Industrial wastes and sludges management by vermicomposting

REVIEWS

Industrial wastes and sludges managementby vermicomposting

Anoop Yadav • V. K. Garg

Published online: 23 June 2011

� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Abstract Vermicomposting has been arising as an

innovative ecotechnology for the conversion of var-

ious types of wastes into vermicompost. Vermicom-

post is humus like, finely granulated and stabilized

material which can be used as a soil conditioner to

reintegrate the organic matter to the agricultural soils.

Industrial wastes remain largely unutilized and often

cause environmental problems like ground and sur-

face water pollution, foul odours, occupying vast land

areas etc. Non-toxic and organic industrial wastes

could be potential raw material for vermitechnology.

In the last two decades, vermitechnology has been

applied for the management of industrial wastes and

sludges and to convert them into vermicompost for

land restoration practices. The success of the process

depends upon several process parameters like quality

of raw material, pH, temperature, moisture, aeration

etc., type of vermicomposting system and earthworm

species used. The review discusses the vermitechnol-

ogy and the present state of research in the vermi-

composting industrial sludges and wastes.

Keywords Vermitechnology � Earthworm � Eisenia

fetida � Industrial wastes � C:N ratio � Heavy metals �Wastewater sludges

1 Introduction

Vermicomposting is a biotechnological process in

which earthworms are employed to convert the organic

wastes into humus like material known as vermicom-

post. Certain earthworm species are capable of

consuming a wide range of organic wastes from

sewage sludge, animal wastes, agricultural residues,

domestic wastes, to industrial wastes. Under favour-

able conditions of temperature and moisture, earth-

worms maintain the aerobic conditions in the

vermicomposting process ingest organic waste mate-

rials and egest a humus-like substance which is more

homogeneous than the organic wastes or raw materials

used (Arancon et al. 2003; Edwards and Burrows

1988). The actions of the earthworms in this process

are both physical and biochemical. The physical

actions include fragmentation, turnover and aeration.

Whereas biochemical actions include enzymatic diges-

tion, nitrogen enrichment, transport of inorganic and

organic materials (Edwards and Lofty 1972). During

this process, important plant nutrients such as nitrogen,

potassium, phosphorus and calcium present in the

waste materials are converted through microbial action

into such chemical forms which are much more soluble

and available to the plants than those in the parent

substrate (Ndegwa and Thompson 2001). This may be

due to the presence of various enzymes in earthworms

gut viz., proteases, lipases, amylases, cellulases,

chitinases etc. which degrade the cellulosic and

proteinaceous materials in organic waste (Hand et al.

A. Yadav � V. K. Garg (&)

Department of Environmental Science and Engineering,

Guru Jambheshwar University of Science

and Technology, Hisar, Haryana 125001, India

e-mail: [email protected]

123

Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2011) 10:243–276

DOI 10.1007/s11157-011-9242-y

1988). The earthworms have mutual relationship with

microorganisms ingested for decomposition of organic

matter present in their food (Satchell 1983; Urbasek

and Pizl 1991; Zang et al. 1993; Lattuad et al. 1999).

The transformation of organic wastes into vermi-

compost is of double interest: on the one hand, a

waste is converted into value added product, i.e.,

vermicompost and, on the other; it controls solid

waste pollution that is a consequence of increasing

population, industrialization, urbanization and inten-

sive agriculture. Another positive aspect associated

with vermicomposting is that it can be done at any

scale from household vermicomposting of food waste

to community or city scale vermicomposting

(Edwards and Lofty 1972). Various steps of waste

degradation by earthworms are given below.

• Ingestion of organic waste material.

• Softening of organic waste material by the saliva

in the mouth of the earthworms.

• Softening of organic waste and neutralization by

calcium (excreted by the inner walls of oesoph-

agus) and passed on to the gizzard for further

action in oesophagus region of worm body.

• Waste is finely ground into small particles in the

muscular gizzard.

• Digestion of organic waste by a proteolytic

enzyme in stomach.

• Decomposition of pulped waste material compo-

nents by various enzymes including proteases,

lipases, amylases, cellulases, chitinases etc.

secreted in intestine and then the digested mate-

rial is absorbed in the epithelium of intestine.

• Excretion of undigested food material from worm

castings.

The success of vermicomposting process depends

on a number of abiotic and biotic factors. Some of

these factors are given below:

1.1 Abiotic factors

The most important abiotic factors which affect vermi-

composting process include moisture content, pH,

temperature, aeration, feed quality, light, C:N ratio etc.

1.1.1 Moisture content

Adequate moisture content is one of the most

important factors necessary for the working of

earthworms and microorganisms in vermicomposting

system. Earthworms breathe through their skin;

therefore the system must have adequate moisture

content. The ideal moisture range in vermicompo-

sting or vermiculture process is 60-80% (Neuhauser

et al. 1988; Edwards 1998), yet physical and chem-

ical differences in feed stocks may cause slight

variations. Reinecke and Venter (1985) have reported

that even a 5% difference in moisture content

significantly affect the clitellum development in

Eisenia fetida worm species. Water also acts as a

medium for different chemical reactions and trans-

port of nutrients during the process.

1.1.2 pH

The pH is another important parameter which greatly

influences the vermicomposting process. The accept-

able pH range, suitable for earthworms and microor-

ganisms activity, is 5.5–8.5. However, optimum pH is

neutral or near neutral. During vermicomposting the

pH values of the feed substrate undergoes consider-

able changes. An initial phase characterized by a low

pH is often observed during vermicomposting of feed

substrate. This is due to the formation of carbon

dioxide and volatile fatty acids in initial. With the

subsequent evolution of CO2 and utilization of

volatile fatty acids, the pH begins to rise as the

process progresses (Kaushik and Garg 2004).

1.1.3 Temperature

The optimum temperature range for earthworms

during vermicomposting process is 12–28�C. The

worm activities are significantly influenced by tem-

perature. During winter to remain system active, the

temperature should be maintained above 10�C and in

summer the temperature should be maintained below

35o C (Ismail 1997). As temperature decline in the

vermicomposting system the earthworms are not able

to reproduce and their metabolic activity also get

reduced. At very low temperatures earthworms do not

consume food. At higher temperature (above 35�C)

metabolic activity and reproduction of earthworms

begins to decline and mortality occurs (Riggle and

Holmes 1994). Tolerances and preferences for tem-

perature vary from species to species.

244 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2011) 10:243–276

123

1.1.4 Aeration

As the earthworms are aerobic organisms, oxygen is

essential for vermicomposting. Oxygen consumption

is a function of microbial and earthworm activity,

oxygen levels are also related to substrate tempera-

tures. In a vermicomposting system excessive mois-

ture can cause poor aeration and may affect the

oxygen supply to the worms. Greasy and oily wastes

in high quantity in feed substrate may also decrease

oxygen supply. So this is the reason for not adding

greasy and oily wastes in feed stock without pre-

composting. To enable better aeration during adverse

condition of vermicomposting, either mechanical

means of aeration or manual turning is employed

(Ismail 1997).

1.1.5 Feed quality

Suitable feed material for earthworms is a primary

need in the vermicomposting process. Earthworms

can consume almost anything that is organic in

nature. The amount of food that can be consumed

daily by earthworm varies with a number of factors

such as particle size of food, state of decomposition

of the food, C:N ratio of food, salt content in food etc.

Small particle size of feed waste will ensure the

worms to speed up the vermicomposting process.

This small particle size allows the proper aeration

through the pile of waste material and available to

worms. The quantity of food taken by a worm varies

from 100 to 300 mg/g body weight/day (Edwards

1988). Earthworms derive their nutrition from

organic materials, living microorganisms and by

decomposing macro-fauna. Surface living earth-

worms feed on food material selectively while deep

soil living worms ingest soil as such. Worms are very

sensitive to salts. The feed should have less than

0.5% salt contents (Gunadi et al. 2002). Feed should

not contain any non-biodegradable or toxic substance

(e.g. inert materials, plastics, glass, metal objects,

detergents, pharmaceuticals etc.), which pose a risk

either directly to the earthworms or through their

metabolic products (Garg et al. 2007).

1.1.6 Light

Earthworms are photophobic in nature (Edwards and

Lofty 1972). So they should be kept away from light.

Short exposure from sunlight causes partial-to-com-

plete paralysis and long exposures are lethal to

earthworms. They use light-sensitive skin cells con-

centrated at the front end of their bodies to sense light

and move away from it.

1.1.7 C:N ratio

C:N ratio of feed material affects the earthworms’

growth and reproduction. Higher C:N ratio in the feed

material accelerates the growth and reproduction of

worms. If C:N ratio is too high or too low, waste

degradation is slowed. Plants cannot assimilate

mineral nitrogen unless the C:N is in the range of

25–20:1. Many studies show that the C:N ratio in

soils with litter is brought down to less than 25:1 by

the intervention of earthworms (Senapathi and Dash

1984; Ndegwa et al. 2000). Presence of microbes play

important role in vermicomposting process and these

microbes need carbon for growth and nitrogen for

protein synthesis. Thus, an optimum C:N ratio is

required for efficient vermicomposting process. If the

organic feed material is poor in nitrogen and C:N

ratio is high, microbial activity decrease in the feed

substrate (Edwards and Lofty 1972).

1.2 Biotic factors

Various biotic factors which affect vermicomposting

process include earthworms stocking density, Micro-

organisms, enzymes etc.

1.2.1 Earthworms stocking density

Earthworms are known to play most important role in

the vermicomposting system, where they modify

microbial communities and nutrient dynamics

(Edwards and Bohlen 1996). Population of earthworms

(stocking density) in vermicomposting system affects

various physiological processes, such as respiration

rate, reproduction rate, feeding rate and burrowing

activity. Dominguez and Edwards (1997) have

reported that a stocking density of eight earthworms

(E. andrei) per 43.61 g dry matter of pig manure is

optimal for sexual development. Effects of population

density on physiological processes may differ between

various earthworm species. Uvarov and Scheu (2004)

Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2011) 10:243–276 245

123

have reported that at higher population densities

mortality is increased, cocoon production per earth-

worm is reduced and growth rate is decreased.

Dominguez and Edwards (1997) have reported that,

at higher population densities earthworm grow slowly

and with a lower biomass, even when the physical

conditions were identical and ideal. High population

densities of earthworms in vermicomposting systems

result in a rapid turnover of fresh organic matter into

earthworm casts (Aira et al. 2002). Ndegwa et al.

(2000) have reported, an optimal worm stocking

density of 1.60 kg-worms/m2 and an optimal feeding

rate of 0.75 kg-feed/kg-worm/day for vermicompo-

sting. Frederickson et al. (1997) have also reported a

significant reduction in growth and reproduction of

Eisenia andrei as stocking densities increased. There-

fore, when establishing a vermicomposting system, it

is essential to maintain optimum earthworm density to

obtain maximum population growth and reproduction

in shortest possible time.

1.2.2 Microorganisms

The compostable organic waste materials are natu-

rally inhabited by microorganisms and these help in

the breakdown of organic wastes under ideal envi-

ronmental conditions. The composition of the

microorganism communities in a vermicomposting

system depends on the composition of waste com-

ponents undergoing vermicomposting. During ver-

micomposting, organic matter is stabilized by the

mutual interaction between earthworms and micro-

organisms (Edwards and Fletcher 1988). Though

earthworms consume fungi with organic substrates

to fulfil their protein or nitrogen requirement, fungal

population in earthworm casts was almost equal or

higher than that of initial substrates (Edwards and

Bohlen 1996). The micro-organisms not only min-

eralize complex substances into plant available form

but also synthesize biologically active substances.

Pramanik (2010) has reported that during vermi-

composting, earthworms ingest microorganisms with

organic substrates, but not all the microorganisms

are killed during gut passage. In fact, under favour-

able condition of earthworm guts, spore germination

is facilitated. This is probably responsible for

increasing microbial biomass in vermicompost (Tiu-

nov and Scheu 2004).

1.2.3 Enzymes

Chemically organic wastes are very complex and

their complete stabilization requires enzymatic

action. The worms secrete enzymes in their gizzard

and intestine which bring about rapid biochemical

conversion of the cellulosic and the proteinaceous

materials in the organic wastes (Hand et al. 1988).

Some of the main enzymes involved in the vermi-

composting process include: cellulases, which dep-

olymerise cellulose, b-glucosidases which hydrolyse

glucosides, amidohydrolase, proteases and urease

involved in N mineralization and phosphatases that

remove phosphate groups from organic matter.

Enzyme activities have often been used as indicators

of microbial activity and can also be useful to

interpret the intensity of microbial metabolism in soil

(Schinner et al. 1996). Enzymes, in fact, are the

catalysts of important metabolic functions, including

the decomposition and the detoxification of contam-

inants (Nannipieri and Bollag 1991).

2 Earthworms

In 330 BC Greek philosopher Aristotle called earth-

worms ‘‘the intestines of the soil’’. He believed that

soil was an organic entity and he understood that

earthworms played an important role in maintaining

the life of soil. But even in 4th quarter of 19th

Century, people thought that earthworms eat roots of

plants and destroy crops, and thus they suggested

earthworms be eliminated. The reputation of earth-

worms was rehabilitated when Darwin published his

book entitled ‘‘The Formation of Vegetable Mould

through the Action of Worms with Observations on

their Habits’’ in 1881. Darwin called earthworms

‘‘ploughs of the earth’’ because of their ability to eat

soil and eject it as worm castings. He believed that

worm castings and the movement of worms were

wholly responsible for the top layer of rich soil.

Darwin claimed that earthworms were one of the

most important creatures in the ecosystem.

There are about 3,320 species of earthworms all

over the world (Bhatnagar and Palta 1996). According

to Julka et al. (2009), in India, there are about 590

species of earthworms with different ecological pref-

erences, but the functional role of the majority of the

species and their influence on the habitat are lacking.


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Earthworm species have different habitat characteris-

tics, ecological niches, life style and life span

(Table 1). The composition of different species of

earthworms in different soils has been studied by a

number of workers (Van-Rhee 1963; Nordstrom and

Rundgren 1973; Mariuisseis and Boch 1992; Doube

et al. 1994; Muys and Granval 1997). Earthworm

occur in diverse habitats, organic materials like

manures litter, compost etc. are highly attractive for

earthworms but they are also found in very hydrophilic

environment close to both fresh and brackish water,

some species can survive under snow (Sharma et al.

2005). The distribution of earthworms is related to the

physico-chemical characteristics of soils such as

temperature, moisture, pH, carbon, nitrogen and C:N

ratio etc. Most species of earthworms prefer soil with a

temperature of 10–35�C, moisture of 12–34%, pH of

about 7 and C:N ratio 2–8 (Edwards and Lofty 1977;

Kale and Krishnamoorthy 1981; Lee 1985). Earth-

worms are generally absent or rare in soil with a very

coarse texture, in soil and high clay content, or soil

with pH \ 4 (Gunathilagraj and Ravignanam 1996).

In general, daily ingestion of feed varies from 100 to

300 mg/g of worm body weight. According to Bhatna-

gar and Palta (1996) an earthworm can consume 8–20 g

dung/year. So at a population density of 1, 20,000

adults/ha, dung consumption would be 17.20 tones/ha/

year. In a temperate deciduous forest, annual leaf fall of

approximately three tones/ha/year will be consumed

just in 3 months (Satchell 1983). These estimates thus

amply indicate that earthworms are important soil biota

mixing and incorporating organic matter. Some earth-

worms are able to selectively digest certain microor-

ganisms (Dash et al. 1984).

On the basis of these morpho-ecological charac-

teristics earthworms have be classified into three

categories (Bouche 1977). These categories are: (1)

Epigeic (2) Endogeic and (3) Anecic.

(1) Epigeic earthworms are small sized worms, live

in organic horizons and feed on decaying organic

matter. They do not have permanent burrows but they

produce ephemeral burrows into the mineral soil for

diapauses only. These species are phytophagous. These

species have relatively small life span with rapid

Table 1 Characteristics of earthworms of different ecological categories

Characteristics Epigeic Endogeic Anecic

Habitat 3–10 cm, litter dwellers 10–30 cm, live in upper

layer of soil

30–90 cm, deep burrowing

Feeding habit Feed on leaf letter and

animal excrements

Feed on organic matter

present in soil

Feed on litter and soil

Burrow habit Reduced, do not construct

burrows and remains

active in litter layers

Developed, construct

horizontal burrows lined

by mucus and excretory

products

Strongly developed,

construct permanent

vertical burrows

Body size Small Medium Large

Regeneration capacity High Limited Moderate

Pigmentation Richly pigmented Very low or absent Lightly pigmented

Sensitivity to light Low High Moderate

Reproductively Highest Low Moderate

Mobility Rapid Slow Moderate

Life cycle Short Intermediate Long

Respiration High Feeble Moderate

Efficiency in waste recycling Well established Well established in some

species

Efficiency data not

available

Maturation Rapid Slow Moderate

Casting activity Surface casting, loose,

granular

Mostly underground, thick

and long casts

Surface casting, loose and

granular

Survival under adverse conditions As cocoons By quiescence True diapause

Source: Bouche (1977), Dash and Senapati (1986)


123

reproduction rate. These species help in bio-degrada-

tions of organic matter and release nutrients into soil.

