ModernATHLETE & COACH

IN THIS ISSUE• Analysis of the Footstrike in Sprinting • Improving High Jump Technique

• The Role of a Biomachinist • Living & Coaching Abroad

• The 800m Event • Coach Profile – PatClohessy

Volume 52 No. 1

January 2014

NATIONAL COACHING CONGRESSThe National Congress was held October 4,5 & 6 on the Gold Coast at Griffith University, Parkwood. It was great to have so many coaches together and the three very full days proved to be thought provoking and created some wide and varied discussion over breaks for meals. Keynote speakers John Cissik and John Hayes were very well received by the delegates. The 2014 report will be sent to delegates when all presenters forward their work to the National office and we are able to compile the entire Congress. All other previous Congress reports are available from the National office.

NATIONAL COACHING ACCREDITATION SCHEMEThe Australian Track and Field Coaches Association initiated the Coach Accreditation Scheme in 1974. Since the inception of the National Coaching Accreditation Scheme by the Australian Coaching Council in 1980, the ATFCA scheme was the only endorsed coaching framework recognised by the Australian Coaching Council. The scheme was also recognised by Athletics Australia. Courses were largely practical with emphasis on better organisation of practice, appropriate methods of skill learning and development, correction of technique, appropriate conditioning methods and performance analysis. In 2007, Athletics Australia undertook to form a new framework for coaches undertaking the huge task of rewriting and transforming the coaching scheme. Coaches who achieved coaching accreditation from the previous framework were given Reciprocal Accreditation under the new framework. This framework has not yet been completed and is currently undergoing further change. The ATFCA will endeavour to update members on the current status of courses, but this has been difficult as there have been no Coaching Advisory Committee meetings and little communication from AA. Should any coach wish to enquire about the current situation I would advise that you contact Jill Taylor, Lynne Evans or Kylie Italiano at Athletics Australia. (jill.taylor@athletics.org.au) (03 9869 5027)

REACCREDITATIONI am very proud to say that any coach who is a member of the Australian Track and Field Coaches Association will continue to be reaccredited in the same fashion as previous. It is important that coaches keep up to date with current trends and any ideas for various disciplines. Reaccreditation will continue to be done at the end of every four year period from when the coach’s last course was concluded or previous reaccreditation took place. For coaches at Level 1 and 2 reaccreditation will be automatic, as, as a member you receive all publications from the ATFCA and as such coaches are reading and learning from articles. Level 3, 4 and 5 coaches are asked to forward an outline of their coaching involvement and itemise any courses, seminars or workshops attended. Coaches will also be asked to outline the achievements of the athletes under their care. If coaches have any queries, please contact ATFCA National Office. This process will occur through normal processes of updating credits.

COACHING ATHLETES WITH DISABILITIESThe techniques and methods used for coaching all athletes are basically the same. In all situations a coach should assess the abilities of the athlete and coach accordingly. However, there are some additional coaching techniques and considerations

that should be applied to athletes with disabilities. Segments on inclusive coaching are included in Level 2 courses. The coaching framework offers specific courses for specialist strands for coaching athletes with disabilities. COACHES WITH OVERSEAS QUALIFICATIONS Coaches who are wishing to become accredited in the Australian system can apply to Athletics Australia for reciprocal recognition of their overseas qualifications. ATFCA can help to accommodate this requirement should it be necessary. It is essential the coach provides all copies of courses undertaken in their previous country of residence. This information is presented to a Committee to assess their suitability and the level of recognition that will be granted. Coaching courses in 2014 will be conducted through the auspices of Athletics Australian and their member associations in each state. Some branches of the ATFCA will continued to deliver courses while others are taking on the role of delivering further education beyond the courses. State branches of ATFCA are intending to conduct regular seminars and workshops which will offer professional development opportunities for coaches. The National office will advise, as much as possible, the dates of any seminars/workshops that are held. Any dates of potential courses will be advised on the website.The following is what has been finalised in the coaching framework to this point.

LEVEL 1 COMMUNITY ATHLETICS COACHThis is the entry level for all Accredited Athletic Coaches. The fundamental skills of running, jumping and throwing are introduced as well as exploring how to engage athletes in long term participation and how to coach skills to beginner athletes. This qualification is certified by the Australian Sports Commission and allows participants to be nationally accredited as a community coach which is transferable to other sports engaging in the community coach program. The course includes one day of face to face training as well as the online Beginning Coach General Principles course.After completing the Level 1 Community Athletics Coach course, 30 hours of coaching needs to be undertaken prior to entering Level 2 Intermediate Club Coach.LEVEL 2 INTERMEDIATE CLUB COACHThe Level 2 Intermediate Club Coach Course is the next progression from Level 1 Community Athletics Coach course and further develops coaches understanding of how to coach fundamental skills and drills. This level supports coaches to understand the basic technical models for the Track and Field events held at club and school level competitions. In addition, coaches are introduced to training principles and components of Fitness and are introduced to the concepts of preparing and evaluating training sessions.Prior to undertaking Level 2 Advanced coaches are required to complete 50 hours of coaching.LEVEL 2 ADVANCED COACH - EVENT GROUP SPECIFICLevel 2 Advanced Coach gives coaches the opportunity to begin to specialise in an event group of Sprints, Relays and Hurdles, Middle and Long Distance, Jumps, Throws or Walks. The course is comprised of two days face to face training as well as pre and post course assessments.The two face to face days comprise Part A & Part B. Part A is for all Event

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(continued on page 62)

Published by the Australian Track & Field Coaches AssociationISBN0047 – 7672

Contents

IFC COACH EDUCATION PROGRAMS

4 EDITORIAL

COACHING YOUNG & DEVELOPING ATHLETES5 Racewalking – From Little Athletics to National

Junior Competitor

10 Preparing Yourself for Competition

SPORTS MEDICINE12 ß – Alanine Supplimentation

14 An Analysis of the Footstrike in Sprinting

19 Training Records – Can They Enhace Mentak Skills?

21 Injury Prevention – The Role of a Biomechanist

28 Recipe – Spaghetti with Creamy Ham Sauce

HIGH PERFORMANCE COACHING29 Principles of Strength and Conditioning Training for

Track and Field

32 800m Event

38 Panel Discussion – Discus

43 Do Veteran Athletes Need Longer to Recover?

45 Improving High Jump Technique

REGULAR FEATURES47 Around the World

54 Book Reviews

COACHING57 Living and Coaching Abroad

59 Coach Profile – Pat Clohessy

Published by the Australian Track & Field Coaches AssociationISBN0047 – 7672

Editorial BoardPeter Lawler, Jörg Prost,Glynis Nunn-Cearns

Correspondence &ContributionsGlynis Nunn-CearnsExecutive DirectorATFCAPO Box 697Ormeau QLD 4208

Email: enquiries@atfca.com.auPhone: +61 7 5549 3806

SubscriptionsATFCAPO Box 697Ormeau QLD 4208Australia

Email: enquiries@atfca.com.au

Australia AUD 60.00 (inc. GST)Overseas AUD 75.00 (inc. Airmail)

Advertising RatesContact ATFCA at the above address

Publishing DatesJanuary, April, July, October

PhotographySporting Focuswww.sportingfocus.com.au

Sporting Images (Aust)www.sportingimages.com.au

PrintersSpot ProductionsPh: 3860 5300

Cover PhotoCourtesy of David Tarbotton – finish of the Men’s 400m at 2013 National Championships Sydney

Editorial

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Recently the International Olympic Committee (IOC) President Thomas Bach met Pope Francis in the Vatican. The two leaders discussed the importance of sport in society and its contribution to building a more peaceful and better world. The Pope stressed the contribution the Olympic movement can make to peace building and mutual understanding, and the values that sport can deliver.

In history, the sporting community can reflect on how during the Ancient Olympics war was suspended to allow the competitions to be conducted. We have also seen when disasters occur (Munich massacre), the sporting community comes together as one to commiserate and mourn. Sport’s ability to build bridges is immense.

The IOC presented Pope Francis with the Olympic Order (an elaborate in gold during a ceremony at the Vatican City attended by members of the European Olympic Committees (EOC). The Pope was awarded the Olympic Order in recognition of his understanding of the good that sport can do for young people and the desire to build peace.

The papal message could do much to rectify many areas of sport -

“I wish to encourage institutions such as yours, which promote sports – especially to the younger generations – as a way of training for peace, mutual sharing and harmonious coexistence of people. Sports tend to unite rather than divide!” “When sport is viewed solely in economic terms or as the pursuit of victory at all cost, we run the risk of reducing athletes to mere products from which to profit. Athletes themselves enter into a system that sweeps them away; they can lose the true meaning of their activity, that joy of play which attracted

them as young people and which drove them to make so many sacrifices to become champions. Sport is harmony, but if the immoderate pursuit of money and success takes over, this harmony can be lost.”

His Holiness Pope Francis certainly seems to be astute when it comes to sport and participation. His understanding that sport is for everyone and sportsmen and women both on and off the field should be true role models. This belief needs to extend to administration and governance also. To have everyone working towards one ‘end’ would be fantastic. The ‘end’, being what is best for the athlete to achieve his/her potential and for the coach to have the knowledge and experience to help the athlete make this journey is a worthy goal. The message - “we must work together”.

2014 will be a defining year - one where the Track and Field Coaches Association needs to build and grow its membership base. If this does not happen this year, to my disappointment, this journal will be lost and the Association will no longer exist. To all those readers who enjoy this journal - spread the word.

The Association is purely dependant on membership therefore we need coaches to join in order to sustain our existence. I anticipate if membership does not grow, ATFCA will close its doors at the end of 2014.

Glynis Nunn-Cearns OAM Executive Director

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Racewalking From Little Athletics to National Junior Competitor - A guideline for Coaches and Athletes alike Dave Smith Dual Olympian 1980/84

Definition of race walking : IAAF Rule 230

Race walking is a progression of steps so taken that the walker makes “contact” with the ground, so that no visible (to the human eye) loss of contact occurs . The advancing leg shall be straightened ( ie not bent at the knee ) from the moment of first contact with the ground until the vertical upright position.

Note: The Double Support Phase – the heel of the advancing foot strikes the ground, when the toe of the trailing foot has not yet left the ground. If this doesn’t occur in each stride, the athlete is not complying with the “contact” rule.

Judging

Judging: Internationally

(a) The appointed judges of race walking shall elect a chief judge, if one has not been appointed previously.

(b) All the judges shall act in an individual capacity and their judgments shall be based on observations made by the human eye.

(c) In competitions held under rule 1.1(a), all judges shall be international race walking judges. In competitions held under Rules 1.1(b), (c), (e) (ii), (f), (g) and (j), all judges shall be either area or international race walking judges.

(d) For road races, there should normally be a minimum of six to a maximum of nine judges including the chief judge.

(e) For track races, there should normally be six judges including the chief judge.

(f) In competitions held under rule 1.1(a) not more than one judge from any country can officiate.

Note (Rule 1.1 refers to international races IAAF)

The major components of race walking that need to be developed are:

Technique, specific endurance, endurance, speed, mobility and strength endurance. Let us go through each of these components and explain them further.

Race walking - BASIC Guidelines for training and racing and developing the junior athlete and coach to state and national level.

I will emphasize basic guidelines here as most junior walkers throughout their development as athletes will have differing progression levels of fitness, ability, motivation and commitment. Whilst the specifics of each component of training will depend totally on the levels of achievement already reached by an athlete, the general rule will relate directly to most developing athletes.

Introduction

Race walking as an event has been much maligned over the years and yet is one of the hardest physical tests in the athletic arena. It combines speed, strength and endurance along with technique that is judged subjectively by independent arbiters of the sport.

At the highest level, it can flow majestically with some of the fittest athletes in the world competing and racing over distances covering 1500 metres up to 50,000 metres on the road and track down to the junior athlete who are starting out in the sport, to master’s athletes who have been competing for years.

It is a sport that is embraced by young and old respectively.

As an event, to the average person, race walking is somewhat misunderstood. However, to the trained athlete, coach and advocate of the sport, it represents the basic premise of walking, to which every human aspires and to which race walking complies absolutely to the Olympic ideal of “Citius, Altius, Fortius”. (Faster, Higher, Stronger).

What I have tried to do here is to present a view from an athlete’s perspective and a coach’s view in regard to managing, conditioning and competing in the art of race walking for a junior athlete. It is born out of 40 odd years of my own competing, training and racing as an athlete and as a coach. I trust that this can be a useful guide to those beginning in the sport.

David is an AA and ATFCA Level 5 accredited coach. An international athlete, finishing 10th in LA in the 20km walk, he has now turned his passion for the sport to coaching. He has coached a number of athletes to youth and junior world championship teams. In this article, David discusses the importance of developing good technique from the earliest age. In the next ‘Modern Athlete and Coach’, he will explain how to develop a training program.

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When you consider that elite 20km walkers are walking sub – four minute kilometres and moving in excess of 14kph, a significant percentage of training time needs to be devoted to developing this specific speed endurance.

Posture/Body Position: The most essential attribute to establish

Most faults in technique can be attributed to incorrect posture. Sound posture is the ability to hold a body lean of up to 3-5degrees with no flexion at the hip joints. Technically, when the support leg is directly under the body, a straight line should be able to be drawn through the shoulder, hip, knee and ankle joints.

Many walkers are unable to achieve this due to:

a. The pelvis tilted forward which pulls the hips downwards (known as Hollow-Back, Sway Back or Lordosis).

b. Leaning from the hips with their backside stuck out (this reduces hip rotation, shortens stride length and frequency)

c. Leaning to one side or excessive lateral hip movement.

d. Rounded shoulders will indirectly affect hip rotation as the elbow angle becomes reduced creating arm drive across and too close to the body.

e. Any structural problems such as spinal curvature, uneven leg length, foot pronation, flat feet, etc, etc. Any weakness however minor will affect technique.

f. Many of these problems are strength related hence the need to develop strong back muscles, internal and external oblique muscles at the torso and the abdomen.

Hip Mobility

Forward oscillation of the hips gives a significant increase in stride length – hence the need for excellent hip / joint mobility. It allows the lowering of the recovery leg hip, which shortens the leg pendulum and speeds it up. It also ensures that the swinging foot remains close to the ground. Therefore, if a greater rotation of the hips can be achieved, stride length (up to 10cm) can be increased without increasing stride rate.

However, there is an optimum stride length. At full stride, the angle between the legs reaches 45- 50 degrees, but this will vary considerably from walker to walker. An example of the gain of stride length by proper hip mobility:

A female walker takes 80 strides per minute and her stride length is 1.20m. The distance that she covers is 80 x 1.2m = 96 m/minute.

If her hip mobility improves and increases her stride length by 10cm, then 80 x 1.3m = 104 mtres / min.

This is an example only, but quite valid reasoning and if this improved hip mobility is accompanied by an improvement of forces from the ankle, plantar flexors and the

shortening of the different racewalking phases and an increase in stride frequency , then an optimal combination of

Technique:

The skill of race walking is defined and refined over many years of training and racing. Working on technique should be first and foremost in any and all developing athletes . Everything else falls into place (speed, strength and endurance) once good technique has been established.

Technique , Technique , Technique.

In order of importance, technique is by far the most important component and has to be worked on constantly. While the physical conditioning and preparation will enhance and improve the athlete’s skill accordingly, sound technique will greatly enhance mechanical efficiency and energy conservation and will reduce the chances of disqualification.

Race walking technique is an athlete’s ability to adhere to the rules of race walking while covering the most amount of ground in the least amount of time with the minimum amount of energy. In other words - their efficiency. Each athlete’s own style is different but improvements to a few basic components can improve performance quite rapidly.

Whilst the specifics of each component of training for race walking will depend totally on the levels of achievement already reached by an athlete, the general rule will relate directly to most developing athletes. Significantly, most race walkers do very little technical training having once established a basic technique. Consequently, the chance of faults becoming grooved is high as they are continually rehearsed, thousands of times.

This is of paramount importance for our junior athletes who will experience the taste of success rather rapidly with increased training volumes and regular training. Unfortunately, these immediate successes promote a sense of mastery, where technical faults and weaknesses will be ignored and hence very difficult to rectify later in an athlete’s career.

Three major problem areas confront many of our walkers:

1. An obsession with mileage

2. Lack of Speed and special endurance training

3. A total lack of a systematic training program.

4. The neglect of constant referral to technique, technique, technique.

The “distance bug” is not solely confined to walkers but they occupy a large percentage of athletes who become obsessed with daily, weekly and yearly mileages at the expense of other training units. Coaches and athletes alike must become more broadminded in their approach to a variance of training venues, distances and training sessions and become more technique conscious.

At the higher level, walking is essentially a sustained speed event for even the 50km race.

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greatly reduce jarring and will give a smoother, faster, more efficient rolling action. The rear leg / foot will be in a push off position high on the toe. To reduce a “propping” effect, the heel is placed closer to the athlete’s projected centre of gravity. Also, to avoid any unnecessary vertical movements -

“bouncing”- the leg and the foot must not be dropped down short or jammed down to the track. The speed of the stride is directly related to the strength of the pushing force and to the direction of the rear foot. The major contribution to this force is made by the ankle plantar flexors during push-off.

The leg should remain braced throughout the majority of the driving phase. However the leg should not be braced until the front heel makes contact with the ground as this greatly reduces the speed of the recovery leg. During the recovery, the knee is bent at up to 90degrees to allow for a rapid recovery as it sweeps forward. The foot is kept low to the ground as this is happening. It is imperative that the leg is not straightened early during the latter stages of the forward swing to heel impact. A powerful hip rotation / action would prevent this from occurring.

Foot placement is critical and small changes can make a considerable difference to speed and stride length. Heel contact takes place along a straight line. The body weight is transferred via the outer border of the foot ending at the big toe. As the foot rolls off the ground, it should swing forward as low as possible. Ideally, if an athlete were to imprint his stride, it would align itself along a centre line marginally to the left and right of that line with the big toe inline.

The use of ‘x-over’ technique is absolutely critical in ensuring that the lead leg lands in a straightened position, that the hips are rotated sufficiently and that there is sufficient rear leg drive along with the maximum stride length. Use of this technique in an over accentuated style will lead an athlete to utilizing all of these techniques when racing reducing the possibility of disqualification for loss of contact.

Speed TrainingAs in distance running, speed is relative and the program of a novice walker should be tempered with this concept. In regard to the advanced walker, training for speed needs to be considered under three main types:

A. Specific event Speed:-The maximum speed which can be maintained over the full racing distance.

B. Part event Speed:-The maximum speed over a distance less than the race distance.

C. Maximum Speed:- The fastest speed over short distances, say 300-400 m, which the walker can maintain without “lifting” or loss of contact.

Specific Event Speed The development of this speed is the object of all training because it:

all of these factors will determine maximum speed.

Put quite simply, the athlete who is capable of maintaining the fastest leg frequency and optimal stride length - all other factors being equal – WILL WIN .

SPEED = SF x SL (stride frequency x stride length)

Arm Drive and Shoulder Action

The shoulders and arm action work together to absorb angular momentum (rotation) created by the legs and hips and transmit it to the trunk. So the shoulders can absorb rotation, they should be kept low and the muscles surrounding, relaxed. A slight shoulder dip will be produced and it must be just sufficient so as to maintain the centre of gravity at a constant level. Too much dip produces excessive lateral sway of the hips.

The arms can be used rapidly if carried at approx 90degrees – This action is the most efficient angle for fast, balanced, vigorous arm action. If the elbow angle reduces too much (80-70 degrees), then the shoulders will excessively roll or rotate. And the opposite applies – a low, pendulum–like arm swing will slow down leg speed.

The range of the arm swing commences with the hand just forward of the hip seam and the elbow in a recovery position to the back. The arm then swings forward, hand kept close to and just above the hip and reaches the end of the swing with the hand reaching just under chin height and to the centre of the body. The arms must swing in a pendulum - like attitude, driving forward and not going below the hip or behind the hip as this is energy being forced backward.

A correct arm action fulfills three important functions:

1. Balances the whole body / racing action.

2. Maintains a horizontal forward hip action and rotation.

3. Affects ground reaction and increases the rear leg’s driving force.

The need for a strong upper body and strength endurance of the arm action will ensure that a vigorous arm action is maintained throughout any race and is an essential component of any training program for racewalking.

There is also the term that I refer to as “Walking on your arms”. When an athlete tires in a race usually, their arm action slows accordingly. However, if there is then a greater emphasis and focus only on arm drive (speed), the legs usually follow suit and the athlete can and will speed up.

Leg Drive & Feet Placement The double support phase of a walkers stride occurs for only a fraction of a second.

It should be the aim of every walker to reduce the time taken on this phase. Contact occurs at the centre back of the heel first, with the toes as high as possible. This will ensure that the optimal stride length is attained. A flexed knee on contact will

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As the strength component of race walking is paramount for good performance, it must cover aerobic conditioning, maximum strength, strength endurance and speed endurance.

In the initial stages, general conditioning of the body serves as the foundation to work on in improving the ability of the body to improve performance.

Thus the three areas:

1. General conditioning

2. Aerobic conditioning (circuit training etc)

3. Strength endurance

Flexibility should be worked on before and after all workouts.

Once a body is strong and conditioned then points 2 and 3 should be utilized each at least once a week, preferably with a full day between components. General conditioning will apply for at least 3-4 months in the early stages of training. Heavy work should not continue into later training but circuits and hill work can. Remembering that all WORK IS ACCUMULATIVE. It all contributes to the whole end result.

The aerobic fitness component, utilizing only body weight resistance or in some cases,

very low weight dumbells or ankle and wrist weights, brings up the heart rate and breathing rate. Holding that for a minimum of 15 minutes will give a training effect which will relate directly to a race code.

As the body becomes more conditioned to these loads, and strength endurance levels become more apparent, thus the circuit can be increased in length. Given that you have access to a gymnasium, plan your circuit around whatever equipment is available.

Try not to put too many exercises on the same muscle group together, but work alternately on different muscle groups. Alternatively, most of these exercises could be performed on the track:

Circuit Training Continued … Eg:Skipping .................................................................. 1 min

Crunches .............................................................. 30 reps

Squats .................................................................. 15 reps

D/Bell Arm Swings (walking mode) ......................30 secs

Step Ups D/Bell ........................... 1min (30secs each side)

Dips ...................................................................... 10 reps

Push Ups .............................................................. 15 reps

D/Bell Floor to Ceiling .......................................... 30 reps

D/Bell Curls ......................................................... 30 reps

Sit Ups .................................................................. 20 reps

Take 20 seconds between each exercise and the next and repeat each set 3-5 times dependant on the athlete and their coping ability/ fitness.

If a runner loses form or technique toward the end of a race, there are no penalties …it is just a matter of getting across

- Co-ordinates the efforts of all other work

- It rehearses the body and mind for actual racing

- And it develops the skill of pace judgment.

A typical session would include race pace work over the majority of the event distance. This type of work must be carefully incorporated into the program as it is physically and mentally very exhausting. It is best “blocked” into two, three or more weekly cycles, followed by two or more weeks of less intensive work to allow full adaptation and avoid staleness and to prevent the risk of injury.

Maximum Speed This speed is not closely related to performance in the 10, 20, and 50km events but more to shorter distances which younger athletes compete in. However, sessions involving maximal speed over a distance of 200m to 400m should be included in the program from time to time. The benefits are:-

- That it shocks the system out of the same regular pace and possibly facilitates a better race pace rhythm

- That it provides a quick indication of technical breakdown

- That it provides an excellent speed endurance and aerobic workout, if the recovery between repetitions is kept to a minimum.

- That it will provide the necessary confidence if a “final sprint“ is required.

The Relationship Of Speed To Endurance The ability to perform at a constantly high speed over a given distance can only be achieved after developing a high level of general endurance and conditioning. The speed of this type of training is of critical importance. As aerobic and strength factors improve, so must the speed of each endurance workout - the “overload factor”.

Relaxed, easy paced walks must be carefully blended with medium to fast paced walks. Too often, walkers become obsessed with slow mileage at the expense of faster more intensive tempo work.

“If you can’t do it in training, then how do you expect to do it in a race?”

Note: The obsession with training every day to maintain a mileage diary for daily workouts is one that should be avoided. “JUNK miles” are exactly that. To go training when there is no desired outcome or the body is fatigued and really needs recovery rather than work, is useless.

