

2.3.2 Amino Acid

Xanthoprotein test

1 ml of extract and 1 ml of Concentrated Nitric Acid are added (white precipitate isformed) it is heated for 2-3 minutes and cooled. Then 1 ml of 20% Sodium Hydroxideis added. Appearance of orange colour indicates the presence of Aromatic Amino Acid(Prashant Tiwari et al., 2011).

2.3.3 Carbohydrate

Molish’s test

2 ml of extract, 2 ml of Molish reagent and 2 ml of Conc. H2SO4 are added. Appearanceof reddish ring indicates the presence of Carbohydrate (Joseph BS et al., 2013).

2.3.4 Phenol

(a) FeCl3 test

1 ml of the extract and 1 ml of 5% ferric chloride are added. Appearance of dark greencolour / reddish brown / blue / violet / purple indicates the presence of Phenol (AshokKumar et al., 2012).

(b) Potassium dichromate test

2 ml of extract and 1 ml of 10% of potassium dichromate are added. Appearance of redcolour indicates presence of Phenol (Rajalakshmy M.R et al 2011).

2.3.5 Flavanoids

(a) Alkaline reagent test

1 ml of the extract and 1 ml of the 10% of sodium hydroxide are added. Appearance ofyellow fluorescence indicates presence of Flavonoid (Ashok Kumar et al., 2012).


(b) Ammonia test

1ml of extract, 2ml of 10% of ammonia solution and 1ml of concentrated sulphuric acidare added. Appearance of yellow colour indicates the presence of Flavonoids (Vimalkumar CS et al., 2014).

2.3.6 Tannins

FeCl3 test

2 ml of the extract and 2 ml of the 5% ferric chloride are added. Appearance of greencolour indicates the presence of Tannins (Yogeshwari C et al., 2017).

2.3.7 Saponin

Foam test

2 ml of the extract and 2 ml of the Dis. H2O are added and shaken vigorously. Formationof stable foam indicates presence of Saponins (Rimjhim Sheel et al., 2014).

2.3.8 Terpenoids

(a) Salkowskis test

1 ml of the extract, 2 ml of the chloroform and 3 ml of the Concentrated Sulphuric Acidare added. Appearance of yellow/reddish brown colour indicates presence of Terpenoid(Ashok Kumar et al., 2012).

(b) Libermann-Burchard’s test

2 ml of the extract, 2 ml of the chloroform and 2 ml of the acetic acid, 1 ml of theConcentrated Sulphuric Acid are added. Appearance of blue green colour/reddish ringindicates the presence of Terpenoids (Ashok Kumar et al., 2012).

2.3.9 Anthocyanin

Sulphuric acid test

1 ml of the extract and 1 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid are added. Appearanceof yellowish orange colour indicates presence of Anthocyanin (Seema Firdouse et al.,2011).


2.3.10 Phlobatanins

1% Hydrochloric acid test

2 ml of the extract and 2 ml of the 1% HCL test are added and heated in boiling waterbath. Appearance of red colour indicates the presence of Phlobatanins (Lata N et al.,2010).

2.3.11 Coumarin

Sodium hydroxide test

1 ml of the extract and 1 ml of 10% sodium hydroxide are added. Appearance of yellowcolour indicates the presence of Coumarin (C Yogeshwari et al., 2017).

2.3.12 Oxalate

Glacial acetic acid test

3ml of extract, 1ml of glacial acetic acid are added. Appearance of green colourindicates the presence of oxalate (Solomon Charles Ugochukwu et al., 2013).

2.3.13 Quinones

Hydrochloric acid test

1 ml of the extract and 1 ml of the conc. HCL are added. Appearance of yellow colourindicates the presence of Quinones (R Dhivya et al., 2013).2

2.3.14 Glycoside

(a) Kellar Killanis test

2 ml of the extract, 2 ml of the glacial acetic acid and few drops of the 5% FeCl3and conc.H2SO4 are added. Appearance of reddish brown/blue green colour indicatespresence of Glycosides (Joseph BS et al., 2013).

2.4. Antibacterial Activity

The Disc Diffusion Method for Antimicrobial Susceptibility testing was used to evaluatethe presence of Antibacterial Activities of the different solvent extracts of both the plants(Ashraf A. Mostafa et al., 2018). The Microorganisms used for the testing is collectedfrom Department of Microbiology, Shanmuga Industries of Arts and Science College,Thiruvannamalai. The bacteria cultured overnight at 37◦C in Nutrient broth. The sterile


Muller Hinton Agar (Hi-media) plates were prepared. The 150 mg / ml and 300 mg/ mlof the various solvent extracts were prepared by using the respective solvents. Then 0.2ml of the bacterial suspension was introduced in to the sterile plates and spreading thebacteria using L-Rod to get an even culture all over the plates. The 6 mm Discs wasprepared from Whatman No.1 filter paper and it also autoclaved. A plate comprises offour discs, one is positive control, one is negative control and two for the two differentconcentrations (150 and 300 mg / ml) of the same plant extract. Where Ciprofloxacinis used as positive control and respective solvents in which the sample is dissolvedwas used as negative control. The disc are impregnated with positive control, negativecontrol, two different concentration of the plant extract was prepared and placed on theprepared Muller Hinton Agar plates. Then all the plates are kept for incubation at 37◦Cfor 12-18 hours.

3. Result and Discussion

3.1. Phytochemical Screening

The phytochemical analysis of the various solvents extract is tested for 14phytochemicals. The procedure for the phytochemical analysis is carried out usingstandardized protocols. The Chloroform extract of the Senna alexandrina containsAlkaloids, Flavonoids, Saponin, Terpenoids and Glycoside. The Amino Acid, Phenol,Carbohydrate Tannins, Quinones, Phlabotanins, Anthocyanin, Oxalate and Coumarinare absence in the Chloroform extract of Senna alexandrina. Then Petroleum Etherextract of Senna alexandrina shows presence of Alkaloids, Amino Acid, Carbohydrate,Phenol, Flavonoids, Saponin, Terpenoids, Anthocyanin and Glycoside. Where thefollowing phytochemicals are absent in Petroleum Ether extract of Senna alexandrinasuch as Phlabotanins, Coumarin, Tannins, Oxalate and Quinones. Then the followingphytochemicals such as Alkaloids, Amino Acid, Carbohydrate, Flavonoids, Terpenoids,Quinones, Coumarin, Glycosides and Anthocyanin are present, where Tannins,Saponins, Phenol, Oxalate and Phlabotanins are absent in the Propanol extract of Sennaalexandrina. Whereas the Alkaloids, Carbohydrates, Phenol, Saponin, Terpenoids,Oxalte, Glycosides and Anthocyanin are present and Tannins, Amino Acid, Flavonoids,Quinones, Coumarin and Phlabotanins are absent in the Hexane extract of Sennaalexandrina. The Chloroform extract of the Coccinia grandis contains Alkaloids, AminoAcid, Carbohydrate, Phenol, Saponin, Terpenoids and Glycoside. The Flavonoids,Tannins, Quinones, Phlabotanins, Anthocyanin, Oxalate and Coumarin are absent inthe Chloroform extract of Coccinia grandis. Then Petroleum Ether extract of Cocciniagrandis shows the presence of Alkaloids, Amino Acid, Phenol, Terpenoids, Oxalateand Glycoside. Where the following phytochemicals are absent in Petroleum Etherextract of Coccinia grandis such as Phlabotanins, Carbohydrate, Flavonoids, Saponin,Anthocyanin, Coumarin, Tannins and Quinones. Then the following phytochemicals


such as Alkaloids, Amino Acid, Carbohydrate, Phenol, Terpenoids, Quinones, Oxalate,Glycosides and Anthocyanin are present, where Tannins, Saponins, Flavonoids,Coumarin and Phlabotanins are absent in the Propanol extract of Coccinia grandis.Whereas the Alkaloids, Amino Acid, Phenol, Saponin, Terpenoids, Glycosides andAnthocyanin are present and Tannins, Carbohydrates, Flavonoids, Quinones, Coumarin,Phlabotanins, and Oxalte are absent in the Hexane extract of Coccinia grandis (Table 1-2) as observed by Muraleedharan nair et al., (2011) and Hemadri Reddy et.al. 2018.

3.2. Antibacterial Activity

The Disc Diffusion Method for Antimicrobial Susceptibility testing was used to evaluatethe presence of Antibacterial Activities of the different solvent extracts of the Cocciniagrandis and Senna alexandrina. The Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcusaureus used for the testing. The bacteria cultured overnight at 37◦C in Nutrient broth.The sterile Muller Hinton Agar (Hi-media) plates were prepared. The 150 mg / ml and300 mg/ ml of the Chloroform, Hexane, Propanol and Petroleum Ether solvent extractswere prepared by using the respective solvents. Then 200µl of the bacterial suspensionwas introduced into the sterile plates and spreading the bacteria using L-Rod to get aneven culture all over the plates. The 6mm Discs was prepared from Whatman No.1 filterpaper and it also autoclaved.

Table 1: Phytochemical Screening of Senna alexandrina leaf extract

S.No. PHYTOCHEMICAL TESTS Chloroform Ether Propanol Hexane

1AlkaloidsMayer tests − − − −

Wagner’s test + + + +

2Amino acidXanthoprotein test − + + −

3CarbohydrateMolish test − + + +

4Phenol(a) Ferric chloride test − + − −

(b)Potassium dichromate test − + − +

5Flavanoids(a) Alkaline reagent test + + + −

(b) Ammonia test − − − −

6TanninsFerric chloride test − − − −


7SaponinFoam test + + − +

8TerpenoidsSalkowski test + + + +

Libermann-Burchard’s test + + + +

9AnthocyaninsSulphuric acid test − + + +

10Phlobatanins1% Hydrochloric acid test − − − −

11CoumarinSodium hydroxide test − − + −

12OxolateGlacial aceticacid test − − − +

13QuinonesHydrochloric acid test − − + −

14GlycosideKeller killani test + + + +

∗ Presence (+) ∗ Absence (−)

A plate comprises of four discs, one is positive control, one is negative control andtwo for the two different concentrations (150mg/ml, 300 mg / ml) of the same plantextract. The sterile discs are placed above the media and the samples are loaded gentlyby the following quantity given below. Where 10µl of Ciprofloxacin (1mg/ml) is loadedas positive control in the disc and 10µl of the respective solvents in which the sampleis dissolved was used as negative control in the disc. Then 20µl of the 150 mg/ ml and300 mg/ ml prepared concentration of the extract is loaded gently in the following discs.Then all the plates are kept for incubation at 37◦C for 24 hours (Fig. 3 & 4).

Table 2: Phytochemical Screening of Coccinia grandis leaf extract

S.No. PHYTOCHEMICAL TESTS Chloroform Ether Propanol Hexane

1AlkaloidsMayer tests − − − −

Wagner’s test + + + +

2Amino acidXanthoprotein test + + + +


3CarbohydrateMolish test + − + −

4Phenol(a) Ferric chloride test + + + −

(b)Potassium dichromate test + + + +

5Flavanoids(a) Alkaline reagent test − − − −

(b) Ammonia test − − − −

6TanninsFerric chloride test − − − −

7SaponinFoam test + + − +

8TerpenoidsSalkowski test + + + +

Libermann-Burchard’s test + + + +

9AnthocyaninsSulphuric acid test − − + +

10Phlobatanins1% Hydrochloric acid test − − − −

11CoumarinSodium hydroxide test − − − −

12OxolateGlacial aceticacid test − + + −

13QuinonesHydrochloric acid test − − + −

14GlycosideKeller killani test + + + +

∗ Presence (+) ∗ Absence (−)

The antibacterial activity of Senna alexandrina solvent extracts of Chloroform (8mm), Hexane (8 mm), Petroleum Ether (5 mm), Propanol (5 mm) for Staphylococcusaureus and Propanol (8 mm), Petroleum Ether (8 mm), Hexane (6 mm), Chloroform (4mm) for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The antibacterial activity of Coccinia grandis arePropanol (16 mm), Petroleum Ether (10 mm), Chloroform (8 mm), Hexane (7 mm) for


Staphylococcus aureus and Propanol (13 mm), Petroleum Ether (6 mm), Chloroform (6mm), Hexane (5 mm) for Pseudomonas aeruginosa as observed by Ankita Yadav et.al.,2013, Vijaya Sekhar V.E. et.al., 2016, Mangesh Kumar et al., 2016 and Hemadri ReddyS et.al., 2018. (Table 3).

Figure 3: Antibacterial activity of Chloroform and Hexane extract of S.alexandrina and C. grandis against S. aureus and P. aeroginosa. 1- Positivecontrol (Ciproflaxin 1mg/ml), 2- Negative control (chloroform), 3-150mg/ml and4- 300mg/ml.


Figure 4: Antibacterial activity of Propanol and Ether extract of S. alexandrinaand C. grandis against S. aureus and P. aeroginosa. 1- Positive control (Ciproflaxin1mg/ml), 2- Negative control (chloroform), 3-150mg/ml and 4- 300mg/ml.

Table 3: Antibacterial Activity of Senna alexandrina and Coccinia grandis

S.No. SolventsPositivecontrol

(ciproflaxin)

Negativecontrol 150 mg/ml 300 mg/ml

Antibacterial Activity of Senna alexandrina against Staphylococcus aureus1 Chloroform 15mm − 7mm 8mm


2 Hexane 15mm − 6mm 8mm3 Propanol 17mm − 5mm 5mm4 Ether 16mm − 5mm 8mm

Antibacterial Activity of Senna alexandrina against Pseudomonas aeruginosa1 Chloroform 18mm − 4mm 4mm2 Hexane 16mm − 5mm 6mm3 Propanol 20mm − 8mm 8mm4 Ether 20mm − 5mm 8mmAntibacterial Activity of Coccinia grandis against Staphylococcus aureus1 Chloroform 22mm − 5mm 8mm2 Hexane 15mm − 7mm 9mm3 Propanol 15mm − 15mm 16mm4 Ether 20mm − 5mm 10mm

Antibacterial Activity of Coccinia grandis against Pseudomonas aeruginosa1 Chloroform 20mm − 5mm 6mm2 Hexane 18mm − 4mm 5mm3 Propanol 15mm − 12mm 13mm4 Ether 20mm − 5mm 6mm

4. Conclusion

The present study show the antibacterial activity of two different plants Sennaalexandrina and Coccinia grandis, using four different solvents chloroform, hexane,propanol and petroleum ether. This study shows that increased concentration ofplant extract showed increased antibacterial activity compared to low concentration.Two concentrations of 150 mg/ml and 300 mg/ml were taken for the present study.Increased concentration showed more antibacterial activity, by the measurement ofzone of inhibition. Both Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa showedconcentration based antibacterial activity 300 mg/ml concentration of plant extractshowed increased antibacterial activity. So when concentration increased antibacterialactivity also increased proportionately.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the management of Islamiah College (Autonomous) for providing thefacilities to carry out this research work.


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[2] Ashok Kumar, K.K., Jha, Dinesh Kumar, Abhirav Agrawal and Akhil Gupta(2012), Preliminary Phytochemical Analysis of Leaf and Bark (Mixture) Extractof Ficus Infectoria Plant, The Pharma Innovation, 1(5), 71 – 76.

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[4] Dhivya, R. and Manimegalai, K. (2013), Preliminary phytochemical screeningand GC- MS profiling of ethanolic flower extract of Calotropis gigantea linn.(apocynaceae), Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 2(3), 28 – 32.

[5] Joseph, B.S, Kumbhare, P.H. and Kale, M.C. (2013), Preliminary PhytochemicalScreening of Selected Medicinal Plants, International Research Journal ofScience & Engineering, 1(2), 55 – 62.

[6] Mangesh Kumar, Tamanna Talreja, Dinesh Jain, Dhuria RK, Asha Goswamiand Tribhuwan Sharma (2017), Comparative evaluation of in vitro antibacterialactivity of several extracts of Achyranthes aspera, Azolla pinnata, Cissusquadrangularis and Tinospora cordifolia, International Journal of ChemicalStudies, 5(1), 154 – 157.

[7] Muraleedharan nair, Jalajakumari, Mithraja, JohnsonMarimuthu, Antonisamy, Mony Mahesh, Zachariah Miller Paul and SolomonJeeva (2011), Phytochemical studies on Azolla pinnata R. Br., Marsilea minuta L.and Salvinia molesta Mitch, Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, S26– S29.

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KINETICS AND MECHANISM OF OXIDATION OFCITRIC ACID AND ACONITIC ACID BY CrO3 IN

AQUEOUS ACETIC ACID MEDIUMM. Venkatachalam, K. Anandaratchagan and V. Ravisankar

PG & Research Department of Chemistry, Islamiah College (Autonomous),Vaniyambadi 635 752, Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India.

Abstract

The oxidation of citric acid and aconitic acid by chromium trioxide in aqueousacetic acid medium leads to the formation of keto compounds as the products.Earlier studies on oxidation reaction involved mainly Cr(VI) as oxidant and1)Citric acid 2)Aconitic acid as the substrate. In the present study the kineticsis investigated in acetic acid medium and the effect on solvent composition is alsostudied.

1. Introduction

The kinetics of oxidation reactions and the investigation of the reaction mechanismsfrom the kinetic data have been the most interesting subjects in chemistry always.In any kinetic investigation, one may be interested to arrive at (i) the relationshipbetween the rate and the various factors like concentrations of the reactants, temperature,reaction medium etc., and (ii) interpretation of the empirical rate laws in the light of themechanism proposed.

2. Experimental Methods

2.1. Kinetics of oxidation of citric acid

The burette is washed with water, rinsed with distilled water and then with the giventhio solution. It is filled with same thio solution up to zero mark. The initial readingof the burette is noted. 5 ml pipette is washed with water, rinsed with distilled waterand then with the 1:5 molar citric acid. 5ml of citric acid solution is pipette out in toa clean conical flask. Small pinch of KI is added into the flask. Suddenly titrated withburette solution, the light yellow colour was converted to dark yellow and then 2-3 dropsof starch indicator was added. The end point of the titration is the appearance of dark

M. Venkatachalam, K. Anandaratchagan and V. Ravisankar 39

blue colour to green colour. The same titration is repeated to every 5 min interval, theobtained volume of thio solution was tabulated and then the rate constant was calculated.

Similarly, another 2 different types of citric acid solution % (20 and 30) was titratedagainst thio solution. The obtained values were tabulated and the rate constants werealso calculated. Similar procedure used for Aconitic acid.


In most of the chemical reactions, it is only the disappearance of starting materialsand the appearance of final products that can be detected. In general, however, the netreaction is not the whole story, but simply represents a summation of all the changesthat occur. The net change may actually consist of several consecutive reactions each ofwhich constitutes a step in the formation of final products.

3.1. Kinetics of oxidation of citric acid and Aconitic acid

The 5 ml of test solution was titrated against thio solution under pseudo first orderreaction condition. The rate constant values were calculated using the decreased trendsof volume of thio solution and thus obtained rate constants values were given in Table 2.Similarly, rate constant values were calculated for the variation of acetic acid % (20 and30) and it was given in Table. The obtained rate constants (Figure.1) revealed that 10%acidic acid solution showed lesser rate constants value. On increasing the percentage ofacetic acid, the rate constant values also increased due to the higher acetic nature of thesolution.

3.2. Experimental Results

3.2.1 Kinetic study for the oxidation of Citric acid and Aconitic acid by CrO3

Citric acid & Aconitic acid = 0.05 × 10−2mol/lit, CrO3 =0.01 × 10−2mol/lit.

