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Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 33 (2008) 347–353

Integrated water management in shared water resources: The EUWater Framework Directive implementation in Greece

Yannis A. Mylopoulos *, Elpida G. Kolokytha

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department of Civil Engineering, Division of Hydraulics and Environmental Engineering, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece

Available online 23 February 2008

Abstract

The political dimension of water becomes highly important not only because of its scarcity, but also as a result of its sharing acrossnational boundaries. Approximately 40% of the global population lives in transboundary water basins, 55% of which are located in Eur-ope, emphasizing the need for cooperation and harmonization of policies. In order to better handle major water problems Europe haveadopted the new EU Water Framework Directive 2000/60 the implementation of which is further discussed. Especially in Greece, man-agement of transboundary rivers is of major importance, since roughly 25% of the country’s renewable resources are ‘‘imported”. How-ever, lack of integrated approaches and legal agreements as well as administrative shortcomings, make transboundary cooperation andmanagement a hard task. This study refers to 4 shared basins in Northern Greece and demonstrates the problems that occur for theirsustainable management.� 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: IWRM; Greece; Shared waters; River basin scale; Legal agreements; WFD

1. Introduction

On a global scale, the importance of shared waterresources is far from negligible: according to UnitedNations worldwide there are almost 245 transboundarywater basins (their number has grown after the break upof USSR and Yugoslavia and the appearance of new inde-pendent States) shared by more than one country, 55 ofthem located in Europe accounting for about 40% of theworld’s population, emphasizing the need for concertedmanagement of shared water bodies and harmonizationof policies.

Transboundary rivers may lead to potential conflict ormay create political tensions and consequently affect rela-tions between neighbouring countries (Sadoff and Grey,2002). Especially for Greece, management of transboun-dary rivers is a major issue as the majority of N. Greece’s

1474-7065/$ - see front matter � 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.pce.2008.02.031

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 31 99 5695; fax: +30 2310 994310.E-mail addresses: mylop@civil.auth.gr (Y.A. Mylopoulos), lpcol@

civil.auth.gr (E.G. Kolokytha).

rivers originate in neighbour countries. In addition to thisfact, Greece is the downstream country in four out of thefive shared rivers and roughly 25% of the country’s renew-able resources are ‘‘imported”. Inevitably, the applied man-agement policy of the upstream countries affects directlyevery economic activity, as well as the protection of impor-tant ecosystems in N. Greece. Since Greece is a full memberof the EU, the Water Framework Directive 2000/60 pro-vides a common framework for the co-operation, planningand management of water resources not only for the EUmembers but also for the candidate countries, introducingriver basin approach and integrated water management(Directive 2000/60).

2. Integrated water resources approach in shared water

resources

According to GWP (2005), ‘‘Integrated Water ResourcesManagement is a systematic process for the sustainabledevelopment, allocation and monitoring of water resourceuse in the context of social, economic and environmental

348 Y.A. Mylopoulos, E.G. Kolokytha / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 33 (2008) 347–353

objectives”. Within the general concept of IWRM, the term‘integration’ refers to various aspects to be considered inorder to achieve sustainable development of river basins,including different objectives, such as economic efficiencyand social acceptability; all water resources (surface waterand groundwater; inland, estuaries and coastal waters) in aholistic water management; water and land-related issues;different types of water use (e.g., domestic, industrial, agri-cultural); all water users as well as others affected by wateruses; and social, economic and ecological impacts of waterpolicies alongside relevant legal and political factors at var-ious spatial scales (Transcat compendium, 2006 www.gisi-g.it/transcat).

Integrated Water Resources Management brings coordi-nation and collaboration among the individual sectors,enhance stakeholder participation, transparency and costeffective local management. The basic criteria that shouldbe taking into account in order to achieve the objectiveof IWRM are:

� Economic efficiency in use, since water scarcity andincreasing demand calls for the maximum possibleefficiency.� Environmental and ecological sustainability in terms of

preserving the ecosystems and the environment forfuture generations.� Equity or equality, so that fair access is secured for

everyone.

In the case of shared water resources, efficiency can bepromoted through the integrated river basin approach, asa part of a national strategy for water resources manage-ment. It incorporates qualitative and quantitative aspectsof water by developing transboundary monitoring mecha-nisms, for controlling and assessing the different waterparameters and it promotes common water developmentplans through integrated designing of water projects.

The implementation of a series of economic instruments,and rules for the distribution of costs, rehabilitation, pro-tection and preservation of common water deposits helpsin achieving environmental and ecological sustainability.

