Incremental Validity of Components of Mindfulnessin the Prediction of Satisfaction with Lifeand Depression

Michael S. Christopher & Brennan D. Gilbert

# Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009

Abstract Self-report measures of mindfulness have consistently demonstratedpositive relationships with well-being and inverse relationships with depressionsymptoms. The goal of this study was to extend the existing literature to include atest of the incremental validity of the components of mindfulness (as measured bythe four factors of the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills [KIMS]; Baer et al.Assessment, 11, 191–206, 2004) and the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale(MAAS; Brown and Ryan Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848, 2003) in the prediction of satisfaction with life (relative to self-esteem) anddepression (relative to negative cognitions) among a sample of 365 college students.Results revealed only KIMS Observe accounted for a significant amount variancerelative to self-esteem in the prediction of satisfaction with life, and in the predictionof depression symptoms, only KIMS Accept without Judgment accounted for asignificant amount of variance relative to negative cognitions. These results arediscussed in relation to the measurement of mindfulness and methods used to assessthe validity of these scales.

Keywords Mindfulness assessment .Well-being . Depression

The practice of mindfulness meditation has its roots in Eastern contemplativetraditions and it is a core element of Buddhism (Hanh 1998). In this context,

Curr PsycholDOI 10.1007/s12144-009-9067-9

M. S. Christopher (*) : B. D. GilbertPacific University, School of Professional Psychology, 511 SW 10th Avenue, Suite 400, Portland,OR 97205, USAe-mail: mchristopher@pacificu.edu

B. D. Gilberte-mail: gilb8581@pacificu.edu

mindfulness has been defined as the quality of bearing in mind or bringing tomind; it is the state of recollecting, the state of remembering, the state of non-fading, the state of non-forgetting (Payutto 1995). In recent years Westernpsychology has developed a burgeoning interest in mindfulness, where it has beenoperationalized as a focus of one’s attention in a nonjudgmental or accepting wayon the experience occurring in the present moment (Kabat-Zinn 1994) and as anawareness of present experience with acceptance (Germer 2005). In Westernpsychology, attention has been primarily focused on the integration of thesemultidimensional mindfulness concepts into psychotherapy treatments (e.g.,mindfulness-based cognitive therapy [MBCT]; Segal et al. 2002) aimed at teachingpatients a more mindful approach to reducing distress, preventing relapse, andenhancing quality of life.

A related focus for mindfulness researchers has been the development of self-report scales to assess the impact of engaging in mindfulness practices (e.g., Lau etal. 2006) and the general tendency to be mindful in daily life (e.g., Baer et al. 2004).Although state-like scales are essential for evaluating mindfulness-based interven-tions, given that mindfulness is an intrinsic human characteristic (Kabat-Zinn 1990,2003) with substantive within and between person variation (Baer et al. 2004;Brown and Ryan 2003; Walach et al. 2006), measures that can assess the generalpropensity to be mindful are also valuable. This is particularly true in light ofresearch suggesting trait mindfulness is strongly correlated with a variety ofpsychological constructs relevant to mental health and well-being (see Brown et al.2007 for a review).

Two widely used scales that measure the general tendency to be mindful in dailylife are the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS; Baer et al. 2004) andthe Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown and Ryan 2003). Indeveloping the KIMS, Baer et al. (2004) conceptualized mindfulness in terms of fourbehaviorally oriented factors: observing or attending to internal and external stimuli(Observe); describing and labeling phenomena non-judgmentally (Describe); actingwith awareness in which undivided attention is focused on one thing at a time (Actwith Awareness), and; accepting or allowing present moments or events to occurwithout judging them (Accept without Judgment). These four factors were derivedprimarily from dialectical behavior therapy (DBT; Linehan 1993) where clients aretaught “what” (observing, describing, and participating) and “how” (taking anonjudgmental stance, focusing on one thing in the moment, and being effective)mindfulness skills. Utilizing a more cognitive framework, Brown and Ryan (2003)operationally defined mindfulness as an open or receptive attention to and awarenessof present events and experience; this is assessed through the MAAS by askingrespondents to rate the frequency with which their day-to-day consciousness reflectsthis quality. The MAAS therefore taps a distinct type of attentional awareness thatcan be impacted by, but was not designed exclusively to assess meditationexperience (Brown and Ryan 2003). Together the KIMS and MAAS represent arobust measure of the Western operationalization of mindfulness, capturing thecomponents of attention/awareness, nonjudgment/acceptance, and present momentfocus.