Table 1: (10% Acetic acid)

Time (sec)Citric acid Aconitic acid

log(a − x)Rate constant(kx10−4 sec−1)


300 0.6721 1.4238 0.6701 1.3125600 0.6532 1.4195 0.6458 1.3342900 0.6334 1.4515 0.6211 1.35641200 0.6128 1.4856 0.6018 1.36421500 0.5910 1.4956 0.5895 1.3724

40 Citric Acid and Aconitic Acid by CrO3 in Aqueous Acetic Acid Medium

Table 2: (20% Aceticacid)




300 0.6627 1.4189 0.6458 1.4785600 0.6434 1.4504 0.6264 1.4964900 0.6232 1.4839 0.6056 1.51241200 0.6020 1.5196 0.5806 1.53981500 0.5797 1.5577 0.5621 1.5846

Table 3: (30% Aceticacid)




300 0.6232 1.5509 0.5894 1.4258600 0.6020 1.5887 0.5642 1.4675900 0.5910 1.3405 0.5461 1.48251200 0.5682 1.4441 0.5104 1.50151500 0.5440 1.5258 0.4854 1.5354

Figure 1: (10% Acetic acid) Figure 2: (20% Acetic acid)


Figure 3: (30% Acetic acid)

Mechanism

Figure 4: (Scheme-1)Oxidation of Citric acid


Figure 5: (Scheme-2)Oxidation of Aconitic acid

4. Summary and Conclusion

In the present study the kinetics and mechanism of oxidation of citric acid and aconiticacid by CrO3 in aqueous acetic acid medium is investigated in acetic acid medium andthe effect on solvent composition is also studied. oxidation of citric acid and aconiticacid has been achieved due to formation of the complex between the substrate and theoxidant. The reaction is found to be increasing with the increase in the concentration ofacetic acid. Acetic acid being a weak organic acid, is able to catalyze the reaction andthe reaction follows pseudo first order kinetics.

Further, the reaction is catalyzed by HCl by varying the concentration from 0.005Nto 0.025N. Based on the experimental observations and product formation, a probablemechanism is suggested. After thorough analysis from the obtained results, we arrivedat the following conclusions.

1. We have studied the oxidization of two different organic acids viz., citric acid andaconitic acid using chromium trioxide under pseudo first order reaction condition.


2. The rate constant values were calculated using the decreased trends of volume ofthio solution.

3. Further, rate constant values for the oxidation of citric acid and aconitic acid werecalculated by varying the percentage of acetic acid% (10, 20 and 30).

4. The obtained results revealed that rate constant values increased when increasingthe percentage of acetic acid.

5. Further, it is observed that increase in the concentration of HCl (0.005N, 0.01N,0.015N added citric acid solution showed enhanced rate constant values.

6. On comparing the rate constants of citric acid and aconitic acid, the oxidation ofaconitic acid was found to be slower than citric acid.

7. The oxidation of citric acid by CrO3 in aqueous acetic acid medium leads toformation of keto compounds as the products. The oxidation of aconitic acid byCrO3 in aqueous acetic acid medium is very slow and leads to the decarboxylationof aconitic acid with reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III). The formation of any organicproduct in the oxidation of aconitic acid cannot be confirmed by chemicalanalysis, which may be due to the total decomposition of aconitic acid.

References

[1] Apleblat, Alexander (2014), Citric acid, Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-11232-9.

[2] Penniston, K.L., Nakada, S.Y., Holmes, R.P. and Assimos, D.G. (2008),Quantitative Assessment of Citric Acid in Lemon Juice, Lime Juice, andCommercially Available Fruit Juice Products.

[3] Frank, H. Verhoff, Citric Acid, Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.

[4] Lotfy Walid, A., Ghanem Khaled, M. and El-Helow Ehab, R. (2007), Citricacid production by a novel Aspergillus niger isolate: II. Optimization of processparameters through statistical experimental designs, Bioresource Technology, 98(18), 3470 – 3477.

[5] US 4056567-V. Lamberti and E. Gutierrez.

[6] Berovic, M. and Legisa, M. (2007), Citric acid production, Biotechnology AnnualReview, 13, 303 – 343.

[7] Scheele, Carl Wilhelm (1784), Anmarkning om Citron-saft, samt satt atcrystallisera densamma.

[8] Graham, Thomas (1842), Elements of chemistry, including the applications of thescience in the arts.


[9] Goldberg Robert, N., Kishore, N. and Lennen Rebecca, M. (2002),Thermodynamic Quantities for the Ionization Reactions of Buffers, J. Phys.Chem. Ref. Data., 31 (1), 231 – 370.

[10] Silva Andre M.N., Kong Xiaole, and Hider Robert, C. (2009), Determinationof the pKa value of the hydroxyl group in the α−hydroxycarboxylates citrate,malate and lactate by 13C NMR: implications for metal coordination in biologicalsystems, Biometals, 22 (5), 771 – 778.

[11] Maniatis, T., Fritsch, E.F. and Sambrook, J. (1982), Molecular Cloning: ALaboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY.

[12] Gomori, G. (1955), 16 Preparation of buffers for use in enzyme studies, Methodsin Enzymology, 1, 138 – 146.


SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OFWATER SOLUBLE BIO MACROMOLECULES /

CHEMICALLY MODIFIED PHOSPHORYLATEDCHITOSAN AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

Murugaiyan Manimohan, A. Md Azhar baig and Mohamed AboobuckerSithique∗


e-mail : ∗[email protected]

Abstract

In this paper we have discussed the synthesis of N-methylene phosphorylatedO-carboxymethyl chitosan and its chemical structure, solubility. The watersoluble N-methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan was preparedby carboxymethylation process. Problem relating to water solubility ofO-carboxymethyl chitosan and N-methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethylchitosan derivatives have been eliminated. The compounds were characterized byusing FT-IR spectroscopy. FT-IR analysis was carried out to characterize chitosan,O-carboxymethyl chitosan and N-methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethylchitosan. The results show that the prepared compound has the excellentfilmogenic nature and ion exchange capacity and as their solubility is tested invarious solvents. Water is a better solvent for these derivatives. The prepared N-methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan compound may be used asion-exchange membrane for fuel cell applications.

Keywords: Biopolymer, O-carboxymethylation, Phosphorylation.

1. Introduction

Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide of (1, 4) linked 2-amino-deoxy β-D glucan is theabundant polymer after cellulose. It has good biodegradability, non-toxic and variousbio functionalities, immunity enhancing, wound healing, antibacterial and antifungalactivities and some research reported that it also has an antioxidant properties. Chitosanhas commercial as well as biomedical uses in the field of agriculture, cosmetics,nutrition pharmaceutical, textile industries artificial skin ophthalmology membranesetc., [1]. Chitosan is a weak base and is insoluble in water and organic solvents

46 Chemically Modified Phosphorylated Chitosan and their Derivatives

but it soluble in dilute aqueous acids (PH?6.5) which can convert glucosamine in tosoluble form R − NH+

3 [2]. It has a primary amino group with a pKa value of 6.3it alters the chitosan properties at lower pH it gets protonated and become positivecharge and chitosan become water-soluble cationic polysaccharides [3]. The functionalgroup of chitosan such as primary amino, primary and secondary hydroxyl groups offersconsiderable chemical modification of chitosan [4]. In this paper we have synthesis N-methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan suitable for fuel cell applications[5].

Figure 1: Scheme 1 Deacetylated chitosan

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

Chitosan was purchased from Rolex chemical industries, Mumbai with viscosityaverage molecular weight about 3,00,000 K Da. Mono chloro acetic acid,isopropanol, sodium hydroxide ,ethyl alcohol, hydrochloric acid , orthophosphoric acid,formaldehyde, acetone ,are purchased with Analytical Reagent grade. Acetic acid,dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO), carbon tetra chloride (CCl4), diethyl ether, benzene,toluene, dimethyl form amide (DMF) were used for solubility test.

2.2. Methods

2.2.1 FT-IR analysis

Fourier transform Infra-Red (FT-IR) spectral analysis for chitosan, O-carboxymethylchitosan and N-methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan were performedShimadzu IR spectrophotometer in 4000-400 cm−1 wave length range and using KBrpellet.

Murugaiyan Manimohan, A. Md Azhar baig and Mohamed Aboobucker Sithique 47

2.2.2 Solubility measurement

Solubility measurement for synthesized compounds was determined by naked eyedetection method. The biological macromolecule O-carboxymethyl chitosan and N-methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan was completely soluble in waterbut not soluble in methanol, ethanol chloroform, DMSO and DMF [3].

2.2.3 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope: (FE-SEM)

The surface morphological images of chitosan and O-carboxymethyl chitosan and N-methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan were obtained using FE-SEM.Field Emission Scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM, EIGMA -ZEISS) analysiswere recorded at PSG Techs COE INDUTECH, Coimbatore, was used for the studies.Pieces were cut from films and mounted in copper stubs. Samples were gold coated andobserved using an accelerating Voltage of 10kV. Using FE-SEM the porosity, particlesize, and surface roughness of the chitosan film were analyzed.

3. Experiment

3.1. Preparation of O-carboxymethyl chitosan

6.75g of sodium hydroxide were dissolved in isopropanol. 5g of chitosan added toit. The mixture was heated to 50◦C for 1 hour. 7.5g of mono chloro acetic acid wasdissolved in isopropanol, and then it was added into reaction mixture drop wise for30 minutes and stirred continuously for 4 hours at 50◦C. The reaction was stoppedby pouring the mixture into ethyl alcohol. The solid was Filtered and rinsed in ethylalcohol and then dried at room temperature to obtain sodium salt of carboxymethylchitosan. This sodium salt of carboxymethyl chitosan was suspended in ethyl alcoholaqueous solution and then few ml of 37% hydrochloric acid was added and stirred for30 minutes. The solid was filtered and rinsed in ethyl alcohol and vacuum dried. Theproducts were the H-form of carboxymethyl chitosan.

3.2. Preparation of N - methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan

2g of O-carboxymethyl chitosan in glacial acetic acid 1% are prepared and takeequal amount of ortho phosphoric acid dissolved in water was added drop wise withcontinuous stirring for one hour. The temperature of the mixture was raised to 70◦Cwith reflux and equal amount of 37% formaldehyde was added drop wise for one hourand the same temperature was maintained for above 6 h. A clear pale yellow solutionwas obtained. The excess solvent was removed using vacuum. The viscous solutionwas precipitated with acetone and the product was dried at 50◦C.


Figure 2: Scheme 2 synthesis and design of Biopolymer / O-carboxymethylchitosan

Figure 3: Scheme 3 Synthesis and design of N- methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan

4. Characterisation

4.1. FT-IR studies of chitosan

1031 cm−1 C-O-C stretching, 1396 cm−1 C-N stretching, 1645 cm−1 Amide -I band,1552 cm−1 Amide- II band, 2926 cm−1 axial stretching, of C-H bond,3441 cm−1

stretching of O-H and N-H bonds.

1034 cm−1 C-O-C stretching,1207 cm−1 C-O stretching, of COOH group, 1308 cm−1

C-O stretching, 1627 cm−1 Amide -I band,1501 cm−1 Amide- II band, 1738 cm−1 C=Ostretching of COOH group, 3424 cm−1 stretching of O-H and N-H bonds.

492 cm−1 O-P-O bending, 1070 cm−1 P-O stretching, 1382 cm−1 P=O stretching,1635 cm−1 N=CH band , 1710 cm−1 C=O stretching of COOH, 3421 cm−1 stretching ofO-H and N-H bonds.


Figure 4: FT-IR Spectrum of Chitosan

Figure 5: FT-IR Spectrum Of O-Carboxymethyl Chitosan

5. Discussion

5.1. Chitosan

The FTIR spectrum of chitosan is shown in Fig 4.1, The wide absorption band at 3441cm−1 correspond to the axial stretching of O-H and N-H,1645 cm−1 indicates to amide-IN-H stretch 1552 cm−1 indicates to amide- II N-H stretch respectively the absorptionpeak at 1396 cm−1 indicates to C-N stretching , the peak at 2926 cm−1 is attributed tothe axial stretching of the C-H bond the band at 1031 cm−1 indicates to C-O stretching[6].


Figure 6: FT-IR Spectrum of N-Methylene Phosphorylated O-CarboxymethylChitosan

5.2. O-Carboxymethyl Chitosan

The FTIR spectrum of O-carboxymethyl chitosan is shown in Fig 5.2. The absorptionband at 1738 cm−1 corresponds to the stretching of C=O bond in the COOH groups,the 1207 cm−1 are attributed to the symmetric stretching vibration of C-O in theCOOH groups, the peak at 1627 cm−1 and 1501 cm−1 assigned to NH2 indicates thecarboxymethyl groups to be on the OH position. The peak at 1308 cm−1 indicates to theC-O-C stretching [7, 8].

5.3. N-Methylene Phosphorylated O- Carboxymethyl Chitosan

The FTIR spectrum of N-methylene phosphorylated O-CMC is shown in Fig 6.3. TheN-methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan shows the peak at 1635 cm−1

corresponds to the N=CH stretching and the sharp peak at 492 cm−1 is due to the O-P-Obending vibration of P-OH. The peak at 1070 cm−1 is assigned as P-O stretching of P-OH groups. The peak obtained at 1382 cm−1 is attributed to P=O stretching vibration.The peak at 1710 cm−1 corresponds to the C=O Stretching of COOH. This region showsthat the substitution of the phosphorylated compound is at the N-function. It is alsoconfirms that the carboxyl group is present in the derivative at C6 position. The peak


at 988 cm−1 is due to the (PO2−3 ) ions. This reveals that the obtained phosphorylated

derivative possess excellent ion-exchange capacity [9, 10].

5.4. Solubility of chitosan and its derivatives

The solubility of the chitosan and their derivatives are tested in different polar andnon-polar solvents are given in table.1 all the prepared chitosan derivatives like O-carboxymethyl chitosan and N-methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosanwere found to be water soluble and also soluble in acetic acid but insoluble in ethanol,DMF, DMSO. The N-methylene phosphorylated O-Carboxymethyl chitosan is partiallysoluble in DMSO. The newly prepared N-methylene phosphorylated O-Carboxymethylchitosan gives a high viscosity gel in the non-polar solvents but with CCL4 it giveslow viscosity gel. The O-Carboxymethyl chitosan is insoluble in carbon tetra chloride,benzene, toluene but it gives high viscosity gel in diethyl ether. In common water is abetter solvent for both derivatives [11-13].

Table 1: Solubility of chitosan, O-CMC and N-MP-OCMCS

Solvents Chitosan O-CMC N-MP-O-CMCWater Insoluble Soluble Soluble

Acetic acid Soluble Soluble SolubleDimethylsulfoxide Insoluble Insoluble Partially soluble

Ethanol Insoluble Insoluble InsolubleDimethylformamide Swelling Insoluble Insoluble

Carbon tetra chloride Insoluble Insoluble Low viscosity gelDiethyl ether Insoluble High viscosity gel High viscosity gel

Benzene Insoluble Insoluble High viscosity gelToluene Insoluble Insoluble High viscosity gel

5.5. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

The surface morphologies of chitosan and O-carboxymethyl chitosan and N-methylenephosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan were examined by SEM (Fig. 4, 5 and 6).As shown in the Figure, the surface of the chitosan was homogeneous and smooth.However, the chemical modification drastically changed it to rough and hard surface.The surface morphology showed the presence of some new bonded entities in thechitosan polymeric chain [14].


Figure 7: SEM image of CS (Chitosan)

Figure 8: SEM image of O-carboxymethyl chitosan

Figure 9: SEM image of N-methylene phosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan

6. Conclusion

In the present work, we have successfully prepared a O-carboxymethyl chitosan byusing mono chloro acetic acid and isopropanol, this was modified by introducinga phosphorylated group in the N=CH by using formaldehyde and phosphoric acid


and characterized by FT-IR , The results confirmed the formation of N-methylenephosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan derivative. Both the derivatives are testedin different solvents both are soluble in water. The SEM image of chitosan drasticallychanged after the chemical modification. The morphological surface of N-methylenephosphorylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan showed amorphous in nature and this provedthe structural modification of the compound. The substitution of phosphorylated groupcould show the excellent filmogenic nature and ion exchange capacity due to thepresence of (PO2−

3 ) ions. And have the moisture absorption property. The presenceof carboxyl group may increase its stability and solubility of the compound and helps toincrease proton conductivity of the compound. The prepared phosphorylated derivativesmay be used as an ion exchangeable membrane in fuel cells.

References

[1] Mourya, V.K. and Nazma, N. Inamdar (2008), Chitosan-modifications andapplications: Opportunities galore, Reactive & Functional Polymers, 68 1013 –1051.

[2] Muxika, A., Etxabide, A., Uranga, J., Guerrero, P. and de la Caba, K.(2017), Chitosan as a bioactive polymer: Processing, properties and applications,International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 105, 1358 – 1368.

[3] Pillai, C.K.S., Paul, W., and Sharma, C.P. (2009), Chitin and chitosan polymers,Chemistry, solubility and fiber formation, Progress in Polymer Science 34(7), 641– 678.

[4] Dutta, P.K., Dutta, J. and Tripathi, J.S. (2004), Chitin and Chitosan: Chemistry,properties and applications, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 63, 20– 31.

[5] Jia Mia and Yogeshwar sahai (2013), Chitosan biopolymer for fuel cellapplication, Carbohydrate Polymers, 92, 955 – 975.

[6] Laxmi Upadhyayaa, Jay Singhb, Vishnu Agarwal and Ravi Prakash Tewaria(2013), Biomedical applications of carboxymethyl chitosans, CarbohydratePolymers, 91, 452 – 466.

[7] Jayakumar, R., Prabaharan, M., Nair, S.V., Tokura, S., Tamura, H. andSelvamurugan, N. (2010), Novel carboxymethyl derivatives of chitin and chitosanmaterials and their biomedical applications, Progress in Materials Science, 55,675 – 709.

[8] Muzzarelli, R.A.A. (1988), Carboxymethyl chitins and chitosans, Carbohydrate.Polymer, 8, 1 – 21.

[9] Jayakumar, R., Selvamurugan, N., Nair, S.V., Tokura, S. and Tamura, H.


(2008), preparative methods of phosphorylated chitin and chitosan-An overview,international journal of biological macromolecules, 43, 221 – 225.

[10] Maria Zenobi, Z.C., Carina V. Luengo, Marcelo J. Avena and Elsa H. Rueda(2008), An ATIR- FTIR study of different phosphoric acids in aqueous solution,spectro chimica Acta part A 70, 270 – 276.

[11] Jayakumar, R., Nagahama, H., Furuike, T. and Tamura, H. (2008), Synthesis ofphosphorylated chitosan by novel methods and its characterization, internationaljournal of biological macromolecules, 42, 335 – 339.

[12] Heras, A., Rodriguez, N.M., Ramos, V.M. and Agullo, E. (2001), N-methylenephosphonic chitosan a novel soluble derivatives, carbohydrate polymer, 44, 1 – 8.

[13] Binus, V.V., Nagarale, R.K., Vinod Shahi, K. and Ghosh, P.K. (2006), Studieson N-methylene phosphonic chitosan/poly(vinyl alcohol) composite protonexchange membrane, reactive and functional polymers, 66, 1619 – 1629.

[14] Rasool, R., Hasnain, S. andNishat, N. (2013), Metal-based Schiff base polymers:preparation, spectral, thermal and their in vitro biological investigation, DesignedMonomers and Polymers, 17(3), 217 – 226.


KINETICS AND MECHANISM OF OXIDATION OFMALIC ACID AND COUMALIC ACID BY CrO3 IN

AQUEOUS ACETIC ACID MEDIUMV. Ravisankar, K. Anandaratchagan and M. Venkatachalam


Abstract

The oxidation of malic acid and coumalic acid by chromium trioxide inaqueous acetic acid medium leads to the formation of keto compounds as theproducts. Earlier studies on oxidation reaction involved mainly Cr(VI) as oxidantand 1)malic acid 2)coumalic acid as the substrate. In the present study the kineticsis investigated in acetic acid medium and the effect on solvent composition is alsostudied.

Keywords: Malic acid, coumalic acid, CrO3 and acetic acid.