The implementation of a series of economic instruments,and rules for the distribution of costs, rehabilitation, pro-tection and preservation of common water deposits helpsin achieving environmental and ecological sustainability.

The principle of equity and equality refers to fair accessto common water resources and to the adoption of rulesand measures for the best exploitation and managementof them (Kolokytha et al., 2005).

According to Vlachos (1999) (a) the principle of interna-tional water and the concept of an international ‘‘water-course;” (b) the principle of reasonable and equitableutilization; (c) the obligation not to cause significant harmand the exercise of due diligence in the utilization of aninternational watercourse; (d) the principle of notificationand negotiations on planned measures; and (e) the dutyto cooperate, including regular exchanges of data are the

five major legal principles that will shape and affect in thefuture the practice of sustainable transboundary waterresources management.

At the operational level, the challenge is to turn theoryinto practice which means that the adopted principals needto effectively put into actions. The basic idea of the new EUwater Framework Directive is the notion of integratedwater resources management in a river basin scale.

3. Major problems in shared water basins

Effective management of sharing water resourcesdemands political arrangements, technical cooperation inthe form of the use of appropriate methods for the descrip-tion of the current situation, and new institutions to under-take the responsibility to respond to the requirements(Silva et al., 1998).

There are 3 challenges concerning transboundary watercourses: (a) conflict prevention (b) conflict management,and (c) the settlement of formal disputes (Vlachos and Cor-reia, 2000). The difficulties of transboundary water man-agement and planning are compounded by severalfactors. Territorial jurisdictional and ownership disputes,political differences, international relationships of power,position and interest, the absence of effective institutionallegal machinery for settling riparian disputes and specialcultural and social attitudes toward water, all of whichmake change a hard task (Bogardi and Castelein, 2002).

It is also important to consider water problems withinnational borders, in the shared river basin which is also apart of the major transboundary problem. These internalissues, namely disparities between regions in the river basin,water supply and demand needs, competitive uses betweenthe sectors, affect the integrated approach and harden theapplication of a common water plan in the whole basin.

4. The EU WFD – a driving force for cooperation

Up to recently, the management of shared waterresources in Europe, apart from the difficulties that causedthe geographic location and the existence of differentnational legislations had to face also the void of interna-tional legislation with regard to the regulation of trans-boundary waters. Past experience of transboundarycooperation focused on specific water issues (economic,environmental etc.) rather than promoting integratedapproaches.

The recently adopted WFD (European Water Frame-work Directive) 2000/60/EC, establishes a new institutionalframework, giving directions for the common approach,the common objectives, principals, definitions and mea-sures for the management of waters in Europe. The newWater Framework Directive, provides the conditions foran important reform in the European environmental legis-lation and the administrative practice. The objective of thenew Water Framework Directive, is the application andimplementation of basic principals of sustainable water

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resources management and specifically, the effectiveness,the efficiency and the equity. It is a prominent example ofintegrated water policy, based on river basin approach.

The WFD partly replaces and partly augments existinglegislation to provide a comprehensive framework, inwhich member states will have to orient their efforts.The Directive integrates all water resources, ecologicalobjectives, water uses and functions, interdisciplinaryanalyses and expertise within a common policy frame-work. EU member states are bound to achieve ‘‘good eco-logical status” for water bodies. Territorial managementbased upon physical rather than administrative bound-aries represents a major innovation in procedure. Greatemphasis is put on solving transboundary water problemsjointly. The need to integrate qualitative and quantitativeinformation and the inclusion of scientifically assessedrisk in decision-making imposes planning processestowards including more complex, subjective and compli-cated choices (Transcat compendium, 2006). The WFDforesees increased public participation in the waterresource management process and prescribes the eco-nomic assessment of potential measures to achieve goodwater status. To cope with the increasing complexity ofsuch innovative policy, the traditional state-led approachto decision making is being replaced by new institutions,actors and levels of governance (Kaika, 2003). Thus themanagement of transboundary river basins emerges asone of the most challenging issues related to the WFDimplementation process.

5. European projects addressing transboundary water

management

European Union places a great importance on inte-grated water management and transboundary co-operationby creating legislative tools, like the Water FrameworkDirective 2000/60, in order to harmonize the methodolo-gies and enhance co-operation. A number of research pro-jects have been funded in this direction. AristotleUniversity of Thessaloniki has participated in three pro-jects concerning transboundary water basins of Greece:IRON CURTAIN, TRANSCAT and TRABOREMA.

