9
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Description
1. Vocabulary Mastery
a. The Meaning of Vocabulary Mastery
First of all, knowing the definition of vocabulary is crucial before
discussing about vocabulary mastery. According to Hatch and Brown
(1995: 1) the term vocabulary refers to a list or set of the words for a
particular language or set of words that individual speaker of language
might use. It means that almost every individual has own set of
vocabulary. The same definition also stated by Hornby (1995: 1331) he
defines vocabulary as total number of words in a language, all the words
known by person or used in particular book, subject, etc. and list of
words with their meanings.
Generally, vocabulary is known as knowledge of words and word
meanings. Vocabulary also means; 1) All the words of a language, 2) The
sum of words used by, understood by, or at the command of a particular
person or group, 3) A list of words and often phrases, usually arranged
alphabetically and defined or translated; a lexicon or glossary, 4) A
supply of expressive means; a repertoire of communication. From the
definition above, it may be concluded that vocabulary is the total number
of words and the meanings that a person knows or uses.
Vocabulary is essential for successful second language use as
Thornbury (2002:1) says that language emerges first as words, both
historically and in term of the way each of us learned our first and any
subsequent languages. It means that the first basic to learn a language is
vocabulary. The same way also stated by Gower, Philips and Walter,
grammar for communication purposes, particularly in the early stages
9
10
when students are motivated to learn the basic words they need to get by
in the language.
Michael MacCarthy (1996: viii) strongly said that no matter how
well the students in grammar, no matter how successfully the sounds are
mastered, without the words range to express the meanings,
communication just cannot happen in any meaningful way. Allen (1983:
5) says that communication stops when learners lack the necessary
words. It means that the ability of understanding the language depends on
itself. To be able to use the language, a learner has to master bunch of
words.
This definition is supported by Swannel (1994: 656) who defines
mastery as comprehensive knowledge or use of a subject or instrument.
From www.thefreedictionary.com mastery means great skillfulness and
knowledge of some subject or activity. While Porter (2001: 953) states
that mastery is learning or understanding something completely and
having no difficulty in using it. From these definitions, we can conclude
that mastery means learning or understanding something completely till
having comprehensive in knowledge or use. From these definitions it
comes to the conclusion that vocabulary mastery means learning or
understanding completely till having comprehensive in knowledge or use
a number of words learned.
Vocabulary mastery can be measured by the requirements of
generalization (being able to define words) and application (selecting an
appropriate use of it) as Cornbach in Schmitt and Mac Charty (1997:
315) states vocabulary at that time focused only on the first two:
generalization and application. In addition Schmitt and Mac Charty
(1997:326) state receptive and productive knowledge: may prove the
only realistic way to measure depth of vocabulary knowledge. Words that
11
the learner recognize and understand when they occur in the context
called as receptive knowledge while productive knowledge related to
words which the learner understand, can produce correctly and use
constructively in speaking and writing.
Madsen (1983: 12) states the purpose of vocabulary test is to
measure the comprehension and production of words used in speaking
and writing. He also suggests four kinds of how to evaluate vocabulary
mastery. The first, limited responses, is for the beginners by using a
simple physical action like pointing at something or a very simple verbal
-choice completion is
a test in which a sentence with missing words in presented; students
choose one of four vocabulary items given to complete the sentence. The
third type, multiple-choice paraphrase, is a test in which a sentence with
one word underlined is given. Students choose which four words is the
closest meaning to the underlined item. The fourth kind of test, simple
completion (words), has students write in the missing part of words that
appear in sentences.
Futhermore Nation (2008: 141) also added that vocabulary test was
of test was done at observation stage. Furthermore Thornbury (2002:
129) without testing, there is no reliable means of knowing how effective
a teaching sequence has been. Based on pre-test the elements of
vocabulary tested in this research were spelling, meaning and use. Since
the subject of this research is beginner, the first type of limited responses,
second type multiple-choice completion is used to test the vocabulary
mastery.
b. Types of Vocabulary
Nation (2008) divides vocabulary into four levels largely on the
basis of how often it occurs in the language (its frequency) and how
widely it occurs (its range).
12
The brief explanation as follow:
1) High frequency words
These words occur very frequently in all kinds of uses of the
language. They are needed in formal and informal uses of the
language, in speech and in writing, and in novels, conversation,
newspaper and academic texts. These words also can be noticed in
several things. First, most of the words are quite short. Secondly 169
of the 2000 words families are function words as a, at, because, four,
I. all the rest are content words (nouns, verb, adjective, adverb).
Thirdly, most of these words are ones that even very young native
speakers of English are likely to know. They are common words that
we need every day.
2) Academic words
Academic words do not occur so often in other kinds of
language use. Less than 2% of the running words in conversation are
from the academic words list. The words in academic world list are
very important for learners who will use English for academic study
either in upper secondary schools or in universities or technical
institutes.
3) Technical words
Academic words occur in all kinds of academic subject areas
like Botany, Politics, Accounting, or Family Law. There are words
with even more special purposes and these are the words that are
very common in one particular area, such as the vocabulary of
Physics or the vocabulary of Applied Linguistics. When we see this
word we can usually guess what subject area they come from if we
know a little bit about that subject area.
4) Low frequency words
Low frequency words have the following characteristics.