Circuit Training / Weight TrainingThe building of “core strength“ in race walking is absolutely critical as race walking is 3 times more physically demanding than running. To augment the training program with circuit training for the younger athlete should be implemented on a regular basis. Circuit training initiated at least once a week is extremely beneficial for conditioning the heart and lungs and the overall capacity of the body to tolerate stress.

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Push ups, sit ups, leg flutter kicks, leg x-overs, crunches, dumbbells floor to ceiling, dumbbells overhead, dumbbells swings, dumbbell curls, wall sits, skipping, single leg, partner squats, running on the spot (high knees), shuttle runs, chin ups, hip flexor legs to chest and punching bag work to name a few.

These exercises can be done in sets of reps or timed, dependant on the exercise. Usually 3 sets of 12 exercises are sufficient.

Warm ups can include laps of a track, stationary bike, treadmill or skipping along with stretching before and after all workouts.

the line as best you can. However, if a walker cannot hold his form (technique) together, they could be DQ’d toward the end of a race.

Young walkers should concentrate on “body weight” exercises and dumbbell training and at a suitable age, then learn how to perform lifts correctly and employ circuit training as a general conditioner and basis for weight training. There are a variety of circuits available that will enhance all-round strength, strength endurance and aerobic capacity. One is limited only by one’s imagination.

The possibilities are endless. However there are a few exercises that should not be done by walkers. eg: - Calf raises, Back hyperextension, Squats, Seated Leg Press, to name a few as they all lead to tightening of opposing muscle groups to that required for race walking.

Some examples of exercises that you can, as a coach extend to your athletes are as follows:-

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Competition Preparing yourself Mac Wilkins

The training program must also be properly designed to put you in peak condition for the big game. This is a major part of establishing competitive confidence.”

“Competitive experience teaches you what to expect in big conditions. It helps to know that, even through nervousness can be unbearable before the start, it immediately drops to a tolerable level after the action begins. Know this and the tensions and self doubts won’t be so fearful. Everyone learns these lessons at their own pace, but only experience can be the teacher.”

“Visualisation and confidence go hand in hand. The greater the clarity with which you can visualise your performance, the greater your confidence and chances of success will be. Play the game in your mind beforehand again and again. (sic) Know what to expect and see it happen. Cover all possibilities! See yourself performing, see the arena, the crowd, experience as much as possible in your mind’s eye. Use this tool regularly to improve your performance.”

“Enjoy the competition. To be dedicated enough to prepare correctly there must be a basic love of the activity, of competition or performing. Don’t forget these pleasures. Have fun, look forward to the fears and nervousness. Anticipate the adrenalin high and the challenge of the competition. Savour the satisfaction of your performance. By increasing your awareness of your enjoyment you will be less distracted and more focused. The increased concentration will improve your performance and satisfaction.”

“Successful preparation is the major factor in reducing fears and doubts. When you know you are ready its easier to relax and enjoy competing. The combination of preparation, relaxation and enjoyment yields maximum results. Maximum performance, by the way, builds confidence in quantum leaps. Nothing creates success like success.”

“Make a time schedule for the day of competition. Know exactly when you’ll get out of bed and what and when you’ll eat. Schedule time for packing your bag, travelling to the competition and when you will start your warm up. The important thing is to plan ahead, so you aren’t rushed. Nothing is more terrifying than a broken shoelace at the last minute or rushing a 50 minute warm up into 10 minutes because you were stuck in traffic. These unexpected events become major traumas if you are not prepared. Adrenalin and fear control can distort your thinking, destroy confidence and technique and ultimately, performance.

One of the benefits I have from working in the national office is looking back at past editions of Modern Athlete and Coach. One short article took my eye when I was going through issues (October 1986) - it was from Mac Wilkins, champion discus thrower from the 80’s. I can remember meeting Mac as a 16 year old in the late 70’s and the impact this man mountain had on me - confident, easy to speak to and huge!

The article offered some sound advice on how to prepare for major competitions. I recently had reason to search for help as an athlete I have started to work with gets extremely nervous prior to competition. Having never had this situation to such an extreme before I wanted to search for some answers. When an athlete becomes physically sick and emotionally out of control prior to competition the coach and family need to try different approaches to offset or control it somehow.

Mac claims successful preparation is a major factor in reducing fears and doubts. The combination of preparation, relaxation and enjoyment yields maximum results.

His article stated: “Confidence is the key to maximum performance is any endeavour. Everyone strives for the ability to perform in a relaxed, skilful and uninhibited manner. Confidence is merely the ability to limit nervousness, adrenalin, self doubts and distractions to manageable levels, thus allowing for a relaxed performance.”

“To have confidence is to know what to expect. This can be accomplished by eliminating the unknown elements as much as possible. It is the surprise of the unexpected, magnified to paralysing proportions by the stress of competition, that causes athletes to freeze of choke. Thorough preparation is the best way to avoid the unexpected.”

“There are several related factors that work together to build mental security. Basically it comes down to two questions. Have I done everything possible to prepare myself? Have I prepared correctly and with 100% effort? These questions must be asked constantly, not just the day of the competition, but weeks and months in advance. If you can answer yes to both of these questions you have taken a big step towards eliminating distractions and performing with confidence.”

“A sound training program is of course vital to top performance. Incorrect or over training is difficult to overcome. If proper technique isn’t learnt in training it won’t magically appear in competition. A consistent level of skill must be developed through repetition in training. Consistency brings confidence.

BE PREPARED TO CONTROL THE CONTROLABLES.

“Concentrate only on your performance. Don’t worry about things out of your control. The weather, the crowd, the judges, traffic delays and other such things - they are all potential distractions. Concentration turns them into meaningless events outside your control and concern. You are ready to compete and nothing else matters.”

“Be calm and relaxed. All optimum athletic performances are characterised by relaxation. There is no wasted energy. Tension and distractions are greatly reduced, allowing increased concentration. Practicing relaxation techniques as part of a daily routine helps overcome the stress of training and prepares you for the competition.”

“Finally you are ready for the competition to begin. By now your daily training success has helped to establish a high level of confidence. You are well prepared. You know what to expect. There is nothing to worry about, everything is in its proper place and at is optimum level. YOU ARE READY!”

This is great insight for the coach and athlete from the lips of a leading athlete who has been there and done that at the highest level over many, many years.

My squad recently organised a get-away where the majority of them travelled to the Sunshine Coast to train and mix, and be part of a relay competition with another squad. We joined forces on Sunday mixing teams between the two squads and had boys and girls as part of a 4 x 100 and Swiss relays. It was such a success everyone wants to do it again, sooner rather than later. As a coach I learnt so much more about them.

After doing an easy run and stretch on Sunday morning we had a group discussion on disappointment and how they look at overcoming it or using it to push on. I was amazed at some of the mature responses and how I had underestimated them. (The group ranged from 14 to 45years.) Apart from a couple, who have ‘belief’ issues, everyone responded confidently. I would love to share their responses with you in relation to competition, how to prepare and how they move on. This reflects if their approach to competition has not been what it should be.

Some responses include:

• Acceptwhathashappened, reflect,plan for the future -make a positive action plan.

• Be persistent, don’t give into nervousness. From beingvery nervous, make the decision to compete more frequently and can now approach competition more like training (becomes a routine). Diminish nervousness as it resembles training.

• Used to like playing team sport but made the decisionto compete individually. I can only blame myself now if something does not go to plan.

• RememberwhyIamdoingthesport-fortotalenjoyment.

• Usefeedbackfromthecoachtoprocesshowtoimprove.

• Usethedisappointmentasmotivationtotrainharderandprove I can do better.

• Igetphysical-notwithpeople,withobjects.Oncethisisdone then I use the determination that it will never happen again if I can help it.

• Learnfromanymistakesthatmighthavehappened.Writedown things so I can see them and then make a plan.

• RememberthatIlovetorunandknowthatifIstickwiththe program improvement will come.

• Competitionmakesmeverydetermined-itisadisciplinedapproach to everything I do.

• Lovethecompetitive feeling thatcomeswith thesport-the adrenalin is like an addiction.

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ß-Alanine supplementationA weapon to fight fatigue? Phil Bellinger

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IntroductionSports Scientists and coaches design an athlete’s diet to meet energy and nutrient requirements to ensure that optimal training can be maintained and peak competitive performance can be achieved. There is a common belief that in conjunction with a well-designed training program and diet, the appropriate ingestion of additional dietary supplements can further enhance training and competitive performance. One such supplement that has attracted recent interest is ß-alanine (BA).

Why supplement with ß-alanine? BA is a naturally occurring amino acid found in relatively small quantities in meat, fish and poultry. Recent research that has identified BA as the rate-limiting precursor to carnosine synthesis which, among other roles, is thought to be an important muscle buffer as it can readily accept protons during contraction-induced acidosis [1]. It has been well established that chronic BA supplementation (1.6-6.4 g·day-1 for a period of 2-10 wk) can significantly increase muscle carnosine concentration [2]. Strategies to optimize muscle carnosine synthesis via BA supplementation appear to be of vital importance as carnosine has been reported to be a determinant of rowing performance and contribute to the latter half of high-intensity sprint cycling [3, 4]. Furthermore, one study [5] reported that the carnosine content of rowers and 800-m track runners was significantly higher compared to marathon runners and untrained individuals. These studies suggest that high muscle carnosine content may be a favourable adaptation to high-intensity training and it may be beneficial to induce elevations in muscle carnosine content via BA supplementation.

Athletes who may benefit Augmented muscle carnosine content (via BA supplementation) may improve athletic performance in exercise tasks that accrue a high level of muscle acidosis. Of interest, studies have reported ergogenic benefits following BA supplementation in 800-m track running performance in club level runners [6], worthwhile improvements in average

power output in a 4-min cycling time trial [7] and consistent improvements in 2000-m rowing performance [3]. In contrast, BA supplementation has been reported to have limited effect on 400-m running performance in trained sprinters [8]. These equivocal findings may be due to the individual variability in response to BA loading, the training status of the participants or the error of measurement in the exercise performance trial that was employed.

BA supplementation may not only be beneficial for competition performance; it may also be functional to facilitate training by allowing an athlete to train harder and therefore achieve superior levels of training adaptation. One common finding in the literature is that BA supplementation improves tests of exercise capacity [9]. Training sets are often designed to maximally stress an athlete’s exercise capacity. Theoretically, augmentation of muscle carnosine, presumably increasing the ability to perform high-intensity exercise during training, may lead to greater training adaptations over a specific training period.

Practical applicationCoaches and athletes should consider the following practical recommendations when considering the use of BA supplementation to enhance exercise performance: (i) The use of BA supplementation should be made on an individual basis as although adverse performance effects are uncommon, not all athletes will benefit from supplementation, (ii) Carnosine loading appears to be dose dependant, therefore, to maximise carnosine loading the total amount of BA ingested should be on the upper limit of what is practical, whilst attempting to minimize the unpleasant side-effects of paraesthesia, (iii) Although it appears only small benefits are apparent to trained athletes, such small improvements may be worthwhile in real-world settings, (iv) BA supplementation may not only be beneficial to competitive performance, but also employed as a training aid to augment high-intensity bouts of exercise, and (v) Care should be taken when evaluating results from studies employing performance measures and participants unrelated to their field. The recommended daily dose of BA that seems practical appears to be ~6.4 g·day-1 which should be divided into four 1.6-g doses consumed evenly throughout the day

Phil Bellinger is a level 2 strength and conditioning coach and is a current PhD Scholar at Griffith University (Gold Coast Campus). His current area of research investigates the effects of supplements on athletic performance in trained athletes. Phil presented at the recent National Coaching Congress. In this article Phil provides coaches and athletes evidence based recommendations on the potential benefits from ß-alanine supplementation

and ingested with meals to maximise carnosine loading. The slow release BA formula is preferred (compared to pure BA) to minimise the sensation of paraesthesia (tingling skin) that some individuals experience following ingestion.

SummaryCurrently, there is some scientific evidence that BA supplementation provides meaningful, worthwhile benefits for athletes competing in events involving sustained high-intensity exercise of 1-7 min in duration, or sprint performance at the end of endurance exercise and, therefore, athletes are encouraged to let individual experience dictate their use of BA supplementation. BA supplementation may also enable athletes to train at a higher intensity and/or increase their training volume during training sets that maximally stress exercise capacity.

References1. Harris, R.C., et al., The absorption of orally supplied

ß-alanine and its effect on muscle carnosine synthesis in human vastus lateralis. Amino Acids, 2006. 30(3): p. 279-289.

2. Stellingwerff, T., et al., Optimizing human in vivo dosing and delivery of ß-alanine supplements for muscle carnosine synthesis. Amino Acids, 2012. 43(1): p. 57-65.

3. Baguet, A., et al., Important role of muscle carnosine in rowing performance. Journal of Applied Physiology, 2010. 109(4): p. 1096-1101.

4. Suzuki, Y., et al., High Level of Skeletal Muscle Carnosine Contributes to the Latter Half of Exercise Performance during 30-s Maximal Cycle Ergometer Sprinting. The Japanese Journal of Physiology, 2002. 52(2): p. 199-205.

5. Parkhouse, W.S., et al., Buffering capacity of deproteinized human vastus lateralis muscle. Journal of Applied Physiology, 1985. 58(1): p. 14-17.

6. Ducker, K.J., B. Dawson, and K.E. Wallman, Effect of Beta-Alanine Supplementation on 800 m Running Performance. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 2013.

7. Bellinger, P.M., et al., The effect of combined ß-alanine and NaHCO 3 supplementation on cycling performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 2012. 44(8): p. 1545-1551.

8. Derave, W., et al., ß-Alanine supplementation augments muscle carnosine content and attenuates fatigue during repeated isokinetic contraction bouts in trained sprinters. Journal of Applied Physiology, 2007. 103(5): p. 1736-1743.

9. Hobson, R.M., et al., Effects of ß-alanine supplementation on exercise performance: a meta-analysis. Amino Acids, 2012. 43(1): p. 25-37.

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Firstly, there are the 26 bones, 33 joints, 107 ligaments and lots of muscles and fascia

The view above is a plantar view (ie view from the bottom of the foot) – Plantar fascia is very obvious here (coloured white). Foot muscles are darker and you may be able to make out some of the smaller nerves.

Antero-Lateral view, (from the front and outside of the foot)

Medial view (from the inside of the foot)

Secondly, these 26 bones are divided into the rearfoot, midfoot and forefoot.

Rearfoot – 2 bones – Calcaneus (heel bone) and the Talus, which is the connecting bone that unites with the tibia to form the ankle

Midfoot – 5 bones Navicular, Medial Cuneiform, Intermediate Cuneiform, Lateral Cuneiform and Cuboid

In my previous article titled, “ Why is the foot so important to Track and Field athletes?” from the September 2013 issue MAC, I brought up issues of why the foot is important to Track and Field as a sport. One of the examples I used was, the foot is the ultimate part of the body that transfers force to the ground in every event. Whether it is throws, sprints, distance, hurdles, jumps or walks, the foot is the interface between the ground and the body.

I also talked about forces and the physics of ground contact and how world class long jumpers apply tonnes of force through their take off foot every jump.

I explained that ground contacts in sprinting are relatively short explosive events ranging from:

• Usain Bolt = 7 milliseconds (ms), (0.07seconds)• Mitchell Watt = 7 - 8ms, (0.07-0.08seconds)• Sally Pearson = 9 -10ms, (0.09-0.10seconds)• Eg. 11 second 100m runner = Approx. 11ms, (0.11seconds)• Eg. 13 second 100m runner = Approx. 14ms, (0.14seconds)

I then went on to talk about using video cameras to capture foot motion and how little information a normal speed camera gives a coach. For example with a normal 30 frames per second (fps) camera you may only see one frame of Usain’s foot touch the ground (2 if you’re lucky) With Mitchell Watt it’s the same story and Sally you may get 2 or 3. A slower runner you may get 4 or 5 at best.

High speed cameras (with frame rate capture abilities of 120/240/480 fps) capture between 4 to 16 times more frames for analysis, which gives more reliable information to both a coach and any movement therapist.

Following on from this, I intend for this article to be a video-graphic representation of exactly what a foot is exposed to during sprinting. Not many coaches will have seen slow motion footage of the foot contact of their sprinters or know what type of information to take from an analysis of a foot’s contact. Hopefully, reading this article can help.

To fully appreciate what a foot has to endure during sprint running it would be beneficial to revise some basic anatomy/ biomechanics of the foot and ankle.

Ashley Mahoney is a Level 2 coach and has developed a very successful business in his professional endeavours as a Podiatrist. As an accomplished hurdler, representing Australia in the 110m Hurdles, he has now turned his passion to coaching. The author of a number of books on foot strengthening, Ashley now works with leading athletes across a variety of sports.

In this article, he begins to discuss how important the feet are to athletes.

Footstrike in Sprinting An Analysis Ashley Mahoney

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• Ground contact times – Measurement of time the footspends in contact with the ground. Both feet need to be similar time periods and the quicker the better so long as correct backside/frontside sprint mechanics are maintained.

• Pronation and supination time periods – Pronation willnormally occur for the first one-third of ground contact and supination will occur for approximately two-thirds of the final aspect of ground contact. Observing slow motion camera footage from front or back-on will be the best way to observe these movements. From this, a Podiatrist in conjunction with the coach can observe the footwear suitability (spikes and joggers) as well as whether or not Orthotics are useful.

The following is a video-graphic breakdown of an easy warm up run through from one of the athletes I coach, Sam Baines. Sam is probably running at 60% of his maximum velocity during these first few run-throughs that we do as part of our warm up for a hurdles session.

Sam is a hurdler who placed 4th in the 110m hurdles at the 2010 World Junior Championships. Sam has been training with me for the past 18 months.

The video is filmed at 120 frames per second (fps), which means that the time period between each picture below is exactly 0.00833s. Whereas in the second table, the regular camera is 30fps, with 0.0333s between each frame. For the purpose of this article, I have only included Sam’s left foot in the video-graphic analysis.

Forefoot – 19 bones including 5 metatarsals, 14 phalangeal bones, 2 in the big toe and 3 in each other toe

There are also 2 sesamoid bones in each foot under the ball of your foot, just before your big toe, which are not accounted for in the numbering system internationally used. You may be able to just faintly see these in the picture above.

Finally, a brief biomechanics summary of the foot. During sprinting and running a foot may roll in (pronate) or out (supinate) at any of the rear, mid or forefoot sections.

Usually during forefoot strike running/sprinting, the foot starts in a supinated position at or before contact. It then pronates inwards to absorb and transmit the shock of ground reaction forces. It then re-supinates (rolls out) before or at the same time as the heel lifts for propulsion.

As a coach and a Sports Podiatrist I view thousands of foot strikes every week, but what exactly is important to know about the foot strike of a runner?

What foot-strike can tell us?

Actually, quite a bit of information can be deciphered from a simple foot-strike and then used to help plan various aspects of your athlete’s training. Some of these include:

• Contact area – ie which part of the foot is hitting theground first. Is it the Forefoot, Midfoot or Rearfoot?

• FootOrientation–ieisthefootstraightorslightlyinternallyor externally rotated. Also are both feet positioned with similar amounts of rotation at contact and during the entire contact phase or does one foot rotate more than the other?

• Qualitatively/quantitativelyassess relative footankleandknee stiffness, which can help address various aspects of leg, ankle and foot strength training. This is how a coach can measure if their athletes are “tall” during the contact phase of sprinting.

• Heeldroptimeperiods–Isthetimefromfirstcontactuntilthe heel reaches its lowest position. This is an indicator of good ground contact from good sprint technique rather than blocking at contact and also a measure of foot stiffness and strength.

1: Supinated foot approaching the ground.

2: First contact with 4th and 5th metatarsals. Note the heel position is above the toes in a slightly plantar flexed ankle position

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3: Foot pronates to allow metatarsals to contact the ground and heel drops a little. Note the knees are together

7: Foot continues to pronate

11: Heel lifting

5: Foot pronates a little more inwards towards a more neutral position and heel drops a little more. Slight knee flexion on the contact knee is observed.

9: Foot starting to re-supinate and heel lifts marginally

13: Foot supinating and heel lifting more.

4: Foot pronates a little more inwards towards a more neutral position and heel drops a little more.

8: Final bits of foot pronation

12: Foot supinating and heel lifting more.

6: Heel has finally stopped dropping. Foot is still pronating

10: Foot supinating and heel lifting more. Maximum knee flexion has been observed at this time.

14: Heel lifting more.

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15: Heel lifting more.

1: Foot Supinated approaching the ground to contact

17: Forefoot losing contact

3: Foot Pronated and heel lifting

16: Final aspects of supination and heel lift

2: Foot slightly less supinated heel dropped

18: Lift off!!!

4: Heel lifting more

Versus a regular camera

So what have I gained from all this extra information that will help me with Sam and his coaching moving forwards?

• Contactarea–Samcontacts thegroundonhis4thand5th metatarsals in a plantar flexed and supinated position. This is very normal for a sprinter to be ankle plantar flexed slightly at contact.

• Footorientation–Sam’s left footcontacts theground ina minimal externally rotated position and does not further rotate during stance. This is quite good and means that Sam has adequate flexibility in his hips during hip extension. If there is too great an externally rotation moment around the foot there may be internal rotation restrictions higher up the kinetic chain and into the hip joint is where I would be looking.

• Relative foot ankle and knee stiffness – Knee flexion isapproximately 16 degrees flexed on contact. The knee undergoes approximately 15 degrees of flexion during contact which is 0.067s in duration. Also, Sam contacts the ground with his ankle plantar flexed at 24 degrees and subsequently undergoes approximately 34 degrees of dorsi-flexion to become 10 degrees dorsi flexed during ground contact. Peak dorsi-flexion occurs in as little as 0.05

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• Pronation/supination time periods – Pronation is 0.05sand supination is 0.075s which is quite normal. When pronation times are extended it may be worth looking at foot strengthening, footwear suitability as well as the individual foot mechanics.

From this analysis as a coach, I have gained lots of information regarding my athlete’s foot strike and how I can improve various aspects of his training. This type of information is especially valuable when measured at top speeds. However, as a coach and a Podiatrist, none of this information can be gained using a standard speed camera. But, as with any technological intervention in training, it is useless without the knowledge of how it can help your athletes progress.

Yours in feetAshley Mahoney

seconds. Minimization of these parameters is paramount to sprinting success and injury prevention. This can be measured on this sort of video-graphic analysis. It is worth noting that most of the lower limb musculature including the foot and ankle will be contracting eccentrically during this period of ground contact. The muscles do this to help absorb and transfer ground reaction forces. But if these ranges of motion or time periods are too great, overuse injury can occur to many of the foot and lower limb structures.

• Heel drop time period– 0.033s which is slightly greaterthan what we are targeting for Sam. But considering this is only a 60% warm up run through it would be considered normal. Minimizing heel drop occurs via improvement of maximal velocity sprint mechanics and foot and ankle strength.

• Total ground contact time–0.125sAgain thiswouldbeconsidered on the long side but Sam is only moving at 60% speed and would be considered normal for this speed. It is always good to compare sides when looking at ground contact data.

Training records Can they enhance mental skills? Anthony Klarica

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I have to be honest. I am a MASSIVE fan of training diaries. In my opinion they can benefit both athlete and coach, individually and in their working relationship. I can check back on any day of my training over the past 20 years at the touch of a finger-tip. I know how many km’s I have run or cross training sessions persevered for every week, month, six month block and year for those 20 years. In the annual summary at the front of the diaries are notes on significant events, such as specific race times, highlighted sessions and injuries. If I need to check on how I did something or how long it took me to recover from an injury, I start there and then go to the detail in the main body of the diary.

However, since those 20 years have passed much has changed with regard to keeping training records. Technological advances have linked athletes and coaches to the training more than ever before. On any night I can log onto “Strava” on my mobile phone (free app) and check what each person in my run group has done for that day. The details I can review are more than I can absorb, let alone require.

For example, I can see on a map where they ran. I can see what pace they were running at and for how long. I can see the total number of sessions and kilometres run in the past month or check the total distance run for the year. I can even determine the total elevation they experienced in their sessions. In addition, I can compare any session or course that they have run to similar previous sessions. All this at the touch of my mobile phone screen, no matter where in the world they are. The Strava app is also linked to “Garmin” watches. And these are only two products that log all of this data. I have not specifically selected these examples to promote them, as there are multiple devices now available that can monitor and record all of this information easily.

