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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Description

1. Vocabulary Mastery

a. The Meaning of Vocabulary Mastery

First of all, knowing the definition of vocabulary is crucial before

discussing about vocabulary mastery. According to Hatch and Brown

(1995: 1) the term vocabulary refers to a list or set of the words for a

particular language or set of words that individual speaker of language

might use. It means that almost every individual has own set of

vocabulary. The same definition also stated by Hornby (1995: 1331) he

defines vocabulary as total number of words in a language, all the words

known by person or used in particular book, subject, etc. and list of

words with their meanings.

Generally, vocabulary is known as knowledge of words and word

meanings. Vocabulary also means; 1) All the words of a language, 2) The

sum of words used by, understood by, or at the command of a particular

person or group, 3) A list of words and often phrases, usually arranged

alphabetically and defined or translated; a lexicon or glossary, 4) A

supply of expressive means; a repertoire of communication. From the

definition above, it may be concluded that vocabulary is the total number

of words and the meanings that a person knows or uses.

Vocabulary is essential for successful second language use as

Thornbury (2002:1) says that language emerges first as words, both

historically and in term of the way each of us learned our first and any

subsequent languages. It means that the first basic to learn a language is

vocabulary. The same way also stated by Gower, Philips and Walter,

grammar for communication purposes, particularly in the early stages

9

10

when students are motivated to learn the basic words they need to get by

in the language.

Michael MacCarthy (1996: viii) strongly said that no matter how

well the students in grammar, no matter how successfully the sounds are

mastered, without the words range to express the meanings,

communication just cannot happen in any meaningful way. Allen (1983:

5) says that communication stops when learners lack the necessary

words. It means that the ability of understanding the language depends on

itself. To be able to use the language, a learner has to master bunch of

words.

This definition is supported by Swannel (1994: 656) who defines

mastery as comprehensive knowledge or use of a subject or instrument.

From www.thefreedictionary.com mastery means great skillfulness and

knowledge of some subject or activity. While Porter (2001: 953) states

that mastery is learning or understanding something completely and

having no difficulty in using it. From these definitions, we can conclude

that mastery means learning or understanding something completely till

having comprehensive in knowledge or use. From these definitions it

comes to the conclusion that vocabulary mastery means learning or

understanding completely till having comprehensive in knowledge or use

a number of words learned.

Vocabulary mastery can be measured by the requirements of

generalization (being able to define words) and application (selecting an

appropriate use of it) as Cornbach in Schmitt and Mac Charty (1997:

315) states vocabulary at that time focused only on the first two:

generalization and application. In addition Schmitt and Mac Charty

(1997:326) state receptive and productive knowledge: may prove the

only realistic way to measure depth of vocabulary knowledge. Words that

11

the learner recognize and understand when they occur in the context

called as receptive knowledge while productive knowledge related to

words which the learner understand, can produce correctly and use

constructively in speaking and writing.

Madsen (1983: 12) states the purpose of vocabulary test is to

measure the comprehension and production of words used in speaking

and writing. He also suggests four kinds of how to evaluate vocabulary

mastery. The first, limited responses, is for the beginners by using a

simple physical action like pointing at something or a very simple verbal

-choice completion is

a test in which a sentence with missing words in presented; students

choose one of four vocabulary items given to complete the sentence. The

third type, multiple-choice paraphrase, is a test in which a sentence with

one word underlined is given. Students choose which four words is the

closest meaning to the underlined item. The fourth kind of test, simple

completion (words), has students write in the missing part of words that

appear in sentences.

Futhermore Nation (2008: 141) also added that vocabulary test was

of test was done at observation stage. Furthermore Thornbury (2002:

129) without testing, there is no reliable means of knowing how effective

a teaching sequence has been. Based on pre-test the elements of

vocabulary tested in this research were spelling, meaning and use. Since

the subject of this research is beginner, the first type of limited responses,

second type multiple-choice completion is used to test the vocabulary

mastery.

b. Types of Vocabulary

Nation (2008) divides vocabulary into four levels largely on the

basis of how often it occurs in the language (its frequency) and how

widely it occurs (its range).

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The brief explanation as follow:

1) High frequency words

These words occur very frequently in all kinds of uses of the

language. They are needed in formal and informal uses of the

language, in speech and in writing, and in novels, conversation,

newspaper and academic texts. These words also can be noticed in

several things. First, most of the words are quite short. Secondly 169

of the 2000 words families are function words as a, at, because, four,

I. all the rest are content words (nouns, verb, adjective, adverb).

Thirdly, most of these words are ones that even very young native

speakers of English are likely to know. They are common words that

we need every day.

2) Academic words

Academic words do not occur so often in other kinds of

language use. Less than 2% of the running words in conversation are

from the academic words list. The words in academic world list are

very important for learners who will use English for academic study

either in upper secondary schools or in universities or technical

institutes.

3) Technical words

Academic words occur in all kinds of academic subject areas

like Botany, Politics, Accounting, or Family Law. There are words

with even more special purposes and these are the words that are

very common in one particular area, such as the vocabulary of

Physics or the vocabulary of Applied Linguistics. When we see this

word we can usually guess what subject area they come from if we

know a little bit about that subject area.

4) Low frequency words

Low frequency words have the following characteristics.