1. IntroductionThe kinetics of oxidation reactions and the investigation of the reaction mechanismsfrom the kinetic data have been the most interesting subjects in chemistry always.In any kinetic investigation, one may be interested to arrive at (i) the relationshipbetween the rate and the various factors like concentrations of the reactants, temperature,reaction medium etc., and (ii) interpretation of the empirical rate laws in the light of themechanism proposed.

2. Experimental Methods

2.1. Kinetics of oxidation of malic acid

The burette is washed with water, rinsed with distilled water and then with the giventhio solution. It is filled with same thio solution up to zero mark. The initial readingof the burette is noted. 5 ml pipette is washed with water, rinsed with distilled waterand then with the 1:5 molar malic acid. 5ml of citric acid solution is pipette out in toa clean conical flask. Small pinch of KI is added into the flask. Suddenly titrated withburette solution, the light yellow colour was converted to dark yellow and then 2-3 dropsof starch indicator was added. The end point of the titration is the appearance of darkblue colour to green colour. The same titration is repeated to every 5 min interval, theobtained volume of thio solution was tabulated and then the rate constant was calculated.

56 Malic Acid and Coumalic Acid by CrO3 in Aqueous Acetic Acid Medium

Similarly, another 2 different types of malic acid solution % (20 and 30) was titratedagainst thio solution. The obtained values were tabulated and the rate constants werealso calculated.

Similar procedure used for coumalic acid.


In most of the chemical reactions, it is only the disappearance of starting materialsand the appearance of final products that can be detected. In general, however, the netreaction is not the whole story, but simply represents a summation of all the changesthat occur. The net change may actually consist of several consecutive reactions each ofwhich constitutes a step in the formation of final products.

3.1. Kinetics of oxidation of malic acid and coumalic acid

The 5 ml of test solution was titrated against thio solution under pseudo first orderreaction condition. The rate constant values were calculated using the decreased trendsof volume of thio solution and thus obtained rate constants values were given in Table 2.Similarly, rate constant values were calculated for the variation of acetic acid % (20 and30) and it was given in Tables. The obtained rate constants (Figure.1) revealed that 10%acidic acid solution showed lesser rate constants value. On increasing the percentage ofacetic acid, the rate constant values also increased due to the higher acetic nature of thesolution.

4. Experimental Results

4.1. Kinetic study for the oxidation of Malic acid and Coumalic acid by CrO3

Malic acid=0.05 × 10−2 mol/lit, CrO3 = 0.01 × 10−2 mol/lit.

Table 1: (10% Acetic acid medium)

Time (sec)Malic acid Coumalic acid



300 1.0492 5.4777 0.9658 5.5687600 0.9777 5.4830 0.8745 5.6125900 0.9031 5.6315 0.8015 5.68741200 0.8388 5.4063 0.7215 5.69581500 0.7323 5.6373 0.6348 5.63731800 0.6627 5.7097 0.5694 5.7687

V. Ravisankar, K. Anandaratchagan and M. Venkatachalam 57





300 0.8061 6.5773 0.7112 5.6354600 0.7242 6.4414 0.6241 5.2485900 0.6334 6.7902 0.5213 5.76891200 0.544 6.7821 0.4452 5.64871500 0.4471 6.893 0.3356 5.78421800 0.3222 6.956 0.2548 5.7973





300 0.7708 7.9981 0.6854 6.8754600 0.672 7.9203 0.5986 6.8452900 0.5797 7.9203 0.4695 6.89321200 0.4623 7.7952 0.3842 6.45211500 0.3617 7.9993 0.2654 6.31251800 0.2552 7.8992 0.1487 6.5421

Figure 1: (10% Acetic acid) Figure 2: (20% Acetic acid)


Figure 3: (30% Acetic acid)

5. Reaction and Mechanism

Figure 4: (Scheme-1)Oxidation of Malic acid

V. Ravisankar, K. Anandaratchagan and M. Venkatachalam 59

Figure 5: (Scheme-2)Oxidation of Coumalic acid

6. Summary and Conclusion

The Kinetic of oxidation of malic acid and coumalic acid is carried out in a acetic acidmedium and the effect of solvent composition is also studied. The oxidation of malicacid has been achieved due to the formation of a chromate ester complex between thesubstrate and oxidant. Coumalic acid which is a lactone may also form Such estercomplex due to the opening of the lactone ring. The reaction is found to be increasingwith increase in concentration of acetic acid. Acetic acid being a weak organic acid isable to catalyse the reaction and the kinetics is pseudo first order.

After thorogh analysis from the obtained results the following conclusions arearrived.

1. Oxidation of malic acid and coumalic acid by CrO3 is observed to follow pseudofirst order Kinetics.


2. The rate constant values for the oxidation is found to be increasing with theincrease in the % of acetic acid.

3. The rate of oxidation of coumalic acid is found to be slower than malic acid.

4. In the oxidation of malic acid keto compounds are obtained as the products.

5. In the oxidation of coumalic acid decarboxylation is observed with reduction ofCr(VI) to Cr(III). The formation of any organic product cannot be confirmed bychemical analysis.

References

[1] ChemBlink Database of Chemicals from Around the World, chemblink.com.Archived from the original on 2009-01-22.

[2] Dawson, R.M.C. et al. (1959), Data for Biochemical Research, Oxford,Clarendon Press.

[3] Karlheinz Miltenberge, Hydroxycarboxylic Acids, Aliphatic, Ullmann’sEncyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.

[4] Richard H. Wiley, Newton R. Smith (1951), Coumalic acid, 31, 23.

[5] Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1785), Om Frukt- och Bar-syran, (On fruit and berryacid), Kongliga Vetenskaps Academiens Nya Handlingar (New Proceedings ofthe Royal Academy of Science), 6 : 17-27. From page 21: “ ... vil jag hadanefterkalla den Åplesyran”.

[6] de Morveau, Lavoisier, Bertholet, and de Fourcroy, Methode de NomenclatureChimique (Paris, France: Cuchet, 1787), p. 108.

[7] The Origin of the Names Malic, Maleic, and Malonic Acid Jensen, William B. J.Chem. Educ., (2007), 84, 924.

[8] Tabelle I of ”Fruchtsuren”. Wissenschaft Online Lexikon der Biologie. Archivedfrom the original on May 15, 2016.

[9] Duarte, A.M., Caixeirinho, D., Miguel, M.G., Sustelo, V., Nunes, C.,Fernandes, M.M. andMarreiros, A. (2012), Acta Horticulturae 933, 601 – 606.

[10] Methods For Analysis of Musts and Wines, Ough and Amerine, John Wiley andSons, 2nd Edition, 1988, page 67.

[11] The Science Behind Salt and Vinegar Chips, seriouseats.com.

[12] Malic Acid, Bartek Ingredients (retrieved 2 February 2012).

[13] UK Food Standards Agency: Current EU approved additives and their ENumbers, Retrieved 2011-10-27.

Part B:

HUMANITIES


PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF YOUNGENTREPRENEURS IN VELLORE DISTRICT

A. Noor Mohamed1 and A. Khaleequzzaman2

1Principal Investigator, 2Co-Investigator, Minor Research Project, UGC SERODepartment of Commerce, Islamiah College (Autonomous), Vaniyambadi 635 752,

Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India.

Abstract

Youngsters play a huge role in the growth and development aspects of anycountry. India, as such, known for its youth population and being called as YoungNation, has ample of opportunities to grow and nourish its young population totake-up Entrepreneurship so as to reap the benefit of increased GDP and furtherthe development of nation. Entrepreneurship development will lead to multi-fold positive consequences of our country including Job Creation, Innovation,Improving Standard of Living, etc. Hence, Problems, Issues, Challenges andProspects/Opportunities to Young Entrepreneurs needs to be studied and thesame must be widely disseminated among Prospective Young Entrepreneurs sothat they take-up Entrepreneurship. The present study focuses on Problemsand Prospects to Young Entrepreneurs in Vellore District. The study revealsvarious problems to Young Entrepreneurs in the form of Competition, Financial,Marketing, HR/Personnel related challenges, etc., apart from various otherproblems/challenges.

Keywords: Problems, Challenges, Issues, Prospects/Opportunities, YoungEntrepreneurs, Bi-Variate Correlation, Vellore District.

1. Introduction

Human Resource potentials of individuals gain maximum and reaches its peak duringYouth hood. Youngsters are the most valuable segment of the economy especiallyfor India as they represent approximately 65% of our economy at present. Countriesespecially the developing ones cannot afford to ignore the contribution of Youngster inthe development of an economy. India can also be called as a Young Nation in a sensethat the proportion of Youngsters’ Population to the total Population of our country.

62 Problems and Prospects of Young Entrepreneurs in Vellore District

Growing unemployment problem on one hand and underemployment problem onanother hand pose challenges and threat to our economy. Unemployment Problems andUnderemployment Problems compounded with the inevitable difficulties in increasingthe number of ventures creating job opportunities is the biggest threat to our economyand development of our economy. Therefore, it is vital for the Governments at theCentre and State to ponder over means to combat these problems.

The only way out for the Governments and other organizations to tackle theseissues of Unemployment and Underemployment is to foster Entrepreneurship amongYoungsters. Entrepreneurship should be rigorously encouraged so that the Youngsters,after completion of their studies, take-up Entrepreneurship Ventures instead of searchingfor Job Opportunities. This will also help the government to a significant extent inreducing unemployment issues.

One of the important issues in youngsters taking up the entrepreneurship is theirinadequate knowledge or practice. Government should study the issues, challengesand opportunities available to entrepreneurs, especially for the young ones, in eachand every state. Governments should discuss and deliberate the problems, issues andchallenges and overcome the problems/challenges faced by the young entrepreneurs anddisseminate the same to the young budding and prospective entrepreneurs. Governmentshould identify different entrepreneurship opportunities, through different organizationsand NGOs, and disseminate the problems/challenges faced by the entrepreneursespecially the new ones and young ones, measures to tackle the challenges along withthe opportunities available to entrepreneurs. This will go a long way in helping andpermanently solving various Unemployment and Underemployment Problems of ourcountry.

2. Significance of the study

Entrepreneurship plays a crucial role in the Development of an Economy. Itscontribution to the economy is immense in the form of Job Creation, GDP, etc.Hence, every country is trying to boost the economy through creating more and moreEntrepreneurship Ventures but challenges faced by the entrepreneurs are many andvarying. Young Entrepreneurs have more problems/issues/challenges than elder ones.The only way out for Governments at the Central and State level is to boost theEntrepreneurship Opportunities to Youngsters as it will pave the way for creation of JobOpportunities as well, result in Innovation and increasing GDP, etc., and many otherbenefits to the nations. Ever increasing problems/issues/challenges to entrepreneurshipcoupled with the problems of uncertainties and complexities of the entrepreneurshipacross the globe are posing threats and resulting in further aggravation of the problems.Countries are spending in billions in creating infrastructural facilities to foster theentrepreneurship. In order to foster entrepreneurship among youngster, issues andchallenges of entrepreneurship must be studied and disseminated among youngsters.

A. Noor Mohamed and A. Khaleequzzaman 63

Also, opportunities of entrepreneurship must be exploited and youngsters must beencouraged to take-up entrepreneurship as otherwise, youngsters will be reluctant andhesitant to take-up entrepreneurship. Hence, studying the problems/challenges, issues ofYoung Entrepreneurs and exploiting and identifying new entrepreneurship opportunitiesare at most important for any country/economy.

3. Review of literature

An internet article published during February 2019 on 5 Major Challenges faced byStart-ups in India published during February 2019 lists that Insufficient informationon Marketing Strategies, Legitimate Mentoring, Financing, Hiring the Right Person andManagement as the top 5 challenges faced by Start-ups in India.

Affan Mahmud (2018) listed various challenges faced by Entrepreneurs inBangladesh. The challenges include Capital and Finance related challenges, Personnelrelated challenges, etc. The author goes on to say that many entrepreneurs in Bangladeshare not able to manage finance and there is a scarcity of good human resources. Thearticle highlights that the legal aspects of starting a business was supposed to be themost challenging and traumatizing one of all the challenges.

Jayadatta S (2017) classified various problems and challenges of RuralEntrepreneurship. Various Entrepreneurship Problems and Challenges include FinancialProblems, Marketing Problems, Competition Related Problems, TechnologicalProblems, HR Problems, etc. Various Financial Problems include paucity of funds,lack of infrastructural facilities, risk bearing capacity. Marketing Problems includecompetition and middlemen. Management Problems include lack of knowledge ofIT, legal formalities, lack of technical knowledge, poor quality products. HumanResource Problems include low skill level of workers, negative attitude. Variousimportant remedial measures as suggested by the researcher include creation of financecells, concessional rates of interest, offering high quality training facilities, proper andcontinuous supply of raw material and setting up marketing cooperatives, etc., apartfrom many other measures.

Harisha Bai, et.al., (2017) highlighted the challenges and problems akin to IndianEntrepreneurs. Challenges to Entrepreneurs, especially to Indian Entrepreneurs, includefamily challenges, social challenges, technological challenges, financial challengesand policy challenges. Problems of TRIPS and TRIMS to Entrepreneurs in Indiainclude problems of raising equity capital, availing raw-materials, obsolescence ofindigenous technology and increased pollution and ecological imbalance. The studyhas also highlighted opportunities available to entrepreneurs which include free entryinto world trade, improved risk taking ability, benefits of specialization, social andcultural development, encouragement to innovation and inventions. Challenges forRural Entrepreneurs include growth of mall culture, poor assistance, power failure, lackof technical knows, capacity utilization. Opportunities for Rural Entrepreneurs include


risk innovation funding, social rural entrepreneurship, etc.Tanay Kurode, et. al., (2017) described the critical challenges in Start-up

Management. Some critical challenges faced while managing start-ups include IdeaConceptualization and Implementation, Financing, Human Resources, Marketing andMarket Location, Competition, etc., apart from some other challenges. The studyassumes that the biggest ever challenge faced by entrepreneurs is putting an idea intoreality when compared to other challenges. Developing up a sustainable businessidea and model which will not only get transformed into reality but will also help togenerate positive cash flows in its future course is supposed to be the biggest task of anEntrepreneur. One of the important HR Problems viz., recruiting suitable employees isalso a yet another biggest task in Start-up. Marketing Problem such as selecting suitabletarget market and their location are also considered equally challenging alongside facingthe competition.

Anupam Saxena and Sugandha Shanker (2017) conducted a field research tounderstand in detail the challenges and opportunities of Social Entrepreneurs. Thechallenges faced by Social Entrepreneurs include lack of motivation and awareness, lackof market avenues, lack of marketing strategy & modern IT enabled market structure,lack of financial support & management strategies, lack of raw materials, lack oflogistics & transportation facilities, lack infrastructure support, lack of education &traditional mindset, lack of stakeholders engagement, limited access to finance and legalstructure.

4. Objectives of the Study

• To identify the Problems to Young Entrepreneurs.

• To know the simultaneous relationship among the variables ofProblems/Challenges to Young Entrepreneurs.

5. Research Design / Methodology

Exploratory Research Design/Methodology has been adopted for the present study.Primary Data was collected by administering the Interview Schedules to 80 YoungEntrepreneurs in Vellore District by adopting Convenient Sampling Technique. BothNational and International Journals/Publications were reviewed. Collected data wasanalyzed with the Bi-Variate Correlation Analysis.

6. Analysis and Interpretation


Table 1: Bi-Variate Correlation for the Overall Problems/Challenges to YoungEntrepreneurs

High

Prod.

Cost

Financial

Cost

Marketing

Cost

Personnel

IssuesCompetition

Dip in

demand

/ no

demand

Technical

glitches

due to

online

marketing

High

Production

Cost

Pearson

Correlation1 .065 .204 −.035 .466** .664** −.101

Sig. (2-tailed) .566 .070 .758 .000 .000 .374

N 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Financial

Cost

Pearson

Correlation.065 1 −.028 −.012 −.241* −.115 .748**

Sig. (2-tailed) .566 .807 .916 .032 .311 .000

N 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Marketing

Cost

Pearson

Correlation.204 −.028 1 −.019 .272* −.090 −.244*

Sig. (2-tailed) .070 .807 .869 .015 .427 .029

N 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Personnel

Issues

Pearson

Correlation−.035 −.012 −.019 1 .198 −.147 −.068

Sig. (2-tailed) .758 .916 .869 .078 .192 .551

N 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Competition

Pearson

Correlation.466** −.241* .272* .198 1 .262* −.425**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .032 .015 .078 .019 .000

N 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Dip in

demand / no

demand

Pearson

Correlation.664** −.115 −.090 −.147 .262* 1 −.080

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .311 .427 .192 .019 .479

N 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Technical

glitches

due to online

marketing

Pearson

Correlation−.101 .748** −.244* −.068 −.425** −.080 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .374 .000 .029 .551 .000 .479

N 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

7. Interpretation

Bi-Variate Correlation is used to find out the simultaneous relationship between twoor more variables. Here, an attempt is made to find out the simultaneous relationship


among the variables related to overall problems/challenges to Young Entrepreneurs inVellore District.

8. High Production Cost

Based on the observed value of Bi-Variate Correlation, it is inferred that positivecorrelation of High Production Cost is observed with Competition (.466) and Dip inDemand/No Demand (.664). The result is significant at 1% level (2-tailed). Hence,it is known that there exists simultaneous relationship of High Production Cost withCompetition and Dip in Demand/No Demand.

9. Financial Cost

It is observed from the above Table of Bi-Variate Correlation that Financial Cost isnegatively correlated with Competition (-.241). The result is significant at 5% level (2-tailed). Therefore, it is understood that there exists simultaneous correlation betweenFinancial Cost and Competition. It is also observed in the same table that FinancialCost is significantly correlated with Technical glitches due to online marketing (0.748).The result is significant at 1% level (2-tailed). It is concluded that Financial Cost ishas significant simultaneous positive correlation with Technical glitches due to onlinemarketing.

10. Marketing Cost

The above table of Bi-variate Correlation reveals positive simultaneous correlationof Marketing Cost with Competition (.272) and negative simultaneous correlation ofMarketing Cost with Technical glitches due to online marketing (-.244). The results aresignificant at 5% level (2-tailed). Hence, it is known that Marketing Cost is positivelycorrelated with Competition and negatively correlated with Technical glitches due toonline marketing.

11. Personnel Issues

Based on the observed value of Bivariate Correlation, it is inferred that none of thevariables of Overall Challenges to Young Entrepreneurs is significantly correlated withPersonnel Issues.


12. Competition

It is observed from the above Table of Bi-Variate Correlation that the attribute‘Competition’ is positively correlated with Dip in demand/No demand (.262) at 5%level of significance (2-tailed) and negatively correlated with Technical glitches due toonline marketing (-.425) at 1% level of significance (2-tailed) apart from the significantcorrelation of ‘Competition’ with High Production Cost, Financial Cost and MarketingCost. Therefore, the above Bi-Variate Correlation Table reveals the existence ofcorrelation of the attribute ‘Competition’ with High Production Cost, Financial Cost,Marketing Cost, Dip in demand/No demand and Technical glitches due to onlinemarketing.

13. Overall issues to Young Entrepreneurs

Overall issues to Young Entrepreneurs identified include Start-up problems, FinancialProblems, Raw Material Problems, Marketing Problems, Human Resource Problems,Managerial Problems, Debtor’s Collection Problems, Infrastructure Problems,Technological Problems, etc., apart from some other problems pertinent to the placeand nature of entrepreneurship.

14. Prospects of Young Entrepreneurs

The study conducted in the Vellore District revealed good prospect and greatopportunities for the Young and Budding Entrepreneurs in Vellore District. Some ofthe important business opportunities available to young entrepreneurs, as observed inthe study main project and the review of literature, are listed below and they areexclusive for the district. Franchising with leading brands, Organic Farming, HealthCare Products, Computer/Laptop Service Centres, Car/Bike Service Centres, etc.