But these species are not suitable for the use in

agricultural fields for soil reclamation because these

species do not distribute nutrients into lower soil layers.

Common epigeic species are Eisenia fetida, Eisenia

andrei, Eudrilus eugeniae, Drawida modesta and

Perionyx excavatus.

(2) Endogeic earthworms are moderate sized, live

below the surface and feed on organic rich soil. These

are burrowing worms and build continuously rami-

fying horizontal burrows. These species are geopha-

gous. They feed on the organic matter already present

in the soil. Worms of these species rarely come to the

surface. These species have intermediate duration life

span and their reproduction rate is very low. These

species are not much beneficial in litter incorporation,

and decomposition of organic material because they

feed on subsurface soil. They play major role in other

soil formation process such as soil mixing and

aeration. Common endogeic species are Octochae-

tona thurstoni, Allolobophora caliginosa, Allolobo-

phora rosea and Drawida barwelli.

(3) Anecic earthworms are large sized worms, live

in deep soil and feed on decomposed litter and other

organic matter. These species build permanent ver-

tical burrows that penetrate the soil deeply and come

to the surface at night for food. These species have

comparatively moderate reproduction rate and long

life span. The worms of these species can be found in

shallow or deep burrows depending on the prevailing

conditions. These species play very important role in

the decomposition, and distribution of organic matter

in soil, and also improve soil structure and texture by

nutrient recycling. Common anecic species are

Lampito mauritii, Lumbricus terrestris, Aporrectodea

trapezoides and Aporrectodea longa.

At maturity earthworms develops swollen region

called clitellum behind the anterior. Worms deposits

their eggs in a cocoon without the free larval stage.

Cocoon production starts at the age of 6 weeks and

continues till the end of 6 months. Under favourable

conditions one pair of earthworms can produce 100

cocoons in 6 weeks to 6 months (Ismail 1997).

Cocoon is a translucent, small, spherical protective

capsule in which earthworms lay their eggs. The

shape, size, colour and number of cocoons vary from

species to species. The incubation period of a cocoon

is roughly about 3–5 weeks, in temperate worms it

ranges between 3 and 30 weeks and in tropical

worms within 1–8 weeks. Quality of organic waste is

one of the factors determining the onset and rate of

reproduction (Garg et al. 2007).

The worm species suitable for vermicomposting

should be efficient converter of plant litter or animal

waste to body proteins, so that its growth rates are

high. It should have high consumption, digestion and

assimilation rate. It should have tolerance to climatic

temperature variation. Eisenia fetida has a wider

tolerance for temperature than Eudrilus eugeniae and

Perionyx excavatus. Eisenia fetida can be cultivated

in areas with higher temperature (as high as 43�C) as

well as lower temperature (\5�C) (Gajalakshmi and

Abbasi 2004). It should have feeding preference and

adaptability for wide range of organic materials. They

should produce large numbers of cocoons which

should not have long hatching time, so that multipli-

cation and organic matter conversion is fast. They

should have compatibility or tolerance with other

worms (as with possibility of use of mixture of

species) as would add to productivity of biomass

(worms) and conversion rate at different strata

(layers) of organic matter, i.e., faster composting.

3 Physico-chemical changes in wastes

during vermicomposting

Various studies have been conducted in yesteryears to

study biochemical changes in the organic matter

during vermicomposting process. The most com-

monly studied parameters in these studies included

pH, organic carbon, NPK, enzymes, heavy metals etc.

A brief review of these parameters is given below:

3.1 pH

pH of organic matter has a significant impact on the

efficiency of overall process and it could be the limiting

factor for the survival and growth of earthworms. After

vermicomposting usually pH decreases from alkaline

to acidic or neutral. The pH change towards neutrality

may be due to the mineralization of nitrogen and

phosphorus into nitrites or nitrates and orthophos-

phates. Bioconversion of organic materials into inter-

mediates species may also another factor for the

decrease of pH during vermicomposting (Ndegwa et al.

2000). Pramanik et al. (2007) have postulated that


123

decomposition of organic matter leads to the formation

of ammonium (NH4?) ions and humic acids. The

presence of carboxylic and phenolic groups in humic

acids caused lowering of pH and ammonium ions

increased the pH of the system. The combined effect of

these two oppositely charged groups regulates the pH

of vermicompost leading to a shift of pH towards

neutrality. Haimi and Hutha (1986) have reported that

lower pH in vermicomposts might be due to the

production of CO2 and other organic acids by microbial

activity during bioconversion of wastes substrates.

Suthar (2008) has reported that the shift in pH could be

due to microbial decomposition during the process of

vermicomposting. Elvira et al. (1998) have concluded

that production of CO2 and organic acids by microbial

decomposition during vermicomposting lowers the pH

of substrate.

3.2 Nitrogen content

In soil nitrogen exists in two major forms; organic

nitrogen and inorganic nitrogen. Plants fulfil their

nitrogen requirements from the inorganic faction.

The organic faction serves as a reservoir of nitrogen

in plant nutrition and released only after decompo-

sition and mineralization of organic matter. Inor-

ganic nitrogen mainly nitrates and ammonia is

available nitrogen forms which are used by plants.

According to Viel et al. (1987) losses in organic

carbon due to substrate utilization by microbes and

earthworms and their metabolic activities as well as

water loss by evaporation during mineralization of

organic matter might be responsible for nitrogen

addition. Decreases in pH may be another important

factor in nitrogen retention as nitrogen is lost as

volatile ammonia at higher pH values. It has also

been suggested that the final nitrogen content of

vermicompost is dependent on the initial nitrogen

content present in the organic wastes and the extent

of decomposition (Crawford 1983). Addition of

nitrogen in the form of mucus, nitrogenous excretory

substances, body fluids, growth stimulating hor-

mones and enzymes from earthworms has also been

reported (Tripathi and Bhardwaj 2004). Kavian and

Ghatneker (1991) suggested the enhanced population

of nitrogen fixers (Azotobactor and Rhizobium) in

vermibeds, while working on vermicomposting of

paper mill sludge.

3.3 Organic carbon

Organic carbon (OC) decreases in the organic wastes

during vermicomposting. Earthworms break and

homogenize the ingested material through muscular

action of their foregut and, also add mucus and

enzymes in ingested material, this increase the

surface area for microbial action. The combined

action of earthworms and microorganisms may be

responsible for OC loss from the organic wastes in

the form of CO2 (Prakash and Karmegam 2010).

Suthar (2006) has reported that earthworms promote

such microclimate conditions in the system which it

increases the loss of organic carbon from substrates to

microbial respiration. Garg et al. (2009) have

reported a 58.4% reduction in organic carbon in

cow dung and 55.4% reduction in horse dung after

90 days of vermicomposting. Kaviraj and Sharma

(2003) have reported a 20–45% loss of organic

carbon during vermicomposting of municipality

wastes. Earthworms and microorganisms uses large

portion of carbon as sources of energy and nitrogen

for building cell structure brings about decomposition

of organic matter (Venkatesh and Eevera 2008).

3.4 Phosphorus content

Phosphorous is an essential plant nutrient which is

required for photosynthesis, energy transfer within

plants and for good flowing and fruit growth. It is

taken up by plants in the form of inorganic ions:

H2PO4- and H2PO4

2- (orthophosphates) (Hesse

1971). It is more important for plant maturation than

plant growth. Phosphorus content is usually higher in

vermicompost than parent material. Satchell and

Martin (1984) found an increase in 25% in phospho-

rous content of paper waste sludge, after worm

activity. Increase in phosphorus content was attrib-

uted to direct action of worm gut enzymes and

indirectly by stimulation of the micro flora. They also

concluded that addition of phosphorus to vermicom-

post also prevents nitrogen loss through ammonia

volatilization. Ghosh et al. (1999) have reported that

vermicomposting can be an efficient technology for

the transformation of unavailable forms of phospho-

rous to easily available forms for plants. Vinotha

et al. (2000) have also documented that micro flora

present in the feed material play an important role in

enhanced phosphorous in worm cast. According to


123

Lee (1992) if the organic materials pass through the

gut of earthworms then some of phosphorus being

converted to such forms that are available to plants.

Increase in phosphorus during vermicomposting is

probably through mineralization and mobilization of

phosphorus by bacterial and phosphatase activity of

earthworms (Yadav and Garg 2009). Suthar and

Singh (2008) have attributed the release of available

P content from organic waste to earthworm gut

phosphatases, and P-solubilizing microorganisms

present in worm casts.

3.5 Potassium content

Potassium is one of the essential nutrients for plant

growth along with nitrogen and phosphorus. It is used

by plants in several physiological processes including

manufacturing and movement of sugars, cell division,

root development etc. There are contradictory reports

regarding the potassium content in vermicomposts

obtained from different organic wastes. Orozco et al.

(1996) have reported lower potassium content in

coffee pulp waste after vermicomposting. This might

be due to leaching of potassium by excess water that

drained through the feeds. Delgado et al. (1995) have

reported higher potassium content in the sewage

sludge vermicomposts. Benitez et al. (1999) have

reported that the leachate collected during vermi-

composting process had higher potassium concentra-

tion. Sangwan et al. (2010a) have also reported an

increase in potassium in vermicomposts after bio-

conversion of sugar industry waste. These differences

in the observations can be attributed to the differ-

ences in the chemical nature of the inorganic wastes

used in vermicomposting system.

3.6 C:N ratio

C:N ratio is one of the most widely used indices for

maturity of organic wastes. The loss of CO2 in the

process of respiration and production of mucus and

nitrogenous excrements are responsible for C:N ratio

changes during vermicomposting (Senapathi et al.

1980). Senesi (1989) have reported that a decline in

C:N ratio to \20 indicates organic waste stabiliza-

tion, its maturity and stability. The ratio of carbon to

nitrogen is important for the proper growth of any

plant. All studies on vermicomposting have reported

a decrease in C:N ratio of organic wastes, although

decrease in C:N ratio is different for different organic

wastes.

The utilization of vermicomposts as soil amend-

ment may hold a good promise for improving the soil

health, crop productivity and reducing the waste

disposal problem. Vermicompost quality is closely

related to its stability and maturity, the maturity

implies a potential for the development of beneficial

effects when they are used as growth media. A large

numbers of chemical and biological changes that

occur during vermicomposting and several methods

have been suggested for maturity. According to

Bernal et al. (1998) maturity and stability means

the absence of phytotoxic compounds and plant or

animal pathogens. Water-soluble organic carbon

generally decreases with time and is often used as

another indicator of compost stability. Various

parameters can be used to assess the stability and

maturity of vermicomposts including C:N ratio,

cation exchange capacity, humus content, oxygen

consumption by microorganisms and the carbon

dioxide evolution from the finished products (com-

posts/vermicomposts). Cunha Queda et al. (2002)

have reported that germination index, which is a

measure of phytotoxicity, as a reliable indirect

quantification of compost maturity.

In general, decrease in C:N ratio can be taken as a

reliable index of compost maturity when combined

with other parameters such as CO2 evolution from

mature compost, water soluble C and content of

humic substances. But, Hirari et al. (1983) stated that

the C:N ratio cannot be used as an absolute indicator

of compost maturity, since the values for well-

composted materials present a great maturity vari-

ability, due to characteristics of the waste used.

During vermicomposting, carbonaceous and nitroge-

nous compounds are transformed through the activ-

ities of successive microbial populations into more

stable complex organic forms which chemically and

biologically resemble humic substances.

4 Vermicomposting of industrial sludges

and wastes

Almost every industry produces large quantity of

liquid, gaseous or solid wastes which are causing

various types of environmental problems due to

inefficient recycling or management techniques. The


123

conventional disposal methods mainly consist of

open dumping, open burning and land filling of such

kind of wastes appeared as impractical in present

time, due to leaching and production of certain toxic

chemicals from the wastes which may cause soil and

air pollution. Proper management and disposal of

these wastes is key agenda for scientists and munic-

ipalities all over the world. Non-toxic, organic and

biodegradable industrial wastes may be a raw mate-

rial for vermicomposting. Various industrial wastes

and sludges have been tested to explore their

potential for vermicomposting in recent past

(Table 2). A brief review of these studies is presented

in this section.

4.1 Sugar industry waste

India is the second largest sugar producer in the world,

accounting for around 10–12% of world’s sugar

production. Sugarcane industry generates large quan-

tities of recyclable organic residues after the sugar-

cane juice has been clarified commonly known as

pressmud/filter cake. Except sugar being as primary

product, sugar industries also generate a large amount

of wastes as by-products like pressmud, bagasse, cane

trash and fermentation yeast sludge. According to

Yadav (1995) about 4.0 million tonnes of pressmud

are produced for about 134 million tonnes of sugar-

cane crushed and according to estimation average

pressmud production per ton of sugar is 35 kg. All

these wastes may serve a good source of plant

nutrients and can be used as soil additives. Chemically

pressmud is a rich source of organic matter, organic

carbon, sugar, protein, enzymes, macronutrients (N, P

and K), micronutrients (Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn etc.) and

microbes (Sangwan et al. 2008a; Ranganathan and

Parthasarathi 1999). According to Sangwan et al.

(2008a) the pressmud has pH: 7.1; Organic carbon:

313 g/kg; Nitrogen content: 24 g/kg; Phosphorus

content: 3.6 g/kg; Potassium content: 0.86 g/kg; Cal-

cium content: 12.1 g/kg; C:N ratio: 13.0; Cu: 870 mg/

kg; Fe: 22,440 mg/kg; Zn: 1,392 mg/kg and Mn:

2,008 mg/kg. Farmers hesitate to apply it directly in

fields due to its odour, transportation expenses and its

application may lead to hard crusts formation, pH

fluctuations and pollution problem. Hence, proper

management of pressmud is requisite to reduce

environmental health impacts and degradation of land

resources. Many researchers strongly suggested the

utilization of pressmud for large scale vermicompo-

sting. Reddy and Shantaram (2005) have successfully

used Eisenia fetida to manage sugarcane industry

wastes. They reported that vermicomposting appeared

as a more efficient technology to manage sugarcane

by-products than the microbial composting and the

final products of composting and vermicomposting of

sugar industry wastes (cane trash, pressmud and

bagasse) had significant difference in physic-chemical

characteristics. Vermicompost had about 2.0-fold

higher nitrogen content than compost. Sen and

Chandra (2007) studied the transformation of organic

matter and humification of sugar industry wastes

(pressmud, trash and bagasse) during vermicompo-

sting. During vermicomposting pressmud, trash,

bagasse and cow dung were used in the ratio of

7:1:1:1 w/w. During early phase of the vermicompo-

sting process there was rapid decrease in C:N ratio and

lignocellulosic (lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose)

content. The organic matter content of the pressmud,

trash, bagasse and cow dung mixture was very high

(66%), which decreased noticeably during vermicom-

posting to 48% after 60 days of vermicomposting.

Total Nitrogen content in pressmud, trash, bagasse

and cow dung mixture was increased from 1.75 to

2.74%. The decline observed for the C:N ratio from an

initial of 21.9 in the pressmud, trash, bagasse and cow

dung mixture to 10.2 indicating higher organic matter

decomposition and attainment of stabilization. Sang-

wan et al. (2008a) reported the management of sugar

mill filter cake mixed with horse dung using an

epigeic earthworm Eisenia fetida. Maximum worm

growth and cocoon production were recorded in 90%

horse dung ?10% filter cake mixture. However

increasing proportions of filter cake in feed mixture

adversely affected the growth and fecundity of

worms. There was a significant reduction in C:N ratio

and increase NPK content (Table 3). They also

concluded that earthworms did not feed on raw filter

cake and accepted it when other suitable organic

waste was spiked with it. Sangwan et al. (2008b) also

reported the vermicomposting of pressmud mixed

with anaerobically digested biogas plant slurry.

