Human Development Scenarion of Malaysia: ASEAN and Global Perspective

Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 1, No 1 (2012) ISSN 2305-915X

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Dr. Mohammad Anwar Hossain, Assistant Professor, Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh

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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering

Blind Peer-Reviewed Journal

Volume 1, Number 1/2012 (First Issue)

Contents

1. Biogas Production from Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes) 09-13

Kamrun Nahar

2. Phytormediation of copper toxicity in soil by various corn and vegetables of

Bangladesh

14-22

M. Mafizur Rahman, Jakaria, M. Shahriar, S.K. Biswas, &

Rokibul Islam

3. Human Development Scenario of Malaysia: ASEAN and Global Perspective 23-34

Md. Sujahangir Kabir Sarkar, Sumaiya Sadeka, &

Md. Mehedi Hasan Sikdar

4. Performance of south facing windows for indoor ventilation & thermal

comfort at Dhaka

35-43

Mahbuba Afroz Jinia & Saiful Hasan Tariq

5. Impact of Environmental Education Technology in Secondary Educational

Institutions: A Study in Chittagong City Area

44-51

Md. Rahimullah Miah & Mir Abu Saleh Shamsuddin

6. E-Commerce of undergraduate’s perspective: The conceptual framework 52-58

Mohd. Nizam Bin A. Baharuddin, Dr Lawrence Arokiasamy,

Dr Huam Hon Tat, & Rani Ann Balaraman

7. Long Term Causality of Export Led Growth (ELG) using VECM model

with reference to India

59-71

Dr. Amitabh Joshi

AJASE Publish

Online and Print

Version Both



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Biogas Production from Water Hyacinth

(Eichhornia Crassipes)

Kamrun Nahar

Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Science and Management, North South University,

Dhaka, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT

Sustainability generally depends on the socio-economic development of a country and the availability and consumption of energy. The available sources of energy can be classified into nonrenewable and renewable. In the renewable account, the energy is being deposited everyday whereas the nonrenewable energy deposits are continuously depleted by our withdrawals. Due to continuous depletion in the natural resources by an increased consumption of the energy, alternatives of fossil fuels must be searched out. Bioenergy is the only alternative and cheap source of energy which can be made available especially for the rural agricultural people of Bangladesh. This paper describes the various uses of an important energy crop, Water hyacinth and the production of biogas using it as a feedstock, which could be collected from the water body and converted to gas, fertilizer and many other useful products.

Key words: Water hyacinth, water purification, biomass, compost, biogas

INTRODUCTION

During the diminishing of global natural resources and energy supply, the focus must be shifted to other forms of renewable energy sources. The second generation biofuel plants are potential sources for producing a useable grade of biodiesel, ethanol or biogas for energy production. Potential plants to use as sustainable energy sources include trees, certain grasses and crops such as corn, sugarcane, sweet sorghum and also the aquatic plant such as Water hyacinth. Aquatic plants, especially water hyacinth have the benefit of not requiring fertile land to grow, and thus do not take precious land/space away from food crops. Also, the harvest frequency for aquatics tends to be on the order of days, whereas the frequency for trees and crops are on the order of months or years and are much more difficult to harvest. The plentiful availability, low cost, and rapid growth of water hyacinths make them an ideal candidate for biofuel production.



Water hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes) is a flowering aquatic plant which can live and reproduce by floating freely on the surface of water. Plant size ranges from a few inches to around a meter in height. It grows in mats up to 2 meters thick which can significantly reduce light and oxygen, change water chemistry, affect flora and fauna underneath and cause significant increase in water loss due to evapotranspiration. The average height of the plant is about 45 cm in mature stage but generally ranges from 30 to 70 cm. Roots are variable in length from about 10 to 90 cm long [1] and are superb micro-sites for bacterial communities [2]. The rhizomes are generally 1 to 25 cm long, occasionally producing internodes. The plant is luxuriant in growth and multiplies very rapidly. The plant leaf, which is large and glazy, is composed of 49.6% protein, 16.0% lipids. 26.9% carbohydrates, 1.7% fibre and 5.8% ash [3]. Two types of water hyacinth are abundantly available, the long type and the dwarf type. The former type is mostly available in stagnant water having high effluent while the later is available mostly in paddy fields [4]. Chemical Composition of these types revealed that long and dwarf water hyacinth contain

Crude protein Crude fiber Ether

CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3

Nitrogen-Free

Extract (NFE) Ash

Long

hyacinth

Dwarf

hyacinth

Long

hyacinth

Dwarf

hyacinth

Long

hyacinth

Dwarf

hyacinth

Long

hyacinth

Dwarf

hyacinth

Long

hyacinth

Dwarf

hyacinth

14.28% 11.87% 21.79% 18.22% 2.01% 1.18% 44.49% 52.85% 17.43% 15.88%

The chemical composition of water hyacinth grown in water with more effluents resulted in higher chemical makeup than that grown in water with fewer effluents. It also causes practical problems for marine transportation, fishing and at intakes for hydro power and irrigation schemes. It is also considered a serious threat to biodiversity. It can be collected and used as an available source of biomass for energy and for various other uses. A native of South America, it is abundantly found in India, Bangladesh, and South East Asia and in the Philippines Islands. Under favorable conditions Water hyacinth grows very rapidly. The concept of using aquatic plants for conversion to energy (methane) is gaining attention in tropical and sub tropical regions of the world where warm climate is conductive to plant growth through out the year. Anaerobic digestion of organic matter is the oldest method for disposing the waste. The anaerobic digestion of animal, agricultural and industrial wastes has been widely studied. However, very little work has been done using aquatic plants particularly Water Hyacinth.

IMPORTANCE OF THE PLANT

It is abundantly available and does not require any land space. It grows readily without any need for sowing, weeding or fertilizing, so it costs nothing. It is rich in Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium, so can be used as organic fertilizer. The plant has a fibrous tissue and a high energy and protein content and can be used for a variety of useful applications. It has tough, fibrous roots that purify water by absorbing the nitrogen, phosphorus and Potassium on which it thrives. The plant is extremely tolerance towards and of high capacity of up taking heavy metals as Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt, Nickel, Lead and Mercury etc. The plant often takes up these metals and toxic materials from wastewater for their metabolic use [5]. It is also being used in various processes for producing bio-gas, compost and fiber-based material etc.



1. Fibre boards. 2. Furniture. 3. Crafts. 4. Paper

USES OF THE PLANT

Various uses of Water Hyacinth in developed and developing world [6]: In many countries water hyacinth is being used as compost for growing mushrooms and also to clean the pollutants including toxic heavy metals To make rope and furniture, the stem of water hyacinth is being used by burning the plants; ashes are used for making soap. Water hyacinth briquettes are used as fuel. Due to scarcity of land, crops are also growing on the hyacinth raft. Dried water hyacinth is used as a fuel, making mat from the plant and producing biogas for cooking. It is called ―Pig weed" as people in many countries are feeding to their pigs. It is also using as food for cattle. The flowers, leaves and petioles are eaten as a vegetable in many Asian countries. Recently it is being used in waste water treatment plant due to its ability to tolerate high levels of pollution.