15. Findings and Suggestions

It is found from the Bi-Variate Correlation Analysis that ‘High Production Cost’ variableis having simultaneous positive correlation with the variable ‘Competition’. Thevariable ‘High Production Cost’ is also having positive simultaneous correlation withthe variable Dip in Demand/No Demand and hence, it is inferred that in order to tacklecompetition and during low demand, entrepreneurs need to spend more (to producehigher quality products than competitors) resulting in High Production Cost.

Although the variable ‘Financial Cost’ is having simultaneous negative correlationwith the variable ‘Competition’ but it is negligible. The simultaneous correlation ofthe variable ‘Financial Cost’ with that of ‘Technical Glitches due to Online Marketing’


is significant and noteworthy. It is inferred that Financial Cost is unaffected due tocompetition but Financial Cost is significantly correlated with the variable ‘Technicalglitches due to Online Marketing’.

It is also found from the above Bi-Variate Correlation Analysis that the variable‘Marketing Cost’ is positively correlated with the attribute ‘Competition’ and hence,it is concluded from the above observed data and analysis and also from the generaltendency that in the case of severe competition, marketing cost tend to increase.

The above Bi-Variate Correlation Table reveals the existence of simultaneouscorrelation of the variable ‘Competition’ with the variables ‘High Production Cost’,‘Financial Cost’, ‘Marketing Cost’, ‘Dip in demand/No Demand’ and ‘TechnicalGlitches due to Online Marketing’. It is concluded from the above analysis thatin order to tackle competition, entrepreneurs should produce high quality productswhich will increase Production Cost and Financial Cost. During severe competition,entrepreneurs should spend more in advertising/campaigning/giving offers which willresult in increased Marketing Cost.

It is hereby suggested that awareness must be created among the prospective YoungEntrepreneurs about the various problems, issues and challenges faced by the YoungEntrepreneurs before they start their venture. Awareness also must be created amongYoung Entrepreneurs about the measures to tackle various issues and challenges andalso about various opportunities available to them. Research must be carried out tostudy the prospects of entrepreneurship and new entrepreneurship opportunities and thesame must be disseminated to Young budding/prospective Entrepreneurs.

16. Conclusions

The study on the variables of Overall Challenges to Young Entrepreneurs is veryimportant for our economy considering the current trend and world scenario. Althoughthe present study has found some important problems/issues/challenges to YoungEntrepreneurs and prospects of Entrepreneurship in Vellore District, similar type ofstudies should be conducted across all districts of Tamilnadu to identify if there aredifferent problems, issues, challenges and opportunities to Young Entrepreneurs andthe stake holders must take appropriate proactive actions to tackle those issues andchallenges.

Acknowledgement

This paper is a partial extract of the actual research work carried out under the UGCSponsored Minor Research Project entitled “Opportunities and Challenges to YoungEntrepreneurs in Vellore District” vide No. F. MRP-6469/16 (SERO/UGC) Dated30.06.2017. We duly acknowledge and thank the UGC, New Delhi, for sponsoring


and financial supporting the Minor Research Project, UGC SERO, Secretary &Correspondent and Principal for their encouragement and support.

References

[1] AffanMahmud (2018), Entrepreneurship Challenges in Bangladesh, Light CastlePartners, www.lightcastlebd.com

[2] Anupam Saxena and Sugandha Shanker (2017), Opportunities and Challengesfaced by Social Entrepreneur based in a Wildlife Sanctuary, Indian Journal ofManagement, 6 (1), Oct 16 – Mar 17.

[3] Five Major Challenges faced by Startups in India, SMEVENTURE, Feb 2019,www.smeventure.com

[4] Harisha Bai, et.al. (2017), Entrepreneurship Challenges and Opportunitiesin India, 9th International Conference on Recent Innovations in Science,Engineering and Management (RISEM-17), ISBN: 978-93-86171-22-1, pp 445– 448.

[5] Jayadatta S (2017), Major Challenges and Problems of Rural Entrepreneurship inIndia, IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM), e-ISSN: 2278-487X, p-ISSN: 2319-7668, 19 (9), Ver. II. (September. 2017), PP 35 – 44www.iosrjournals.org.

[6] Tanay Kurode, et. al. (2017), A study of Critical Challenges in Start-upManagement, International Journal for Emerging Trends in Engineering andManagement Research (IJETEMR), III, Special Issue, June ICSTSD 2017.

[7] Websites: www.google.com, www.wikipedia.org.


A STUDY ON ATTITUDE OF YOUNGENTREPRENEURS IN VANIYAMBADI TOWN

K. Zakir Hussain

PG and Research Department of Commerce,Islamiah College (Autonomous) Vaniyambadi – 635 752

Abstract

Entrepreneurs convert ideas into economic opportunities through innovationswhich are considered to be a major source of competitiveness in an increasinglyglobalizing world economy. Young people run businesses that operate in highlycompetitive industries with low barriers to entry, it is perhaps unsurprising thatmany businesses run by young people do not necessarily grow, survive or providesustainable incomes to study about the various demographic variables influence theattitude of young entrepreneurs. Descriptive research design helped the researcherto understand the sample design, data collection design, data processing anddata analysis using different statistical tools like, percentage, one way ANOVA(Analysis of variance), Chi - square test, factor analysis. It is concluded thatthere is no significant relationship between the family monthly income and age ofgroup and attitude of the young entrepreneurs. There is a significance relationshipbetween the family background and attitude of the young entrepreneurs.

Keywords: Young Entrepreneurship, Attitude Entrepreneurs, Demographicvariable.

1. Introduction

Young generation is an important asset to the economic development of a country. Thisis because they have a strong vitality that is needed for economic development. Inaddition, at a young age, they also still have the strength both mentally and physically.Entrepreneurs shape economic destiny of nations by creating wealth and employment,offering products and services, and generating taxes for governments. Entrepreneursconvert ideas into economic opportunities through innovations which are considered tobe a major source of competitiveness in an increasingly globalizing world economy.Therefore, most of the governments in the world strive to augment supply of competentand globally competitive entrepreneurs in their respective countries. Entrepreneurs isthe professional application of knowledge, skill and competencies or monetizing a new

K. Zakir Hussain 71

idea, by an individual or set of people, distinct from seeking self- employment as in aprofessional or trade, thus to pursue growth while generating wealth, employment andsocial good. In academia a common definition of an entrepreneur is one who organizesmanages and assumes the risks of a business or enterprise.

The relevance of the young people in any economy cannot be underestimated sincethey are said to be the future and the determinant of economic viability of a nation. Oncethe young people understand the importance of entrepreneurship and ready to ventureinto business, the unemployment rate can be reduced and the economy will experiencean increase in growth. It is therefore evident that young individual means who areentrepreneurs or starting a new venture for the first time after graduation constitutean exceptionally vital class for the development of entrepreneurial activities on thenational economy level. This study seeks to identify and understand the attitude ofyoung entrepreneurship and the factors that influence their career choice.

Defining entrepreneurship is not an easy task. To some, entrepreneurship meansprimarily innovation, to others it means risk-taking? To others a market stabilizingforce and to others still it means starting, owning and managing a small business. Anentrepreneur is a person who either creates new combinations of production factors suchas new methods of production, new products, new markets, finds new sources of supplyand new organizational forms or as a person who is willing to take risks or a person whoby exploiting market opportunities, eliminates disequilibrium between aggregate supplyand aggregate demand or as one who owns and operates a business. (Brijesh & Chavda2013).

2. Importance of Entrepreneurship Development in India

We need entrepreneurs because they create jobs, According to Tie (entrepreneurs,a non profit each entrepreneur create jobs, setting stage for a flourishing economy,unlike an individual who is a job seeker and a burden to the economy. Managersemployed by large corporations’ creativity and intellect to make their corporationsricher, whereas entrepreneurs make themselves and their nation richer, the benefitsof the entrepreneurship to the society and the economy as a whole are enormous.Entrepreneurship helps in avoidance of monopolies and cartels. They helps to makethe Indian market export competitive and the at the same time, they make Madein India’ brand more acceptable. If India wants to be a development country, thegovernment should realize that only entrepreneurship development can help it to growat the desired rate. The government should frame its polices to nurture and promotebudding entrepreneurs.

Although youth may not seem like a likely group for entrepreneurship because oftheir inexperience and lack of finances, they do have an interest in entrepreneurship andmany of them believe that self employment is feasible. Although young entrepreneurstend to have similar motivation for entrepreneurial activities, they often have different

72 A Study on attitude of Young Entrepreneurs in Vaniyambadi Town

approaches and run different types of businesses. However, at the same time, theyare likely to be more open than adult entrepreneurs to international activity. Giventhat many young people run businesses that operate in highly competitive industrieswith low barriers to entry, it is perhaps unsurprising that many businesses run byyoung people do not necessarily grow, survive or provide sustainable incomes. Thisreflects the wider difficulties that most small-scale businesses have in growing andsurviving. Businesses run by young entrepreneurs have lower survival rates than thoseof experienced entrepreneurs. However, young people’s businesses that do survive havemore growth potential than those of older entrepreneurs on average.

Among businesses that survived and the young entrepreneurs is a high risk buthigh reward group of entrepreneurs. Policymakers need to keep this in mind becauseprograms that target those most likely to succeed will have a greater impact. Thereyoung people in the informal economy, micro entrepreneurism is a bottom-up methodfor generating an income, self-reliance and a new innovative path to earning a livingand caring for oneself. Also estimates about the real potential and effectivenessof youth entrepreneurship differ, depending on how one measures the extent ofentrepreneurship, which is inextricably linked to how it is defined and on how oneassesses the particular socioeconomic conditions for youth entrepreneurship in differentareas. Therefore, the promotion of youth entrepreneurship should still be seen as animportant element/complement within a broader youth employment policy.

3. Review of Literature

Satheesh Kumar (2017) have identified that the entrepreneurship plays a vital role inthe development of our country by melding the young entrepreneurs with innovationand entrepreneurial capacity, which develop their competitiveness of employment. Indeveloping country like India, Now days, the commerce students are comparativelylarger than other discipline. But these students can’t turn their skills and potentialitiesto apply the entrepreneurial know how. This study aims to find out the attitudelevel of commerce students and effectiveness of teachers motivation to start up newentrepreneurship.

Athulya (2017) have examined the younger generation of the 21st century isbecoming most entrepreneurial generation since the Industrial Revolution. The impactof entrepreneurship education has been recognized as one of the crucial factors thathelp youths to understand and foster an attitude towards entrepreneurship. The attitudeand knowledge of entrepreneurship are likely to shape their inclination to start theirown business in the future. It enhances sustainable development, Employment creation,Generating revenue, Economic growth and human welfare.

Kshetri Nir (2011) examines various indicators related to entrepreneurship inIndia and analyzes factors affecting India’s entrepreneurial performance and it does acomparative study between India and China. The paper points out Indian and Chinese

K. Zakir Hussain 73

differences in entrepreneurial culture, regulatory framework, access to finance andmarket environment Kshetri makes a conclusion that the structural inertia of Indianeconomy has acted as a barrier to foster modern entrepreneurship.

Zhao et al. (2005) found a positive relationship between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intentions to start a business.

Green and Pryde, (1990) In Canada, almost all the youth would like to start theirown business some day but only half think they will, and the biggest barriers being fearof financial failures, lack of strong identity with the entrepreneurial role and lack ofknowledge about the first step to take.

4. Statement of the problem

There is an increased national and international interest in the field of entrepreneurshipdue to its implication on individuals and national economic benefits. Entrepreneurshipcreates significant opportunities for individuals to achieve financial independence andbenefit the economy by contributing to job creation, innovation, and economic growth.Entrepreneurial activities are considered as the driving force for the achievement ofhigh degree of economic development. This study analyse the attitude of youngentrepreneurs in vaniyambadi town. Young entrepreneurs is the capacity in theindividual to innovate, to bear risk, to foreseen the prospects of the project, confidenceand competence to meet unforeseen and adverse conditions. The young generationhave a virtue of their training can identify business opportunities and convert theminto profitable ventures. To promote the entrepreneurship among the youngster, itis necessary to explore the entrepreneurial attitude and intention among the younggeneration.

4.1. Objectives of the study

• To study about the various demographic variables influence the attitude of youngentrepreneurs.

• To disclose the major findings, suggestions and conclusion.

4.2. Scope of the study

It is important to encourage production in the state itself. This can be possible onlythrough entrepreneurship development. For this, young people should be encouragedto take up business ventures Even though the various governments of have initiatednumerous interventions to encourage entrepreneurship among youth, enough progresshas not been made till date compared to other states in India. This can be attributedto the lack of understanding of the attitudes among the youth towards entrepreneursand entrepreneurship. Attitudes play a vital role in the life of an individual. Whena person’s attitude has been measured, it can be used to predict the person’s future


actions. Attitude of young towards entrepreneurs can decide their attractiveness towardsentrepreneurship as a career. Till date studies to understand the attitudes of youngtowards entrepreneurs have not been done. Hence the researcher felt it is necessaryto take up a study which deals with attitude of young of towards entrepreneurs. A betterunderstanding of these attitudes can enable government, policy makers, universities,schools, colleges, academicians, venture capitalists etc to evaluate, reinforce and tochange strategy in order to enhance entrepreneurial behaviour among the youth, whichcan in turn contribute to economic development, wealth creation for all and lead tomitigation of unemployment, underemployment and brain drains among youth of invaniyambadi. Hence the problem taken for this study is to understand the attitude ofyouth towards entrepreneurs in Vaniyambadi town.

5. Research of Methodology

5.1. Data Collection

The present survey was confined to the selected units of Vaniyamabdi town. The studybased on the both primary and secondary data.

Primary Sources: the primary data was collected through a well structuredquestionnaire designed for the purpose of the survey. A sample of 60 entrepreneurshas been randomly selected for the survey. The data on various issues related to theentrepreneurship development were collected help of questionnaires.

Secondary Sources: the major for the secondary data which was extensively usedin study is from various published sources like journals, book, different websites, etc.This data has been largely used in providing the theoretical background of the subject.

5.2. Tools used for analysis

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may beunderstood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically

Descriptive research design helped the researcher to understand the sample design,data collection design, data processing and data analysis using different statistical toolslike, percentage, one way ANOVA (Analysis of variance), Chi - square test, factoranalysis. This discuss about the different research design adopted for the study in detail.

5.3. Hypotheses of the study

1. There is a significance relationship between the gender and attitude of the youngentrepreneurs.

2. There is a significance relationship between the family annual income and attitudeof the young entrepreneurs.

3. There is a significance relationship between the age and attitude of the youngentrepreneurs.

K. Zakir Hussain 75

4. There is a significance relationship between the family background and attitudeof the young entrepreneurs.

6. Data Analysis and Interpretation

Table 1

GenderNo of the

respondentsPercentage

Male 44 73%

Female 16 27%

Total 60 100%

Table 1 showed the demographic profile of the respondents, who participated in thesurvey. It is evident that majority of 73% of the respondents are male and 23% of therespondents are female.

Table 2

AgeNo of the


below 20 years 12 20

21- 25years 18 30

26 - 30 years 17 28

above 30 years 13 22

Total 60 100.0

The above table (Table 2) shows age distribution of the respondents. As can be seen,30% of the respondents are under 21 -25 years of age. 28% of the respondents are under26 30 years, a 22% represented the above 30 years, only one prevalent, constituting20% of the respondents, was below 20 years.

Table 3Education

QualificationNo of the


SSLC 11 18

HSC 13 22

UG 32 53

Other 4 7

Total 60 100


As shown in the above table 53% of the respondents are education qualified is UGlevels, 22% of the are HSC levels, 18% of the respondents are SSLC levels, 7% of therespondents are other qualified.

Table 4

Marital statusNo of the


Married 29 48

single 31 52

Total 60 100

The research found that 52% of the respondents are single, 48% of the respondentsare married.

Table 5

Family monthly income No of the respondents Percentage

Less than Rs.15, 000 14 23

Rs.15 001 - 20,000 23 38

Rs.20,001 - Rs 25,000 18 30

Above Rs 25,00 5 9Total 60 100

The table show that 38% of the respondents are family monthly income underRs 15,001 20,000, 30% of the respondents are Rs 20,001 - Rs 25,000, 23% of therespondents are less than Rs 15,000, 9% of the respondents are above 25,000.

Table 6

Do you belong to anentrepreneurial family

No of therespondents

Percentage

Yes 23 38

No 37 62

Total 60 100

The shows that 62% of the respondents are not belong to an entrepreneurial family,38% of the respondents are belong to an entrepreneurial family.

K. Zakir Hussain 77

Test of the hypothesis

H0: There is no significance relationship between the gender and attitude of the youngentrepreneurs.

H1: There is a significance relationship between the gender and attitude of the youngentrepreneurs.

Table 7Sum ofSquares

dfMeansSquare

F Sig.

BetweenGroup

.608 2 .304 1.557 .220

WithinGroup

11.126 57 .195

Total 11.733 59Level of Significance: 0.05%

Since the level of significance is more than 0.05, the null hypothesis is reject. It isconcluded that there is a significant relationship between the gender and attitude of theyoung entrepreneurs.

Table 8Monthly Income ofthe Respondents

Attitude of young entrepreneurTotal

Neutral Agree Strongly agree

Less than Rs.15,0000(0) 14(100) 0(0) 14(100)0(0) 29.8(23.3) 0(0) 23.3(29.3)

Rs.15,001 Rs.20,0001(4.3) 20(87) 2(8.7) 23(100)

12.5(1.7) 42.6(33.3) 40(3.3) 38.3(38.3)

Rs.20,001 25,0005(27.8) 10(55.6) 3(16.7) 18(100)

62.5(8.3) 21.3(16.7) 60(5) 30(30)

Above Rs.25,0002(40) 3(60) 0(0) 5(100)

25(3.3) 6.4(5) 0(0) 8.3(8.3)

Total8(13.3) 47(78.3) 5(8.3) 60(100)

100(13.3) 100(78.3) 100(8.3) 100(100)

Chi-Square test

H0: There is no significance relationship between the family month’s income andattitude of the young entrepreneurs.


H1: There is a significance relationship between the family month’s income andattitude of the young entrepreneurs.

Table 9

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 14.294a 6 .027

Since the level of significance is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis is accepted. It isconcluded that there is no significant relationship between the family monthly incomeand attitude of the young entrepreneurs.

Table 10

Age of theRespondents

Attitude of young entrepreneurTotal

Neutral Agree Strongly agree

Below 20 years0(0) 9(75) 3(25) 12(100)0(0) 19.1(15) 60(5) 20(20)

21years 25 years6(33.3) 12(66.7) 0(0) 18(100)75(10) 25.5(20) 0(0) 30(30)

26 years 30 years1(5.9) 15(88.2) 1(5.9) 17(100)

12.5(1.7) 31.9(25) 20(1.7) 28.3(28.3)

Above 30 years1(7.7) 11(84.6) 1(7.7) 13(100)

12.5(1.7) 23.4(18.3) 20(1.7) 21.7(21.7)

Total8(13.3) 47(78.3) 5(8.3) 60(100)

100(13.3) 100(78.3) 100(8.3) 100(100)

H0: There is no significance relationship between the age and attitude of the youngentrepreneurs.

H1: There is significance relationship between the age and attitude of the youngentrepreneurs.

K. Zakir Hussain 79

Table 11: Chi-square test

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)Pearson Chi-Square 14.294a 6 .027

Since the level of significance is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis is accepted. It isconcluded that there is no significant relationship between the age of group and attitudeof the young entrepreneurs.

H0: There is a significance relationship between the family background and attitude ofthe young entrepreneurs.

H1: There is no significance relationship between the family background and attitudeof the young entrepreneurs.

Table 12

Do you belong to anentrepreneurial family

Sum ofSquares

dfMeansSquare

F Sig.

