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ISSN 1018-9556=Ekklesiastikos Pharos 89 (2007) N. S. 18

IMAGES OF THE ENEMIES IN THE MACALŌT-

PSALMS

Leonard Maré

Abstract

Much attention has been given to the identity of the enemies in

the Psalms. Various proposals have been offered to identify the

foes that threaten the psalmist. The problem with these

proposals is that they all attempt to pinpoint the enemy

historically. This has resulted in too little attention being given

to the text itself. The purpose of this paper is therefore not to

discover who the historical enemies were but to investigate the

enemy in the maca

lôt-psalms as a literary motif. The poet(s) of

the maca

lôt-psalms ultimately wishes to create faith in the

hearts of the righteous that Yahweh is trustworthy and that He

will deliver those who trust Him in times of trouble.

1. Introduction

Much attention has been given to the identity of the enemies in the Psalms.

Various proposals have been offered to identify the foes that threaten the

psalmist (cf Birkeland 1933:1-19; Bullock 2001:145-149; Sheppard 1991:61-

82 for an overview of the most prominent of these proposals). Suggestions

have ranged widely, from those who work sorcery against the psalmists

(Mowinckel 1966:199-200), to foreign powers who threaten Israel (Birkeland

1933:29-30), to a world of socio-economic oppression where the righteous

were exploited to deprive them of their rights, their means of subsistence,

even their health and freedom of movement (Gottwald 1985:539).

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The problem with these proposals is that they all attempt to pinpoint

the enemy historically. This has resulted in too little attention being given to

the text itself. It is very difficult to establish the precise Sitz im Leben of the

psalms, and it is therefore extremely risky to take one‘s point of departure

behind the world of the text, because one can easily read things into the text. It

is therefore necessary that our point of departure should be the text itself.

The purpose of this paper is therefore not to discover who the historical

enemies were but to investigate the enemy in the maca

lôt-psalms as a literary

motif. In the words of Viviers (1991:1): ―… it is more fruitful to concentrate

on the literary function of specific motives than on a prolonged speculation of

the so-called origins of a motive‖.

2. The maca

lôt-psalms as field of research

There is general consensus that the maca

lôt-psalms should be seen as a

separate collection in the Psalter. There is a clear division between the long,

acrostic Psalm 119 and the short Psalm 120. All the other maca

lôt-psalms are

short, except Psalm 132, which consists of 18 verses. Regarding contents,

major differences are noticeable. The hrwt has a central position in Psalm 119;

whereas in the maca

lôt-psalms it doesn‘t occur (there is only an incidental

reference to the hrwt in 122:4 and 132:12). In addition to this, the names Zion,

Jerusalem, and Israel are not mentioned in Psalm 119, while the sanctuary, the

holy city and the people of God are prominent in the maca

lôt-psalms. The

collection ends in Psalm 134 with a doxology, which is one of the principles

for segmentation for the Psalter (cf Grossberg 1989:19-20; Viviers 1990:25).

Each of these fifteen psalms are introduced with the heading twl(m@h

ry#$ with only Psalm 121 showing a slight variation namely twl(m@l ry#$. Allen

(1983:146) is probably correct that the heading originally was the title of the

collection, and thereafter was added to each individual psalm. Psalms 122,

124, 131 and 133 add dwdl and Psalm 127 adds hml#$l. This should, of course,

not necessarily be understood as an indication of authorship.

The precise meaning of the heading twl(m@h is problematic. Various

possibilities have been offered (cf Bullock 2001:79-80; Crenshaw 2001:18-

22; Grossberg 1989:15-19; Keet 1969:1-17; Mitchell 1997:108-114). A first

possibility is that it refers to the step-like repetition of certain words and

phrases in following verses (anadiplosis). Viviers (1990) has shown that this

figure of speech occurs in each of the maca

lôt-psalms. However, he maintains

that the heading doesn‘t refer to this stylistic feature. The fact is that this

stylistic feature occurs in numerous psalms outside the present collection and

therefore does not present us with the key to the meaning of the heading.

