In the wake: postcolonial migrations from the Horn of Africa

Derek Duncan

Date of deposit 01 08 2019

Document version Author’s accepted manuscript

Access rights © The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press for the Court of the University of St Andrews. All rights reserved. This work is made available online in

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Citation for

published version

Duncan, D. (2019). In the wake: postcolonial migrations from the

Horn of Africa. Forum for Modern Language Studies, 56(1), [cqz055].

Link to published version

https://doi.org/10.1093/fmls/cqz055

Full metadata for this item is available in St Andrews Research

Repository at: https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/

IntheWake:PostcolonialMigrationsfromtheHornofAfrica

Abstract

AbuBakrKhaal’sAfricanTitanics(writteninArabic)andJonnySteinberg’sA

ManofGoodHope(writteninEnglish)trackdiasporicmovementsfromthe

formerItaliancoloniesofEritreaandSomalia.Focussingonmobilityratherthan

memory,bothbookstracecomplicatedandunpredictablepatternsofforced

displacementandprecarioussettlement.AfricanTitanicschartsthejourneyfrom

EritreatotheshoresoftheMediterraneanandtheseacrossingtoEuropewhile

AManofGoodHopefollowsthemovementoverlandfromSomaliatoSouth

Africa.Bothtextsdelineatecommunitiesnetworkedacrossnationalbordersand

proposeanalternativegeographyformedbyculturalcommonalityratherthan

geopoliticaldivision.TheessaydrawsonChristinaSharpe’sconceptofthe‘wake’

asameansofunderstandinghowmigrantsubjectivityandcommunityare

formedthroughthemultipleformsofracialisedviolenceexperiencedin

transnationalmobility.

Keywords

Italianpostcoloniality;transnationalmobility;migration;Eritrea;Somalia;the

wake;creativepractice

Look,thisain'tentertainment,it'sforniggasontheslaveship

Thesesongsjustthespirituals,Iswamagainstthemwaveswith

Endeduponshoretotheiramazement

NowIhopetheexampleIset'snotcontagious

Lockusbehindgatesbutcan'ttameus

Usedtobestaysafe,nowit'sstaydangerous

'Causeain'tnopointinplayingdefensenigga

That'swhyIdoveoffthedeependnigga

Withoutalifejacket.1

TheselinesfromNipseyHussle’strack‘Dedication’makevisibleaprobably

unexpectedalignmentbetweenpatternsofBlacklifeanddeathintheUSandthe

globaldiasporaofpostcolonialItaly.‘Dedication’explicitlyrecallsthehistoryof

BlackdisempowermentintheUS,andpraisestheongoingworkofresistance

‘againstthemwaves’.However,theimageinthefinallinesofdivingintothe

water‘withoutalifejacket’extendsthecompassofthelyricsbeyondtheBlack

AtlantictosuggesttheirpossiblerelevancetothecontemporaryBlack

Mediterranean.2ReferredtobyLorisdeFilippi,PresidentofMSFinItaly,asa

‘massgrave’,3theMediterraneanhasbecomeamortuaryforthousandsofpeople

attemptingtoreachEuropeatgreatpersonalandfinancialcost.Manyofthose

attemptingtocrossarefromEritreaaswellasfromneighboringSomaliaand

Ethiopia,nationswhoseborderswereformedlargelybyItaly’scolonial

occupation.4Thisunexpectedalignmentwashoweveralreadypresentinthe

rapper’sfamilyhistory.FleeingtheongoingwarbetweenEthiopiaandhis

homeland,hisfather,DawitAsghedom,movedtotheUSfromEritreainthemid-

1970swherehemetAngeliqueSmith,theAfrican-Americanwomanwithwhom

heraisedtheirtwosonsErmias(NipseyHussle)andSamiel(BlaccSam),and

daughterSamantha.Dawittookbothhissonsasteenagerstovisittheformer

Italiancolonywheretheyreturnedtomediaacclaimin2018evenmeetingthe

controversialpresidentIsiasAfwerki.

Thepatternsdrawnin‘Dedication’betweenapparentlyseparate

instancesofBlackoppressionanticipateNipseyHussle’sfatalshootinginLos

Angeleson31March2019.FromanAmericanperspective,hismurderis

symptomaticofwhatSaidiyaHartmanhascalled‘theafterlifeofslavery–

skewedlifechances,limitedaccesstohealthandeducation,prematuredeath,

incarceration,andimpoverishment.’5Yetitneedsalsotobefiguredasa

discordantelementinwhatCristinaLombardi-DiopandCaterinaRomeoreferto

asthe‘transhistoricalandgeographicallyexpansivenatureofpostcolonialityin

theItaliancontext’,thedisparateandoftenforcedmovementsofpeoplethrough

colonialconquest,andtransnationalandinternalmigration.6Slavery’safterlife

andItalianpostcolonialityarealso,amongstotherthings,ongoingcontemporary

articulationsofhistoricaldivisionsgroundedinmodesofracialisedthinkingand

practice,andshare,albeitdifferently,aself-reflexiverelationshipwiththe

Africancontinent.ChristinaSharpe’sIntheWake:OnBlacknessandBeing

providesthecriticaltoolsforbindingmoretightlythetwostrandsofNipsey

Hussle’spersonalandfamilyhistory.7Primarilyanindictmentoftheviolent,

injuriousaftermathofslaverythatcontinuestoimprintBlacklifeintheUS,its

argumentexpandstoreflectontheperilsofBlacknessinaglobalcontext.

Beginninghercritiquewithadetailedaccountofherpersonalandfamilial

positioninginslavery’shomicidalwake,Sharpepursuesdoggedlytheimageof

the‘wake’invokingbothametaphoricalunderstandingofthewave-trailbehind

theslaveritselfandtheliteral,enduringlabourofmourningand

commemoratingthedead.8Movingbeyondtoolinearanunderstandingof

slavery’sgeopoliticallegacy,shededicatesasignificantpartofherbooktothe

wake’sexpansivepresence:‘Livinginthewakeonagloballevelmeanslivingthe

disastroustimeandeffectofcontinuedmarkedmigrations.’9Linkingthedeathof

migrantsintheBlackMediterraneanwithlifeconditionsforBlackpeopleinthe

contemporaryUS,shecreatesacompellingconnectiontoNipseyHussleandhis

work.