Between Group .789 2 .395 1.679 .196

Within Group 13.394 57 .235

Total 14.183 59

Since the level of significance is more than 0.05, the null hypothesis is reject. Itis concluded that there is a significant relationship between the family background andattitude of the young entrepreneurs.

Findings

1. It is evident that majority of 73% of the respondents are male and 23% of therespondents are female.

2. Most of the respondents are belonging to under the age of 21 -25 years.

3. The above table 53% of the respondents are education qualified is UG levels.

4. The research found that 52% of the respondents are single.

5. The table show that 38% of the respondents are family monthly income under Rs15,001 – 20,000.


6. The shows that 62% of the respondents are not belong to an entrepreneurialfamily.

7. It is concluded that there is a significant relationship between the gender andattitude of the young entrepreneurs.

8. It is concluded that there is no significant relationship between the family monthlyincome and attitude of the young entrepreneurs.

9. It is concluded that there is no significant relationship between the age of groupand attitude of the young entrepreneurs.

10. It is concluded that there is a significant relationship between the familybackground and attitude of the young entrepreneurs.

Suggestions

• Whereas, entrepreneurial education and training program for working classshould give more importance for the practical orientation and should supportbusiness start ups. There should be encouraging to young people and there getinvolved in business activities in positive approach as mentioned above, from thegovernment, policy makers and educators towards entrepreneurship can enhancea positive attitude of youth towards.

• The governments should encourage the young entrepreneur starters by providingsubsidies of different types, for example, tax exemption in the early days of thebusiness, provision of working space free of lease, and the like.

• Not all young come from families involved in their own businesses. Fromthe discussion, it is also clear that a mindset for starting one’s own businessis not the dominant paradigm. Because of this, it can be expected that theyouth might struggle to both identify the right business idea and implementit successfully. Databases of possible business ideas should be developed. Aconceptual research model that will support accelerated youth entrepreneurshipdevelopment should be developed in the country. Research institutions should becontracted to populate this research model. All government regulations should betested regarding their impact on youth entrepreneurship development as a standarditem, and new approaches are needed to stimulate youth entrepreneurship in areas.Therefore, policies and programmes to encourage youth entrepreneurship in theseareas should be researched.

• The central and state government are providing lot of loan on subsidy basis sowe suggest them to utilize these kinds of financial assistance provided by thegovernment.

K. Zakir Hussain 81

7. ConclusionYounger generation is an important asset to the economic development of a country.This is because they have a strong vitality that is needed for economic development.Entrepreneurship creates significant opportunities for individuals to achieve financialindependence and benefit the economy by contributing to job creation, innovation, andeconomic growth. Entrepreneurial activities are considered as the driving force forthe achievement of high degree of economic development The analysis of the studythe majority of the graduated youngest are interest and encourage the entrepreneurialcareer in future and people should be encouraged to take up business ventures Eventhough the various governments of have initiated numerous interventions to encourageentrepreneurship among youth. This study thus makes an attempt to understand theattitude of young entrepreneurs and in vaniyambadi town, so that appropriate policiesand measures could be formulated to effectively promote entrepreneurship amongyouth. The high positive entrepreneurial attitude among youth stresses on the necessityof providing entrepreneurial environment that enable the youth to start-up their ownbusiness. The findings of this research may also contribute to the growing body ofliterature on attitude of young entrepreneurial .This research is concluded by sayingthat much more studies should be encouraged in this area because entrepreneurship isa widely accepted solution for many socio-economic problems and one’s attitudes arelikely to lead to one’s intentions and these in turn, to behaviours.

References

[1] Brijesh patel and kirit Chavda (2013), Rural entrepreneurship in India:Challenge and problems, International Journal of advance research in computerscience and management studies, ISSN:2321 -7782, 1 (2), 28 – 36.

[2] Zhao, H., Seibert, S.E. andHills, G.E. (2005), The mediating role of self-efficacyin the development of entrepreneurial intentions, Journal of Applied Psychology,90, 1265 – 1272.

[3] Satheesh kumar, C. (2017), A Study on the Entrepreneurial Attitude level amongthe Commerce students in Calicut University, SSRG International Journal ofEconomics and Management Studies, 4 (8).

[4] Athuilya, V. (2017), A study on the attitude of commerce students towardsentrepreneurship with special reference to Calicut district, Nehru E- Journal AJournal of Nehru Arts and Science College (Autonomous) Journal A ResearchArticle, ISSN: 2349-9052, 5 (1).

[5] Green, S. and Pryde, P. (1990), Black entrepreneurship in America, NewBrunswick, NJ, Transactions Publishing.

[6] Kshetri, N. (2011), The Indian Environment for Entrepreneurship and SmallBusiness Development, Studia Negotia, 56(4), 35 – 52.


IMPACT OF E-RESOURCES IN THIRUVALLUVARUNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE,

THIRUVENNAINALLURR. Murugesan1 and A.P. Shanmugam2

1Department of Library and Information Science,Librarian, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Tirunelveli – 627 012, Tamil Nadu, Indiae-mail : r [email protected]

2Librarian and Head, Research Department of Library and Information Science,Thiruvaluvar University College of Arts and Science,(Thiruvalluvar University)

Thiruvennainallur – 607 203, Thirukovilur Taluk, Villupuram District, Tamil Nadu,India

∗e-mail : [email protected]

Abstract

Today we are living in the information age and society can label as informationsociety. Knowledge, a predominant element, pervades and dominates the day today activities in information society. Advances in telecommunications technologyhave fostered the development of computer networks that allow access to vastamounts of information and services of the many computer networks that havebeen developed the most prominent is the internet. The amount of informationavailable on the Internet is already enormous.

Keywords: Internet, E-resources, ICT, Digital Libraries.

1. Introduction

Information has been the basic need of the society. Information Technology has broughtin a maelstrom of change in the field of education. Among a multitude of possible newways learning the super highway. Cyberspace / Internet takes first position. CyberspaceTechnology influences all walks of human life. It is the gate way of information,knowledge and Research. “Cyber space” is another name for ‘Internet’. This termwas coined by William Gibson in his fantasy novel Necromancer to describe the worldof computers, and the society that gathers around them. Gibson’s fantasy of a world ofconnected computers has moved into a present reality in the form of the Internet. As it is

R. Murugesan and A.P. Shanmugam 83

stated in the NATIONAL MISSION ON EDUCATION THROUGH INFORMATIONCOMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY that, Access to different forms of learningmaterial can be provided through digital libraries which would substitute comprehensivebrick-mortar-libraries. Since everything in the library would be available online withconcurrent access to multiple sites for a large number of students, good band witharound the year would be the key.

2. E-Resources

For an easy access of books in library there was a common use of computers. Inthe mid 1990’s web based Electronic resources were widely available. This chapteris intended to convey the broad sweep of change that characterized the developmentof library electronic resources from the 1960’s to the early 2000’s as well as a senseof the underlying issues that remain the same. An understanding of the developmentof library catalogs, databases, electronic serials and electronic Books may lead to afuller understanding of the current environment and provide inspiration for the future.The pursuit of electronic resources by libraries was driven by the core values oflibrary science Each technological development in library electronic resources duringthe 20th century was intended to make access to resources more direct, convenient,and timely for the user. The implementation of electronic resources made the librarya growing organism as libraries adapted processes and reorganized staff repeatedly toaccommodate the changes inherent in the use of constantly changing technology. Themain sorts of electronic resources a library might use are those provided by the Internetand World Wide Web, databases (online and CD-ROM/DVD), digitized resourcessuch as reference works, journal subscription or electronic copies of documents, andelectronic books, both “born digital” (created specifically in a digital format) andotherwise).

3. Need for Present study

The present study is confined to the students and faculty members of ThiruvalluvarUniversity College of Arts and Science College. The aim of study is limited to available.The study reports the impact on the students and faculty members academic work.

4. Objectives

a. To study the knowledge of E-Resources.b. To study the quantum of time spent for using E-resource.c. To find out the purpose of use of E-Resources.d. To study of use of Automation Service.

84 E-Resources in Thiruvalluvar University College, Thiruvennainallur

5. Methodology

This study is based on questionnaire method. A total of 60 questionnaires wasdistributed among the students and faculty members out of which 52 usable responsewere received. The analysis and interpretation f the data is presented the subsequentsections.

6. Analysis Data

The Data collected were analyzed and inference derived. The result of the study are asunder Sex wise distribution of the respondents.

Table 1: Distribution of the respondents

Sl. No. Sex No. of Respondents Percentage (%)1 Male 30 57.692 Female 22 42.303 Total 52 99.99

Source: Primary Data

Table-1 reveals that 57.69% respondent were male, and 42.30% of total were femalewho access electronic resources for different purpose.

7. Knowledge of E-resources

Electronic resources along with print resources have become an integral part of a librarycollection. Also a remarkable shift of choice from print resources to E-resources havetaken place by users for information. Accordingly, a large number of e-Resources arebeing acquired by libraries, the main reason is the lack of awareness or knowledgeamong the users. The present study to attempt to highlight on this matter in the table-2.

Table 2: Knowledge of E-ResourcesSl. No. Status Response Percentage (%)

1 Yes 35 67.302 No 17 32.69

Total 52 99.99Source: Primary Data

Table-2 reveal Majority of the users i.e (67.30%) had knowledge of E-resources,while 32.69% indicated that they did not know about the e-resources.

R. Murugesan and A.P. Shanmugam 85

8. Findings of the Study

• When compare to female respondents, male respondent are more interested inaccessing the Electronic Resources.

• Majority 67.3% the respondent who access of Knowledge of E-resources.

• Majority 40.95% the respondent who access of internet access.

• Majority 28.57% the respondent who access of E-Journal type of E-ResourcesAccessed.

• Majority 29.53% the respondent use the E-Resources for Getting More knowledgeabout the subject.

• Majority 32.39% the respondent have faced the problem of Limited number ofcomputer is the main problem while using Electronic Resources.

9. Conclusion

Today we are living in the information age and society can label as information society.Knowledge, a predominant element, pervades and dominates the day to day activitiesin information society. Advances in telecommunications technology have fostered thedevelopment of computer networks that allow access to vast amounts of informationand services of the many computer networks that have been developed the most

86 E-Resources in Thiruvalluvar University College, Thiruvennainallur

prominent is the internet. The amount of information available on the Internet is alreadyenormous. Web is increasingly becoming an important source for the today’s learners.Web based learning resources like e-books, online journals, online full-text databases,bibliographical databases, open access databases etc., have gained respectable place inthe higher education system. Lot of issues and challenges are involved with this taskbut as soon as it put forward, it will overcome all those problems. Hope the proposedplan among LIS education institutions will make a new opportunity and make the LISeducation competent for the world.

References

[1] Edward, A. (1999), Fox, the Digital Libraries Initiative Update and Discussion,Bulletin of the America Society of Information Science, 26 (1), October/November1999.

[2] Simpson, P. (2006), Repositories for research: southampton’s evolving role in theknowledge cycle, Program: electronic library and information systems, 40 (3),224 – 231.

[3] Balasubramanian, P. (2011), Users and Uses of Library, Deep and DeepPublications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi – 27.

[4] Shanmugam, A.P. (2016), Role of ICT on Information Seeking By Usersin HigherEducational Institutions, Journal of Advances in Library and Information Science,5 (2), 139 – 143.

[5] Shanmugam, A.P. (2014), Utilization of E-resources and Services by PGStudents, Research Scholars andFaculty Members of Arts and Science Colleges,Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu A Study, research journal of information science andtechnology, 01 (01), January June 2014 ISSN: 2348-1501, 65 – 69.

[6] Shanmugam, A.P. (2013), Impact of ict based resources and services in arts andscience colleges affiliated to bharathiar university, Coimbatore, SALIS Journal ofInformation Management and Technology, 4 (2), July - Dec., 2013, 21 – 24.

[7] Shanmugam, A.P. and Gunasekaran, M. (2013), Evaluating User Success andSatisfaction With CD- Rom Arts and Science Colleges, IJISS, 7 (2). July - Dec2013, 21 –26.


ROLE OF E-LEARNING ENVIRONMENT ININFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE CENTRES

N. Abdul Latheef1 and T.K. Thiruvengadamani2

1Librarian, Dept. of Library & Information Science, Islamiah College (Autonomous),Vaniyambadi – 635 752, Tamil Nadu

2Deputy Librarian, (Retd.), Taramani Campus Library, University of Madras, Chennai,Tamil Nadu

Abstract

Libraries and information centres play a vital role in information disseminationservice to their clients. Due to information and communication technology (ICT)librarians have to adopt new technology for information dissemination to students,research scholars and faculty. This paper highlights the features of MOOCsCourses, NPTEL,Vidya Mitra, e-Pg Pathshala e-content portal from Inflibnetand National Digital Library. Now a days, the Ministry of Human ResourcesDevelopment, Government of Indian has concentrating on higher education anddevelopment. According to their initiatives SWAYAM MOOCs and SWAYAMPRABHA, NPTEL and NDL plays vast role in teaching and learning environmentin higher education and in this article explains the about the programmes. Thispaper also highlights the requirement of infrastructure facility and benefits of theseprogrammes.

Keywords: e-learning, MOOCs, NPTEL, NDL , INFLIBNET and MHRD.

1. Introduction

Information and knowledge centre’s are act as a heart of every Educational Institution.Day by day ICT is occupying an indispensable and significant role in the Libraries.Likewise information seeking behavior of academicians, educationists, teachers,research scholars, students and others has completely undergone a remarkable change.Librarians play a vital role in providing information services to their clients viz. Faculty,Research scholars, Students and Academicians. E-Leaning and teaching is essential partin this digital world. The Ministry of Human Resources Development and UniversityGrants Commission has taken many initiatives and allotting funds for higher educationaland development. E-content development-database, E-Books and Journals, onlinelearning and video lectures, short term courses, Diploma and Degree courses are one

88 Role of E-Learning Environment in Information and Knowledge Centres

Figure 1: Swayam Homepage

of the essential services provided through SWAYAM, SWAYAM MOOCs, NationalProgramme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL), Information Library NetworkCentre an UGC inter-University centre, Ahmadabad, and National Digital Library(NDL), IIT Kharagpur. These facilities will not only for the students but also to improvethe faculty teaching learning strategy. These programmes are designed by subjectexperts based on the curriculum applicable to their university. The Ministry of HRDhas given circular to all the Universities and colleges for the growth and development ofthese courses.

2. SWAYAM MOOC’s

The Ministry of Human Resources Development (MHRD), Government of Indiaintroduced the Swayam MOOCs ( Massive Open Online Course). It is an online courseaimed at unlimited participation and open access via. the web. In addition to traditionalcourse materials such as filmed lectures, readings and problem sets, interactive userforums support community interactions among students, faculty and teaching assistants(TAs). Swayam Moocs covers subjects of Arts, Science, Humanities and Social science.It also provides different type of courses from Diploma level to Post Graduate level.There are two types of courses that is Scheduled Courses and self paced courses.

N. Abdul Latheef and T.K. Thiruvengadamani 89

3. Important Features

• College students may simultaneously complete the courses during their studies.

• Interesting Faculty members may upload their courses in this swayam.

• Annual Refresher Course programme available; faculty may join in these coursesfor their career Advancement.

• Mobile app available which is a specialized feature.

• There is no time and Space limit for these courses.

• Study materials are downloadable.

• Certificates will be issued after completion of course/exams.

• Certificates will be recognized by the MHRD and concerned Course Coordinators/Universities.

4. Infrastructure

• Sufficient Computer systems to be provided in the Library or Virtual labs.

• Subject mentors to be allotted for every subject.

• High bandwidth Internet connections to be provided.

• Headphone facility to be provided in order to avoid disturbance to others.

• Study materials are to be with downloading option.

• UPS Connections for irregular power supply.

• Sufficient printers for to taking print of study materials.

5. SWAYAM PRABHA

This is another initiative created by the Ministry of HRD and University GrantsCommission (UGC), Government of India. Swayam Prabha is a higher educationsatellite channel, provides 32 channels exclusively for Education. This channelcurriculum based course contents at Undergraduate and Postgraduate level core differentsubject disciplines and also from 9th to 12th Standard students. The above channeltelecast each lecture during five different timings a day and also archived lectures canbe viewed later from website (www.swayamprabha.gov.in). Particular topic/subjectsearching option is provided in this web portal.


6. Channel Frequency

From channel 1 to 16 provides Arts, Science, Humanities and Social Science subjectsand also Engineering subjects of chemical engineering, civil, computer science,Electrical, Electronics and mathematical Engineering.

Channel 17 to 32 telecast Mechanical, Metallurgy, Agriculture, Vocational andAllied science. Secondary school Education, Higher Secondary School Education andTeacher Education.

7. Equipments needed

(i) One small size DTH Dish Antena along with LNBF.

(ii) Indoor Set-Top-Box (STB).

(iii) Remote control Unit for STB.

Apart from the above, students can download the Swayam Prabha Apps in theirmobiles. There is no time or space is needed.

The subscribers of Free Dish, DTH service of Doordarshan, can view these 32Educational channels using the same Set Top Box and TV. No additional investmentis required. This programme is not only useful for the students but, also for the teachingfaculty in order to learn different types of teaching techniques and methodologies.

8. National Digital Library

This is another Digital Initiative by the Ministry of Human Resource Development(MHRD) under its National Mission on Education through Information andCommunication Technology (NMEICT) has initiated the National Digital Library ofIndia (NDL India) pilot project to develop a framework of virtual repository of learningresources with a single-window search facility. Filtered and federated searching isemployed to facilitate focused searching so that learners can find out the right resourcewith least effort and in minimum time. NDL India is designed to hold content ofany language and provides interface support for leading Indian languages. It is beingarranged to provide support for all academic levels including researchers and life-longlearners, all disciplines, all popular form of access devices and differently abled learners.

It is being developed to help students to prepare for entrance and competitiveexamination, to enable people to learn and prepare from best practices from all overthe world and to facilitate researchers to perform inter-linked exploration from multiplesources. The pilot project is devising a framework that is being scaled up with respectto content volume and diversity to serve all levels and disciplines of learners. It is beingdeveloped at Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.


9. Available Resources

• 20,995,951 items have been available in National Digital Library of India.

• Repository integrates contents from different Indian Institutional Repositories.

• More than 40 types of learning resources are available.

• Educational resources are for users ranging from Primary to Post graduate levels.

• Theses & Dissertations.

• Various form of contents available like text, audio, video etc. users can access/retrieve the materials in the desired format.

• It is provided in more than 70 languages.

10. Membership facility

• The NDL system is accessible to all users for general browsing.

• Institutional Membership facility provided for Bulk Registration.

• This is added advantage for the libraries.

11. Infrastructure

• Sufficient Computer systems to be provided in the Library or Virtual labs.

• High bandwidth Internet connections to be provided.

• Headphone facility provision.

• Downloading option to be provided for study materials.

• UPS Connections for irregular power supply & printers to take print of studymaterials.

12. NPTEL

The National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) was initiatedby seven Indian Institutes of Technology (Bombay, Delhi, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Madras,Guwahati and Roorkee) along with the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore in 2003.Five core disciplines were identified, namely, civil engineering, computer science and


engineering, electrical engineering, electronics and communication engineering andmechanical engineering and 235 courses in web/video format were developed in thisphase. The main goal of NPTEL Phase II (2009-14) was to build on the engineeringand core science courses launched previously in NPTEL Phase I. An additional 600 weband video courses were created in all major branches of engineering, physical sciences atthe undergraduate and postgraduate levels and management courses at the postgraduatelevel. Several improvements such as indexing of all video and web courses and keywordsearch were implemented.

13. Important Features

• Largest online repository in the world of courses in engineering, basic sciencesand selected humanities and social sciences subjects.

• Online web portal http://nptel.ac.in more than 471 million+ views.

• Youtube channel for NPTEL most subscribed educational channel, 1.5 million+

channel subscribers, 404 million+ views.