First, each word does not occur very often. Secondly, most low
frequency words have very narrow range. They are not needed in
13
every use of language. Third, they make up a very small proportion
of the running words in a text, once proper nouns are excluded
usually less than 10% of the running words. And the last, they are a
very large group of words, numbering well over 100,000.
Nation also defines vocabulary as receptive and productive
vocabulary knowledge. Receptive vocabulary knowledge refers to the
ability to understand a word when it is heard or seen. The receptive
vocabulary is also called a passive process because the students only
receive thought from others. Receptive vocabulary is much larger than
productive vocabulary because there are many words recognized when
the learner hears or reads but do not use when they speak or writes.
While productive knowledge is the knowledge to produce a word when
one writes or speaks. It involves what is needed for receptive
vocabulary plus the ability to speak or write the appropriate time.
Therefore, productive vocabulary can be addressed as an active process,
because the students can produce the words to express their thought to
others. It is generally believed that words are known receptively first
and only after intentional or incidental learning become available for
productive use. To cover the whole range of language skills, the
students require both of receptive and productive vocabulary.
c. Aspect of Vocabulary
Aspect in this research means part; feature; phase, as of
a subject or problem (www. Definition.net). Therefore, aspect of
vocabulary means part or phase of knowing the words. Knowing a word
involves much more than knowing just its meaning. Nation and Richard
in Schmitt and McCarthy (1997: 4) describe the various kinds of words
knowledge necessary to master a word completely, including knowledge
of its orthographical and phonological form, meanings, grammatical
behavior, associations, collocations, frequency and register.
14
Furthermore, Nation (2001: 27) suggests three-category of what is
involved in knowing a word at both of receptive and productive level:
1) Word form: including the spoken form, the written form, and the
word part (affixes).
2) Word meaning: including connecting from to meaning (of a word) ,
concepts and referent, and association.
3) Word use: including grammatical function, collocation and constrain
on use (register, frequency, etc.)
In addition, Nagy and Scott (2000) described components of word
knowledge. First, they pointed out that word learning is incremental
that is, we learn word meanings gradually and internalize deeper
meanings through successive encounters in a variety of contexts and
through active engagement with the words. For example, the average
tenth grader is likely to have a deeper and more sophisticated
understanding of the term atom compared to the knowledge of an average
fourth grader, who still has a more simplistic understanding of the term.
For other words, a deeper understanding may be necessary for students to
successfully comprehend a passage. Another aspect of word knowledge
is the presence of polysemy or multiple meaning words. Many words
have different meanings depending upon the context in which they are
used.
A third aspect of word knowledge described by Nagy and Scott
(2000) is the different types of knowledge involved in knowing a word.
The types of knowledge include the use of words in oral and written
language, correct grammar usage of words or syntactical knowledge,
semantic understandings such as appropriate synonyms and antonyms,
and even morphological understandings that involve correct usage of
prefixes and suffixes.
15
Fourth aspect of word knowledge is the notion that learning a word
meaning is inextricably related to knowledge of other related words. We
do not learn word meanings in isolation; we learn word meanings in
relation to other words and concepts. For example, knowing the concept
of rectangle involves knowing about polygons, quadrilaterals, right
angles, squares, and other related concepts. Finally, Nagy and Scott
(2000) noted that word knowledge differs according to the type of word.
Knowing the meaning of prepositions (e.g., if, under, around) differs
greatly from knowing the meaning of specific science terminology, such
as nucleus, proton, and neutron.
From the explanation above, it can be concluded that there are
seven aspects of what it means to know a word. They are polysemy,
connotation, spelling and pronunciation, part of speech, frequency, usage
and collocation. Different aspect of word knowledge will be mastered at
different stage at different rate (Schmitt in Qing Ma 2009: 29). The very
beginning of the process consists of knowing the meaning and form of
word and connecting the two together. In this research the aspects of
vocabulary which is discussed further is consist of form, meaning and
use.
d. Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in
behavior that results from experience (Klein, 2008: 2). While from
(www.answer.com) learning means the act, process, or experience of
gaining knowledge or skill. So, learning means the process or gaining
knowledge from experience. According Reid (1998: ix) Learning
strategies are external skills often used consciously by the student to
define learning strategies as the special thoughts or behaviors that
individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new
16
information. Ellis (1997) states that learning strategies are the particular
approaches or techniques that are used by the learners when they attempt
to learn.
Furthermore, Oxford and Nam in Reid (1998: 53) state learning
strategies is a technical phrase that means any specific conscious action
of behavior a student takes to improve his or her learning. From the
opinion above seems to be that learning strategies are special thoughts or
behaviors, approaches and technical ways in comprehend, learn or retain
new information. So, vocabulary learning strategies are the special
thoughts, approaches and technical ways in comprehend, learn or retain
the words learned.
divide language learning strategies into three major types: metacognitive
(strategies for over viewing the processes of language use and learning,
and for taking steps to efficiently plan and regulate those processes),
cognitive (strategies which involve the manipulation of an information in
an immediate task for the purpose of acquiring or retaining that
information) and social/affective (strategies dialing with interpersonal
constraints). Each of these major categories describes a large number of
strategies.