SOURCE OF ENERGY

Due to vegetative reproduction and extremely high growth rate Water hyacinth spread rapidly. It has been used as a potential biomass for the production of biogas because of its high growth yield and availability in large amount throughout the year and all over the world. Biogas from Water hyacinth is done by a digester. To reach at an optimum condition for the production of maximum amount of gas, the lower volatile fatty acids (acetic acid) and Cow dung can be used with water hyacinth. With this process, the biogas plants could be run even in the cold winter nights by using the additive (acetic acid). After digestion of Water Hyacinth,

1

2

3 4

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ManilaPaper.jpg



the waste products (residue) can be used as good manure for soil fertility, which is free from harmful chemicals and is a boon for sustainable agriculture practices. To produce biogas, generally biomass is used. Among the floating macrophytes, the water hyacinth is found to be most productive compared to other small leaf floating plants. Biogas produced from water hyacinth is similar to that from cow dung. A plant with the capacity of about 6 cubic meters can be used to produce the gas. The easily biodegradable matter particularly hemi- cellulose is higher in water hyacinth than cow dung [7]. To reach an optimum condition for the production of a maximum amount of biogas from Water Hyacinth, the following three tasks should be done successfully. Collecting the hyacinth from the lake/ water bodies and delivering it to a processing site, the biomass should be shredded to make slurry with cow dung and catalyst and processing it into as many saleable products as possible.

BIOGAS TECHNOLOGY

Biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion which takes place in a reactor or digester (an air tight container usually sited below ground) and the usable product is methane gas which can be used as a fuel for cooking, lighting or for powering an engine to provide shaft power. The residue from the digestion process provides a fertilizer rich in nutrients. In this method water hyacinth is to shred into slurry and digest in a continuous process, as cow dung is customarily used [8]. Experiment will need a digestion tank (known as the Digester), shredders, gas holders, pipes and fittings, a supply of water hyacinth, cow dung and catalyst. Animal farm should be the part of the project or associated with it as animal manure also acts as an important catalyst and increases the production of biogas. About 4000 liters of gas per ton of semi dried water hyacinth being produced with a methane content of up to 64% [9].

Figure 1: Experimental Setup for Biogas Production



A blend of Water hyacinth and Cow dung in the ratio of 2:3 by weight is most suitable for biogas production. Addition of very little amount of lower volatile fatty acid particularly acetic acid facilitates the gas production. This technique is very much helpful at the village level of Bangladesh for the farmers using biogas plants. The rate of production of biogas from Water hyacinth is higher as compared to Cow dung slurry. The digested slurry (residue) can be used as useful chemical free eco-friendly manure.

CONCLUSION

As an abundantly available source of biomass, the excessive growth of Water Hyacinth can be used as energy production as well as a resource of various important uses [10]. By using water hyacinth biomass in Bangladesh, we can produce bio gas and many other useful items and hence increase employment opportunity and generate income.

REFERENCES

1. Reza A and Khan J 1981. Water hyacinth as cattle feed. Indian Journal of Animal Science 51: 702-706.

2. J. Todd, B. Josephson, The design of living technologies for waste treatment / Ecological Engineering 6 (1996) 109-136.

3. T. M. Abo Bakr, N. M. El-Shemi and A. S. Mesallam 2005 ―Isolation and chemical evaluation of protein from water hyacinth‖. Food Science and Technology Department, Faculty of Agriculture University of Alexandria Alexandria Egypt Volume 34, Number 1, 67-73.

4. Birendra K. Kumar, WATER HYACINTH (Eichhronia crassipes) AS A FEED FOR RUMINANTS, Department of Animal Nutrition College of Veterinary Science Assam Agricultural University Khanapara, Guwahati-22, Assam, pp 2, India

5. V. Singhal and J. P. N. Rai. 2002. Biogas production from water hyacinth and channel grass used for phytoremediation of industrial effluents. Department of Environmental Sciences, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar-263 145, India

6. Oracle Education Foundation. 2009. http://www.Library.thinkquest.org/co126023/uses.htm

7. Robbins, J.E., Armold, M.T., Weiel., J.E. 1983. Anaerobic Digestion of Cellulose Dairy Cattle Manure Mixture, Agricultural Wastes, Vol.8. Pp.105-118.

8. Shoeb, H and Singh, H.J. 2000. Kinetic Studies of Biogas Evolved from Water Hyacinth. Agroenviron. 2nd International Symposium on New Technologies for Environmental Moniroring and Agro-Applicationas.

9. Technical information on water hyacinth. 2010, http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php

10. Keith L., Hans, M.H. 2000. A practical Handbook of uses of Water hyacinth from across The world.

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Phytormediation of copper toxicity in soil by

various corn and vegetables of Bangladesh

M. Mafizur Rahman1, Jakaria

2, M. Shahriar

2, S.K. Biswas

1, & Rokibul Islam

1

1Lecturer, Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia, Bangladesh 2Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT

In Bangladesh copper toxicity created in agricultural fields due to using copper containing fungicide or fertilizer and in some industrial areas due to its effluents. The aim of present study is to identify hyperaccumulator corn and vegetables that are effective for phytoremediation of copper in polluted area. Twelve types of vegetables are selected and each is planted in artificial copper contaminated soils. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) is used for analysis of copper in soils and vegetable samples in which six vegetable species are selected as hyperaccumlators and thus they can be used for remediation of polluted area. The highest accumulation rate of copper in case of cucumber (Cucumis sativus), swamp cabbage (Ipomoea aquatica), sudan grass (Indian ricegnas), bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), lentils (Lens culinaris ) and spinach (Spinacia oleracea) are respectively 9.19 mg/g, 1.86 mg/kg, 11.77 mg/g, 2.71 mg/g, 1.19 mg/g and 22.97 mg/g. Thus these plants can be used for remediation of polluted area. Key words: Copper ion, Heavy metals, Hyperaccumulator, Phytoextraction, Remediation.

INTRODUCTION

In Bangladesh copper toxicity is rarely occurred in nature but it is created temporarily in agricultural fields due to using copper containing fungicide or fertilizer and in some industrial areas due to its effluents. Copper toxicity may accumulate due to application of sewage sludge, pig slurries or more commonly through persistent use of copper-containing fungicides or fertilizers or industrial effluents. With heavy fungicide use on land, mild symptoms of copper toxicity have been observed on sweet potato[1]. Beside this, Concentrations of Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Cd, Fe, and Ni have been estimated in soil and vegetables grown in and around an industrial area of Bangladesh. The order of metal contents was found to be Fe > Cu > Zn > Cr > Pb > Ni > Cd in contaminated irrigation water, and a similar pattern Fe > Zn > Ni > Cr > Pb > Cu > Cd was also observed in arable soils [2]. Though copper is essential to human life and is required for various biological processes, but like all heavy metals, is potentially toxic as well [3]. The average abundance of copper in the earth‘s crust is recorded as 24 to 55 ppm [4]. The acceptable limit for human consumption of Copper (Cu) is 10 ppm. Copper is an essential element and its recommended uptake limit in

http://plants.usda.gov/java/ClassificationServlet?source=profile&symbol=SPOL&display=63



plant is 0.0-5.0 mg/kg [5]. The acceptable range for human intake is up to 10 mg/kg [6] and the daily recommended limit is 2-3 mg/day. When copper exceeds its safe level concentration, it causes hypertension, sporadic fever, uremia and coma etc. The presence of copper ions, cause serious toxicological concern [7]. high quantities of Metals such as Cu (copper), Pb (lead), Zn (zinc) and Cd (cadmium) can decrease crop production due to the risk of biomagnifications in the food chain. There is also the risk of underground and surface water contamination [8], [9].

Phytoextraction (also known as phytoaccumulation) is a form of phytoremediation, in

short phytoextraction is the process of removing contaminants from soil or sediment by

having plants take them up and store them in above ground, harvestable tissues.