Results showed a decline in pH, organic carbon,

potassium and C:N ratio, but increase in nitrogen and

phosphorus content at the end of the experiment.

Organic carbon loss was 5–14% by the end of the

vermicomposting. Final nitrogen content of the ver-

micomposts was in the range of 26.5–20.8 g/kg.


123

Table 2 Different Industrial wastes/sludges tested for vermicomposting in yesteryears

S. No. Industrial waste Organic amendments Earthworm species Reference

1 Solid paper mill waste Brewery yeast Lumbricus terrestris Butt (1993)

2 Paper-pulp waste Primary sewage sludge Eisenia andrei Elvira et al. (1996)

3 Paper-pulp waste Cattle manure Eisenia andrei Elvira et al. (1998)

4 Paper mill sludge Cattle dung Eisenia fetida Kaur et al. (2010)

5 Petrochemical sludge Mangifera indicafoliage, cow dung and

saw dust

Eudrilus eugeniae Banu et al. (2005)

6 Food industry sludge Cow dung Eisenia fetida Yadav and Garg (2009)

7 Food industry sludge Biogas plant slurry Eisenia fetida Yadav and Garg (2010)

8 Food industry sludge Cow dung and poultry

droppings

Eisenia fetida Yadav and Garg (2011)

9 Solid textile mill sludge Cow dung and poultry

droppings

Eisenia fetida Garg and Kaushik (2005)

10 Solid textile mill sludge Biogas plant slurry Eisenia fetida Garg et al. (2006a, b)

11 Solid textile mill sludge Cow dung Eisenia fetida Kaushik and Garg (2003)

12 Solid textile mill sludge Cow dung and horse

dung

Eisenia fetida Garg et al. (2009)

13 Textile industry waste Cow dung and

agriculture residues

Eisenia fetida Kaushik and Garg (2004)

14 Textile industry waste Cow dung and soil Eisenia fetida Garg et al. (2006a, b)

15 Guar gum industry waste Cow dung and saw dust P. excavatus Suthar (2006)

16 Winery waste Eisenia andrei Nogales et al. (2005)

17 Sugar mill filter cake Horse dung Eisenia fetida Sangwan et al. (2008a)

18 Sugar mill filter cake Biogas plant slurry Eisenia fetida Sangwan et al. (2008b)

19 Sugar mill filter cake Cow dung Eisenia fetida Sangwan et al. (2010a)

20 Olive oil industry waste Sheep manure Eisenia fetida Vivas et al. (2009)

21 Olive oil industry waste Muncipal biosolids Eisenia andrei Benitez et al. (2005)

22 Olive oil industry waste Cattle manure Eisenia andrei Plaza et al. (2008)

23 Coffee pulp Eisenia fetida Orozco et al. (1996)

24 Pressmud Cow dung Perionyx ceqlanensis Prakash and Karmegam (2010)

25 Filter mud Saw dust E. fetida, Eudrilus eugeniaeand Perionyx excavatus

Khwairakpam and Bhargava

(2009)

26 Pressmud Bagasse, sugarcane

trash and cow dung

Eudrilus eugeniae Sen and Chandra (2007)

27 Sugar industry sludge Cow dung, biogas slurry

and wheat straw

Eisenia fetida Suthar (2010)

28 Pressmud Bagasse and sugarcane

trash

Drawida willsi Kumar et al. (2010)

29 Sago industry solid waste Cow dung and poultry

manure

Eisenia fetida Subramanian et al. (2010)

30 Pressmud Bagasse and sugarcane

trash

Drawida willsi Shweta et al. (2010)

31 Distillery sludge Cow dung Eisenia fetida Suthar (2008)

32 Industrially produced

woodchips

Sewage sludge Eisenia fetida Maboeta and Rensburg (2003a)

33 Dairy industries sludge Gratelly et al. (1996)


123

Maximum worm biomass and growth rate was

attained in 20% pressmud containing waste mixture.

The heavy metals (Cu, Fe, Zn, Mn, Ni and Cr) content

was also higher in the vermicompost as compare to

initial pressmud and biogas plant slurry mixtures

(Table 4). It was inferred from the study that addition

of 30–50% of pressmud with biogas plant slurry had

no adverse effect on the fertilizer value of the

vermicompost as well as worm growth. Khwairakpam

and Bhargava (2009) have successfully employed two

exotic (Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae) and one

local (Perionyx excavatus) earthworm species in

individual (monocultures) and combinations (poly-

cultures) to manage pressmud. The results indicated

that the cultures worked equally well, the best results

could be obtained by employing worm polyculture.

Vermicomposting resulted in significant reduction in

C:N ratio, pH, total organic matter but increase in

electrical conductivity, total nitrogen, total phospho-

rus and macronutrients (K, Ca and Na). Oxygen

uptake rate (OUR) dropped up to 1.64–1.95 mg/g

(volatile solids) VS/day for monoculture reactors and

1.45–1.78 mg/g VS/day for polycultures reactors,

after 45 days of vermicomposting. Recently, Sang-

wan et al. (2010a) demonstrate that if pressmud is

mixed with up to 50% with cow dung and vermicom-

posted using Eisenia fetida worm species; it will be

converted to a good-quality vermicompost. They

reported that if vermicomposting technology is inte-

grated in waste management plan by the sugar mills, it

will help in two ways: a waste product will be

converted into a value-added product and the disposal

of pressmud in open dumps would be reduced. There

was 6–23% reduction in organic carbon. The C:N

ratios were in the range of 14–16 (Table 3). Shweta

et al. (2010) reported the vermicomposting of various

by-products of sugar-cane industry including bagasse,

press-mud and trash with a view to shorten stabiliza-

tion time, and improve the product quality. The

substrates (press-mud alone and in combination of

other by-products of sugar processing industries) was

pre-decomposed for 30 days by inoculating it with

Pleurotus sajorcaju, Trichoderma viridae, Aspergil-

lus niger, and Pseudomonas striatum in different

combinations. This was followed by vermicomposting

for 40 days using a native worm species Drawida

willsi. Results indicated that pre-decomposition of

wastes using microorganisms reduced the overall time

required for vermicomposting by 20 days. Chemical

analyses of the sugar-cane waste by-products under

study with different treatments showed the increase in

phosphorus and potassium during initial microbial

composting. Pre-decomposition and vermicomposting

both the process resulted in a loss of carbon because of

mineralization (Table 3). Suthar (2010) studied the

feasibility of vermicomposting of a mixture of sugar

industry waste (pressmud) and distillery sludge mixed

with cow dung, biogas plant slurry and wheat straw,

in different ratios using Eisenia fetida. Vermi-

composts so obtained contains a considerable range

of plant available forms of P (17.5–28.9 g kg-1), K

(13.8–21.4 g kg-1), Ca (41.1–63.4 g kg-1), Mg

(262.4 - 348.3 mg kg-1), Fe (559.8–513.0 mg kg-1)

and Zn (363.1–253.6 mg kg-1). The industrial sludge

mixtures supported the growth and reproduction in

Eisenia fetida, during vermicomposting process.

Table 2 continued

S. No. Industrial waste Organic amendments Earthworm species Reference

34 Paper mill sludge Foliage, cow dung and

saw dust

Lampito mauritii, Eudriluseugeniae and Eiseniafetida

Banu et al. (2001)

35 Distillery industry sludge Cow dung Perionyx excavatus Suthar and Singh (2008)

36 Sugar industry waste

(bagasse)

Coir and cow dung Eisenia fetida Pramanik (2010)

37 Beverage industry sludge Cattle dung Eisenia fetida Singh et al. (2010a, b)

38 Leather industry waste Cow dung and

agricultural residue

Eisenia fetida Ravindran et al. (2008)

39 Spent mushroom waste Cow dung Eisenia fetida Tajbakhsh et al. (2008)

40 Dairy sludge Cereal straw and wood

shavings

Eisenia andrei Nogales et al. (1999)


123

Ta

ble

3P

hy

sico

-ch

emic

alch

arac

teri

stic

so

fv

erm

ico

mp

ost

sp

rod

uce

dfr

om

dif

fere

nt

ind

ust

rial

was

tes

mix

ture

s

Subst

rate

spH

TN

(g/k

g)

TP

(g/k

g)

TK

(g/k

g)

C/N

Ref

eren

ce

Init

ial

Fin

alIn

itia

lF

inal

Init

ial

Fin

alIn

itia

lF

inal

Init

ial

Fin

al

Sugar

mil

lfi

lter

cake

?hors

edung

(1:1

)

6.8

6.4

17.5

23.1

5.8

6.7

4.9

2.2

22.5

16.5

San

gw

anet

al.

(2008a)

Sugar

mil

lsl

udge

?bio

gas

pla

nt

slurr

y(4

0%

?60%

)7.4

6.7

18.1

26.5

5.4

6.5

13.8

12.3

25

18.9

San

gw

anet

al.

(2008b)

Pre

ssm

ud

?co

wdung

(1:1

)8

7.3

17.4

22

4.9

6.8

4.1

1.4

21.9

16.3

San

gw

anet

al.

(2010a)

Fil

ter

cake

?sa

wdust

6.5

75.9

421

36.6

13.5

22.5

4.8

9.3

17.5

9.1

Khw

aira

kpam

and

Bhar

gav

a(2

009)

Pre

ssm

ud

?tr

ash

bag

asse

?m

icro

bia

lin

ocu

lants

(1:1

:1)

––

8.4

14

5.9

18.8

18

17.8

22

8.5

Shw

eta

etal

.(2

010

)

Pre

ssm

ud

?co

wdung

(1:1

)7.4

57.3

310.6

33.6

9.2

28.8

5.7

920.4

26.6

7.8

Pra

kas

han

dK

arm

egam

(2010

)

Sugar

indust

rysl

udge

?co

wdung

(40%

?60%

)8.6

7.4

10.6

33.6

9.2

28.8

5.7

920.4

26.6

7.8

Suth

ar(2

010)

Food

indust

rysl

udge

?co

wdung

(30%

?70%

)7.6

6.1

8.9

22.6

5.3

99.1

16.5

57.4

45

26

Yad

avan

dG

arg

(2009

)

Food

indust

rysl

udge

?B

iogas

pla

nt

slurr

y(3

0%

?70%

)7.3

6.8

8.7

26.5

7.6

9.4

3.6

55.6

852

14.3

Yad

avan

dG

arg

(2010

)

Food

indust

rysl

udge

?poult

rydro

ppin

gs

?co

wdung

7.5

6.5

8.8

12.8

4.6

6.9

14

26.6

31.2

20.9

Yad

avan

dG

arg

(2011

)

Pap

erm

ill

sludge

?ca

ttle

man

ure

(1:4

)8.6

8.1

11

12

3.9

5.9

23

7.6

23

16

Elv

ira

etal

.(1

998

)

Pap

erm

ill

sludge

?se

wag

esl

udge

(3:1

)8.1

8.8

11

38

4.6

4.2

1.2

1.1

40

6.4

Elv

ira

etal

.(1

996

)

Soli

dte

xti

lem

ill

sludge

?co

wdung

(30%

?70%

)–

–4.2

10.7

4.4

5.6

5.5

3.3

131

26.4

Kau

shik

and

Gar

g(2

003

)

Soli

dte

xti

lem

ill

sludge

?poult

rydro

ppin

gs

(70%

?30%

)8.4

6.7

4.1

12.3

5.7

10.7

54.7

76.3

14.9

Gar

gan

dK

aush

ik(2

005

)

Soli

dte

xti

lem

ill

sludge

?B

iogas

pla

nt

slurr

y(2

0%

?80%

)8

6.6

58.1

5.2

6.8

7.3

9.2

80.1

34.5

Gar

get

al.

(2006a,

b)

Dis

till

ery

sludge

?co

wdung

(40%

?60%

)7.7

6.4

66.9

717.7

521.1

37.6

8.5

322.1

40.9

12.9

Suth

ar(2

008)

Dis

till

ery

sludge

?co

wdung

(40%

?60%

)7.8

6.6

717.6

21.2

37.8

8.5

324.1

41

14.9

Suth

aran

dS

ingh

(2008

)

Win

ery

indust

ryw

aste

(Spen

tG

rape

mar

c)4.8

27.2

415.6

14

2.2

34.9

720.8

18.2

35

29

Nogal

eset

al.

(2005

)

Bev

erag

ein

dust

ryw

aste

?co

wdung

(1:1

)7.4

5.6

14.8

15.9

4.8

6.5

29.2

17.6

27.3

19.9

Sin

gh

etal

.(2

010a,

b)

Dai

rysl

udge

?ca

ttle

man

ure

(1:4

)8.3

7.8

11

17

7.3

7.7

25

7.6

27

13

Elv

ira

etal

.(1

997

)

Fly

ash

?co

wdung

(1:3

)8.2

8.1

2.2

9.8

0.6

2.6

11.8

18.8

41.7

7.6

Ven

kat

esh

and

Eev

era

(2007)

Oli

ve

cake

?bio

soli

ds

(8:1

)5.8

7.4

10.6

14

––

––

43

24

Mel

gar

etal

.(2

009

)

Oli

ve

pom

ace

8.6

8.5

14

11

––

––

15

8P

laza

etal

.(2

008

)

Oli

ve

cake

?bio

soli

ds

(8:1

)7.9

8.1

19

17

––

––

19

19

Ben

itez

etal

.(2

005

)

Sag

oin

dust

ryso

lid

was

te?

cow

dung

?poult

rym

anure

(1:1

:1)

87.7

912.5

19.4

915

21.8

25.6

31.2

13.3

Subra

man

ian

etal

.(2

010

)

Guar

gum

indust

rial

was

te?

cow

dung

?sa

wdust

(60:2

0:2

0)

––

19.8

24.8

2.5

4.3

515.4

18.7

23.3

16.9

Suth

ar(2

006)

Spen

tm

ush

room

was

te7.2

36.6

927.2

37.3

10

37.3

––

15.4

6.6

7T

ajbak

hsh

etal

.(2

008

)


123

Ta

ble

4H

eav

ym

etal

con

ten

t(m

g/k

g)

inth

ev

erm

ico

mp

ost

pro

du

ced

fro

md

iffe

ren

tin

du

stri

alw

aste

s

Su

bst

rate

sF

eZ

nC

uM

nC

rN

iP

bR

efer

ence

Init

ial

Fin

alIn

itia

lF

inal

Init

ial

Fin

alIn

itia

lF

inal

Init

ial

Fin

alIn

itia

lF

inal

Init

ial

Fin

al

Dis

till

ery

slu

dg

e?

cow

du

ng

(40

%?

60

%)

40

52

85

33

52

33

38

.32

6.8

26

21

62

––

––

––

Su

thar

(20

08

)

So

lid

tex

tile

mil

l

slu

dg

e?

cow

du

ng

(30

%?

70

%)

65

57

18

31

58

22

25

––

17

13

––

––

Kau

shik

and

Gar

g

(20

03

)

So

lid

tex

tile

mil

l

slu

dg

e?

po

ult

ry

dro

pp

ing

s

(70

%?

30

%)

36

32

71

14

07

9–

––

––

––

–0

.76

0.6

4G

arg

and

Kau

shik

(20

05

)

Su

gar

mil

lfi

lter

cak

e?

ho

rse

du

ng

(1:1

)

22

27

02

48

49

11

99

15

36

42

16

61

18

77

22

96

BD

L7

0.3

22

34

67

––

San

gw

anet

al.

(20

08

a)

Fo

od

ind

ust

ry

slu

dg

e?

Bio

gas

pla

nt

slu

rry

(30

%?

70

%)

11

88

13

01

11

71

51

68

.37

0.9

––

16

51

51

20

.41

9.5

––

Yad

avan

dG

arg

(20

10

)

Fo

od

ind

ust

ry

slu

dg

e?

po

ult

ry

dro

pp

ing

s?

cow

du

ng

(25

%?

25

%?

50

%)

12

80

14

00

47

58

05

59

.87

7.8

––

18

02

10

––

––

Yad

avan

dG

arg

(20

11

)

Dai

rysl

ud

ge

?ca

ttle

man

ure

(1:4

)

7.4

9.3

19

81

98

39

43

29

82

18

––

25

37

13

18

Elv

ira

etal

.(1

99

8)

Pap

erm

ill

slu

dg

e?

catt

le

man

ure

(1:4

)

6.9

7.5

11

01

08

31

34

18

01

90

––

25

29

15

13

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123

Industrial sludge had better mineralization rate and

earthworm productivity at low concentrations (Suthar

2010). Vermicomposting of pressmud mixed with an

equal amount of cow dung (1:1) by Perionyx ceylan-

ensis has been reported by Prakash and Karmegam

(2010). The vermicompost so produced had a pH of

7.33, electrical conductivity of 2.32 dS/m, nitrogen

1.63%, phosphorus 2.38% and potassium 3.13%

(Table 3). They also reported that the changes in

total bacterial, fungal, and actinomycetes populations

were positively correlated with duration of vermi-

composting. The study concluded that pressmud can

be effectively converted into nutrient and microor-

ganism rich vermicompost with Perionyx ceylanensis

when mixed with cow dung in 1:1 ratio.