• More than 56000 hours of video content.

• Most accessed library of peer-reviewed educational content in the world.

• 52000+ hours of transcribed content; 51000+ hours of subtitled videos.

14. VIDYA-MITRA & E-PGPathshala

An exclusive portal provides higher education through INFLIBNET Centre,Ahmadabad. The INFLIBNET Centre has developed a web-based interface called“Vidya-mitra: Integrated e-Content Portal” for all e-content projects, developed / fundedunder the National Mission of Education through ICT. There are more than 50 projectson e-content under NME-ICT which are developed / being developed in various subjectdisciplines (science, arts, engineering, social science, etc) through various Indianinstitutes / universities / colleges.

e-PG Pathshala is an initiative of the MHRD under its National Mission onEducation through ICT (NME-ICT) being executed by the UGC. The content and itsquality being the key component of education system, high quality, curriculum-based,interactive e-content in 70 subjects across all disciplines of social sciences, arts, finearts and humanities, natural & mathematical sciences, linguistics and languages havebeen developed by the subject experts working in Indian universities and other R & Dinstitutes across the country. Every subject had a team of principal investigator, paper


Figure 2: NPTEL Homepage

Figure 3: Vidya-Mitra Homepage

coordinators, content writers, content reviewers, Language editors and multimediateam.


15. Conclusion

Information and communication Technology (ICT) today rules the Education sector.So that we are compelled to make use of the technology in order to develop anddeliver the contents. People are spending more time online, hence it has become asubconscious action like learning DIY from you Tube. So the faculty, students and lifelong learners have to take the opportunity and make use of the technology for learningand teaching. Library and Information centres gradually concentrating in this extensionactivity. Whether it is a Government Institution or self financing Institution, contributionof their initiatives is important. Librarians role is essential part in creating the Teachingand learning environment in every educational institution. Financial, infrastructure andother support services will be up to the authorities of the Institutions.

References

[1] Muruli and Gireesh Kumar (2017), Role of MOOCs in redefining theDimensions of learning : A knowledge Management perspective, Internationalconference on Future of Libraries: From Promises to practices, 36 – 43.

[2] Abdul Latheef, N. (2017), National Digital Library : An Overview, UniversityNews, 55 (20), 11 – 15.

[3] Abhishek Kumar (2017), Swayam-Prabha: Free DTH Channel and Open AccessContent for Education, INFLIBNET News Letter, 24 (3 & 4), 36 – 40.

[4] Retrieved from www.swayam.gov.in.

[5] www.inflibnet.ac.in.


RELEVANCE OF LOCAL HISTORY A CASE STUDYOF MUSLIMS OF VANIYAMBADI

D. Abul Fazal

Department of History, Islamiah College (Autonomous), Vaniyambadi 635 752,Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India.e-mail : [email protected]

Progress in historical knowledge will come about not through the accumulationof knowledge of more events, but through the acquisition of a better methodology ofcomprehension. Local History, the study of local communities within a very narrowgeographical area like a village, town or cities is an appropriate method to understandHistory. It involves study of several aspects of the community like their social,economic, cultural, religious and educational institutions. In the western countries,Local History has become an academic discipline with universities and schools framingcurriculum involving Local History. In India in General and in Tamil Nadu particularlythe time is ripe for introduction of Local History as an academic discipline in thecurriculum. It is a matter of fact that History of Tamil Nadu as an academic disciplinewas not included in the curriculum of several universities of Tamil Nadu before fiftyyears. This downward process of regionalisation of History now requires furtherlocalisation by including the History of Villages, towns and cities. Study of localHistory provides a better understanding of History as every local community reacts tothe national and international historical events of the past. An understanding of thesereactions integrates the locality with the nation and the world which can stimulate abetter understanding of the local community.

Vaniyambadi in the Vellore district of Tamil Nadu is a predominantly Muslimdominated town . Muslims of Vaniyambadi had a glorious past; particularly their rolein the 20th century socio political scenario is highly significant. But the present-dayMuslims of Vaniyambadi, barring a very few, are unaware of it. Knowledge of theirmagnificent past would provide them with a sense of pride and confidence.

The Aligarh Movement of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan motivated Indian Muslims totake up Western Education in a large scale. He founded the All India MuhammadanEducational Conference to promote Western and Modern Education among Muslims.The Vaniyambadi Muslim Educational Society Popularly called as VMES is a directoutput of the Aligarh Movement. Even after the death of Sir Syed Ahmed Khanthe Muslim Educational Conferences were organised. It was the MuhammadanEducational conference held in Madras in 1901 which motivated the Vaniyambadi

96 Relevance of Local history A case study of Muslims of Vaniyambadi

Muslim Community to establish the Vaniyambadi Muslim Educational Society. A bigdelegation from Vaniyambadi attended the conference, and brought home the spark toset their own heart ablaze, to form the Vaniyambadi Muslim Educational Society in1902. The significance of the Vaniyambadi Muslim Educational Society can be assertedfrom the fact that while Muslim Educational Association of South India also founded in1902 because of the Muhammadan Educational Conference of 1901 established its firstEducational Institution ‘The New College’ in 1951 , Vaniyambadi Muslim EducationalSociety established a series of educational institutions culminating in the establishmentof Islamiah College in 1919. It was the enthusiastic involvement of the Muslims ofVaniyambadi in the educational enhancement it earned the sobriquet Aligarh of theSouth for Vaniyambadi. The role of Vaniyambadi is no less in the establishment of NewCollege for Malang Ahmed Basha a native of Vaniyambadi as Secretary and Presidentof the Muslim Educational Association of South India played a very important role inits establishment as he was responsible for electing Justice Basheer Ahmed Sayeed asthe General Secretary of MEASI during whose tenure the New College was established.

The Muslim community of Vaniyambadi was second to none in promptly andvigorously responding to the call of the nation. Let it be the Swadeshi Movement, theKhilafat and Non-cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement or the QuitIndia Movement, the Muslims of Vaniyambadi stood in the forefront and excelled othersin exhibiting an effective participation. But, Muslims of Vaniyambadi are less awareabout their ancestor’s involvement in the National Movement.

The English came to India for trading, but they indulged in political aggrandisementusing unethical policy and method; ‘might is right’. They were less concerned aboutthe boiling discontent of the people, princes and the Sepoys which brought about agreat catastrophe that endangered the British empire of India the ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ or the‘First War of Independence’. Until recently the ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ was considered to be aNorth Indian event as little evidence was available for the participation of South Indiain it. However, Amaresh Mishra in his recent voluminous work ‘War of Civilizations’has clearly revealed ‘Vaniyambadi, a town populated by Muslims witnessed the 8thbattalion of the Cavalry stationed in Vaniyambadi rising in revolt against the British andbeing disbanded for that reason’. Taking in to consideration of the facts that erstwhileNorth Arcot District where Vaniyambadi is situated witnessed several disturbances priorto the revolt of 1857, it can be concluded that the local populace would have beena strong influence for the army to rise in rebellion. Again the fact that the Muslims ofVaniyambadi had established an orphanage for the sake of people who had been affectedby the revolt of 1857 further prove their involvement in the Revolt of 1857.

The Indian National Congress was formed in 1885 and the All-India Muslim Leaguewas organised in 1906. However, to begin with, they were at loggerheads on thequestion of separate electorate for Muslims; the Muslim League wanting it at any costand the Congress opposing it tooth and nail. Reconciliation was arrived at in 1916through the Lucknow Pact wherein the Congress, taking an 180◦ turn, conceded to the

D. Abul Fazal 97

demand of the Muslim League. Thus the Lucknow Pact was a Herculean achievementarrived after cutting the Gordian knot. One of the ‘architect of this Lucknow Pact’ wasnone other than the then correspondent of Islamiah College Committee, Yakub HasanSait. Janab. Yakub Hasan Sait played a very leading role in the Freedom Struggle thathe was arrested once in 1919 for six months and again in 1921 for two years. He was aleading personality of the Muslim Community of Tamil Nadu in the early 20th century.He was the leading light of the Madras province Muslim League and later the CongressParty that he became the public works minister in Rajagopalachari Ministry of 1937-39.

In the First World War, 1913-19, the British fought against Turkey and its rulerthe Caliph, the religious and political head of world Muslims. In the course ofthe war, Britain occupied Muslim holy places in Arabia and Mesopotamia and adanger was looming large around that they might be placed under the control ofnon-Muslims. This infuriated the Indian Muslims who formed the Central KhilafatCommittee and launched a Movement against the British in India which came to becalled the Khilafat Movement. Gandhi involved himself in the Movement and termed itas Non-Cooperation Movement.

During Khilafat Movement Vaniyambadi became a strong anti-British centre inthe Madras Presidency and became a role model for several other towns of thePresidency. In accordance with the resolutions of the All India Khilafat Committee17th October 1919, 19th March 1920 and 1st August 1920 were observed as KhilafatDays. Vaniyambadi, once again, proved to be the most prominent centre of IndianNational Movement by observing the Khilafat Days with a lot of fervour and vigour.The Khilafat days were marked with processions, shutting down of shops and specialmeetings.

The Muslims of Vaniyambadi founded organizations and formed boards for aneffective and vigorous struggle. Janab. M. A. Khalis of Vaniyambadi played animportant role in forming the Khilafat Publicity Board with the purpose of takingthe message of Khilafat to far off places. The Board had an organ of its own byname Rahbar. Janab. Gundu Abdul Sattar Saheb with the clout of his influencetook steps to initiate a Khilafat Committee at Mysore. Janab Mohammed Usman ofVaniyambadi with the help of his business in Rangoon organised Burma ProvincialKhilafat Committee and also functioned as its president.

The students of Islamiah College formed a Khilafat Volunteer corps to spread thecause of Khilafat and this inspired the Indian National Congress to form the NationalVolunteer Corps: a case of Vaniyambadi leading the Nation.

Vaniyambadi had the distinction and privilege of receiving Bi Amma, the Motherof Ali Brothers, as a guest when Khilafat Movement was at its peak. Bi Amma stayedat the residence of Janab Namazi Abdullah sahib. Bi Amma along with Janaba MastanZulekha bi, wife of Janab. Namazi Abdullah sahib met many women personally andexplained to them about the importance of Khilafat Movement. Most probably, inspiredby her, Patel Habibunisa, daughter-in-law of Janab Namazi Abdullah Saheb donated


One Kilogram of Gold to Bi Amma for Samarna Ankora Relief Fund.One of the aspects of the Non-cooperation Movement/Khilafat Movement was the

boycott of educational institutions. The Muslim educational institutions of Vaniyambadiwere second to none in exhibiting involvement. During the Non-Cooperation MovementIslamiah College and Islamiah Boys School had become centres of National Movement.Janab Gulam Dastagir, the Head Master of the school in 1920 was accused of instigatingthe students to take part in Non-Cooperation Movement. In the Islamiah College thestudent strength had gone down to 179 from 373 due to students boycott of college .The people of Vaniyambadi pressurised the Vaniyambadi Muslim Educational Societyto refuse the aid fund it was receiving from the government as a protest.

Police threatening and imprisonments did not deter the Muslims of Vaniyambadifrom actively participating in the Freedom Struggle. Janab Maulana Fazlur Rehmanof Vaniyambadi was sentenced to one year jail by Tiruppattur court for involvinghimself in the Khilafat Movement. This did not deter others. C. K. Abdus Subhanwho was the Chairman of Vaniyambadi Municipality in 1947-48 took active part in theKhilafat Movement. So also did Haji Abdur Rahim sahib and Janab. Moulvi KhateebHafiz sahib. Haji Abdur Rahim of Vaniyambadi had organised a Khadar Society inVaniyambadi. Mohammed Abdul Jaleel sahib as general secretary of Taluka CongressCommittee organised and led people. Gandhi called off the Non-cooperation Movementin February 1921, immediately after the Chauri Chaura incident. But the Muslims ofVaniyambadi continued the protest till the Lausanne Treaty was signed in 1924.

Even after the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Muslims of Vaniyambadi wereactively involved in the Freedom Struggle. Janab Batcha sahib of Haji street inVaniyambadi Fort area was interested in the freedom struggle from 1937. He wasactively involved in the Individual Satyagraha and was imprisoned in Chennai andBellary prisons. Janab M.A. Abdul Madar sahib of Sandaipet, Vaniyambadi wasinvolved in Individual satyagraha and was imprisoned in RajahMundry jail for one year.

Rejection of Congress’ demands for an immediate National Government and aConstituent Assembly forced Congress to launch the Quit India Movement in 1942.The Quit India Movement put the Muslims of India in general and the Muslims ofTamilnadu in particular at cross roads as they have to choose between the Congress thatdemanded national independence and the Muslim League that demanded a separateland for Muslims. The Indianness of Muslims of Vaniyambadi was much strongerand so they took active participation in the Quit India Movement. It is hearteningto note that the Vice President of the Tamilnadu Provincial Congress Committee atthis crucial juncture was none other than a Muslim native of Vaniyambadi, Janab.V. M. Obeidullah. After the arrest of K. Kamaraj, the burden of leading, preparingand exhibiting the effective participation of the province in the Quit India Movementrested on the rest not known shoulders of this Muslim of Vaniyambadi . The effectiveparticipation of Tamil Nadu in general and that of Vaniyambadi speak volumes overthe sacrifices of V.M. Obeidullah who has associated himself with different aspects of

D. Abul Fazal 99

the National Movement at various stages. He participated in the Home Rule Movementand the Non- Cooperation Movement at a very young age . He went to Nagpur andparticipated in the Nagpur Flag Satyagraha as the only volunteer from erstwhile NorthArcot District Congress Committee . He led a batch of volunteers consisting mainlyof students and labour class in demonstration against the Simon Commission when itvisited Vellore. It is said that during the course of this demonstration, when the policepointed its gun against Obeidullah, he just removed his shirt and challenged the policeto shoot at him . He was invited by Swami Shamugananda of erstwhile North ArcotDistrict to join him in the Salt Satyagraha Movement at Chennai. Earlier joining withDurgabai, he had made the erstwhile North Arcot District, where salt manufacturingis a physical impossibility, rebellion bound. A factor that the district magistrate hadregretted in his letter to the chief secretary . The National affinity of V.M.Obaidullahwas much stronger that he not only repudiated the idea of Pakistan but took active partin the anti-partition organiztions and conferences. He along with S.A.Rahim, organizedthe anti- partition conference at Kumbakkonam which was attended by Syed Murtuzaof Trichy . The nationalists bonds of V.M.Obaidullah were much stronger that hecriticized Rajagopalacharis formula which supported Jinnahs demand for Pakistan. AlsoObaidullah ridiculed Rajagopalacharis notion of office acceptance. He along with K.V.Kuppusamy were called as the Vellore Duo. He is referred to as the light of Velloreby V.K. Kuppusamy. His active involvement in the Indian National Movement hadearned him an imprisonment of 68 months. He was honoured with various publicPositions even during the days of freedom struggle. He was the vice president of ZillaBoard and Vice chairman of Municipal Corporation. He used these positions to carrythe message of Independence to masses in various villages. He was honoured withmembership of the Rajya Sabha twice. During his tenure as member of parliamenthe had the opportunity to meet international personalities like Egyptian premier Col.Nasser, Russian leaders Marshal Bulganin, Marshal Khruschev and had close relationswith national personalities like Jawaharlal Nehru, V.V. Giri, S.N. Sinha, Rajendra Prasadand Rajaji. At the age of 53 V.M. Obeidullah breathed his last on 22 February 1958.

While Congress had a staunch activist in the form of V. M. Obeidullah fromVaniyambadi a prominent leader of the Madras Presidency Muslim League, MalangAhmed Basha was also from Vaniyambadi. Malang Ahmed Basha was the popularand indefatigable General Secretary of the Reception Committee of the 28th session ofAll India Muslim League Conference held in Madras in April 1941 .It was due to hisability to mobilise funds that the 28th session of the All India Muslim League was heldin Madras inspite of opposition from a certain section of the Muslim League. MalangAhmed Basha a great authority on Skin and Hide trade was one of the longest servingSecretary and Correspondent of Islamiah College. In 1937 he was elected to the councilof corporation where he excelled himself through his good work. As a member of theLegislative Assembly he had toured the erstwhile North Arcot District after which hedeclared that his tour had revealed to him the squalid indigence of the Muslim Masses


and added that he had made up his mind to do all that lay in his power to pull out thecommunity from the slough of abject and appalling poverty in to which it had fallen.

Local History can reveal several interesting aspects that can integrate the localcommunity with the national and International scenario. The challenge is our responseand attitude to the need for study of local History needs to be changed with changingtimes.

References

[1] Dr. Beverley Southgate (2017), Review of The Use and Abuse of History, or,How the Past is Taught, (review no. 441) http:// www.history.ac.uk / reviews /

review / 441Date accessed: 27 February 2017.

[2] Population By Religious Community - Tamil Nadu (XLS), Office of The RegistrarGeneral and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government ofIndia. 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2015.

[3] Prof. Tajuddeen, History of Vaniyambadi, Unpublished M.Phil Thesis, Universityof Madras.

[4] Justice Basheer Ahmed Sayeed, My Life A struggle, An Autobiography, TheAcademy of Islamic Research, Madras 1983.

[5] Ibid, P.105.

[6] S. Diwan, Viduthalai Poril Tamilaga Muslimgal (Tamil), Suhaina Publishers,Palayamkottai, January 1994.

[7] More, J. B. Prashant (1997), Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu andMadras 19301947, Orient Blackswan, p. 46.

[8] Fortnightly Report, 19.08.1920 and D. Amsa, History of the Freedom Movementin North Arcot District, 1905 - 1947, Unpublished M.Phil. Thesis, University ofMadras, 1998, p.54.

[9] Abu saleh Muhammad Abdu Jameel, Aainay-E- Vaniyambadi, Anjuman-E-KairKhahe Aam, 1970.

[10] M.K. Akbar Basha, History of Islamiah College, Unpublished M.phil. Thesis,University of Madras.

[11] Fortnightly Report 17.03.1921.

[12] V.K. Kuppusamy, Suthanthira Poril Vada Arcot Mavattam, Congress CentenaryCelebrations Volume, Vellore, 1985.

[13] M.P. Sivagnanam, Viduthalai Poril Tamilagam, (Tamil), Vol. II, p. 457.

[14] Who’s Who, Rajya Sabha Secretariat, New Delhi, November 1955.

[15] Venkitachala Gounderin Vazhkai Varalaru, p. 75.

D. Abul Fazal 101

[16] V.K. Kuppusami, Op. cit. P. 117.

[17] Russell, The Collector of North Arcot District to the Chief Secretary, (strictlyConfidential), 23 May 1930, Under Secretary’s Safe. No. 699(D), 8 June 1930.

[18] J.B.P. More, Op. Cit. p. 171.

[19] S.M. Fossil, The Islamic South, Madras, 1941, p. 17.


CULTIVATION OF CROPS IN HYDERABAD STATE:TELANGANA REGION - A STUDY

Mohammad Osman Pasha

PG and Research Department of History,Islamiah College (Autonomous) Vaniyambadi – 635 752

Abstract

The Hyderabad state occupied a prominent place in the History of Indiageneral and Sothern India particular. The State depended mostly on Agriculturesector. Hyderabad State was predominantly rural and agrarian as 86 percent ofthe population lived in the Villages and 55 percent of them depended directly onagriculture. Out of the total area of 53,000,000 acres of land only 30,000,000acres i.e., about 60 percent, were under Governmental land revenue system, (calledDiwani or Khalsa area); about 15,000,000 acres, i.e., about 30 percent, under theJagirdari system, and about 10 percent as the Nizam’s own direct estate, i.e., Sarf-i- Khas system . Agriculture depends on vivid aspects such as soil, irrigation,seeds, agriculture implements and manures. All these played a major role in thedevelopment of agriculture. Nizam rules provided loan facilities for encourageagriculture in the state, agriculture in one of an important sector in Hyderabadstate. in Hyderabad State the Marathwada, Karnataka and Telangana regionsare principle regions. These regions cultivated agriculture in huge way. Fordevelopment of agriculture land is most important in every region in Hyderabadstate. utilization of land and other things will discuss.