Both the KIMS and MAAS have evinced relationships with a variety of indicatorsof mental health and well-being (Baer et al. 2004; Brown and Ryan 2003; Brown et

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al. 2007). For example, the MAAS has demonstrated positive relationships withconstructs such as optimism, positive affect, and vitality and inverse relationshipswith impulsiveness and unpleasant affect (Brown and Ryan 2003; study 1).Similarly, the KIMS has been associated with higher levels of emotional intelligenceand self-compassion and lower levels of alexithymia and dissociation (Baer et al.2006). In addition to these indicators of mental health and well-being constructs,several studies have examined the MAAS and KIMS as predictors of depression andsatisfaction with life. The theoretical basis linking mindfulness to enhancedsatisfaction with life and decreased depression is derived primarily from clinicalintervention mindfulness research. Mindfulness training forms the foundation oftreatments designed to enhance health and well-being (i.e., mindfulness-based stressreduction [MBSR]; Kabat-Zinn 1990) and prevent depressive relapse (i.e., MBCT;Segal et al. 2002), and the effectiveness of both treatments has been well supported(e.g., Baer 2003; Grossman et al. 2004).

At the trait level, Brown and colleagues (Brown et al. 2007; Brown and Ryan2003, 2004) argue that the receptive attention to and awareness of present experiencetapped by the MAAS is key to facilitating well-being and decreasing distressbecause this disposition adds clarity and vividness to current experience and a closersensory contact with life. In support of their argument the MAAS has been shown tobe a significant negative predictor of depression symptoms (Argus and Thompson2008) and has exhibited robust positive correlations with life satisfaction (Brownand Ryan 2003; study 1; Johnson 2006). Similarly, Baer et al. (2004) posited thatbecause the four KIMS components (Observe, Describe, Act with Awareness, andAccept without Judgment) were derived from empirically-informed mindfulnesspractices (i.e., DBT), each factor is conceptually associated with enhanced well-being and reduced psychiatric symptomology. Indeed, two KIMS factors (Describeand Act with Awareness) have evinced a significant positive relationship with lifesatisfaction (Baer et al. 2004; study 4) and the Describe, Act with Awareness, andAccept without Judgment factors have exhibited an inverse relationship withnegative affect (McKee et al. 2007).

However, despite evidence of associations between mindfulness and theoreticallyrelevant constructs such as satisfaction with life and depression, further research isneeded to evaluate whether the general tendency to mindful in daily life offersunique explanatory power in the prediction of these variables relative to other well-established predictors. In support of its uniqueness, the MAAS has accounted forsignificant variance relative to positive and negative affect (Zvolensky et al. 2006),pain intensity (McCracken et al. 2007), and perfectionism (Argus and Thompson2008) in the prediction of depression symptoms. Similarly, the MAAS maintains asignificant negative correlation with depression after controlling for rumination(Brown and Ryan 2003; study 1; Johnson 2006). However, in the prediction ofsatisfaction with life, although the MAAS accounted for unique variance relative tosocial desirability (Johnson 2006), it did not relative to acceptance and meta-emotion(Mitmansgruber et al. 2009).

Although we were unable to locate any research supporting the incrementalvalidity of the KIMS in predicting satisfaction with life or depression, the Acceptwithout Judgment factor was a negative predictor of posttraumatic symptomsrelative to negative affectivity and number of trauma types (Vujanovic et al. 2009).

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Also, when psychological well-being was regressed onto the Five Facet MindfulnessQuestionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al. 2006)—a measure composed of a number of itemsfrom the KIMS with similar factors (i.e., Observe, Describe, Act with Awareness,Non-Judging, and Non-Reactivity)—four out of five factors (not Observe) weresignificant predictors, demonstrating that each accounts for a significant portion ofthe variance not accounted for by the others.