4.2 Food industry waste

The solid wastes, especially wastewater treatment

sludge, generated in food industries are an important

source of organic material and soil nutrients. The

production of large quantities of this organic waste

material may poses major environmental (contamina-

tion of ground water and soil) and disposal problems.

Tajbakhsh et al. (2008) have evaluated the potential of

epigeic earthworms Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei

to transform spent mushroom compost into vermi-

compost. During the study period they reported

reduction in pH from 7.23 to 6.69. The electrical

conductivity of the vermicompost was 40% lesser

than raw wastes. They also observed 42–85%

increases in nitrogen content in vermicompost than

raw wastes. Total phosphorus content increased

almost 3-folds comparing to the initial values. Yadav

and Garg (2009) reported the feasibility of utilization

of vermicomposting technology for nutrient recovery

from food industry wastewater treatment plant sludge

employing Eisenia fetida earthworm. The results

proved that after the addition of food industry sludge

in appropriate quantities (B30%) to the cow dung, it

can be used as a feed material in the vermicomposting

process and vermicomposting can be an alternate

technology for food industry sludge management. The

results of study reported that there was a decrease in

pH, organic carbon content, organic matter, C:N ratio,

and increase in ash content, EC, nitrogen, potassium

and phosphorus content. Nitrogen content increased in

the range of 12.2–28.7 g kg-1 after vermicomposting.

C:N ratio was 1.59 5.24 folds lesser in final

vermicomposts than initial raw substrate (Table 3).

Although heavy metals’ content in final vermicom-

posts was higher than initial feed mixtures but it was

with in acceptable limits described for composts.

Yadav and Garg (2010) also reported the vermicom-

posting of food industry wastewater treatment plant

sludge mixed with biogas plant slurry employing

Eisenia fetida. The results showed that Eisenia fetida

was unable to survive in 100% sludge. So addition of

some other organic waste to sludge was necessary

during vermicomposting. Addition of sludge in the

range of with 20-30% biogas plant slurry had no

adverse effect on the quality of vermicompost. They

reported a 1.6-fold to 4.8-fold increase in nitrogen

content (Table 3). Organic carbon content of the

vermicomposts was 8.6–22.7% lesser than initial

waste mixtures. Initial C:N ratio was in the range of

38.8–75.9 in the feed mixtures. After 91 days, C:N

ratio was in the range of 12.23–21.03 in vermicom-

posts. Finally they concluded that vermicomposting

can be an alternate technology for the management of

food industry sludge after mixing with biogas plant

slurry. While comparing the heavy metal concentra-

tion of the vermicompost and compost with initial

feed mixtures, they observed that the concentration of

Fe, Cu, Zn and Ni was higher in vermicomposts

(Table 4).

4.3 Paper-pulp industry waste

Huge amount of sludge or wastes are generated by

paper-pulp industries. Safe disposal and management

of these solid effluents or semisolid sludge is a

challenge for paper industries due to stringent disposal

regulations. The amount and the composition of these

solid wastes depend on the raw materials used, the

process techniques applied and the paper properties to

be achieved. In most of the paper industries a

substantial fraction of these waste are being inciner-

ated for energy recovery and a significant amount is

dumped in open or applied directly to agricultural

fields as a soil conditioner. Presence of structural

polysaccharides and low nitrogen content (\0.5%) in

the paper mill sludge are the two main limiting factors

for the process of biodegradation (Elvira et al. 1997).

Both the problems could be solved by mixing sludge

with some nitrogen rich material acting as natural

inoculants of microbial populations. In 1993, Butt

reported that by the addition of spent yeast from


123

brewing industry in solid paper industry sludge, the

C:N ratio of the substrate can be adjusted by the

addition of nitrogen rich substrate to make them into a

feed which can satisfy the requirements of earthworm

growth (Butt 1993). Using one such feed comprising

66:1 mixture of wet paper waste and dry yeast extract,

the L. terrestris was grown from the hatchling stage

(50 mg) to maturity (3–4 g) within 90 days, with an

acceptably low level of mortality. Elvira et al. (1995)

showed that Eisenia andrei can stabilize paper pulp

mill wastes by the process of aerobic and mesophilic

hydrolysis. A comparative study of the influence of

quality (especially organic matter and heavy metal

content) of paper mill sludge mixed with sewage

sludge on growth parameters of E. andrei indicated

that 1:6 mixture of paper mill sludge and sewage

sludge was the most effective substrate for maximum

increase in worms biomass, and the decrease in

concentration of extractable heavy metals in final

product. Elvira et al. (1996) also studied the potential

of Eisenia fetida in bioconversion of paper-pulp mill

sludge mixed with primary sewage sludge in different

compositions. They reported that 3:1 ratio of paper-

mill sludge and primary sewage sludge was a suitable

feed composition for optimum growth and reproduc-

tion of Eisenia fetida during vermicomposting. Elvira

et al. (1997) has also successfully employed Eisenia

andrei to manage paper-pulp mill sludge and diary

industry sludge mixed with pig slurry and poultry

slurry in different ratios. They concluded that mixture

of paper-pulp sludge with other organic waste mate-

rial could be an appropriate technique for its utiliza-

tion as food source in vermicomposting. Kavian et al.

(1998) reported the vermiconversion of solid effluents

or semi-solid sludge from paper mill into vermicom-

post using Lumbricus rubellus. Vermicomposting

of paper mill sludge mixed with cattle manure using

E. andrei in a 6-month pilot scale has been reported by

Elvira et al. (1998). Results of experiment showed

that, the number of earthworms increased 22-fold to

36-fold and earthworm biomass increased 2.2-fold to

3.9-fold. The final vermicompost obtained was rich in

nitrogen and phosphorus as compare to initial feeds

(Table 3). Final products of vermicomposting had low

electric conductivity, high humic acid content, good

stability and maturity. They also concluded that paper

mill sludge could be potentially useful raw substances

in commercial vermicomposting system.

Banu et al. (2001) reported the biotransformation

of paper mill sludge using an indigenous anecic and

two exotic epigeic earthworm species. They reported

that 25% of paper mill sludge with standard bedding

material [containing Mangifera indica foliage

(40%) ? cow dung (40%) ? Sawdust (20%)] was

ideal mixture and Eisenia fetida proved to be the best

worm in paper mill sludge biotransformation among

the three tested earthworm species.

4.4 Textile industry waste

The solid wastes produced from textile industries are

considered as one of the most polluting wastes and

their proper disposal and management is burden to

the industries. Most of the textile mills dispose the

unstabilized sludge or waste in open dumps, agricul-

ture fields, along the road sides or railway tracks and

on fallow land which can pollute soil or water

causing public health hazards. The textile industry

involves mainly two types of wastes: solid wastes and

wastewaters. Solid wastes are composed of textile

fibres and wastewaters are largely contaminated by

different chemical products. According to Kaushik

and Garg (2003) main characteristics of this sludge

were: total solids, 192 g/kg; pH (1:10 ratio), 8.4; total

organic carbon (TOC), 138 g/kg; Total nitrogen

(TKN), 0.66 g/kg and C:N ratio, 230. Kaushik and

Garg (2003, 2004) conducted various experiment to

convert textile mills sludge mixed with cow dung into

vermicompost using Eisenia fetida. The results

indicate that if textile mills sludge is mixed up to

30% with cow dung (dry weight basis), the vermi-

compost quality is slightly inferior; but if higher

percentage of textile mills sludge is added to cow

dung then growth and sexual maturity of the worms

was retarded and vermicompost was having lower

NPK content (Table 3). Similarly in another exper-

iment they successfully utilized the E. fetida for

vermistabilization of textile mill sludge spiked with

poultry droppings. They found that earthworm grew

and reproduce favourably in a substrate containing

70% poultry droppings ? 30% textile mill sludge

(Garg and Kaushik 2005). The mean individual

biomass gain and reproduction pattern of the

E. fetida in 80% cow dung ? 20% textile mill sludge

substrate and 70% cow dung ? 30% textile mill

sludge substrate indicated the feasibility of textile


123

mill sludge utilization in vermicomposting. They also

recommended that the sludge used in vermicomposting

should be free from chemicals utilized in textile

industry; otherwise sludge may be toxic to worms.

Garg et al. (2009) conducted six-month pilot-scale

experiments on vermicomposting of textile mill sludge

spiked with cow dung and horse dung employing

Eisenia fetida. The results concluded that growth and

fecundity of Eisenia fetida were significantly affected

by temperature variations. The cocoons and hatchlings

production were lesser pilot scale experiments than in

controlled temperature experiments. Vermicompo-

sting resulted in lowering of pH, electrical conductiv-

ity, potassium and C:N ratio and increase in nitrogen

and phosphorus contents (Table 3). The C:N ratio

decreased with time in all substrates. Initial C:N ratio in

feed mixtures was in the range of 66.1–148.3 and final

C:N ratios in vermicomposts were in the range of

20.4–26.9.

4.5 Distillery industry waste

Distillery is an important sub-unit of sugarcane indus-

try. Similar to other industries distilleries also produce

huge quantity of wastewater sludges and proper

disposal of these wastes is a challenge for distillery

industries. Distillery sludge contains significant quan-

tities of essential plant nutrients i.e., nitrogen (3.5%),

phosphorous (4.0%), potassium (0.6%), calcium

(8.9%), zinc (38 mg/kg), copper (28 mg/kg), manga-

nese (98 mg/kg), and iron (2,000 mg/kg). Due to the

presence of these plant nutrients it can be used as soil

conditioner after processing through appropriate bio-

logical process. Senappa et al. (1995) reported that

Eudrilus eugeniae can stabilize distillery sludge when

mixed with other organic waste materials including

pressmud, water hyacinth, plant litter and cow dung in

different proportion. Suthar and Singh (2008) tested

the feasibility of vermistabilization of distillery

sludge mixed with cow dung as bulking agent in

different proportions by using composting earth-

worm Perionyx excavatus. The results showed a

significant decrease in pH (10.5–19.5%) organic

carbon contents (12.8–27.2%) and an increase in total

nitrogen (128.8–151.9%), available phosphorus

(19.5–78.3%), exchangeable potassium (95.4–182.5%),

calcium (45.9–115.6%), and magnesium contents

(13.2–58.6%) (Table 3). Vermicomposting also

caused significant reduction in total concentration of

metals: Zn (15.1–39.6%), Fe (5.2–29.8%), Mn

(2.6–36.5%) and Cu (8.6–39.6%) in sludge (Table 4).

This study suggested that vermicomposting of distill-

ery sludge using earthworm could be a potential

technology to convert this industrial waste into nutrient

rich manure. Higher values of bio-concentration fac-

tors for different metals indicated that earthworm can

accumulate a considerable amount of metals in their

tissues. Earthworm biomass production and reproduc-

tion performance was excellent in bedding which con-

tained lower proportions of distillery sludge (20–40%).

Suthar (2008) also reported the vermicomposting of

aerobically treated distillery sludge mixed with cow

dung in different proportions (20–80%) under labora-

tory conditions using Eisenia fetida. At the end of

experiment, final product produced from all vermibeds

showed a decrease in pH (7.8–19.2%), organic C

(8.5–25.8%) content, and an increase in total N

(130.4–170.7%), available P (22.2–120.8%), exchange-

able K (104.9–159.5%), exchangeable Ca (49.1–

118.1%), and exchangeable Mg (13.6–51.2%) content

(Table 3). Earthworm biomass gain and reproduction

performance was excellent in bedding those contained

lower proportions (up to 40%) of distillery sludge

which suggests that industrial sludge can retard the

potentials of earthworms if applied at higher propor-

tions. Vermicomposted material showed a reduction in

metal content after completion of the experiment. The

reductions ranged between 12.5 and 38.8% for zinc

(Zn), 5.9 and 30.4% for iron (Fe), 4.7 and 38.2% for

manganese (Mn) and between 4.5 and 42.1% for

copper (Cu) (Table 4). However, 40 and 60% distillery

industry sludge containing treatment showed maxi-

mum increase in NPK as well as decrease in pH and

organic C content in the vermicomposted material.

Finally the results concluded that the earthworms could

maximize decomposition and mineralization efficiency

in bedding with lower proportions of distillery sludge.

4.6 Winery and Beverage industry waste

Winery industries produce large quantities of wastes

viz. grape marc, grape seeds, stalks and skins left

over after crushing of grapes, draining and pressing

stages of wine production. Grape marc is usually

processed to produce alcohol and tartaric acid,

resulting in formation of new lingo-cellulose by-

product spent grape marc. Nogales et al. (2005) tested

the potential of the Eisenia andrei for the


123

bioconversion of different winery wastes (spent grape

marc, vinasse biosolids, lees cakes and vine shoots)

by vermicomposting into valuable manure. During

16-week vermicomposting experimental period no

mortality of earthworms was detected in any of the

substrates at any stage. Maximum earthworm bio-

mass was recorded at 4th week in the spent grape

marc and in the mixture of vinasse biosolids with

vine shoots, whereas in the mixture of lees cake and

vine shoots the maximum earthworm biomass was

registered at 2nd week. They reported that a fraction

of total organic carbon contained in the winery

wastes was lost as CO2 (between 19 and 31%) by the

end of the vermicomposting period and vermicom-

posting improved the agronomic value of the winery

wastes by reducing the C:N ratio, and increasing the

pH, humic materials and nutrient contents (Table 3).

Singh et al. (2010a, b) reported the vermicomposting

of beverage industry bio-sludge in alone or spiked

with cattle manure. The results showed that degra-

dation of 50:50 mixtures could be achieved in

75 days when worms were inoculated @ 25 g/kg of

substrate. But the best-quality product was obtained

after 105–110 days when worms were inoculated @

7.5 g worms/kg substrate. It was concluded that

beverage industry sludge can be stabilized with

vermicomposting in a short period of approximately

110 days, compared with a longer duration for

microbial stabilization, but it needs to be mixed with

cattle dung as 100% sludge is toxic to the worms.

4.7 Tanning industry waste

Tannery industry is one of the highly polluting

industry and discharge enormous quantities of efflu-

ent and sludge, which cause health and sanitation

problems in the surrounding areas. Tanning industries

generate approximately 1,50,000 tonnes of tanning

wastes in the form of raw hide (and skin) trimmings,

limed animal fleshings, hide splits and chrome

shavings per annum during leather processing

(Ganesh Kumar et al. 2009). Tannery sludge contains

plant macro and micronutrients especially nitrogen,

phosphorus, iron, zinc and copper. So it is presumed

to be a nutrient supplement for crops after proper

treatment. Attempts had been made by researchers to

manage tannery sludge through vermicomposting.

Hemelata and Meenabal (2005) employed Eudrilus

eugeniae to recycle tannery sludge into manure. The

results indicated that mixing of tannery sludge with

farm yard manure (FYM) provides a better medium

for earthworm growth and decomposition activities.

Due to vermicomposting the tannery sludge had

excellent increase in nitrogen (206.5%), phosphorous

(22.0%) and potassium (153.0%), while, decrease in

organic carbon (65.5%), total solids (28.9%) and

volatile solids (6.89%). In the final product the

concentration of copper was significantly low (about

36.4% reduction was registered). Ravindran et al.

(2008) reported the vermicomposting of animal

fleshing (ANFL) generated as solid waste from

tannery industries using the epigeic earthworm Eise-

nia fetida. The mixing ratio of ANFL with cow dung

and agricultural residues as feed mixtures was main-

tained at 3:1:1, respectively during the vermicompo-

sting. The physico-chemical characteristics of ANFL

are moisture content, 75.5%; pH, 7.91; nitrogen

content, 102 mg/g; organic carbon content, 380 mg/

g; potassium content, 2.5 mg/g; ash content, 15.2;

total solids, 25.8%; and total protein, 50%. The results

obtained from the present study indicated that Eisenia

fetida was able to convert ANFL into nutrient-

enriched composts and can play a major role in solid

waste management. At the end of vermicomposting

period, the total biomass of the earthworms increased

from 12.5 to 50 g. Maximum worm biomass was

68.75 g which was attained on 29th day of the

experiment. Vermicomposting resulted in a drop of

pH, increase in nitrogen content, and decrease in

organic carbon content and C:N ratio compared to the

control samples. The C:N ratio of vermicompost was

15.5, which suggests the satisfactory degree of

maturity of ANFL containing substrates.