Sharpetightensthatconnectionthroughherinsistencethattoliveinthe

wakeistobecriticallyconsciousofitspresence,andalerttoatleastthe

possibilityofthinkingconstructivelybeyonditsdefiningballast.Whilethe

perniciousscriptingofBlacklives,orwhatshecallsthe‘orthographyofthe

wake’remainsinescapable,Blacksubjectsinthewakemaydrawontheirown

culturaltraditionsandpracticesofcreativelabourandresiliencetocontest,in

fullcriticalconsciousness,logicsofanti-blackness.Blacklifeandhumanity

subsistsin,andthrough,multipleformsofculturalproduction‘thattakeupthe

wakeasawaytowardunderstandinghowslavery’scontinuedunfoldingis

constitutiveofthecontemporaryconditionsofspatial,legal,psychic,and

materialdimensionsofBlacknon/beingaswellasBlackaestheticandother

modesofdeformationandinterruption’.10NipseyHussleinhabitsthewake

thereforenotjustasavictim,butentersitsspaceasacriticalcreative

practitionerandpoliticalarchivistofBlacklives.

WritingtheWake

Inthisvein,whatfollowsisananalysis,fromtheperspectiveofthewake,oftwo

contemporaryAfricannarrativeswrittenatthehistoricalintersectionsofItalian

postcolonialityandBlacktransnationalmobility.Theyarticulatethewake’s

expansivegeopoliticsandaestheticsinthattheirsubjectssetoutfromthe

formerItaliancoloniesofEritreaandSomalia,yetItalyanditslegacydonot

determinetheirtrajectories.Neithertextiswritteninthecolonizer’slanguage,

nordoesItalyappeartobeaparticularpointofreference.11Myargumentisthat

Sharpe’sconceptualizationofthewakeasaspaceofcriticalglobalencounter

offersanecessarysupplementtoasolelyItalocentricapproachtothe

postcolonialafterlifeoftheHornofAfrica.

AbuBakrKhaalwasborninEritreaandlivedinexileinLibyafora

numberofyears.In2011,hespentseveralmonthsinaTunisianmigrantcamp,

beforecrossingtoEuropeandnowlivesinDenmark.AfricanTitanicswasfirst

publishedinArabicin2008withtheEnglishtranslationappearingin2014.12

ThisshortnovelbeginsandendsinEritrea,butrelates,largelyinchronological

order,thenarrator’shazardouslandjourneyacrosstheSaharaandtimespentin

LibyaandTunisiawaitingforavesseltotakehimacrosstheMediterranean.It

focusesonthehardshipsinflictedonthenarratorandhiscompanionswhocome

fromalloverAfricaandtheMiddleEast,butisinterspersedwithreferencesto

pastlives,poetryandcreativestory-telling,aswellaspremonitionsof

catastropheandredemption.ThereaderisalsointroducedtoMaloukwhose

poetry,music,andfantasticaccountsofhistravellingforebearswillinspirethe

narrator’sowndeparturefromrealist,testimonialnarrativeasheimagines

worldsbeyondhispresentbeleagueredlife.Thenovelendswithashortpoem

composedbyMaloukafterhisunconfirmeddeath,nobodyhavingeverbeen

recoveredoridentified.

JonnySteinbergisawhiteSouthAfricanjournalistandacademicwhose

workcharacteristicallyfuseshistoryandbiography,participantobservation,and

testimony.AManofGoodHope:OneMan’sExtraordinaryJourneyfromMogadishu

toTinCanTown(2015)isbasedmainlyonanextendedseriesof

interviews/conversationswithAsadAbdullahi,aSomalimigrantinSouthAfrica

betweenOctober2010andSeptember2011.13ThetitletruncatesAsad’sjourney

whichultimatelytakeshimtoKansasafterhisstayinBlikkiesdorp,the

relocationcampoutsideCapeTown.SteinbergchartsAsad’sflightfrom

Mogadishuasachildin1991followingtheoverthrowofSiadBarre’s

government,theyearsspentincamps,withdistantfamilymembers,andonthe

streetinKenyaandthenEthiopiawherehemarriedhisfirstwife.Aftertraveling

overlandtoSouthAfrica,hesetupaseriesofprecariousbusinesseswiththe

helpofmembersofthediasporicSomalicommunity,andwasthevictimof

violentassaultsaswellaswitnesstothemurdersofclosefriendsand

associates.14Steinberg’sinitialresearchprojecthadinfactbeenaninvestigation

intothexenophobicviolencethatspreadacrossSouthAfricainthespringof

2008.Thebook’sconcludingsectiondealswithAsad’sformalawardofrefugee

status,acategorizationthatallowshimtoapplysuccessfullytomigratetotheUS,

thefocusofthebook’sEpilogue.

BothauthorsareawarethattheywriteintheshadowofwhatSharpecalls

the‘dysgraphia’ofnoxiousscriptswhichmarkBlacklives.Ashortparagraphin

AfricanTitanicsindictsItalianstatetelevision’sroutineportrayalofdeathinthe

Mediterranean:

TheItalianRAIchannelsalwaysbegantheirbroadcastswithreportsof

shipwrecksandimagesofmenandwomenpluckedfromthewaves.Rows

ofdrownedcorpseswereroutinelydisplayed,carelesslycoveredoveras

thoughvictimsofastreetbrawl.Asthecameratravelledovertheirfaces,

theterrorandmiserytheyhadsufferedwasinstantlyapparent.15

Thereiterationoftheseimagesgeneratesthesenseofapermanentstateofbeing

ratherthanasingularlossoflife.Thenarratorinsertsthisparagraphintoa

descriptionofhowheandhiscompanionsinTripoliflickbetweensatellite

televisionchannelstofindthelatestweatherforecastcomparingdifferent

prognosticsandhowpossiblevariationsmightimpactonimminentdepartures

andcrossings.Hereturnstothisrepresentationallogicofsufferingacoupleof

pageslatertalkingaboutthemimeticchargeofsuchscenesonthebodiesofhis

fellowtravellersastheyapproachtheramshackleboatsthatwillcarrythemout

intoperilouswatersoftheMediterranean:‘theirfaceswouldbecontortedby

abjectterror’(p.61).Thephysiologicaleffectsofthisterroraredescribedin

detailaspassengerslosecontroloftheirbladdersandbowels,somethrowing

themselvesoverboardinanticipationofcertaindeath.16Panicandhostilityare

interruptedbysingingaspeopleloseconsciousness,oraretransformedinto

savage,cannibalisticmonsters:‘Youwatchthemfightingtothedeath,benton

destructionwitheveryfibreoftheirbeings.Theyhavebecomeanimals,andyou

fearthatyouhavebecomeonetoo’(p.62).