The main message is that keeping records about training is now easier than ever from a physiological perspective. In addition to these devices many sporting teams and organisations also use software packages where athletes enter specific information such as sleep, muscle soreness, stress and fatigue. Coaches can stipulate the specific data they are interested in and how frequently the athlete will log or score themselves on the selected areas. Some programs will send an alert to a coach via their mobile if an athlete

deviates from the typical rating recorded, so that the coach can follow-up.

Hence, it is apparent that some of the technological advances in recording training can also monitor psychological variables, as well as physiological.

These modalities of recording training and racing are a far cry from the paper and pencil diaries from yesteryear. Paper-pencil options are often less appealing to younger athletes of today and coaches have to be aware of the technological options available if they want to encourage records to be taken.

Of course, there are some potential advantages to paper-pencil recording options. Low cost is one. Another one is that the coach can readily request specific information to any particular athletes and ask for that information to be recorded. Basic examples of information recorded include:

• Heart rate• Weight• Intensity or effort ratings• Sleep• Speed• Distance• Repetitions• Recoveries• Energy ratings• Enjoyment• Emotional factors or ratings• Specific muscle fatigue/soreness• Multiple other factors

The challenges to keeping a paper-pencil training diary are the commitment and willingness of the athlete to be thorough and accurate. I have experienced many coaches who prefer to keep the records themselves, rather than ask athletes to keep the records. The challenge with this is that there is a limit to the subjective psychological ratings that can be gathered, such as energy, session difficulty rating or other variables that the coach may be interested in. I have often seen coaches co-ordinate their time after training with their athlete to keep the record together although it remains in the custodial care of the carer (so as not to be lost or eaten by the pet dog while

Anthony Klarica is a Sport Psychologist with specific experience in Track and Field, both as an athlete and coach. He is the Director of Elite Performance whose clients include Hawthorn AFL Club, Tennis Australia, VIS athletes, Holden Racing V8 Supercar Team, and a wide range of other sporting associations, teams and individual athletes. For more information contact aklarica@eliteperformance.com.au

under the guardianship of the athlete). Keep in mind that this information is extremely valuable!

Regardless of the modality of record keeping or the specific data collected, there are numerous advantages to keeping training records. Here are some of the benefits.

Benefits of keeping training records (in no particular order):

1. Reduce injury and train smarter and longer. Identify errors in training that lead to injury and correct poor behaviours that lead to injury. Looking back over records and knowing what leads to injury can give athletes and coaches a balanced approach to training and provide evidence for making decisions.

2. Confidence builder. Looking back over training can provide confidence to athletes. Cumulative records of accomplishments and work done can generate emotions such as pride and satisfaction and generate confidence. There is a permanency about a training record that stands and serves to reflect what has been achieved and cannot be taken away because it is not forgotten.

3. Race preparation. Over time records can also provide a means to strategically manage approaches to races. Taper periods are extremely difficult and challenging for many athletes and using experiences that have worked or not worked can help athletes to feel comfortable about their strategic approach to completion.

4. Motivation. Just to ensure that you have an entry in your diary can be motivation in itself. When a relationship is developed between an athlete and their training records there is a loyalty that is simultaneously developed. A diary or training record can become a silent training partner that the athlete speaks to at the end of the day and shares emotions and the roller-coaster of training and racing with. It becomes important to continue to log an entry. Particular sessions recorded can also provide an opportunity for an athlete to compete against themselves.

5. Emotional outlet. When training and race records are kept, there are often accompanying comments such as, “tired”, “busy day”, “good day”, “stressed” and associated details. This expression allows for a release and clarity of mind and heart before the next day of training begins again.

6. Learning opportunities. Reviewing training can promote discussion and lead to learning about experiences had. Reflection on the past day, week, month or year can lead to learning that is difficult to otherwise experience. As a result adjustments can be made to goals, sessions and programs.

7. Planning engagement and opportunity. Often when reflecting on a previous week of entry or a particular session or training cycle, it is easier to plan for the following week or specific session. Once this planning occurs it enhances engagement in the session and overall program.

8. Communication strategy. Discussing training records can provide a communication flow back and forth between athlete and coach. Parties do not need to be present or even in the same city or country. It can be an avenue to enhance a conversation as it provides information to talk about. It can also provide a formal avenue for discussion.

9. Enjoyment. Keeping training records can be enjoyable, rather than tedious. There are different facets of enjoyment, whether these be adding kilometres run or engaging in the technological aspects of some modern training diaries. For many athletes the use of technology through their watch, phone or computer can be very enjoyable and even social.

10. Accountability. Training records don’t lie. There is an unavoidable element of accountability in keeping a training record. I hate a “zero” week of kilometre’s in my training records.

11. Recognise strengths. When session details are recorded they can be reviewed for PB’s and highlights. These can be very specific and assist both athletes and coaches to recognise what is able to be achieved and what strengths exist.

12. Generally monitor progress. Keeping a record can help iron out the emotional roller-coaster ride that athletes and sometimes coaches are on. Reviewing records can provide evidence about progress made or not made and help establish good habits.

13. Positive reflection. It may sound strange but I do know athletes who enjoy reading back over training records and race reviews. They talk about ”this session” or “that day” and have some pride in what they have done. It is like a photo album – it tells a story about a journey of an athlete…

14. Sharing of information. Some of the books I have enjoyed are Franz Stampfl’s “Franz Stampfl on Running” by Herbert Jenkins – he kept a record of Ralph Doubell’s training and it was a great insight. “How they Train” by Fred Wilt was also tremendous reading. It describes competitive and non-competitive season training of 800 and 1500m runners from the 1950’s – 1970’s. There are many modern examples of these books and “Modern Athlete and Coach” is another example of how sharing information about training records can enrich athletes, coaches and the sport.

While the above list is not exhaustive, I believe it reflects many positive examples of how training records can enhance mental skills.

Good luck with your coaching and training

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landing) or cumulative loading scenario (e.g. distance running), the external forces applied to the musculoskeletal system are greater than the tissue’s force tolerance. Though this is a simple, logical injury model founded on the principles of Occam’s razor, the ability to measure forces at the joint or tissue level during dynamic sporting tasks can be extremely challenging and in general rarely considered in the development/application and assessment of injury prevention training protocols. The downstream effect is the development of poorly designed injury prevention training interventions that can at best be described as successful, despite a lack of the mechanistic understanding by which the intervention worked. This is where the biomechanist plays an important role within any injury prevention framework. They are needed to both calculate and describe how forces are applied to the musculoskeletal system during a dynamic sporting task, and if deemed injurious, develop appropriate countermeasures to reduce an athlete’s injury risk.

There are many sports injury prevention frameworks proposed in the literature. Two popular frameworks are the van Mechelen et al. (1992) four stage model and Finch’s (1996) six stage model. These frameworks are purposely built to be general and applicable to a wide array of sports and sporting injuries (stress fractures, muscle strains, ligament strains/ruptures, etc...), with the ultimate goal of translating research into injury prevention practice. However, to be effective, the information within each stage of the frameworks must be empirically verified and appropriately employed, particularly when defining the mechanical aetiology of a given injury. Borrowing from Finch’s (1996) six stage injury prevention framework, the purpose of this manuscript is to define the role of the biomechanist within an injury prevention framework and present an applied example from the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury prevention research (Figure 1).

IntroductionFrom humble beginnings over a century ago, innovation in motion capture systems, musculoskeletal modelling and computer simulation have allowed for dramatic advancements in the field of biomechanics. Modern biomechanics can be dated back to the late 1800’s, with the invention of stop-action photography by Eadweard Muybridge (1878) and the chronophotographic gun by Étienne-Jules Marey (1882), which were developed to analyse human and animal motion. With these advancements, first came the ability to capture and describe human motion that could not be observed with the human eye. Later, with the development of the force platform (Elftman, 1936) and the application of the Newton-Euler equations motion, the ability to calculate and describe how forces are applied to the musculoskeletal system and/or cause human motion became possible. With the invention of the programmable computer in the 1950’s and the evolution of the silicon processor, our ability to create dynamic simulations of human motion has become an apparent reality in the field of biomechanics. Now, over 100 years after Muybridge first developed stop-action photography, biomechanics has establishing itself within the field of sport injury prevention research, providing coaches, athletic therapist and clinicians with additional tools to effectively prevent sport injury in sport.

Within the context of sport, it is expected that the external forces applied to the musculoskeletal system will be greater than the forces an individual experiences during the activities of daily living. Therefore, when developing athlete-specific training protocols, the general consensus among coaches is to gradually increase the magnitude and/or volume of the external forces an athlete will experience during competition in attempts to prepare the musculoskeletal system to withstand these loads. For an injury to occur, in either an acute (e.g.

Cyril Jon Donnolly currently holds a faculty position as an assistant professor at The University of Western Australia, lecturing in biomechanics. He holds a Bachelor of Kinesiology (Hons.) degree from McMaster University (Canada) and a Master of Science degree from The University of Waterloo (Canada). Having recently completed his Doctorate degree in Biomechanics from the University of Western Australia in 2012, he is undertaking general research directed towards whole body motor control and lower limb injuries, with a special focus on ACL injury prevention. In this article, Cyril Jon discusses how a biomechanist can help to offset injury. When finished his research will see clinicians and coaches use empirically verified subject-specific technique feedback to reduce an athlete’s ACL injury risk in high risk and community level athletic populations.

Injury Prevention The role of the biomechanist Donnelly, C.J.

Figure 1

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their ACL (Cochrane, et al., 2007; Krosshaug et al., 2007) show that more than half of these injuries occur during non-contact single-leg landing and change of direction (sidestepping) scenarios, immediately after foot contact, with the knee near full extension (Cochrane et al., 2007; Krosshaug et al., 2007). Being a non-contact sporting injury, these injuries are considered preventable.

STAGE 2 of 6: Mechanical Aetiology

The ACL has an oblique line of action originating from the posterior, medial wall of the lateral femoral condyle and inserts at the anterior intercondylar eminence of the tibia; this is similar to the line of action of one’s hand if placed in their front pant pocket. Due to the oblique line of action of the ACL from origin to insertion, there is a complex loading pattern associated with its peak strain and risk of injury. The primary function of the ACL is to limit the anterior translation of the tibia relative to the femur. Both cadaveric and in-silico research have shown that that the ACL also functions to support the knee from valgus (‘inward collapse’) and internal rotation moments (Markolf et al., 1995). When anterior translation, valgus and internal rotation knee moments are combined (Figure 2), ACL strain is the highest and injury risk the greatest.

Background: ACL Injuries

An anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury is considered one of the most severe knee injuries an athlete can sustain in sport. Not only are costs to the health care systems high, ACL injuries have also been shown to significantly influence an athlete’s short and long-term health-related quality of life. For example, Australia spends approximately 75 million AUD (Janssen et al., 2012) on ACL injuries each year. A surgical reconstruction is routinely required following an ACL rupture, which is generally met with an arduous rehabilitation and recovery period that can range from 6 – 12+ months before returning to competition. Following an ACL reconstruction, the probability an athlete will retire from sport within three years is approximately 70% (Roos et al., 1995). If an ACL injury is accompanied by a meniscal injury, an athlete’s risk of developing painful and dehbilitation knee conditiosns like osteoarthritis within 10 to 15 years increases by 20-50% (Oiestad et al., 2009).

STAGE 1 of 6: Injury Surveillance

Australia currently has the highest rates of ACL injuries per capita world-wide (52/100,000 people per year) (Janssen et al., 2010; Donnelly et al., 2012a). Retrospective surveys (Gianotti et al., 2009) and video analyses of athletes rupturing

In-vivo biomechanical research has shown that ACL strain is the greatest immediately after foot contact (first 20-30% of stance) (Cerulli et al., 2003), which has made the contact phase of these sporting tasks of particular interest for injury prevention biomechanist’s. In addition to the external forces that can elevate ACL strain, knee flexion angle during dynamic sporting tasks can influence the transfer of loads to the knee and ACL (Markolf et al., 1995). Cadaveric research has shown that when quadriceps muscle loads are simulated, peak ACL strain is observed near full knee extension (Wu, Seon, et al., 2010). These results are supported by in-vivo imaging studies, where the maximum elongation of the ACL is observed during the stance phase of gait with the knee near full extension (Wu, Hosseini, et al., 2010). These results together support the injury surveillance literature and provide a mechanistic rationale for why non-contact ACL injuries are generally observed at foot contact, with the knee is close to full extension (Cochrane et al., 2007; Krosshaug et al., 2007).

Figure 2

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Research by Hewett et al. (2005) has shown that ‘dynamic valgus’ knee postures (Figure 4), are predictive of ACL injury rates. These knee postures have also been shown to be associated with peak knee moments during both sidestepping (McLean et al., 2005) and single-leg landing (Kipp, et al., 2011). Though the measurement of the ‘dynamic valgus’ posture is observed in the frontal plane of the knee joint, it is in part the result of excessive hip internal rotation combined with knee flexion. This has provided a rationale for coaches and clinicians to shift their focus above the knee, towards the hip joint, to better understand how the hip external rotator muscles (i.e. gluteals) function to prevent athlete’s from attaining these dangerous knee postures.

Figure 4

With recent advancements in simulation-based research, Donnelly et al. (2012b) has identified a causal relationship between the dynamic control of an athlete’s whole body centre of mass, peak valgus knee moments and risk of ACL injury during change of direction sporting tasks. Providing a brief overview of these results, repositioning an athlete’s whole body CoM medially, towards their intended direction of travel during a change of direction task by only 3 – 4 cm can reduce peak valgus knee moments and ACL injury risk by 42% (44 Nm) (p = 0.045) (Figure 5). With the upper body making up more the one half of an athlete’s total body mass, it is apparent that the dynamic control of the upper body during dynamic sporting tasks is paramount for reducing an athlete’s risk of ACL injury in sport. Building upon previous research, there is an empirical rationale for coaches and clinicians to look above the knee joint, to the trunk/hip musculature and focus on improving the dynamic control of an athlete’s whole body centre of mass during dynamic sporting tasks.

STAGE 3 of 6: Countermeasures

There are generally three available modifiable avenues to reduce an athlete’s risk of injury in sport: 1) strengthen the tissue (i.e. bone, tendon, muscle etc...) allowing it to withstand larger loads, 2) change an athlete’s technique during a sporting activity to reduce the magnitude of external forces applied to the tissue and/or 3) improve the muscular support around a given joint when joint external loading is elevated. In the context of ACL injury prevention, researchers primary focus on the 2) and 3) as unlike bony, tendinous or muscular tissue, there is no known research showing that training can be used to promote collagen regeneration (tissue remodelling) that leads to significant strength increases in healthy ACL tissues.

COUNTERMEASURES: Technique, posture and knee loading

Altering a person’s technique during sidestepping has been proven effective in reducing valgus knee moments and injury risk during change of direction tasks (Dempsey et al., 2009; Donnelly et al., 2012b). One simple, but effective technique modification used to reduce peak valgus knee moments and injury risk during change of direction tasks is to have an athlete’s place their stance foot closer to the body’s midline while keeping their torso upright and rotated towards the desired direction of travel (Dempsey et al., 2009).

Figure 5

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moment arms capable of supporting against valgus knee moments (‘inward collapse’) (Buchanan & Lloyd, 1997; Lloyd & Buchanan, 1996, 2001; Lloyd et al., 2005) and considered an appropriate neuromuscular strategy for supporting the knee and ACL from injury (Buchanan & Lloyd, 1997; Lloyd & Buchanan, 2001).

To summarize, appropriate muscle activation strategies at the knee joint are to counter applied flexion, valgus and/or internal rotation knee moments during the impact phase of sporting tasks include, but are not limited to; elevated quadriceps/gastrocnemius muscle activation/strength, superimposed with the increased activation of muscles with flexion, and/or medial moment arms.

STAGE 4/5 of 6: Injury Prevention Training Interventions

It is here the majority of ACL injury prevention research resides. Following a review of the literature, it is clear that training can be used to reduce ACL injury rates in athletic populations (Caraffa et al., 1996; Hewett et al., 1999; Mandelbaum et al., 2005). However, with more than double the number of studies using similar injury prevention training protocols reporting inconclusive findings (Heidt et al., 2000; Junge et al., 2002; Myklebust et al., 2003; Pfeiffer et al., 2006; Soderman et al., 2000; Steffen et al., 2008; Wedderkopp et al., 2003). It is possible the design of the afore metnioned prophylactic training interventions may not have focused on the mechanical aitiology of ACL injury and/or successfully targeted the factors that can reduce ACL injury risk. These conflicting results also illustrate the point that the biomechanist needs to be central in the design, implementation and evaluation of injury prevention training protocols. Specifically, biomechanical measurements like technique, joint loading, and muscle support during sporting tasks need to be measured in parallel with changes in injury rates. Through this approach, it may be possible to identify the biomechanical mechanisms by which training influences the factors associated with non-contact ACL injury risk, and why a particular training protocol led to a positive or inconclusive training outcome. This is necessary if we are to confidently progress out of stage 4 and 5 of the ACL injury prevention framework and effectively reduce ACL injury rates across Australia and the world (Stage 6) (Figure 1).

With recent evidence in the literature and our current biomechanical and neuromuscular understanding of ACL injury mechanism and countermeasures, recommendations for the design of ACL focused prophylactic training protocols can be made. With the majority of ACL injuries in sport occurring among community level athletic populations, the needs of the community level athlete should be considered in the design of any ACL focused injury prevention training program. Specifically, the training intervention should not require special equipment or a specialized training environment. Additionally, the training intervention should be structured

To summarize, the techniques and postures related to peak knee loading, ACL injury rates and injury risk include but not limited to: a wide foot position relative to midline during change of direction tasks, a ‘dynamic valgus’ knee posture during landing and sidestepping as well an uncontrolled upper body during dynamic sporting tasks.

COUNTERMEASURES: Neuromuscular Support

There is no single muscle crossing the knee capable of simultaneously supporting the knee from externally applied flexion, valgus and internal rotation knee moments. For this reason, multiple muscle activation strategies can be used to reduce and athlete’s risk of ACL injury in sport.

When simulating the contact phase of landing in a cadaveric knee model, Hashemi et al. (2010) found that increased quadriceps force prior to foot contact, resulted in lower ACL strain during the impact phase. The reductions in ACL strain were attributed to the quadriceps ability to prevent the tibia from translating relative to the femur by both increasing joint stiffness at low knee flexion angles, and the production of a posteriorly directed joint reaction forces past 20°of knee flexion (Hashemi et al., 2010). As the line of action of the hamstring muscles past 15⁰ of knee flexion is similar to the ACL and shown to reduce ACL tension in-vivo (More et al., 1993), clinical research has proposed that athlete’s should co-contract the hamstring and quadriceps muscle groups during dynamic tasks to stabilize the knee and protect the knee ligaments, including the ACL, from external loading (Alentorn-Geli et al., 2009; Hewett et al., 2006). However, recent simulation based research by Morgan et al. (2013) has challenged the premise that athletes actually use a hamstring/quadriceps co-contraction strategy to support the knee and ACL during dynamic sporting tasks. When simulating the impact phase single-leg landing, Morgan et al. (2013) showed the quadriceps (1,730 ± 271 N) generated the greatest force, followed by gastrocnemii (1,256 ± 512 N) and then the hamstring (442 ± 234 N) muscles. These findings show that the neuromuscular strategy used by athletic populations to stabilize and support the knee from external joint loading during the impact phase of landing is the co-contraction of the quadriceps/gastrocnemii muscle groups, not the quadriceps/hamstrings muscles. The gastrocnemius muscle group spans both the ankle and knee joint, and when the knee is flexed can function to increase joint stiffness and resist the translation of the femur with respect to the tibia; this then suggests the neuromuscular strategy used by athletes to protect and support the knee and reduce ACL strain is the co-contraction of the quadriceps and gastrocnemii muscle groups. However, it is recommended these findings are verified with future in-silico, in-vivo and cadaveric research.

Valgus and internal rotation knee moments can be supported with the activation of specified muscles crossing the knee joint (Lloyd et al., 2005). Generally, medial knee muscles have

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at risk athletes can be identified in a field setting, but more importantly the specific techniques or postures predisposing the athlete to elevated risk of injury can be identified. With this information, coaches and clinicians can prescribe personalized training protocols that target the individual biomechanical factors classifying an athlete as ‘high-risk’, maximizing the impact of a prophylactic training protocol.

In the context of ACL injury prevention, a video based screening tool has been developed by Weir et al. (2013). Preliminary data has shown that an athlete’s peak frontal (R2 = 0.578) and sagittal plane (R2 = 0.461) peak knee moments and ACL injury risk can be predicted through the measurement of six kinematic variables (Figure 6). Aligning with previous research, the dependent variables used within this screening tool included knee flexion, upper body motion, foot position and surrogate ‘dynamic valgus’ kinematic measures. Future research will see this video based screening tool implemented in community level training environments for the mass screening of community level athletes, which will assist in the effective translation of ACL focused research into injury prevention practice.

in a way that coaches or trainers at any level can effectively implement the program. Aligning with these specifications, community level, ACL focused training interventions should be designed to use body-weight based exercises. Irrespective of the type or combination of training genre used (plyometric, balance and/or resistance), the root of all body weight based exercises should be focused on improving the strength and dynamic control of the hip and trunk musculature. There should also be continual feedback (implicit or explicit) to the athlete on technique, which would include increasing knee flexion at foot contact, avoid the use of a wide foot position during change of direction tasks and maintaining a controlled upper body during dynamic sporting tasks.

Athlete Screening

Injury prevention training programs have been shown to have greater effects on ‘high-risk’ relative to ‘low-risk’ athletic populations (Myer et al., 2007). From this research there has been movement in the injury prevention fields to develop low cost video based clinically-relevant screening tools to help identify at risk athletes. With a video based screening tool,

Summary

Regardless of the sport or sport injury, it is apparent that an injury framework (Figure 1) is needed if there is to be an effective translation of injury prevention research into injury prevention practice. Central to any injury prevention framework is the biomechanist, whose primary roles are to identify the mechanical aetiology of given injury (Stage 2) and develop appropriate countermeasures (Stage 3). In general terms, exercise or training can then be used to modify the factors predisposing an athlete to elevated risk of injury (Stage 4 & 5). Where appropriate, screening tools should be used to identify at risk athletes so personalized training protocols that target factors classifying them as ‘high-risk’ can be developed and implemented. Finally, with the ability of the biomechanicst to measure the forces applied to the musculoskeletal system, there needs to be feedback within an injury prevention framework to assess and objectively quantify how well an intervention targeted the biomechanical factors associated with the mechanical aetiology of given injury. It is from here, we can more effectively and efficiently translate injury prevention research into injury prevention practice across Australia and the world (Stage 6).

Figure 6

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Start cooking the pasta in a large saucepan of boiling water. Meanwhile, spray a frying pan or wok with oil and heat. Add the onion and mushrooms and cook over medium heat for 3 minutes or until soft. Add garlic and cook for 1 minute more. Put the cornflour into a small bowl and gradually add 80ml (1/3 cup) milk, stirring until smooth. Add the remaining milk to the pan then gradually add the cornflour mixture, stirring constantly. Keep stirring until the sauce boils and thickens. Stir in the ham and parsley, season to taste. When the pasta is al dente, drain and return to the saucepan. Add the sauce and toss through the past. Serve immediately with salad.

HINT: When making a cornflour-based sauce, make sure the cornflour is well combined with the first part of the milk, before adding the rest, to prevent the sauce becoming lumpy.

High Fuel (4) Low Fuel (6)Energy(kj) 2632 1755Protein 35 23Fat 7 4Carb 106 71Taken from: AIS Survival From the Fittest

Serves 4-6Preparation time: 10 minutesCooking time: 10 minutes

Recipe Spaghetti with Creamy Ham Sauce

• 500g spaghetti• spray of canola or olive oil• 1 onion, finely chopped• 150g button mushrooms, quartered• 1 teaspoon minced garlic• 1 tablespoon cornflour• 525ml (2 cups) Carnation Light and

Creamy Evaporated Milk• 200g lean sliced ham, cut into strips• 1 tablespoon chopped fresh parsley• freshly ground black pepper to taste

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as possible. This is not as important for the Track and Field athlete. This means that variations may be used that are no longer used in powerlifting or Olympic lifting (for example, the split variations of the snatch and clean) or slightly different techniques to make the lift more similar to track and field.