Press (1958:405) has argued that based on the meaning of the root hl(

in Ezra 2:1, 7:9 the heading refers to the return of the exiles from Babylon and

that these songs were sung by them on their way back. However, none of

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these psalms deals with the salvation from exile, which would be expected if

the returning exiles were singing them. Viviers (1990:223) has also shown

that the existence of the second temple is presupposed by the maca

lôt-psalms,

which would indicate a time later than the exile.

Another possibility is that twl(m@h refers to the fifteen steps from the

court of women to the court of men. The Levites would then have sung these

songs during the Feast of Tabernacles, as they ascended these steps (Keet

1969:2). However, there is no real support for this hypothesis.

Liebreich (1955:33-36) suggested that the maca

lôt-psalms are

structured around the fifteen core words of the Aaronite blessing in Numbers

6:24-26 which were addressed to the people on the steps of the forecourt of

the temple. However, not all of these psalms show similarities with the

Aaronite blessing and the words of the blessing are not confined to the Psalter.

The most likely meaning of the heading is that twl(m@h is derived from

hl( and refers to the pilgrimages to the temple in Jerusalem during Israel‘s

annual religious festivals (cf 1 Sm 1:21; 2 Sm 6; 2 Kgs 23:2; Pss 24:3, 122:4;

Jr 31:6; Mic 4:2; Kraus 1972:XXI; Viviers 1990:223).

3. Images of the enemies in the maca

lôt-psalms

The literary motif of the enemy occurs in the maca

lôt-psalms in Psalm 120,

121, 123, 124, 125 and 129 with incidental references to the enemy in Psalms

127 and 132. The motif doesn‘t occur in Psalms 122, 126, 128, 130, 131, 133

and 134. For the purpose of this paper, Psalms 120, 121, 123, 124, 125 and

129 will be discussed.

i Psalm 120 It is clear from the first verse of the psalm that the psalmist finds himself in a

situation that causes distress and anxiety. htrc (verse 1) refers to anxiety due

to the threat of enemies (Harris, Archer & Waltke 1980:779). Therefore he

prays for deliverance from the threat against him, using various images to

describe the enemy and their actions against him.

In verse 2 the psalmist uses the image of ―lying lips‖ and a ―deceitful

tongue‖ to describe the actions of the enemy. The image of ―lying lips‖ is a

synecdoche, indicating the untruthfulness of the enemies. ―Deceitful tongue‖

is also a synecdoche, and because it reveals the thoughts and attitudes of the

enemies, represents their lifestyle (cf Ryken, Willhoit & Ryken 1998:876).

The enemy is not identified, and therefore attempts to do so are not

supported by the text.1 The parallelism of ―lip‖ and ―tongue‖ emphasize the

treacherous actions of the enemy. In the ancient Near-East people believed

that a word spoken with malicious intent could result in catastrophe, because

1 cf Keet (1969:19) who maintains that the enemy should be identified with foreigners who threaten

the righteous and Briggs & Briggs (1969:444) who identify the enemy with a party in Israel.

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words had creative power (cf Burden 1980:8). The psalmist uses this image to

describe the actions of the enemy against him as slander and false accusations.

The deceitfulness of the enemy is further underlined with the repetition

of hy@mr Nw#$l (deceitful tongue) in verse 3. Deceitful speech is often

mentioned in the psalms as a weapon against society (cf Pss 5:9; 10:7; 12:1-4;

31:18). Deceitfulness and lies undermine life resulting in the person becoming

insecure and hurt (cf Schaefer 2001:298).

In verse 3 the enemy is addressed and assured of retribution. The

psalmist uses the well-known cursing formula Kl Pysy hmw Kl Nt@y hm (cf 1 Sm

3:17, 20:13; 2 Sm 3:9; 1 Kgs 2:23; Rt 1:17). wHere hm hm plus the

preposition is used instead of the usual double hk plus the preposition. This

construction occurs in passages ―charged with intense emotion‖ (Marrs

1982:13; cf Jb 6:25, 26:2, 3; Jr 2:33, 36). The answer in verse 4 to the

question in verse 3 deals with the principle of lex taliones, indicating that God

will punish the enemy in the same manner as their actions against the

righteous.