4.8 Dairy industry sludge

Dairy industries possess complex wastewater treat-

ment facilities which generate large amounts of dairy

biosolids, which previously were commonly referred

as dairy sludge cake. Physico-chemically dairy waste

sludge cake contain 85% water, 7.3% protein, 0.46%

lipid, 4.5% carbohydrates 0.71% cellulose, 2.1%

inorganic materials, 0.64% P2O5 and 0.08% K2O.

Gratelly et al. (1996) reported the potential of

vermicomposting technology for the management of

dairy industries sludge by mixing it with other

organic residues to improve their structure and

balance the nutrient content in the mixture. The


123

vermicompost prepared from the dairy sludge cake

showed excellent range of plant nutrients with low

C:N ratio. Nogales et al. (1999) tested the feasibility

of vermicomposting of dairy industry biosolids, with

or without mixing of bulking agents such as cereal

straw or wood shavings, using Eisenia andrei. They

concluded that dairy biosolids alone or mixed with

cereal straw or wood shavings, as a bulking agent,

were suitable media for optimal growth and repro-

duction of earthworms.

4.9 Thermal power plants waste (fly ash)

Fly ash is a solid waste generated by coal fired

thermal power plants. It contains silica, aluminium,

oxides of iron, calcium, magnesium, arsenic, chro-

mium, lead, zinc, nickel and other metals. With the

consistently increasing number of coal-fired plants,

the large-scale generation of fly ash is creating

challenging disposal problems in different parts of the

world including India (Venkatesh and Eevera 2008).

According to Gupta et al. (2005) in India, 150 million

tones of fly ash is produced annually, so there is an

urgent need to develop methods for utilization of fly

ash, on small as well as large scale. Conventionally

fly ash are being used in building construction and

some evidences showed its’ potential utilization in

soil amendments. Fly ash contains a large amount of

plant nutrients, while organic matter is scarce com-

pletely in it. But long use of fly ash in agricultural

soils causes toxicity due to hyper accumulation of

heavy metals. So direct field application of the fly ash

should be avoided in agricultural soils. However,

these procedures utilize a small portion of the ash and

thus thermal power stations have to manage its

storage, while keeping the levels of air and water

pollution associated with it to a minimum. Various

attempts have been made by researchers to convert

the fly ash into high quality compost by vermicom-

posting process. Saxena et al. (1998) attempted to

convert the fly ash into vermicompost. The fly ash

was mixed with sisal green pulp, parthenium and

other organic rich wastes and used Eisenia fetida

worm species. They found that unutilized elements of

fly ash could be decomposed into soluble nutrients for

plants. The results showed that the phosphorous

solubilising bacterial population increased in the fly

ash mixed substrate during vermicomposting due to

higher percentage of phosphorus in fly ash. Gupta

et al. (2005) studied vermicomposting of fly ash

mixed with cow dung in four different proportions,

i.e., 20, 40, 60, and 80%, and recorded maximum

output of vermicompost and maximum number of

worm juveniles with 40% fly ash while maximum

worm biomass gain by earthworm was in 20% fly ash

combination. Worm growth in 60% fly ash containing

substrate was more or less similar to control, but a

marked reduction was recorded in 80% fly ash

containing substrate. At the end of the experiment

substrate showed a 30–50% reduction in heavy

metals in up to 60% fly ash containing substrates

and 10–30% reduction in 80% fly ash containing

substrates. Metal analysis of earthworms revealed

considerable bioaccumulation of heavy metals in

their body. The study indicates the potential of

Eisenia fetida for mitigating the toxicity of metals

and up to 60% fly ash–cow dung mixtures can be

used for sustainable and efficient vermicomposting.

Bhattacharya and Chattopadhyay (2006) reported that

during vermicomposting of fly ash a considerable

amount of insoluble plant nutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu, and

Zn) and some heavy metals (Pb, Cd, and Cr) from fly

ash was transformed into more soluble form. Various

combinations of FA and CD were treated with and

without an epigeic earthworm (Eisenia fetida) and the

solubility of different trace elements in the treatments

were estimated periodically. The results revealed that

the inclusion of epigeic earthworm Eisenia fetida in

different combinations of fly ash and cow dung

converted a considerable amount of the micronutri-

ents into bioavailable forms. Venkatesh and Eevera

(2008) also reported vermicomposting of fly ash

spiked with cow dung in different combinations. Fly

ash was mixed with cow dung in 1:3, 1:1, and 3:1

ratios and Eudrilus eugeniae worm individuals were

allowed to feed on this for 60 days. Finally the

concentration of macro and micronutrients was

increased in the earthworm-treated fly ash and cow

dung combinations as compared with the fly ash

alone. This helped to transform considerable amounts

of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and micronutri-

ents (Mg, Cu, Zn, Fe, B, Mo and Mn) from fly ash

into more soluble forms and thus resulted in increased

bioavailability of the nutrients in the vermicomposted

series (Table 4). The electrical conductivity increased

in the beginning of vermicomposting up to 30 days in

mix 1:3, and then steadily decreased till end of

vermicomposting. Phosphorus content was increased


123

with time in all the treatment process and gradually

decreased after 45th day (Table 3). Among different

combinations of fly ash and cow dung, overall

nutrient availability was significantly higher in the

1:3 fly ash to cow dung treatment compared with the

other treatments.

4.10 Oil extraction industries waste

Waste quantities generated by oil extraction indus-

tries depend on the quality of plant (raw material)

used for oil extraction. Olive oil industries are one

among important oil extraction industries. Approxi-

mately 2.7 million tonnes of olive oil are produced

annually worldwide, 76% of which are produced in

Europe, with Spain (35.2%), Italy (23.1%) and

Greece (16.1%) being the highest olive oil producers

(Morillo et al. 2009). During olive oil extraction,

mainly by mechanical procedures in olive industries,

large quantities of liquid and solid residues are

produced, with a high organic load, the nature of

which depends on the extraction system employed

(Morillo et al. 2009). Attempts have been made to

utilize these organic waste materials produced from

various oil extraction industries into vermicompost

production. Sennapa and Kale (1995) converted the

solid waste produced from aromatic oil extraction

units into vermicompost. They concluded that earth-

worms can change the chemical profile of the

exhausted waste material and levels of nitrogen,

potassium, calcium and sulphur were comparable

with other organic manures. Nogales et al. (1998)

studied the feasibility of using earthworms to stabi-

lize dry olive cake. Addition of nitrogen rich organic

materials such as cattle manure and sewage sludge to

the dry olive cake produced substrates which were

suitable for vermicomposting as indicated by appre-

ciably improved earthworm growth and reproduction.

The chemical changes in a mixture of two-phase

olive pomace and cattle manure mixture after vermi-

composting with Eisenia andrei have been reported

by Plaza et al. (2008). They concluded that vermi-

composting promoted the organic matter humification

in cattle manure, especially when it was mixed with

olive pomace, thus enhanced the quality of these

materials as soil organic amendments (Table 3). In

the end of vermicomposting, the total extractable C

and humic acid–C contents in the bulk substrates

increased, and the C and H contents, aliphatic

structures, polypeptide components and carbohy-

drates decreased in the humic acid like fractions,

whereas O and acidic functional group contents

increased. Melgar et al. (2009) reported bioconver-

sion of olive oil industries wastes by vermicompo-

sting using Eisenia andrei. Wet olive cake fresh

(WOC), pre-composted (WOCP), or mixed with

biosolids (WOCB), were vermicomposted for

6 months to obtain organic amendments for agricul-

tural and remediation purposes. The study revealed

that the bioconversion of WOC is possible by

vermicomposting, although pre-composting of WOC

reduced toxic compounds (polyphenols) and showed

more initial stability than fresh wet olive cake

(Table 3). Nahrul Hayawin et al. (2009) conducted

an 84 days study to evaluate the efficiency of

Eudrilus eugeniae for the decomposition of different

types of oil palm wastes, viz., empty fruit bunch

(EFB), oil palm frond (OPF) and oil palm trunk

(OPT) into valuable vermicompost. They reported

that at the end of vermicomposting, organic C content

decreased slightly in the vermicompost as compared

to the initial level in all substrates and nitrogen

content was greater in final products than in initial

substrates. The vermicompost so obtained showed an

increase in heavy metal content for all the substrates,

but levels were still in the acceptable range.

4.11 Sago industry waste

Tapioca or cassava (Manihot esculanta Crantz) is an

important staple food cum industrial cash crop of the

tropics. India ranks fifth in the world tapioca

production, the major industrial products from tapi-

oca are starch and sago. Sago industries generate two

major wastes: the fibrous residue which is generated

15–20% per ton of tapioca tubers and effluents that

comes out from settling tanks. Sago industrial waste

has also been studied as a substrate for vermicom-

posting due to its enormous quantity and nutritive

value. Mba (1996) tested the ability of Eudrilus

eugeniae to partially detoxify the wastes and convert

the toxic cassava peels into manure. In field trials,

cassava wastes’ vermicompost enhanced the aerial

biomass production in cowpea, but its application

acidified the soil. Thus, the usefulness of the

resources needs to be optimized in order to eliminate

the harmful effects and increase the bio-fertilizing

ability during vermicomposting. The optimization


123

was done by adding three agricultural wastes, viz.,

poultry dropping, cow dung and guava leaves. They

concluded that out of the three bulking agents, the

guava leaves increased the soil CEC, soil buffering

capacity, eliminated the acidifying effect of cassava

and promoted earthworms diversity and activities in

cowpea plots. Christy and Ramaligam (2005) dem-

onstrated that vermicomposting could be an alternate

technology to manage sago industrial solid waste.

Sago industrial solid waste contains about 97%

organic matter, 56% organic carbon, 0.86% total N,

0.36% phosphorous (P2O5), 0.16% potassium (K2O),

0.65% calcium, 0.16% magnesium, 0.77% sodium

and 66 C:N ratio. However, natural decomposition of

these wastes required more than 6-9 months, and

during this long duration many soluble plant nutrient

becomes unavailable due to volatilization and leach-

ing in deep soils or even due to the water drainage.

Subramanian et al. (2010) examine the temporal

changes in physico-chemical properties of sago

industry waste during vermicomposting. The sago

industry waste was mixed with cow dung or poultry

manure in five different proportions. Treatments

consisted of T1, sago waste ? cow dung (3:1); T2,

sago waste ? poultry manure (3:1); T3, sago was-

te ? cow dung ? poultry manure (1:1:1); T4, sago

waste ? cow dung (1:1) and T5, sago waste ? poul-

try manure (1:1). Controls for all the treatments were

also included without the inoculation of earthworms.

The waste mixtures were kept for pre-treatment for

3 weeks and subsequently vermicomposted for a

period of 45 days using Eisenia fetida. The results of

the study revealed that vermicomposting of sago

wastes, cow dung and poultry manure mixture in

equal proportion (1:1:1) produced a superior quality

manure with desirable C:N ratio and higher nutri-

tional status (Table 3) than composting (control).

4.12 Miscellaneous industrial wastes

The guar gum industries produce large quantities of

lingocellulosic waste material. Suthar (2006) reported

the utilization of guar gum industrial waste in vermi-

composting in three different combinations of cow

dung and saw dust using Perionyx excavatus. The

60:20:20 mixtures of guar gum, cow dung and sawdust

proved ideal combination for maximum bio-potential

of earthworms during vermicomposting. This substrate

had an increased value for total N (25.4%), phosphorus

(72.8%) and potassium (20.9%) than other studied

combinations (Table 3). This substrate also had higher

vermicomposting coefficient (VC), higher mean bio-

mass for Perionyx excavatus (146.68 mg) and higher

cocoon than other combinations. Maximum earth-

worm mortality during vermicomposting was recorded

with 40:30:30 combinations, while no mortality was

recorded in 60:20:20 mixture of guar gum, cow dung

and sawdust treatment after 150 days. Finally 60:20:20

combinations of guar gum, cow dung and sawdust

appeared to be an ideal combination for enhancing bio-

potential of earthworms to manage guar gum industrial

waste as well as for earthworm biomass and cocoon

production.

Maboeta and Rensburg (2003a) tested Eisenia

fetida for vermicomposting of woodchips and sewage

sludge that were produced as waste product by

platinum mines. During this study growth and

reproductive success of the worms were monitored

over 84 days to determine long-term feasibility for

large-scale implementation and to quantify environ-

mental implications. Results showed that there were

no effects on growth, but reproductive success of

worms decreased, and aluminium (Al), copper (Cu),

and nickel (Ni) were bio-concentrated in the treat-

ment groups without a microbial inoculate. Earth-

worms in the treatment group with the microorganism

inoculate manifested no effects on growth or repro-

ductive success and did not accumulate Al, Cu, and

Ni. Finally the growth of Eisenia fetida was not

inhibited when utilized as vermicomposting worm for

woodchips and sewage sludge. In further studies

Maboeta and Rensburg (2003b) compared the effec-

tiveness of different bioconversion strategies viz.

composting, vermicomposting and a commercial

microorganism inoculant (EM) for the management

of woodchips and sewage sludge. Woodchips and

sewage sludge with a mixing ratio of 3:1 were

composted and vermicomposted for 112 days. Ver-

micompost produced from woodchips to sewage

sludge were superior in the light of volatile solids

reduction and ash contents than those substrates

which were composted.

Coir pith is the by-product of the coconut farm and

the coir processing industry plants. Kavian et al.

(1998) reported the vermicomposting of coir pith

produced by coir processing industries. This waste is

rich in lingocellulosic constituents and generated in

large quantities. This waste was mixed with


123

supplementing organic materials, viz., cow dung and

saw dust in three different concentrations (25, 50, and

75%). Growth and reproduction of Lumbricus rubel-

lus was highest in bedding consist of 25% waste

material. Finally it was concluded that Lumbricus

rubellus may be a suitable worm species for the

management of this waste. Gobi et al. (2001) reported

the bioconversion of coir piths using Eudrilus

eugeniae and found that the NPK values were

significantly higher in vermicomposts than raw

substrates. The lignin and cellulose content were also

lesser in vermicompost than parent substrates.

The vermicomposting of petrochemical industry

sludge mixed with standard bedding material [con-

taining Mangifera indica foliage (40%) ? cow dung

(40%) ? Sawdust (20%)] in different concentration

(25, 50, 75 and 100%) by using Eudrilus eugeniae has

been reported by Banu et al. (2005). The vermicom-

post so produced were rich in essential micro and

macronutrients along with microorganisms. The

results indicated that &25–50% concentration of

petrochemical sludge in bedding was ideal for vermi-

composting, but higher concentration inhabited the

process. The survival of earthworms during vermi-

composting of pharmaceutical sludge and spent

mycelia was studied by Majumdar et al. (2006). The

waste mixtures were not found suitable for the survival

of earthworms only after 2 weeks vermicomposting.

Several researches conducted in yesteryears on the

methods, processes and equipments have been pat-

ented by the inventors. A detail of these patents is

given in Table 5.

5 Effect of industrial wastes vermicompost

on the growth and yield of plants

Excessive applications of agrochemicals in crops have

resulted into decrease in beneficial soil microbes and

enzymes which help to renew the natural fertility of

soil. Higher uses of agro-chemicals also demands high

use of water for irrigation putting severe stress on

ground and surface waters. Soil and water pollution

due to seepage and drainage especially after heavy

rainfall were other ill-effects on agricultural soils. If

vermicomposts are integrated in nutrient management

in agricultural fields, the costs of food produced by

farmers practicing sustainable agriculture may be

reduced significantly. Most of the industrial waste

contains a large amount of plant nutrients. But

industrial wastes cannot be applied directly to the soil

since these can destroy the natural fertility of the soil

and may lead to phytotoxicity. So prior to land

application of these industry wastes bio-stabilization

is essential. Vermicomposting of these wastes can

make them suitable for land application and ensures

their safe disposal in the environment. The conven-

tional and popular industrial waste disposal methods

adopted around the world include land filling, land

spreading, incineration, thermal drying, lime stabil-

ization, open dumping etc. These activities cause

public health and environmental hazards due to

offensive odours, contamination of ground water and

soil. These improper and indiscriminate disposal

methods of biosolids also lead to the loss of a

profitable nutrient resource and also cause economic

loss (Elvira et al. 1995). Proper utilization of these

wastes can improve soil physical condition as well as

provide nutrients for plant (Yadav and Garg 2009).