First, each word does not occur very often. Secondly, most low

frequency words have very narrow range. They are not needed in

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every use of language. Third, they make up a very small proportion

of the running words in a text, once proper nouns are excluded

usually less than 10% of the running words. And the last, they are a

very large group of words, numbering well over 100,000.

Nation also defines vocabulary as receptive and productive

vocabulary knowledge. Receptive vocabulary knowledge refers to the

ability to understand a word when it is heard or seen. The receptive

vocabulary is also called a passive process because the students only

receive thought from others. Receptive vocabulary is much larger than

productive vocabulary because there are many words recognized when

the learner hears or reads but do not use when they speak or writes.

While productive knowledge is the knowledge to produce a word when

one writes or speaks. It involves what is needed for receptive

vocabulary plus the ability to speak or write the appropriate time.

Therefore, productive vocabulary can be addressed as an active process,

because the students can produce the words to express their thought to

others. It is generally believed that words are known receptively first

and only after intentional or incidental learning become available for

productive use. To cover the whole range of language skills, the

students require both of receptive and productive vocabulary.

c. Aspect of Vocabulary

Aspect in this research means part; feature; phase, as of

a subject or problem (www. Definition.net). Therefore, aspect of

vocabulary means part or phase of knowing the words. Knowing a word

involves much more than knowing just its meaning. Nation and Richard

in Schmitt and McCarthy (1997: 4) describe the various kinds of words

knowledge necessary to master a word completely, including knowledge

of its orthographical and phonological form, meanings, grammatical

behavior, associations, collocations, frequency and register.

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Furthermore, Nation (2001: 27) suggests three-category of what is

involved in knowing a word at both of receptive and productive level:

1) Word form: including the spoken form, the written form, and the

word part (affixes).

2) Word meaning: including connecting from to meaning (of a word) ,

concepts and referent, and association.

3) Word use: including grammatical function, collocation and constrain

on use (register, frequency, etc.)

In addition, Nagy and Scott (2000) described components of word

knowledge. First, they pointed out that word learning is incremental

that is, we learn word meanings gradually and internalize deeper

meanings through successive encounters in a variety of contexts and

through active engagement with the words. For example, the average

tenth grader is likely to have a deeper and more sophisticated

understanding of the term atom compared to the knowledge of an average

fourth grader, who still has a more simplistic understanding of the term.

For other words, a deeper understanding may be necessary for students to

successfully comprehend a passage. Another aspect of word knowledge

is the presence of polysemy or multiple meaning words. Many words

have different meanings depending upon the context in which they are

used.

A third aspect of word knowledge described by Nagy and Scott

(2000) is the different types of knowledge involved in knowing a word.

The types of knowledge include the use of words in oral and written

language, correct grammar usage of words or syntactical knowledge,

semantic understandings such as appropriate synonyms and antonyms,

and even morphological understandings that involve correct usage of

prefixes and suffixes.

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Fourth aspect of word knowledge is the notion that learning a word

meaning is inextricably related to knowledge of other related words. We

do not learn word meanings in isolation; we learn word meanings in

relation to other words and concepts. For example, knowing the concept

of rectangle involves knowing about polygons, quadrilaterals, right

angles, squares, and other related concepts. Finally, Nagy and Scott

(2000) noted that word knowledge differs according to the type of word.

Knowing the meaning of prepositions (e.g., if, under, around) differs

greatly from knowing the meaning of specific science terminology, such

as nucleus, proton, and neutron.

From the explanation above, it can be concluded that there are

seven aspects of what it means to know a word. They are polysemy,

connotation, spelling and pronunciation, part of speech, frequency, usage

and collocation. Different aspect of word knowledge will be mastered at

different stage at different rate (Schmitt in Qing Ma 2009: 29). The very

beginning of the process consists of knowing the meaning and form of

word and connecting the two together. In this research the aspects of

vocabulary which is discussed further is consist of form, meaning and

use.

d. Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in

behavior that results from experience (Klein, 2008: 2). While from

(www.answer.com) learning means the act, process, or experience of

gaining knowledge or skill. So, learning means the process or gaining

knowledge from experience. According Reid (1998: ix) Learning

strategies are external skills often used consciously by the student to

define learning strategies as the special thoughts or behaviors that

individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new

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information. Ellis (1997) states that learning strategies are the particular

approaches or techniques that are used by the learners when they attempt

to learn.

Furthermore, Oxford and Nam in Reid (1998: 53) state learning

strategies is a technical phrase that means any specific conscious action

of behavior a student takes to improve his or her learning. From the

opinion above seems to be that learning strategies are special thoughts or

behaviors, approaches and technical ways in comprehend, learn or retain

new information. So, vocabulary learning strategies are the special

thoughts, approaches and technical ways in comprehend, learn or retain

the words learned.

divide language learning strategies into three major types: metacognitive

(strategies for over viewing the processes of language use and learning,

and for taking steps to efficiently plan and regulate those processes),

cognitive (strategies which involve the manipulation of an information in

an immediate task for the purpose of acquiring or retaining that

information) and social/affective (strategies dialing with interpersonal

constraints). Each of these major categories describes a large number of

strategies.