The metaphor in verse 4 is very apt, because the tongue is often

compared with sharp arrows in the Psalter (cf Pss 7:14, 11:2, 57:5, 64:4). Just

as the enemies‘ words wounded the righteous like sharp arrows and burning

coals, Yahweh will strike the enemies and defeat them with the same

weapons. They will receive their just reward for their wrong actions. The

righteous is thus assured of Yahweh‘s acts of deliverance on their behalf.

Grossberg (1989:23) points out that Mynwn#$ in verse 4 is derived from the root

Nn#$ (tooth). The totality of the enemies‘ assault is thus emphasized: ―The poet

thus suggests a complete set: lip (v2), tongue (vv2, 3) and now tooth (v4). The

artist thereby underscores this theme of treacherous speech‖.

In verse 5 the psalmist uses the image of Meshech and Kedar to

describe the enemies. Meshech was a son of Japhet (cf Gn 10:2; 1 Chr 1:5)

and probably refers to a nation living between the Caspian – and the Black

Sea. Kedar was a son of Ishmael (cf Gn 25:13; Is 21:16; Jr 2:10) and refers to

an Arabic tribe living in the Syrian-Arabic desert. It is highly unlikely that

these references should be understood literally due to the great distance

between them. Rather, the place names are symbolic of distance from God

and the Israelites (Clifford 2003:219), they are indeed metaphors of a state of

exile (Mitchell 1997:117; Schaefer 2001:298).

Gunkel (1968:539) amends K#$m to )#m that is mentioned in Genesis

25:14 along with Kedar as a son of Ishmael. Thereby the geographical

problem is settled, and the verse can be understood literally. However, there is

no text critical support for this emendation and also no convincing textual

arguments and is therefore rejected. Seybold (1978:36), Burden (1980:10) and

Birkeland (1933:202-203) also chose to understand this verse literally but in

the end it seems more logical in the context to read the reference as a literary

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motif. The psalmist uses this image to indicate that the enemies are nothing

less than warlike barbarians.

This is confirmed by the reference in verse 7 to military power. Both

tribes were known to be warmongers (K#$m in Ez 32:26, 38:2-4, 39:1-3; rdq in

Is 21:16-17) and thus this image of warlike aggression is used to contrast the

enemy with the psalmist, who seeks peace. This image of aggression is further

highlighted with the reference to the enemies as ―those who hate peace‖ (Mwl#$

)nw$#) in verse 6. By means of alliteration and anadiplosis the poet contrasts the

enemies who hate peace, and the righteous who love peace (verses 6-7).

ii Psalm 121 It is obvious from verse 1b that the righteous experiences a situation of

distress and danger. Uncertainty and fear emanate from the question in this

verse. The answer to dispel this anxiety is given in verse 2, and elaborated upon

in verses 3-8. Various possibilities have been offered for the mountains

mentioned in verse 1b. It can refer to the mountains surrounding Jerusalem

(Kraus 1989:428, Mays 1994:389) or the mountains which the pilgrim had to

cross on his journey to or from Jerusalem (Anderson 1972:852; Davidson

1998:407-408, Weiser 1962:746), where wild animals, robbers, or other

dangers could threaten the traveller. However, the text itself gives no support

to the latter.

Yet another possibility is that the mountains should be understood as

the dwelling place of God (Dahood 1970:200; Leupold 1969:868). The notion

that mountains are the place where gods dwell or reign is not foreign to

Hebrew thought. The Arameans even thought that Yahweh was a God of the

hills (cf 1 Kings 20:28). The image of the mountain of God or the ‗holy

mountain‘ is of course well-known in the Old Testament. Mount Sinai and

later Mount Zion are both part of the image. Originally Mount Sinai was seen

as God‘s dwelling place, but later on Zion came to be known as the mountain

of God. God‘s mountain is a holy place (Ex 19:23; Pss 2:6, 48:1-2; Is 11:9)

where Yahweh dwells and reigns (Pss 43:3, 68:16; Is 24:23; cf Ryken,

Wilhoit & Longman III 1998:573). This would mean that the psalmist looks to

the mountains for help, because God dwells there. The sight of the majestic

mountains communicates God‘s power and his concern, confirming that help

from Yahweh is imminent (Terrien 2003:811). Brown (2002:201) maintains

that mountain imagery is very suitable in the profile of divine protection,

because they imply both stability and awe and they afforded the ancients a

heightened attentiveness to God‘s awesome presence and incomparable

majesty.