• There is a point of diminishing returns: Powerlifters and Olympic lifters train to get as strong as they can. Track and Field athletes need to be strong enough to be successful at their event. There is a point for a Track and Field athlete where application of strength and technique become more important than just getting stronger. There is also a point in training where the amount of time and energy (as well as injury risk) to add five more pounds to a lift outweighs the benefits of the extra strength.

Strength training should complement track and field training

Athletes don’t just lift weights; they sprint, they perform jumps, they throw, etc. This means that strength training has to take the totality of the athlete’s experience into account. If it does not do this, then the athlete may not be able to adequately recover from training and may end up injured, overtrained, or just too tired to perform well.

To help with this, we can look at strength training as developing several qualities:

• Hypertrophy: or muscle size

• Strength: how much force can be exerted

• Power: the ability to exert force quickly

• Endurance/Conditioning: the ability to exert force over time

Ideally, a strength training workout should focus on developing one of those qualities. When the athlete is in-season, this may change due to the limitations on training time, but in the off-season this is a good principle to follow. By doing this we focus the athlete, we allow the athlete to recovery if we perform training several days in a row, and this enables us to sync the strength training workout to what the athlete is doing in his or her event training.

John Cissik has written and spoken extensively about strength, conditioning, and speed training. He has worked in all settings of the strength and conditioning field from coaching, to rehabilitation, to personalized instruction, to education. Currently he serves as an administrator at Texas Woman’s University and consults with both Track and Field programs on strength training and with strength programs on speed development. He can be reached at jcissik@mail.twu.edu or can be found on twitter (jcissik) or LinkedIn.

One of the challenges with using strength training for the Track and Field athlete is that there is a lot out there that a coach can chose from. There is so much, in fact, that it can be overwhelming. Many strength and conditioning coaches are applying the lessons that they learned in the sports that they played, which may not be applicable to Track and Field – this often leads to Track and Field coaches running the strength training for their athletes.

The next few articles in this series are going to cover event-specific workouts. Before getting to that, it’s a good idea to develop a foundation to give the coach perspective on why the programs are being developed the way they are. The following are five principles for using strength training with the track and field athlete:

• Strength training should support Track and Field training

• Strength training should complement Track and Field training

• Strength training should be brief, focused, and effective

• Strength training should be both general and event specific

• Strength and power should be trained year round

Strength training should support Track and Field training

For the athlete, strength training is a means to an end – it is not the end. This is an important distinction because with powerlifting, bodybuilding, and Olympic lifting strength training is the end. In those sports, athletes are lifting weights to become stronger at lifting weights. Track and Field athletes, on the other hand, are lifting weights to become better Track and Field athletes. This means that there is a need to keep strength training in perspective when working with Track and Field athletes. There are a number of important implications that go along this:

• Variety of exercises may be used: Powerlifters and Olympic lifters compete to see who can lift the most weight on specific exercises. As a result, their training and techniques are geared towards working on deficiencies on those exercises and making their performance as efficient

Strength & Conditioning Principles for Track and Field Athletes John M. Cissik

Thursday is a plyometric/explosive power workout. Friday develops maximum velocity. Each of these workouts is extremely intensive for the lower body. A workout organization like this means the athlete never gets a chance to allow their lower body to recover from training.

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Syncing strength training to the event training is extremely important to allowing the athlete time to recover. Table One shows an example of how not to do this. In this workout, Monday is a maximum strength training session. Tuesday develops acceleration. Wednesday develops hypertrophy.

In table two, the training sessions are organized differently. Acceleration work takes seconds and is a maximal, all-out effort. So is training for maximal strength. It makes sense to group these two sessions together on the same day as they develop similar qualities. Power cleans and snatch pulls develop explosive power, as do plyometrics, which is why it makes sense to group these on the same day. This session could be done on Wednesday, but it’s being done on Tuesday because it is seeking to tap into the nervous system

excitement caused by maximal strength training on Monday. Wednesday is a recovery day, this would be a great day for mobility training. Thursday is the maximal velocity training and is also a hypertrophy training session. These two are synced following the logic that the volume/time of the work sessions are similar. Friday is either a day off or would be a great day for upper body training. By shifting the organization a little, the same amount of work can be done but we allow the athlete more recovery time.

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Power Clean 3x3x80%

Snatch Pulls 3x6x85%

Back Squats 3x4-8x85%

Romanian Deadlifts 3x4-8

Calves 3x6-10

Block Starts 3x5x20 metres

Bounds 3x20 metres

Split Squats 3x8-12 each leg

Lunges 3x8-12 each leg

Leg Press 3x12-15

Good Mornings 3x12-15

Reverse Hyperextensions 3x12-15

Box Jumps 10x

Standing Triple Jump 5x

Hops 3x10 metres

Medicine Ball Backward Toss 10x

Stride Length Drills 20 metre run up, cover 20 metres, 3x

Block Starts, 5x60 metres

Bounds, 3x60 metres

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Block Starts 3x5x20 meters

Bounds 3x20 metres

Back Squats 3x4-8x85%

Romanian Deadlifts 3x4-8

Calves 3x6-10

Power Clean 3x3x80%

Snatch Pulls 3x6x85%

Box Jumps 10x

Standing Triple Jump 5x

Hops 3x10 metres

Medicine Ball Backward Toss 10x

Stride Length Drills 20 metre run up cover 20 metres 3x

Block Starts 5x60 metres

Bounds 3x60 metres

Split Squats 3x8-12 each leg

Lunges 3x8-12 each leg

Leg Press 3x12-15

Good Mornings 3x12-15

Reverse Hyperextensions 3x12-15

Table One: How to overtrain a sprinter.

Table Two shows an example of how to organize all this work so that it complements while giving the athlete a chance to recover from training.

Table Two: Syncing strength and track training.

It also does not do a great job at teaching horizontal force application. In other words, strength training is a general training tool in that it develops the athlete’s foundation. In Matveyev’s language, it can be a special tool in that it can train certain positions (for example, lifts can be performed on one-leg to help train the fact that when we run or sprint only one leg is in contact with the ground at t time). But, it has limitations when it comes to event-specificity.

Strength and power should be trained year-round

Expressing strength and power are essential skills to the track and field athlete, regardless of discipline. Like any skill, the more an athlete practices them the better the athlete will get at it. This means the athlete must practice strength and power year-round, not begin four to six weeks before competition. Strength training programs need to incorporate strength and power training year-round, from the very beginning of training. Table Three shows a pretty typical early off-season program that I use for collegiate sprinters and jumpers.

any additional work that needs to be fit into the week. Each of the strength training sessions outlined above take 30-45 minutes and allows ample time for the athlete to train for his or her event.

Strength training is an important tool in a Track and Field coach’s toolbox. However, it is only one tool of many. Coaches must keep it in perspective and realize that, like all tools, it does some things well and other things poorly.

Strength training should be brief, focused, and effective

For the Track and Field athlete, strength training is a means to an end. Because it is one tool of many that the coach will use to prepare their athletes, it needs to be performed in a manner that allows for the best use of the athlete’s time while allowing time for the other training the athlete needs to perform. This requires the program to be focused on what’s essential to making the Track and Field athlete better. The most effective strength training programs will last 45-60 minutes. In other words, focus on what’s important, train intensely, then leave.

Strength training should be both general and special

There are several things that strength training does well. It develops muscle mass. It increases strength. It improves vertical force application. But there are things that strength training does not do very well. It does not mimic the events.

Monday combines acceleration track work with maximal strength work in the weight room. This strength training workout trains every muscle of the body. Tuesday combines maximal velocity track work with plyometrics and an Olympic lifting workout to develop explosive power. Wednesday is a recovery day. Thursday combines speed endurance work with a total body workout designed ti increase the athlete’s muscle mass. Friday is focused around vertical jumps and

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Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Speed Focus

Acceleration Maximum Velocity Mobility Speed Endurance N/A

Plyometric Focus

N/A Horizontal Jumps N/A N/A Vertical Jumps

Strength Training

Back Squats 3x4-8x80-90%

Romanian Deadlifts 3x4-8

Bench Press 3x4-8x80-90%

Bent-Over Rows 3x4-8

Military Press 3x4-8

Power Clean 3x3x60%

Clean Pulls 3x6x70%

Push Jerk 3x3x605

Off or conditioning Superset: Split Squats and Dumbbell Bench Press 3x12-15 each

Superset: Lunges and Pull-Ups 3x12-15 each

Superset: Good Mornings and 3-in-1 Shoulder Raises 3x12-15 each

Back Raises 3x12-15

Superset: Biceps/Triceps 3x12-15 each

N/A

Table Three: sample early off-season program.

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The 800m eventFrom athlete to coach Susan Andrews

My context and training.

As an 800m runner, I was basically a built up sprinter with pbs of 23.2s for the 200m and 51.55s for the 400. My VO2 max from memory was only in the 50s but I had a lot of running in my legs from the many years of sprinting. I had a good dose of determination and motivation and very importantly, I had a knowledgeable coach who I believed in. I had very limited time to make the 800m qualifying standard so there wasn’t a lot of time to experiment with the unknown. There were the usual maintenance requirements to remain injury free that older athletes face. I was also very keen to run the 4 x 400 so my 400m speed had to be retained.

We maintained the strength work, hills and 400m speed work over shorter distances such as 40-60m, 120m, 150m, 200-300m. Fort included threshold interval runs, fartleks, a long easy run of 60min, 800 pace work both easy and more anaerobic over distances from 200-600m, plus easy morning jogs. I was mostly doing approximately 40km a week but maybe up to 60km during the winter months. The first time I ran an easy 60 min run I looked at my watch after 1 minute and when I read that I had 59 minutes to go I just about had a heart attack. Needless to say, we had to work on my aerobic ability.

If I had been younger, my body more resilient and if I had only been aiming for the 800m, I am sure that my training would have been quite different. However, for my context and my goals, this approach to training was appropriate for me. My training had a definite anaerobic slant to it to as the focus was to run the 4 x 400m and the 800m at the Sydney Olympics, but the aerobic component of the event was also acknowledged and trained.

Learning to coach the 800m runner

After the Olympics, I took a season off competition and returned to chase the Australian 800m record with Tamsyn Lewis for 2 years, finally retiring at age 32. The Australian record remains untouched to this day. My official personal bests were 2.00.32 and 1.59.8 in a mixed race. Although it was the end of my career as an athlete, it was the beginning of my interest in coaching. With thanks to Keith Connor at

Susan Andrews is an ATFCA and AA Level 4 coach who has also been an Australian representative in dual Olympics and Com-monwealth Games. She also represented Australia in World Championships, World Indoors and twice in the World Juniors. She has a master degree in Education and has coaches athletes to World Youth and World Student Games. Her proudest achievement is being mum to three very active boys, aged 5 (twins) and 3 years. In this article Susan explains how she has developed her coaching knowledge in the 800m.

Introduction

The 800m event is a tough race for an athlete and a challenging event to coach. I was drawn into this event partly by circumstance as an athlete many years ago and I am still involved with the event now as a coach. This article reflects on the training that I undertook myself as I transitioned from 400m to 800m and how it related to my context at the time. It considers my move into coaching and how my own knowledge of the event initially influenced the way I coach. This prompted me to search for answers to be a more effective 800m coach.

In my search for answers to be a better coach for my 800m athletes, I considered the training methods of Trevor Painter and Honore Hoedt. Both coaches acknowledge the advantage of high peak speed in an 800m athlete but they also value the benefit of an aerobic approach to training. My research focuses unashamedly on female athletes from a sprint background as this is my particular area of interest. Irrespective of that, I hope that the information provided may be of use to all 800m coaches of both male and female athletes and from beginner to elite.

Transitioning from 400m to 800m.

In 1999 after the World Championships, five Australian athletes had qualified for the women’s 400m for the 2000 Sydney Olympics. I was one of them. There were only three individual spots available and potentially 5 or 6 berths for the relay. I had missed the 1996 Olympics after running in the 4 x 400 in Barcelona in 1992, and I was determined not to miss the Sydney Olympics. There were three vacant spots in the women’s 800m and no athletes had qualified in this event.

I asked myself, ‘How hard can it be to run 60 seconds and 60 seconds to get the qualifier in the 800?’ I clearly had no understanding of the event. Despite my naivety, my coach Peter Fortune (Fort) and I agreed. It was worth a shot. My training was altered to accommodate the 800m event and 12 months later at 29 years of age, I lined up at the start of the 800m at the Sydney Olympics. I also ran in the heat of the 4 x 400m with Pittman, Peris and Lewis and we broke a 23 year old Australian record.

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last 200m of my races led me to investigate the components of the 800m and how to improve an athlete’s aerobic ability in the 800m without losing the ability to generate and maintain high speeds. Is it even possible to improve an athlete’s aerobic ability in the 800m without losing their high peak speed (which was my strength)? Some of the questions that I posed to myself included - what type of weekly distances are performed by the leading international coaches and how do they balance the elements of the 800m implemented into the training program? I was particularly interested in those who had coached female athletes who had run under 1.59min and who came from a culture not too dissimilar to Australia. I was also interested in those who had coached 400\800m athletes and how they balanced those demands. The following two coaches answered many of my questions.

Trevor Painter

Painter coached World Championships 2009 bronze medallist athlete Jenny Meadows (England) 52.5/1.57.93/4.19.36. Meadows was a former successful 400m junior and U/23 athlete and she had developed through the ranks of English athletics as a sprinter. Painter said that he was fortunate that Meadows was a naturally explosive athlete and it is easier to develop the strength-endurance capacity rather than be required to develop the ability to produce peak speed. Painter admits that he didn’t focus on the 100 and 200 speed for 800m training purely due to the demands of fitting all the other elements into the training program. However, he did ensure that Meadows was no further away than 1second from her 400m PB of 52sec at any given time. Painter commented that at 53sec it is easy for Meadows to be efficient and composed to complete the first lap in 57seconds. Meadow’s focus is on being a great 800m athlete rather than a good athlete over a variety of distances (Painter, 2010).

Meadow’s winter program commenced with an aerobic phase and then translated into a year round routine where intensity varied from session to session and volume from week to week but Meadows would never be too far from 800m shape at any time. Painter believes in working on anaerobic and aerobic elements all year round rather than trying to speed up as summer approaches. He claims that his training approach includes the usual mix of intervals, hills, lactic tolerance, speed, thresholds mostly between 3-6minutes (up to 10min per repetition in winter), mileage and 800m pace work over the 800m segments. He does mention that Meadows never goes over distance (over 800m) on the track in training aside from the odd 1k time trial. Painter prefers Meadows to feel fast and run at race pace when on the track (Painter, 2010).

Painter states that the increase in training distances was an important factor in how Jenny developed as an 800m runner. Painter was careful not to increase the weekly distance too quickly when Meadows initially transferred to the 800m

AA, WAIS and Athletics WA, in 2002 I was directed into a scholarship coach position at WAIS and with an abundance of existing sprint coaches in Perth already, I ran a Talent ID for middle distance and commenced coaching a squad of middle distance runners.

My knowledge of the 1500m\3km was very limited and even at the 800m it was only just passable. Reflecting on those early years of coaching I am amazed my athletes improved as much as they did! In the beginning I probably coached the way I was trained for the first few years, but then I began to realise that this wasn’t specific enough for my athletes because they were not me. None of my 800m athletes have ever had my capacity of a high peak speed, but conversely most came with better developed aerobic endurance capacities. The training outline above was developed for me in the context of my needs, age, and goals and it worked. This isn’t to say that the exact mix and balance that I had when I trained, is right for everyone else. We are all individuals with our own inherent capacities, strengths, weaknesses and goals.

My athletes motivated me to upskill and so in conjunction with Athletics WA, I organised many prominent Eastern States middle and long distance coaches to travel to the West and impart their knowledge on a keen bunch of WA coaches. I progressed through the very valuable coaching courses run by ATFCA. I read about the African middle distance athletes/coaches and their training culture and philosophies. I read about New Zealand coach Lydiard’s philosophies and I recognised his influence on Australian middle and long distance training. I read Peter Coe’s training methods for Seb Coe. Peter Bourke kindly lent me his 1982 training journal for a year. My knowledge and confidence in middle distance running/coaching improved and in turn my athletes ran faster, however; from a national perspective, the 800m event was stagnant.

This led me to question the training for this event even further. As coaches, what do we need to do to improve the 800m in Australia and how can I coach my athletes to be the best 800m runners they can be? What am I missing? In order to answer some of these questions I drew on my knowledge of my own racing. The most frustrating part of racing the 800m was the last 200m of the race.

When I was competing in 800m races there was hardly anyone in a race who had a faster personal best over 400m than Tamsyn or I. Speed was never an issue for either of us. Both Tamsyn and I could cruise through that first 400m but the last 200m was when it counted and inevitably this was when I would be passed in the top international standard races. Given the speeds through the first 200m, the ability to maintain that speed over the last 200 was difficult when the muscles were accumulating lactic.

This lasting memory of the frustration of being left behind in the

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During the seminar, Hoedt explained his vision relating to 800m training which included:

• Aerobic approach & running power

• Hills

• Speed

• Economy of running at race pace

• Power and core stability

• Some jumps and reactivity

• As less high lactate training as possible

• No high lactate training for youngsters (Hoedt, 2011)

Regarding speed work, Hoedt claims that it is a mistake to do speed training too fast when an athlete does not have the appropriate recent training history. He suggests that all speed training should be controlled at similar speeds to 400m speed (Hoedt, 2011, p. 19). Hoedt included speed into his programs many times a week in the form of 60m or 80m reps at varying paces prior to the main part of a session throughout the year or in the form of intervals over 100-300m with longer rests at 400-600m pace in pre season (Hoedt, 2011, p. 23). Power/strength activities and core work were also prominent in Hoedt’s programs. For power, Hoedt lists cleans, squats and step ups as his main exercises combined with jumps on and off the box (Hoedt, 2011, p. 16).

training. He commented that many 400-800m athletes who they had witnessed doing 90 miles (145km) a week, were not successful. Instead, Painter gradually increased the miles each year to be at 60miles (96km) in 2010 during the winter and 40 miles (64km) during the summer depending on competitions. It is noted that Meadows won her first National Indoor 800m title after completing only 30 miles (48km) per week, highlighting that it was not purely distance covered that drove success (Painter, 2010).

Honore Hoedt

In 2011, Australian National distance coordinator Tim O’Shaugnessy invited Honore Hoedt to Australia to present his ideas and training methodology on the 800m to invited coaches who had athletes competing at a reasonable National senior level in Australia. I was lucky enough to be invited along with my athlete Holly Noack. Current Australian World Championships representative, Kelly Hetherington coached by the late Maxine Corcoran, was another athlete invited to the seminar. Hoedt at the time was the National Middle Distance coach of the Netherlands. He had been focusing on a special program for the 400-800m athletes, which had shown some success in recent years. Specifically Hoedt coached and developed successful Dutch athletes including Bram Som: 46.49/1.43.45/3.48, Robert Lathowers 46.52/1.44.75, Arnoud Okken: 47.9/1.45.66/3.37, Yvonne Hak 54.0/1.58.85/4.16.21 (400m/800m/1500m).

Table 1. Honore Hoedt’s recommended weekly km guide based on age and event type, (2011).*In the chart above, the first column is age and van(women), tot(men).

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who have set goals and their own context (like me), but if we as coaches are aiming to consistently produce high calibre 800m runners who for the sake of argument are solely focused on the 800m event, which method will get the results?

Both Painter and Hoedt have coached 800m athletes to a higher standard than our Australian records and their athletes live in socio economic cultures not unlike Australia. We can learn a considerable amount from both of these coaches and their approaches to coaching the 800m athlete.

Both Hoedt and Painter have recognised that speed work is necessary, it should be included and it is a very useful natural ability to possess in an 800m athlete. However, the significant element in the information provided by both coaches is the importance of the aerobic system and improvement in this area that made the most difference to the athlete’s performances. Hoedt measures blood lactate responses to training in his athletes regularly with their aerobic work of various speeds from very slow to medium, and especially anaerobic threshold. This measurement is performed to ensure that the lactate accumulation is not too high (H. Hoedt, personal communication, 24th October, 2011). It is noted that his athletes still complete sessions with high lactate concentrations, but they are carefully monitored and programmed to complement the individual and the other components of the 800m program (Hoedt, 2011, p. 24). Both coaches recommend a progressive development over a period of years to increase the overall weekly training distance. Hoedt’s weekly guide per age is a very good starting place and he recommends different weekly km for the 400/800m athlete and the 800/1500m athlete.

One of the key points from my correspondence with Painter was the comment that Meadows was focused on being the best 800m runner she could be and they had to relinquish some of her speed to achieve this. Meadows still maintained her 400m to be within one second of her best but they had realised that they couldn’t fit everything in to her training and it was the short speed work (suitable for a 100-200 runner) that they let slide without any detriment (Painter, 2010).

The Coaching Principle of Specificity.

When I lecture my Tertiary Phys Ed students about programming for athletes, I discuss the Principles of Training: Overload, Specificity, Individuality, Recovery and Reversibility (ATFCA, 2006, p.16). Every year that I lecture this unit, I never fail to be reminded about how vital and often overlooked these fundamental training principles are. They may be basic, but without them or with the wrong application, a training program can easily result in a flawed outcome. My favourite training principles relate to those of Specificity and Individuality. The 800m event in particular relies heavily on the coach having a good knowledge of the event and the energy systems and components that it requires, as well

Part of Hoedt’s philosophy relates to maintaining speed and race economy almost all year round, combined with a good aerobic approach. For example, in Table 1, Hoedt’s suggests the annual progression in weekly distance based on the age of the athlete and the event type that they are suited to. There is a significant difference between the suggested weekly distance for the 400/800m athlete and the 800/1500m athlete in Hoedt’s table but irrespective of this the suggested weekly distance for a 400/800m athlete in their prime is still quite substantial.

Hoedt’s overall vision appears to conform with the information from Painter, along with my training experience as an 800m athlete. However, what I did notice was Hoedt was very specific about the speed the aerobic work was completed in and the lactate concentrations during the aerobic work. As Hoedt was often working with the 400m runners moving up to 800m, he was well aware of their ability to complete aerobic intervals or long aerobic runs was hampered as they did not have sufficient aerobic capacity to accommodate what would appear to be quite slow speeds or shorter aerobic intervals. If an athlete is acquiring lactate above the 4millimoles (above their anaerobic threshold) this no longer becomes a predominant aerobic activity, meaning you can add ‘anaerobic’ onto your program for that day (Janssen, 2001, p.33).

Hoedt states that too much maximal anaerobic work is a mistake (2011, p.19). A balance is required to overcome the high lactate accumulation that the 400-800m runners often get, but also ensure these athletes are still developing the aerobic system effectively. To do this Hoedt separates the aerobic work for his ‘high lactate 400/800 runners’ where needed into shorter intervals. As an example: Instead of doing 3 x 1600m with 3min rest at speeds 13.5, 15, 16.5km/hr the athlete who accumulates too much lactate (which then turns the session into more of an anaerobic workout) could run the session as 4 x 400 with 30-60 seconds rest but at the same speeds or 8 x 200 with 30sec (Personal observation of Hoedt’s lecture, October 25, 2011).

Hoedt also measures blood lactate concentration to further determine which speeds required continued improvements to reduce lactate and ensure that the athlete was getting sufficient aerobic exposure at a range of speeds 13.5km/hr, medium and fast speeds (Personal observation, October 25, 2011).

Discussion

When it comes to training the 800m athlete in Australia, the anaerobic versus aerobic approach is often debated. As outlined in Kevin Prendegast’s panel discussion in Modern Athlete and Coach in January 2013, some coaches opt for more speed and faster intervals with a fairly high anaerobic component. Others choose mostly aerobic/endurance work. Both of these approaches have worked for specific individuals

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that all things being equal, the athlete at 600m with the least lactate will win the 800m race…. and I can definitely relate to that (Personal communication, October 25, 2011). It isn’t about how fast you can run over 400m or even 600m or how many km’s you rack up in a week. It is all about how to complete 800m and still be competitive in the last 200m. Training that addresses the weaknesses in an athlete but also maintains their strengths is going to pay dividends and I have witnessed this as I coach and plan for my own athletes. It takes time, patience, knowledge, belief and plenty of guts to make significant changes to a program that appears to be working moderately well but it is worth it in the long term.