Learning a second language involves both learning a new

conceptual system and constructing a new vocabulary network- a second

mental lexicon (Thornbury 2002: 10). Furthermore Nation (2008: 14)

notes some strategies, they are:

1) Giving repeated attention to vocabulary

Useful vocabulary needs to be met again and again to ensure it

is learned. In the early stages of learning the meetings need to be

reasonably close together, preferably within a few days, so that too

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much forgetting does not occur. Later meetings can be very widely

spaced with several weeks between each meeting.

2) Repeatedly coming back to words

Principles:

a)

explanations.

b) Relate the present teaching to past knowledge by showing a

pattern or analogies.

c) Use both oral and written presentation - write it on the

blackboard as well as explaining.

d) Give most attention to words that are already partly known.

e) Tell the learners if it is a high frequency word that is worth

noting for future attention.

f) n other unknown or poorly known related words

like near synonyms, opposites, or members of the same lexical

set.

3) Using dictionaries

Dictionaries can help learners in three major ways. First, they

can help learners understand words that they meet in reading and

listening. Secondly, they can help learners find words that they need

for speaking and writing and the last is they can help learners

remember words.

4) The unknown to known imaging

This strategy has two important steps. First, it relates the form

of the unknown word to known form. Secondly, it combines the

unknown and the known together in a memorable form.

There is no doubt that learning vocabulary is a complex process,

consisting of a number of different stages. While the process is still not

fully understood, some models for learning have been put forward.

Another is suggested by Brown and Pyne (Hatch and brown 1995: 383)

which includes five stages:

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1) Having sources for encountering new words

Learning strategy includes learning new words by reading a

book, listening to TV and radio, and reading newspaper and

magazine. In addition to interest, actual need may make a difference

in whether encountered words are learned. People seem to learn

words more quickly if they have felt a need for them in some way.

2) Getting a clear image of words, both visual and auditory

This step essential to vocabulary learning appears to be setting

of a clear image visual or auditory or both the form of the vocabulary

words

becomes apparent when people think about what happens when

people try to retrieve words. In addition, it also appears when

students are asked to give definition for words.

3) Learning the meaning words

This steps includes such strategies as asking native speakers

what words mean, asking people who speak the native language the

meaning of new words, making pictures of word meanings in mind

and explaining what the speaker means and asking someone to tell

him English word.

4) Making strong memory connections between form and meaning of

words

This step includes many kinds of vocabulary learning

strategies such as flashcards, matching exercise, crossword puzzle,

etc that strengthen the form meaning connection.

5) Using words

In this step, words use is essential if the goal is to help learners

move as far along the continuum of word knowledge as they can.

Furthermore, use seems to provide a mild guarantee that word and

meanings will not fade from memory once they are learned.

In addition Schmitt (1997:199-227) propose a taxonomy of

vocabulary learning strategies. He mentions three strategies, discovery

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strategies (guessing from context), determination strategies (using

reference materials) and social strategies or (asking someone else when

they do not know a word). Furthermore he states also consolidation

strategies which is included social strategies, memory strategies (relating

the word to be retained with some previously learned knowledge). A new

word can be integrated into many kinds of existing knowledge for

example previous experience or known words. The third strategy is

pictures/imagery; new words can be learned by studying them with

pictures of their meaning instead of definition. The next is related words;

new words can be liked to target words which a student already knows.

Usually this involves some type of sense relationship, such as

coordination, synonymy or antonym. Unrelated words; link words

together which has no sense of relationship. One way of doing this is

word to be remembered and the peg word. Grouping; is an important way

to aid recall and people seem to organize words into groups naturally

without promptin

orthographical or phonological form to facilitate recall. Other memory

strategy; improves recall word by means of manipulation effort involved

There also have some idea of which vocabulary strategies are most

commonly used. In a longitudinal experiment, Cohen and Aphek (in

Schmitt and Mac Charty (1997:201) found that most students simply

tried to memor

described different types of learners and found that most took notes on

found that repetition was the most active manipulating of information

(imagery, inference, keyword method) being much less frequent. So it

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seems that more mechanical strategies ore often favored over more

complex ones.

Based on the explanation above, generally given some initial

indication of their level of usage and le

The use of physical action when learning has been shown to facilitate

language recall. Asher (1977) has made it the basis of Total Physical

Response method (TPR), which seems t be especially amenable to the

teaching of beginners. Indeed, learners sometimes use physical action

spontaneously while learning.

2. Teaching English to Children

a. The Characteristics of Children

Characteristics are words used to describe an object or a

person. Meanwhile, children means young person. In this research

the children who are the subject of the research are some young

person between 9 until 11 years old. The characteristic of young

person in 9 till 11 years old would be described here. Some students

learn best by seeing someone else do it. Usually, they like carefully,

sequenced presentations of information. They prefer to write down

what a teacher tells them. During class, they are generally quiet and

seldom distracted by noise. Some student learns by what is heard.

Edge (1998: 9) makes a list of characteristics of good

learners,

1) They have a positive attitude about the language they want to

learn and about speakers of that language.

2) They have a strong motivation to learn the language.

3) They are confidence that they will be successful learners.

4) They are prepared to risk making mistakes and they learn from

their mistakes that they make.

5) They like to learn about the language

6) They organize their own practice of the language.

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7) They find ways to say things that they do not know how to

express correctly.