However, the negative nature of the question of 1b and the answer

given, provide a more likely possibility. The adverb Ny)m indicates a critical

questioning, implying that the mountains shelter or represent a deadly threat

(Terrien 2003:811). If the mountains are indeed the dwelling place of God, it

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would have been unnecessary for the pilgrim to ask where his help comes

from. The mountains should therefore rather be seen as the dwelling place of

the gods (cf Prinsloo 2000:261).

This image of the mountains as the dwelling place of the gods creates

fear and anxiety in the heart of the psalmist. Their mysterious power fills the

poet‘s heart with dread. The psalmist knows that he is as nothing in the face of

the overwhelming power and strength of the mythological powers that dwell

there. However, as is the case here, often when the psalms speak of

mountains, Yahweh‘s superiority over them is emphasized (cf Pss 89:12;

90:2; 97:4-5; 104:32; cf Keel 1978:20). The psalmist need not fear the

mountains or the gods dwelling there, because help is at hand from the one

who is the creator of the mountains.

Yahweh, the creator of heavens and earth, is portrayed as the One who

provides help and deliverance to the righteous in times of distress, against the

gods who are powerless in the face of the incomparable power and majesty of

Yahweh. The gods are exposed as impotent in the face of the power of

Yahweh (Burden 1980:12). The experience of the uniqueness of Yahweh,

who alone is the creator, has dethroned the mountains as gods (Keel 1978:20).

In the face of mythological powers that endanger the psalmist, the claim is

made that they need not be feared because Yahweh is the creator who protects

the righteous against his enemies. Filled with anxiety, the psalmist can confess

his trust in Yahweh, the creator, thereby enacting this selfsame alternative,

well-ordered, dependable world where even mythological powers can do no

harm.

Within the context of this psalm, the creation tradition is utilized ‗to

demonstrate that Yahweh ordains all and that help comes from Him … what is

being conveyed is that Yahweh is the only creator‘ (Vos 2005:258). It seems

clear that the creation tradition functions in a polemic sense. Yahweh is the

creator of these mythological powers that threaten the psalmist. The

confession that Yahweh is the maker of heavens and earth is simultaneously a

declaration that these other deities are ineffectual (cf Creach 1996:49). They

are utterly dismissed. The proclamation of Yahweh‘s supremacy over these

powers creates trust and confidence in the heart of the righteous.

Verses 3-8 expand on the help that Yahweh provides. He will even

keep the feet of the righteous from stumbling; an expression that often

indicates adversity and misfortune (cf Pss 17:5; 38:17; 55:23; 73:2). In verses

3b and 4 Yahweh is again portrayed polemically against Baal (1 Kings 18:27)

and the fertility gods. They die annually and are ritualistically brought to life,

but Yahweh neither sleeps nor slumbers (cf Creach 1996:49, Davidson

1998:408).

There are of course examples in the Old Testament where Yahweh is

accused of sleeping (cf Pss 35:23, 44:23; Is 51:9). However, here in Psalm

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121 the psalmist triumphantly boasts that ‗Yahweh is continually active, he is

alive!‘ (Vos 2005:256).

Yahweh‘s protection of the righteous is by day and by night (verse 6).

This verse also has a polemical character: Sun and moon, which were

worshipped in other religions, cannot harm the righteous, because Yahweh

protects him.

Within the ancient world of the near East, the sun was regularly

imbued with divine powers. In Egypt the sun was the chief god and the

creator. Mesopotamians also worshipped the sun and regarded him as the

omniscient protector of justice (Brady 2000:1257). The Canaanite cult of the

sun-god is reflected by the place names Beth-Shemesh (Josh 15:10, 21:16),

En-Shemesh (Josh 15:7, 18:17), Ir-Shemesh (Josh 19:41). ‗They preserve the

memories of sanctuaries devoted to the solar deity‘ (Lipinski 1999:764).

The civilizations of the ancient Near East also worshipped the moon.

Moon gods, indigenous and international, were worshipped in ancient

Palestine (Deut 4:19, 17:3; 2 Kgs 23:5; Job 31:26; Jer 8:2). Proper names in

the Old Testament also reflect recognition of moon gods from western Asia

and Mesopotamia. xry is attested in Jerah (Gen 10:26) and Jaroah (1 Chr

5:14). Place names like Beth-yerah and Jericho are also indicative of ancient

lunar worship (Holloway 2000:917).