Phytoextraction was developed in the framework of an intense research effort for more

efficient, cheaper and less hazardous techniques to remediate contaminated soils. It

consists in the removal of heavy metals from soil rather than organic compounds or

chemicals by plants through uptake and accumulation into biomass [10]. Interestingly,

phytoremediation was recognized and documented by humans more than 300 years ago,

however the scientific study and development of suitable plants was not conducted until

the early 1980's [11]. Hyper-accumulators are defined as higher plant species capable of

accumulating metals at levels 100-fold greater than those typically measured in common

nonaccumulator plants. Thus, a hyperaccumulator will concentrate more than 10 mg kg-1

Hg (mercury); 100 mg kg-1 Cd; 1,000 mg kg-1 Co (cobalt), Cr (chromium), Cu and Pb; and

10,000 mg kg-1 Ni and Zn. The capacity to hyperaccumulate metals is a relatively rare

phenomenon in the plant kingdom, occurring in approximately 400 species of vascular

plants total [12]. The goal of heavy metal extraction is to reduce metal levels in the soil up

to the acceptable levels within a reasonable time frame [13], [14], [15]. So the present research aimed to study the identification of hyperaccumulator crops and vegetable plants belongs to family of Brassicaceae, Apiaceace, Poaceae, Malvaceae, Basellaceae and Solanaceae, Chenopodiaceae and Cucurbitaceae in Bangladesh perspective which is able to phytoextract the toxic level of copper in industrial, agricultural and mining areas of Bangladesh.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Soil sample and measurement Soil sample is collected from the garden of Soil Resource Development Institute (S.R.D.I.) zonal research center muraridah, Jhenaidah (district). Here only the surface soil is collected. After that, the soil is dried in natural air, clean to remove grass and dirt in a 2mm iron sieve. The soil sample also grinded. The collected soil is tested for the presence of different metal concentration Cu, Mg, K, N, P, S, B, Zn, Fe, Mn, pH and organic matter etc (Table-1). Plantation

Spread seeds on damp paper towel, cover with several paper towels, and store in a

warm, dark place for 3 days until they sprout (Figs.l-p.). Make stock solution of 0.1M,

0.05M and 0.025M Copper sulphate. For 0.1M, add 15.96g Copper sulphate and fill with

distilled water to the 1 Liter mark on the volumetric flask. Use the same procedure for 0.05

M by adding 7.98 g Copper sulphate and for 0.025 M by adding 3.99 g and filling the 1

Liter volumetric flasks with the distilled water to the line. Prepare 38 growth chambers by

cutting off the top third of each plastic bottle. The top piece is then inverted, placed on top

of the chamber and taped to the base. Heat a cork borer and use it to punch a 1 centimeter



port hole in the bottle approximately 1 inch above the bottom of the bottle. The port hole

will serve to remove water. Add equal amounts of soil to each growth chamber. Be sure to

consider control chambers using only regular potting soil (without plants) and paper

towel only. Seedlings should have grown into paper towel. Use three growth chambers

for each type of seeds. Allow the seedlings to grow in soil for 14 days (Figs. a-k). The first

day, add 50 mL distilled water to all of the growth chambers. The second day, add 20 mL

distilled water to all of the growth chambers. The third day, water one set of bottles and

bottle containing plain soil and bottle with paper towel and no soil (as controls) with 20

mL of 0.1M Copper sulphate, the second set with 20 mL of 0.05M Copper sulphate and

the third set with 20 mL of 0.025M Copper sulphate Repeat the overall watering process

for14 days. On the last day, remove a small sample of the filtrate (water which has drained

through the soil). The results obtained from the copper test are in mg/L or parts per

million (ppm). Plant harvest and analysis

Plant samples were gently removed from the pots after 14 days sowing for the

measurement of copper accumulation or extraction, and then washed with distilled water

20 minutes for the removal of adhere so. In this study cucumber (Cucumis sativus), swamp

cabbage (Ipomoea aquatica), Sudan grass(Indian ricegnas), Maize (Zea mays), bottle gourd

(Lagenaria siceraria ), Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima), Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), Pea (Pisum

sativum), Lentils (Lens culinaris), bitter melon (Momordica charantia), Spinach(Spinacia

oleracea), beans (barbette) (Vigna sinensis) plants are collected. They were blotted dry on

filter paper and dried at high oven temperature for 2 to 3 minutes. To determine the

amount of copper in the plants, 0.5gm dried plant material is taken in crucible in which

5ml 68% (percent) nitric acid is added. After incubation overnight it will be placed in the

tube in digester and setting the temperature 1250C. After 4 hours incubation it is needed to

cool to make volume 100ml with distilled water. Filtering of mixture is done then reading

with AAS is performed.

Determination of Copper content in the Soil

The DTPA method for quantifying heavy metals in soil samples (Lindsay and Norvell,

1978). From soil copper will be extracted using DTPA(DIOXY TRI-AMINE PENTA

ACETIC ACID) solution.10mg dried soil is taken in crucible in which 20ml DTPA solution

is added. The mixture shakes for two hours in shaker. Then the mixture in filtrated. The

filtrate is diluted upto100ml with distilled water. Then reading with atomic absorption

spectrometry according to De Veries and Tiller (1980). Atomic Absorption

Spectrophotometer (SHIMADZAA-6300) with auto sampler (SHIMADZU 6100) and

hallow cathode lamp (HAMAMATSU PHONICS K.K) were used to determine the Cu

concentration of samples.

RESULT

It is necessary to determine the physical and chemical properties of soil which govern both availability and relative toxicity of metal contaminants such as soil pH, clay content, organic matter content and the nutritional status. The physical and chemical properties of soil used in this study are shown in Table-1

http://plants.usda.gov/java/ClassificationServlet?source=profile&symbol=LASI&display=63



Table 1-The physical and chemical properties of soil

COMPONENT SOIL TEST RESULT.

PH 8.0

Organic matter 0.47%

Calcium 12.38 ml-eq/100g

Magnesium 1.75 ml-eq/100g

Potassium 0.13 ml-eq/100g

Nitrogen(total) 0.02%

Phosphorus 10.46 µg/gm soil

Sulphur 10.85µg/gm soil

Boron 0.30 µg/gm soil

Zink 0.45 µg/gm soil

Ferrus 1.02 µg/gm soil

Manganese 2.57 µg/gm soil

Copper 1.17 µg/gm soil

For each type of species we have prepared three types of copper sulphate solutions: 15.96

gm/l, 7.98 gm/l and 3.99 gm/l. Each type of species is grown against these three different

solutions in three different pots which contain the same amount of soils. We have

increased copper sulphate solutions in adjacent soils according to increase the growth of

plants. By this system, plant will absorb copper from soil spontaneously. On the basis of

hyperaccumulation rate for copper at above 1mg/g dry weight the plant is marked as

hyperaccumulator [18]. Atomic absorption spectrometer is used for analysis and analyzed

results of individual plant after 14 days that are grown in soils that treated by different

concentration of Copper sulphate solution are given in (Table- 2, Figs. a-k). Normal

concentration of copper in plant tissues is approximately 5-25 mg/kg. The variation in

copper accumulation may be related to soil pH, soil moisture, the season of the year,

individual genotype variability and varying degrees of soil contamination. The result of