Conclusion

My transition from 400m to 800m athlete and then to coach has influenced the way I coach and further reinforced the specialisation of the 800m event. As an 800m athlete I was frustrated with the lack of finishing speed that I possessed in the last 200m and this led me to research the event further once I began coaching. The current long standing Australian Records in both the men’s and women’s events also suggest that as coaches we need to search further for answers and go outside our comfort zones with our coaching. As coaches we often cannot influence the natural speed and the innate levels of motivation, competitiveness, dedication and commitment in our athletes but we can influence the type of training that they do.

The 800m event possesses a crucial variety of components and all components must be trained for improvement. The coaching principle of ‘Specificity’, plays a vital role in this event and I challenge you the coach to review your programs and determine where changes can be made and how the training can address the requirements of the 800m event better than they currently do. I believe that we have talented athletes in this country who can be great 800m runners but we as coaches need to be brave and try new methods. We need to be open minded and keep learning, improving, discussing and discovering better methods of coaching and training for this very specialised event.

Below I have listed recommendations that have resulted from the information researched from Hoedt and Painter and also from my experience with my training and my athletes. I hope that these ideas may assist coaches of beginner to elite 800m athletes. I do not claim to have all the answers, but this is a starting place.

Key ideas for effective 800m coaches

• Ensure that every physiological component of the 800mevent is being addressed and weighted accordingly in the program.

• Peak speed is important to train but maintenance ofwithin 1 second of the 400 pb is preferable to ensure all components of the event can fit in the program.

as the application to improve the individual. The 400/800m athlete is a different individual to the 800/1500 athletes and thus requires a different approach to training, even though the energy systems of the 800m event are similar. Hoedt claims that the 800m event requires; 1. speed and explosion, 2. anaerobic and lactate, 3. aerobic/O2 for heart, lungs and transport to the blood and muscle, 4. Oxygen and glycogen for utilisation within the muscle (2011, p. 10). Addressing the above components is where the Principle of Specificity can be applied.

Are we as coaches being specific enough to address the demands of the 800m event, in particular for the 400/800 conversion athlete? Are we in some cases prescribing our 800m athletes who come from the 400m background, the wrong training balance because we are focusing too much on their strengths, rather than addressing their weaknesses? Further, are we appropriately acknowledging how much of a role the aerobic system plays? Perhaps we are concerned that they may lose their speed if we give them too much aerobic work? Peter Kehoe in the October edition of Modern Athlete and Coach states that how fast the athlete can run a 100m is just as important as their aerobic capacity is for the 800m athlete (p. 34), but how much training should be dedicated to improving the 100m time for the 800m athlete and will it really make that much difference? I would suggest that the 400m runner moving up already has sufficient speed and it is better to maintain it rather than try and improve it further. Fort always said to me that 27s is the fastest you will run any 200m as part of your 800. To run 27s for a 200m for me was not fast but to add on 30, 30 and 30 after running 27s requires strength, endurance and economy. Hoedt does put an emphasis on power training, jumps and reactivity, which relates to Peter Coe’s (1997) coaching methods and Kelly Holmes (2008) training and may assist with maintaining explosiveness. It is noted that Hoedt and Painter both include plenty of speed training but more at 400-600m pace efforts rather than retaining the peak 100-200m speed.

Duffield, Dawson & Goodman concluded after research on 800m runners that the aerobic/anaerobic contribution of the 800m race is 60/40% and 70/30% for males and females respectively (2005, p. 306). The athletes tested for this study ranged from club to national level athletes. The aerobic contribution at 70% for females in the 800m is significant and further reinforces the focus on training the aerobic system fully.

If athletes become more proficient in the various aerobic zones, they will be able to train the speeds at or near VO2max more effectively, more frequently and recover better (Karp, 2010, p. 14). The ability to increase and tolerate speeds at VO2max is very helpful for the 400/800m conversion athlete as the efficiency and volume of aerobic capacity can be underdeveloped and hence be a weakness, especially given its importance in the 800m event. As Hoedt said so simply,

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Janssen, P. (2001). Lactate Threshold Training. US: Human Kinetics.

Karp, J. R. (2010). 101 Developmental Concepts & Workouts for Cross Country Runners. US: Coaches Choice.

Kehoe, P. (2013). 800m Running in Australia. Modern Athlete and Coach, 51(4); 33-35

Martin, D. & Coe, P. (1997). Better training for Distance runners. US: Human Kinetics.

Prendegast, K. (2013). Panel Discussion. The State of Middle Distance Running in Australia. Modern Athlete and Coach, 51(1); 26-36

Painter, T. (2010). Personal communication, 23rd January.

Martin, D. & Coe, P. (1997). Better training for Distance runners. US: Human Kinetics.

Further recommended reading list.

Not all of the following texts are focused on the 800m but all have been very useful in developing and shaping my ideas on the coaching this event and middle distance in general.

Coe, P. (1999). Winning Running. Successful 800m & 1500m Racing and Training. Marlborough Wiltshire: The Crowood Press Ltd.

Denison, J. (2004). The Greatest. The Haile Gebrselassie Story. NY: Breakaway Books.

Gilmour, G. (1965). Jogging with Arthur Lydiard. New Zealand: Minerva Bookshop Ltd.

Gilmour, G. & Snell, P. (1965). No bugles no drums. New Zealand: Minerva Bookshop Ltd.

Gilmour, G. (1963). A clean pair of heels. The Murry Halberg Story. New Zealand: Minerva Bookshop Ltd.

Greene, L. & Pate, R. (1997). Training for Young Distance Runners. US: Human Kinetics.

Sunderland, D. (2005). High Performance Middle-Distance running. Marlborough Wiltshire: The Crowood Press Ltd.

Tanser, T. (2008). More Fire. How to Run the Kenyan Way. Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing.

• Improve aerobic ability with a variety of aerobic speedsand be aware of the athlete’s lactate measurements at these speeds. Aim to improve and lower the lactate concentration during aerobic work over time through carefully planned sessions to suit the athlete’s ability.

• Becarefulnottoincludetoomuchhighlactateworkeachweek.

• Progressivelybuildup theweeklydistancesafelyoveranumber of years.

• Always include regular 800 race pace work to assistwith economy, ‘feel’ and confidence but the shorter rests between reps (and longer reps) are implemented only when the athlete is fit enough to cope with them.

• Recognise the specialisation of the 800m event andattempting to be outstanding in two events (being a 400/800 athlete or 800/1500 athlete) may stall improvement in the 800m.

• Neverstoplearningfromotherprovencoacheswhohavecoached successful 800m runners. Never stop asking questions.

• Review and reflect on your own programs and resultsregularly and look at ways to improve your programs.

• Be brave, be optimistic, embrace change and be openminded.

Acknowledgments

Honore Hoedt is now the National Coach of Norway and he has kindly offered to allow his email address to be printed for any coaches who may have further questions about his training methods: Honorehoedt@gmail.com

Many thanks to Rob Duffield and Heather Sparrow for their advice and encouragement with this paper.

References

Australian Track and Field Coaches Association. (2006). Coaching Manual. Australia: ATFCA.

Blake, F. & Holmes, K. (2008). Kelly Holmes. Black, White & Gold. My Autobiography. London: Random House.

Bourke, P. (1982). Training Diary. Personal Communication.

Duffield, R., Dawson, B., & Goodman, C. (2005). Energy system contribution to 400 metre and 800 metre track running. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23(3); 299-307

Hoedt, H. (2011). 800m Running, Different types, different training.

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Panel Discussion DISCUS Chaired by Kevin Prendergast.

over 70m.There are several young throwers who could progress to WR level but it will require perfect conditions. We may be approaching the limit of human achievement.

Standards have slipped in the women’s discus possibility due to the decline of the eastern bloc sports systems and lack of promotion of the event at the international level.

KenI think one needs to understand that these records were set in the days of the GDR and although I do not question the integrity of the record holders I do question the coaches and regime of the day.

KevinThe Australian records tell a confused story. The men’s record was set this year by Benn Harradine with a throw of 68.20m, and Julian Wruck was just 4cm short of this mark a few months later, indicating real progress in the event. On the other hand the women’s record is now nearly 20 years old. Is there any reason for this apparent lack of progress in the women’s event?

PittyI have seen many young, developing Australian women hit around the 45m mark and then show no progress after. I have noticed many of these young women who are ‘stuck’ have often been early physical developers and don’t really have the long levers necessary for elite discus success. Their power has only gotten them so far. Unfortunately, many young women with height and long levers, but late physical developers give the sport away due to lack of success. Maybe talent identification models should consider this.

MervAustralia now has two male throwers who have the physical endowments necessary to reach top international standards. That is not the case with their female counterparts. Daniela Costian, the Australian record holder, was tall, very strong and trained hard. She was a product of the east European system.

There is little incentive for women to take up the event. The national netball and basketball competitions are more attractive offering some financial reward, recognition and good indoor stadiums - better than slogging away outdoors in the hot Australian summers.

Even though I have never thrown a discus, and have never coached it, it is an event that has always fascinated me, because of its origin in classical Greece and because of the physics that governs the flight of the implement. Also, I am old enough to have seen Al Oerter in Melbourne win the first of his four Olympic gold medals in the event. It certainly is an event worth discussing.

Our panel members are three expert and successful Australian coaches – Grahame Pitt (Pitty to all in the sport), Merv Kemp and Ken Harradine. Pitty began coaching athletics in 1990 when his daughter joined Little A, and has developed as a coach from there. He now has a very successful throws group in Toowoomba, including Matthew Denny, the 2013 World Youth discus gold medallist. Merv from 1981 to 1991 was senior coach for throwing events at the Australian Institute of Sport. He has been national coach for shot put and discus and has written and lectured extensively on throws. He has coached many Australian representatives, including Commonwealth Games medallists. Ken has been coaching at his local club Macquarie Hunter for 25 years. He has coached his son Ben, the Australian record holder, to three World Championships, two Olympic Games and one Commonwealth Games

KevinThe men’s world record in discus is now 27 years old, and the women’s is 25 years old, both having been set in the 1980s. In fact the best 12 performances in the women’s discus were set in the1980’s. Aside from the obvious, is there any reason why there should be this stagnation, even deterioration, in the level of performance in the event?

PittyFirstly, we live in a different world. The Cold War is over. We no longer have the brilliant Sport Science coming from the Soviet Union and the GDR. Secondly, sport is a very competitive market place. Look at the NBA, AFL, Netball, Basketball etc and see where the elite, necessary body types are.

MervIn a number of events world records have stood for many years but that does not necessarily indicate stagnation. Just look at the performance levels needed to win a medal in the major championships. 70m throws are rare in the discus. Besides his WR Jurgen Schult only managed one other competition

Kevin Prendergast is a retired electrical engineer with a Ph.D. in Mathematics. A Level V coach, he coaches sprints, middle distance and hurdles, and has coached athletes from interclub to international level. One of his former athletes is fourth on Australia’s 800m all time list, and another is fifth on the 400m hurdles all time list. In this panel discussion, Kevin spoke to some leading coaches about the area of 400m.

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mass to have more than a few elite performers at the same time, but how fortunate is the U.S. with their number of 20m plus shot putters. I know lack of real competition at home was a real problem for Justin Anal. Therefore, you need to go overseas which involves money and so the roller coaster starts.

MervWruck and Harradine’s emergence as international class throwers has little to do with Australian domestic competition. They have immersed themselves long term in the highly competitive scenes of America/Europe and have developed their skills there. Under current domestic conditions I doubt if it is possible to become a successful world class thrower in Australia.

KenGiven that Benn spends most of the competition year in Europe and Julian does the same in the USA the answer is obvious. I would also like to mention here that we also have at least three world class juniors who are benefiting from experience gained overseas. This is from a point of view of competition and coaches gaining experience, even though we have a regime of not supporting coaches here in Australia. Two out of three of these boys also receive no support at all. Given also that the important competitions are those in the northern hemisphere and begin in May of each year, we are asking our athletes to peak in early March. The system therefore places a great strain on our athletes asking them to peak more than once a year.

KevinLeaving aside the men’s world record of 74.08m set in 1986, there have been performances in the international scene of 73.88m in 2000 and 73.38m in 2006. In comparison, the best ever Australian performances, set this year, are 68.20m and 68.16m, more than 7% behind the world standard. That is a big gap. Is there any reason why Australia cannot catch up?

PittyI don’t believe it is the knowledge of our coaches. I question the ‘importation’ of some expert from overseas for a considerable fee to tell how it is done, when sitting here at home are coaches equally as good, but almost always unrecognised. I feel that critical mass is an issue and the number of sports competing for the same talent pool. Finances are also an issue. How many throwers with real potential have we lost to rugby league, AFL or union, netball or basketball? We simply fail on athlete and coach support. I also believe our conditioning methodology and lack of work ethic may an issue. Do we work smart and hard enough? We also lack world class competition, which involves travel, support because last time I looked not many athletes or coaches are loaded with funds. World class throwers are full time throwers with a full time coach.

MervWruck and Harradine have thrown far enough to be very competitive at the top level but need to develop the ability to reproduce those throws at the crucial times. This can come

KenI believe that to progress one needs to challenge themselves by travelling to Europe, sample the coaching difference, and throw against the World’s best on a regular basis. Also, I believe that fewer female athletes are participating in the sport. There is a lack of high standard coaches in this country.

KevinDespite the lack of progress in women’s discus in Australia, the nation’s performance by women in the Olympic Games over the past 30 years has been good. How do you explain this?

PittyI will only comment on Dani Samuels. Elite basketballer. Sound body type. Fantastic coach and conditioner. Great attitude. If it had not been for that coach, that team she would probably have been lost to the sport to basketball. How important are coaches? But having the coach and the athlete are not enough. It’s all about support and the use of a ‘top down, centralised model’ which does not work.

MervCostian won a bronze medal in Barcelona 1992 while competing for Australia while Vizaniari and Samuels made Olympic finals. Dani Samuels also won a World championship in 2009.

Is this a good record?

KenHere the reasons are clear. The European athletes have a clear pathway to decent support. Their support system is predictable due to the ‘Carter system’ which operates in Germany. It is constant and set to World top 10 standards and is a tiered system for financial and employment support.

Most of the coaches who are responsible for the athletes in Europe are employed as professionals. The greatest difference we face in Australia is that many coaches give up their time as a “Hobby”. Most work full time jobs and give up their time on the side to assist athletes. This leads to many disadvantages: for example not having the time or finances to travel and learn with their athletes in competitions around the globe. The European competition year is filled with great competition and prize money is offered at a decent level even for club events. The European athletes can compete in many different countries in close proximity; they have a much larger population of participating athletes.

KevinThe closeness of Benn Harradine and Julian Wruck suggests that local competition could be a factor in Australian progress in the men’s event. How important do you think local competition is? Or do you think progress comes from competing against the best overseas?

PittyBenn and Julian are obviously performing fantastically and like Dani have shown our kids it is possible. Both forms of competition are vital. Perhaps we will never get the critical

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KevinWhat do you look for in a prospective discus thrower?

PittyI feel that balance and coordination are the key indicators for success. The athlete with good spatial and temporal awareness who easily takes to turning/dancing over grass or a tennis court has an obvious head start. I have coached a number of excellent throwers at other disciplines who have not succeeded at discus due to that inability.

MervAll successful discus throwers are tall and have an arm span that is at least 10cm greater than their body height (Alekna’s arm span 222cm). This helps ensure the potential for a long final acceleration pathway in the throw. In addition a good sense of rhythm and balance is required. And, as in all events, a willingness to work hard for a result that may not eventuate for some time.

KenSize, athleticism, arm span, power and enthusiasm. Also important balance and rhythm.

KevinAt about what age would you begin developing a discus thrower?

PittyThe younger the better. The throwers I have had most success with I have coached from a very young age. Start with a blank canvas. This is important as these skill hungry years must be presented with positive mechanical patterns. The later I start to coach an athlete the more time I usually have to spend reteaching mechanical errors.

MervI have been coaching an 11 year old boy who has thrown 40m with a 750g discus. He already has the technique of good thrower and a well-developed sense of rhythm. Other 11-12 year olds I have worked with have shown similar characteristics so I suggest this a good age to start.

Ken

About 8 or 9 with basic athleticism, and beginning their Long Term Athlete Development (LTAD) between ages of 12-14.

KevinWould you have a young thrower do all three throws, or at least two of them, initially? What about other Track and Field event, or indeed any other sporting event?

PittyI never interfere with the wishes or desires of an athlete. I present them with as many options as possible, and usually, results or simply the ‘fun’ factor decides it for them. Even my youngsters, some as young as eight still experience javelin and hammer.

by frequently throwing against the very best. Australia has produced athletes who can throw but they must also be able to compete.

It’s not only Australia that faces this situation. America, once a dominant power in the discus has not had a medalist for many years and could not produce a finalist in the last Olympics.

KenI would disagree that these performances of 73.88m and 73.38m are as you say “a world standard”. In my opinion, it is not the personal bests of the athlete that gauge their “standard” it’s the marks they produce at championships. The Olympic Games in London was the highest standard ever in the history of the Olympics and the top 3 medals were all around the 68m mark. Discus is an event where large marks can be achieved outside stadiums in desirable conditions. But the true marks are those that are performed against the best athletes, inside stadiums where competition is the most difficult.

To be totally honest would result in litigation. Other than the need to catch up on overseas developments re: coaching and equipment is required to go further here. Secondly, realistic funding for athletes and coach development is urgently needed. We could write a whole article on just how far we are behind just the Germans who are the World leaders in the majority of throws disciplines. We could start by asking how many coaches we have in Australia who are of a World standard and their ages. But first we should consult the athletes, have a decent look at the administration and review the whole package.

KevinWhat single initiative do you think would best advance the standard of the discus event in Australia?

PittyAny initiative for improvement must start with the absolute centre of the wheel. And that is coaches. Coach education is the key. I also believe we must avoid ‘sameness’, a generic method of coaching/conditioning, or a centralised model. Coaches must be trusted and encouraged to experiment. The centralised model worked for the Eastern Block, but we are a different beast. I know many coaches who produce excellent results with left-field methodology, and who are sometimes looked at rather negatively. Canberra is not the font of all knowledge.

MervAny suggested initiative would require funding which is unlikely to be forthcoming. But I would like to see more emphasis on talent identification (not just in the discus) and providing the appropriate financial and coaching support.

KenIdentify a centre of excellence, supply the equipment required, put together a decent coaching and support staff. Professionalise coaching and its development.

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saying is ‘think movement, not muscle’. The basic Olympic/Power lifts are used, but play a minor part in our system.

Early in the session my athletes perform the basic Olympic lifts but as the season progresses these lifts become more specific to reflect the nature of the activity. The exercises become rotational, angular and unilateral. In this aspect I have been influenced so much by Peter Lawler and his comments about thinking of the movement when looking at activities.

MervWeight training needs to be geared to the training age of the athlete. The usual progression is from general (squats, bench press) to more specific exercises that imitate at least part of the final throwing movement. Certainly a developing athlete would be introduced to power development exercises such as power cleans/power snatch and exercises that help to develop rotational strength.

This type of training should be complemented with jumping drills and throwing various implements such as clubs and iron bars as well as over and underweight discii.

KenIn general it is important to remember that throwers are throwers and not weightlifters. However, a decent amount of strength needs to be gained in order to convert the said strength to power. Everything needs to relate back to the discipline itself. We are dealing here with power athletes who benefit from weight training, careful training and planning and monitoring is required. Discus throwers are complex. They need to be big, strong, fast, and have the ability to be dynamic and understand movement efficiency whilst maintaining flexibility.

KevinTechnique must be extremely important in discus. What advice would you have for coaches on teaching technique?

PittyFirst of all teach the athlete rotational movement patterns via dancing, balancing on one leg, jumping and changing legs etc. I believe this is vital. Secondly ensure the athlete has a sound appreciation of the ‘whole’; that is to see the throw as a complete whole and not just a series of small sub-skills. We always focus on the whole rhythm of the throw. Thirdly, avoid small sub-skills as a divorced entity from the whole. That is to say, we are always looking for what I term ‘links’. The full throw is the ‘whole’. The more discrete we train skills/conditioning, the less the training transfer. I have seen many coaches who have sound technical abilities, but their teaching expertise is lacking.

MervTechnique is all-important. Develop technique first, strength training later. The full throw is best developed in stages by using a series of drills that progressively introduce another skill/movement. Be patient and encourage your athlete to repeat the drills over and over and to take a long term view of where they are heading.

MervIt is almost automatic that a young thrower will try the other throws as well and this should be encouraged. Avoid specializing too soon has long been advised. Competing in sprints and jumps will also be beneficial as would trying other sports such as basketball which have physical requirements that are advantageous for throwers.

KenThe system for youngsters in Australia allows only shot put and discus until age 12. Javelin comes later, and hammer only as a senior athlete. In my experience with the athletes that I have coached over the years, the majority choose either shot put or discus. I encourage athletes to try all events at an early age, with no limitations. My idea is try everything and decide on the one you show most potential for and enjoy the most, seek a decent coach and learn the technique as early as possible. Giving the athlete the ability to understand movement, identify what is right or wrong and be in control of his/her training environment.

KevinTo what extent do the three throws complement each other? Is there benefit to the discus thrower in doing another throw?

PittyI love biomechanics and get a buzz out of mechanically seeing some similarities from discus in javelin, long jump, packing a rugby scrum and so on. This is the way I coach, always trying to see and explain similarities between events and sports. Therefore, I believe that all throws complement each other. Athletes need to understand these similar mechanical positions for success. All of my discus throwers do some hammer work.

MervThere are basic fundamentals that apply to all throwing events. For example, the importance of using the legs in the delivery phase. Rotational shot and discus go quite well together, certainly better than the linear shot/discus combination.

KenAll result in a similar power position, learning the strong use of the legs is imperative as is timing. In my opinion it is difficult to specialise in more than one discipline and be successful.

KevinWeights must be a big part of a discus thrower’s training. What particular types of exercise do you use?

PittyI believe in ‘throw first, lift last’, and therefore keep weights in perspective and a balanced part of our training. We are not weightlifters or power lifters, but athletic people who happen to throw. No one in my squad would have any idea of their 1RM. We use a lot of variety and most of our exercises have no common names. I believe in developing the body as a holistic, combined kinetic chain and try to never isolate. Although I obviously know the names of the particular muscle groups, our

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now asked to give a presentation on throws, the vast amount of time is spent on discussing the what/why, and not just a series of drills. Our coaches will become more effective not by knowing more drills, but by gaining a real understanding of mechanics and the creation of force. Three simple questions can be asked: Is this mechanically sound? Is what I am doing going to lead to positive adaptation? Am I teaching this in the most efficient way?

MervGood technique is based on a sound application of the biomechanics of throwing. Biomechanics provides information on the most effective movement patterns and the exercises that can help to improve those patterns. For example, in the discus throw (and other throwing events), the farther the implement is from the axis of rotation, the faster will be its linear velocity and the greater its eventual release velocity. That is why the athlete with the big armspan has an advantage but this advantage could be lost if the throwing arm is too low at the moment of release.

I don’t think it’s necessary to have tertiary level biomechanics knowledge but a sound understanding of the fundamentals is important for good coaching.

KenImperative, there is no substitute in my opinion.

KevinAny other thoughts?

PittyWe, as a country are in a sound position in male discus, especially with Ben and Julian and a number of exciting juniors on the way up. I personally have Matt Denny, Jimmy Gordon and Conor McLoughlin who have results, attitude, body type and supportive families. The issue is retention of talent. We have many excellent coaches who can produce talent. We as coaches can do our job. But what can the administrators of our sport, in a highly competitive market place do to help us keep them?

KenOne of Australia’s best ever coaches once said to me, to own one of the best violins would be lovely, but it is useless if you don’t know how to play it.

I believe that the future for high level medals for Australia is in the field events. Sure we will have the odd exceptional track athlete but they are becoming increasingly rare. Coaches in the field events should be sought, skilled here in Australia and internationally. Coaching must be a profession in order for us to be competing on a level playing field. At present we have a few well meaning self funded individuals (amateur if you like) who are aging, running out of funds and can see no improvement in the near or distant future and thus are leaving the sport all together. This is resulting in years of learning and expertise going out the window and the few young enthusiastic coaches missing out on mentoring.

KenHere the serious coach needs to study all the various techniques, used by the World’s top athletes. Settle on one or two that suit your athlete, then build a decent coach’s eye.