Writingin2012,Steinbergpledges‘todocument,baldlyandwithout

adornment’whatAsadhadexperiencedduringthetimeoftheircollaboration.17

Theperiodwascharacterizedbythereturnofxenophobicmobviolencewith

Asad’spropertyandfamilypersistentlythreatenedandattacked.TheSouth

AfricanpolicerefusedtosupportandindeedtargetedthebesiegedSomali

community,regularlyimprisoningitsmembersandfailingtoinvestigatecrimes

perpetratedagainstit.Steinbergreportsthefollowingincidentthattookplace

duringagangriot:

AttheverytimethepolicewerealloverBlikkiesdorp,aSomalichild,

agedten,wasfoundhangingfromtheclotheslinebyherownjerseyinher

parents’yard.Shehadgoneoutinthemorningtobuyacolddrink.Her

mother,whohadbeguntoworrybecauseherdaughterhadbeengonea

longtime,walkedoutoftheshackintotheyardandsawherswinging.

(p.297)

Thereaderinfersthatshehadbeenlynched;theauthorities’subsequent

imputationofsuicideexoneratedthemandindictedblackmigrantculpability.

ThefollowingdaySteinbergtookalocalradiojournalisttothetownshipto

reportontheincidentandwasleftbereftatthebanalityandindifferenttoneof

thebroadcastreport.Thefollowingparagraph’sconcludingsentencereiterates

Khaal’sindictmentofthe‘deepinadequacy’ofItalianstatetelevision’svisual

dysgraphiaoftheBlackMediterranean:

AsIlistened,Iwasstruckbythedeepinadequacyofnews.Howdoesone

conveytheenormityofwhathadhappened?Thousandsoflisteners,in

thebubblesoftheircars,madetheirwayhomeintherush-hourtraffic.

Somewhereontheedgeofthecity,localshadagoatforeigners.The

policewerenotterriblyinterested.Thatishowitis.(p.298)18

Conversely,asIwillshow,neitherauthoracceptsthatthis‘ishowitis’,and

instancesofresistantorthographiesofthewakeoccurthroughoutbothtexts.

AfricanTitanics:writingoutofthewake

Incontrasttotheculturalnationalismofthelanguageofstatemedia,collective

migrantresistanceischaracterizedbyinformal,quotidianpracticesoflinguistic

adaptationandtranslation.Oneofthefirstinstancesofresistant‘wakework’

occurredduringtheMiddlePassagewhenenslavedAfricanswithnocommon

languagesucceededininventingcreativestrategiesforcommunication.Sandro

MezzadraandBrettNeilsonexpandonthishistoricalpracticetoencompassthe

abilityofmigrantsunderduresstospeakacrosslanguagesin‘improvisedpatois’

underscoringthepoliticalpotentialofvernacularpracticesoftranslation.The

resultisthecreationof‘alanguagethatiscommonpreciselybecauseitisforever

intranslationandrootedinmaterialpracticesofcooperation,organization,and

struggle’.19CommentingonmultilingualtracesinrecentfictionfromtheAfrican

diaspora,PierPaoloFrassinellireferstoNaokiSakai’sconceptofthe

‘nonaggregatecommunityofforeigners’toconveythesenseoftransnational

linguisticandaffectiveidentificationthatconstructsborder-crossing

communities.20InbothAfricanTitanticsandAManofGoodHope,linguistic

supplenessprovesanessentialtoolforsurvival.Asaddependsonhisabilityto

navigatecomplexlinguisticeconomiesashelearnsandperfectsnewlanguage

competenciesashetravels.Thetextalsocontainswordsfromlanguagesother

thanEnglishthateffectivelydemonstratetheinadequacyofasingletongueto

conveyhisexperience.InAfricanTitanics,thetravellers’nativetonguesmightbe

Amharic,Tigré,Hausa,orWolof,yetthetransnationalandhencetranslingual

dimensionsofthemigrantexperienceareexpressedinthecommonidiomsof

Arabic,French,orEnglish.Oneofthenarrator’smostpreciouspossessionsishis

pocketEnglishdictionary.Malouk,thenovel’spoet,speaksin‘flawlessEnglish’

(p.76).Yetsilencedbodiesalsospeakeffectivelyintranslation.To‘resortto

mime’(p.51)intheenclosureofthebuildingwherethemigrantswaitfortheir

shipisanactofdefiantandcollectivesurvival,andconsolationisoffered‘inthe

universallanguageofhumanemotion’(p.52).Asthenarratorsiftsthrough

‘scatteredobjects’(p.44)leftbyprevioustravellersintheenclosedcourtyard,he

happensacrossaletterwritteninEnglishsomeyearsbeforerelatingthe

hazardousjourneyfromNigeriatotheLibyancoast.HeandTerhas,hisfemale

companion,readtheletter,surrogatesfortheintendedrecipientwhomaynever

havefoundoutwhathappenedtoitssender.Laterthatevening,thenarrator

findsTerhasonthevergeoftearsreadingshortmessagesinscribedonthe

kitchenwallsbymigrantswaitingtoleave.Inthisperiodofsuspendedtime,

thosewaitingexpressedtheirdoubts,fears,andhopesinamultilingual

patchworkofsharedexperience,some,butnotall,ofwhichthetworeadersare

abletodecipher.Somemessagesaredated,somenamed,andsomeself-

consciouslysigned‘anonymous’.Thepunctuationofthese‘melancholymessages’

bythe‘oddamusingone’(p.47)isnotredemptive,butjoinswiththeothersin

thedeterminedaddresstoanafterlife.