Learning a second language involves both learning a new
conceptual system and constructing a new vocabulary network- a second
mental lexicon (Thornbury 2002: 10). Furthermore Nation (2008: 14)
notes some strategies, they are:
1) Giving repeated attention to vocabulary
Useful vocabulary needs to be met again and again to ensure it
is learned. In the early stages of learning the meetings need to be
reasonably close together, preferably within a few days, so that too
17
much forgetting does not occur. Later meetings can be very widely
spaced with several weeks between each meeting.
2) Repeatedly coming back to words
Principles:
a)
explanations.
b) Relate the present teaching to past knowledge by showing a
pattern or analogies.
c) Use both oral and written presentation - write it on the
blackboard as well as explaining.
d) Give most attention to words that are already partly known.
e) Tell the learners if it is a high frequency word that is worth
noting for future attention.
f) n other unknown or poorly known related words
like near synonyms, opposites, or members of the same lexical
set.
3) Using dictionaries
Dictionaries can help learners in three major ways. First, they
can help learners understand words that they meet in reading and
listening. Secondly, they can help learners find words that they need
for speaking and writing and the last is they can help learners
remember words.
4) The unknown to known imaging
This strategy has two important steps. First, it relates the form
of the unknown word to known form. Secondly, it combines the
unknown and the known together in a memorable form.
There is no doubt that learning vocabulary is a complex process,
consisting of a number of different stages. While the process is still not
fully understood, some models for learning have been put forward.
Another is suggested by Brown and Pyne (Hatch and brown 1995: 383)
which includes five stages:
18
1) Having sources for encountering new words
Learning strategy includes learning new words by reading a
book, listening to TV and radio, and reading newspaper and
magazine. In addition to interest, actual need may make a difference
in whether encountered words are learned. People seem to learn
words more quickly if they have felt a need for them in some way.
2) Getting a clear image of words, both visual and auditory
This step essential to vocabulary learning appears to be setting
of a clear image visual or auditory or both the form of the vocabulary
words
becomes apparent when people think about what happens when
people try to retrieve words. In addition, it also appears when
students are asked to give definition for words.
3) Learning the meaning words
This steps includes such strategies as asking native speakers
what words mean, asking people who speak the native language the
meaning of new words, making pictures of word meanings in mind
and explaining what the speaker means and asking someone to tell
him English word.
4) Making strong memory connections between form and meaning of
words
This step includes many kinds of vocabulary learning
strategies such as flashcards, matching exercise, crossword puzzle,
etc that strengthen the form meaning connection.
5) Using words
In this step, words use is essential if the goal is to help learners
move as far along the continuum of word knowledge as they can.
Furthermore, use seems to provide a mild guarantee that word and
meanings will not fade from memory once they are learned.
In addition Schmitt (1997:199-227) propose a taxonomy of
vocabulary learning strategies. He mentions three strategies, discovery
19
strategies (guessing from context), determination strategies (using
reference materials) and social strategies or (asking someone else when
they do not know a word). Furthermore he states also consolidation
strategies which is included social strategies, memory strategies (relating
the word to be retained with some previously learned knowledge). A new
word can be integrated into many kinds of existing knowledge for
example previous experience or known words. The third strategy is
pictures/imagery; new words can be learned by studying them with
pictures of their meaning instead of definition. The next is related words;
new words can be liked to target words which a student already knows.
Usually this involves some type of sense relationship, such as
coordination, synonymy or antonym. Unrelated words; link words
together which has no sense of relationship. One way of doing this is
word to be remembered and the peg word. Grouping; is an important way
to aid recall and people seem to organize words into groups naturally
without promptin
orthographical or phonological form to facilitate recall. Other memory
strategy; improves recall word by means of manipulation effort involved
There also have some idea of which vocabulary strategies are most
commonly used. In a longitudinal experiment, Cohen and Aphek (in
Schmitt and Mac Charty (1997:201) found that most students simply
tried to memor
described different types of learners and found that most took notes on
found that repetition was the most active manipulating of information
(imagery, inference, keyword method) being much less frequent. So it
20
seems that more mechanical strategies ore often favored over more
complex ones.
Based on the explanation above, generally given some initial
indication of their level of usage and le
The use of physical action when learning has been shown to facilitate
language recall. Asher (1977) has made it the basis of Total Physical
Response method (TPR), which seems t be especially amenable to the
teaching of beginners. Indeed, learners sometimes use physical action
spontaneously while learning.
2. Teaching English to Children
a. The Characteristics of Children
Characteristics are words used to describe an object or a
person. Meanwhile, children means young person. In this research
the children who are the subject of the research are some young
person between 9 until 11 years old. The characteristic of young
person in 9 till 11 years old would be described here. Some students
learn best by seeing someone else do it. Usually, they like carefully,
sequenced presentations of information. They prefer to write down
what a teacher tells them. During class, they are generally quiet and
seldom distracted by noise. Some student learns by what is heard.
Edge (1998: 9) makes a list of characteristics of good
learners,
1) They have a positive attitude about the language they want to
learn and about speakers of that language.
2) They have a strong motivation to learn the language.
3) They are confidence that they will be successful learners.
4) They are prepared to risk making mistakes and they learn from
their mistakes that they make.
5) They like to learn about the language
6) They organize their own practice of the language.
21
7) They find ways to say things that they do not know how to
express correctly.