There is biblical confirmation that a solar cult operated within the

precincts of the temple. In 2 Kings 23:5, 11 we read that part of Josiah‘s

reform was to remove the pagan priests appointed to burn incense to the sun

and the moon as well as the horses that the kings of Judah devoted to the sun.

This was possibly an Assyrian astral cult which was imposed upon Judah as a

symbol of subjection and vassalage (Lipinski 1999:765).

Ezekiel 8:16 provides us with a second biblical polemic directed

against sun worship: ‗… there at the entrance to the temple … were about

twenty-five men. With their backs towards the temple of the Lord and their

faces towards the east, they were bowing down to the sun in the east‘ (NIV, cf

Brown 2002:86-87, cf also Deut 4:19, 17:3; Jer 8:2). Smith (2002:152) argues

that this might have been part of an indigenous form of the Yahwistic cult,

and not necessarily indicative of a separate sun cult (cf also Day 2000:158,

Lipinski 1999:765).

Job 31:26-28 refers to some kind of astral rite, although its precise

setting is unclear: ‗if I have regarded the sun in its radiance, or the moon

moving in splendour, so that my heart was secretly enticed, and my hand

offered them a kiss of homage, then these also would be sins to be judged, for

I would have been unfaithful, to God on high‘ (NIV). Solar worship and lunar

devotion is here connected (cf 2 Kings 23:5). Whether these practices

developed indigenously or were adopted from other nations, they were

allowed by the Judean dynasty at times to take place within the cult of its

national god (cf Smith 2002:151).

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Both sun and moon can of course also harm one physically. Sunstroke

was a common occurrence in the hot conditions of the Ancient Near East (cf 2

Kings 4:19; Is 49:10; Jonah 4:8). Certain illnesses, including certain fevers,

malaria and leprosy were laid at the door of the moon (cf Creach 1996:50,

Davidson 1998:409, Keet 1969:29, Kraus 1989:430). ‗Lunar eclipses were

extremely ominous and it was believed that the phases of the moon had an

influence on people‘ (Vos 2005:257). However, Yahweh‘s protection is all-

sufficient and the righteous need not fear the sun or the moon. The

symmetrical pattern of verse 6 emphasizes the claim of the psalmist that in all

circumstances and at all times, day and night, in the face of whatever danger

might threaten the righteous, he can rely on Yahweh‘s protection.

The sun and the moon are demythologized and deprived of their

influence and rule. Yahweh has authority over these powers. Because he is the

creator of heavens and earth, he rules over the sun and moon; they are indeed

also part of the work of his hands. Psalm 74:16 emphasizes that the sun and

moon were indeed established by Yahweh. Because he created them, they

need not be feared. In Genesis 1 the rule of the sun and moon is downgraded

and they are demythologized. ‗All they rule is day and night … they do that

merely as lampposts in the sky … elements in the material universe‘

(Goldingay 2003:90-91).

iii Psalm 123 The focus in Psalm 123 is much more on the righteous and the suffering that

they endure at the hand of enemies, with beautiful images of the trust that the

righteous place in Yahweh as the one who protects them. The image in verse 2

is particularly striking. There are numerous possibilities for the image of the

eyes of the servants which are focused on the hand of their master. The hand

of the master can be understood as the source of punishment, commandments,

food or protection (cf Burden 1980:22). The idea of punishment or

commandments does not fit the context of the psalm. Food would be a

possibility (cf Ps 104:27-28), but it seems that more is implied.

The hand of God is often an image of help and care (cf Ezr 7:6, 9, 28;

8:18, 22, 31; Neh 2:8, 18) and here in this psalm it refers to Yahweh‘s all

encompassing grace and mercy that delivers and protects. It is an expression

of respectful awe and submission that results from the awareness that the

psalmist is totally dependent on Yahweh, as well as an expression of

dedicated love and trustful hope that God will take care of his own (cf Weiser

1962:753).

wn(b$# br (3) that is repeated in verse 4 by means of anadiplosis,

emphasize the fact that the righteous have had more than enough of the scorn

and derision of the enemies. The enemies are portrayed as those who despise

the righteous and treat them with contempt and ridicule. They are haughty and

arrogant and look down on the righteous.