The ‘‘IRON CURTAIN” project belongs to the FifthFramework Programme (part ‘‘Quality of Life and Man-agement of Living Resources”), in which universities,research institutes and agencies from 8 countries partici-pated (Norway, Russia, Germany, Czech, Austria, Hun-gary, Greece, Bulgaria). The goal of the project was todevelop a methodology leading to standardized tools andprocedures for integrated resource evaluation, analysisand management following the principles of sustainabledevelopment. The developed methodology was tested andscaled in six case studies along a European north/south tra-verse, with Nestos basin being the southern pilot area. ForNestos basin the focus was set on the integration of watermanagement, agricultural activity and environmentalprotection.

Another research project under the Fifth FrameworkProgramme is TRANSCAT: ‘‘Management of Trans-boundary Catchments” (Key Action ‘‘Sustainable Man-agement and Quality of Water”) aiming to create anoperational and integrated comprehensive DSS (decisionsupport system) for optimal water management in border-land regions in context of the implementation of the EUWater Framework Directive. The developed multi-lingualDSS will comprise an innovative tool for the managementof transboundary catchments, incorporating environmen-tal, socio-economic and cross-border issues. Nine Euro-pean countries participated in the project and five pilotsites have been selected in order to provide a good con-trast in transboundary area typology. River Nestos waschosen as the Greek reference area where the DSS is pri-marily focused on water quantities issues and socio-eco-nomic models.

The TRABOREMA project is focused on stabilizingand reinforcing research potential in the field of integratedmanagement, regional water resources planning and policyin a transboundary lake region between Albania, FYROMand Greece. Using the EU Water Framework Directive asa guideline, a common monitoring system in the catchmentof Lake Prespa will be designed and implemented.Upstream/downstream water demands are being analyzedin order to determine environmental pressures and impactsin terms of ecological quality ratios (EQR) for the targetregion. The results will be used as a basis for transboun-dary policy recommendation aiming at integrated manage-ment of water resources and sustainable socio-economicdevelopment of the region.

6. Major problems in shared water basins in greece

In N. Greece there are four transboundary rivers, whichoriginate from FYROM and Bulgaria (Axios, Strymonas,Nestos, Evros) and two transboundary lakes: Prespa andDoirani lake. This paper examines the case of three trans-boundary rivers in N. Greece, (Axios,, Nestos, Evros) andtransboundary Prespa lakes as well.

The major problems encountered concern co-operationof neighbour countries in relation to informationexchange which fails to set the background conditionsfor future development of common water managementplans in a river basin scale. Furthermore, administrativeshortcomings provoke a lot of problems. There are manyministries, institutions and organizations both governmen-tal and non-governmental involved in water resourcesmanagement. Each of them has its own goals and objec-tives and concentrates specifically on one or more aspectsof water resources management, ignoring in the processsome other fundamental issues. ‘‘Internal water prob-lems”, in the Greek part of the transboundary basin alsoimpede integrated approaches. Insufficient data and lackof monitoring systems creates significant problems in theevaluation of current water conditions in the river basinsMap 1.

Map 1. Transboundary river basins that affect Greece.

350 Y.A. Mylopoulos, E.G. Kolokytha / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 33 (2008) 347–353

7. The Greek example

The catchment of the river Nestos/Mesta is sited at theSW corner of Bulgaria and at the area of E. Macedoniaand W. Thrace in Greece (Map 2). Approximately 60%of the basin area belongs to Bulgaria while the rest toGreece. Although a provisional inter-government agree-ment for the use of the Nestos water was signed betweenBulgaria and Greece, the lack of a clear mutually basedconcept for regional development may create potentialconflicts in the future.

The two parties through a bargain-game concluded tothe 29% of the total volume that is generated in the Bulgar-ian territories to be entering Greece. According to theagreement both parties are bound to exchange informationconcerning the water status and any development plansthat would affect the natural flow of the river. Internationalconventions, standards and European guidance are alsoapplicable for the improvement of water quality and theconservation of the ecosystem. Moreover, a cross-borderCommission of Hydroeconomy will be established, respon-

Map 2. Nestos river basin.

sible for the observation and control of the application ofthe agreement. The agreement was signed in 22nd ofDecember 1995 and since then both countries failed toshow a joint effort to put it into action. (Greek NationalLegislation, Law 2402/1996).

According to the WFD management should be made ona river basin level namely Nestos/Mesta River Basin. Eco-nomic analysis of water use is needed but no reference ismade yet. A river basin management plan should be pro-vided by 2006 but no preparation, not in the near futureis observed. No special attention was given to water qualityissues or alternative allocation scenarios in cases of extremephenomena. Public Participation even if it is encouraged bylaw only authorities are involved. The agreed allocationscheme seems a result of political bargaining rather thanaiming at meeting the requirements of the local population.For this reason, the agreement has not received the neces-sary public support so far.