8) They get into situations where the language is being used and

they use the language as often as they can

9) They work directly in the language rather than translate from

their first language.

10) They think about their strategies for learning and remembering

and they consciously try out new strategies.

Unfortunately the characteristics of young learners or children are

not the same. In this topic children are students in elementary school in

age between 6 to 12 years old. They are divided into 2 groups, younger

group (6-8 years old) and older group (9-12 years old). Based on their

class they are called lower class for 1, 2 and 3 grade and Upper Class for

4, 5 and six grade. Meanwhile Scott and Ytreberg (1990) divided them

into two groups, Level One (5-7 years old) and level two (8-10 years

old).

These are the general characteristics of young learner based on

Suyanto (2007) and Scott and Ytreberg (1998):

1) Generally children in five to seven years old have egocentrics

characteristics which are preference to connected what is learned to

what they do for themselves. They like materials which have

connection with their live and surrounding. They give more

attention to words or phrase about their things, wore and even parts

of body. When they are in 10 years old, they are able to work with

others and learn from others.

2) Children in level one have difficulty in knowing what fact is and

what is fiction concrete and abstract things. They cannot

differentiate real and unreal thing yet. They can tell the differences

between fact and fiction at age 8.

3) Children are active. They like learning by playing, stories, songs.

They learn best when they are enjoying themselves. Ur (1996) says

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game. The need of communication in game forces them to talk.

They can talk to their self or friends, sing and play with the words

which are learned. This activity make student being happy (Scott

and Ytreberg, 1990). Meanwhile Halliwell (1998: 6) adds that

children have an enormous for finding and making fun.

4) Children understand situations more quickly than they understand

the language used. Halliwell (1998: 3) says young children area

able to understand what is being said to them even before they

understand the individual words.

5) Their own understanding comes through hands and eyes and ears.

The physical world is dominant all times. They start to rely on

spoken word as well as the physical world to convey and

understanding meaning at age 10.

6) Easy to be bored. Children have a very short attention and

concentration span.

7)

do not always understand what adults are talking about. Adults do

not always understand what children talking about. The difference

is those adults usually find out by asking question, but children

understand in their own terms or do what they think you want them

to do. At age of eight they ask question all the time.

8) Young children cannot decide for themselves what to learn.

9) They are enthusiastic and positive about learning. It is important to

praise them if they are to keep their enthusiastic and feel successful

from the beginning.

10) They have a developed sense of fairness about what happens in the

11)

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12) Their basic concepts are formed. They have very decided views of

the world

Furthermore Halliwell (1998: 3) also states some characteristics of

children such as:

1) Children are already very good at interpreting meaning without

necessarily understanding the individual words;

2) Already have great skill in using limited language creatively;

3) Frequently learn indirectly rather than directly;

4) Take great pleasure in finding and creating fun in what they do;

5) Have a ready imagination;

6) Above all take great delight in talking

From the characteristic above, we can conclude that children have

a special characteristic. They like studying while playing game, singing,

picture, a bit hard to get focus for long time. By knowing these

characteristic, teachers are hoped can provide learning environment that

best suit them.

b. Learning Style of Children

h to learning

and problem solving (Reid, 1995). Dunn states learning style as the way in

which each learner begins to concentrate on, process, use and retain new

and difficult information. It can be concluded that learning styles is the

way of a person learn something new best.

Every child is born ready to learn. Yet children (and adults) have

ways in which they learn best. A child might succeed in learning through a

combination of learning styles, but usually there is one learning style that

is favored over the others. Understanding that each child has a unique

learning style is crucial. It should be the basis for an effective learning

process. Silberman says students learn best by doing (1996: ix). He also

states that young children learn best form concentrate, activity based

limited. To compensate, they keep children active and moving about.

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Different learning styles require different approaches and

techniques. Unlike traditional educational approaches that make use

general concepts, modern learning methods focus on a student's specific

behavior, as well as his or her skills and weaknesses.

The most common learning styles are Visual, Auditory and

Kinesthetic. These general categories exhibit unique features that can

sometimes change depending on environmental factors like a child's

upbringing and relationships with other people.

1) Visual

Visual Learners learn by watching. They call up images from the

past when trying to remember and picture the way things look in their

heads. For example, when spelling a word, they picture the way the

word looks.

It is estimated that 80 percent of what we learn is through our

vision. From an early age, a child acquires valuable information about

his surroundings through his or her eyes. Because of this fact, normal

schooling makes use of methods that favor visual learners. Children

who are primarily visual learners tend to get information through

reading books. They can also learn more from pictures and other

visual materials. If you notice that your learner is tidy and organized

in their learning habits, then he might be a visual learner.

Students of this style are drawn to paintings, crafts, and other arts.

They also have a wonderful sense of imagination and are known to be

very creative. Teaching vocabulary by using visual aids like pictures

and mimic are very good for learner in this learning style.

2) Auditory

Auditory Learners benefit from traditional teaching techniques.

Auditory learners succeed when directions are read aloud or

information is presented and requested verbally. They remember facts

when presented in the form of a poem, song or melody.

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For some children, their sense of sound allows them to gather large

volumes of information and have them processed accordingly. A child

is most probably an auditory learner if he or she is good at listening to

instructions and is very sensitive to variations in spoken words. They

excel in gaining knowledge from conversations and lectures. Because

listening requires more concentration than seeing, students of this

learning style can be more discerning. They are usually more attentive

in class and can distinguish different ideas just by listening to them.