To expand on the extant research, Zvolensky et al. (2006) suggestedresearchers investigate the incremental validity of various conceptualizations ofmindfulness relative to self-appraisal and cognitive variables in the prediction ofwell-being and distress. Self-esteem is a well-established predictor of satisfactionwith life (Diener and Diener 1995; Lucas et al. 1996) and is generally consideredto reflect a trait-like evaluative component of the self-concept; a broaderrepresentation of the self that includes cognitive and behavioral aspects as wellas evaluative and affective ones (Blascovich and Tomaka 1991). Self-esteem alsoevinces a strong positive relationship with mindfulness (Thompson and Waltz2008) and there is substantial conceptual overlap between the two variables (Ryanand Brown 2003). Therefore, including self-esteem in addition to the facets ofmindfulness as assessed by the KIMS and MAAS in the prediction of satisfactionwith life can allow for an examination of the unique contributions of eachpredictor.

Similarly, negative cognition is a well-established predictor of depression(Hollon et al. 1986; Segal et al. 2006), and akin to mindfulness, can beconceptualized as an enduring trait (Zuroff et al. 1999). Negative cognitions aboutthe self may reflect broader cognitive structures or enduring themes that cancontribute to persistent vulnerability to depression (Hollon et al. 1996; Joormannand Siemer 2004). Several studies have found a robust inverse relationshipbetween negative cognitions and mindfulness (Frewen et al. 2008; Ramel et al.2004) indicating that these variables share variance. Moreover, in questioning thevalidity of current self-report measures of mindfulness (including the KIMS andMAAS), Rosch (2007) suggests that the facets tapped by these scales are notassessing mindfulness per se, but rather constructs such as “more versus lesspathology” (p. 262). Thus, accounting for the variance in depressive cognitions (i.e.,pathological thinking) prior to adding facets of mindfulness as assessed by the KIMSand MAAS in the prediction of depression can help to disentangle the uniquecontributions of each predictor.

To the extent that dispositional mindfulness—as measured by the MAAS andKIMS—reflects an enduring emotional and cognitive self-regulatory process,self-esteem and negative cognitions may share important associations with thesemeasures. Additionally, given that a growing number of authors have begun toquestion the validity of mindfulness measures (Christopher et al. 2009; Grossman2008; Rosch 2007) research that examines facets of mindfulness as predictors ofwell-being and depression relative to conceptually related variables is needed.Thus, the overall goal of this exploratory study was to examine the incrementalvalidity of five components of mindfulness (i.e., four KIMS factors and MAAS)beyond other theoretically relevant predictors in terms of satisfaction with life anddepression symptoms. To be considered a unique explanatory factor, eachcomponent of mindfulness would need to demonstrate unique predictive value

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beyond that accounted for by conceptually related variables (i.e., self-esteem forsatisfaction with life and negative cognitions for depression symptoms).

Method

Participants

Participants were 365 (260 female, 105 male) undergraduate students recruited froma large, public university and a small, private college both located in PacificNorthwestern U.S. The mean age for participants was 21.70 years (SD=5.82). Theracial makeup of the sample was 67% (n=246) White American, 16% (n=59) AsianAmerican, 3% (n=11) African American, 2% (n=7) Latino American, 1% (n=3)Native American, 9% (n=31) Multiracial, and 2% (n=8) other.

Measures

Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) The MAAS is a 15-item questionnairein which respondents indicate, on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = almost alwaysto 6 = almost never), their level of awareness and attention to present events andexperiences (Brown and Ryan 2003). The MAAS only includes statements thatassess mindlessness (e.g., “I do jobs or tasks automatically, without being aware ofwhat I am doing”). Brown and Ryan (2003) assert that mindlessness is more easilydetected given that these types of thoughts and actions are more common thanmindful ones. A mean rating score is calculated with higher scores indicatinggreater mindfulness. The MAAS shows a good range of internal consistency acrossa wide range of samples (α=.80–.87) and excellent test re-test reliability over a1-month time period (r=.81). The MAAS also exhibits adequate convergentvalidity; as expected it correlates negatively with measures of anxiety anddepression and positively with measures of positive affect and self-esteem (Brownand Ryan 2003).

Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS) The KIMS is a 39-itemquestionnaire in which respondents rate, on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 =never or very rarely true to 5 = always or almost always true) their generaltendency to be mindful in daily life (Baer et al. 2004). The KIMS was designed tomeasure four elements of mindfulness: Observe, Describe, Act with Awareness,and Accept without Judgment. Items include, “I notice when my moods begin tochange” (Observe); “I’m good at finding words to describe my feelings”(Describe); “When I do things, my mind wanders off and I’m easily distracted”(Act with Awareness—reverse scored); and “I tell myself that I shouldn’t befeeling the way I’m feeling” (Accept without Judgment—reverse scored). Internalconsistencies and test–retest correlations (over a 2 week period) range from .76 to.91 and .65 to .86, respectively, for the four subscales. Exploratory andconfirmatory factor analyses supported the proposed four-factor structure, andexpected correlations with a variety of other constructs were obtained (Baer et al.2004).

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Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) The CES-D is a20-item questionnaire in which respondents rate, on a 4-point Likert-type scale (0 =rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) to 3 = most all of the time (5–7 days)their depression symptoms over the past week (Radloff 1977). Of the 20 items, 4 arepositive and are reverse scored. Sample items include, “I felt depressed” and “I hadcrying spells.” The CES-D has an alpha coefficient of .85 and expected correlationswith a variety of other constructs were obtained (Radloff 1977).

Crandell Cognitions Inventory (CCI) The CCI is a 45-item questionnaire in whichrespondents rate, on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = almost never to 5 = almostalways) their depressive cognitions (Crandell and Chambless 1986). Only the 34negatively worded items are scored, the 11 positively worded items are included as abuffer. The CCI was designed to measure Beck’s (1967) hypothesis that the thoughtsof depressed individuals are characterized by negative distortions concerningthemselves, the world, and the future. Sample items include, “I’m just a nobody”and “I’ll never be happy with myself.” The alpha coefficient of the CCI in a sampleof depressed patients, psychiatric patients, and non-depressed controls was .95(Crandell and Chambless 1986). Convergent validity was demonstrated by a strongcorrelation between the CCI and Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS; Weissmanand Beck 1978).

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) The RSES is a 10-item questionnaire in whichrespondents rate, on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 4 = stronglyagree) their general total level of self-esteem (Rosenberg 1965). The RSES consistsof five positively worded and five negatively worded items (the negatively wordeditems are reverse scored). Sample items include, “I feel that I have a number of goodqualities” (positive) and “I wish I could have more respect for myself” (negative).The alpha coefficient for the RSES is .86 (Hudson et al. 2000) and test re-testreliability over a 2-week interval was .85 (Silber and Tippett 1965).

Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) The SWLS is a 5-item measure that is widelyused to represent the cognitive evaluation of subjective well-being (Diener et al.1985). Sample items include, “In most ways my life is close to my ideal” and “Theconditions of my life are excellent.” All items on the SWLS are scored on a 7-pointLikert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). The instrument’s internalconsistency is adequate (α=.87; Diener et al. 1985) and the test–retest reliabilityover a 2-month interval is excellent (r=.82; Diener et al. 1985). The SWLS alsodemonstrates expected correlations with measures of psychological distress and self-esteem (Diener et al. 1985).

Procedure

Potential participants were recruited in undergraduate psychology courses at theirinstitution. Participants completed all study materials in small groups at the time anddate they selected when they signed up to participate in the study. All participantscompleted an informed consent, as well as all of the self-administered materials noted inthe Measures section. University IRB approval was obtained prior to data collection.

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Results

Analysis Strategy

To test the incremental validity of the KIMS and MAAS relative to self-esteem inthe prediction of satisfaction with life and relative to negative cognitions in theprediction of depression symptoms, two hierarchical linear regression models weretested. In the model predicting satisfaction with life, self-esteem was entered atstep 1, followed by the MAAS and the four KIMS factors (Observe, Describe, Actwith Awareness, and Accept without Judgment) at step 2. In the model predictingdepression symptoms, negative cognitions was entered at step 1, followed by theMAAS and the four KIMS factors at step 2. Self-esteem and negative cognitionswere utilized as covariates in the prediction of satisfaction with life and depressionsymptoms, respectively, to ensure any observed effects for the components ofmindfulness (as indexed by the MAAS and KIMS) were not due to sharedvariance with these other variables.