In conclusion, although the agreement contains someprinciples set by international organizations, like the EU(e.g., Water Framework Directive 2000/60) or the UnitedNations (e.g., Helsinki convection), such as willingnessfor co-operation, exchange of data and creation of cross-border commission, it still remains inactive. In order forthe agreement to be compatible with international require-ments, three steps are necessary. Firstly, the developmentof a joint river basin management plan, secondly the spec-ification of the term 29% of water flow and thirdly the cre-ation of a common management body, which will includealso representatives from local authorities. (Mylopouloset al., 2004).

The Prespa Lakes are shared among Albania, Greeceand FYROM. The Micro Prespa Lake is shared onlybetween Greece and Albania. (Map 3). The Macro andMicro Prespa lakes and their catchment basin are regulatedand protected under a series of National, Community andInternational legal instruments. In Albania and Greece,almost the whole Prespa catchment is covered by a singleprotected area in the form of National Park (or NationalForest in the case of Greece). All these areas are character-

Map 3. Transboundary Prespa lakes river basin.

Map 4. Axios river basin.

Y.A. Mylopoulos, E.G. Kolokytha / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 33 (2008) 347–353 351

ized by high habitat diversity, with rich flora and fauna(Catsadorakis et al., 1996).

Although there are adequate laws supporting waterresources management in all three countries, there are dif-ficulties concerning data exchange and information flowboth on a national and transboundary level. Furthermore,there is a failure to implement basic laws concerning bothwater resources management and the protection and resto-ration of the environment. What is missing in each of thethree countries is a unified self-existent body for the man-agement of national water resources.

On the 2nd of February 2000, on the occasion of WorldWetlands Day, the Prime Ministers of the three countriessigned a declaration on the Creation of the Prespa Parkand the Environmental Protection and Sustainable Devel-opment of the Prespa Lakes and their Surroundings. Asa follow -up to the Declaration of Prespa Park, the threestates have established an interim ‘‘Co-ordination Commit-tee for the Prespa Park” (PPCC) which includes represen-tatives from the environmental authorities, localgovernment, and NGO community in each country as wellas the Ramsar Convention Bureau/MedWet as observer.The Committee is expected to become the formal bodyresponsible for the implementation of the proposed trans-boundary, trilateral environmental and sustainable devel-opment program, benefiting the lake region.

As a full member of European Union, Greece has anobligation to comply with the EU Water FrameworkDirective, and as possible future candidate countries Alba-nia and FYROM should consider adapting the main prin-ciples of EU Water Framework Directive. It is up to eachMember State to review the status and particularities of itswater resources and develop its own national strategy. TheWFD provides member States with an opportunity forintroducing and implementing water policies that enhancethe sustainability of water resources.

The Axios/Vardar River is located in the central BalkanPeninsula (Map 4) and originates from mountain Sarnearby the boundaries of FYROM and Albania discharg-ing directly to Thermaikos Gulf. The Axios delta area isof great ecological value as it belongs to NATURA 2000network and is protected by Ramsar and BernConventions.

Major problems are linked both with qualitative andquantitative aspects of water resources. Intensive humanactivities led to the destruction of almost 70% of the origi-nal wetland area. Untreated industrial waste disposal fromFYROM and irrigation practices in the Greek part of theriver contribute to water pollution (Karamintzios, 2005).

Two agreements have been signed, before the partitionof Yugoslavia, between Yugoslavia and Greece concerninghydroeconomy issues and the improvement of the currentsituation in Axios/Vardar basin. These agreements haveno validity at present, since a new country, (FYROM) isnow the second interested part. A new potential agreementshould be focused on meeting the increased water demandsmainly for agricultural purposes downstream, preserving

the quality of the Thermaikos Gulf and maintaining thedelta of the river.

Different socio-economic conditions and political ten-sion between the two countries impede the establishmentof an agreement. The intensive need for an agreementbetween FYROM and Greece can be justified by takinginto account the following conditions:

� The integrity of the ecosystem of Axios basin, the agri-cultural areas of Kilkis and Thessaloniki plains, ground-water resources that are interrelated with therivers’water and the quality of water in ThermaikosGulf, where the river finally flows into, depend on thequality of water that enters from FYROM.� In the city of Thessaloniki, the construction of a con-

temporary WWTP has recently been completed. Despitethis, the risk of pollution still exists as a potential pollu-tion accident from the upstream country could provokesignificant pollution problems in the Gulf.� Intensive agricultural activity in Axios valley exists,

where the 77% of the total rice production of Greeceis cultivated and almost the 85% of the mussel’s produc-tion. Problems in water quantity and quality would endup to severe economic problems in the area.