Vermicomposts have outstanding chemical and bio-

logical properties with plant growth regulators and

significantly larger and diverse microbial populations

than the conventional thermophilic composts

(Edwards and Burrows 1988). Vermicompost (meta-

bolic products of earthworms feeding on organic

wastes) is proving to be highly nutritive ‘organic

fertilizer’ and a ‘miracle growth promoter rich in NKP

(nitrogen 2–3%, potassium 1.85–2.25% and phospho-

rus 1.55–2.25%), micronutrients, beneficial soil

microbes and also contain ‘plant growth hormones

and enzymes. Mba (1996) reported that cassava peel

vermicomposts enhanced cowpea aerial biomass pro-

duction but acidified the soil. Jeyabal and Kuppusw-

amy (2001) reported different combinations of coir

pith/weeds and cow dung/sugarcane pressmud/bio-

digested slurry for vermicomposting using earth-

worm’s species Eudrilus eugeniae. The results showed

that bio digested slurry and weeds were an ideal

combination for vermicomposting in terms of nutrient

content and compost maturity period. They studied the

effect of vermicompost on rice-legume cropping

system under field conditions. They also reported that

the post harvest nutrient status of the soil and

concluded that integrated application increased the

N, P and K uptake by 15.3, 10.7 and 9.4%, respectively

in rice over fertilizer alone and available carbon and

nitrogen in residual soil were not depleted due to

integrated application. Gutierrez-Miceli et al. (2008)


123

Ta

ble

5P

aten

tsg

ran

ted

for

ver

mic

om

po

stin

gre

sear

ch

S.

No.

Pat

ent

titl

eD

escr

ipti

on

and

per

form

ance

Pat

ent

det

ails

1.

Ver

mip

roce

ssfo

ras

bes

tos

rem

edia

tion

Asy

stem

and

pro

cess

for

rem

edia

ting

an‘‘

asbes

tos

conta

inin

gm

ater

ial’

’

(AC

M),

or

a‘‘

regula

ted’’

asbes

tos

conta

inin

gm

ater

ial

(RA

CM

),w

ith

a

ver

mic

ult

ura

lpro

cess

,or

‘‘ver

mip

roce

ss.’’

Worm

sar

eem

plo

yed

to

conver

tth

eA

CM

into

am

ater

ial

wit

han

acce

pta

ble

,dem

inim

us

level

of

asbes

tos

fiber

s,or

furt

her

toa

non-d

etec

table

level

of

asbes

tos.

The

pro

cess

incl

udes

pla

cing

anas

bes

tos

conta

inin

gm

ater

ial

into

aw

orm

bin

and

mix

ing

the

asbes

tos

conta

inin

gm

ater

ial

wit

han

effe

ctiv

equan

tity

of

aw

orm

adju

van

t,opti

onal

lyem

plo

yin

gorg

anic

mat

eria

lan

dm

ixin

gin

a

hom

ogen

izer

.T

he

worm

bin

may

be

asi

ngle

bin

or

alte

rnat

ivel

yan

arra

y

of

stag

edw

orm

bin

s.T

he

worm

sar

ein

troduce

din

toth

eA

CM

tofo

rman

asbes

tos

conta

inin

gver

mic

om

post

.T

he

pre

ferr

edw

orm

spec

ies

emplo

yed

the

spec

ies

Eis

enia

hort

ensi

s,or

‘‘hort

ensi

s,’’

and

Eis

enia

feti

da

,co

mm

only

refe

rred

toas

‘‘re

dw

iggle

rs,’’

or

‘‘re

dw

orm

s.’’

The

pro

cess

ing

of

the

asbes

tos

conta

inin

gm

ater

ial

wit

hth

ew

orm

sin

cludes

the

inges

tion

of

the

asbes

tos

conta

inin

gm

ater

ials

by

the

worm

sto

form

ing

aver

mip

roce

ssed

pro

duct

.T

he

pro

duct

may

be

liquifi

edan

d

mic

roniz

edfo

rdis

posa

lfo

rfu

rther

pro

cess

ing

Inven

tor(

s):

Jonat

han

Cra

ig(Y

akim

a,W

A)

Thom

as,

Dan

iel

G.

(Yak

ima,

WA

)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on.:

B09B

3/0

0

Pat

ent

No.:

US

6,7

16,6

18

B1

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:A

pri

l6,

2004

2M

ethod

for

the

fast

er

mult

ipli

cati

on

of

eart

hw

orm

s

and

pro

duct

ion

of

ver

mic

om

post

from

the

dis

till

atio

nw

aste

of

indust

rial

arom

atic

crops

This

inven

tion

hav

ea

met

hod

for

the

pre

par

atio

nof

super

ior

qual

ity

ver

mic

om

post

from

the

dis

till

atio

nw

aste

sof

arom

atic

crops

com

pri

ses

dry

ing

of

dis

till

atio

nw

aste

for

24–72

h,

obta

ined

afte

rth

edis

till

atio

nof

her

bag

efo

r2–3

h.

at20–25

lbs

of

stea

mpre

ssure

,ch

oppin

gth

ew

aste

into

smal

lpie

ces,

tran

sfer

ring

this

mat

eria

lin

toco

mpost

pit

sco

nta

inin

g

about

7–10

cmla

yer

of

par

tial

lyro

tten

cow

dung

and

400–450

eart

hw

orm

s(P

erio

nyx

exca

vatu

s)/m

3,

dai

lyw

ater

ing

of

the

pit

sto

kee

p

the

pla

nt

mat

eria

lm

ois

tan

dco

ver

ing

them

wit

hgunny

bag

sto

chec

kth

e

loss

of

hum

idit

y,

relo

adin

gth

epit

s(2

0–30

cmla

yer

)w

ith

the

chopped

dis

till

edw

aste

afte

r30–35

day

s,re

stri

ctin

gw

ater

ing

afte

rco

mple

te

deg

radat

ion

of

the

added

mat

eria

l,har

ves

ting

of

the

dri

edm

ater

ial

and

shad

edry

ing

the

sam

efo

r4–5

day

s,an

dsi

evin

gth

ehar

ves

ted

com

post

to

rem

ove

eart

hw

orm

s

Inven

tor(

s):

Kal

ra,

Alo

k(L

uck

now

,IN

)

Kum

ar,

Sush

il(L

uck

now

,IN

)

Kat

iyar

,N

eetu

(Luck

now

,IN

)

Bah

l,Ja

nak

Raj

(Luck

now

,IN

)

Ban

sal,

Rav

iP

rakas

h(L

uck

now

,IN

)

Chau

han

,H

arm

esh

Sin

gh

(Luck

now

,IN

)

Pra

sad,

Aru

n(L

uck

now

,IN

)

Pan

dey

,R

akes

h(L

uck

now

,IN

)

Dhaw

an,

Om

Par

kas

h(L

uck

now

,IN

)

Kri

shna,

Alo

k(L

uck

now

,IN

)

Sri

vas

tava,

Ram

esh

(Luck

now

,IN

)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

C05F

15/0

0

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:U

S6,4

88,7

33

B2

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:D

ecem

ber

3,

2002


123

Ta

ble

5co

nti

nu

ed

S.

No.

Pat

ent

titl

eD

escr

ipti

on

and

per

form

ance

Pat

ent

det

ails

3M

ethod

for

pro

duci

ng

conce

ntr

ated

ver

mic

om

post

The

pro

cess

isdev

eloped

for

enhan

cing

the

conce

ntr

atio

nof

ver

mic

om

post

com

pri

sing

the

step

sof

liquef

yin

gan

dag

itat

ing

aver

mic

om

post

feed

stock

;se

par

atin

gla

rge

bodie

sfr

om

the

liquefi

edfe

edst

ock

and

furt

her

separ

atin

gth

ere

mai

nin

gport

ion

into

firs

tan

dse

cond

sub-

port

ions;

centr

ifugal

lyse

par

atin

gth

efi

rst

sub-p

ort

ion

into

light

and

hea

vy

port

ions;

retu

rnin

gth

eli

ght

port

ion

toth

eli

quef

yin

gan

dag

itat

ing

step

;se

par

atin

gbio

logic

alver

mic

om

post

com

ponen

tsfr

om

the

seco

nd

sub-p

ort

ion

and

hea

vy

port

ion

usi

ng

abio

logic

alfi

lter

;re

turn

ing

the

liquid

toth

eli

quef

yin

gan

dag

itat

ing

step

;in

ocu

lati

ng

the

bio

logic

al

ver

mic

om

post

com

ponen

tsw

ith

food

and/o

rsu

pple

men

ts;

furt

her

enhan

cing

the

conce

ntr

atio

nof

the

bio

logic

alver

mic

om

post

com

ponen

ts

by

allo

win

gth

ebio

logic

alver

mic

om

post

com

ponen

tsan

effe

ctiv

e

amount

of

tim

eto

mult

iply

and

dry

;an

dpac

kag

ing

the

bio

logic

al

ver

mic

om

post

com

ponen

ts

Inven

tor(

s):

Johnso

n,

Wes

ley

M.

(Ben

d,

OR

,U

S)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

C05F

110/8

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:U

S2005/0

092049

A1

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:M

ay5,

2005

4O

rgan

icw

aste

trea

tmen

t

syst

emuti

lizi

ng

ver

mic

om

post

ing

Asy

stem

has

bee

ndev

eloped

for

ther

mophil

ical

lyco

ndit

ionin

gorg

anic

was

tes

of

asu

bst

anti

ally

pre

det

erm

ined

com

posi

tion

tofo

rma

feed

stock

whic

his

appli

edto

anupper

surf

ace

of

aw

orm

bed

.T

he

worm

bed

is

mai

nta

ined

ina

dom

inan

tly

mes

ophil

icre

gim

e,w

her

ein

ver

mic

asti

ngs

and

ver

mic

om

post

are

sele

ctiv

ely

rem

oved

from

the

bott

om

of

the

worm

bed

Inone

confi

gura

tion,

the

pro

cess

and

syst

emar

eco

nfi

gure

dto

subst

anti

ally

reduce

the

pro

duct

ion

or

rele

ase

of

noxio

us

emis

sions

asw

ell

as

chem

ical

lyor

bio

logic

ally

haz

ardous

mat

eria

lsduri

ng

the

pro

cess

.

Acc

ord

ingly

,th

epre

sent

syst

emca

nbe

loca

ted

incl

ose

pro

xim

ity

to

inhab

ited

com

munit

ies

Inoth

erco

nfi

gura

tion,

the

met

hod

enco

mpas

ses

aero

bic

ally

condit

ionin

g,

ina

dom

inan

tly

ther

mophil

icre

gim

ela

stin

gat

leas

t72

h,

am

ixtu

reof

org

anic

was

tes

hav

ing

aca

rbon

tonit

rogen

rati

obet

wee

nap

pro

xim

atel

y

10–1

toas

much

as60–1

soas

tofo

rma

feed

stock

;ap

ply

ing

the

feed

stock

toa

worm

bed

;an

dm

ainta

inin

ga

tem

per

ature

and

hum

idit

yof

the

worm

bed

and

the

appli

edfe

edst

ock

tom

ainta

ina

mes

ophil

icdom

inan

tre

gim

e

wit

hin

the

worm

bed

Infu

rther

confi

gura

tions,

tem

per

ature

of

the

mix

ture

inth

eth

erm

ophil

ic

dom

inan

tre

gim

eis

reduce

dby

the

circ

ula

tion

of

air

thro

ugh

the

mix

ture

.

Furt

her

,a

mois

ture

gra

die

nt

bet

wee

nbott

om

stra

taof

the

worm

bed

and

top

stra

taof

the

worm

bed

can

be

mai

nta

ined

.T

he

mois

ture

gra

die

nt

can

be

mai

nta

ined

thro

ugh

the

sele

ctiv

eap

pli

cati

on

of

wat

erto

anupper

surf

ace

of

the

worm

bed

.It

isal

sounder

stood

ate

nt

can

be

form

edover

the

worm

bed

toco

ntr

ol

mois

ture

rele

ase

Inven

tor(

s):

Her

lihy,

Thom

asE

.(G

enes

eo,

NY

,U

S)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

C05F

17/0

0

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:U

S2008/0

251012

A1

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:O

ctober

16,

2008


123

Ta

ble

5co

nti

nu

ed

S.

No.

Pat

ent

titl

eD

escr

ipti

on

and

per

form

ance

Pat

ent

det

ails

5H

igh

effi

cien

cyver

mic

ult

ure

pro

cess

and

appar

atus

The

pre

sent

inven

tion

isa

met

hod

by

whic

hco

mpost

ing

and

worm

cult

ure

are

impro

ved

by

esta

bli

shin

gth

inla

yer

sof

mat

ter

inw

hic

ha

hig

hden

sity

worm

mas

sis

enco

ura

ged

toac

tivel

ym

ove

into

and

atta

ckundig

este

d

mat

eria

lat

hig

hra

tes.

The

thin

nes

sof

the

layer

sen

coura

ges

mig

rati

on

to

oth

erar

eas

and

resu

lts

indec

reas

edw

orm

stra

tifi

cati

on

and

incr

ease

d

unif

orm

ity

of

com

post

ing.

Inord

erto

faci

lita

teth

epro

cess

ing

of

larg

e

quan

titi

esof

mat

ter

inth

ism

anner

,th

em

atte

ris

form

edin

toth

inla

yer

s

on

am

ovin

gsu

rfac

e.B

yco

ntr

oll

ing

the

surf

ace

spee

dto

mat

chth

atof

the

worm

’sm

igra

tion

thro

ugh

the

layer

of

mat

ter,

aco

nti

nuous

pro

cess

from

alo

adin

gst

atio

nto

anunlo

adin

gst

atio

nca

nbe

mai

nta

ined

.T

he

worm

s

are

alw

ays

reta

ined

on

the

surf

ace

ina

port

ion

of

the

mat

ter

whil

eth

e

dig

este

dm

atte

ris

rem

oved

.T

he

org

anic

-conta

inin

gw

aste

str

eata

ble

by

this

met

hod

and

appar

atus

incl

ude

div

erse

types

of

was

tesu

chas

hog

feed

lot

was

te,

dai

ryfa

rmw

aste

,pre

sort

edm

unic

ipal

was

te,

indust

rial

sludges

and

oth

erin

dust

rial

pro

cess

was

tes,

and

food

was

tes

Inven

tor(

s):

Win

dle

,H

arry

N.

(12425

NW

.C

r231,

Gai

nes

vil

le,

FL

,32609)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

A01

K67/0

0

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:U

S6,2

23,6

87

B1

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:M

ay01,

2001

6S

oil

condit

ionin

gpro

duct

sfr

om

org

anic

was

te

This

inven

tion

isdir

ecte

dto

pro

vid

ing

apro

cess

and

asy

stem

for

larg

e

scal

epro

cess

ing

of

org

anic

was

tes

incl

udin

gan

imal

/hum

anfa

eces

usi

ng

gre

ente

chnolo

gie

sfo

rorg

anic

was

teco

nver

sion

tobio

fert

iliz

eran

d

reusa

ble

wat

er,

her

ein

refe

rred

toas

Soil

Bio

tech

nolo

gy

(SB

T),

wit

hout

form

atio

nof

obje

ctio

nab

lepro

cess

was

tes

ther

eby

elim

inat

ing

com

mon

oper

atin

gpro

ble

ms

of

cloggin

g,

inte

rrupti

ons

and

was

tedis

posa

l

Acc

ord

ing

toone

aspec

tof

the

inven

tion

ther

eis

pro

vid

eda

pro

cess

for

trea

ting

org

anic

was

tefo

rm

anufa

cture

of

bio

fert

iliz

eran

dsu

bst

anti

ally

non-t

oxic

reusa

ble

wat

erco

mpri

sing:

(1)

pro

cess

ing

the

org

anic

liquid

was

tein

abio

filt

erm

edia

com

pri

sing

cult

ure

of

geo

phag

us

eart

hw

orm

sP

her

etim

ael

ongata

,so

ilan

dbac

teri

alcu

lture

sas

defi

ned

her

ein

wit

hor

wit

hout

oth

erm

iner

alad

dit

ive

ther

eby

pro

vid

ing

subst

anti

ally

non-t

oxic

reusa

ble

wat

er;

and

(2)

pro

cess

ing

the

org

anic

soli

dw

aste

sele

ctiv

ely

inth

epre

sence

of

cult

ure

sof

geo

phag

us

eart

hw

orm

Pher

etim

ael

ongata

inco

mbin

atio

nw

ith

bac

teri

alcu

lture

s

such

asdefi

ned

her

ein

and

am

iner

also

urc

eunder

contr

oll

edm

ois

ture

conte

nt

topro

vid

ea

bio

fert

iliz

er

Inven

tor(

s):

Shan

kar

,H

arih

aran

S.