the plant samples are given at table-2. According to our experiment, the highest accumulation rate of copper in case of Cucumis sativus-(cucumber), Ipomoea aquatica-(swamp cabbage), Indian ricegnas- (sudan grass), Lagenaria siceraria -(bottle gourd), Lens culinaris- (lentils) and Spinacia oleracea – (spinach) are respectively 9.19 mg/g, 1.86 mg/g, 11.77 mg/g, 2.71 mg/g, 1.19 mg/g, 22.97 mg/g. Every species here has shown hyperaccumulation in three different soils and their accumulation rate is 1mg/g. Thus the above seven species are considered as hyperaccumulators in this experiment. The highest accumulation rate of copper of these species are arranged sequentially as Spinacia oleracea – spinach Cucumis sativus-cucumber Indian ricegnas- sudan grass Lagenaria siceraria –bottle gourd Ipomoea aquatica-swamp cabbage Lens culinaris- lentils. In some cases plants have died after 14 days because of high toxicity in soil absorbing 15.96 mg/l copper sulphate solution, but it has been shown that those plants have been grown well in lower toxic soil absorbing 7.98 gm/l and 3.99 gm/l copper sulphate solution. Efficient copper uptake was observed in the seven plants among twelve plants. Among twelve different plants the highest Cu ions accumulated in the spinach and 2nd highest is cucumber plant from contaminated soil. It can now define as a hyper accumulator. The high metal content in roots is due to localization of ions in the apoplasm. Plant growth was



significantly reduced in the wheat varieties, where as in both the plants, belongs to Chenopodiaceae and Cucurbitaceae family (i.e. spinach and cucumber) plant growth increased by increasing the copper ion concentration up to low level (i.e. 25µM). Copper exposure influenced several biochemical and physiological parameters. Administration excess amount of copper was followed by an increase of Cu ions and its associated symptoms of toxicity in leaves. Typical symptoms of copper toxicity developed 15 days after the beginning of treatments. Chlorophyll concentration was decreased in response to heavy metal toxicity. Highest reduction was observed in both the varieties of pea and bitter melon. Necrotic lesions were seen on the plants treated with 100µM copper.

Figs.1a-k. Size of different plants after 14 days. 1a. Indian ricegnas, 1b. Ipomoea aquatica 1c. Zea mays 1d.

Momordica charantia 1e. Lens culinaris, 1f. Pisum sativum, 1g. Phaseolus vulgaris 1h. Lagenaria siceraria 1i.

Cucurbita maxima 1j. Vigna sinensis 1k. Spinacia oleracea Figs. 1l-p. Different germinating seeds



Table-2: The following table shows the result of amount of copper in plant samples according to

AAS reading.

Name of plant Concentration of

copper sulphate

solution added

to soil (gm/l)

Concentration

of Copper of

plant dry

weight (mg/g)

Comment

Cucumis sativum (cucumber) 15.96 9.1904 Hyper accumulator

7.98 4.7050

3.99 4.0982

Ipomoea aquatic (swamp cabbage) 15.96 1.8410 Hyper accumulator

7.98 1.5937

3.99 1.8590

Indian ricegnas ( Sudan grass) 15.96 0.9897 Hyper accumulator

7.98 4.9127

3.99 11.7725

Zea mays (maize) 15.96 0.8370

7.98 0.54054

3.99 0.9736

Lagenaria siceraria (bottle gourd) 15.96 1.72716 Hyper accumulator

7.98 2.71446

3.99 1.24589

Cucurbita maxima (pumpkin) 15.96 1.89898

7.98 0.54241

3.99 0.69708

Phaseolus vulgaris (bean) 15.96 1.37738

7.98 0.56884

3.99 0.74349

Pisum sativum (pea) 15.96 1.15603

7.98 0.52884

3.99 0.84349

Lens culinaris (lentils) 15.96 0.75904 Hyper accumulator

7.98 1.01484

3.99 1.19343

Momordica charantia (bitter melon) 15.96 0.97102

7.98 0.56842

3.99 0.56832

Spinacia oleracea (spinach) 15.96 6.59857 Hyper accumulator

7.98 22.9753

3.99 7.65333

Vigna sinensis (barbette) 15.96 0.73901

7.98 0.94857

3.99 1.23938

http://plants.usda.gov/java/ClassificationServlet?source=profile&symbol=LASI&display=63

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momordica

http://plants.usda.gov/java/ClassificationServlet?source=profile&symbol=SPOL&display=63



DISCUSSION

The most common heavy metal contaminants are Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb and Zn. Plants grown

in metal enriched substrata take up metal ions in varying degrees. Normal concentration

of copper in plant tissues is approximately 5-25 mg/kg. Plant copper concentrations are

controlled within a remarkably narrow range and plant copper concentrations above 100

mg/kg are rare even in the presence in high soil copper. The variation in copper

accumulation may be related to soil pH, soil moisture, the season of the year, individual

genotype variability and varying degrees of soil contamination [16]. Uptake is largely

influenced by the availability of metals, which is in turn determined by both external (soil

associated) and internal (plant associated) factors. In only a limited number of plant

species a heritable tolerance or resistance occurs, which enables these plants to grow on

metal contaminated soils [17].

In this experimental process of phytoextraction, for analysis use twelve species of plants.

For each type of species we have prepared three types of copper sulphate solutions: 15.96

gm/l, 7.98 gm/l, and 3.99 gm/l. Each type of species is grown against these three different

solutions in three different pots which contain the same amount of soils. We have

increased copper sulphate solutions in adjacent soils according to increase the growth of

plants. By this system, plant will absorb copper from soil spontaneously. In previous

articles we have found that if an individual plant accumulates above 1mg Cu/g plant dry

weight –this is considered as hyperaccumulator [18]. If any species show

hyperaccumulation in the above three different copper sulphate solution containing soils

we have considered them as hyperaccumulators. Among twelve plants, six plants

exhibited the highest concentration of metal while other plants were lowest (Table2).

According to our experiment, the highest accumulation rate of copper in case of Cucumis

sativus-(cucumber), Spinacia oleracea – (spinach), Ipomoea aquatica-(swamp cabbage), Indian

ricegnas- (sudan grass), Lagenaria siceraria -(bottle gourd), Lens culinaris- (lentils) and are

respectively 9.19 mg/g, 22.97 mg/g 1.86 mg/g, 11.77 mg/g, 2.71 mg/g, 1.19 mg/g. Every

species here has shown hyperaccumulation in three different concentration of soil and

their accumulation rate is above 1mg/g. The accumulation of copper was 1.110 mg/g dry

weight of water hyacinth plant. [19]. This amount was the lowest level as compared to

above plant species.

The visual symptoms of toxicity varied depending on the element and plant species tested.

In general Mustard, Sunflower and Raddish showed to be more tolerant to the presence of

excess metals in the soil and did not show any sign of toxicity. For the other species,

shoots presented generalized interveinal chlorosis, purple spots and browning, shriveling,

decrease in development and in some cases necrosis and leaf death. All the symptoms

described have been reported in literature for eucalyptus cultivated in heavy metals

contaminated soil [20]. At high concentrations, copper can become toxic causing

symptoms such as chlorosis and necrosis, stunting, leaf discoloration and inhibition of root

growth. Initially in a plant, root is inhibited by copper toxicity in soil [21]. We have just

observed that which plant root is tolerable to copper toxicity in initial stage of plant

growth. Thus we have observed the plants only for 14 days.



The future of phytoremediation is still in research and development phase, and there are

many technical barriers which need to be addressed. Both agronomic management practices

and plant genetic abilities need to be optimized to develop commercially useful practices.

Many hyperaccumulator plants remain to be discovered, and there is a need to know more

about their physiology [13]. Optimization of the process, proper understanding of plant

heavy metal uptake and proper disposal of biomass produced is still needed.