Find any flaws in these techniques, correct them, trust your own ability and coach that technique to you athletes. One must however test, review and change where you think there is a benefit to you athlete or athletes.

KevinAre there any emerging developments in discus throwing that could revolutionise the event, in the way that, for instance the Fosbury flop has in high jump, and the spin might in shot put?

PittyThat is a very good question. I know some have increased the distance/time of angular momentum and it seems to work for them. Perhaps that could be developed further or even look at how to increase the stored elastic energy or ground reaction forces involved.

MervThe main variants of discus technique have been established for some time and it is hard to imagine any future developments along the lines of the rotational shot. One area that could see further refinement is in the methods used for developing the strength/ power abilities of athletes. Continuing research in this field may reveal new and more effective approaches.

KenI don’t believe there are any miracles, mostly some biomechanical changes have developed in recent years. Also some changes in the gym but mostly the invention of some very inventive equipment. Information needs to be shared. One of the greatest differences I have noted whilst travelling in Europe is coaches coach for the benefit of the country and not just for their athlete. Co-operation and discussion between all levels of coaches are encouraged and frequent.

It is also very important in my opinion to cooperate with coaches of other disciplines. For example throwers working with sprints and jumps coaches to improve on the minor aspect that may increase performance.

It is also important to note that recovery is often treated as a less important aspect of training. Physiotherapist are a key tool in improving performance efficiency and should not be used only when an athlete has symptomatic pain.

KevinHow necessary is it in coaching discus to have a good knowledge of physics and biomechanics?

PittyI see a sound knowledge of these disciplines as well as learning and adaptation theory is vital. I can honestly say everything I do revolves around them. I no longer think in terms of discus, but more in terms of a machine (series of levers), and how we can make it move in time and space more efficiently. If I am

between young and older athletes after both sprint and endurance tests in the lab. We are also looking at what effect different types and dosages of protein may have on recovery in masters runners.

Use of Recovery Strategies in Veteran Athletes

If older athletes take longer to recover, they should be making every effort to hasten recovery after training or racing by using well established recovery strategies used by younger athletes. But are they? We recently conducted an online survey of veteran Cycling Queensland members and showed that 47% of both male and female veteran cyclists do not use any form of recovery strategy after racing or training. In order of use, the following recovery methods were used by the veteran cyclists as a group:

• Stretching (40% of riders)

• Carbohydrate-protein mix (38%)

• Active recovery (35%)

• High glycemic index foods within 30 minutes of exercise (29%)

• Massage (25%)

• Compression garments (25%)

• Hot-cold showers (19%)

• Ice baths (7%)

• Pool running (6%)

• Spa baths (5%)

So What Recovery Strategies Do Work?

A few years ago, the chief recovery scientist at at the Australian Institute of Sport, Dr Shona Halson, undertook a benchmarking study examining the common recovery strategies used by the world’s leading athletes, coaches and sport scientists. She

Introduction

Talk to any older athlete and they will all say the same thing - the older I get the longer it takes to recover from training or racing or I don’t bounce back like I used to. I’ve long been fascinated by the physiology of aging athletes. I now have one masters and two PhD students working on trying to answer this very question – do older athletes take longer to recoiver? Below is what the research currently says but more importantly what strategies science says work to enhance recovery between training sessions and races!

Previous Research Findings

Very few studies have examined recovery in older athletes. In 2008 one of my former PhD students, now Dr Jim Fell from the University of Tasmania, compared actual performance and perceptions of soreness, fatigue and recovery in veteran cyclists versus young cyclists over three consecutive days of doing 30 minute cycling time trails. While we found no differences in time trial performance over time in either group, the veteran cyclists perceived they took longer to recover, and felt they were more fatigued and sorer each day compared to the younger cyclists.

More recently, a French group compared recovery rates in 10 young (30.5 ± 7 years) and 13 master (45.9 ± 5.9 years) athletes who competed in a 55-km trail run. The researchers measured quadriceps muscle strength and electrical activity, blood markers of muscle damage (lacate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase), and cycling efficiency before, then 1, 24, 48 and 72 hours after the running race. The older athletes took longer to recover in all measures.

Taken together these results suggest that older runners appear to take longer to recover and that as we age, we perceive we take longer to recover.

My current research group are looking at whether both the short- and longer-term recovery rates really are different

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Veteran Athletes Do they need longer to recover? Peter Reaburn

Peter Reaburn is an Associate Professor of Sport Science at CQUniversity. He is a sub-three marathoner and won the 50-54 years National Ironman Triathlon Championship at Forster in 2005. He is building to another Hawaii Ironman in 2015 if his aging knees can hold out. Peter has presented veteran rider and coaches workshops for Cycling Australia and Cycling Queensland and has a passion for ‘bridging the gap’ between sport science and sport.

He has written the definitive book for veteran athletes titled The Masters Athlete available at www.mastersathlete.com.au or the National ATFCA office. He will be writing regular ‘bridging the gap’ articles for masters athletes and coaches who read Modern Athlete and Coach.

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Bibliography

• Easthope, C. and others (2010). Effects of trail running competition on muscular performance and efficiency in well-trained young and masters athletes. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 110: 1107-1116.

• Fell, J. and others (2006). Performance during consecutive days of laboratory time-trials in young and veteran cyclists. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 46(3): 395-403.

• Reaburn, P. and other (2013). Poor use of recovery strategies in veteran cyclists: an Australian study. Proceedings of the American College of Sports Medicine Conference and World Congress on Exercise is Medicine, Indianapolis, USA, May 28-June 1.

rated the strategies into categories based on the research evidence and what these coaches, athletes and sport scientists practiced. The table below shows the ratings of the strategies that work.

Table 1: Ratings (High and Medium-High) of commonly used recovery strategies.

High Medium-High

Contrast water treatment Active recovery

Compression garments Water therapy (e.g. spas)

Ice Massage

Stretching Pool work

Nutrition Sleep

The bottom line is we as older athletes need to use what science says work, not waste valuable family, work, leisure and training time on strategies that waste our time or even worse, no strategy at all!! Get to it fellow masters athletes – recover hard and recover smart! For specific details and realistic advice on how to recover using all the methods outlined above, see chapter 15 of my book The Masters Athlete.

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short 3-5 stride slightly curved approach, steps on the mini trampoline with his foot at the same angle (inside the far upright) as he would in a typical competition take off.

The mini trampoline accentuates the vertical lift a jumper experiences after take-off. The bar can be raised substantially – well above the personal best height of the jumper. (Bondarenko could put the bar at 2.56) and experience the vertical lift (in relative slow motion), to 2.46m. and higher.

The significance of using the mini trampoline to travel vertically to such heights, is that the jumper actually experiences what it is like to travel vertically and clear 2.46m., 2.56m. and higher. The jumper can sustain the necessary acceleration off take-off and maintain a vertical position concentrating on propulsion generated from some aspect of knee drive.

The importance of clearing a personal best height with the mini trampoline is that this allows the jumper to have had this experience so when it comes to a personal best height in competition, the jumper can mentally visualize having already cleared the height. This is important as research on world class jumpers attempting world record heights shows that they either concentrate on some technical aspect of the jump or they are overcome with the perceived difficulty of jumping “so high”.

Research ResultsOne interesting study by Chi Tai Ling (1986) of the People’s Republic of China illustrated this point. Ling undertook a questionnaire of male jumpers who broke the world record at 2.37m., 2.38m., 2.39m., 2.40m., and 2.41 m. and concluded that the fear of effort of attempting the world record height is real with many jumpers attempting such heights the first few times. The world records at 2.37m., 2.38m., and 2.39m. were all set on second attempts. The world records at 2.40m., 2.41m. were achieved on third attempts. Bondarenko himself appeared surprised he was not more competitive at the world record height of 2.46m. after seeing a slow motion recording of his 2.35m. attempt at the world championship where his height clearance was considered to be over 2.46m.

When I first read Ling’s (1986) research results, I was intrigued to learn that half of the twenty world class jumpers

This was an exciting year for the men’s high jump performance, with Bohdan Bondarenko (Ukraine) attempting a new world record (2.46m.) 11 times! Bondarenko won Diamond League meets in both Lausanne and Moscow with 2.41m. clearances before attempting 2.46m. in each competition. He won the Diamond League final and only took 3 attempts – a clearance at 2.33m. to win the event and one good attempt at 2.46m., his 11th try at establishing a new world record.

Trying to assist your athlete break through a personal best performance barrier is an issue for every high jump coach. This article presents one approach that has proven successful many, many times.

At the novice or elementary level, jumpers usually lean in with their lead arm or head and shoulders such that they make premature contact with the cross bar while still attempting to travel vertically. The time in the air from take off to bar contact is extremely short for a jumper at this level, so it is hard for the jumper to mentally grasp what is their error and how it could be/should be corrected. As a coach if you take an electronic recording of the jumper’s performance, they can see in a slow motion replay their mechanics or “action” that is resulting in the “reaction” of some body part hitting the high jump bar.

Getting novice or elementary level jumpers to jump vertically at every attempt, is difficult to do. Doing repeat scissor jumps maintaining a vertical position is always a good reminder to keep your head, shoulders and lead arm in a vertical position and secondly it reminds the jumper to think propulsion with the legs as the second point of concentration.

Utilising A Mini TrampolineFor advanced or elite jumpers, the issue is the same and certainly watching electronic coverage of performance in slow motion certainly helps as does staging scissor competitions in practice. But along with that, elite jumpers can borrow a mini trampoline from their gymnastics counterparts and use it creatively in practice.

The most effective mini trampoline is the square shaped one angle, about 1 ½ m. square, that is on a bit of a raised angle from back to front. The mini trampoline is placed where the take-off point is in front of the bar. The jumper takes a

Derek has had a long association with Track and Field representing Great Britain as an athlete in 35 Internationals including 1968 Mexico Olympic Games (1962 - 1972) in the Triple Jump. In coaching, Derek was the Jumps/Combined events coach for Canada ‘74 - 76, Horizontal jumps for Saudi Arabia ‘76 - 77, Combined events for Australia ‘80 - 84, Jumps/Combined events for Korea ‘84 - 88 and advisor for China from ‘89 - ‘90 in Jumps and Combined events. He has also been the Chief Administration of Operations for Brisbane ‘82 and Olympic Games advisor for Seoul and Barcelona. His obvious love is for the decathlon and in this article, Derek looks and reflects on the history of the event whilst looking forward to Rio and predicting future performances.

High Jump Improve Your Technique From Novice to International Level Pat Reid (Canada)

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of the propulsion components of jumping, and to maintain the fun aspect of the sport, one suggestion is to build a (five stride) scissors competition into practice once a week. It doesn’t take long, it strengthens the propulsion component of every jumper and it adds a “fun” aspect that is important for all levels of competitors.

Perform The Heel TuckOne final coaching tip relates to personal best attempts. When a jumper has taken off and is airborne and is above the bar, that moment is extremely short. To accentuate the bar clearance of the draped body position over the bar, the tip is to have the jumper consciously perform a heel tuck, pulling the heels forcefully up to the buttocks and then snapping them back as the head is dropped toward the chest, dropping the buttocks and consciously pulling the legs up as the body completes the recovery over the bar.

The conscious action of the heel tuck will accelerate the curling of the legs and the recovery of the legs during the infinitely small time period over the bar.

Summary1. An introduction to using a mini trampoline to work

on personal best heights.2. Reminder of training components divided into

propulsion (below the waist) and directional (above the waist).

3. Build in scissors competition once a week.4. Practice and incorporate the “heel tuck” into

personal best attempts.

interviewed concentrated on specific technical points at the higher heights while the other half reported they concentrated more on the event standings or their personal apprehension about attempting such extreme heights. With the national champion and Olympic team jumpers I coached, we would review video of competitions and record at what height the jumpers technique broke down (i.e. knee drive not held long enough, reaching in prematurely with the head or arm, throwing the head back too soon on lift-off, etc.) Together we would prepare a small card that had a specific technical point at a key “breakdown” height that would be the initial concentration point the jumper would be reminded to concentrate on just before attempting that height.

The key to jumping high is to maintain the same sequence of technique with increasing effort and not changing the sequence as the bar height rises until the jumper reaches a personal best result. By using a mini trampoline, a jumper can experience technical corrections up to and including that personal best height. The key then is to jump with that consistency and not let the pressure of the competition nor the bar height detract from the technical points of concentration.

Propulsion Components Vs. Directional ComponentsI wrote an article for Modern Athlete and Coach back in 1984 (vol. 22, 3, July) that first described the division of concentration points of jumpers described as “propulsion oriented” or from the waist down (speed of the legs, knee drive, etc.) and “direction oriented” or from the waist up (head and shoulder position, lead arm position, etc.). Successful jumpers concentrated on direction oriented components during training until they became second nature. During competition successful jumpers concentrated on propulsion oriented components.

“Scissors Competition” A Fun AspectThe key to jumping high and jumping successfully is to jump with consistent technique, whether a novice/elementary jumper or an experienced jumper. To maintain consistency

various durations and temperatures. The first was 12 minutes standing in water at 12 degrees and immersed to the umbilicus. The second was a 12 minute stand in 35 degree water. Then a 2 minute seated immersion at 12 degrees once more and finally, 12 minutes of light exercise. This followed 90 minutes of intermittent shuttle running which caused muscle soreness both immediately and up to 3 days later. The outcome was no discernable difference in recovery for any of the tests. This short article stated there are potentially dangerous physiological effects reported but these were not identified. Does this mean a return to the warm bath? Time will tell.

From: Athletics Weekly January 10 2013 issue

High Intensity Training (Hiit or Hit)Most busy people find it impossible to complete 150 minutes of exercise every week. You may not have to as the fitness industry is shifting to short intense workouts. This concept is known as High Intensity Interval Training or H I I T. It is also known as High Intensity Training (HIT)

‘HIIT simply alternates high and low intensity levels’ says Professor Martin Gibala from the McMaster University in Canada. Research has shown many positive results from HIT. It impacts on aerobic capacity, carbohydrate metabolism and insulin sensitivity. Gibala has been experimenting since 2005with active subjects, not athletes. His subjects had to ride a stationary bike set at a high resistance for 30 second bursts of work interspersed with rest periods of 4 minutes. This was repeated 4 to 6 times per session for 3 days each week. Within 2 weeks his subjects doubled the time they could ride the bike at high intensity from 26 to 51 minutes.

But, would a less intense but longer duration produce the same results? Professor Jamie Timmons from the University of Birmingham compared the effects of 6 weeks of HIT to 20 weeks of traditional endurance training. The percentage gain in aerobic capacity was within the same range for both.

Further research at the Heriot - Watt University in Edinburgh found 2 weeks of HIT on sedentary men reduced glucose and insulin levels. This is an important finding as it addresses two key health issues – insulin sensitivity and aerobic capacity whilst removing the time barrier to exercise (150 minutes per week). The obvious short coming of HIT is the high intensity could be dangerous for unfit people.

Gibala has subsequently experimented with 10 one minute bursts of cycling with 1 minute of recovery per effort. This would be a lower intensity so too the recovery – 1 minute not 4! After 6 sessions the changes observed from both muscle

Around the World With Peter Lawler OAM

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WHAT’S NEW?

1. ICE BATHS

2. HIGH INTENSITY TRAINING

3. BAREFOOT RUNNING

4. JUMPS DECATHLON

5. THE EVOLUTION OF PLYOMETRICS

6. KINESIOLOGY TAPE

7. HAMSTRUNG BY HAMSTRINGS

8. SPRINTING SHORT TO LONG

Ice BathsIt was once traditional especially in the United Kingdom for footballers of all codes to share a communal bath post match. Today, your television screen has deserted the communal bath and found the freezing ocean in which footballers are cowering with arms gripping their rib cages as they wade through the water. For those with no access to the ocean blue the ice bath has emerged. But is it effective as a recovery mechanism?

Doctor Jo Corbett of Portsmouth University has studied the benefits of cold water immersion and compared this to steady state running. The conclusion of his study was the ice treatment is no more effective than an easy steady run after high intensity training. There have been many studies re the immersion technique around the world. The results have conflicted – some say the ice treatment is good. Dr Corbett questions the validity of these international studies. Like so many university experiments, the group subjected to testing is rarely, if ever elite athletes. In the studies where a benefit has been shown, the subjects were not exposed to a challenging work load as they were not capable of the intensity demanded. Consequently, the immersion method indicated quick and effective recovery.

The Portsmouth team looked at 40 athletes who were tested by

biopsy and exercise performance were comparable to 2 weeks of HIT. The time problem re-emerges with this alternative as it would take 30 minutes to complete.

Would HIT be a good system for fit athletes? “For someone all ready training at sprinting or weight training, the gains would be less. “ But,” says Timmons, “If your training is all sub- maximal, HIT training would improve insulin sensitivity and promote muscle gain.”

Finally, a 2009 study reported in the Journal of Applied Physiology looked at what happened when endurance athletes reduced their aerobic training volume by 25% and inserted 6 – 12 sprints of 30 second duration 3- 4 times a week for 6 -9 weeks. There was a 7% improvement in the speed tests, and a 1 minute improvement in a 10 km run.

From: The Sydney Morning Herald June 14 2012

A second source. “Short cut to a fitness peak?”

HIT and not HIIT is the principle of high intensity training. The word INTERVAL should be removed to avoid confusion. HIT means maximal intensity in the purest sense of the word. A serious session may last only 15 minutes due to the intensity and more time is spent resting than exercising. Does HIT live up to the hype?

The 2 authors of this article Dr Ross Lorimer and Dr John Babraj have been involved in the research and they use the HIT training system for themselves. Lorimer ran a p.b. half marathon despite doing no running at all. He used the 3 workouts a week system on a cycle- ergometer. This is revolutionary training!!

How does HIT work?

There is a significant increase in mitochondria density within the skeletal muscles. Mitochondria are the power stations of your body. They convert glucose and fat into energy- the key to improving endurance capacity. There is also an increase in enzyme activity in the muscles. It also alters your lactate metabolism. Once regarded as a curse, lactate is an energy source most active in the absence of oxygen. This is vital in power events. This array of improvements has been shown to strengthen exercise economy.

The authors claim sprinting on a flat surface for 30 seconds is not enough to induce HIT. They suggest hill sprints of 10 degrees incline long enough for 30 second maximal sprints. A session should build from 2 to 4 repetitions with four minutes rest between them. Times and distance covered will reduce over the repetitions. Another option is to return to the track and run 10 six second sprints with 1 minutes recovery between.

Due to the intensity eating should be a good two hours before a session and avoid hydration during. If the mouth is dry sip or rinse only. A HIT session lasts a mere 15 minutes.

Conclusion

Thorough scientific testing has shown HIT is a highly successful training system. Yet, claim the authors few athletes wish to

embrace it. The culture of a long smooth run is ingrained. They suggest HIT is a supplement not an alternative to training. It is a time saver ideal for time deficient athletes. Recent testing has shown that HIT is also ideal for veteran athletes. HIT is based on intensity. This is self determined to each his own intensity.

Note: The authors have published ‘The High Intensity Workout’ which is available via ATFCA.

From: Athletics Weekly October 4 2012

Pages 56-57

Bare Foot RunningSource 1: Peak Performance

The jogging boom began in the 1960’s. Initially, it was the New Zealander Arthur Lydiard who commenced daily runs for personal fitness. US coach Bill Bowerman visited Lydiard in NZ and commenced his own fitness runs after he returned to the States. Bowerman was different – he started public runs once per week and this soon swelled to full marathons. In 1964 a mere 300 runners contested the Boston Marathon. By 1970 1150 completed the race. There were two subsequent developments from this boom – the birth of joggers and sports drinks soon dominated by Gatorade.

Today, there is a push to return to our Neanderthal roots – barefoot running. Ken Bob Sexton started www.barefoot running.com in 1997 in an attempt to reduce the incidence of injury. Over a 25 year period of examination, injuries are prevalent in 40 to 60% of runners/joggers.

Barefoot running requires a mid foot strike (MFS) where the foot lands rather flatly or it is a forefoot strike (FFS) before the heel makes ground contact. The shod athlete strikes heel first and this is called a rear foot strike (RFS). Therefore, the barefoot runners must have a shorter stride length and a higher stride frequency. (There are 600 foot strikes in a 1km run)

When the foot strikes the ground, a ground reaction force is generated (GRF). If the barefoot runner uses a RFS, a jarring shock wave occurs roughly equivalent to 1.5 to 3.0 bodyweight. For a shod runner using a RFS the shock is reduced by 10%. Therefore the barefoot will naturally land flat or forefoot to avoid the shock. For a rear foot strike to occur the foot will be dorsi flexed and the ankle rigid. The bodyweight is centred over the ankle. At the point of ground contact, the impact is sent up the leg to the knee, thigh and spine. The FFS runner will be planter-flexed and the contact will be less jarring. The knee will naturally flex to absorb the shock. The jogging boom was based on declaring the foot was not strong enough to absorb the stresses of running. The jogger generation progressively built a bigger and bigger support system with ‘high rise’ heels that require a RFS. Yet a healthy foot has an inbuilt longitudinal arch that acts as both a truss and a spring. But is more strength required in the MFS or the FFS? At the German Sports University 50 subjects both male and female were divided into a control group and a test group.

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The test group had to wear NIKE FREE for 5 months during warm up. The control group wore normal joggers. The test group made significant strength gains in the feet. The NIKE FREE is now described as a minimalist shoe. A Harvard University study compared running economy for standard shoes and minimalist shoes. It was a 5 minute treadmill run in both shoe types. The NIKE shoe improved economy but this was attributed to the weight of the shoe and not foot contact. For every 100 gram increase in shoe weight an additional 1% of energy is required. It seems the light shoe can save a runner 4.4 to 6.8% energy expenditure. A University of Nebraska study confirmed the Harvard results and identified a higher heart rate for shoe wearers.

The supporters of barefoot running claim wearing shoes diminishes at athlete’s proprioception in the feet. This means the awareness of the body’s position in space. This theory has been tested by a balance beam walk for 17 athletes either bare foot or wearing 7 different types of joggers. The outcome was unexpected. More barefoot athletes fell off the beam that those in joggers. But the most stable athletes were those who wore thin soled shoes.

Finally, 785 runners were surveyed by the University of Central Florida physical therapy program. 75% of this sample group were interested in barefoot running or minimalist shoes. The primary reason for changing from traditional joggers was to prevent further injury. 85% said they either continue to run barefoot or ‘convert’ to it is there was further scientific information available. Thus far the claims of NIKE have not been substantiated.

The major concern would be for athletes who have grown up with the highly supportive joggers converting to minimalist shoes too rapidly. There is the case of 2 ultra- marathoners changing their shoes and running their normal mileage both suffering unusual metatarsal stress fractures within 6 weeks of wearing the new shoes. The message is hasten slowly.

From: Peak Performance Issue 311

UPDATE: September 2013

Ted McDonald has adopted and adapted the Tarahumara Indian tribe of Mexico sandals they use for ultra distance running. The sandals are called ‘huarache’ and the indians made them from tyres. ‘Barefoot Ted’ as he is called has designed and manufactured his version of heel less shoes called LUNA SANDALS. They resemble a thong with additional straps. There are additional straps across the bridge of the foot as well as across the heel and one on the outside level with the heel bone. Ted is not expecting elite runners to switch to his Luna Sandals. His market is any casual runner looking for a combination of minimal support, long wearing and suitable for rough terrain, all the while running with fore foot contact as ‘nature intended’

From: Athletics Weekly Issue August 15th 2013 Pages 56-57

A second source: ‘Do bare foot shoes really help?’

Researchers in Australia have compared minimalist footwear to conventional by examining motion variables. The sample group was 22 highly trained runners. The outcome was barefoot runners demonstrated less knee flexion during mid stance, an 11% decrease in the peak internal knee extension and a 24% decrease in negative work done at the knee compared with shod athletes. The ankle had 14% less dorsiflexion at contact a 14% increase in peak power generation and a 19% increase in the positive work done during barefoot running compared to conventional footwear.

From: Athletics Weekly January 17th 2013 issue

A third source: ‘Barefoot Madness.’

Over the past 2 or 3 years a fad has surfaced that centres on the ‘strong foot’. Proponents speak with conviction about how these glorified socks have eliminated their foot and leg problems and rejuvenated their running careers. Given time the zealots cite the shoeless culture of the Kenyans who dominate world running.