8) They get into situations where the language is being used and
they use the language as often as they can
9) They work directly in the language rather than translate from
their first language.
10) They think about their strategies for learning and remembering
and they consciously try out new strategies.
Unfortunately the characteristics of young learners or children are
not the same. In this topic children are students in elementary school in
age between 6 to 12 years old. They are divided into 2 groups, younger
group (6-8 years old) and older group (9-12 years old). Based on their
class they are called lower class for 1, 2 and 3 grade and Upper Class for
4, 5 and six grade. Meanwhile Scott and Ytreberg (1990) divided them
into two groups, Level One (5-7 years old) and level two (8-10 years
old).
These are the general characteristics of young learner based on
Suyanto (2007) and Scott and Ytreberg (1998):
1) Generally children in five to seven years old have egocentrics
characteristics which are preference to connected what is learned to
what they do for themselves. They like materials which have
connection with their live and surrounding. They give more
attention to words or phrase about their things, wore and even parts
of body. When they are in 10 years old, they are able to work with
others and learn from others.
2) Children in level one have difficulty in knowing what fact is and
what is fiction concrete and abstract things. They cannot
differentiate real and unreal thing yet. They can tell the differences
between fact and fiction at age 8.
3) Children are active. They like learning by playing, stories, songs.
They learn best when they are enjoying themselves. Ur (1996) says
22
game. The need of communication in game forces them to talk.
They can talk to their self or friends, sing and play with the words
which are learned. This activity make student being happy (Scott
and Ytreberg, 1990). Meanwhile Halliwell (1998: 6) adds that
children have an enormous for finding and making fun.
4) Children understand situations more quickly than they understand
the language used. Halliwell (1998: 3) says young children area
able to understand what is being said to them even before they
understand the individual words.
5) Their own understanding comes through hands and eyes and ears.
The physical world is dominant all times. They start to rely on
spoken word as well as the physical world to convey and
understanding meaning at age 10.
6) Easy to be bored. Children have a very short attention and
concentration span.
7)
do not always understand what adults are talking about. Adults do
not always understand what children talking about. The difference
is those adults usually find out by asking question, but children
understand in their own terms or do what they think you want them
to do. At age of eight they ask question all the time.
8) Young children cannot decide for themselves what to learn.
9) They are enthusiastic and positive about learning. It is important to
praise them if they are to keep their enthusiastic and feel successful
from the beginning.
10) They have a developed sense of fairness about what happens in the
11)
23
12) Their basic concepts are formed. They have very decided views of
the world
Furthermore Halliwell (1998: 3) also states some characteristics of
children such as:
1) Children are already very good at interpreting meaning without
necessarily understanding the individual words;
2) Already have great skill in using limited language creatively;
3) Frequently learn indirectly rather than directly;
4) Take great pleasure in finding and creating fun in what they do;
5) Have a ready imagination;
6) Above all take great delight in talking
From the characteristic above, we can conclude that children have
a special characteristic. They like studying while playing game, singing,
picture, a bit hard to get focus for long time. By knowing these
characteristic, teachers are hoped can provide learning environment that
best suit them.
b. Learning Style of Children
h to learning
and problem solving (Reid, 1995). Dunn states learning style as the way in
which each learner begins to concentrate on, process, use and retain new
and difficult information. It can be concluded that learning styles is the
way of a person learn something new best.
Every child is born ready to learn. Yet children (and adults) have
ways in which they learn best. A child might succeed in learning through a
combination of learning styles, but usually there is one learning style that
is favored over the others. Understanding that each child has a unique
learning style is crucial. It should be the basis for an effective learning
process. Silberman says students learn best by doing (1996: ix). He also
states that young children learn best form concentrate, activity based
limited. To compensate, they keep children active and moving about.
24
Different learning styles require different approaches and
techniques. Unlike traditional educational approaches that make use
general concepts, modern learning methods focus on a student's specific
behavior, as well as his or her skills and weaknesses.
The most common learning styles are Visual, Auditory and
Kinesthetic. These general categories exhibit unique features that can
sometimes change depending on environmental factors like a child's
upbringing and relationships with other people.
1) Visual
Visual Learners learn by watching. They call up images from the
past when trying to remember and picture the way things look in their
heads. For example, when spelling a word, they picture the way the
word looks.
It is estimated that 80 percent of what we learn is through our
vision. From an early age, a child acquires valuable information about
his surroundings through his or her eyes. Because of this fact, normal
schooling makes use of methods that favor visual learners. Children
who are primarily visual learners tend to get information through
reading books. They can also learn more from pictures and other
visual materials. If you notice that your learner is tidy and organized
in their learning habits, then he might be a visual learner.
Students of this style are drawn to paintings, crafts, and other arts.
They also have a wonderful sense of imagination and are known to be
very creative. Teaching vocabulary by using visual aids like pictures
and mimic are very good for learner in this learning style.
2) Auditory
Auditory Learners benefit from traditional teaching techniques.
Auditory learners succeed when directions are read aloud or
information is presented and requested verbally. They remember facts
when presented in the form of a poem, song or melody.
25
For some children, their sense of sound allows them to gather large
volumes of information and have them processed accordingly. A child
is most probably an auditory learner if he or she is good at listening to
instructions and is very sensitive to variations in spoken words. They
excel in gaining knowledge from conversations and lectures. Because
listening requires more concentration than seeing, students of this
learning style can be more discerning. They are usually more attentive
in class and can distinguish different ideas just by listening to them.