CONCLUSION

Phytoextraction is a fast developing field, since last ten years lot of field application were

initiated all over the world, it includes Phytoextraction of Organic, Inorganic and

Radionuclides. This sustainable and inexpensive process is fast emerging as a viable

alternative to conventional remediation methods, and will be most suitable for a developing

country like Bangladesh. Most of the studies have been done in developed countries and

knowledge of suitable plants is particularly limited in Bangladesh. In Bangladesh

commercial application of Phytoextraction of soil heavy metal has not been started yet. But

in India, neighbouring country of Bangladesh, it is available at the present days. We have

used phytoextraction process used in this research to remove copper toxicity in soil.

REFERENCES

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problems in a new industry: sweet potato in North Queensland. Proceedings of

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[2] Jasim Uddin Ahmed and Md. Abdul Goni. Heavy metal contamination in water

soil and vegetables of the industrial areas in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Environmental

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plant/soil/metal interaction and assessment of pertinent agronomic issues.

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metals: Using plants to clean up the environment, 1999, p. 193-229. In: Raskin, I.;

Ensley, B.D., eds. John Wiley, New York, NY, USA.

[13] Raskin, I., Kumar, P.B.A.N., Dushenkov, S. and Salt, D. Bioconcentration of heavy

metals by plants. Current Opinion Biotechnology 5, 1994, 285-290.

[14] Nanda-Kumar, P.B.A., Dushenkov, V., Motto, H. and Raskin, I. Phytoextraction: the

use of plants to remove heavy metals from soils. Environmental Science and

Technology, 29, 1995, 1232-1238.

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role of organic acids in triggering uranium hyperaccumulation in plants.

Enviornmental Science and Technology. 32, 1998, 2004-2008.

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toxic metals: Using plants to clean up the environment. Raskin, I. and Ensley, B.

D. (ed.) New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000, 193-229.

[17] Brooks, R.R., Lee, J., Reeves, R.D. and Jaffre, T. Detection of nickeliferous rocks by

analysis of herbarium specimens of indicator plants. Journal of Geochemistry

Exploration, 7, 1997, 49-58.

[18] Baker A. J. M. and Brooks R. R. Terrestrial higher plants which hyperaccumulate

metalic elements. A review of their distribution, ecology and phytochemistry. –

Biorecovery 1, 1989, 81-126.

[19] Low, K.S., Lee, C.K. and Thai, C. H. Biosorption of copper by water hyacinth roots.

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Human Development Scenario of Malaysia:

ASEAN and Global Perspective

Md. Sujahangir Kabir Sarkar1&2

, Sumaiya Sadeka3, Md. Mehedi Hasan Sikdar

4

1Ph.D. Research Fellow, South East Asia Disaster Prevention Research Institute (SEADPRI), Universiti

Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Malaysia 2Assistant professor, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Patuakhali Science &

Technology University, Patuakhali, Bangladesh 3Department of Social Work, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi, Bangladesh 4Assistant professor, Department of Statistics, Patuakhali Science & Technology University, Patuakhali,

Bangladesh

ABSTRACT

Human development is one of the core considerations of a country‘s level of development. This study focuses on the performance of development indicators highlighting Malaysian scenario among the ASEAN and some other countries of the world. Malaysia has achieved the 61st place in the world according to the performance of human development. In the Human Development Report (HDR) 2011, countries are divided into very high human development, high human development, medium human development and low human development. Malaysia has perceived a good position among the group of high human development countries and ASEAN countries. It has occupied third position among ASEAN countries according to GNI per capita and HDI rank. Income Gini-coefficient of Malaysia is comparatively higher meaning that larger income inequality prevailing in Malaysian nations but it can be noted that very few people of Malaysia live below poverty line just 3.8 percent. Malaysia‘s position is quite good in term of ecological footprint, environmental performance index, renewable energy, fossil fuels, etc but still far behind from the very high human development countries. Moreover it has possessed the worst position among the ASEAN because of producing highest emission of carbon dioxide and green house gas. So it is really alarming that though Malaysia is one of the influential countries in the ASEAN but it has failed to achieve best position among the South East Asian countries. Moreover, in many case Malaysia‘s position is still far away from the performance of different indicators of the developed countries of the world though Malaysia is committed to be a developed nation by 2020. So for transforming Malaysia as a developed nation it need to concentrate to accelerate a very good performance of human development indicators. Key words: Human Development, Malaysia, ASEAN, Global



INTRODUCTION

Human development is one of the core considerations of a country‘s level of development. According to United Nations Development Program (UNDP), human development is about creating an environment in which people can develop their full potential and lead productive and creative lives in accordance with their needs and interests (UNDP, 2001). Costantini and Monni (2008) have stated that human development has to be the first objective of international development policies, whereas an increase in human well-being is necessary to provide a sustainable path. Human development should be the ultimate objective of human activity, its aim being healthier, longer, and fuller lives (Anand and Sen 2000; Ranis et al. 2000 and Ülengin et al. 2011). Moran et al. (2008) used Human Development Index (HDI) as an indicator of development and argued that a HDI of no less than 0.8 and a per capita Ecological Footprint less than the globally available biocapacity per person represent minimum requirements for sustainable development that is globally replicable. Malaysia is committed to reach a very good human development country with a record of strong economic performance and poverty reduction and a goal of transforming itself into a high-income and developed nation by 2020. Malaysia has occupied the 61st place in the world according to the performance of human development (HDR, 2011). Moreover, the country has largely achieved its Millennium Development Goals, well ahead of the 2015 target date. Furthermore these significant achievements, which enabled Malaysia to provide better service for health and education of its people, and largely eradicate poverty. Malaysia‘s economy expanded at a robust 5.8% annual rate in the 5 years before 2008, contributing to a reduction in overall poverty (based on the national poverty line) from 5.7% in 2004 to 3.8% in 2008 (ADB, 2011). After a reduction of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) growth in 2009, the economy rebounded strongly again in 2010, by an estimated 6.9%, on the back of a moderate recovery in exports and stronger domestic demand (ADB, 2011). According to the Environmental Performance Index (EPI), Malaysia ranked 54 among the 163 countries in the year 2010 (EPI, 2010). There is a large gap between the nations according to indicators of human development. So Malaysia‘s position comparing to the other nations need to be evaluated time to time in terms of development parameters.

WHY DOES THE STUDY INCLUDE ASEAN AND GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE?

This study focuses on the different development indicators among the ASEAN countries and some other countries of the world. This article explores the Malaysian scenario as well as to derive comparison among the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) countries regarding human development indicators. Moreover as a committed country for a developed nation by 2020, it is very essential to determine the Malaysian scenario beyond ASEAN. So what is the global position of Malaysia and how is the country far from the performance of different indicators among the countries of the globe, this situation has been explored by this study. At the same time it has drawn attention of the Malaysian backwardness and forwardness in the global level. The countries that have been selected in this study cover developed countries, developing countries and least developed countries including all ASEAN countries. Most of the data that have been used in this paper have been extracted from the Human Development Repot (HDR) 2011 of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). This study has explored the Malaysian position and performance of human development indicators among the ASEAN and global perspective which will help for policy prioritization, actions and research.



DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

Human Development Index

UNDP measures Human Development Index (HDI) every year among the countries for highlighting the performance of human development indicators. HDI is a simple composite measure that includes health, schooling and income. But UNDP Human Development Report (HDR) explores the performance of many indicators along with HDI. The world‘s average HDI increased 18 percent between 1990 and 2010 (41 percent since 1970), reflecting large improvements in life expectancy, school enrolment, literacy and income (HDR 2010). Almost all countries benefited. Poor countries are catching up with rich countries on the HDI, convergence that paints a far more optimistic picture than do trends in income, where divergence continues. China‘s per capita income grew an astounding 1,200 percent over the 40 years, but the Democratic Republic of the Congo‘s fell 80 percent (HDR 2010). Advances in technical knowledge and globalization have made progress more feasible for countries at all levels of development.