Because information revealed through speaking is not usually

recorded accurately in class, the memory capacity of auditory learners

exceeds those of visual learners. Children of this type also enjoy

studying with music in the background.

For them, sounds provide the best medium of instruction. Unlike

other students, these kinds of learners do not get bored easily with

teachers who are fond of lectures. If your child is an auditory learner,

he or she can also be creative and have an imaginative mind. Without

relying heavily on visual models, auditory learners become skilled at

interpreting information and reproducing them using their own

understanding. Students of this classification often stand out in college

because they enjoy class lectures and find listening to teachers a

rewarding activity. Teaching vocabulary by using song is the best

method for learner this learning style.

3) Kinesthetic

Kinesthetic learners learn best through movement and physical

manipulation. They like to find out how things work and to touch, feel

and experience what they are being asked to learn. Most children enter

kindergarten as physical learners, but by second or third grade their

learning styles may change to visual or auditory. Half of all students

in high school and beyond remain physical learners. child who has a

kinesthetic learning style cannot just sit still and wait for information

to be given. They surpass in finding out things for themselves without

26

any needs for guidance. Explorers at heart, kinesthetic learners are

known to be quite active even before a lesson proper. Their natural

curiosity drives them to make new discoveries, making it hard for

regular schools to limit their movement. Children of this learning style

are often mistaken to be rowdy and undisciplined. That however, is a

grave misconception. Kinesthetic learners always seem to be moving

around because they see their surroundings differently. For them, the

world is just a huge playground full of wonderful things they want to

discover and explore.

A learner is probably a kinesthetic learner if he or she is fond of

tinkering with toys, trying to find out how they work. They are also

quick learners, especially when left alone to examine a particular

object. These children can quickly put one and one together and have

a great capacity to understand complex processes and procedures. A

student who exhibits this particular learning behavior is always at the

forefront of experimentation and exploration.

They excel in discovering how machines operate and how a

process works. Students of this particular behavior are more of doers

than thinkers. If learners show an extreme fondness of taking things

apart to discover how they function, it should consider home

schooling. They should be given the opportunity to excel in their

studies using their natural skills.

Howard Gardner's research Reid (1998: 4) on multiple intelligences

suggests at least 8 intelligences. Good lessons will typically address more

than one intelligence.

1) Verbal/ linguistic intelligence

Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written

language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use

language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the

ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or

poetically; and language as a means to remember information.

27

Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard

Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.

2) Logical/ Mathematic Intelligence

Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to

analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and

investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, in entails

the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically.

This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and

mathematical thinking.

3) Musical Intelligence

Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance,

composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the

capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and

rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in

an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence.

4) Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's

whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to

use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner

sees mental and physical activity as related.

5) Spatial Intelligence

Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the

patterns of wide space and more confined areas. It is sensitively to

form, space, color, and shape. Sample skills include the ability to

represent visual or spatial ideas graphically.

6) Interpersonal Intelligence

Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to

understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It

allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople,

religious and political leaders and counselors all need a well-

developed interpersonal intelligence.

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7) Intrapersonal Intelligence

Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand

oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard

Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of

ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives.

8) Naturalist intelligence

Naturalist intelligence enables human beings to recognize,

categorize and draw upon certain features of the environment. It

'combines a description of the core ability with a characterization of

the role that many cultures.

sophisticated effort to bridge the gaps among the traditional approaches

to intelligence but adaptable framework for educational reform. The

application of the theory of multiple intelligences varies widely. It runs

the gamut from a teacher who, when confronted with a student having

difficulties, uses a different approach to teach the material, to an entire

school using MI as a framework. In general, those who subscribe to the

theory strive to provide opportunities for their students to use and

develop all the different intelligences,

Observing how learner learns is the first step in developing a good

learning process. Identifying the best ways students to learn means

helping the student have to positive learning experiences. Choosing the

right activities and teaching methods will put students on the right track.

The students can easily absorb the material and the teacher can teach

effectively.

c. Base theories of Teaching English to children

English is the first foreign language taught to the students of

elementary school. Teaching English in the elementary school has been

basic education as state in

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Kebijakan Dekdikbud Republik Indonesia Nomor 0487/14/1992 Bab VIII menyatakan bahwa sekolah dasar dapat menambah matapelajaran dalam kurikulumnya, dengan syarat pelajaran itu tidak bertentangan dengan tujuan pendidikan nasional.

In the elementary school, English is to be taught as one of the local

content, based reference of Surat Keputusan Menteri Pendidikan dan

Kebudayaan Nomer 060/U/1993 tanggal 25 februari 1993 about possibility

English lesson as one of local subject in elementary school. The aim of

teaching English in the elementary school is to motivate them to be ready

and have self confident in learning English at higher level of education.

This policy of English lesson in elementary school is reacted by

some province as Jawa Timur province, Daerah Istimewa Jogyakarta, Jawa

tengah dan Jawa barat with Kepala Kantor Wilayah Departemen

pendidikan dan Kebudayaan province (DIKNAS) Jawa Timur

Mengeluarkan Surat Keputusan Nomer 1702/105/1994 tanggal 30 Maret

1994 that stated in East Java English lesson as a must local lesson.