The author’s concern is the obvious one. Western raised athletes converting to the minimalist shoes receive a shock of such magnitude, that damage is done to ligaments, tendons and muscles. Is there a place for barefoot running? Ebberts identifies two elements- there are training elements and training methods. Barefoot running is an element, Fartlek running is a method. Every workout has three phases. The author accepts barefoot running as a component of warm-up that lasts for 20 to 30 minutes. He suggests a short duration 100 -200m of barefoot running and no more. Naturally, he opposes barefoot running in the central thematic phase of the workout and surprisingly he rejects it in the cool –down phase. He states the body is fatigued and injuries are a risk if there is technical breakdown.

No two articles offer the same stats. In this article, the author claims the contact forces in running are 7 – 10 times bodyweight!!! Westerners need a firm track and shoes that support and protect. So why do the Kenyans succeed?

Ebberts has an interesting point.

The Kenyans are dominant but not because they run barefoot. It is because the runner changeover is so rapid. The rankings for the marathon in 2011 reveal 31 of the 40 best times are Kenyan runners. But the 31 best times were run by 31 Kenyans! Finally, do the Kenyans compete internationally in bare feet? No!! Ebberts claims the first thing they buy is running shoes. He makes a valid point in his conclusion use barefoot running or minimalist shoes as a training element to strengthen feet but compete in traditional footwear.

From: Track Coach Issue 201 Fall 2012

Russ Ebberts Editor of Track Coach

Jumps DecathlonThis is not a new training system for jumpers. It has simply slipped in to oblivion. Decades ago, a British coach, the

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late Wilf Paish devised the Jumps Decathlon for the British Kangaroo Club which convened frequently for special kangaroo competitions. Wilf collated 10 jumping manoeuvres like standing Long Jump and standing Triple Jump, two hops one step and one jumps and so on, culminating in the running four hops and one jump for either leg, 25 metres hopping timed. He then created a points score from 1 to 100 points. The suggested usage of the Jumps Decathlon is to choose five of the disciplines to be completed in any one session and three attempts for each. The first attempt should be a warm up followed by two maximum attempts. Once measured the points table is consulted and the points calculated.

EXAMPLE:

5 stride Long Jump performance 6.70m points = 69.

There are major deficiencies in the Jumps decathlon.

• ThetablesweredevisedusingeliteBritishmalejumpersonly.

• Therehavebeenno female tablesdevisedsincebyWilfPaish or any other coach.

• Unlike the official IAAF decathlon/heptathlon scoringtables, Paish restricted his scoring to 100 points. ( The IAAF tables score from zero to 1300 points) Therefore with Paish’s tables there is minimal reward at the elite end of the tables and a maximal possible score of 100 and no more. Elite athletes often score beyond the 100 point limit.

• Therearenotablesforyoungerathletesmaleorfemale.Itwould be relatively easy to devise scoring tables for both. Simply declare a zero starting point then calculate a fair score per four centimetres for the horizontal jumps and per cm for vertical if the tables are to be extended to these jumps.

• Therearetoomanyofthe10disciplinesusingastandingstart. The suggestion is to revise the tables after you insert a short running approach as currently practised by horizontal jumpers.

• Manymorejumpcombinescanbecreated.Discipline6is5 spring jumps off two legs. Devise tables for five bounds. Discipline 7 is standing 4 hops and 1 jump. Make this 4 bounds and 1 jump…. And so on.

• Athletes in training groups love the Jumps decathlon.They are very motivating and highly competitive within a training group.

• The additional tables provided on side two cater for theHigh Jump. They were devised by yet another British coach Derek Boosey a resident of Australia long, long ago.

CONCLUSION: The jumps decathlon is great fun for all athletic disciplines. It is a reliable measure of power development once the athlete’s technique is stabilised.

UPDATE: OCTOBER 2013 - The tables were printed in the July issue of Modern Athlete and Coach.

The Evolution of PlyometricsMost coaches are aware of the origins of Plyometrics. What began as a typical craze has in fact persisted and developed across the world. There has been however a divergent interpretation of what is required to undertake Plyometrics. Initially, it was stated emphatically athletes must be capable of a double bodyweight back squat to ensure athletes could undertake this dynamic option. Secondly, it was recommended that athletes wear thick soled absorbent joggers to absorb the shock of landing. Then it was recommended the only suitable surface was well maintained grass. For safety sake two of these remain - the shoes and the grass the double body weight squat has been discarded.

John Tansley from the USA and former coach of the great Dwight Stones presented the first evolution in Plyometrics to Australian coaches in the 1980’s. For elite athletes, he recommended thin soled shoes and completion of the jumps on a wooden floor, firm matting or even concrete!!! This was a dramatic revision- the shock absorption factors were eliminated.

In more recent times a further element has been inserted – STICKING. In this the athlete is expected to be able to hop or drop and stop dead by holding the landing flexion without laxity.

What constitutes a safe landing is debatable. The criterion has always been landings on the ball of the foot – the mid foot. This is suitable for drop plyometrics but not horizontal. Coaches are warned to establish a heel first or flat foot landing on all disciplines requiring horizontal motion.

There have been many recent articles of assessment of current practices:

Article 1. “A Fresh Look at Plyometrics.”

Plyometrics are a popular exercise. Despite the popularity a number of myths and misconceptions exist that are fuelled by a paucity of research. … It appears that plyometrics are more suited to stronger athletes. This is because stronger athletes can generate more force during the SSC. The second assertion of the author is the effectiveness of plyometrics has never been tested and researched using elite athletes. Nevertheless mature long trained athletes are close to their genetic limits. The role plyometrics plays may assist athletes to exceed their genetic inheritance. It seems the most effective system for the strong is complex training. This has long been established. Complex training is completing a standard weights exercise – back squats then couple this to a dynamic plyometric movement – squat jumps (unloaded to start with).The back squat recruits the nervous system. The jumps then ‘test’ the activation achieved.

In recent research, trained athletes recorded a power increase from complex training. The untrained had no positive outcome. This suggests that athlete status re trained strength is the determining factor in progress.

From: Track Coach Issue 195 Spring 2011Author John Cissik

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Article 2. “Coaching Strategies for Barrier Heights During Plyometrics.”

This article concentrated on depth jumping. Depth jumping is considered to be the most demanding of all plyometric activities. This is achieved by utilising either hurdles of stable boxes. But, what is the optimal height for a box or hurdle? Elite athletes usually progress to hurdle hops set at 42” for males and lower for most females. If an athlete clears a set of 10 hurdles set at 42” the truth is little plyometric effect has been achieved. What happens is the knees are raised to the arm pits and in fact there is little vertical increase in the centre of gravity. It is the same with a high box- a retraction of the knees before contact. This is best revealed by watching elite male hurdlers clear each hurdle by manipulating their legs around the Cof G. The best hurdlers heads show no increase in height during clearance. There has been no jump at all!!

Returning to box jumps, coaches should observe the landing by an athlete onto a high box. The athlete lands in a deep squat position. There has been little lift in the C of G. The higher the hurdle or box the more the athlete retracts the knees to the arm pits in preparation for the landing. There is virtually zero leg extension upon leaving the ground.

To increase effectiveness the author suggests using a low box or hurdle. Boxes/hurdles 30cm to 60cm in height for either one leg/ two leg hops will permit the athlete to focus on the jump and not the clearance. At these lower heights, the athlete need to be doing a maximal vertical jump with no knee retraction to clear the hurdle as high as possible and the box landing should be a downwards motion onto the box.

From: Track Coach Issue 198 Winter 2012 Author Robert Marchetti

Article 3: “Exploding Into Action.”

The jumping exercises known as Plyometrics are physiologically known as the SSC – the stretch shortening cycle. There are 2 types of SSC. The slow SSC involves big movements in the big joints- knee hip and ankle. The contraction time is generally more than 250ms. Examples of this are counter movement jumps, a Rugby line-out, standing Long Jump. The fast SSC is the opposite – minimal movement in the big joints and contraction time well less of 250ms. The examples here are sprinting and hurdling. Which one to do? The specificity of event determines fast or slow. Naturally, sprinting and hurdling, the Flop High Jump demands the fast SSC which is best developed by drop-jumps, hurdle hops, horizontal bounds and hops. Of these the drop jump is the best on the menu. There are two elements for successful fast SSC drop jumps – ground contact time and the height of the jump performed after landing.

The key to the explosive response is the height of the box. In the 1980’s athletes experimented with heights of 1 metre to 4 metres!! Many died and were secretly buried in Siberia. Today heights are more rational. For younger athletes an ideal box height is 20- 30cms. For experienced well trained athletes the

height may increase to 40 -80cm.Whatever the drop height it is considered too high if the athlete’s heel strikes the ground after contact. The ‘correct’ landing is mid-foot.

From: Athletics Weekly. Issue: December 6 2012 Author Dr Tom Comyns

Kinesiology TapeThe London Olympics were a riot of colour and configurations. What used to be flesh coloured tape to conceal and support injuries has been replaced with garish tape of fluro colours and designs. This new taping method appeared in 2010 and what is different is its elasticity not rigidity. The name has all ready been abbreviated to kinesio tape.

The alleged benefits are:

A gentle compression ( by lifting the skin) stimulates circulation whilst reducing swelling and inflammation which in turn aids recovery and repair. Once the athlete/coach is competent in strapping correctly, the tape supports muscles and joints in static and dynamic motion. Next, the tape increases the sensation of the effective skin receptors this improves feedback to the brain and eliminates the usual problem of impaired joint motion. When a joint becomes dysfunctional as a consequence of loss of posture, limping due to injury and muscular weakness this tape can hold joints in new renewed or better positions. Many athletes are commenting that the supportive tape is a pain relief.

Sceptics question the benefits. British physiotherapist Mark Buckingham says “there is little substantial evidence to show that it does anything other than look pretty”. But the author argues at its very worst the tape does nothing- it is harmless and secondly, the placebo effect works wonders. By offering support and not restriction the tape engenders confidence in the athlete.

So how do you apply it?

Brett Davison England’s Rugby Union physiotherapist says the good news is “you cannot really get it wrong…it is a question of preference.” Steve Backley former great British javelin thrower claims the great advantage is the elasticised tape can be used to support any body part.

One manufacturer (Rocktape) has issued instructions for use. The body part must be clean and dry 10 minutes before exercise. Rub vigorously the body part to set the adhesive. Never stretch the ends of the tape, only the middle. Rocktape can be worn for five days and it is water resistant. The normal loading procedure is to anchor one end of the tape to the skin, rub hard stretch tape in the middle up to 50% of its length. Some cross pieces may be required to support the anchoring of the tape to the skin. When applied to the knee it must be bent to 90 degrees for application. The final advice from Rocktape is store the tape in a cool dry location but allow the tape to come to room temperature before application.

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Hamstrung by HamstringsThere are three grades of hamstring strains. Grade 1 carries little pain and it may last from7 to 10 days with minimal inconvenience and pain only noticeable after warm down and cessation of activity. Grade 2 is quite severe and running would be prohibited. The athlete would need a rehabilitation programme for recovery. Grade 3 varies from 3-6 months for recovery. Grade 3 ranges from major tears to complete rupture and subsequent surgery.

Australian researchers have identified the major causes- the eccentric stress whilst running, distorted muscular action, accumulated fatigue, age, history of repeated strains, lack of specific range of mobility. They also identified the mal-adaption of the hamstring muscle structure. (Hamstrings have three attachments points and 3 different functions in movement) once injury has occurred. They believe there is a change in muscle firing patterns and residual weakness. The most critical point is identified as the transition from the bent knee and contracted bicep in the concentric phase to violent extension in the eccentric phase before ground contact. It is described as placing a surge of power onto the weakened muscle at its most vulnerable point.

Once injured, athletes are prone to injury during the eccentric phase. THEREFORE athletes must train the hamstrings in the eccentric phase. The traditional exercise is the prone or standing hamstring curl. The author recommends:

• Bridgingvariants that train thehamstrings inconcentric,eccentric and isometric motion.

• Legcycling,workingonelegwhilststandingneararailingor wall for support. It looks like a one leg bicycle ride.

• Straight leg toshort legswingcycle.Workingone legata time – swing straight leg up to horizontal several times then at this peak height, bend the raised leg to 90 degrees and complete a leg cycling under the alignment of the erect body.

• TheNORDIChamstring.Bothkneesareontheground,thetruck is rigid and straight. The ankles are held by a partner. The athlete leans slowly forward to the point of no return. This is an eccentric classic!!

Swedish researchers wanted to discover the length of time to recovery for a first time hamstring strain. Their sample group was 18 elite sprinters and 15 professional dancers. They were examined and tested at 2 10 21 42 days after injury. Hip range of motion and isometric strength in knee flexion were constantly measured. Hamstring re- injuries were recorded in a 2 year follow-up period. During the testing period, the sprinters lost more strength than the dancers, but they recovered much faster than the dancers. The sprinters were 16 weeks to recovery whilst the dancers took 50!! The sole comment by the author is recovery is very much dependent on the rehabilitation programme. (This article is very poor at explaining the difference).

The news on repeated hamstring strains is not good. Injury

results in scar tissue. When damage occurs the leg injury site is not replaced with fresh muscle…… it is replaced with scar tissue. This contains various substances including collagen which is a protein that contributes 1- 2% to muscle tissue. Scar tissue is not as flexible or as strong as healthy tissue, this makes recurrence of injury likely. That said, hamstrings can recover and they give no indication of further tears. Coaches must be aware that hamstrings also ache due to the intensity of running volume and speed. The simple message is to ‘back-off’ and be patient as recovery occurs.

From: Athletics Weekly November 22 2012 Author: John Shepherd

Article II: The Good, the bad and the painful.

This article examines why the hamstrings are so vulnerable to injury. At the Osaka World Championships of 2007, 30 athletes reported hamstring injury which was 16% of all injuries incurred during the championships. This article presents a more detailed explanation of the hamstring physiology. It seems when the knee is high, the knee extends due to the pull of the quadriceps. This is paradoxical because for this motion to occur, the hamstring must be shortening at the top end and lengthening at the bottom. This is called the Lombard’s Paradox. The hamstrings lengthen considerably during sprinting – up to 110% of its resting length in the biceps femoris – the most vulnerable of the three hamstrings.

The solution is strengthening the hamstring in the eccentric phase. Failure to do so results in injury. The time to recovery depend upon which of the three is injured. It seems outer thigh ( lateral) injuries are worse than medial( middle thigh).As a rule of thumb, the higher the injury is up the leg, the longer it takes to heal. Athletes / coaches underestimate the time to recovery. In long term injury, 90% of the recovery occurs in the first six weeks but time to full recovery may be as long as six months!

It is essential to commence gentle stretching 24- 48 hours after the onset of injury. Do not use crutches which restrict natural movement, try and walk normally progressing from slow to gentle to fast thence onto jogging. Progression must continue, jogging becomes striding, then to accelerating runs and finally resumption of normal running speed. All progressions are determined by the absence of pain. All progressions must cease with the onset of pain.

The most important exercise is the NORDIC described above. The eccentric execution of this means more strength at the end range where the muscle is most vulnerable.

From: Athletics Weekly June 14 2011 Author: Dr Leon Creaney

Sprinting: Short to LongAuthor Tom Crick, a British sprints coach has contributed an article to the most recent copy of Track Coach entitled: “Is Speed the New Route to Endurance?” This article appeared in Issue:204.

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The standard practice in sprint coaching has long been building an endurance base- a foundation step in the preparatory phase for all years of training. At some magical point the sprinter would commence a ‘speed phase’ a process of conversion from slow to fast. Tom Crick challenges this procedure. Tom consulted many coaches of international sprinters. He discovered that ‘modern coaches’ now advocate low volume high intensity sprints. These same coaches also believe that intensity running improves speed endurance.

Professor Rob Newton an exercise physiologist of world renown believes endurance is a matter of relative load. If you increase the strength and/or speed of an athlete you increase endurance. This principle is simple. With additional speed /strength the athlete is working at a lower percentage of his maximum ( a speed or strength reserve). This is particularly pertinent in the 400m event. Michael Johnson passed through the 200 metre point at 91% of maximum capacity during his record run in Seville. He was cruising!!

John Smith a former 400 metre sprinter and now coach of the 100-200m events has brought the speed reserve to the shorter sprints. He wants his athletes to have the highest top speed that in elite competitions they would not be pushed to reach it, yet remained relaxed because they will not be straining for 100%.

Pursuing such a system (low volume- high intensity) necessitates training of the anaerobic energy system. This is the traditional viewpoint- endurance at the expense of speed. The author believes this must be compromised. He claims new research at Rice University in the USA supports the theory that top speed diminishes in runners, horses, cyclists and dogs not due to lack of fuel but simply fatigue. The elite sprinters are elite due to their ability to offset fatigue because they spend less time contracting their muscles used to drive them forward. Some prominent coaches believe the best sprinters have the capacity to relax between muscular contractions whilst possessing the greater capacity to contract their muscles faster than average quality sprinters.

This article cites research work from the 1980’s. A Dr Cywinski from the Harvard Medical Centre discovered it took twice the number of electrical impulses to hold the elite sprinter’s muscles compared to the untrained population. The irony is, the faster you run the less time you spend contracting and cont acting the ground. Therefore the elite experience less fatigue and they can maintain top speed longer due to less fatigue.

What are the implications for coaches? This article suggests a reversal of traditional periodization and adoption of top speed running followed by maintenance at the outset of each season. As the season progresses, the distance increases but relaxation and speed must be maintained.

What is the optimal distance?

The distance required for the development of top speed is 60 metres or less!! What made America great for so long at sprinting was the winter indoor season of 50 to 60 yard sprints. When the slow melted US sprinters moved outdoors - short to long!

Tom Click admits he is saying nothing new. The great German, Armin Hary won the 1960 100 m Olympic sprint by training all winter indoors for 50 metre racing. He cites many examples - the DDR, Donovan Bailey, Shawn Crawford, coach Pierre Jean Vazel, the coach of African record holder Olusoji Fasuba - best time 9.85.Prior to his record Olu ran 100 metres only 3 times in training. He slowly increased his training distance from 60 metres to 80 metres over a two year period, thence to 100 metres. The article concludes with a plea for further research as to the causes and control of fatigue and what other training parameters will need adaptation to the demands of reverse periodization.

Track Coach issue 204 Pages 6521-6523

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THE ATHLETE’S GUIDE TO SPORTS SUPPLEMENTS

Author: Kimberly Mueller and Josh HingstPublisher: Human Kinetics Australia 2013 Detail: Paperback 292 Pages Cost: Members: $ 24.00 Non Members: $27.00 Available: From ATFCA National Office Supplements became a contentious word in Australian sport during 2013 and will long remain so. The abusers rarely claim responsibility - ‘my ex girlfriend spiked my drink’ ..’ the team doctor failed to advise me of the contents of the injection program....’ and so it goes.

All doctors and nutritionists have always advised a healthy balanced diet and moderate life style are all any athlete needs. Yet, the supplements industry is thriving in western societies capable of purchasing them. Further, the beneficial claims of most of these supplements are dubious at best. In short, the supplement industry is dodgy!!

It is essential that books such as this one are continuously published. They constitute a counter offensive against the advance of unmitigated lies or falsities upon the gullible citizenry desperate for improvement.

The crusading zealots of truth in this textual environment are Kimberly Mueller and Josh Hingst. Both are registered dietitians. Kimberly runs her own business - Fuel Factor which concentrates on customized nutrition programs for her professional endurance athlete - clients. She is a contributor to trade magazines such as The Performance Zone, The Woman Triathlete, Racing Weight, Triathlete Revolution and sundry others. John meanwhile, is the strength and conditioning coach for the Philadelphia Eagles. In a previous life, he held the same responsibility at the Jacksonville Jaguars. For three years he was the Director Sports Nutrition at the University of Nebraska. He holds a master’s degree in clinical nutrition and that is reassuring in this contentious world of suspicious supplements.

There are two approaches to this factual text. The first is the Reader’s Digest condensed version. Reluctant readers should gravitate to introductory pages v to vii. Here, listed in alphabetical order are the supplements discussed between pages 45 - 243. That is:- acetylcysteine to zinc. Just how is one expected to pronounce these names? They are worse that a Polish

phonebook!! Why not try a few more.... there is S-adenosyl methionine, as well as Isomaltulose. You will need a speech therapist for remediation! The preliminary chart is a table with twelve columns. These include aerobic capacity, anaerobic endurance, strength , hydration, recovery, antioxidants, body composition and joint support. The co-authors assess each and every as to known and the possibly beneficial. Needless to say, there are many so called supplements that have no proven benefits. So which ones remain robust? A cursory glance at the columns identifies caffeine, carbohydrate, creatine. magnesium, phosphate salts, sodium bicarbonate with sodium citrate and mother’s home cooking!. These all scored multiple hits. To be fair, many supplements have a singular purpose like beta-alanine which assists aerobic endurance. The big losers include chondroitin, colostrum, ginseng, glucosamine, vitamin C and vitamin E. As we all know, Vitamin D is in the ascendancy in this land of brilliant sunshine and half the population is deficient!! Catch 22 manifests itself. If we venture outdoors and linger we get skin cancer. If we seek the shade of the library, we become vitamin D deficient and our bones snap and crumble... and we die a dreadful death in the non-fiction section of the library where we could lie for aeons before discovery. You see, no one goes to the library anymore.

For readers who want the full quid, welcome to the superb text compiled by our young, healthy and vigorous co-authors. As discussed above, this book is a courageous counter - offensive against absurd marketing and fraudulent claims.

Every supplement is caressed by the same format. The name/s plus alternate names where applicable appear at the top of the page are followed by :

*What it is- this describes its origin or its derivative history.

* How it Works- what the supplement is supposed to do for you.

* Performance benefit - what each supplement can or may do for your performance.

* Research - this advises whether - the supplement has been tested via empirical methods and what was the outcome. Many have not been tested.

* Common Usage - this names specific products and advises on dosage and frequency of intake.

* Health concerns - is the product safe for humans to consume in the short and long term?

In total, more than 120 supplements face scrutiny in this guide for athletes. The assessment of each and every is dispassionate, evidence based and scientific. It is an extraordinary work. The compilation of detail is impressive and controversy has been

Book Review With Peter Lawler OAM

54

avoided. Peptides, steroids, growth hormone do not appear... perhaps they should.

As well as the dictionary of supplements, Kimberly and Josh have authored chapters entitled : .’Understanding Supplements’ and ‘Supplements for Groups and Environments’. The former is partially a history of supplements, their development and usage....... the good the bad and the ugly. The word vitamin first appeared in 1912. Vitamin C had been identified and the historical blight of Scurvy was defeated. The final chapter is a beauty.

It is obvious to state dietary needs vary across an average population. Many people have allergies, food sensitivities and metabolic disorders such as diabetes. Others reject meat whilst cannibals gorge themselves on it. This concluding chapter offers dietary wisdom for master’s athletes, adolescents, female athletes, diabetics, allergists and athletes recovering from injury - this is an interesting insertion in an interesting fact filled book.

RECOMMENDED WITHOUT RESERVATION. IT SHOULD BE UPDATED EVERY 3 YEARS.

PLYOMETRICS

Author: Donald A Chu and Gregory MyerPublisher: Human Kinetics Australia 2013Detail: Paperback 242 PagesCost: Members: $28.00 Non Members: $31.00 Available: From ATFCA National Office In 1992, Donald Chu’s “ Jumping into Plyometrics” created a sensation in the coaching world. More than 140,000 copies have been sold. Plyometrics evolved in the domain of Track and Field but this splendid isolation did not endure. They have moved from the mysterious to common place arenas of sport. There are thousands of coaches who are indebted to Donald A Chu.

What do we know of this great man? He is now 73 and a professor emeritus of kinesiology at the California State University where he taught for 20 years. He is the director and founder of Athercare Fitness and Rehabilitation in San Francisco. His specialty areas are sport rehab and fitness and conditioning. He is credited with popularising Plyometrics in the West during the Cold War era. His colleague Fred Wilt is credited with naming this branch of exercises.

Gregory Myer meanwhile resides in Ohio in the sin city of Cincinnati. He is the Director of Research in the Human Performance Laboratory for the division of sports medicine at the Cincinnati Children’s Hospital. He is a renowned researcher in the fields of pediatrics and orthopaedic surgery where he has developed advanced prevention methods to sustain knee health.