Descriptive Statistics and Zero-Order Relations among Variables

The means, standard deviations, and pattern of zero-order correlations betweencomponents of mindfulness and other predictor (covariates) and criterion variablesare shown in Table 1. As expected, all components of mindfulness were positivelyassociated with self-esteem: Observe (r=0.12; p=.027), Describe (r=0.34; p<.001),Act with Awareness (r=0.26; p<.001), Accept without Judgment (r=0.53; p<.001),and MAAS (r=0.45; p<.001). Similarly, all components of mindfulness (with theexception of Observe) were inversely related to negative cognitions: Describe(r=−0.29; p<.001), Act with Awareness (r=−0.25; p<.001), Accept withoutJudgment (r=−0.49; p<.001), and MAAS (r=−0.48; p<.001). The components ofmindfulness also demonstrated expected relationships with the criterion variables. Allcomponents of mindfulness were positively associated with satisfaction with life:Observe (r=0.13; p=.015), Describe (r=0.17; p=.001), Act with Awareness (r=0.17;p=.001), Accept without Judgment (r=0.38; p<.001), and MAAS (r=0.31; p<.001).Similarly, all components of mindfulness (again with the exception of Observe) werenegatively related to depression symptoms: Describe (r=−0.21; p<.001), Act withAwareness (r=−0.27; p<.001), Accept without Judgment (r=−0.50; p<.001), andMAAS (r=−0.43; p<.001).

Components of Mindfulness in the Prediction of Satisfaction with Lifeand Depression Symptoms

The results of the hierarchical linear regression analyses are shown in Table 2; results arepresented based on values at the final step. In the prediction of satisfaction with life,Observe (β=0.10; p=.034) accounted for a significant amount of variance relative toself-esteem (β=0.58; p<.001), whereas Describe (β=−0.08; p=.103), Act withAwareness (β=0.01; p=.847), Accept without Judgment (β=0.09; p=.091), andMAAS (β=0.01; p=.813) did not. In the prediction of depression symptoms, Acceptwithout Judgment (β=−0.11; p<.001) accounted for a significant amount of variance

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Tab

le1

Descriptiv

edata

andzero-order

correlations

betweencomponentsof

mindfulness

andrelevant

variables(n=36

5)

Observe

Describe

Awareness

Accept

MAAS

CES-D

CCI

SWLS

RSES

Mean(SD)

Observe

.83

40.87(6.88)

Describe

.31***

.89

27.91(5.60)

Awareness

.03

.19***

.77

28.23(5.17)

Accept

−.08

.20***

.22*

**.87

28.60(6.50)

MAAS

.14*

.27***

.50*

**.37***

.85

3.77

(0.70)

CES-D

.07

−.21

***

−.27

***

−.50

***

−.43

***

.90

16.36(10.1)

CCI

−.03

−.29

***

−.25

***

−.49

***

−.48

***

.80***

.96

64.56(23.4)

SWLS

.13*

.17**

.17*

*.38***

.31***

−.51

***

−.61

***

.87

23.80(6.11)

RSES

.12*

.34***

.26*

**.53***

.45***

−.65

***

−.82

***

.62*

**.88

21.46(5.34)

Observe

Kentuckyinventoryof

mindfulness

skills–ob

servefactor;DescribeKentuckyinventoryof

mindfulness

skills–describe

factor;AwarenessKentuckyinventoryof

mindfulness

skills–actwith

awarenessfactor;AcceptKentuckyinventoryof

mindfulness

skills–accept

with

outjudg

mentfactor;MAASMindful

attentionaw

arenessscale;

CES-DCenterforepidem

iologicalstudies

depression

scale;CCICrandellcog

nitio

nsinventory;

SWLSSatisfactionwith

lifescale;RSE

SRosenberg

self-esteem

scale.Cronb

ach’s

alph

aison

thediagon

al

*p<.05;

**p<.01;

***p

<.001

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relative to negative cognitions (β=0.74; p<.001), whereas Observe (β=0.07; p=.093),Describe (β=0.02; p=.613), Act with Awareness (β=−0.06; p=.103), and MAAS(β=−0.01; p=.814) did not.