Local lesson of an elementary school is a right for the school to

decide. It can be held if needed, start from what grade, how many hours

for a week. Everything should be prepared, including the English teacher

and material.

Following theories by Piaget, Vigotsky and Brunner related to the

children development.

1) Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

He stated four phase of children development:

a) Sensorymotor stage, 0 2 years old

b) Preoperational stage, 2-8 years old

c) Concentrate operational stage, 8- 11 years old

d) Formal stage, 11-15 years old or more

Based on above phase, elementary student is in Sensory motor

stage, Preoperational stage or even early Formal stage. It means they

need attention in their development. Children at that age are in

elementary school in Indonesia. Elementary school children need

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attention according to its class levels. develops gradually

in accordance with the developments of knowledge and intellectual

skills to the stage toward a more logical way of thinking.

2) Lev Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

This theory is known as sociocultural theory. He believes that

interaction with others, especially with older person creates new ideas

and built intelligence. As we know that language is a tool to

communicate and get information.

3) Jerome Brunner: Discoveery Learning and Seaffolding

He states true learning comes through personal discovery. He also

says that language is the most important for cognitive development. He

investigated how older use language to connect the real word to

d. Factors in Teaching English to Children

In teaching English for children, they are four factors those should

be considered, as what Kasihani (1997: 21) mentioned in his book

1) Mother tongue

Instinct, characteristic and skill which are already built in

mother tongue or first language is very helpful in learning second

language, especially in learning English. They are similarity in

characteristic of learning languages but also differences, for example

in spelling, intonation, structure and vocabulary. These differences

make young learners confuse. Rather difficult for Indonesian

children to say long vocal, as food; room; diphthong /ei/, /au/, /ou/ in

away, now [nau], and road [roud]. And also in describing things, the

position of noun and adjective, for example kursi merah in

Indonesian become red chair.

2) Material

interest can be more interesting for children. Children like something

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that they can see around like pet, football, family, hobbies etc. The

teacher must concern about this.

3) Social interaction

Good communication between students and teacher and among

students can give a confidence for the beginner to learn new

language. Social interaction helps the students to use the target

language while they interact with others. The interaction can be ruled

in games, songs, learning in pairs, in groups. Communication among

them creates confidence

be shined.

4) Media

Learning process can be more effective if the teacher use media

because children like visual. The use of media as real things,

pictures, and puppets make the learning more interacting.

5) Family background

a big differentiates in learning new language. Things around add

their vocabulary like TV, sofa, cupboard, books that provide by the

parents help students to learn English.

e. Teaching English to Children

Teaching elementary school is considered as teaching children. In

this case, knowing their characteristic and learning style is important. For

this reason, teacher should pay more attention on the method and

material used. Scott and Ytreberg notice some point in teaching English

to children

1) Words are not enough

younger learners should include movement and involved the senses.

Use plenty of pictures and objects to work on it. Demonstrate what

you want them to do.

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2) Play with the language

Let the student talk to themselves. Make up rhymes, sing songs,

and tell stories. Playing with the language in this way is very

common in first language development and is very natural stage in

the first stages of foreign learning too.

3) Language as language

The spoken word is often accompanied by other clues of

meaning- facial expression, movement etc. make full use of this

clues. When students start to read, let them take a book home, they

can read it again and again.

4) Variety in classroom

Since concentration and attention are short, variety is a must-

variety of activity, variety of place, variety of voice.

5) Routines

Students benefit from knowing the rules and being familiar with

the situation. Have systems, have routines, organize and plan the

lesson. Use familiar situations, familiar activities. Repeat stories,

rhymes, etc.

6) Cooperation not competition

Avoid rewards and prizes. Create atmosphere of involvement

and togetherness.

7) Grammar

Children have an amazing ability to absorb language through

play and other activities which they find enjoyable. How good they

are in a foreign language is not dependent on whether they have

learnt the grammar rules or not. The best time to introduce some

short of simple grammar is either when a student asks for

explanation, or when it will be benefit from learning grammar.

8) Assessment

It is useful for teacher to make regular notes about each children

progress. From the beginning this can be done in very simple terms,

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stressing the positive side of things and playing down what the

students cannot master. (p.5-7)

3. Total Physical Response

a. The Background of Total Physical Response

Dr. James J. Asher first described the Total Physical Response

media. The memory we use when learning to tie shoelaces or to ride a

learning a foreign language. The use of kinesthetic intelligence and

memory is particularly important when we are teaching young children

because we know that they do not learn in a conscious intellectual way.

Asher in Brown (2001: 30) noted that children, in learning their

first language, appear to do a lot of listening before they speak, and that

their listening is accompanied by physical responses ( reaching, grabbing,

moving, looking and so forth). According to Asher, motor activity is a

right-brain function that should precede left-brain language processing.

Asher was also convinced that language classes were often locus of too

much anxiety, so he wished to devise a method that was as stress-free as

possible, where learners would not feel overly self conscious and

defensive.

The basis of Total Physical Response (TPR) is seen every day, in

every classroom, in every school, in every country around the world. It is

based on the idea that the natural response to understanding a command

is a physical response. Physical responses have been used by teachers,

particularly primary school teachers, for many thousands of years. "Stand

up!" "Sit down!" "Clap your hands!" "Touch your nose!"