Introduction

Classification of Area

The Nizam State was one of the largest States in India. It had a vast area but some areaunder cultivation and other are un-cultivable. The area occupied an important placein the agriculture sector . In Hyderabad State in 1881 the total area 33,281 Sq.Miles,between 1891-1900 total area 40,861 Sq. Miles, in 1901 total area 47,096 Sq. Milesand in 1903 total area is 60,743 Sq.Miles. We had given an area details under total area,cultivated area and un-cultivated area in Hyderabad State from 1881 to 1903.

During Mir Osman Ali Khan rule (1911-1948) the total area and cultivated areaincreased constantly every year with Government support, development of irrigation,

Mohammad Osman Pasha 103

new agriculture implements, loan facilities and new seeds etc. Nizam rulers had takenseveral important steps for the development of agriculture in the state. In HyderabadState half of the total area utilized for cultivation and remaining area was under un-cultivable land. The total area from 1925 to 1945 is constant. There is no increasing intotal area. But the net sown area and un-cultivable area is increased in the state. Thedetails of the total area and cultivated area in Hyderabad state from 1925-26 to 1944-45as follows.

Table 1: Classification of Area

Year Total area ForestNot available

for cultivation

Net sown

area

Area under

food crops

Area under

non-food

crops

1925-26 52,926,720 6,043,522 1,480,789 21,497,773 18,775,893 7,547,817

1929-30 52,926,720 5,821,639 4,397,299 28,253,068 19,925,045 9,290,081

1934-35 52,926,720 6,325,319 4,720,522 28,370,264 20,564,713 8,217,213

1939-40 52,926,720 6,185,000 11,158,000 28,433,000 19,625,000 9,280,000

1944-45 52,926,720 6,170,000 8,651,000 26,475,000 18,660,800 8,124,086Sources:

1. Agricultural Statistics; 1335F -1344F (1925-26 to 1934-35), H.E.H. the Nizams Government, GovernmentCentral Press, Hyderabad Deccan, 1938, P.P.2-3.

2. Agricultural Statistics; 1335F -1349F (1935-36 to 1939-40), H.E.H. the Nizams Government, GovernmentCentral Press, Hyderabad Deccan, 1942, P.P.8-13.

3. Agricultural Statistics; 1350F -1354F (1940-41 to 1944-45), H.E.H. the Nizams Government, GovernmentPress, Hyderabad Deccan, 1949, P.P. 56-57.

The above Table reveals that the total area in Hyderabad State from 1925 to 1945.The total area in Hyderabad State is constant. In 1925 the total area in State was5,29,26,720 acres and in 1945 also the same acres are occupied. The un cultivated areain 1925 was 14,80,789 acres and in 1939 -40 it was 1,11,58,000 acres. The respectedarea increased every year. Food crops area dominated in the State. In 1934-35 thecultivation of food crops are 2,05,64,713 acres and non food crops are 82,17,213 acres.The net sown area in Hyderabad State was increased every year. But forest area is alsoconstant. Good progress in cultivated area in Hyderabad state.

The soils

The soils of Hyderabad State divided into two main groups according to the parentrocks. The two main group such as I) Black Cotton Soils and laterites 2) Sandy loams.The basic rocks viz. Deccan Traps and some gneisses give rise to black cotton soils,locally known as regur and to the residual laterites after being leached of the solublematerials. Sandy loams are formed after the decomposition of acidic granites, doleritedykes, Quartz veins and epidiorites.

104 Cultivation of Crops in Hyderabad State: Telangana Region

The block cotton soil Districts are Aurangabad, Parbhani, Nanded, Bhir, andOsmanabad with scattered patches in Medak and Nizamabad. Transported black soilsare to be seen in the southern part of Gulbarga District, Raichur Doab southern portionof Mahaboobnagar, Nalgonda, eastern parts Warangal, and Khammam District andsouthern part of Adilabad District . The black soils of the State as in other parts alsovary from deep black soils to medium black soils.

The regur or Chalka soil is very important for the commercial crop cultivation inthe Hyderabad State. This soil does not require the irrigation facilities. It was alsoneed not the manure for the crops. The black Cotton soils are very much useful forthe commercial cultivation in Nizam Hyderabad State. These soils are predominant inthe Gulbarga, Raichur Bidar, Parbhani, Nanded, Aurangabad, Osmanabad and Bhir etcregions in Hyderabad State during Mir Osman Ali Khan rule . Nearly 80 percent ofthe cotton crop came from these Districts. They are contributed a lot to the commercialcrops of the State. Particularly in Telangana region the Northern Telangana Adilabad,Karimnagar and Warangal Districts contributed 85 percent of the total cotton crop whichwas cultivated in Telangana region.

Agriculture Department

The Hyderabad Government taking necessary steps for the development of agriculturein the State. Mir Osman Ali Khan put for the effort to strengthen the department inall respect. The department was established in 1912-13 , the main object is savingthe indigenous long-staple commercial crops and cotton from the deterioration. It wasoriginally placed under the Department of Revenue, later transferred to the Departmentof Industries and Commerce. The Agriculture Department conducted research andexperiments on commercial crop cultivation and given demonstration for cultivatorsin Hyderabad State. In 1927-28 due to the efforts of Dr. Harold Mann agricultureactivities are increased. In 1930-31 the Poultry- Breeding Section was organized. In1932-33 the Horticultural Section was started in Hyderabad State. During 1939-40 aCotton Research Station was established at Nanded . In 1940-41 the department ofAgriculture divided into two, one for the Research and the other for Propaganda.

Source of Irrigation

In Hyderabad state the irrigation source are Wells, Tanks and the Projects. TheGovernment of Nizam had taken several steps for construction new projects, tanks andwells for the development of the agriculture. Large number of cultivators depended bothwells and tanks in Telangana region. These two sources are very important in the region.

Well irrigation is the one of the best irrigation system in Hyderabad state particularlyin Telangana region. The total number of wells in Hyderabad State is 5,92,753.Government dug new wells both in Marathwada and Telangana region.


In Telangana region large number of tanks constructed by Kakatiyas rulers. Theyruled Telangana region from 1000 A.D. to 1326 A.D. they constructed Ghanpurlake in Ghanpur Mandal in Mahaboobnagar, Sanigarm lake in Karimnagar andRamappa lake in Warangal etc. This path followed by the Qutb Shahi rulersand Asaf Jahi rulers. The Nizam ruler constructed several tanks in HyderabadState. The tanks in Telangana are Nallavagu, Viranavagu, Suddavagu, Mandamarri,Jowlynala, Erravagu, Mathadivagu, Chiklivagu, Kalanodi and Peddavagu in Adilabad,Nakkavagu and Haldi in Medak, Koilsagar, Saralasagar, Mangnoor and Amistapur inMahaboobnagar, Kothapallivagu and Pariginala in Rangareddy, Kalikota, Lankasagar,Edullavagu, Patha Cheruvu, Peddavagu, Nallavagu, Chintala Cheruvu and Bethampudiin Khammam, Nallavagu, Kappalvagu and Chintalurvagu in Nizamabad, Bhimanpalli,Vemuleru, Gurka Bavi Bandam, and Adavi Devulapalli in Nalgonda , Bandlavagu,Salivagu, Jangalnala, Hussainimiyavagu, Kesavapatnamvagu, Peddavagu, Mohdimada,Mullavagu, Ellammacheruvu, Rallavagu and Anatharam Cheruvu etc in Karimnagar,Gowraram and Konareddy Cheruvu etc in Warangal district constructed by the Nizamrulers.

The Nizam rulers restored several tanks in Telangana region. The Dharmaram,Jakaram, Kesamudram, Pakhal, Laknawaram, Ramappa, In Hyderabad state there are370 large tanks before the 1909. In Atraf- i-Balda district the large tanks are 139and small are 310. In Nizamabad district the large tanks are 635 and small tanks are837(including kuntas), in Medak the large tanks are 351 and small tanks are 1,658,in Mahaboobnagar district 505 large tanks and 1,863 small tanks (including Kuntas),in Nalgonda district large tanks are 352 and small tanks (including Kuntas) 1,110, inWarangal district large tanks are 1,433 and small tanks(including Kuntas) are 3,826, inKarimnagar district large tanks and small tanks are 5,694, in Adilabad district the largeand small tanks are 223. The total number of large and small tanks in Telangana regionis 18,936. These tanks supplied water for the cultivation.

In the early 20th century Mir Ahmed Ali (later Ali Nawab Jung) became ChiefEngineer and consultant Engineer till 1948. He was responsible for the preparationof a comprehensive development plan and exploitation of a water resources, frommajor rivers ad their tributaries in the State. In consultation with Moksha GundamVishvesvarayya, the State developed a number of irrigation projects and completedOsman Sagar in 1920, Himayat Sagar in 1926 to safeguard the city of Hyderabadfrom floods and also to provide safe drinking water. From 1928 the irrigationdepartment started an intensive drive for the constructuion of large and mediumsized reservoirs and projects. Some important projects constructed during this periodwere Nizamsagar, Dindi, Paler, Wyra, Pendlipakala, Singhabhupalem, Baithpally andChndrasagar projects. He spent 4,26,00,000 rupees only on Nizamsagar projectin Nizamabad. On Maneru spent 76,00,000 rupees. Lakhs of acres cultivated in thisproject. Pocharam, Palair, Wyra, Nizam Sagar, Dindi and Maneru supplied water tothousands of acres in Telangana region during Nizam rule.


Variety of Seeds

Agriculture department conducted research on seeds for growth of production indifferent parts of the state. The government established farms for conduct research onbest seeds for suitable to cultivation in the state and growth of production. The farmsimproved seeds and experimentally cultivated some selected parts of the State.

In rice cultivation the seeds are Pichori, Ambaru are fine quality seeds cultivated inMedak, Nizamabad, Atraf-i-Balda and Bidar. In medium quality the seeds are KashaPichori or Nankram, Kichidi or No.24 Kichidi Sambhal or Kichidi Sannal cultivated inNalgonda and Warangal district. The Pala Sannal and the Pocha Sannal are cultivatedNizamabad Warangal and Karimnagar districts. The Nizam Goad, Tekasannal, Mota,Konamani, Ramsagar, Daka Gaudal or Akati and Kusma and Masral are coarse qualitycultivated in all Telangana districts.

In wheat the seeds are Sharbati, Bansi, Peela No.1, Peela No.2, Lal, and Jod Gahoonimportant. The Sharbati seeds cultivated in Maharashtra region and Nizamabad districtin Telangana region. Bansi seeds cultivated in Medak and Adilabad districts. The Laland the Jod Gahoon cultivated throughout the state. The variety seeds in Jawar areKharif White, Thaingni, Dhendi, Ramkhel, Pachha Jonna, Kharif Yellow, Kharif Redand Rabi White cultivated mostly in Telangana Region.

In groundnut verities are Bombay Bold, Coromandel, West Africa, Virginia Runner,Philippine white, Mauritius, Khandesh, Ranchi, Big Japan, and Desi important in thestate. The cotton verities are In Hyderabad State there are eight varieties of cottoncultivated, such as Oomra, Hyderabad Gaorani, Western, Cocanada, Mungari Raichur,Kumpta Raichur, Namri or America and Jarila. The Oomra is generally classed as fineOomra. In gram the varieties are White or Kabuli, black, red, and yellow are cultivatedin Hyderabad State. In castor there are two types small and medium seeds are cultivablein the state. Brown Bold type variety is one of the best linseed in Hyderabad state. TheYellow, White, red and black seeds of sesamum are very much useful for cultivation inHyderabad State. The white variety was cultivated in Telangana region. Rai, sarsoonand rape seeds of mustard cultivated in the state. In Telangana and Karnataka region theRape seed cultivated. In sugarcane the verity seeds are Poondia, Kabirya, Kavangiri,Bangdya, Khadya, Wansi, Sarkari Naishakar or Co.213. Desi, Zarda, and Varginiaverities of seeds in tobacco. The Government Farms conducted research on seeds forsuitable the soils of the state and experiment conducted in their fields.

The Government improved seeds are Akola No.14, African in Bajra, Pusa 28 andSabour 4 in Gram, Spanish, Hebbal No.1, and Kanke No.17 in Groundnut, R.1586,R.1601 and Aishpuri in Jowar, Pusa No.H.63 and 21 in Linseed, Himayat Sagar No.539,161 and 504 in Rice, Large Yellow and small green in Soya Bean, Coimbatore No.423,421,419 and 290 in Sugarcane, Pusa No. T.28 and 142 in Tobacco , Poona red and Pusa.E. in Tur, A.O. 115, Osm.23-10, and Pusa 4 are in Wheat etc supplied to the peasants ofboth Marathwada and Telangana region.


Manures

Bulky organic manures like Farmyard manure, sheep manure and compost, oilcakessuch as groundnut, castor and pungam, green manures like sunn-hemp, daincha,pillipesara, wild indigo, glyricidia and pungamia and inorganic fertilizers likeammonium sulphate, ammonium sulphate nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate,ammonium phosphate, nitro-phosphate, super phosphate, urea muriatic of potash andbone meal or bone super are commonly used in Telangana region. All these manuresarea heavily used for paddy and garden crops. The ryots generally apply chemicalfertilizers in combination with green manures . Rain-fed crops are manure once in fouror five years. Farmyard manure is generally applied prior to the commencement ofpreparatory cultivation. The manure generally used is that obtained from the villagecattle, and the sweepings from the village, and from leaves and branches of trees. Jowarand wheat in the regar receive no manure. Even with regard wet and garden cropspeasant depended mostly on that which was collected from his backyard or farmyard.Oil-cake or an artificial fertilizer to farmyard manure will prove a profitable combinationto Telangana ryots.

Cultivation

In Telangana region there are two types of crops were cultivated, the food crops and nonfood crops in both the Kharif and Rabi seasons. The region had rainy water sources andmore chalka soils are located due to these reasons cultivated more dry crops. Telanganaregion cultivated mostly food crops during Nizam rule. The cultivation of both food andnon-food crops details in Telangana region as follows.

Table 2

Sl.No DistrictsFood crops

1943-44Food crops

1944-45Non food

crops 1943-44Non food

crops 1944-451 Atraf-i-Balda 1,55,552 3,13,901 76,384 1,03,7412 Nizamabad 4,22,980 3,40,946 1,18,170 66,2283 Medak 3,78,193 3,53,790 1,16,429 1,17,8004. Baghat 47,496 73,958 26,347 33,7185 Mahaboobnagar 7,97,869 9,54,013 7,47,535 5,08,2246 Nalgonda 7,08,062 7,17,135 3,69,243 3,24,6827 Warangal 4,94,160 4,53,064 4,38,377 2,85,0948 Karimnagar 6,57,541 6,57,920 4,51,383 3,91,1649 Adilabad 5,26,630 5,94,805 4,77,553 3,14,006

Total Telangana 41,89,483 44,59,532 28,21,421 21,44,657Source: Agriculture Statistics, H.E.H. The Nizam’s Government, 1350 to 1354F (1940-41to 1944-45A.D),

Government Press, Hyderabad-Deccan, 1959, P.56.


The above table reveals that the Kharif crops cultivated in Telangana region during1943-45 both the food crops and non food crops. In nine districts figures show thegrowth of the crops. Mahaboobnagar district occupied first place in the cultivationof food crops and non food crops in Telangana region. After Mahaboobnagar, theNalgonda, Karimnagar and Adilabad followed. But in case of non food crops in theparticular period cultivation was decreased. However, the total cropped area in case offood crop increased. Total food crop area in 1943-44 is 41,89,483 and in 1944-45 is44,59,532 . The non food crops in 1943-44 is 28,21,421 and in 1944-45 is 21,44,657.

In rabi season the cultivated area in Telangana region very less. Kharif is the mainseason for the Telangana cultivators and in rabi season they cultivated small portion ofland. The food crops and non food crops cultivated in Telangana region from 1943-44to 1944-45 details as follows.

Table 3: Rabi cultivation in Telangana region from 1943-44 to 1944-45

Sl.No DistrictsFood crops

1943-44Food crops

1944-45Non food

crops 1943-44Non food

crops 1944-451 Atraf-i- Balda 68,261 64,805 95,175 1,08,6252 Nizamabad 1,80,575 1,79,604 59,578 37,2303 Medak 1,61,988 1,39,980 50,077 56,0644 Baghat 19,606 21,139 25,712 29,8215 Mahaboobnagar 1,76,750 1,41,068 2,30,996 1,48,1656 Nalgonda 2,81,858 3,13,382 3,31,376 2,54,4117 Warangal 4,11,804 4,91,325 40,333 43,4668 Karimnagar 2,58,993 2,56,972 60,450 38,1059 Adilabad 3,29,780 3,49,569 63,272 1,04,779

Total 18,89,614 19,57,844 9,56,969 8,20,665Source: Agriculture Statistics, H.E.H. The Nizam’s Government, 1350 to 1354F (1940-41to 1944-45A.D),

Government Press, Hyderabad-Deccan, 1959, P.57.

The above table reveals that the rabi cultivated area is less than the Kharif area. TheWarangal district cultivated food crops in rabi season and it was occupied first place.Adilabad district and Nalgonda districts occupied second and third place occupiedin food crop cultivation. In non food crops Nalgonda, Mahaboobnagar and Atraf-i-Balda districts occupied first, second and third places respectively. The total food cropcultivation during 1943-44 is 18,89,614 and in 1944-45 is 19,57,614 acres. The nonfood crops are in 1943-44 is 9,56,969 and in 1944-45 is 8,20,665 acres. The food cropscultivation is double compare with the non food crops in 1943-44 is 9,32,645 acres andin 1944-45 is 11,36,949 acres. The above figure shows the Hyderabad state food cropsand non food cultivation both in Kharif and rabi seasons.

Cultivation of CropsCultivation of different crops both in Telangana and Marathwada region increased everyyear during Nizam rule. An un-cultivable land came into the cultivation with the


encouragement of Government in different parts of the State. Particularly in Telanganaregion most of the waste land came into cultivation and cultivated different crops. Thedetails of the crops both in Telangana and Maharashtra details as follows

Table 4: Crop acreage in Telangana region from 1930-31 to 1934-35

Sl.NoName of the

Crop1930-31 1931-32 1932-33 1933-34 1934-35

1. Rice 5,72,508 9,70,792 8,62,751 11,36,138 10,07,066

2. Jawar 23,94,028 25,53,832 25,69,769 26,37,275 24,79,871

3. Bajra 9,75,556 11,24,845 13,32,709 12,10,098 9,33,096

4. Maize 4,92,598 5,28,058 5,26,815 5,71,513 5,31,942

5. Gram 2,39,415 4,11,850 3,75,109 3,13,276 4,37,529

6.Other Cereals& Pulses

16,10,280 14,46,444 15,48,826 12,43,741 12,84,644

7. Sesamum 4,83,429 3,95,882 4,73,389 4,47,728 4,07,307

8. Groundnut 91,308 1,01,458 1,48,557 1,93,024 2,44,265

9. Castor 7,39,001 8,00,966 7,81,861 7,64,639 7,39,973

10. Cotton 5,68,497 4,43,231 4,58,501 4,56,737 4,20,479

11. Tobacco 23,386 24,861 35,181 26,872 24,887

12. Sugarcane 1,532 1,377 2,144 3,088 7,996

13. Chillies 00 00 00 00 00

14. Fodder Crops 12,82,372 9,46,685 9,96,248 11,83,222 10,23,995

15.Fruits &Vegetables

2,39,242 1,88,789 2,62,700 1,75,055 2,51,299

Sources:1. Statistical Abstract of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions from 1321F to 1330F (1912-1921), Hyderabad-

Deccan, P.P. 136-143.2. Department of Agriculture, H.E.H. The Nizam’s Government S.No.165 & file No.5/57 (1948), Sl.No. 14 file

No. 7/57 (1948).3. Agriculture Department, H.E.H. the Nizam’s Government S.No.6, File No.110/58 (1949).4. Agriculture Department, Sl.No. 15 File No. 6/57 (1949).