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Once again it is quite futile to attempt to pinpoint the enemies

historically. What is important is to interpret the image and to ascertain the

significance thereof. It seems to me that the psalmist creates an image of a

world of socio-economic oppression, where the righteous have been slandered

in order to deprive them of their rights by those in power who abuse their

privileged position in society (cf also Gottwald 1985:539). The psalmist

wishes to draw attention to a socio-economic reality of polarity between the

righteous and the enemies. The enemies are not identified exactly, but the poet

uses images to proclaim that in the midst of a world of socio-economic

oppression, the righteous can place their trust in Yahweh, who will take care

of them.

iv Psalm 124

The enemy in Psalm 124 is identified as Md) (verse 2). Mays (1994:396) argues

that Md) is used here as a collective noun for Israel‘s enemies in their

humanness. The psalmist immediately contrasts the enemy as frail human

beings with Yahweh, who is on the side of the righteous. Thereby it is

emphasized that no enemy power will be able to stand against Yahweh and his

protective power, even though this enemy power has great strength, as verses

3-5 show. The superior strength of the enemy against the righteous is

underlined. With striking imagery the poet describes what would have

happened if Yahweh was not supporting the righteous. The psalmist thus

wishes to emphasize Yahweh‘s commitment to his people.

In verse 3 the enemy is pictured as something that would have

devoured the righteous. This might be understood as a reference to lw)%#$

(Allen 1983:162; Davidson 1998:414). This image of lw)%#$ as a hungry,

insatiable monster is well known in the Old Testament (cf Pr 1:12; 27:20; Pss

55:16; 69:16; 106:17; 141:7; Is 5:14; Hab 2:5). Briggs & Briggs (1969:452-

453) understand this image as a reference to the story of Korah (Nm 16:30-

34), while Birkeland (1933:27) and Keet (1969:42) explain the image as a

reference to animals that devour their prey. This is also an image we often

find in the Old Testament (cf Pss 7:3; 22:14, 22; Dan 7:7). Another possibility

is that it refers to mythological dragons (Burden 1980:25). All of these

possibilities emphasize the richness of the image and the all-encompassing

threat of the enemies.

In verses 4-5 the enemy is compared with a flood that sweeps over the

righteous. In the words of Ryken, Willhoit and Longman (1998:293):

Nothing captures the destructive, death-dealing potential of water like

the image of a flood – whether it be a flood that rises slowly and

inexorably to drown the land, or a flood that thunders unexpectedly

down a mountain gully, sweeping away everything in its path.

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This image of water as a hostile force is well known in the Old Testament (cf

Is 8:7; 28:27; 30:28; 43:3; Pss 18:5; 32:6; 66:12; 69:2-3; Lam 3:54, Jer 47:2)

and is used here to portray the seemingly overwhelming trouble that the

righteous find themselves in. There may be an allusion to ancient Near

Eastern imagery of the waters of chaos which were subdued by God the

Creator (cf Brueggemann 1984:139; Lucas 2003:50). The fivefold repetition

of the first person plural pronominal suffix in verses 3-5 further underlines the

danger that the righteous had to face.

These images in verses 3-5 emphasize the overwhelming threat of the

enemies, the powerlessness of the righteous and Yahweh‘s miraculous

intervention. If it was not for Yahweh, the righteous would have been

devoured and swept away by the flood waters. It is absolutely clear that we

are dealing here with metaphors. The poet describes human enemies (Md) in

verse 2), using hyperbolic metaphorical language to underline their

overwhelming strength and threatening behavior.

In verse 6 Yahweh is praised for his deliverance. The image used for

the enemies is that of a predator that devours his prey, tearing it into pieces

with his teeth. This image of teeth as portrayal of hostile violence occurs

elsewhere in the Old Testament as well (cf Pss 3:8; 57:5; 58:7; Jb 4:10) and is

a metaphor for power (cf Ryken, Willhoit & Longman 1998:847). The

strength of the enemies and the seemingly hopelessness of the righteous is

thus again emphasized.