Because information revealed through speaking is not usually
recorded accurately in class, the memory capacity of auditory learners
exceeds those of visual learners. Children of this type also enjoy
studying with music in the background.
For them, sounds provide the best medium of instruction. Unlike
other students, these kinds of learners do not get bored easily with
teachers who are fond of lectures. If your child is an auditory learner,
he or she can also be creative and have an imaginative mind. Without
relying heavily on visual models, auditory learners become skilled at
interpreting information and reproducing them using their own
understanding. Students of this classification often stand out in college
because they enjoy class lectures and find listening to teachers a
rewarding activity. Teaching vocabulary by using song is the best
method for learner this learning style.
3) Kinesthetic
Kinesthetic learners learn best through movement and physical
manipulation. They like to find out how things work and to touch, feel
and experience what they are being asked to learn. Most children enter
kindergarten as physical learners, but by second or third grade their
learning styles may change to visual or auditory. Half of all students
in high school and beyond remain physical learners. child who has a
kinesthetic learning style cannot just sit still and wait for information
to be given. They surpass in finding out things for themselves without
26
any needs for guidance. Explorers at heart, kinesthetic learners are
known to be quite active even before a lesson proper. Their natural
curiosity drives them to make new discoveries, making it hard for
regular schools to limit their movement. Children of this learning style
are often mistaken to be rowdy and undisciplined. That however, is a
grave misconception. Kinesthetic learners always seem to be moving
around because they see their surroundings differently. For them, the
world is just a huge playground full of wonderful things they want to
discover and explore.
A learner is probably a kinesthetic learner if he or she is fond of
tinkering with toys, trying to find out how they work. They are also
quick learners, especially when left alone to examine a particular
object. These children can quickly put one and one together and have
a great capacity to understand complex processes and procedures. A
student who exhibits this particular learning behavior is always at the
forefront of experimentation and exploration.
They excel in discovering how machines operate and how a
process works. Students of this particular behavior are more of doers
than thinkers. If learners show an extreme fondness of taking things
apart to discover how they function, it should consider home
schooling. They should be given the opportunity to excel in their
studies using their natural skills.
Howard Gardner's research Reid (1998: 4) on multiple intelligences
suggests at least 8 intelligences. Good lessons will typically address more
than one intelligence.
1) Verbal/ linguistic intelligence
Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written
language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use
language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the
ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or
poetically; and language as a means to remember information.
27
Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard
Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.
2) Logical/ Mathematic Intelligence
Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to
analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and
investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, in entails
the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically.
This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and
mathematical thinking.
3) Musical Intelligence
Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance,
composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the
capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and
rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in
an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence.
4) Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's
whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to
use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner
sees mental and physical activity as related.
5) Spatial Intelligence
Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the
patterns of wide space and more confined areas. It is sensitively to
form, space, color, and shape. Sample skills include the ability to
represent visual or spatial ideas graphically.
6) Interpersonal Intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to
understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It
allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople,
religious and political leaders and counselors all need a well-
developed interpersonal intelligence.
28
7) Intrapersonal Intelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand
oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard
Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of
ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives.
8) Naturalist intelligence
Naturalist intelligence enables human beings to recognize,
categorize and draw upon certain features of the environment. It
'combines a description of the core ability with a characterization of
the role that many cultures.
sophisticated effort to bridge the gaps among the traditional approaches
to intelligence but adaptable framework for educational reform. The
application of the theory of multiple intelligences varies widely. It runs
the gamut from a teacher who, when confronted with a student having
difficulties, uses a different approach to teach the material, to an entire
school using MI as a framework. In general, those who subscribe to the
theory strive to provide opportunities for their students to use and
develop all the different intelligences,
Observing how learner learns is the first step in developing a good
learning process. Identifying the best ways students to learn means
helping the student have to positive learning experiences. Choosing the
right activities and teaching methods will put students on the right track.
The students can easily absorb the material and the teacher can teach
effectively.
c. Base theories of Teaching English to children
English is the first foreign language taught to the students of
elementary school. Teaching English in the elementary school has been
basic education as state in
29
Kebijakan Dekdikbud Republik Indonesia Nomor 0487/14/1992 Bab VIII menyatakan bahwa sekolah dasar dapat menambah matapelajaran dalam kurikulumnya, dengan syarat pelajaran itu tidak bertentangan dengan tujuan pendidikan nasional.
In the elementary school, English is to be taught as one of the local
content, based reference of Surat Keputusan Menteri Pendidikan dan
Kebudayaan Nomer 060/U/1993 tanggal 25 februari 1993 about possibility
English lesson as one of local subject in elementary school. The aim of
teaching English in the elementary school is to motivate them to be ready
and have self confident in learning English at higher level of education.
This policy of English lesson in elementary school is reacted by
some province as Jawa Timur province, Daerah Istimewa Jogyakarta, Jawa
tengah dan Jawa barat with Kepala Kantor Wilayah Departemen
pendidikan dan Kebudayaan province (DIKNAS) Jawa Timur
Mengeluarkan Surat Keputusan Nomer 1702/105/1994 tanggal 30 Maret
1994 that stated in East Java English lesson as a must local lesson.