ThesefragmentsechothetemporalitiesofMalouk’sstoriesandpoemsof

resilience,fear,andquotidianviolencewovenintothemainnarrative.He

imaginativelyinvokestwoofhisancestorsalsocalledMalouk.21Thefirst,apoet

likehisdescendent,drowned,butbecomesthestuffoflegendasfishermenclaim

stilltoseehisghostlyvessel.Thisstoryanticipatesthebook’sfinalchapterthat

recountsthespectralafterlifeofthepresent-dayMaloukpresumeddrownedin

theMediterranean.Hehauntsthenarrator’sdreams,yetrumorsofMalouk,as

wellastracesofhispoeticvoice,seepacrossinternetchat-rooms.Maloukthe

Second,alsoagreatstory-teller,‘travelledintothefutureandboughtprophecies

backwithhim’(p.99)disruptingconventionalinhabitationsoftemporality.

Wordstraversegenerationalboundaries,andMalouk’sownpoem,‘Crossing’,

immediatelyfollowswithhopesof‘anamulet/Tocross/Straitsoffire/Towards

continentsofsnow’(p.101).ThebookendswithoneofMalouk’sposthumous

songsthataffirmhispresenceinthewake:

Toallthepoundinghearts

Infeverishboats

Iwillcut

Throughthesepaths

Withmyownliberatedheart

Andtellmysoul

Toshoutofyoursilenceddeaths

Andfill

Palmsofdustwithmorningdew

Andsong(p.122)22

Thetextisshapedbyasimilardeterminationtospeakof‘silenceddeaths’.The

finalpagesofthepenultimatechapterdetailthenarrator’sreimaginingofthe

horrorsofMalouk’sseajourneyandhisdeath.Almostatoncetheboatbeginsto

takeinwaterasthepassengerstrytocombattheeffectsoftheweatherandthe

waves.Twoofthedeadarethrownoverboard:‘Inthemorning,thebodies

reappeared,floatingalongsidetheboat.Blackcloudsgatheredoverheadand

stormsenvelopedtheboatonceagain,lashingitrelentlesslyasrainpoured

downforhoursonend’(p.110).Acommercialsteamercomesintosight:

‘Letsthrowoutoneofthecorpsessotheycanseewhatstatewe’rein!’

Malouksuggested.Theyhoistedupawoman’sbodyandthrewitintothe

water.Butthesteamercontinuedonitscourseandthesailorsremained

ondeck,theirarmsfoldedacrosstheirchestssmilingandsniggering(p.

110)

Onepassengerthrowshimselfintotheseaindespair;hisbodydoesnotcome

backtothesurface.Theboatisfinallyovertakenbythe‘fatefulwave’thatsinks

theshipsendingMalouktohisdeath.Thechaptercloseswithapoemcomposed

byMaloukin‘thoseterrifyingmoments’written,therefore,inthefullest

consciousnessofthewake.Inresponsetoinhumanindifference,hetoo

addressestheSea:‘Inthenameofthefaces/Etchedonyourmemory/Inthe

nameofthose/Whohaveimprintedtheircries/Ontheair’(p.113).The

commemorativehopeinvestedintheSeastandsatoddswiththe‘unnamed

boats/Likeunmarkedgraves’inwhichthetravellershadinvested.23Forjustlike

thepurloinedslavesoftheMiddlePassagedeemedtobeofmaterialnothuman

value,‘Civilisationcrucifiesthem/Abovetheborder’sbarbs/Theircorpsesare

raisedhigh/Likeplunder’(p.114).

ThroughoutIntheWake,Sharpereturnsinsistentlytothecontemporary

Mediterranean.SheunderscoresthefinancialnatureoftheMediterranean

traffic,anditsechoofthetransatlanticslavetrade,mostlytellinglyunraveledin

thelegaldebatesoverthecargo,or‘plunder’,oftheinfamousslaveshipZong.24

Yettheprimarypointofreferenceiscontemporary.Shespecificallyrecallsthe

shipwreckof3October2013inwhichover360people(mostlyEritrean)died,

manyofwhomsuffocatedunderdeck.25Thedetailsofthesinkingitself(the

deliberatesettingfiretotheshipandthereluctancetoassist)underscorethe

lackofhumanvalueattributedtothe‘silenceddeaths’onboard.26Moreover,

Khaal’sdescriptionofthesinkingofMalouk’sboatuncannilyrehearsesthe

unfoldingofeventsontheZongandthesinkingof3October2013,yethiswork

ensuresthesilentdeadanafterlife.

AManofGoodHope:beinginthewake

IfthedominanttropeaswellasrealityofAfricanTitanicsistheshipitself,inA

ManofGoodHopeitismorespecificallythehold,ortheenclosureofthecamp.

Indeed,formostrefugeesfromtheHornofAfricafleeingtoneighboring

countriessuchasKenya,Sudan,andYemen,theUNHCRcampisthedefining

spaceoftheirexperienceratherthantheseapassagetoEurope.27Thecamp

determinesAsad’sstatusasastate-lesssubject.Whileitoffershimbothan

elementofsustenanceandprotectionaswellasthepossibilityofescape,its

habitationunderlineshislackofcitizenship.HeembodieswhatFrassinelli

describesas‘theprecarityandvulnerabilityofthemobileidentitiesand

communitiesshapedbytheexperienceofmigration.’28Inordertoeffectthis

escapefromthecamp,heneedsanidentitywhichallowshimtotranscendthe

limitationsofhiscircumstances,andinasense,inventanewself.Whereas

Maloukcreatesmyriadworldsoffantasy,Asad’sstorymustbesingular.Itis

trainedonaparticularversionofthepastinordertoobtainaparticularfuture.