In the global level, Table 1 shows that highest HDI value is 0.943 belongs to Norway which is the world champion according to human development indicators while Qatar has achieved the highest position according to the GNI per capita ($107721) though it has occupied 37th place according to HDI value. GNI per capita and HDI value of Malaysia are 0.761 and $13685 respectively and Malaysia possessing 61 placed in HDI ranking is one of the leading countries among the developing nations but very far reaching position from the developed nations.

Table 1 Human development Index Rank 2011 among the countries

Name on the

countries

HDI Value

Gross National Income (GNI) per

capita (Constant 2005 PPP $)

HDI Rank

2011

Norway 0.943 47,557 1

United States 0.910 43,017 4

Japan 0.901 32,295 12

Republic of Korea 0.897 28,230 15

Singapore 0.866 52569 26

United Kingdom 0.863 33,296 28

Brunei Darussalam 0.838 45753 33

Qatar 0.831 107721 37

Malaysia 0.761 13685 61

Brazil 0.718 10,162 84

China 0.687 7,476 101

Thailand 0.682 7694 103

Philippines 0.644 3478 112

Indonesia 0.617 3716 124

Vietnam 0.593 2805 128

India 0.547 3,468 134

Lao PDR 0.524 2242 138

Cambodia 0.523 1848 139

Bangladesh 0.500 1529 146

Myanmar 0.483 1535 149

DR Congo 0.286 280 187

DR= Democratic Republic, Source: HDR, 2011



Global Comparison among Different Groups

UNDP has classified the countries into four human development groups according to their HDI performance. Table 2 shows global comparison and Malaysian scenario of HDI value, GNI per capita and life expectancy in the different Human Development Index groups. Rank 1 to 47 countries have selected as very high human development exercising highest average HDI value while the countries rank from 142 to 187 have treated as low human development because of low HDI value. The average HDI value is 0.889 in the very high human development countries which enjoy average GNI per capita average ($33352) and life expectancy (80 years) while it is lowest in the low human development countries facing lower GNI per capita average ($1585) and life expectancy (58.7 years). In case of Malaysia average HDI value, GNI per capita and life expectancy are 0.761, $13685 and 74.2 years respectively which are higher than the average HDI value, average GNI per capita and average life expectancy of the high human development countries but still far reaching from the very high human development countries. So Malaysia has to go a long way to achieve the average position of very high human development countries. For this the country needs to take massive action for transforming the situation like developed nations.

Table 2 Global comparison and Malaysian scenario of 2011

Human Development

Index groups

HDI rank

among

countries

Average

HDI value

Average Gross

National Income

(GNI) per capita

(Constant 2005 PPP $)

Life expectancy of birth

(years)

Very high human development 1-47 0.889 33352 80.0

High human development 48-94 0.741 11579 73.1

Medium human development 95-141 0.630 5276 69.7

Low human development 142-187 0.456 1585 58.7

Global average 0.682 10,082 69.8

Malaysian Position 61 0.761 13685 74.2

ASEAN Scenario

ASEAN is considered as one of the leading regional organization of the world but its majority members are facing lower per capita GNI and HDI value. Table 3 shows the Malaysian position among the South East Asian nations where Malaysia has possessed the 3rd position in both the cases of HDI value and GNI per capita while Singapore and Myanmar occupied the 1st and last position respectively. This table indicates the greater level of imbalance among the South East Asian nations.

Table 3 HDI value and Gross National Income (GNI) per capita among the ASEAN

Name on the

countries

HDI

value

Gross National Income

(GNI) per capita

(Constant 2005 PPP $)

HDI rank

among ASEAN

GNI per

capita Rank

among ASEAN

Singapore 0.866 52569 1 1

Brunei Darussalam 0.838 45753 2 2

Malaysia 0.761 13685 3 3

Thailand 0.682 7694 4 4

Philippines 0.644 3478 5 5



Indonesia 0.617 3716 6 6

Vietnam 0.593 2805 7 7

Lao PDR 0.524 2242 8 8

Cambodia 0.523 1848 9 9

Myanmar 0.483 1535 10 10

Source: Prepared by authors from HDR, 2011

Income Gini Coefficient among the Countries

The Gini coefficient is a measure of the inequality of a distribution having a range from 0–1, where 0 corresponds with perfect equality (where everyone has the same income) and 1 corresponds with perfect inequality (where one person has all the income — and everyone else has zero income).

Table 4 Income Gini Co-efficient, 2000-11 (inequality adjusted) among the countries

HDI Rank 2011 Name on the countries Income Gini Co-efficient,

2000-2011

1 Norway 0.26

4 United States 0.41

12 Japan -

15 Republic of Korea -

26 Singapore 0.52*

28 United Kingdom -

33 Brunei Darussalam -

52 Seychelles 0.19

61 Malaysia 0.46

84 Brazil 0.54

101 China 0.42

103 Thailand 0.54

112 Philippines 0.44

124 Indonesia 0.37

128 Vietnam 0.38

134 India 0.37

138 Lao PDR 0.37

139 Cambodia 0.44

149 Myanmar -

158 Haiti 0.60

187 DR Congo 0.44

Source: HDR 2011, * Shweta, P. 2012

Table 4 shows that income inequality prevails in all the nations. In global scenario Haiti

(0.60) and Seychelles (0.19) has occupied the worst and best position in terms of income

Gini coefficient. In ASEAN scenario, all the member countries face a greater level of

income inequality where Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines and Cambodia’s problem are

acute. However, the highest and lowest income Gini coefficient has been found in

Thailand (0.54) and Lao PDR & Indonesia (0.37) respectively.



Human Development Index Trends

This index is measured by the performance of human development indicators. Nearly all the countries of the world are enjoying a positive trend in case of Human Development Index. Especially the developing countries growth is higher than the developed countries because of significant improvement of some development indicators.

Table 5 Human Development Index trends in the world, 1980-2011

HDI

Rank

2011

Name on the

countries

Human Development Index value Average annual

HDI growth (%)

1980 1990 2000 2005 2009 2011 1980-2011

1 Norway 0.796 0.844 0.913 0.938 0.941 0.943 0.55

4 United States 0.837 0.870 0.897 0.902 0.906 0.910 0.29

12 Japan 0.778 0.827 0.868 0.886 0.895 0.901 0.47

15 Republic of

Korea

0.634 0.742 0.830 0.866 0.889 0.897 1.13

26 Singapore - - 0.801 0.835 0.856 0.866 -

28 United Kingdom 0.744 0.778 0.833 0.855 0.860 0.863 0.48

33 Brunei

Darussalam

0.750 0.784 0.818 0.830 0.835 0.838 0.36

61 Malaysia 0.559 0.631 0.705 0.738 0.752 0.761 1.00

84 Brazil 0.549 0.600 0.665 0.692 0.708 0.718 0.87

101 China 0.404 0.490 0.588 0.633 0.674 0.687 1.73

103 Thailand 0.486 0.566 0.626 0.656 0.673 0.682 1.10

112 Philippines 0.550 0.571 0.602 0.622 0.636 0.644 0.51

124 Indonesia 0.423 0.481 0.543 0.572 0.607 0.617 1.23

128 Vietnam - 0.435 0.528 0.561 0.584 0.593 -

134 India 0.344 0.410 0.461 0.504 0.535 0.547 1.51

138 Lao PDR - 0.376 0.448 0.484 0.514 0.524 -

139 Cambodia - - 0.438 0.491 0.513 0.523 -

149 Myanmar 0.279 0.298 0.380 0.436 0.474 0.483 1.78

187 DR Congo 0.282 0.289 0.224 0.260 0.277 0.286 0.05

Sources: HDR, 2011

Poverty Scenario

Now the world population is exceeding 7000 million. Poverty is still a great problem of the world especially the developing and least developed countries are continuously fighting with this. According to the recent statistics, number of hungry people in the world 925 million in 2010 which is 13.6 percent of the world population (World Bank, 2011). Malaysia is having a good position among the ASEAN and the global level possessing poverty only 3.8 percent of its population while Cambodia has belonged the worst position in the ASEAN. Population below poverty line in Table 6 has been derived from the HDI Report 2011. It is determined that Haiti has occupied the world worst position and the big Asian giant China has possessed the world best position regarding the level of national poverty.