Local lesson of an elementary school is a right for the school to
decide. It can be held if needed, start from what grade, how many hours
for a week. Everything should be prepared, including the English teacher
and material.
Following theories by Piaget, Vigotsky and Brunner related to the
children development.
1) Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
He stated four phase of children development:
a) Sensorymotor stage, 0 2 years old
b) Preoperational stage, 2-8 years old
c) Concentrate operational stage, 8- 11 years old
d) Formal stage, 11-15 years old or more
Based on above phase, elementary student is in Sensory motor
stage, Preoperational stage or even early Formal stage. It means they
need attention in their development. Children at that age are in
elementary school in Indonesia. Elementary school children need
30
attention according to its class levels. develops gradually
in accordance with the developments of knowledge and intellectual
skills to the stage toward a more logical way of thinking.
2) Lev Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
This theory is known as sociocultural theory. He believes that
interaction with others, especially with older person creates new ideas
and built intelligence. As we know that language is a tool to
communicate and get information.
3) Jerome Brunner: Discoveery Learning and Seaffolding
He states true learning comes through personal discovery. He also
says that language is the most important for cognitive development. He
investigated how older use language to connect the real word to
d. Factors in Teaching English to Children
In teaching English for children, they are four factors those should
be considered, as what Kasihani (1997: 21) mentioned in his book
1) Mother tongue
Instinct, characteristic and skill which are already built in
mother tongue or first language is very helpful in learning second
language, especially in learning English. They are similarity in
characteristic of learning languages but also differences, for example
in spelling, intonation, structure and vocabulary. These differences
make young learners confuse. Rather difficult for Indonesian
children to say long vocal, as food; room; diphthong /ei/, /au/, /ou/ in
away, now [nau], and road [roud]. And also in describing things, the
position of noun and adjective, for example kursi merah in
Indonesian become red chair.
2) Material
interest can be more interesting for children. Children like something
31
that they can see around like pet, football, family, hobbies etc. The
teacher must concern about this.
3) Social interaction
Good communication between students and teacher and among
students can give a confidence for the beginner to learn new
language. Social interaction helps the students to use the target
language while they interact with others. The interaction can be ruled
in games, songs, learning in pairs, in groups. Communication among
them creates confidence
be shined.
4) Media
Learning process can be more effective if the teacher use media
because children like visual. The use of media as real things,
pictures, and puppets make the learning more interacting.
5) Family background
a big differentiates in learning new language. Things around add
their vocabulary like TV, sofa, cupboard, books that provide by the
parents help students to learn English.
e. Teaching English to Children
Teaching elementary school is considered as teaching children. In
this case, knowing their characteristic and learning style is important. For
this reason, teacher should pay more attention on the method and
material used. Scott and Ytreberg notice some point in teaching English
to children
1) Words are not enough
younger learners should include movement and involved the senses.
Use plenty of pictures and objects to work on it. Demonstrate what
you want them to do.
32
2) Play with the language
Let the student talk to themselves. Make up rhymes, sing songs,
and tell stories. Playing with the language in this way is very
common in first language development and is very natural stage in
the first stages of foreign learning too.
3) Language as language
The spoken word is often accompanied by other clues of
meaning- facial expression, movement etc. make full use of this
clues. When students start to read, let them take a book home, they
can read it again and again.
4) Variety in classroom
Since concentration and attention are short, variety is a must-
variety of activity, variety of place, variety of voice.
5) Routines
Students benefit from knowing the rules and being familiar with
the situation. Have systems, have routines, organize and plan the
lesson. Use familiar situations, familiar activities. Repeat stories,
rhymes, etc.
6) Cooperation not competition
Avoid rewards and prizes. Create atmosphere of involvement
and togetherness.
7) Grammar
Children have an amazing ability to absorb language through
play and other activities which they find enjoyable. How good they
are in a foreign language is not dependent on whether they have
learnt the grammar rules or not. The best time to introduce some
short of simple grammar is either when a student asks for
explanation, or when it will be benefit from learning grammar.
8) Assessment
It is useful for teacher to make regular notes about each children
progress. From the beginning this can be done in very simple terms,
33
stressing the positive side of things and playing down what the
students cannot master. (p.5-7)
3. Total Physical Response
a. The Background of Total Physical Response
Dr. James J. Asher first described the Total Physical Response
media. The memory we use when learning to tie shoelaces or to ride a
learning a foreign language. The use of kinesthetic intelligence and
memory is particularly important when we are teaching young children
because we know that they do not learn in a conscious intellectual way.
Asher in Brown (2001: 30) noted that children, in learning their
first language, appear to do a lot of listening before they speak, and that
their listening is accompanied by physical responses ( reaching, grabbing,
moving, looking and so forth). According to Asher, motor activity is a
right-brain function that should precede left-brain language processing.
Asher was also convinced that language classes were often locus of too
much anxiety, so he wished to devise a method that was as stress-free as
possible, where learners would not feel overly self conscious and
defensive.
The basis of Total Physical Response (TPR) is seen every day, in
every classroom, in every school, in every country around the world. It is
based on the idea that the natural response to understanding a command
is a physical response. Physical responses have been used by teachers,
particularly primary school teachers, for many thousands of years. "Stand
up!" "Sit down!" "Clap your hands!" "Touch your nose!"