SteinbergmetAsadsixmonthsafterhehadmovedtoatownshipunderthe

auspicesofaUNHCRresettlementprogrammethroughwhichhehopedtogain

entrytotheUS.AsanestablishedSouthAfricanwriter,Steinbergpossesses

culturalandeconomiccapital.HereadswidelyaboutSomaliaandtheHornof

Africa,andconsultscontemporaryhistoriansandpoliticalscientists.Notonlyis

heabletopayforhisstory,heisabletotraveleasilytoEuropeandAfricatovisit

placeswhereAsadhadlivedandmeetpeoplewhoknewhisfamily.Thesetrips

allowhimtocorroborateorrevisethenarrative,andheisabletogather

informationaboutfamilymembersanditshistorywhichAsadhimselfdoesn’t

possess.Thisinformationaboutthefamily’soriginsanditsdiasporic

displacementsafter1991aswellasAsad’slackofknowledgeaboutthemare

oncemorefashionedinthewake.HediscoversthatAsad’sparentswerenot

fromMogadishuashehadbelieved,butfromtheOgadenregionofEthiopia

wherehehadspentsomemonths.Theknowledgethathisparentswere,like

him,refugeesstrikesatAsad’ssenseofself.They‘alsohadtorunfromplaceto

place,knowingnohome’(p.309).

Throughoutthetext,Asadspeaksself-consciouslyasarefugee.Genuinely

fearfuloftheviolencedirectedathimandhisbusinessventuresinSouthAfrica,

heappliesfora‘refugeecard’asthefirststepinplottinganescape.Asad’s

assumptionofabureaucratizedidentityleadstoanextendedinterviewwithUS

immigrationofficialsinwhichherecountsindetail‘acarefullycraftedstory

abouthislife.Hedidnotlie;hedescribedfaithfullyandingreatdetailthe

incidentsofviolencetowhichhehadbeensubjectsincecomingtoSouthAfrica’

(p.300).SteinbergnotesthatAsadomitsthearrayofapparentlycontradictory

choicesthatmightmoreaccuratelybeattributedtoaresisting‘border-crossing

agent.’29Hechoosesinsteadtobecomethediminishedprotagonistofthe

narrativeprofferedtotheimmigrationofficialswhich‘whittledawayattheflesh

ofhisbeing,leavingonlyastickfigure,ahaplessrefugee’(p.300).

The‘haplessrefugee’islatercharacterizedmorefullyintermsofthe

wake:

Arefugeehaslostcontrol.Greathistoricalforceshaveupendedhimand

henolongerhasaplaceintheworld.Hehasbecomeanin-betweensort

ofbeing,suspendedbetweenapastinwhichhebelongedsomewhereand

afutureinwhichhemightbelongsomewhereoncemore.Butfornowhe

isinabeyance;heissweptthiswayandthat,likeflotsaminatide.(p.

312)

Therefugeeisbothoutofplaceandoutoftime,aspectralpresence,withnoneof

theallureofMalouk’stravellingspiritinAfricanTitanics.As‘flotsam’,heis

merelywreckage,debris,floatingcargo.Butitisthroughthebrutefactofbeing

‘inabeyance’anditsimplicationofasuspensionofpersonhoodthattherefugee’s

desolationismostsurelyenacted.Asmentionedabove,oneofthewaysinwhich

Asadnegotiatedandexpressedhisresilienceandentrepreneurshipwasthrough

hisabilitytoacquireandoperateacrossmultiplelanguages.Atpoints,however,

heisdispossessedbythem.AshequeuesonedayinPortElizabethtoapplyfor

asylum-seekerstatus,hehearsbriefburstsofSwahili,Amharic,andSomali:‘It

wasasiffragmentsofhisownbiographyhadtakenaudibleformandwerenow

beingthrownathim,asifarandomselectionofmemorieshadlefthisheadand

foundtheirwaytothetonguesofothers’(p.185).Theviolenceperpetrated

againsthimconstantlythreatenshiserasure.Aftertheriotsof2008,herealizes

that‘hewasfallingbackintohisownpast’(p.273),housedinyetanothercamp.

Strugglingtoremaina‘border-crossingagent’,he‘wasnodifferentfromhis

duffelbag’(p.147).

SteinbergfinallycomestorealizethatAsaddoesnotwanthisbook.The

bookrequiresAsadtorememberandseehimselfasthis‘haplessrefugee’.

Readingthetranscriptofhismemoriesrevealsthelossofhishumanity‘thisboy

kickedthroughlifelikeastone;thereadingstripshimofhisguard…Seeinghis

lifethiswayisbreakinghisheart,hereports.Heisafraidtoreadfurther,lestthe

lostboyinthecampcreepinsidehimandinstallhimselfforever’(p.278).

‘Everywhere,itisloss,loss,loss’(p.326),heremonstrates,unabletobearthe

traumaticsightinprintofthenamesofallthosehehadindeedlost.Steinberg’s

finelywroughtprosechaffsagainsttheformofAsad’srecollection.Attemptingto

crosstheZambianborder,‘thingswentbadly,andhismemoriesofthenextfew

dayscomeintheformofflashesandscenesandspectacles,theconnections

betweenthemnotentirelyclear…Asad’smemorydissolves,or,atanyrate,his

willtorecallfades…’(pp.158-59).TogobackwardstoSomaliaisunthinkable:‘I

knewthatifIwentbacktherelifewouldbethesame,thesame,untilIdie.Tobe

abletowakeupinthemorningistokeepthatpossibilityofsomethingdifferent

alive’(p.231).WakingupinSouthAfricameansthathewillnotremain

indefinitely‘inabeyance’.InretrospectSteinbergrecognizesthatAsad’s

transformative,yetsilenced,ambitionputpressureontherefugeenarrative.It

wasambitionforadesiredfuturewithnoclearreferent:‘Iwantedtotravel,Ijust

wasn’tsurewhereto’(p.215).Asad’spropensitytocourtrisk‘sothathis

childrenandtheirchildrenandtheirchildreninturnlivelivesnobodyinSomalia

atthetimeofhisownbirthcouldhaveimagined’istransformative(p.313).The

texthintsatotherinexpressiblelives:‘hedesiredmorethananythingtobea

husbandandfather,butnotintheworldheknew.Hewouldhavetoburst

throughawallandintoanotherworld’(p.245).Theseotherunrealized

narrativesare‘wakeworkasapraxisofimagining’.30

Asad’sdesolationinthisworldisplayedoutinthesame‘wakeof

violence’(p.323)asSadicya,hissecondwifeandhersonMusharaf.Hehadmet

theminthehomelesscampafterthefirstoutbreaksofanti-Somaliviolencein

2008:‘Itstruckhimthattheyweredying.Notliterally:theywerenotmortallyill.