In verse 7 the poet uses the image of a bird escaping from a snare to

illustrate the deliverance of the righteous from the hands of the enemies. The

bird was already caught in the snare, but then the snare was broken2. The

implication of the Nifcal verbal forms is that Yahweh broke the snare to save

his people. This image is also well known in the Old Testament (cf Pss 11:1;

91:3; Pr 6:5; 7:23; Hs 7:12; Am 3:5). The idea of freedom and deliverance is

hereby vividly portrayed.

It is again obvious that the poet uses literary images to describe the

threat against the righteous. It is therefore pointless to try to identify the

enemies with historical persons or nations. The psalmist uses the images to

describe an overwhelming threat from which Yahweh alone could save his

people. Thereby the poet creates trust in the hearts of the righteous,

underlining the fact that Yahweh is on their side and that He will accomplish

victory against any and all hostile powers.

v Psalm 125 The poet of this psalm describes a situation in which the land that God gave to

his people was threatened by enemies. (#$rh +b#$ (verse 3) refers to this

enemy. The word ―scepter‖ is symbolic of the power and authority of this

enemy (cf Zec 10:11; Is 14:5). Usually Yahweh or the Davidic king was the

2 For a description of the procedure hunters followed to trap birds, cf Clifford 2003:231.

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carrier of the scepter. Here it is a symbol of the ungodly enemies (cf Beyerlin

1985:60-61) and it functions to emphasize the contrast between the righteous

and the wicked.

Sabourin (1969:187) as well as Birkeland (1933:27; 1955:16, 34) argue

for foreign enemies, while Allen (1983:168) points out that occupation by a

foreign enemy is a parody on Israel‘s traditional theology, which connects the

covenant between Yahweh and his people with the gift of the land (cf Dt

11:22-25; Is 57:13; 60:21). Leupold (1969:885) on the other hand argues for

internal enemies where those with power abused their positions regarding the

division of the land, resulting in the exploitation of the righteous.

The point is, however, that the psalmist does not identify the enemies

historically but uses a specific image to portray the threat against the

righteous. It is clear from the text that the consequences of this threat could

have had serious implications. Even the righteous was in danger of forsaking

their faith for doing wrong (verse 3b).

The tragedy of this psalm is the fact that it seems that some of the

righteous did indeed forsake their faith and turned aside to crooked ways

(verse 5) and their fate would then be the same as the evildoers. It seems to

me that the psalmist doesn‘t refer here to the enemy as such, as Viviers

(1990:82) and Birkeland (1933:27) believe, but to Israelites who forsook their

faith. Verse 3b already created the possibility that some of the righteous

would go astray. Those who forsake God and become disobedient to his will

and word, no longer has a place in the assembly of the righteous. They will

indeed perish like all evildoers who have excluded themselves from

fellowship with God and his people (cf Weiser 1962:759).

vi Psalm 129 The enemies take a prominent place in Psalm 129. The poem begins with a

reference to enemies who have oppressed Israel from the beginning. This is a

reference to the formation of Israel as a people in Egypt (cf Hos 2:14; 11:1; Jr

2:2; 22:21; Ezek 16:22, 43, 60; 23:3, 19). This enmity against God‘s people

continued throughout her history, however, no enemy ultimately prevailed

against Israel, because God delivered them in times of trouble (verse 2). The

verb lky (verse 2) is often used in contexts where someone is shamed.

However, here Israel was not brought to shame, and the enemy, not being able

to subdue Israel was in actual fact brought to shame (cf Jr 20:7, 11; cf Botha

2002:1408).

The psalmist uses a beautiful image, drawing inspiration from

agriculture (verse 3). The enemies plowed the back of God‘s people (cf Micah

3:23; Is 51:23). They forced Israel facedown, exposing her back, running their

plows across her back, leaving her bleeding and helpless on the ground. This

image vividly portrays the intensity of Israel‘s pain and suffering.

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Another image is used to further describe Israel‘s fate. The enemies

wanted to continue with their attacks, but Yahweh cut their cords. The image

is that the cords, that bound the plough ox to its plough, were cut of so that the

enemies could not continue to plough the people (cf Burden 1980:44; Keet

1969:70-71; Leupold 1969:900). Botha (2002:1409) maintains that this image

―refers to an action that restores the honour of the group by restoring its

proper social status‖. This means that the shame that the enemies tried to

inflict on God‘s people by plowing their backs is turned to honour when

Yahweh cuts the cords of oppression of the enemies (:1409).