Discussion

The purpose of the present study was to examine the incremental validity ofcomponents of mindfulness beyond other theoretically relevant predictors interms of satisfaction with life and depression symptoms. Results revealed thatonly Observe accounted for a significant amount of variance relative to self-esteem in the prediction of satisfaction with life. This was surprising given thatObserve evidenced a less robust correlation with well-being compared to theother mindfulness components (i.e., Describe, Act with Awareness, Acceptwithout Judgment, and MAAS) in our study and in previous research as well(Baer et al. 2004, 2006, 2008). Baer et al. (2006) suggested Observe may besensitive to changes with meditation experience that alter its relationships withother mindfulness components and with related variables, such that it becomes a

Table 2 Hierarchical multiple regression analyses predicting depression symptoms and satisfaction withlife from theoretically relevant variables and components of mindfulness (n=365)

ΔR² ΔF β sr² p

Criterion variable: depression symptoms

Step 1 .65 661.83 <.01

CCI .74 .48 <.01

Step 2 .03 5.50 <.01

KIMS observe .07 .01 .09

KIMS describe .02 <.01 .61

KIMS awareness −.06 <.01 .10

KIMS accept −.11 .02 <.01

MAAS −.01 <.01 .81

Criterion variable: satisfaction with life

Step 1 .39 226.60 <.01

RSES .58 .26 <.01

Step 2 .01 1.54 .18

KIMS observe .10 .01 .03

KIMS describe −.08 <.01 .10

KIMS awareness .01 <.01 .85

KIMS accept .09 <.01 .09

MAAS .01 <.01 .81

β standardized beta weight; sr² squared partial correlation; CCI Crandell cognitions inventory; KIMSobserve Kentucky inventory of mindfulness skills—observe factor; KIMS describe Kentucky inventory ofmindfulness skills—describe factor; KIMS awareness Kentucky inventory of mindfulness skills—act withawareness factor; KIMS Accept Kentucky inventory of mindfulness skills—accept without judgmentfactor; MAAS mindful attention awareness scale; RSES Rosenberg self-esteem scale

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clear component of mindfulness and related to other variables in expecteddirections as mindfulness skills develop. Baer et al. (2008) subsequentlydiscovered among experienced meditators (but not among non-meditating collegestudents or educated adults) that Observe is significantly correlated withpsychological well-being, but not predictive of it relative to the other facets ofthe FFMQ (i.e., Describe, Act with Awareness, Non-Judging, and Non-Reactivity)in a sample composed of meditators and nonmeditators. In light of Baer et al.’s(2006, 2008) findings, the results in the present study were rather unexpected.Given that the other four components of mindfulness shared a greater degree ofvariance with self-esteem than Observe did (i.e., stronger correlations), perhapswhen accounting for shared variance in the regression, these predictors no longermade unique contributions to the model. Additionally, there may have beenunmeasured characteristics of this particular sample that accounted for these results.Ultimately, future research into the Observe component across different groups andin relation to other variables will help elucidate these conflicting results.

Regarding depression symptoms, only Accept without Judgment accounted for asignificant amount of variance relative to negative cognitions. This result supportsprevious research in which Accept without Judgment was predictive ofpsychological distress relative to the other facets of the FFMQ (Baer et al.2006) and posttraumatic symptoms relative to negative affectivity and number oftrauma types (Vujanovic et al. 2009). Acceptance of present experience is inherent tomost operationalizations of mindfulness (e.g., Germer 2005; Kabat-Zinn 1994) and itis a foundational element of many mindfulness-based interventions, includingacceptance and commitment therapy (ACT; Hayes et al. 1999). ACT maintains thatthe fundamental problem in depression is excessive experiential avoidance (or a lackof acceptance), which is an unwillingness to remain in contact with particular privateexperiences coupled with attempts to escape or avoid these experiences (Hayes andGifford 1997; Hayes et al. 1999). The Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ;Hayes et al. 2004) was developed to measure experiential avoidance, and in supportof its incremental validity, Boelen and Reijntjes (2008) discovered the nine-itemversion of the AAQ remained significantly associated with depression aftercontrolling for neuroticism and thought suppression. Taken together, these resultsreveal that acceptance of present experience is an important component ofmindfulness, and may be central to the prevention and treatment of depression andits relapse.