Butintheirfuturelaydeath’(p.276).SadicyabelongstotheGalgale,anoutcast

SomaligroupfurtherandmorebrutallymarginalizedaftertheoverthrowofSiad

Barre.In1991,hundredswereforcedintothefootballstadiuminMogadishuand

slaughtered.31SteinbergonlyrealizesthedepthofherisolationinKansaswhen

heaccompaniesthefamilytoadoctor’sappointmentfortheirsickbaby

daughter:

SadicyaisonthecouchnexttoRahma.Herbodyisturnedfromher

daughter,herchinislifted.Andhergazeisfixedonsomethinginanother

world.Sheisherebutnothere.Thehowlsthatfilltheroomare

backgroundnoise(p.322).

UnliketheotherSomaliwomenSteinbergseesintheUSwhoseemtobeleading

full,activelives,Sadicyaappearsincreasinglywithdrawn,disengagedfromthe

tasksoflookingafterthehouseandthechildren.TherepresentationofSadicya

(foritisSteinbergwhocontendsthatthehowlsfillingtheroomare‘background

noise’)extendsthroughthewaketorecallthatofAereileJackson,discussedin

Sharpe’sdissectionofthedocumentaryfilmTheForgottenSpace(2010).32

AereileJackson,theonlyBlackpersoninthefilmtospeak,appearsinasegment

dealingwithdisplacedcommunitiesnearLosAngeles.Whiletheunemployed

whitemenfeaturedareidentifiedintermsoftheirpreviousprofessions,she

appearsinthecreditsas‘formermother’,areferencetothefactthather

children,thelossofwhomsheembodiesandactsout,hadbeentakenfromher.

Throughtheanguishedtemporalityofdisavowedordisallowedmaternity,

SharpereturnstoBlackabjection:‘Whatdoesthisphrasingof“formermother”

todescribeawomanwhosechildrenhadbeentakenfromher(andlikelyplaced

into“care”)tellusabouttheafterlivesofslaveryandtheafterlivesof

property?’33Saidicya’sabjectionisfiguredthroughthehauntingtemporalityof

the‘formermother’.Whilesheisstillwithherchildren,itisAsadwholooksafter

them.Thereasonsfortheirmarriageremainopaque,andAsadresists

Steinberg’sattempttofinditspsychologicalresonancesinhischildhoodtrauma.

HefinallyfindsitsmeasureinanimaginedsceneofAsadreturningtohisshop

immolatedintheriots:

Thewallsaregone;onlytheconcretefloorremains.Hegaspswhenhe

takesthisin.Aroundhimisevidenceofawilltoobliteratehim,toscorch

andburnhimuntilheisnolongerapresenceonthisearth.Itisinhis

historytobeobliterated.ItisinSadicya’s.(p.284)

AsaGalgale,Sadicya’sobliterationisalsoethnicorracial,anocclusionwhich

AsadhimselfrailsagainstevenashefindsitrearticulatedamongsttheSomali

communityinKansas.TheprotectionAsadoffersherhelpsrepairtheviolence

thatthe‘pogroms’inthetownships(p.324)hadinflictedonhim

TransnationalMigrations

Steinberg’slexicalevocationofRussiananti-semitismgivesatransnationaltwist

tothebrutalityofAsad’sexperience.Sharpeeffectsasimilartwistinher

discussionofthewake’s‘weather’ortherepeatingclimaticconditionshostileto

Blacklives.AsthenarratorofAfricanTitanicsreports,goodweatherconditions

areessentialforthecrossing,butdonotdetermineitsultimatesuccess:

Andwhenthemigrantsreachtheshore,theyareoftenreturnedtothe

holdintheformofthecamp,theLager,thedetentioncenter,andsoon,

andtheymaybereturnedtotheship.Castbehind,setadrift,onceagain.34

Sharpe’sevocationofthecampisalmostinevitablegivenwakework’sbroad

compassandindeedthehistoryofthecampasamodeofsocialcontrolbornin

thelaboratoryofcolonialism.35YetthedeploymentoftheGermanloanword

Lager,thediffusionofwhichinEnglishdependslargelyontheworkoftheItalian

JewishwriterPrimoLevi,makesanincursionintoItalianpostcoloniality.Inthe

concludingchapterofTheBlackAtlantic,PaulGilroylookstoLeviforsome

understandingofwhat‘racialslaverymusthavemeant’.Heseesaparallel

betweenhowLevifigurestheprisoners’dehumanizationthroughtheirforced

journeyandtheirsubsequent‘conditionofnamelessness’and‘theliteratureand

historyofracialslaveryinthenewworld’.36JustasLevimovedbeyond

conventional,realiststrategiesofwriting,Gilroyfindsinthenon-realist

narrativestrategiesofblackwriterssuchasToniMorrisonthenecessary

resourcethroughwhichtogainan‘imaginativeproximitytoformsofterrorthat

surpassunderstandingandleadbackfromcontemporaryracialviolence,

throughlynching,towardsthetemporalandontologicalruptureofthemiddle

passage’.37BothGilroyandSharpeinvokeMorrison’sBeloved,hernovelof

hauntingandhauntedmaternityinslavery’swake,anticipatingSaidicya’s

dissidentmaternityinitscontortedandconvulsedtemporalities.38

ForGilroy,thediscursivepositionalityofslavery’safterlife(inwhich

Asad’snarrativeisplayedout)oscillatesbetween‘livedcrisisandsystemic

crisis’.39Steinberg’swell-informedbiographymightberegardedasadelineation

ofthelatter.Itisafinelycrafted,chronologicallyarrangedinterpretationof

monthsofdialogueinwhichthecompetingperspectivesofauthorandsubject

areconstantlycalledintoquestion.ForAsad,Steinbergisbothafinancial

resourceandbyvirtueofhiswhitenessashieldagainstpossibleaggression.