34
b. The Definition of Total Physical Response
Total Physical Response (TPR) is one of new methods developed
by James Asher, a professor of psychology at San José State University,
California, USA, to aid learning foreign language. TPR is a language
learning method which is based on the coordination of speech and action.
It is linked to the trace theory of memory, which holds that the more
often or intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger memory
will be.
In TPR classroom, students respond to commands that require
physical movement. Asher defines that the method of TPR relies on the
assumption that when learning a second language or a foreign language,
that language is internalized through a process that is similar to first
language development and that the process allows for long period of
listening and developing comprehension prior to production
(www.wikipedia.com) Richard and Rodgers (1986: 87) state that TPR is
a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and
action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity.
The first concept deals with the idea of introducing second
language by giving action response which has been influenced by the
way people acquire their first language. A baby would not memorize a
list of words or try to speak immediately. They just listen first to the
other family members and then act or do thing in response to their
utterances. In the next period he would speak if he was ready to.
Nevertheless at first, he would listen and carry out actions or respond
physically to him. The second one relates to the brain hemisphere. Our
brain is divided into two parts, left and right hemispheres.
TPR is based on the premise that the human brain has a biological
program from acquiring any natural language in the world including the
sign language of the deaf. The process is visible when we observe how
infants internalize their first language (www.tprsource.com/asher.htm).
Asher looks to the way that children combine both verbal and physical
35
aspects. A child responds physically to the speech for the parent. The
responses of the child are in turn positively reinforced by the speech of
the parent. For many months the child absorbs the language without
being able to speak. With TPR the teacher tries to mimic this process in
class (www.tprworld.com/organizing).
TPR is also named the comprehension approach since of the
importance given to listening comprehension. In TPR, students listen and
respond to the spoken target language commands of their teacher. If they
know the
meaning of the words.
From the explanation above, the writer concludes that TPR places
more emphasis on the link between word and action. The activity, where
a command is given in the imperative and the learners obey the
command, is the main activity of TPR. Therefore, it will be easier for the
students to recall the words they have learned if they use their body in
learning vocabulary items. The powerful method of TPR is best applied
to introduce new vocabulary and new grammatical feature at any level.
TPR can be varied in any different activities such as storytelling,
dialogue, games, or a pattern drill.
c. Theories behind Total Physical Response
1) Childhood language acquisition theories
Children are exposed to huge amounts of language input before
speaking. Language learners can also benefit from following this
the more normal situation where learners are asked to produce
instantly.
2) The right brain/left brain divide
The left brain can be described as logical, one-track, and
cynical. It is used when analyzing, talking, discussing, etc. Most
classroom activities in Japan are aimed at the left brain. The right
brain is used when moving, acting, using metaphor, drawing,
36
pointing, etc. It is targeted by sports and extra-curricular activities in
Japanese schools. When language is taught by lecturing or
explaining, the cynical left brain is targeted and the information is
kept in short term memory (if at all). It is soon forgotten as it never
b
retains it, in the same way that skills such as swimming or riding a
bicycle are remembered long term.
3) Lowering stress and the affective filter
Students learn more when they are relaxed. This is because the
affective filter, a mental barrier between the students and the
information, is raised when students are nervous or uncomfortable.
When the affective filter is high, learners find it harder to
understand, process, and remember information. TPR helps reduce
the affective filter because it is less threatening than traditional
language activities. Students do not have to produce language.
Mistakes are unimportant and easily (and painlessly) corrected by
the teacher. Language is remembered easily and long-term.
d. Principles of Total Physical Response
Before applying the TPR method for teaching a foreign language, in
this case is English, a teacher should understand its principles well so he
will be able to use it properly in the teaching learning process. Asher as
the developer of TPR elaborates the principles of this method, they are:
1) Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and
should reflect the same naturalistic process
2) Listening should develop before speaking
3) Children respond physically to spoken language, and adult learners
learn better if they do that too
4) Once listening comprehension has been developing, speech develop
naturally and effortlessly out of it Delaying speech reduces stress.
(www.tprsource.com/asher.htm)
37
Moreover, Larsen and Freeman (2000: 111) describe several
principles in teaching learning process by using TPR upon which the
The principles of TPR are as follow:
1) Meaning in the target language can often be conveyed through
language should not be presented in chunks; not just word by word.
2)
developed before speaking.
3) Students can initially learn one part of the language rapidly by
moving their bodies.
4) The imperative is powerful linguistic device through which the
teacher can direct student behavior.
5) Students can learn through observing actions as well as by
performing the action themselves.
6) Feeling of success and low anxiety facilitate learning.
7) Students should not be made to memorize fixed routines.
8) Correction should be carried out in an unobtrusive manner.
9) Students must not develop flexibility in understanding a novel
combination of target language chunks. They need to understand
more than the exact sentences used in training.
10) Language learning is more effective when it is fun.
11) Spoken language should be emphasized over written language.
12) Students will begin to speak when they are ready.
13) Students are expected to make errors when they first begin speaking.
Work on the fine details of the language should be postponed until
students have become somewhat proficient.