(Mum

bai

,IN

)

Pat

anai

k,

Bip

lab

R.

(Cutt

ack,

IN)

Bhaw

alkar

,U

day

S.

(Pune,

IN)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

C05F

7/0

0

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:U

S7,6

04,7

42

B2

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:O

ctober

20,

2009


123

Ta

ble

5co

nti

nu

ed

S.

No.

Pat

ent

titl

eD

escr

ipti

on

and

per

form

ance

Pat

ent

det

ails

7.

Met

hod

and

appar

atus

for

bio

sust

ainin

gw

aste

acti

vat

ed

ver

mic

ula

ren

vir

onm

ent

Inth

isin

ven

tion

asy

stem

for

pro

cess

ing

sew

age

into

ver

mic

om

post

has

bee

ndev

eloped

.It

has

ahold

ing

tank

for

rece

ivin

gan

din

itia

lly

pro

cess

ing

the

sew

age.

Atr

eatm

ent

tank,

connec

ted

toth

ishold

ing

tank

by

afi

rst

pip

e,is

use

dfo

rtr

eati

ng

the

init

iall

ypro

cess

edse

wag

efr

om

the

hold

ing

tank

toen

sure

opti

mal

pH

,per

cent

of

soli

ds,

and

elec

tric

al

conduct

ivit

yof

the

sew

age.

Adis

trib

uti

on

tank,

connec

ted

toth

e

trea

tmen

tta

nk

by

ase

cond

pip

e,is

use

dfo

rhea

ting

or

cooli

ng

the

sew

age

from

the

trea

tmen

tta

nk

asnec

essa

ry.

Adis

trib

uti

on

appar

atus,

connec

ted

toth

edis

trib

uti

on

tank

by

ath

ird

pip

e,dis

trib

ute

sth

ese

wag

eto

a

ver

mic

ula

ren

vir

onm

ent,

wher

ein

the

ver

mic

ula

ren

vir

onm

ent

conta

ins

a

plu

rali

tyof

worm

sw

hic

hdig

est

the

dis

trib

ute

dtr

eate

dse

wag

ein

to

ver

mic

om

post

Abio

sust

ainin

gw

aste

acti

vat

edver

mic

ula

ren

vir

onm

ent

use

sea

rthw

orm

s

toco

nver

tra

wse

wag

eto

usa

ble

com

post

.R

awse

wag

eis

intr

oduce

dto

the

syst

em.

Fil

trat

ion

and

scre

enin

gyie

lds

anunco

nver

tible

resi

due

of

about

0.0

5%

by

volu

me

per

mas

sof

soli

dw

aste

sw

hic

his

suit

able

for

landfi

lldis

posa

l.T

he

rem

ainin

g99.9

5%

of

the

raw

sew

age

ori

gin

ally

intr

oduce

dto

the

syst

emis

pre

par

edan

dfo

rmula

ted

into

ali

quid

/soli

d

mix

whic

his

then

appli

eddir

ectl

yto

asp

ecifi

call

yco

nfi

gure

dea

rthw

orm

bed

wher

eit

ispro

cess

edby

the

worm

spro

duci

ng

asu

bst

anti

alvolu

me

of

envir

onm

enta

lly

acce

pta

ble

,nutr

ient

rich

ver

mic

om

post

suit

able

for

dir

ect

use

invar

ious

appli

cati

ons

for

landsc

apin

g,

hort

icult

ure

,golf

cours

es,

munic

ipal

par

ks,

etc.

Inven

tor(

s):

Koeh

ler,

Pet

erL

.(7

Bev

ell

La.

,N

ort

h

Syra

cuse

,N

Y,

US

)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

C02F

3/3

2

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:U

S7,1

41,1

69

B2

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:N

ovem

ber

28,

2006

8.

Conver

sion

of

agri

cult

ura

l

was

teusi

ng

worm

s

The

pre

sent

inven

tion

isdir

ecte

dto

apro

cess

for

the

conver

sion

of

org

anic

agri

cult

ura

lw

aste

usi

ng

eart

hw

orm

sto

crea

tean

envir

onm

enta

lly

ben

efici

alpro

duct

.E

arth

worm

sar

ein

troduce

din

tori

cks

of

org

anic

agri

cult

ura

lw

aste

.T

he

was

teis

wet

and

reta

ined

asw

etduri

ng

the

conver

sion

pro

cess

.T

he

end

resu

lts

are

cast

ings

whic

har

euse

ful

asa

soil

amen

dm

ent

hig

hin

trac

em

iner

als.

The

worm

sca

nbe

reuse

dei

ther

thro

ugh

the

addit

ion

of

furt

her

org

anic

was

teto

the

rick

or

thro

ugh

separ

atio

nof

the

cast

ings

from

the

subst

anti

ally

consu

med

was

tean

dth

e

eart

hw

orm

san

din

troduct

ion

of

the

worm

sto

anew

rick

.T

he

agri

cult

ura

l

was

tem

ayfi

rst

be

store

das

sila

ge

wher

ean

aero

bic

dec

om

posi

tion

can

com

men

cean

dth

em

ater

ial

can

be

effi

cien

tly

store

dfo

rla

ter

pro

cess

ing

Acc

ord

ingly

,it

isa

pri

nci

pal

obje

ctof

the

pre

sent

inven

tion

topro

vid

ean

impro

ved

met

hod

for

the

pro

cess

ing

of

org

anic

agri

cult

ura

lw

aste

sin

toan

envir

onm

enta

lly

use

ful

pro

duct

Inven

tor(

s):

Lan

der

,F

erri

s

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

C05F

9/0

4

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:5,7

41,3

44

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:A

pri

l21,

1998


123

Ta

ble

5co

nti

nu

ed

S.

No.

Pat

ent

titl

eD

escr

ipti

on

and

per

form

ance

Pat

ent

det

ails

9.

Appar

atus

and

met

hod

for

on-

site

ver

mic

om

post

ing

org

anic

was

te

This

pat

ent

incl

udes

anap

par

atus

and

am

ethod

for

on-s

ite

ver

mic

om

post

ing

of

org

anic

was

teusi

ng

eart

hw

orm

s,in

whic

hth

e

org

anic

was

teis

dis

pose

dof

under

aco

nst

ant

tem

per

ature

and

hum

idit

y

stat

eat

all

seas

ons,

anover

all

pro

cess

for

dis

posi

ng

of

the

org

anic

was

te

isau

tom

atic

ally

per

form

edonly

by

asm

all

num

ber

of

work

ers,

and

the

eart

hw

orm

sar

enot

mix

edw

ith

feca

lso

ilto

be

dis

char

ged

.T

he

appar

atus

incl

udes

:a

feed

ing

unit

inst

alle

dat

anupper

port

ion

of

afr

ame,

reci

pro

cati

ng

thro

ughout

ach

amber

ina

longit

udin

aldir

ecti

on

for

gri

ndin

gorg

anic

was

tean

dth

endro

ppin

gth

egro

und

org

anic

was

tein

to

the

cham

ber

by

mea

ns

of

the

reci

pro

cati

on;

afe

cal

soil

-sep

arat

ing

unit

inst

alle

dat

alo

wer

port

ion

of

the

cham

ber

ina

longit

udin

aldir

ecti

on

and

rota

ted

for

dis

char

gin

gfe

cal

soil

;an

dan

attr

acti

ng

unit

inst

alle

dat

one

side

of

anupper

port

ion

of

ach

amber

for

spra

yin

ga

liquid

subst

ance

hav

ing

asw

eet

tast

ein

toth

ech

amber

and

induci

ng

eart

hw

orm

sto

be

dir

ecte

dto

the

upper

port

ion.

The

met

hod

incl

udes

the

step

sof:

(a)

form

ing

abas

icfl

oor

for

bre

edin

gea

rthw

orm

sin

ach

amber

,an

d

bre

edin

gth

eea

rthw

orm

sth

erei

n;

(b)

intr

oduci

ng

org

anic

was

teonto

the

bas

icfl

oor,

and

mai

nta

inin

gte

mper

ature

and

hum

idit

yin

the

cham

ber

suit

able

for

bre

edin

gth

eea

rthw

orm

sso

that

the

org

anic

was

teis

ver

mic

om

post

edby

the

eart

hw

orm

s;(c

)det

ecti

ng

ach

arac

teri

stic

val

ue

of

seep

age

wat

erco

llec

ted

by

ase

epag

ew

ater

rese

rvoir

loca

ted

under

the

cham

ber

,an

ddet

erm

inin

ga

deg

ree

of

ver

mic

om

post

ing

the

org

anic

was

tebas

edon

the

det

ecte

dch

arac

teri

stic

val

ue;

and

(d)

spra

yin

ga

subst

ance

hav

ing

asw

eet

tast

eonto

anupper

surf

ace

of

the

org

anic

was

te

soas

toin

duce

the

eart

hw

orm

sto

anupper

port

ion

of

the

cham

ber

,an

d

separ

atin

gfe

cal

soil

from

the

org

anic

was

teby

mea

ns

of

the

rota

tion

of

scre

ws

loca

ted

ata

low

erport

ion

of

the

cham

ber

Inven

tor(

s):

Lee

,C

han

gho

(5-1

03

Weo

lpo

Siy

oung

Apt,

Weo

lpo-D

ong

Mas

a,

Kyungsa

ngnam

-Do

Mas

an631-4

10,

KR

)

Jeon,

Sungkyun

(Bugok

Dae

woo

Apt,

Bugok3-

Dong

Gum

Jeong-G

u,

Busa

n609-3

23,

113-1

801,

KR

)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

B09B

5/0

0

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:W

O2004/0

39510

A1

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:M

ay13,

2004

10.

Pro

cess

and

appar

atus

for

trea

ting

was

teby

mea

ns

of

ver

mic

om

post

ing

This

pat

ent

isa

pro

cess

for

the

trea

tmen

tof

org

anic

was

teby

ver

mic

om

post

ing

inat

leas

tone

ver

mic

om

post

ing

unit

,ac

cord

ing

to

whic

hin

the

said

unit

ther

eis

esta

bli

shed

aver

tica

lst

ack

of

asu

bst

rate

consi

stin

gof

atle

ast

one

upper

layer

of

org

anic

was

tein

troduce

dth

rough

the

top,

of

atle

ast

one

low

erla

yer

of

org

anic

resi

dues

whic

har

ere

moved

thro

ugh

the

bott

om

,an

dof

apopula

tion

of

eart

hw

orm

sdis

per

sed

inth

e

stac

kan

dtr

avel

ling

upw

ards,

the

oute

rsu

rfac

eof

the

stac

kfo

rmin

g

esse

nti

ally

the

only

inte

rfac

efo

rex

chan

ge

of

the

subst

rate

wit

hth

e

exte

rior.

The

ver

mic

om

post

ing

unit

isar

ranged

inan

encl

osu

rein

sula

ting

itfr

om

the

surr

oundin

gai

r,an

da

contr

oll

edat

mosp

her

eis

esta

bli

shed

in

the

encl

osu

redir

ectl

yin

conta

ctw

ith

the

side

surf

ace

of

the

stac

k

Inven

tor(

s):

Chau

ssin

and,

Den

is(F

R)

Lav

is,

Chri

stia

n(F

R

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

C05F

9/0

4

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:E

P0454

595

A1

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:A

pri

l12,

1991


123

Ta

ble

5co

nti

nu

ed

S.

No.

Pat

ent

titl

eD

escr

ipti

on

and

per

form

ance

Pat

ent

det

ails

11.

Appar

atus

and

met

hod

for

pro

cess

org

anic

was

te

Ala

rge

pro

port

ion

of

dom

esti

can

din

dust

rial

org

anic

was

tese

nt

tola

ndfi

ll

isorg

anic

.O

rgan

icw

aste

sent

tola

ndfi

lls

has

neg

ativ

eim

pac

tson

the

envir

onm

ent

due

its

pro

duct

ion

of

leac

hat

ean

dgre

enhouse

gas

es,

and

sendin

gw

aste

tola

ndfi

llca

use

snutr

ient

and

ener

gy

loss

whic

hco

uld

hav

ebee

nuti

lize

din

anen

vir

onm

enta

lly

and

econom

ical

lyben

efici

al

way

.T

he

inven

tion

dis

close

san

appar

atus

and

met

hod

for

pro

cess

ing

org

anic

mat

ter

and

pro

moti

ng

eart

hw

orm

acti

vit

y,

whic

hin

cludes

a

support

ing

stru

cture

and

ase

ries

of

rece

pta

cles

and/o

rham

mock

sth

atar

e

support

edan

d/o

rsu

spen

ded

and/o

rsl

ung

from

the

support

ing

stru

cture

in

ase

ries

of

posi

tions

soas

tofo

rma

com

post

ing

stac

k,

the

seri

esof

rece

pta

cles

and/o

rham

mock

sbei

ng

adap

ted

tosu

pport

and

conta

ina

seri

esof

bed

sof

org

anic

mat

ter

and

com

post

ing

org

anis

ms.

The

appar

atus

uti

lise

sgra

vit

y,

scre

ws

and/o

rch

ains

for

the

sequen

tial

and

conti

nuous

movem

ent

of

com

post

ing

stac

k

Inven

tor(

s):

JAQ

UE

S,

Pau

lP

hil

ippe

August

e(8

5D

e

Vil

lier

sW

ay,

7975

Gle

nca

irn,

ZA

)

JAQ

UE

S,

Roger

Fra

nco

is(8

3D

eV

illi

ers

Way

,

7975

Gle

nca

irn,

ZA

)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

C05F

9/0

2

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:

WO

2010/1

31202

A1

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:

Novem

ber

18,

2010

12.

Pro

cess

for

the

tran

sform

atio

n

of

org

anic

rem

ains

into

org

anic

fert

iliz

eran

dby-

pro

duct

san

dw

orm

bre

edin

g

Now

aday

s,th

ere

cycl

ing

of

indust

rial

or

urb

anso

lid

rem

ains

ishav

ing

a

per

iod

of

subst

anti

alpro

sper

ity.

Indee

dit

isdue

toth

efa

ctth

at

awak

enin

gof

the

peo

ple

about

the

pro

ble

m,

we

gen

erat

ean

exce

ssof

consu

mer

pro

duct

s,due

toth

em

oder

niz

atio

nan

din

dust

rial

izat

ion

of

the

pre

sent

soci

ety.

As

are

sult

,th

equan

tity

of

rem

ains

pro

duce

dis

big

ger

and

conse

quen

tly

thei

rtr

eatm

ent

inord

erto

min

imiz

eor

reuse

them

is

urg

ent.

Now

aday

s,th

eorg

anic

mat

eria

lm

aybe

trea

ted

inin

dust

rial

pla

nts

,w

her

eit

suff

ers

anim

pover

ishm

ent

ina

carb

onat

ese

quen

ceto

get

use

ful

com

pounds

asfe

rtil

izer

s.H

ow

ever

,in

the

indust

rial

pla

nts

the

fert

iliz

erth

atw

eget

isof

low

qual

ity

and

the

com

mer

cial

izat

ion

isquit

e

dif

ficu

lt,

even

atlo

wpri

ces,

since

init

sel

abora

tion

only

anim

pover

ished

bac

teri

alpro

cess

oper

ates

This

inven

tion

isab

out

apro

cess

inw

hic

hfi

rst

inven

tors

set

up

ase

lect

ion

of

dif

fere

nt

sourc

esof

org

anic

stuff

toim

pover

ish,w

hic

his

trit

ura

ted,if

it

was

nec

essa

ry,

toco

ndit

ion

the

pro

duct

toit

ssu

itab

lesi

zean

dm

ixto

get

afi

xed

pro

tein

level

among

dif

fere

nt

rem

ains

and

resi

dues

,af

terw

ards,

the

mix

ture

isven

tila

ted

and

itis

left

tose

ttle

duri

ng

aper

iod

of

about

thre

eor

six

month

s.D

iffe

rent

par

amet

ers

such

aspH

,hum

idit

y,

tem

per

ature

and

chem

ical

com

posi

tion

must

be

contr

oll

ed.