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b. The Definition of Total Physical Response

Total Physical Response (TPR) is one of new methods developed

by James Asher, a professor of psychology at San José State University,

California, USA, to aid learning foreign language. TPR is a language

learning method which is based on the coordination of speech and action.

It is linked to the trace theory of memory, which holds that the more

often or intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger memory

will be.

In TPR classroom, students respond to commands that require

physical movement. Asher defines that the method of TPR relies on the

assumption that when learning a second language or a foreign language,

that language is internalized through a process that is similar to first

language development and that the process allows for long period of

listening and developing comprehension prior to production

(www.wikipedia.com) Richard and Rodgers (1986: 87) state that TPR is

a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and

action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity.

The first concept deals with the idea of introducing second

language by giving action response which has been influenced by the

way people acquire their first language. A baby would not memorize a

list of words or try to speak immediately. They just listen first to the

other family members and then act or do thing in response to their

utterances. In the next period he would speak if he was ready to.

Nevertheless at first, he would listen and carry out actions or respond

physically to him. The second one relates to the brain hemisphere. Our

brain is divided into two parts, left and right hemispheres.

TPR is based on the premise that the human brain has a biological

program from acquiring any natural language in the world including the

sign language of the deaf. The process is visible when we observe how

infants internalize their first language (www.tprsource.com/asher.htm).

Asher looks to the way that children combine both verbal and physical

35

aspects. A child responds physically to the speech for the parent. The

responses of the child are in turn positively reinforced by the speech of

the parent. For many months the child absorbs the language without

being able to speak. With TPR the teacher tries to mimic this process in

class (www.tprworld.com/organizing).

TPR is also named the comprehension approach since of the

importance given to listening comprehension. In TPR, students listen and

respond to the spoken target language commands of their teacher. If they

know the

meaning of the words.

From the explanation above, the writer concludes that TPR places

more emphasis on the link between word and action. The activity, where

a command is given in the imperative and the learners obey the

command, is the main activity of TPR. Therefore, it will be easier for the

students to recall the words they have learned if they use their body in

learning vocabulary items. The powerful method of TPR is best applied

to introduce new vocabulary and new grammatical feature at any level.

TPR can be varied in any different activities such as storytelling,

dialogue, games, or a pattern drill.

c. Theories behind Total Physical Response

1) Childhood language acquisition theories

Children are exposed to huge amounts of language input before

speaking. Language learners can also benefit from following this

the more normal situation where learners are asked to produce

instantly.

2) The right brain/left brain divide

The left brain can be described as logical, one-track, and

cynical. It is used when analyzing, talking, discussing, etc. Most

classroom activities in Japan are aimed at the left brain. The right

brain is used when moving, acting, using metaphor, drawing,

36

pointing, etc. It is targeted by sports and extra-curricular activities in

Japanese schools. When language is taught by lecturing or

explaining, the cynical left brain is targeted and the information is

kept in short term memory (if at all). It is soon forgotten as it never

b

retains it, in the same way that skills such as swimming or riding a

bicycle are remembered long term.

3) Lowering stress and the affective filter

Students learn more when they are relaxed. This is because the

affective filter, a mental barrier between the students and the

information, is raised when students are nervous or uncomfortable.

When the affective filter is high, learners find it harder to

understand, process, and remember information. TPR helps reduce

the affective filter because it is less threatening than traditional

language activities. Students do not have to produce language.

Mistakes are unimportant and easily (and painlessly) corrected by

the teacher. Language is remembered easily and long-term.

d. Principles of Total Physical Response

Before applying the TPR method for teaching a foreign language, in

this case is English, a teacher should understand its principles well so he

will be able to use it properly in the teaching learning process. Asher as

the developer of TPR elaborates the principles of this method, they are:

1) Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and

should reflect the same naturalistic process

2) Listening should develop before speaking

3) Children respond physically to spoken language, and adult learners

learn better if they do that too

4) Once listening comprehension has been developing, speech develop

naturally and effortlessly out of it Delaying speech reduces stress.

(www.tprsource.com/asher.htm)

37

Moreover, Larsen and Freeman (2000: 111) describe several

principles in teaching learning process by using TPR upon which the

The principles of TPR are as follow:

1) Meaning in the target language can often be conveyed through

language should not be presented in chunks; not just word by word.

2)

developed before speaking.

3) Students can initially learn one part of the language rapidly by

moving their bodies.

4) The imperative is powerful linguistic device through which the

teacher can direct student behavior.

5) Students can learn through observing actions as well as by

performing the action themselves.

6) Feeling of success and low anxiety facilitate learning.

7) Students should not be made to memorize fixed routines.

8) Correction should be carried out in an unobtrusive manner.

9) Students must not develop flexibility in understanding a novel

combination of target language chunks. They need to understand

more than the exact sentences used in training.

10) Language learning is more effective when it is fun.

11) Spoken language should be emphasized over written language.

12) Students will begin to speak when they are ready.

13) Students are expected to make errors when they first begin speaking.

Work on the fine details of the language should be postponed until

students have become somewhat proficient.