Steinberg’sperceptionofhissubject’suneaseopensupaspaceinhisprojectas

investigativejournalist:‘Itwasagift.Inthatmoment,hegavemetheinkwith

whichIhavewrittenthisbook’(p.293).Steinbergre-writesortranslatesAsad’s

existentialfearinthe‘orthographyofthewake’.YetasIhavenoted,Steinbergis

alsoawarethatAsadhassmudgedthatinkthroughhispraxisofimagining

otherwise.AManofGoodHopecontainsthreepoliticalmapswhichchartAsad’s

journeysacrossstateborders,aswellashisowndrawingsofpersonalspaces

wherehelivedasachild.Theirinclusionallowsfortheexpressionofthepolitical

frameworkthatunderpinshislifeanditsmultipledisplacements(thedetailsof

whichhe,unlikeSteinberg,islargelyignorant),andoftheaffectivemomentsof

respiteashemovedacrossthecontinent.Thesecontrastingvisual

representationscorrespondtotwodifferentcognitiveperspectiveswithinthe

wake.Asad’sdrawings,Iwouldsuggest,areexamplesofwhatGilroycallsthe

‘expressivecounterculture’oftransnationalBlackexperienceevidencedinthe

twotextsIhavediscussed.Neitheradherestothecomfortofanationalparadigm

orevenapredicablepostcolonialone,noroffersasimplecorrectivetothe

misrepresentationaldysgraphiaofthewakebysettingoutabetter,more

accurate,ormorehumaneversionofeventsorinterpretativeframe.Both,I

wouldsuggest,invitethereadertoinhabittheangry,fearful,andcreative

modalityofbeingthatswimming‘againstthemwaves’andlivinginthe

contradictionsofthewakeentails.

ThePostcolonialAfterlifeoftheWake

Asalreadymentioned,Italyasaformercolonialpowerseemsbarelytofeaturein

thesenarrativesofpostcoloniality.InAManofGoodHope,theonlyreferenceis

tosomeSomalimigrantsAsadmeetsinEthiopiawhoareplanningtogothere.In

AfricanTitanics,however,thereturnofthecolonialpastreturnsthenarratorto

hispointofdeparture.ArrestedbytheTunisianpolice,andinordertoavoid

immediateexpulsion,thenarratorandhiscompanionsdenyhavingenteredthe

countryfromLibya.TheirstoryunravelswhenthepolicediscoveraLibyan

banknote,keptasasouvenir,inthepocketofoneofthetravellers.Thebanknote

showsthefaceofOmaral-Mukhtar,theLibyannationalherowhofoughtagainst

Italianoccupationuntilhisexecutionin1931.Twoweekslater,thenarratorhas

beenrepatriatedtoEritrea.Thispostcolonialremnantorrelicworksacross

boundariesofspace,time,andcitizenshiptosolicitaflexible,transnational,yet

localized,praxisofcriticalanalysis.Wakeworkrequiresahistoricallyattentive

modeofinvestigationtocaptureitspurchase.

1NipseyHussle,‘Dedication’,VictoryLap(2018).2ThelifejackethasbecomeaniconofhumanitarianinterventionintheMediterranean.SeeforexampleitsrecurrenceintheworkofphotographerMathieuWillcocks’s‘MediterraneanMigration’,aseriesofimagestakenbyhiminthecourseofsixmonthsaboardarescuevessel:https://www.mathieuwillcocks.com/(accessed18May2019).SeealsoKayaBarry,‘Artandmaterialityintheglobalrefugeecrisis:AiWeiwei’sartworksadtheemergingaestheticsofmobilities,’Mobilities,14:2(2019),204-17.3MSFestimatethat2,160peoplediedcrossingtheMediterraneanin2018alone.Seehttps://www.msf.org.uk/country/mediterranean-search-and-rescue(accessedMay182019).4ForanincisiveaccountoftheBlackMediterranean,creativityandissuesofcitizenshipespeciallyinrelationtoItalianpostcolonialityseeSASmythe,‘TheBlackMediterraneanandthePoliticsofImagination’,MiddleEastReport(Spring2018),3-9.https://merip.org/magazine/286/.5SaidiyaHartmann,LoseyourMother:AJourneyalongtheAtlanticSlaveRoute(NewYork:Farrar,StraussandGiroux,2007),p.6.6CristinaLombardi-DiopandCaterinaRomeo(eds),PostcolonialItaly:ChallengingNationalHomogeneity(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2012),p.4.7ChristinaSharpe,IntheWake:OnBlacknessandBeing(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2016).8On7April2019,theEritreancommunityheldamemorialserviceforNipseyHussleattheMedhani-AlemEritreanOrthodoxTewahdoChurchinLosAngeles.Attendedbyhundredsofpeople,theservicereiteratesthemultiplelogicsofthewakeidentifiedbySharpe. 9Sharpe,IntheWake,p.15.10Ibid.p.20.11MyessayspeakstorecentscholarshipwhichhasextendedtheideaofItalianpostcolonialitybylookingatauthorswithfamilytiestoItaly’sformercolonies,butwhowriteinlanguagesotherthanItalian.Someimportantworkhasbeenstartedinthisarea.AnumberoftheessaysinBrioniandGulema’sinvaluableeditedvolumelookatItaliancolonialismanditslegacyfromtheperspectiveofAfrica:SimoneBrioniandShimelisBonsaGulema,TheHornofAfrica:Colonial,