According to the principles above, it can be concluded that
students will understand the meaning of the vocabulary items easily if
they use their bodies while they are learning. In the learning, students
38
should feel successful and they do not feel pessimistic. A teacher should
be caref
improperly will make the students fell desperate. Therefore, an English
teacher must be able to create flexibility in the class room. Another
important thing is that the new vocabulary should be presented in a
context not word by word.
e. Procedure
According to Asher in Richard and Rogers (2001), provides a
lesson by lesson account of a course taught according to TPR principles,
which serves as a source of information on the procedures used in TPR
classroom. The four steps in this course will proceed in the following
way.
1) Review
This was a fast-moving warn-up in which individual students
were moved with commands such as
Jerry, sit beside Ronald
Suzie, go to your chair and open your book
2) New Commands
Here teacher introduce some vocabularies such as:
Wash your hands
Your face
Your hair
Brush your teeth
The table
Your pants
Next, the teacher asks simple questions which students can answer
with a gesture such as pointing. Examples would be:
Where is the cupboard? (Maria, point to the cupboard)
Where is the book? (Kyla, point the book)
39
3) Role Reversal
Students readily volunteer to utter commands that manipulated the
behavior of the teacher and other students. in this stage, students are
ready to speak.
4) Reading and Writing
The teachers write on the chalkboard each new vocabulary item and a
sentence to illustrate the item. Then she spoke each item and acted out
the sentence. The students listened as she read the material. Some
copied the information on their notebook. (p. 77-78)
B. Related Research Concerning on Teaching Vocabulary through
Total Physical Response
There are some related researches found. As follow:
1. The Effects of Total Physical Response on English Functional Vocabulary
Learning for Resource Classroom Students in the Elementary School
Researcher : Hui-Ching Hsu and Chien-Hui Lin
Place : Elementary school
Result :
a. The immediate and maintaining effects of TPR on listening
comprehensions for learning English functional vocabulary for resource
classroom students were found in this study. At the baseline phase, all the
tested at the intervention phase, the correct rates rose immediately. That
TPR is a high speed language acquisition is proved to be true in this
performance was stable at the maintenance phase shows the maintaining
effects of TPR.
b. her study to ensure that whether resource
classroom students learn how to express in English functional vocabulary
immediately through TPR. Although the performance of oral expressing
40
of student B and C were significant, student A almost kept silent at the
intervention phase. Further study may help us figure out the question.
c. The maintaining effects of TPR on expressing abilities for learning
English functional vocabulary for resource classroom students were
found. All the students progressed at the maintenance phase, and it
demonstrated that TPR results in long term retention.
d. To avoid frustrated experiences and to make them be confident, we
should considerate the language development of students with special
nded that blends and
be taught at first for the resource classroom students.
e.
and interests in learning English.
2. Improving Students Vocabulary Mastery Using Total Physical Response (A
Classroom Action Research in the Fourth Grade of in 2009/2010 Academic
Year)
Researcher : Budhi Remawan
Place : SDN 1 Wates
Time : September November 2009
Result :
The result of the research showed that Total Physical Response
using Total Physical
classroom instruction improved. The students enjoyed the lesson because they
not only sat in their chair that could make them bored but also took part in the
activity by performing the language into actions. The improvement the
scores improved from 5.85 (the pre test of Cycle 1) to 7.03 (the post test
of Cycle 1), and it improved for a second time in the post test of Cycle 2,
which achieved to 8.58. It showed that there was a significant improvement
41
conducted. Therefore, it can be concluded that teaching vocabulary using
Total Physical Response was able to impro
mastery.
3. Improving Vocabulary Mastery Through Total Physical response/TPR (A
Classroom Action Research in the Third Grade Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Al Islam
Surakarta of in 2009/2010 Academic Year)
Researcher : Andra Kurniawan
Place : Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Al Islam Surakarta
Time : September November 2008
Result :
before and after the action. Based on the research observation result, the
student had improvement in vocabulary mastery. They were interested more
in learning English.
C. Rationale
Vocabulary is one elements of the language that should be learnt. It can be
denied that it will be hard to use the language without mastering stocks of
vocabulary. It shows that vocabulary mastery has important rule in
communication. Furthermore they are two kinds of vocabulary, receptive and
productive vocabulary. To cover the range whole language of skills, the students
have to master of both receptive productive vocabulary.
There are four ways to evaluate vocabulary mastery. The first, limited
responses, is for the beginners. The second, multiple-choice completion, is a test
in which a sentence with a missing words in presented. A third type, multiple-
choice paraphrase. The fourth kind of test, simple completion (words).
Young learners have some difficulties in learning new language especially in
receipting vocabulary. By knowing the characteristic of young learners in
learning new language and their learning styles, teacher can conduct learning
42
process that is not only suit best for young learners but also good tool for building
vocabulary. The main major of teaching vocabulary is to help the learners to
master a large vocabulary of useful words. Learners are supposed to be able using
the language in the meaning of communication. Meanwhile, teachers should have
the teacher should be aware of the differences and the possible consequences of
those differences.
The main reason of implementing total physical response in teaching
vocabulary to the third grade of Tegalkuniran elementary school is to provide an
through hands and eyes and ears. Based on learning styles of children, the
physical world dominates all the times. Total physical response method is one
method that can handle this. It can be assumed that total physical response
D. Action Hypothesis
Based on the theory and rationale above, the hypothesis is formulated as
Top Related