According to the principles above, it can be concluded that

students will understand the meaning of the vocabulary items easily if

they use their bodies while they are learning. In the learning, students

38

should feel successful and they do not feel pessimistic. A teacher should

be caref

improperly will make the students fell desperate. Therefore, an English

teacher must be able to create flexibility in the class room. Another

important thing is that the new vocabulary should be presented in a

context not word by word.

e. Procedure

According to Asher in Richard and Rogers (2001), provides a

lesson by lesson account of a course taught according to TPR principles,

which serves as a source of information on the procedures used in TPR

classroom. The four steps in this course will proceed in the following

way.

1) Review

This was a fast-moving warn-up in which individual students

were moved with commands such as

Jerry, sit beside Ronald

Suzie, go to your chair and open your book

2) New Commands

Here teacher introduce some vocabularies such as:

Wash your hands

Your face

Your hair

Brush your teeth

The table

Your pants

Next, the teacher asks simple questions which students can answer

with a gesture such as pointing. Examples would be:

Where is the cupboard? (Maria, point to the cupboard)

Where is the book? (Kyla, point the book)

39

3) Role Reversal

Students readily volunteer to utter commands that manipulated the

behavior of the teacher and other students. in this stage, students are

ready to speak.

4) Reading and Writing

The teachers write on the chalkboard each new vocabulary item and a

sentence to illustrate the item. Then she spoke each item and acted out

the sentence. The students listened as she read the material. Some

copied the information on their notebook. (p. 77-78)

B. Related Research Concerning on Teaching Vocabulary through

Total Physical Response

There are some related researches found. As follow:

1. The Effects of Total Physical Response on English Functional Vocabulary

Learning for Resource Classroom Students in the Elementary School

Researcher : Hui-Ching Hsu and Chien-Hui Lin

Place : Elementary school

Result :

a. The immediate and maintaining effects of TPR on listening

comprehensions for learning English functional vocabulary for resource

classroom students were found in this study. At the baseline phase, all the

tested at the intervention phase, the correct rates rose immediately. That

TPR is a high speed language acquisition is proved to be true in this

performance was stable at the maintenance phase shows the maintaining

effects of TPR.

b. her study to ensure that whether resource

classroom students learn how to express in English functional vocabulary

immediately through TPR. Although the performance of oral expressing

40

of student B and C were significant, student A almost kept silent at the

intervention phase. Further study may help us figure out the question.

c. The maintaining effects of TPR on expressing abilities for learning

English functional vocabulary for resource classroom students were

found. All the students progressed at the maintenance phase, and it

demonstrated that TPR results in long term retention.

d. To avoid frustrated experiences and to make them be confident, we

should considerate the language development of students with special

nded that blends and

be taught at first for the resource classroom students.

e.

and interests in learning English.

2. Improving Students Vocabulary Mastery Using Total Physical Response (A

Classroom Action Research in the Fourth Grade of in 2009/2010 Academic

Year)

Researcher : Budhi Remawan

Place : SDN 1 Wates

Time : September November 2009

Result :

The result of the research showed that Total Physical Response

using Total Physical

classroom instruction improved. The students enjoyed the lesson because they

not only sat in their chair that could make them bored but also took part in the

activity by performing the language into actions. The improvement the

scores improved from 5.85 (the pre test of Cycle 1) to 7.03 (the post test

of Cycle 1), and it improved for a second time in the post test of Cycle 2,

which achieved to 8.58. It showed that there was a significant improvement

41

conducted. Therefore, it can be concluded that teaching vocabulary using

Total Physical Response was able to impro

mastery.

3. Improving Vocabulary Mastery Through Total Physical response/TPR (A

Classroom Action Research in the Third Grade Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Al Islam

Surakarta of in 2009/2010 Academic Year)

Researcher : Andra Kurniawan

Place : Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Al Islam Surakarta

Time : September November 2008

Result :

before and after the action. Based on the research observation result, the

student had improvement in vocabulary mastery. They were interested more

in learning English.

C. Rationale

Vocabulary is one elements of the language that should be learnt. It can be

denied that it will be hard to use the language without mastering stocks of

vocabulary. It shows that vocabulary mastery has important rule in

communication. Furthermore they are two kinds of vocabulary, receptive and

productive vocabulary. To cover the range whole language of skills, the students

have to master of both receptive productive vocabulary.

There are four ways to evaluate vocabulary mastery. The first, limited

responses, is for the beginners. The second, multiple-choice completion, is a test

in which a sentence with a missing words in presented. A third type, multiple-

choice paraphrase. The fourth kind of test, simple completion (words).

Young learners have some difficulties in learning new language especially in

receipting vocabulary. By knowing the characteristic of young learners in

learning new language and their learning styles, teacher can conduct learning

42

process that is not only suit best for young learners but also good tool for building

vocabulary. The main major of teaching vocabulary is to help the learners to

master a large vocabulary of useful words. Learners are supposed to be able using

the language in the meaning of communication. Meanwhile, teachers should have

the teacher should be aware of the differences and the possible consequences of

those differences.

The main reason of implementing total physical response in teaching

vocabulary to the third grade of Tegalkuniran elementary school is to provide an

through hands and eyes and ears. Based on learning styles of children, the

physical world dominates all the times. Total physical response method is one

method that can handle this. It can be assumed that total physical response

D. Action Hypothesis

Based on the theory and rationale above, the hypothesis is formulated as