Aft

erso

me

tim

eof

rest

inven

tors

intr

oduce

itin

toa

dep

osi

t,cr

adle

or

hopper

and

we

add

the

worm

s,ex

tendin

gon

the

gro

up

tran

sluce

nt

mat

eria

lan

d

appro

xim

atel

ysi

xm

onth

sla

ter

they

separ

ate

the

hum

us

or

worm

com

post

form

ed,

soli

dor

liquid

,w

hic

his

taken

tow

areh

ouse

sto

mat

ure

,la

ter

it

wil

lbe

pac

ked

and

com

mer

cial

ized

Inven

tor(

s):

Mai

mo,

Cre

spi

Per

e(E

S)

Huguet

,R

oja

sJu

anG

abri

el(E

S)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

C05F

17/0

0

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:

EP

1118

603

A2

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:

July

25,

2001

13.

Conver

sion

of

was

tem

ater

ial

usi

ng

eart

hw

orm

s

Bio

deg

radab

lew

aste

mat

eria

lis

conver

ted

by

worm

sin

toa

uti

lisa

ble

end

pro

duct

.A

bed

of

wood

chip

san

dgri

thost

sth

ew

orm

san

dw

aste

mat

eria

l

isdep

osi

ted

on

the

bed

.T

he

tem

per

ature

,hum

idit

yan

dam

ount

of

air

in

the

bed

isco

ntr

oll

ed,

asis

also

the

amount

of

was

tedep

osi

ted.

Worm

cast

ings

are

rem

oved

from

the

bott

om

of

the

bed

by

actu

atio

nof

a

retr

ieval

mec

han

ism

.In

anau

tom

ated

syst

ema

hopper

runs

on

atr

ack

to

trav

erse

the

bed

and

dep

osi

tw

aste

mat

eria

l.A

convey

or

rem

oves

the

cast

ings

Inven

tor(

s):

Tay

lor,

Sim

on

(GB

)

Gen

tle,

Mar

kL

ennox

(GB

)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

C05F

9/0

2

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:E

P0

887

328

A2

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:D

ecem

ber

30,

1998


123

Ta

ble

5co

nti

nu

ed

S.

No.

Pat

ent

titl

eD

escr

ipti

on

and

per

form

ance

Pat

ent

det

ails

14.

Ver

mic

om

post

tea

gra

nule

sC

om

post

and

ver

mic

om

post

tea

pro

duce

dby

conven

tion

met

hods

hav

ea

use

ful

shel

fli

feth

atis

mea

sure

din

hours

afte

rce

ssat

ion

of

pro

duct

ion.

Com

post

tea

must

rem

ain

aero

bic

tosu

pport

the

life

and

pro

pag

atio

nof

ben

efici

alm

icro

bes

.A

nae

robic

condit

ions

wil

lkil

lfl

agel

late

san

d

amoeb

afo

rms

of

pro

tozo

a,as

wel

las

ben

efici

alfu

ngi

and

nem

atodes

.

Ther

efore

,th

eab

ilit

yof

pro

duce

rsof

com

post

and

ver

mic

om

post

tose

ll

thei

rpro

duct

sto

end-u

sers

or

dis

trib

uto

rsis

sever

ely

lim

ited

by

tim

ean

d

dis

tance

.T

he

purp

ose

of

addin

gver

mic

om

post

tea’

sben

efici

alm

icro

bes

toso

ilis

that

itis

the

leas

tco

stly

met

hod

tore

-supply

soil

wit

hbio

mas

s

that

has

bee

nlo

stdue

topes

tici

des

,in

org

anic

chem

ical

fert

iliz

ers,

erosi

on

and

soil

mis

man

agem

ent.

The

mic

robe

mix

ina

ver

mic

om

post

tea

should

incl

ude

bac

teri

afo

rth

eco

nsu

mpti

on

of

the

nutr

ients

,fu

ngi

for

root

pro

tect

ion,

pro

tozo

afo

rbac

teri

alfe

edin

gan

dco

nver

sion

of

nutr

ients

to

pla

nt

avai

lable

form

s,an

dnem

atodes

for

mic

robia

lre

gula

tion,

root

pro

tect

ion

and

nutr

ient

supply

.T

hes

em

icro

bes

are

conti

nual

lydes

troyed

by

the

acti

vit

ies

list

edab

ove

(appli

cati

on

of

pes

tici

des

,et

c.…

)

This

isre

late

dto

am

ethod

of

mak

ing

ver

mic

om

post

inw

orm

bin

sw

hic

h

are

subst

anti

ally

open

toth

eai

r,bre

win

gth

ehar

ves

ted

ver

mic

om

post

for

3to

4day

s,al

ong

wit

had

ded

nutr

ients

,under

aero

bic

,an

dopti

onal

ly

cool

tem

per

ature

s,to

pro

duce

ver

mic

om

post

tea.

The

ver

mic

om

post

tea

can

be

appli

eddir

ectl

yto

soil

or

pla

nts

or

can

be

use

dto

satu

rate

carb

on

bas

edca

rrie

rgra

nule

sto

form

ver

mic

om

post

tea

gra

nule

s

The

met

hod

of

pro

duci

ng

ver

mic

om

post

tea

acco

rdin

gto

the

inven

tion

com

pri

ses:

sele

ctin

gco

mpost

mat

eria

ls,

ther

mal

com

post

ing

the

sele

cted

com

post

ing

mat

eria

lsunder

wel

l-ae

rate

dco

ndit

ions,

and

pro

duci

ng

ver

mic

om

post

under

wel

l-ae

rate

dco

ndit

ions,

putt

ing

the

ver

mic

om

post

into

susp

ensi

on

(‘‘m

icro

be

was

hphas

e’’)

,an

dbre

win

gth

esu

spen

sion

toget

her

wit

ha

nutr

ient

mix

ina

bre

win

gta

nk

under

wel

l-ae

rate

d

condit

ions,

pre

fera

bly

atco

ol

tem

per

ature

s.T

he

mic

robe

was

hphas

e

pre

fera

bly

last

sfr

om

4to

6h.

The

bre

win

gphas

ela

sts

more

than

24

h,

pre

fera

bly

from

3to

4day

s.T

he

ver

mic

om

post

tea

can

be

use

dfo

rfo

liar

appli

cati

ons.

Ina

par

ticu

larl

ypre

ferr

edem

bodim

ent

of

the

inven

tion,

soli

dca

rrie

rgra

nule

sar

eso

aked

inth

ever

mic

om

post

tea

and

dri

edto

pro

duce

ver

mic

om

post

tea

gra

nule

s

Inven

tor(

s):

Thorn

ton,

Sta

nle

y(1

75A

Dri

ft

Road

,T

into

nF

alls

,N

J,07724,

US

)

Lai

ne,

Jam

es(8

65

Am

wel

lR

oad

,H

ills

boro

ugh,

NJ,

08844,

US

)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

Not

clas

sifi

ed

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:W

O2005/0

675

50

A2

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:Ju

ly28,

2005

15.

Pro

cess

for

the

conver

sion

of

org

anic

was

teusi

ng

red

mud

and

eart

hw

orm

s

Apro

cess

for

the

conver

sion

of

org

anic

was

tein

toan

innocu

ous

or

use

ful

pro

duct

,usi

ng

eart

hw

orm

san

dre

dm

ud.

The

pro

cess

isch

arac

teri

sed

by

the

step

sof

shre

ddin

gorg

anic

was

tean

dth

enam

endin

gth

eorg

anic

was

te

wit

hre

dm

ud

(5–30%

)to

pro

duce

anam

ended

org

anic

was

te.

The

amen

ded

org

anic

was

teis

then

mois

tened

.T

he

mois

tened

amen

ded

org

anic

was

teis

com

bin

edw

ith

eart

hw

orm

s.T

he

eart

hw

orm

sco

nsu

me

the

amen

ded

org

anic

was

tean

dai

din

the

conver

sion

of

the

org

anic

was

te

into

anin

nocu

ous

or

use

ful

pro

duct

by

the

pro

duct

ion

of

cast

ings

Inven

tor(

s):

Hen

dry

,A

nth

ony

John

(26

Roger

son

Road

,M

ount

Ple

asan

t,W

.A.

6153,

AU

)

Whit

elaw

,D

avid

J.(2

01

Pau

lsV

alle

yR

oad

,

Kal

amunda,

W.A

.6076,

AU

)

Rober

t,Jo

hn

Wal

ker

(138-1

42

Sco

ttS

tree

t,

Hel

ena

Val

ley,

W.A

.6056,

AU

)

Inte

rnat

ional

Cla

ssifi

cati

on:

C05F

15/0

0

Pat

ent

Num

ber

:W

O03/0

89387

A1

Publi

cati

on

dat

e:O

ctober

30,

2003


123

studied the effect of sheep manure vermicomposts

along with diazotrophic bacteria and mycorrhizas for

maize cultivation. Both bacteria and mycorrhizas

increased the plant wet weight but Glomus fascicul-

atum the most. Mycorrhization increased the P

content, but not the N content. Mycorrhizal coloniza-

tion increased when diazotrophic bacteria and vermi-

compost were added. It was found that weight of

maize plants cultivated in peat moss amended with

vermicompost increased when supplemented with

Glomus fasciculatum and diazotrophic bacteria.

Sahni et al. (2008) studied the effect of vermi-

composts on performance of plant growth-promoting

rhizobacteria in Cicer arietinum rhizosphere

against Sclerotium rolfsii. Treatments with vermi-

compost (10, 25, and 50% v/v) and Pseudomonas

syringae (PUR46 alone and in combination reduced

seedling mortality in chickpea under glasshouse

conditions. The combined effect of 25% vermicom-

post substitution along with seed bacterization with

PUR46 was the most effective treatment, which not

only increased the availability and uptake of minerals

like P, Mn, and Fe in chickpea seedlings, resulting in

an increase in plant growth, but also reduced plant

mortality. These effects are correlated with improve-

ment in soil physical conditions and enhanced

nutritional factors due to vermicompost substitution

as well as plant growth promotion and the antago-

nistic activity of PUR46 against the pathogen. Dual

cultures of PUR46 with the S. rolfsii isolate revealed

a high degree of antagonism by PUR46 against the

pathogen. Performance of PUR46 was enhanced in

the presence of 25% vermicompost compared with its

application alone and therefore this combination may

be a useful tool to manage S. rolfsii under field

conditions.

Roy et al. (2010) studied the effect of different

organic amendments of soil on growth and produc-

tivity of three common crops viz. Zea mays, Phase-

olus vulgaris and Abelmoschus esculentus. The

paddy straw and Ageratum conyzoides residues were

used as direct mulch, compost, and vermicompost in

different plots planted with Zea mays, Phaseolus

vulgaris and Abelmoschus esculentus, separately in

three experimental plots. The different treatments

affected the seed germination of the three test crops

significantly. Plant height, basal area, productivity

and biomass allocation in above ground parts were

highest in vermicompost treated plots and lowest

either in control or in mulched plots. The significant

positive correlation between biomass accumulation

and nutrient mineralization pattern but negative

correlation between productivity and available nitro-

gen was observed. The study revealed that different

amendments affected crops differently and the pre-

treatment of crop/plant residues like vermicompo-

sting are invariably beneficial and contributed to crop

growth and available N in soil.

Jouquet et al. (2010) determined the interactions

between Dichogaster bolaui, an endogeic earthworm

species, and compost or vermicompost produced by

Eisenia andrei, an epigeic earthworm species, in a

degraded tropical soil. They assessed nutrient avail-

ability and natural vegetation recovery. Treatments

with and without D. bolaui earthworms were com-

pared. The incorporation of both types of organic

matter improved soil quality (i.e., higher pH, more C

and nutrients) and led to the recovery of vegetation

growth (i.e., development of seedlings and higher

above- and belowground biomass). Mineral nutrients,

on the other hand, had no effect on vegetation

development and led to more pollution of ground-

water (i.e., higher concentrations of N-NH4?,

N-NO3-, K and P). Although they could not draw

definite conclusions about whether vermicompost had

a more positive effect on plant growth than compost,

this substrate improved soil chemical properties

compared with compost.

Singh et al. (2010a, b) studied the effect of foliar

application of vermicompost leachates on growth,

yield and quality of strawberry (Cv. Chandler). For

this, three leachates collected from vermicomposting

of cow dung (FCD), vegetable waste (FVW) and

mixture of cow dung and vegetable waste in 1:2 ratio

(FCVW) were used at 2 ml l-1 at monthly interval

(total five sprays) in strawberry. The results indicated

that foliar application of vermicompost leachates

improved leaf area (10.1–18.9%), dry matter of plant

(13.9–27.2%) and fruit yield (9.8–13.9%) significantly

over control (water spray only). Foliar application

of FCVW reduced albinism (from 12.1 to 5.7%),

fruit malformation (11.2–8.5%) and grey mould

(5.1–2.6%) thus improving marketable fruit yield

(26.5% higher) with firmer fruits of better quality. The

foliar application of FCD and FVW also improved

these parameters and resulted into higher marketable

fruit yield (12.6 and 17.8% higher, respectively)

compared to control. The study confirmed that


123

leachates derived from composting processes have

potential use as foliar fertilization for strawberry.

Gutierrez-Miceli et al. (2007) studied the effects of

earthworm-processed sheep-manure (vermicompost)

on the growth, productivity and chemical character-

istics of tomatoes (Lycopersicum esculentum). Five

treatments were applied combining vermicompost

and soil in proportions of 0:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4 and

1:5 (v/v). Growth and yield parameters were mea-

sured 85 days and 100 days after transplanting.

Addition of vermicompost increased plant heights

significantly, but had no significant effect on the

numbers of leaves or yields 85 days after transplant-

ing. Yields of tomatoes were significantly greater

when the relationship vermicompost: soil was 1:1,

1:2 or 1:3, 100 days after transplanting. Addition of

sheep-manure vermicompost decreased soil pH,

titratable acidity and increased soluble and insoluble

solids, in tomato fruits compared to those harvested

from plants cultivated in unamended soil. Sheep-

manure vermicompost as a soil supplement increased

tomato yields and soluble, insoluble solids and

carbohydrate concentrations.

Recently, Sangwan et al. (2010b) conducted a pot

culture experiment to assess the quality of vermi-

compost produced from filter cake mixed with cow

and horse dung on the growth and productivity of

marigold. The filter cake ? cow dung and horse dung

vermicomposts have higher manurial value and

affects the growth and productivity of plants syner-

gistically. Addition of vermicomposts in appropriate

quantities had improved growth and flowering of

plants, plant shoot biomass, root biomass, plant

height and flower diameter. Vermicomposts addition

also improved the physical, chemical and biological

properties of the potting soil. The results also

revealed that maximum numbers of flowers was

produced in the potting media containing 30% of cow

dung vermicompost and minimum was reported in

control (soil without amendments). The diameter of

biggest flower was reported in the potting media

containing 40% of sugar mill wastewater treatment

plant sludge vermicompost.

6 Conclusion

A variety of organic wastes; cattle, municipal,

agricultural, industrial and wastewater residuals can

be processed with engineered earthworm systems.

Earthworms are helpful in industrial waste recycling

and transform industrial wastes into valuable prod-

ucts i.e., vermicomposts. If a large number of suitable

earthworms are introduced into industrial waste

substrate and optimum conditions provided, a good

quality of mature vermicompost can be produced.

Vermicomposts so produced have good chemical and

physical properties that compare favourably to tradi-

tional composts. Vermicomposts produced from

wastes could be applied to crops as a source of plant

nutrients. The vermicomposts have proved to be a

good soil conditioner and plant nutrient. After vermi-

composting, the worms may also be recovered and

reintroduced into vermicomposting system. On proper

handling of the industrial organic waste i.e., proper

maintenance of certain physical and chemical prop-

erties of the industrial organic waste, it can be

converted into vermicompost which will act as a

conditioner for the soil health as well as a rich nutrient

source for the crops. Still there are gaps in vermi-

composting research. Most of the studied have been

conducted under controlled conditions at laboratory

scale. So, pilot scale or field scale studies are urgently

required for commercial exploitation of industrial

wastes as substrate in vermicomposting. In addition to

this in most of the studies exotic worm species have

been employed for vermicomposting, efforts should

be made to use local earthworm species to avoid any

adverse effects on worm diversity in future.

References

Aira M, Monroy F, Domı0nguez J, Mato S (2002) How earth-

worm density affects microbial biomass and activity in

pig manure. Eur J Soil Biol 38:7–10

Arancon NQ, Lee S, Edwards CA, Atiyeh R (2003) Effects of

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