Table 6 Population below national poverty line and Malaysian scenario

Category Population below poverty line (%) Country

Position of Malaysia 3.8 Malaysia

Best in the world 2.8 China

Worst in the world 77.0 Haiti

Best in the ASEAN 3.8 Malaysia

Worst in the ASEAN 30.1 Cambodia

Environmental Sustainability

Environmental sustainability is one of the key drivers of ensuring sustainable development. Towards sustainable management of the environment, Malaysian government has lunched the National Green technology Policy in 2009. The main aim of this policy is to provide a conducive environment for green technology development which will enhance the quality of life (National Green technology Policy 2009). Many countries have higher per capita income, higher economic growth but they are lagging behind about environmental sustainability without which sustainable development is impossible. The table shows the performance of Environmental Sustainability Indicators among the countries highlighting Malaysian position.

Table 7 Environmental Sustainability Indicators Indicators Malaysian

scenario

Best in the world Worst in the

world

Best in the

ASEAN

Worst in the

ASEAN

a)Environmental

Performance Index (0-

100)

65.0 93.5

(Iceland)

33.3

(Central

African

Republic)

69.6

(Singapore)

41.7

Cambodia

b) Ecological footprint

(ha/per capita)

4.9 0.4

(Timor Leste)

10.7

(United Arab

Emirates)

1.0

(Cambodia)

5.3 (Singapore)

c) Fossil fuel (% of

total)

95.1 100 and above

(Singapore & some

ME countries)

4.0

(DR Congo)

100

(Singapore)

29.7

(Cambodia)

d) Renewables (% of

total)

5.0 163.1

(Paraguay)

0.0 (Singapore,

Brunei & some

ME countries)

69.7

(Cambodia)

0.0

(Singapore,

Brunei)

e) Carbon dioxide

emission (per capita

tonnes)

7.7 0.1 (Nepal, Ethiopia,

Rwanda, Zambi,

Uganda)

37.3

Trinidad and

Tobago

0.3

(Cambodia,

Lao PDR)

7.7

(Malaysia)

f) Green house gas

emission per capita

(tonnes of carbon

dioxide equivalent)

2.4 0.4 Lebanon, 0.5

Hong kong, 0.6 Sri

Lanka

10.0 New

Zealand

Philippines

(0.8)

2.4

(Malaysia)

g) Urban pollution

(micro grams per cubic

meter)

20 7 (Equatorial Guinea,

Belarus, Gabon)

159

(Sudan)

19

(Philippines)

72

(Indonesia)

h) Natural resources

depletion

(% of GNI)

7.9 0.0 (France, Spain,

Japan, Korea,

Belgium,Mauritius)

66 (Equatorial

Guinea)

0.20

(Cambodia)

7.9 (Malaysia)

i) Forest area (% of

Land area)

62.8 94.6

(Suriname)

0.0 (Qatar,

Oman, Nauru)

68.9

(Lao PDR)

3.3

(Singapore)



j) Change in forest area

(%)

-7.8 223 (Iceland) -68.3

(Comoros)

44.3

(Vietnam)

-20

(Cambodia)

k) Endangered species

(% of all species)

18 0.0 (San Marino) 25 (New

Zealand)

9

(Lao PDR)

19 (Philippines)

ME= Middle East, Source: Prepared by authors from HDR, 2011

According to the Environmental Performance Index (EPI) Malaysia has achieved a good score of 65 out of 100 while the best country in the world and best in the ASEAN has been placed by the Iceland (93.5) and Singapore (69.6) respectively. The ecological footprint shows that the world is increasingly exceeding its global capacity to provide resources and absorb wastes. Most of the high and middle income countries have exceeded the global average biocapacity (biologically productive area per person) which is 1.8 global hectares (gha) per capita. The Malaysian footprint estimated as 4.9 which are alarming for environmental sustainability and need to be reduced while Singapore (5.3) and United Arab Emirates (10.7) has fallen worst position in ASEAN and world respectively. Malaysia has blessed by fossil fuel as it constitutes 95 percent of its total resources while Singapore is the highest among the ASEAN countries. Table 7 shows that some Middle East countries like Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirate, Qatar, Bahrain, etc. are enriched with fossil fuel (100 %). In case of renewables, Malaysia captures just only 5.0 percent of its total resources and Singapore has no renewable but surprisingly Cambodia (69.7 %) is the highest among the ASEAN members.

Emissions per capita are much greater in very high HDI countries than in low, medium and high HDI countries combined because of more energy-intensive activities like driving cars, cooling and heating homes and businesses, consuming processed and packaged food. The average person in a very high HDI country accounts for more than four times the carbon dioxide emissions and about twice the methane and nitrous oxide emissions of a person in a low, medium or high HDI country— and about 30 times the carbon dioxide emissions of a person in a low HDI country (HDR, 2011). Malaysia is producing highest Carbon dioxide emission and Green house gas emission per capita among the ASEAN countries while Trinidad and Tobago (37.3) and New Zealand (10.0) has occupied the worst position for emissions respectively.

Urban pollution is comparatively less in Malaysia but it is quite acute in case of Indonesia in ASEAN while highest level of urban pollution in the world in Sudan. Malaysia has sufficient forest area (62.8% of Land area) and Singapore (3.3%) has a great lacking in this case among the ASEAN countries. Another important indicator of environmental sustainability is natural resources depletion where Malaysia‘s position (7.9 % of its GNI) is worst in the ASEAN. Finally forest area in Malaysia is decreasing and Malaysia‘s position in case of endangered species (18 % of all species) is dangerous but it is mentionable that world best position in forest change and worst position for endangered species has gone to the Iceland (223%) and New Zealand (25%) respectively.

Human Development Effect of Environmental Threats

Every year many people of different countries are affected due to environmental hazards. Highest and lowest annual average of affected population has found China and Norway respectively. Water pollution is another environmental threat which is influencing human development negatively. Highest death due to water pollution (1924 per million people) has occurred in the Democratic Republic of Congo which is the world worst country according to human development. Most of the developed and developing countries are facing outdoor air pollution and surprisingly highest death due to outdoor air pollution (per million people) has found in Singapore while Lao PDR has no death for this in 2004.