PostcolonialandTransnationalEncounters(Oxford:PeterLang,2018).ForadiscussionofintergenerationalculturalmemoryintheworkofwriterswithfamiliallinkstoformerItaliancoloniesintheHornofAfricanowresidentinavarietyofdifferentlocationsseeEmmaBond,‘“LetmegobackandrecreatewhatIdon’tknow”:LocatingTrans-nationalMemoryWorkinContemporaryNarrative’,ModernLanguagesOpen(2016),https://doi.org/10.3828/mlo.v0i0.134.12AbuBakrKhaal,AfricanTitanics,translatedbyCharisBredin(London:DarfPublishers,2014).ThetitlereferstotheprecariousvesselsinwhichmigrantscrosstheMediterraneanhopingtoreachEurope.TheoriginalversionwasinArabic,oneofthemostwidelyusedlanguagesinEritrea,andwaspublishedinLondonbyDaralSaqi(2008),andre-issuedinDamascusbyAlNaya(2009).IamgratefultoOrhanElmazforhisinvaluablehelpintrackingdownthesepublicationdetails.13JonnySteinberg,AManofGoodHope:OneMan’sExtraordinaryJourneyfromMogadishutoTinCanTown(London:Vintage,2015).SeeNickMulgrew,‘TheSubjectasWriter:SubstitutingDiscourseandStoryinJonnySteinberg’sAManofGoodHope,’JournalofSouthernAfricanStudies,44:6(2018),1023-38foradiscussionofSteinberg’sauthorialstrategiesinparticularthetextualconstructionoftheethicallydrivenrelationshipwithhissubjects.14ForanexpansiveaccountofthetransnationalSomalipresenceinSouthAfricaseeSamadiaSadouni,MuslimsinSouthernAfrica:Johannesburg’sSomaliDiaspora(London:PalgraveMacmillan,2019).15Khaal,AfricanTitanics,p.59.16Onsuicideduringandafterthemiddlepassage,seeTerriL.Snyder,ThePowertoDie:SlaveryandSuicideinBritishNorthAmerica(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2015).17Steinberg,AManofGoodHope,p.293.18Althoughverydifferentindetail,thisaccountisanuncannyreiterationofthehangingofanunnamedenslavedgirlonboardtheRecoverywhobecameanothertropeofabolitionistdiscourse.Hartman’sanalysisofthecompetingversionsofthecircumstancesofherdeathincludesacriticalreflectiononherownparticipationinthenecrology:Hartman,LoseyourMother,pp.136-53.19SandroMezzadraandBrettNeilson,BorderasMethod,ortheMultiplicationofLabor(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2013),p.275.20PierPaoloFrassinelli,‘LivinginTranslation:Borders,languageandcommunityinNoVioletBulawayo’sWeNeedNewNames,’JournalofPostcolonialWriting,51:6(2015),711-22(p.720).21ThereturnandpresenceofancestralspiritsinpostcolonialfictionbywritersofWestAfricanoriginiscommentedonbyCristinaLombardi-Diop,‘GhostsofMemories,SpiritsofAncestors:Slavery,theMediterranean,andtheAtlantic’,inRechartingtheBlackAtlantic:ModernCultures,LocalCommunities,GlobalConnections,eds.AnnalisaOboeandAnnaScacchi.(London:Routledge,2008),pp.162-180,seepp.171-77inrelationtothispoint.TheLiberianMalouk’sancestralmythsfitwellinthistradition.22Inherreadingofthenovel,JanetWilsoncontendsthatMalouk’sfinalpoemprovidesaformofclosure.Iwouldarguethatreadingthepoem‘inthewake’demandsarecognitionthatthe‘suffering’Wilsonpointstooisnotoveratall.SeeJanetWilson,‘NovelsofFlightandArrival:AbuBakrKhaal’sAfricanTitanics

(2014[2008])andSunjeevSahota,TheYearoftheRunaway(2015)’,PostcolonialText(2017),12.3-4.23ForadiscussionofculturalpracticesofmigrantburialandremembranceseeOttaviaSalvadorandFabrizioDenunzio,Mortisenzasepoltura:traprocessimigratorienarrativaneocoloniale(Verona:Ombrecorte,2019)WithparticularreferencetotheeventsofOctober2013discussedlaterinthisessay,seeGianlucaGatta,‘Lampedusa,3ottobre2013.Vita,morte,nazioneepoliticanellagestionedeimigranti’,Studiculturali,XI:2(2014),323-32.24In1781,over130enslavedAfricanswerethrownfromtheZongreputedlytosavedwindlingsuppliesofwaterandfood.Theownerssubsequentlymadeaninsurancetocompensateforthelossof‘cargo.’Theepisodeisakeymomentinabolitionisthistory.SeeSharpe,IntheWake,pp.34-38.AlsoIanBaucom,SpectersoftheAtlantic:Finance,Capital,andthePhilosophyofHistory(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2005).ItisestimatedthatonthecrossingofOctober22013,thetraffickerswouldhavemadealmosthalfamillioneuros.25Sharpe,IntheWake,pp.53-57.Heraccountincludesfragmentsofsurvivortestimonyfromtheboat.26TheEritrean-born,Italianfilm-makerDagmawiYimer’sanimatedfilmAsmat-NamesinMemoryofalltheVictimsoftheSea(2015)madespecificallytocommemoratethosewhodiedintheshipwreckof3October2013tacklesthissilencethroughthefemalenarrator’sreadingofthenamesofallthedead.Thefilmcanbeseenathttps://vimeo.com/114343040(accessed20May2019)27See,forexample,CindyHorst,TransnationalNomads:HowSomaliscopewithrefugeelifeintheDabaabcampsofKenya(NewYorkandOxford:Berghahn,2006).28Frassinelli,LivinginTranslation,p.714.29ItakethetermfromFrançoiseLionnetandShu-meiShih(eds),MinorTransnationalism(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2005).30Sharpe,IntheWake,p.113.31HavingbeenchallengedbyAsadtofindoutmoreabouttheGalgale,SteinbergusesSadicyaasameansthroughwhichtoinformthereaderaboutrecentSomalihistory,andinthiscasetheclansystem(pp.278-81).32AlanSekulaandNoëlBurch,TheForgottenSea(2010).Thefilmessayinvestigatesglobalmaritimetrade.ItfailstomentiontheMiddlePassageorthecontemporarytraffickingofmigrants.Sharpeiscorrecttopointtotheextraordinary,yeteloquentnatureofthisomission.Sharpe,IntheWake,pp.25-26.33Sharpe,IntheWake,p.77.34Ibid,p.108.35OnthispointseeDavidAtkinson,‘EncounteringBareLifeinItalianLibyaandColonialAmnesiainAgamben,’AgambenandColonialism,MarceloSvirskyandSimoneBignall(eds)(Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress,2012),pp.155-77.36PaulGilroy,TheBlackAtlantic:ModernityandDoubleConsciousness(London:Verso,1993),p.215.37Ibid.p.222.38ToniMorrisonwrotetheintroductiontotherecentEnglishtranslationofLevi’scompleteworkssolderinganincreasinglywidelyperceivedlinkage

betweenhistoricalexperienceswhichallthewhileremaindistinctintheirspecificity:ToniMorrison,‘Introduction,’TheCompleteWorksofPrimoLevi,translatedbyAnnGoldsteinetal.(NewYork:Liveright,2015),pp.xi–xiii.39Gilroy,TheBlackAtlanticp.39.