Overall, when utilizing self-esteem and negative cognitions as covariates in theprediction of satisfaction with life and depression symptoms, respectively, themajority of mindfulness components were non-significant predictors. These resultslargely failed to replicate previous research in which all facets of the FFMQ (with theexception of Observe) were significant predictors of psychological well-being (Baer etal. 2008) and the MAAS accounted for significant variance relative to positive andnegative affect (Zvolensky et al. 2006), pain intensity (McCracken et al. 2007), andperfectionism (Argus and Thompson 2008) in the prediction of depressionsymptoms. Several possible factors may have accounted for the results in thecurrent study. First, we sought to build on the extant literature by including self-appraisal and cognitive covariates in the prediction of satisfaction with life anddepression symptoms. Both covariates accounted for a substantial percentage of

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variance in each criterion variable—self-esteem accounted for 39% of satisfaction withlife and negative cognitions accounted 65% of depression symptoms—providing a verystringent test of the incremental validity of the KIMS and MAAS. Second, although theKIMSwas developed to assess four distinct mindfulness skills and theMAAS assesses apresent-centered attention that does not appear to be captured by the KIMS (Baer et al.2004), several strong correlations between these components of mindfulness (e.g.,MAAS and Act with Awareness, r=.50), suggests that including all four KIMS factorsand the MAAS as simultaneous predictors in the regression models may have beenredundant. Third, given the pattern of statistically significant zero-order correlationsbetween facets of mindfulness and the criterion variables, but non-significantregressions after accounting for covariates, it is also possible that self-esteem andnegative cognitions may mediate the relationships between mindfulness andsatisfaction with life and depression symptoms, respectively.

Nevertheless, these results suggest that the MAAS and most of the KIMS factorsmay not contribute unique variance in the prediction of satisfaction with life anddepression symptoms. In light of the conceptual overlap between variouscomponents of mindfulness and theoretically related variables, these results furtherhighlight the importance assessing the incremental validity of measures ofmindfulness in addition to analyzing zero-order correlations. For example, in thisstudy Observe evidenced the smallest zero-order correlation with satisfaction withlife in comparison to the other KIMS factors and the MAAS; however, in theprediction of satisfaction with life, relative to self-esteem, only Observe maintained asignificant relationship.

The results of this study must be interpreted with caution due to severallimitations. First, the sample was composed of a relatively homogenous group ofcollege students, thus generalizations beyond this population must be tentativelymade. Although some research has supported transporting mindfulness measuresinto other cultures (Dekeyser et al. 2008), other studies suggest that Westernoperationalizations of mindfulness may not adequately capture different culturalconceptualizations of this construct (Christopher et al. 2009; Johnson 2006).Therefore, replication with more diverse (e.g., ethnicity, age, education) samples isneeded to determine if these results are relevant to different groups. Second, across-sectional design was used to test the hypotheses in this study. Future researchtesting the validity of various operationalizations of mindfulness will benefit frommore prospective designs across larger periods of time. Third, the correlationalmethods employed in this study preclude statements of causality regarding therelationships between mindfulness and theoretically relevant variables. A growingnumber of researchers have begun investigating the effects of experimentallyinduced mindful self-focus (e.g., Kuehner et al. 2009), and future studies maybenefit by further examining corresponding effects on multiple components ofmindfulness and related variables within the same analyses.

With these limitations in mind, we believe these findings have importantimplications. The recent integration of mindfulness into Western psychology hasgenerated a great deal of enthusiasm, and the preliminary research results areencouraging. In this study we provided a stringent test of the incremental validity ofthe four KIMS factors and the MAAS. Although Observe was predictive ofsatisfaction with life and Accept without Judgment was predictive of depression

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symptoms, overall the findings in this study suggest that components of mindfulnessmay offer little in terms of predicting satisfaction with life and depression symptomsrelative to well-established self-appraisal and cognitive predictor variables.

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