In verse 5 the enemies are called ―those who hate Zion‖ (cf Ps 120:6

that describes them as those who hate peace). Zion is symbolic of Yahweh‘s

direct presence, which implies that those who hate Zion really hate God.

Although they may storm Zion, attacking her, they will not prevail and they

will be turned back by God Himself. He is the one who fights for his people

and deliver them. The enemies will be put to shame (cf Ps 132:18) when

Yahweh triumphs over them.

The fate of those who hate Zion is then described. They will wither,

just as grass, planted on a rooftop withers, before it can take root (verse 6-7).

The withering grass is thus an image of God‘s judgment against the enemies.

Grass and other seeds quickly grew on the flat rooftops of houses in the

Ancient Near East, because they were covered with mud. Due to a lack of

roots, and the scorching heat of the sun, they quickly dry up and die. Thus the

reaper has nothing to gather. The image is concluded in verse 8. Those who

passed by usually had a blessing for the reapers (cf Ruth 2:4). However, here

there is no harvest and therefore no blessing.

The poet of Psalm 129 uses these images to paint a picture of Israel‘s

national enemies. Israel was oppressed by various enemies since her early

history (verses 1-2). Especially verse 5 with its reference to ―those who hate

Zion‖ is a clear indication that people from a different religious and political

dispensation are indicated (cf Botha 2002:1406).

4. Conclusion In this paper I have attempted to show that the author(s) of the ma

calôt-psalms

used various images to paint vivid pictures of the enemies and their onslaught

against the righteous. It is evident that attempts to pinpoint the enemies

historically are futile, and that the focus should be on the enemy as a literary

motif. This results in all readers of the psalms being able to find in these

images a portrayal of their own struggle against enemies of various kinds. We

can find in these images a description of our own experiences and also find

comfort in the fact that Yahweh will deliver us in our own times of trouble.

In Psalm 120 the enemies were portrayed as warlike barbarians who

hated peace and acted deceitfully against the righteous. However, the

righteous can find hope and comfort in the fact that the enemies are assured of

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divine retribution. Psalm 121 painted a picture of mythological enemies that

threatened the poet. Again, the righteous need not fear, because Yahweh will

protect them from all harm. The purpose is thus again to create hope and faith

and trust in Yahweh, who will protect the believer in times of trouble.

In Psalm 123 the enemies are portrayed as haughty and arrogant,

despising the righteous and treating them with contempt and ridicule. Here the

poet used the image of a world of socio-economic oppression, where the

righteous have been deprived of their rights by those in power who abuse their

privileged position in society. In the midst of this world of socio-economic

oppression, the righteous can place their trust in Yahweh, who will take care

of them.

Psalm 124 pictured the enemies as a monster that devours the

righteous, as a flood that sweeps them away, and as a predator that tears the

righteous to pieces. Again it is emphasized that the threat against the righteous

is overwhelming, but Yahweh saved them. The righteous escaped from the

snare because Yahweh intervened and delivered them. The poet thus creates

trust in Yahweh as the one who saves. Psalm 125 portrays the enemy as

foreign invaders against whom Yahweh protects his people. Again the

emphasis is on the trust that the righteous can put in Yahweh. The tragedy of

Psalm 125 is that some Israelites even went astray and followed the way of

the wicked. However, they will be punished with the evildoers.

Psalm 129 also portrayed the national enemies of Israel, using vivid

pictures from the world of agriculture to portray the threat against God‘s

people. The enemies who hate Zion and thus ultimately, hate God will be put

to shame and wither like grass. The poet again wishes to create trust in

Yahweh who will deliver his people.

The poet(s) of the maca

lôt-psalms utilized various images to portray the

threat of the enemy against the righteous. However, despite the fact that the

threat against the righteous is overwhelming, time and again Yahweh delivers

them. The psalmist thus wishes to emphasize that Yahweh is trustworthy and

the righteous can place their trust and faith and hope in Him, because He will

deliver and protect and save those who trust in Him.

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