The above table reveals that the different crops cultivated in Telangana region from1930-31 to 1934-35. In food crops the Jowar, Bajra and the rice cultivation dominatedin Telangana region. Castor, Maize, Cotton and Sesamum cultivation and productionoccupied an important place in Telangana region during Nizam rule. Cereals & Pulses,Fodder crops and the Fruits & vegetables cultivation also occupied an important placein the Telangana region during 1930-31 to 1934-35. In Telangana region Jowar was first


place in food crops and in commercial crops the Castor. Year by year the cultivationincreased.


Sl.NoName of the

Crop1935-36 1936-37 1937-38 1938-39 1939-40

1. Rice 8,87,000 10,01,000 8,31,000 9,39,000 7,79,000

2. Jawar 24,59,000 24,97,000 22,89,000 29,29,000 34,23,000

3. Bajra 9,62,000 10,45,000 8,58,000 7,73,000 6,33,000

4. Maize 4,95,000 5,10,000 4,84,000 4,75,000 4,28,000

5. Gram 3,39,000 3,35,000 3,24,000 3,28,000 2,01,000


11,53,000 11,34,000 9,97,000 17,85,000 15,68,000

7. Sesamum 4,50,000 4,71,000 4,45,000 3,48,000 4,01,000

8. Groundnut 2,58,000 4,22,000 6,28,000 2,52,000 8,13,000

9. Castor 7,84,000 7,77,000 4,81,000 7,21,000 6,70,000

10. Cotton 4,39,000 4,78,000 3,96,000 3,85,000 4,29,000

11. Tobacco 26,419 32,482 22,275 30,977 38,457

12. Sugarcane 15,231 19,326 8,614 9,970 19,503

13. Chillies 00 00 00 00 00

14. Fodder Crops 8,91,000 10,10,000 3,31,000 1,81,000 3,53,000


3,80,000 3,90,000 1,90,000 2,20,000 3,65,000


Deccan, P.P. 136-143.

2. Department of Agriculture, HJ.E.H. The Nizam’s Government S.No.165 & file No.5/57 (1948), Sl.No. 14file No. 7/57 (1948).

3. Agriculture Department, H.E.H. the Nizam’s Government S.No.6, File No.110/58 (1949).

4. Agriculture Department, Sl.No. 15 File No. 6/57 (1949).

The above table reveals that the cultivation of different crops is decreased yearby year during 1935-1940. But in Jawar, Cereals & Pulses, Groundnut, Tobacco andSugarcane etc crops cultivation overall increased. The remaining crops cultivationis decreased. The major crops like Rice, Bajra, Jowar, Maize, Cereals & Pulses ,groundnut, Castor, Cotton and Fodder Crops cultivation is more in Telangana. Slowlythe commercial crops cultivation increased in the region.



Sl.NoName of the

Crop1940-41 1941-42 1942-43 1943-44 1944-45

1. Rice 10,85,000 6,50,000 10,90,000 11,72,000 50,96,000

2. Jawar 31,89,000 31,61,000 31,50,000 27,70,000 27,17,000

3. Bajra 5,74,000 5,43,000 5,52,000 4,11,000 6,16,000

4. Maize 4,17,000 4,70,000 3,81,000 4,14,000 4,22,000

5. Gram 1,98,000 1,11,000 80,000 90,000 1,18,000


15,68,000 12,02,000 11,30,000 10,81,000 14,12,000

7. Sesamum 3,49,000 4,76,000 4,40,000 4,83,000 4,72,000

8. Groundnut 8,30,000 5,90,000 8,35,000 14,14,000 11,03,000

9. Castor 7,36,000 7,81,000 7,27,000 7,73,000 6,83,000

10. Cotton 5,80,000 4,74,000 3,59,000 4,84,000 16,94,000

11. Tobacco 31,044 32,255 24,950 37,362 16,467

12. Sugarcane 19,807 16,091 14,244 21,796 31,331

13. Chillies 00 00 00 64,951 1,04,372

14. Fodder Crops 4,59,000 5,21,000 3,62,000 26,000 35,000


3,82,000 2,41,000 2,73,000 43,000 3,000


Deccan, P.P. 136-143.2. Department of Agriculture, H.E.H. The Nizam’s Government S.No.165 & file No.5/57 (1948), Sl.No. 14 file

No. 7/57 (1948).3. Agriculture Department, H.E.H. the Nizam’s Government S.No.6, File No.110/58 (1949).4. Agriculture Department, Sl.No. 15 File No. 6/57 (1949).

The above table reveals that the cultivation of the different crops in Telanganaregion during Nizam rule from 1940 to 1945. The food crops are Rice Jowar andBajra occupied dominant place in Telangana region. The commercial crops like Maize,Sesamum, Groundnut, Castor, Cotton, Sugarcane, and Chillies cultivation increased. Atthe Same time Rice and Bajra food crops cultivation increased.

Conclusion

The Nizam rulers encouraged agriculture in the State. They were restored several lakesand constructed new projects in the state for irrigation purpose. The total number ofwells in Hyderabad State is 5,92,753 and both large and small tanks in Telangana region


is 18,936. The agriculture Department set up in the year 1912-13. The two main groupof soils such as I) Black Cotton Soils and laterites 2) Sandy loams are located in theState. In 1881 the total area of the State is 33,281 Sq.Miles, from 1891 to 1900 is40,861 Sq. Miles, in 1901, 47,096 Sq. Miles and in 1903 total area is 60,743 Sq.Miles.In 1925 the total area of the State was 5,29,26,720 acres and in 1945 also the same acresare occupied. The un cultivated area in 1925 was 14,80,789 acres and in 1939-40 it was1,11,58,000 acres. Nizam rulers established experimental forms for new seeds to theState and supplied variety of seeds in paddy, groundnut, castor, cotton and jowar etc.to the cultivators. The major crops like Rice, Bajra, Jowar, Maize, Cereals & Pulses,Groundnut, Castor, Cotton and Fodder Crops cultivated in the state. In 1934-35 thecultivation of food crops are 2,05,64,713 acres and non food crops are 82,17,213 acres,in 1943-44 is 18,89,614 and in 1944-45 is 19,57,614 acres respectively. The non foodcrops are in 1943-44 is 9,56,969 and in 1944-45 is 8,20,665 acres. The food cropscultivation is double compare with the non food crops in 1943-44 is 9,32,645 acres andin 1944-45 is 11,36,949 acres. Thus the Nizams developed the State in agriculture sectorand occupied prominent place in the history of India.

References

[1] Sundarayya, P. (1972), Telangana People’s Struggle and its Lessons, CommunistParty of India (Marxist), Culcutta, P.9.

[2] Chatrvedi, B.N. (1956), Hyderabad State, A Regional and Economic Survey,Hyderabad Geography Association, Hyderabad Deccan, P.1.

[3] Vaikuntham, Y. (2004), Studies in Socio-Economic and Political History:Hyderabad State, Karshak Art Printers, Hyderabad, P.67.

[4] Agricultural Statistics, 1335F -1344F (1925-26 to 1934-35), H.E.H. the NizamsGovernment, Government Central Press, Hyderabad Deccan, 1938, P.2.

[5] Chaturvedi, B.N., Hyderabad State; A regional And Economic Survey, Op-Cit,P.30.

[6] Ibid.

[7] Rao, C.V.S. (1951), A Review of Hyderabad Finance, Government Press,Hyderabad-Deccan, P.217.

[8] Ibid, P.218.

[9] Development of Hyderabad, the Osmania Engineering Graduates, Association,Hyderabad-Deccan, 1938, P.5.

[10] Raja Gopal, M.V. (1978), Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteers, Nalgonda, theGovernment Central Press, Hyderabad, P.P.63-64.


[11] Some Economic Facts and Figures of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions,Government Central Press, Hyderabad-Deccan, 1937, P.4.

[12] Rao, C.V.S. (1951), A Review of Hyderabad Finance, The Government Press,Hyderabad Deccan, P.P.233-235.

[13] Agriculture Statistics 1350Fto 1354F (1940-41 to 1944-45), Government press,Hyderabad-Deccan, 1949, P.119.

[14] Ibid, P.140.

[15] Agricultural Statistics, From 1345to 1349F (1935-36 to 1939-40), GovernmentCentral Press, Hyderabad-Deccan, 1942, P.156.

[16] Ibid,P.163.

[17] Raja Gopal, M.V. (1974), Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteers, Karimnagar, TheGovernment Printing Press, Kurnool, P.89.

[18] Agriculture Statistics, H.E.H. The Nizam’s Government, 1350 to 1354F (1940-41to 1944-45A.D), Op-Cit, P.57.

[19] Agriculture Statistics, H.E.H. The Nizam’s Government, 1350 to 1354F (1940-41to 1944-45A.D), Op-Cit, P.57.

[20] Department of Agriculture, H.E.H. The Nizam’s Government S.No.165 & fileNo.5/57 (1948), Sl.No. 14 file No. 7/57 (1948).

[21] Agriculture Department, H.E.H. the Nizams Government S.No.6, File No.110/58(1949).


THE VOICE OF THE SUBALTERN IN UPAMANYUCHATTERJEE’S THE MAMMARIES OF THE

WELFARE STATES. Mushtaque Ahmed1∗ and S. Thirunaukkarasu2

1Department of English, Islamiah College (Autonomous), Vaniyambadi – 635 7522Department of English, Muthurangam Govt. Arts College, Vellore

∗e-mail : [email protected]

Abstract

The Mammaries of the Welfare State is not merely a novel by the realistnovelist of this era, but also is the theory of his bitter experiences being a bureaucrathimself. The novel draws almost all facets of the political system in the countrybesides sarcastically depicting the loop holes of the system. Besides stating theincapacitated situation of the protagonist, the novelist also pens at the helplessnessand oppression of the downtrodden class and how they are oppressed and put aside,and misused by the higher bureaucrats even for their social rights like voting.Chatterjee distinguishes their dismayed and miserable life that of those bureaucratswho enjoy the privileges of the welfare state that is set for the welfare of the stateof these people.

Keywords: Bureaucracy, customary bribe, restlessness of the protagonist.

Introduction

The political ebbs and flows and the vibes of the customary bribe in the Indianbureaucracy is skillfully pictured by Upamanyu Chatterjee in The Mammaries of theWelfare State. The work shows the author’s insight into activities of the bureaucracyand his experiences as a bureaucrat who witnesses the injustices that are blindly ignoredin the welfare state causing physical and mental disturbances to the common man likeBhoothnath Gaitonde whose bold speech in the court justifies the title of this paper.

The Mammaries of the Welfare State is not merely a novel by a realist novelist ofthis era, but also is the theory of his bitter experiences being a bureaucrat himself. Thenovel draws almost all facets of the political system in the country besides sarcasticallydepicting the loop holes of the system.

The Mammaries of the Welfare State speaks the unshed tears and the untold taleof woes of people, especially, the downtrodden who visit the welfare state to have

S. Mushtaque Ahmed and S. Thirunaukkarasu 115

their appeals answered and fulfilled but draw a blank by the corrupted bureaucrats likeBhupen Raghupati and others. The painful fact is that the bureaucrats who have beenappointed for the service of people loot them for performing their jobs they are paid for.The Welfare State has created a number of problems in the life of the poor instead ofmaking it better. It has not solved even their basic necessities of life like food, cloth andshelter. The welfare state that is meant to serve people has abandoned them. Democracyhas lost its meaning, as defined by Abraham Lincoln, ‘of the people, for the people, bythe people’. The Mammaries of the Welfare State shows the wretchedness of the stateboth in its administration or service to society.

Upamanyu Chatterjee through his artistic literary technique proves his discerningeye on the drastic condition and miserable life of the slum dogs in the state. He stands aman of mercy, pity, peace and love for them, and obviously marks his kind heartednessfor the people. The hardships and struggles undertaken by the slums have been broughtunder light by the author through The Mammaries of the Welfare State.

The Mammaries of the Welfare State is the sequel work of Chatterjee’s first debutnovel, English, August: An Indian Story where Agastya Sen is introduced as a youngboy of twenty four years old who is reluctant and fed up with both his job and the placeMadna since he has been brought up among English speaking class and hails from city.Agastya Sen is a shallow young boy who is propelled into bureaucracy as an IAS at aplace called Madna. The place and its surroundings disturb him very much and he feelsisolated and alienated since he has been among the English speaking friends and hashad enjoyed a westernized atmosphere.

“Agastya was so enervated by his life in the city that ever so often, when he wasalone, he found himself leaning back in his desk chair or resting his head against thearmrest of the lumpy sofa in his office that served as his bed, shutting his eyes andweeping silently”. (The Mammaries of the Welfare State, p3).

Besides stating the incapacitated situation of the protagonist, the novelist also pensat the helplessness and oppression of the downtrodden class and how they are oppressedand put aside, and misused by the higher bureaucrats even for their social rightslike voting. Chatterjee distinguishes their dismayed and miserable life that of thosebureaucrats who enjoy the privileges of the welfare state that is set for the welfare of thestate of these people.

The protagonist is restless and feels emptier as usual since he is immaculate andhonest person who is free from all sorts of bribe and corruption throughout his tenurein bureaucracy. He wants to make the best part of his job doing something good andbeneficial for people. Since his higher ups like Bhupen Ragupathi are corrupted andhe can do nothing to stop either the corruption or the corrupted from the system, hegrows enervated and thus become restless from job and life. Here, Chatterjee draws theattention of the reader that it is the major cause of blankness and agitation in Agastya.Being a bureaucrat himself who is of no use to people. All type of injustices in thewelfare takes place even before his eyes, but he remains a mere spectator.

116 Mammaries of the Welfare State

The entire system of the welfare state is corrupted before him. He neither could stopit nor adapt it. The monetary and bodily customary bribe is common in the welfare stateof Madna. Of course, the novelist is a great protestor of these bias and inhuman deeds.The pathetic situation of the people under the welfare state is sketched by Chatterjee as,“Amongst — and in — the twenty-odd white Ambassador cars there nested the low lifewith its charpais, kerosene stoves, lines of washing and racing children. It included someof the drivers, peons, bearers, attendants, cooks, orderlies and sweepers who worked inthe Guest House and the Secretariat”. (The Mammaries of the Welfare State, p6).

The Mammaries of the Welfare State focuses that the welfare state established toserve people has turned a slaughter place for them and that it has become a puppetin the hands of the corrupted bureaucrats. Though people suffer a lot by the unkinddeeds of the corrupted bureaucrats, yet there are some vibrant people like BhoothnathGaitonde, who stands to speak the injustices against them and speaks of the customarybribe in the state. His bold speech makes the readers presume the answer to GayatriSpivak’s ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’. Gaitonde speaks in the court before the Judge as,

“...If the Welfare State is the driving force, me-laard, then we are the wheels, andeach one of hundreds of thousands of us stays—each with seven to ten members of hisfamily — in a ten-by-ten tin-and-jute box; we all troop out and crap every morningamongst the vultures and dogs. Our women queue up at the water taps by four a.m.We shell out five rupees a bucket to whichever hoodlums taken over the taps”. (TheMammaries of the Welfare State p14).

The Mammaries of the Welfare State speaks the sufferings of common people whohave been dragged to lead the slum life amidst unclean and unhygienic neighborhood.In the court, Gaitonde pictures before the judge this life of the slum people. His deliveryof speech in the quote is worth appreciating.

“Me-laard,” argued he before the judge, I don’t want tostay in this slum, I didn’t choose to live surrounded byseveral varieties of excrement, used sanitary napkins,the rotting reuse tossed out every day by a thousandneighbourhood eating-houses, soiled bandages,broken syringes and bottles chucked out by clinics,dispensaries and hospital, the rubbish of a thousandand one shops, cottage industries, backyard factories,workshops—and rats, stray dogs and vultures—Ididn’t select them as my neighbours. Of course,I had no choice; in any other city, with my salary”.

(The Mammaries of the Welfare State p13.)The word, ‘eating-houses’ in the above passage clearly states that there are families

in the slum that do not get enough food regularly. This word states the wretched lifeof the people dwelling in the slum. Gaitonde is courageous and confident to the extent

S. Mushtaque Ahmed and S. Thirunaukkarasu 117

that he vents his anger towards the incapability of the welfare state and its failure inrendering its sincere services to them. He speaks nothing but fact and attempts to putforth the unfairness to poor people by the corrupted bureaucrats.

The municipality by the order of the government mercilessly takes steps to vacatethe slum area without arranging any alternative for the people. Chatterjee thus drawsthis situation in the book as, “... the Municipal Corporation showed up at his door, Ithad decided that week to clean up his part of Bhayankar — a routine exercise that itundertakes every month in different parts of the city”. p13. The welfare state is justconcerned to vacate Bhayankar. It does not care where the poor would go if they areexpelled from there. It should have taken precautions steps for the shelter of the slumsbefore it could take any step. It is entire injustice done to them.

It is obvious from the speech of Gaitonde, that there are bureaucrats that not onlysell their inward eye for some meager benefits, but also the doctrines of the welfarestate. It is they who have weakened the foundation of the state. Chatterjee masterfullydepicts the draw backs of the system stating that the corrupted bureaucrats do not flinchto get bribe even from the slums to provide them ration card or electricity metre. Thespeech of Gaitonde thus elaborates this.

“I’ve been in Bhayankar now, me-laard, for twenty two years,in which time the Welfare State’s done nothing for me forfree—which is as it should be. I’m not a freeloader, andI’m not complaining. I’ve paid in bribes for my ration card,my photo pass and my electricity metre. I’ve been bribed inreturn for my vote — but that’s all fine, it’s the properprocedur...” (The Mammaries of the Welfare State p14).

Gaitonde speaks in such a way that the reader is easily able to visualize the slumarea and ease the troubles and difficulties of the people who dwell in such a patheticcircumstance. The reader could gauge from this speech how people are disturbed and aremade to compromise with miserable life though not wholeheartedly. They are helplesslygetting bribe to vote, which is their right. Even their basic national right is raped bythese corrupted bureaucrats. “I’ve been bribed in return for my vote —”. p14. Thus,the daring speech of Bhootnath Gaintonde seems to be the reply to one of the famouspostcolonial theorists Gayathri Spivak’s essay, ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’.

Interestingly, there are corrupted bureaucrats who justify their act of getting bribe.It seems that getting bribe is not their wish, but it is their helplessness as the poor are.These bureaucrats are not in a position to furnish the necessities and do their familialresponsibilities. Stating about one of his colleagues, Agastya in an interview speaks onplain living and low thinking as,

“I too have examples of plain living and low thinking. The plain liver is my AssistantDirector friend who turned vegetarian because he couldn’t afford meat. The low thinkeris my cop acquaintance, a Station House Officer who was dementedly corrupt because

118 Mammaries of the Welfare State

he contended that he had four daughters to marry off with dowries of over five lakhseach”. p31.

Conclusion

The realistic novelist of today’s literary world, Upamanyu Chatterjee states theunfairness done to the poor with the power of bureaucracy which is in fact formed for thebetterment of people. It is illiteracy of the common man that he merely becomes prey tothe greedy and corrupted officials. Had he been educated and practical, he would haveopposed to this customary bribe. Bhootnath Gaitonde is a practical example presentedby the novelist in the book. Who brings out the injustices against him to the publicspeaking to the point with guts. Unless one is right and stand by the side of the fact, hecannot be spared by the wrong people.

References

Upamanyu Chatterjee, (2000), The Mammaries of the Welfare State, VikingBooks.

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