Evros/Maritza/Meric river is the second biggest riverin the Balkans after Danube river. It originates fromRila mountain in Bulgaria and after a distance of530 km it discharges in the Aegean sea. The 218 kmare the natural boundary between Greece–Bulgaria andGreece–Turkey, respectively. It comprises a very impor-tant river system in the eastern part of Balkans with atotal catchment area of 39.000 km2. The estuary of theriver, protected by Ramsar Convention, is well knownfor its rare ecosystem.

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The construction of dams on the Bulgarian territorycauses problems to both Turkey and Greece concerningthe quantity of water that ends up on the downstream partof the basin. Moreover, new tensions are expected to rise,due to low groundwater levels in the region and seawaterintrusion in the coastline, The maintenance of the Deltaof the river, which has been characterized as one of themost important wetlands and environmental habitats inthe world, remains another big challenge in the area.

Flood events in the Greek part of the river basin pro-voke severe problems to the regional economy. Eventhough certain flood prevention constructions exist in theGreek part, they are not able to prevent the problems effec-tively. Incentives for Bulgaria to construct the necessaryhydraulic works in their territory that would prevent floodson the downstream part should be created in order to facethe flooding risks.

Since Bulgaria is in a transition period concerning itsdevelopment, and its accession in EU in 2007, it shouldreach such a level of development that it should be ableto integrate successfully within the EU countries. ForEvros/Meritsa river catchment this means to create therequired premises for integral transboundary developmentof the entire catchment. Funds of the European Commis-sion can be used for construction of water infrastructurewithin the existing common mechanisms. The related coun-tries should take advantage of these opportunities in thefield of the transboundary management. The support ofGreece is critical in order to provide subsidies. Effectiveco-operation through the establishment of a transboundaryagreement among the countries would be a way to solvethese kinds of problems to the benefit of all. Poor level ofco-operation concerning environmental problems andpolitical tension between Greece and Turkey is also animpediment for the establishment of a potential agreement.

8. Conclusions

Shared water resources of North Greece constitute amajor asset for the country and introduce high uncertaintyfor the country’s imported water due to the lack of inte-grated approach, administrative deficiencies and not effi-cient transboundary legal agreements. Co-operation tookmostly place through fragmented measures, ignorance ofthe local needs, giving emphasis on securing users’ rightsrather than treating transboundary rivers as a unity whichshould be jointly protected and managed.

The WFD could act as a guideline for international co-operation as it promotes the management of transboun-dary watercourses among EU and non EU countries. Itrequires the establishment of common management plansat the river basin level whereas the bilateral agreementssigned so far between Greece and its neighbor countriesdo not contain similar provisions and none of the jointbody established so far has the competence to undertakethis responsibility. The issue of common planning andmanagement is of great importance in effective transboun-

dary co-operation. Since almost all of the neighbor coun-tries are in an era of transition, it is a great opportunityfor Greece as an EU full member state to proceed to agree-ments for the benefit of all. The New Water FrameworkDirective 2000/60 elects the management of shared waterresources which constitutes a question of exceptionalimportance since it is related directly to the safety andthe maintenance of peace in the world. Past examples ofinternational collaboration are focused in concrete, indi-vidual questions that concern specific water parameterswhile the new Directive provides a wider approach whichintegrates the total of parameters that is related with waterin the river basin level.

Common will and especially political willingness andpublic participation can convert the existence of sharedwater resources from a problematic issue to a strong moti-vation for transboundary co-operation. There should beconfidence between the parties and their co-operationshould be based on the principles of good neighborlinessand reciprocity. The improvement of the existing legalframework or the creation of a legal agreement where itis missing, will enhance current transboundary co-opera-tion. A series of issues will be regulated by the agreementsuch as: water protection and use, institutional arrange-ments, management plans, harmonization of programsand measures, monitoring and research, transfer ofknow-how and technology as well as joint projects.

Of course it should be mentioned, that legal agreementsper se are welcomed but cannot solve transboundary prob-lems. Integration of qualitative and quantitative wateraspects, water uses as well as water supply and demandissues confronted on a river basin scale and treated com-monly is the only way that can guarantee transboundarycoordination and co-operation.

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