Confusion continues to prevail over the decades re names and terminology. Americans continue with Fred Wilt’s PLYOMETRICS whilst the Europeans prefer the STRETCH -SHORTENING CYCLE - the SSC. They are one and the same. Each plyometric exercise has the same sequence. The example is the jump-squat. During the loading phase the muscle under work lengthens. This is the eccentric phase. At the end of the descent there is a momentary pause. This is now labelled as the isometric phase. The ascent

to normalcy is therefore the concentric phase for the muscle shortens. This tedious description has a purpose. In the 1960’s yet another exercise philosophy emerged called ISOMETRICS. Participants were instructed to push with maximal force against an immovable object. This maximal exertion was to be held for 5 to 8 seconds. In other words, there was no lengthening or shortening of muscle fibre. Clearly, Donald A Chu’s usage of the term is vastly different.

Further differentiation is required for clarity’s sake. Plyometrics were always intended to a shock form of training - ballistic in fact. They were considered to be effective only when execution was maximal. Not any more:

“On the other hand, plyometric exercises have also been described as any movement that involves the stretch-shortening cycle, whether the movement requires maximal or sub-maximal effort.” (Page 14)

Coaches are advised to follow the original ballistic definition.

This 2013 publication is a worthy successor to the vintage classic of 1992. I have no doubt it too will sell 140,000 copies. The structure is unusual. The content of the eleven chapters have three compartments. Firstly, there are three chapters entitled ‘Knowledge’. These clarify the anatomy and physiology of plyometrics.. in short, how and why they work. The next is called ‘Considerations’ In this the co-authors have identified three specific domains who will benefit from ballistic exercise. The three are young athletes, female athletes and athletes requiring rehabilitation. Part III is’ Applications’ It possesses five very diverse chapters which highlight what every coach wants. They ask three questions- When is an athlete ready to do plyometrics? What are the essential exercises? How would I write a program for them? Dylan would say the answers are blowin’ in the wind. Donald A Chu would disagree.. little mystery will remain once you, the faithful reader, have read this book from cover to cover!!

The first question demands a response- when is an athlete ready? Here, history was nonsensical! The European gurus stated explicitly that an athlete should not undertake plyometrics until he was capable of doing a 2.5times bodyweight back squat. Such a creed would kill more than 90% of unwilling athletes. These days, common sense has triumphed. Chu states that a 13 year old male athlete should be capable of more advanced plyometrics if he can do a back squat with 75% of bodyweight. The very young athlete is ready at the age of seven according to Donald, provided the young take up foundation exercises that are non or mildly-ballistic such as the wall squat with Swiss Ball, gentle lunges, two legged mini hops, skipping, med ball throws, bridging, planking ....... all will be well.

Volume is a key consideration. This text offers a small chart of foot contact tallies. Beginners: 60-100 during the ‘off season’ and the Advanced: 150-250. During the pre-season the tally swells: Beginner: 100-250 and the Advanced: 150-450. As with all numbers, the suggested range is huge -150 to three times that. In simpler terms - this is no guide at all!!

And so to the exercises.

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Chapter 9 is “Essential Plyometric Exercises.”The essentials traverse the universe from Page 109 to 187. The great beauty of ballistic exercises is their minimal cost due to the paucity of equipment required. Donald’s regime is truly austere.. a couple of med balls, some sturdy boxes, terra firma, cheap plastic hurdles, gravity and bodyweight. Plyometrics cannot be done on a trampoline, soft sand or in swimming pools. They require rigidity of surface with minimal ground contact time and explosive liftoff.

There are either one or two exercises identified and defined each page. This vast array includes jumps-in-place, lateral jumps, multiple directional change variants.

To summate plyometrics:

• The lower body is trained by multiple jumps in multipledirections over multiple obstacles.

• The upper body is blitzed by medicine ball slings, twists,slams and throws against a wall or to a partner.

Every exercise in this book has highly competent junior athletes modelling the extensive plyometric family. Where required, photo-sequences are provided for visual clarification.

There is no DVD ...... there should be. The text concludes with a plethora of programs suited for either a comprehensive training program or for sport specific demands.

To conclude this very wordy review, many publications on Plyometrics have appeared since ‘Jumping into Plyometrics’ appeared in 1992. There is little new to publish. What needs to be said is simple. Donald Chu remains the master of Plyometrics and this is his masterful new text. It is long overdue.

RECOMMENDED WITHOUT RESERVATION.

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HKSI 400m track

HKSI 400m track, Incline/Decline Ramp, Undercover Section

In addition to facilities, HKSI is responsible for providing high performance coaching and essential support services to the 16 sporting associations that have met the requirements to receive elite support funding. These sports include both Olympic and Asian Games sports (eg. Wushu, Karate). HKSI also provides fully accessible training venues and high performance support for the Paralympic programmes.

Although Hong Kong SAR is part of China, it is its own special administrative region (SAR). This enables it to compete independently from mainlaind China in sporting events such as the Olympics and World Championships. In addition to competing at all the major championships, Track and Field athletes from Hong Kong SAR compete in events restricted to Asian countries, including the Asian Games, Asian Athletics Championships and East Asian Games.

The Hong Kong Sports Institute (HKSI) located on the river in Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, works with individual National Sporting Associations providing expertise and support to maximise athletes’ development. Following the Beijing Olympics, HKSI commenced a major redevelopment phase which has seen the institute build and modernise facilities that are equal to anywhere in the world. Modelled on the Australian Institute of Sport, the HKSI has all the world-class training facilities an elite athlete needs to ensure the quality of their daily training environment is maximised. Specifically in Track and Field, HKSI has an all purpose international 8-lane 400m track, a single lane ramp for overspeed and hill sprints and a 2-lane 100m undercover section for wet weather training.

Shatin

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Living and Coaching Abroad Anthony Giorgi, PhD

Anthony Giorgi, PhD is currently the Head Coach of Athletics at the Hong Kong Sports Institute a position he commenced in April 2013. Previously, he was the Head of Strength and Conditioning (S&C) for 7 years at the Queensland Academy of Sport in Brisbane, Australia. He has worked in high performance sport for over 12 years, including being the S&C coach/coordinator to Australian Swimming Team for 4 years. Over the last 12 years he has worked with more than 50 Olympic, Word Championship and Commonwealth Games representatives from numerous Olympic sports and different countries, including more than 20 medallists. As a Level 4 ATFCA coach, he has worked with a number of elite Track and Field athletes, both as a personal coach, strength and conditioning coach and coaching mentor.

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of these opportunities to continue to build upon the success of the men’s 4 x 100m.

Conclusion:

The HKAAA and HKSI have been very welcoming. Both are well-run and well-supported organisations filled with passionate, knowledgable and extremely hard-working people looking to develop local athletes who can compete on the world stage. Together they provide opportunities, support and a pathway for Hong Kong athletes to compete not only in Asia but on the wider world stage. As the new head coach of athletics I am excited by the opportunity and I am looking forward to contributing to the structure, support and knowledge base to continue the development of athletics in Hong Kong. As part of my contribution, I am looking forward to bringing some of Hong Kong’s elite athletes to Australia to compete against quality compeition on a more regular basis.

Finally, for those looking at training and competition opportunities away from home, Hong Kong SAR is a vibrant, safe and friendly city. The HKAAA holds a number of major events including the Standard Chartered Hong Kong Marathon, Hong Kong International Diamond Mile and the Hong Kong Intercity Athletics Championships. I encourage Australian athletes to consider visiting and participating in these world class events. In addition, the close proximity of Hong Kong SAR to Australia means that it is not only a great location for training camps, but a home-base for competiions throughout Asia. With numerous international-standard athletics tracks, including Tseung Kwan O Sports Ground, Wan Chai Sports Ground and the Hong Kong Sports Institute Athletics Track, visiting elite athletes have access to all the facilities they would have back in Australia. In addition HKSI also provides residential accommodation for visiting elite athletes, access to sports science and sports medicine, and strength and conditioning facilities.

Head Coach Role:

As Head Coach of HKSI, I work closely with the Hong Kong Amateur Athletes Association (HKAAA) to administer and oversee aspects of the high performance program. This includes…

•managing the coaches and administration staff of the HKSI athletics department,

•overseeing the scholarship athletes and assisting and directing the athletes and their personal coaches in the area of high performance,

•identifying opportunities and coordinating targeted projects, including establishing annual periodisations with all necessary components and setting up high performance teams and support structures around targeted scholarship athletes and their personal coaches,

•coordinate essential services and projects for the elite athletes,

•provide a leadership role in elite coach education in all aspects of high performance including the development of the physical and technical skills required to not only compete at the senior level on the international stage but, to ensure windows of opportunity on the pathway of long term development are fully utilised,

•provide technical input into a coaches overall training plan and in specific training sessions,

•Where applicable lead the team to relevant competitions.

Hong Kong Athletics:

The governing body for athletics in Hong Kong SAR, the Hong Kong Amateur Athletics Association, provides athletes with access to local facilities for training, provides competition opportunities, both locally and abroad, provides event specific expert coaching and has recently begun to consult in key international coaches for specific targeted events aimed at not only raising the level of particular events but also to target further Olympic qualification opportunities.

At present the HKAAA mens 4 x 100m is the stand out program. The coaches, support staff and management responsible for this program have put in place a high performance structure that is bringing them both competitive and continuing world class times. Last year the mens 4 x 100m team qualified as one of the top 16 teams in the world for the London Olympic Games. This was a remarkable achievement and one that the team is looking to build on.

From my perspective I am looking to build on the success of the mens 4 x 100m squad by helping provide some guidance and expertise to identify and assist other events, athletes and coaches to move in the same direction and to the same levels the relay team has achieved. Currently, we have a number of projects underway or about to commence that have identified windows of opportunities for Hong Kong athletes to pursue international representation. Through a team effort we hope to maximise the potential

Tseung Kwan O Sports Ground/HKSI New 9 story Accomodation Block

You had a distinguished distance running career here in Australia as well as in the US when you went there on scholarship. When, how and why did you start coaching?

I started at the University of Texas in Austin where I was doing post-graduate work after completing my studies at the University of Houston (1958-1962). I coached a distance squad there which included Richard Romo (the first Texan to break four minutes for the mile and also third in Jim Ryun’s 3:51.3WR) and Preston Davis, who beat Ralph Doubell to win the 800 at the Australian championships in 1968.

Back in Australia I taught and coached at Oakleigh High School in Melbourne from 1964 to 1966 with Frank McMahon, a Sandringham distance runner who coached Ron Clarke, before beginning a long association from 1967 to 1983 with Xavier College.

At Xavier we had strong school squads led by Tim O’Shaughnessy, who broke Herb Elliott age group records for 1500 metres and the mile, two miles and 3000 metres and Rob de Castella, who set Ausralian records at 3000 metres, 3 miles/5000 metres and 10,000 metres. More importantly, Xavier had great team success at cross-country, in which there were many keen runners, and track. The team aspect should be stressed. I believed in peer group support as an important factor in the development of young athletes.

I was active in the Victorian school coaching committee, at state and national level and the ATFCA schools committee as well as having a strong role with my Glenhuntly club as coach and, later, club president.

In your younger days on scholarship in the US, it is widely written that you were influenced by Arthur Lydiard. How did he change your outlook to distance training?

Even before my experience with Arthur Lydiard I would say that John Landy was the biggest coaching influence for me and the many others he inspired, like multi-world record breaker Ron Clarke and all the Australian middle and long-distance runners of Landy’s own and following eras.

As a young athlete I wrote to John and he sent me back training schedules and advice, which I found invaluable in my own development. His contribution to the sport was world-wide, especially in America and Europe, as was that of Ron Clarke.

Merv Lincoln probably summed it up best when he obsereved after running second to Herb Elliott in the Dublin world record mile race in 1958:

“Wouldn’t John Landy have liked to be here. He can take a lot of the credit for what we did here. He was the pioneer… if he hadn’t inspired Herb and myself, we wouldn’t even be here.”

My association with Arthur began in Europe in 1961. I ran poorly in a race in Helsinki then paced Halberg to a world record for two miles in Jyvaskyla. I had a race in Cologne and was scheduled to return to Australia but Arthur invited me to join (Peter) Snell, (Murray) Halberg and (Barry) Magee on a trip to Ireland.

It dramatically influenced my approach to training, especially the importance of relaxation. I learnt the value of long runs, even for half-milers, and found speed could be cultivated over shorter distances rather than by doing repeat half miles He reinforced the value of long runs and hill-work, and speed work during the competition phase. Arthur didn’t talk much about relaxation, he exemplified it. He had great faith in his athletes and was an inspiring person. He was also a great psychologist, even if he would probably have rejected that label himself. He would first of all build people up physically, then afterwards mentally.

The confidence he had in his athletes based on solid preparation left a deep impression on me.

Back home, I found Ron Clarke and Trevor Vincent training along similar lines at Caulfield Racecourse and in the Dandenong Ranges for the Sunday long run, which was so vital in the development of de Castella and many others at Glenhuntly.

In your travel as an athlete and then as a coach, is there anyone else in particular who influenced you in your development as a coach?

As much as anything, the influence has been from the athletes I have worked with and adjusting to their different backgrounds. Chris Wardlaw’s role in the development of the Melbourne group and then nationally as coach and Olympic head coach is one example. He was a great inspiration to the people he trained with and then, through Steve Moneghetti firstly, on many others. Shaun Creighton and Simon Doyle were at the AIS together, became great friends and influenced me, as did Krishna Stanton and Susan Hobson. When I moved to Brisbane after the AIS, there was Peter Nowill, completing

59

Coach Profile Questions for PAT CLOHESSY

a steeplechase loop which began with Trevor Vincent many years earlier.

How have your experiences as an athlete helped you in your coaching?

Apart from the influences already cited, I suppose the obvious one is the avoidance of injury and over-training. I had a lot of poor races when I was tired or I over-trained. After I ran 13:48 for three miles late in 1955, which was the second-fastest by an Australian at the time, I over-trained and paid the penalty with numerous injuries.

As a coach you worked with some of Australia’s best distance runners from 800 through to the marathon. Many refer to a training method you use called “complex training”. Can you briefly explain this?

It is complex in the sense of combining several different elements at the same time, rather than in phases, rather than as in the sense of being complicated. We settle on a basic program of long runs, hill work, both long and short hills in a circuit, and varied track sessions. One common track session for senior athletes might be 8x400m with a 200m ‘float’ in 40-45 seconds. Chris Wardlaw and Rob de Castella both did this one as a staple session.

One I now use as common inclusion is ‘Mona’ fartlek, a session Chris Wardlaw developed with Steve Moneghetti. This one is 2x90 seconds, 4x60, 4x30 and 4x15 with equal recovery after each effort. Twenty minutes in all and a routine that fits all types and standard.

Your coaching record speaks for itself. You have coached athletes to Olympic teams from 1976 to 2000. You were the Olympic Coach (800m to marathon) for Moscow 1980 and National Coach Marathon from 1984 to 2000. Who are some of the athletes that have impressed you through this period?

There are so many, but I’ll stick mainly with the ones of whom I have first-hand experience. All our Olympians across a range of events - Raelene Boyle and Judy Pollock. At middle-distance Pat Scammell, Mike Hillardt ad Peter Bourke. At longer distances ‘Deek’ and ‘Mona, Gerard Barrett, Bill Scott, Shaun Creighton, Krishna Stanton and Susan Hobson. Gold medal heroes such as Glynis Nunn (and her head coach, John Daly) and Cathy Freeman (Peter Fortune), silver medallist Rick Mitchell (Norm Osborne).

Can you explain the key differences between being a top level runner today and in the 70’s and 80’s?

I think it is more difficult today. In earlier years there was more support, excitement and inspiration. All the top runners competed at interclub and you saw them and got to race against them. My own development was helped not just by the inspiration of Landy, but also by being able to come down to Sydney from Muswellbrook and race against Dave Power, Al Lawrence, John Plummer and Albie Thomas, among others, at interclub.

Athletes who train for distance first and quality second seem to have longer careers over a range of distances. Do you subscribe to this notion?

Not really. That is one option, but I prefer faster running when young and then moving up in distance. Going from 800/1500 to 5000 and beyond is more common. The key to a longer career is more to avoid injury and over-training.

Are there any unique and new training recommendations you prescribe to your current squad that help them get to an acceptable fitness level?

In addition to the things I’ve already been talking about, I’ve found, too, that group training is critical. I believe peer group interest is an important factor in the development of the young athlete. Then, in the post-secondary school years, group training can be a strong motivation factor. This is a vital stage and quite decisive in determining whether many young athletes stay in the sport – thereby giving them a chance to reach their potential. It’s a lot easier to over-train on your own, imagining everyone else is training harder than you, than it is in a group situation.

In the last couple of years there has been a resurgence in the USA of track distance runners with many moving away from constant road racing. Do you see this as something that will be followed by other countries?

There are many more road races and community events, many raising money for various charitable causes, and sponsors naturally want to see good runners running these, while ambitious distance aspirants want to aim for the major track races – Olympics, World Championships, the European circuit. I think in the US there has been increased support for athletes so that they don’t have to rely on road races as a significant means of earning money and this has freed them up to focus more on the track. The results show it.

Were there athletes in Australia’s history that in your opinion didn’t reach their true potential? One that comes immediately to mind is Simon Doyle.

I wouldn’t say Simon didn’t reach his potential. He was ranked second in the world by Track & Field News in 1990 and was in the top 10 in both 1991 and 1993. He had wins over the world number one (Noureddine Morceli) and the Olympic champion (Fermin Cacho) during that period. Certainly injury curtailed Simon’s Olympic campaign in 1992 and he broke down at the 1994 Commonwealth Games, depriving him of his chances there, but he still achieved a significant amount over several years.

Another is Craig Mottram. In your opinion, do you think he will run marathons?

Again, Craig has achieved a lot over a range of distances, including becoming Australia’s only ever medallist at 5000 metres at World Championships or Olympic Games level. So I don’t think it’s fair to say he has not reached his potential. His

60

range of distances goes from an Australian record at the mile to a 27:30 for 10,000 metres. He could certainly run a great marathon and could have been a top triathlete.

What current talent do we have in Australia in the middle and long distance area?

There is a lot of talent around, headed in Moscow by Zoe Buckman’s fantastic effort to win heat and semi-final on her way to reaching the women’s 1500 final and Brett Robinson making the final in the 5000 metres. At 800 we saw Alex Rowe and Kelly Hetherington coming through this year. Ryan Gregson is, of course, one of several very talented 1500 metres runners around.

James Nipperess has shown a lot of ability over 1500 metres, cross-country and now at steeplechase. Jess Trengove has made great progress in the marathon with her 11th in Moscow showing her potential.

There’s another group at university in the US, including Patrick Tiernan and Jordan Williamsz, who are doing well. Then there’s the established names – Collis Birmingham, Ben St Lawrence and others. There’s a lot around and if we foster some common goals of competition and improvement we will continue to get good results.

What gives you the most satisfaction from your current coaching situation?

My current situation is that I’ve retired as head coach at University of Queensland but I am still involved. I’m working with a couple of talented young girls who are on the rise. One of them, Brittany McGowan, ran in the World University Games last year. I’m also working with a couple of ‘rising’ Masters runners. One of them, Peter Reeves, is chasing records!

The common goal, coach included, is improvement. You’re never too old to learn.

Finally Clo, you are a legend in distance coaching and have been involved for many, many years. You are always SO positive to everyone. What do you consider as most important when coaching?

Have a training group, enjoy your running, make improvement the common goal. Be inspired by people like Steve Moneghetti, still competing past 50, loving his running, and running well.

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Groups and covers the topics of The Essence of Coaching, Development and Maturation, General Conditioning, Skill Acquisition, Inclusive Coaching, Planning Training and Evaluating Progress. Part B is Event Group Specific covering the coaching and technical analysis of a coaches chosen event.Having the course in two parts allows coaches to easily specialise in multiple event groups. Once part A has been completed a coach does not have to undertake again. The coach is then able to undertake the Part B component of any of the event groups they would like to specialise in. Part A and Part B can be taken in any sequence and both days need to be undertaken to be accredited as a Level 2 advanced coach.LEVEL 3 AND 4 COACHING COURSES – EVENT GROUP SPECIFICAthletics Australia has been in discussions with the IAAF for many months to have the Australian Level 3 and Level 4 coach accreditation at international standards. Decisions on these courses, which were to be finalised in 2013 will hopefully be available shortly to enable coaches to make decisions on their future education. Coaches who have undertaken the old ATFCA Level 3 course and did not undertake the ATFCA Level 4 course will need to speak to Athletics Australia regarding any RCC for these areas of study. It was previously advised that coaches would be given RCC on topics completed, but this could well be changed. As stated above, AA is currently looking into opportunities with the IAAF to conduct this level course. Coaches who are yet to complete elements of Level 4 courses from previous years will be given until 31 January 2014 to complete these units of work. After this date, it has been informed that no prior work will be recognised. NATIONAL LEVEL 5 ACCREDITATION COURSEAt present the Level 5 course is not available due to the review of the Framework. For those coaches that would like to apply for this “Senior Coach” position, please contact Athletics Australia. The ATFCA would like to thank coaches for their understanding during the time of rewriting of courses as all decisions have been taken away from the Association.Current dates available for courses:

Australian Capital TerritoryDetails from: Debra Moran Phone: 0412 759 957Email: sportsinclusive@hotmail.com

New South WalesFor further information contact:Mandy Robertson, 2/44 St. Albans Street, Abbotsford NSW 2046 Ph: 0405 253 954Email: mandyrobertson@bigpond.com

For further information about courses in regional areas please contact:Bill Jacob, 18 Lachlan Place, Wagga Wagga NSW 2650Ph: 02 6926 3239Email: bill.jacob@bigpond.com.au

For further information about courses in rural NSW please contact:Yvonne Puller, 70 Arcadia Street, Arcadia Vale NSW 2283Phone: 02 4975 4584Email: david.puller@westnet.com.au

Northern TerritoryDetails from: Northern Territory Athletics Phone: 08 8945 1979

QueenslandBrisbane coursesAll enquiries to Queensland AthleticsPhone: 07 3343 5653

Regional QueenslandFor further details about courses throughout regional Queensland please contact: Sports Credentials (Licensed Provider)PO Box 4306, Ashmore QLD 4214Phone: 07 5594 9329 Fax: 07 5594 9381

South AustraliaDetails from: Athletics SA - Kathy Semiz: kate.semiz@athleticssa.com.au Phone: 08 8354 3477

TasmaniaDetails from: TAS Athletics

VictoriaContact Athletics Victoria

Western AustraliaDetails from: Shane Ellis, 6 Dyer Link, Baldivis WA. 6171Phone: 0409 371 962Email: daryl2001@bigpond.comFor further informationcontact John de Besjohn.debes@waathletics.org.au

NATIONAL COURSE BY CORRESPONDENCEAt the beginning of November 2013 ATFCA was advised by Athletics Australia that this course will no longer be available. Any person wishing to undertake flexible delivery of lower level courses will need to contact Athletics Australia or the Australian Sports Commission to request what possibilities are available.

INTRODUCTION TO COACHING COURSES The Introduction to Coaching course is a course written by the ATFCA and conducted under the direction of Australian Little Athletics. The course is directed towards parents, teachers and other interested people who have little or no experience of Track and Field Athletics. The 8 hour course covers all event groups on the Track and Field program. The course is designed for beginner coaches who coach young athletes within the 5 to 15 years age range, providing training for them to coach under the guidance of an accredited coach.

Australian Capital TerritoryDetails from: ACT Little Athletics AssociationPO Box 47, Ainslie ACT 2602 Phone: 02 6247 1296

New South WalesDetails from: : Isabel MentonLAANSW, Locked Bag 85, Parramatta NSW 2150 Phone: 02 9633 4511

Northern TerritoryDetails from: Details from: LAAPhone: 03 9867 7800

QueenslandDetails from: Shaun LethemQLAA, PO Box 6037, Fairfield Gardens QLD 4103 Phone: 07 3255 9436

South AustraliaDetails from: Pam Saard – LASAPhone: 08 8352 8133

TasmaniaDetails from: LAA Phone: 03 9867 7800

VictoriaDetails from: Shane BertrandVLAA, Unit 2, 95 Salmon Street, Port Melbourne VIC 3207 Phone: 03 9676 3633

Western AustraliaDetails from: LAAPhone: 03 9867 7800

62

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