Table 8 Human development effect of environmental threats

HDI

Rank

2011

Name on the

countries

Population

affected

(Annual

Average

per million

people)

Death due

to water

pollution

(per million

people)

Death due

to outdoor

air

pollution

(per million

people)

Death due

to Malaria

(per million

people)

Death due

to Dengue

(per million

people)

Population

living on

degraded

land (%)

2001-10 2004 2004 2009 2001-10 2010

1 Norway 33 - 65 - - 0.2

4 United States 6689 - 138 - - 1.1

12 Japan 709 - 196 - - 0.3

15 Republic of Korea 1158 - 152 0.0 - 2.9

26 Singapore - - 264 - 5 -

28 United Kingdom 617 - 189 - - 2.7

61 Malaysia 1573 35 23 0.0 4 1.2

84 Brazil 3440 137 74 0.4 0 7.9

101 China 93151 42 230 0.0 0.0 8.6

103 Thailand 58220 121 61 1.0 1.0 17

112 Philippines 48370 182 54 0.3 5 2.2

124 Indonesia 1364 141 144 3.8 5 3.1

128 Vietnam 19794 72 81 0.3 1 8.0

134 India 41245 405 107 0.9 0 9.6

138 Lao PDR 15096 406 0 0.8 1 4.1

139 Cambodia 34829 826 23 20 1 39.3

149 Myanmar 6551 432 96 20.4 3 19.2

187 DR Congo 325 1924 72 329.7 - 0.1

Source: HDR, 2011

Democratic Republic of Congo is still fighting with acute Malaria problem and South Asian countries are facing dengue problem in a limited extent in spite of great advancement of medical treatment. Cambodia‘s problem in case of population living on degraded land (%) is surprising because of its 39.3 percent population lives on degraded land (Table 8). Malaysia‘s position in all the case has found good except death due to dengue on a small scale.

Education and Health Indicators

Education and health are the important determinants of a country‘s level of human development. Adult literacy is well ahead in all the developed and ASEAN countries. In case of pupil teacher ratio, it is vary from country to country though small ratio is better for the service provision and nursing the students. Brunei has placed a very good position in the ASEAN and global level where one teacher available only for 11.9 student and Cambodia is showing very negative scene in this case. Mortality rate is generally higher in the least developed and developing countries and lower in case on developed countries. Singapore has achieved the lowest mortality rate in the ASEAN and the world while highest mortality has found in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Life expectancy is maximum in Japan but minimum in Democratic Republic of Congo (Table 9). In both education and health sector, global power United States spends highest public expenditure (% of GDP) and Myanmar spends the lowest in the world. Malaysian position is good in case of adult literacy, pupil teacher ratio and mortality rate especially under five (per 1000 live births) but in case of adult mortality and public expenditure for education and health is not satisfactory.

Table 9 education and health indicator performance among the countries



Name on the

countries

Adult

literacy

rate

(% age

15 and

older)

Pupil

teacher

ratio in

primary

education

(pupils per

teacher)

Mortality Life

expectancy

(Years)

Public

expenditure on

education

( % of GDP)

Total

expenditure

on health

( % of GDP Under

five (per

1000 live

births)

Adult

(per 1000

people)

2005-2010 2005-2010 2009 2009 2011 2009 2009

Norway - - 3 66.5 81.1 9.7 9.7

United States - 13.9 8 106 78.5 16.2 16.2

Japan - 18.1 3 64.0 83.4 8.3 8.3

Republic of Korea - 22.4 5 77.5 80.6 6.5 6.5

Singapore 94.7 17.4 3 59.0 81.1 3.9 3.9

United Kingdom - 18.3 6 76.5 80.2 9.3 9.3

Brunei Darussalam 95.3 11.9 7 93.5 78 3.0 3.0

Malaysia 92.5 14.6 6 135 74.2 4.8 4.8

Brazil 90.0 23.0 21 152.5 73.5 9.0 9.0

China 94.0 17.2 19 114.5 73.5 4.6 4.6

Thailand 93.5 16.0 14 204.5 74.1 4.3 4.3

Philippines 95.4 33.7 33 185 68.7 3.8 3.8

Indonesia 92.2 16.6 39 188.5 69.4 2.4 2.4

Vietnam 92.8 19.5 24 140 75.2 7.2 7.2

India 62.8 - 66 209.5 65.4 4.2 4.2

Lao PDR 72.7 30.5 59 270 67.5 4.1 4.1

Cambodia 77.6 49.1 88 270 63.1 5.9 5.9

Myanmar 92.0 28.4 71 231.5 65.2 2.0 2.0

DR Congo 66.8 37.3 199 386 48.4 9.5 9.5

Source: HDR, 2011

Performance of Economic Indicators

Economic indicators vary among the countries. Sometime it is guessed that the developed countries constitute the very good position in all the economic indicator performance but it is not true. From the Table 10 it is clear that some of the indicator performance is good in case of developing nations. As for example Qatar has occupied the first place in case of GDP per capita (PPP $) & GNI per capita (constant 2005 PPP $) while Seychelles is for Income Gini co-efficient and net FDI inflow. Worst position of Income Gini co-efficient and GDP per capita (PPP $) & GNI per capita (constant 2005 PPP $) has gone to the Haiti and democratic Republic of Congo respectively. United States allocates the highest share of their GDP for public expenditure and health. In case of Malaysia, though it has disbursed highest share of GDP allocation to the public expenditure and health among the ASEAN countries but it is still far reaching compare to some other countries. Malaysia and Singapore experienced lowest and highest FDI respectively among the Southeast Asian Nations.



Table 10 Economic indicators among the countries

Name

on the

countries

GDP per

capita

(PPP $)

GNI per

capita

(constant

2005 PPP $)

FDI net

Inflow

(% of

GDP)

Net ODA

received

(% of GDP)

Income

Gini co-

efficient

Public

expenditure

On education

(% of GDP)

Public

expenditure

on health

(% of GDP)

2009 2009 2009 2009 2000-11 2006-2009 2009

Norway 56,214 47557 3.0 - 0.26 9.7 9.7

United States 45,989 43017 1.0 - 0.41 16.2 16.2

Japan 32,418 32295 0.2 - - 8.3 8.3

Republic of Korea 27,100 28230 0.2 - 6.5 6.5

Singapore 50,633 52569 9.2 - 0.52* 3.9 3.9

United Kingdom 35,155 33296 3.4 - - 9.3 9.3

Brunei Darussalam - 45753 - - - 3.0 3.0

Qatar 91379 107,721 - - 41.1 2.5 2.5

Seychelles 19587 16729 32.5 3.5 0.19 4.0 4.0

Malaysia 14,012 13685 0.7 0.1 0.46 4.8 4.8

Brazil 10367 10162 1.6 0.0 0.54 9.0 9.0

China 6,828 7476 1.6 0.0 0.42 4.6 4.6

Thailand 7,995 7694 1.9 0.0 0.54 4.3 4.3

Philippines 3,542 3478 1.2 0.2 0.44 3.8 3.8

Indonesia 4,199 3716 0.9 0.2 0.37 2.4 2.4

Vietnam 2,953 2805 8.4 4.4 0.38 7.2 7.2

India 3,296 3468 2.5 0.2 0.37 4.2 4.2

Lao PDR 2,255 2242 5.4 7.2 0.37 4.1 4.1

Cambodia 1,915 1848 5.4 7.7 0.44 5.9 5.9

Myanmar - 1535 - - - 2.0 2.0

Haiti 1151 1123 0.6 - 0.60 6.1 6.1

DR congo 319 280 9.0 23.9 44.4 9.5 9.5

Source: HDR, 2011

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Human Development Report is a great focus of different development parameters among the countries. This report shows a greater imbalance among the countries regarding the performance of human development indicators. Malaysia‘s position is quite well in case of high human development countries and ASEAN countries in term of ecological footprint, environmental performance index, renewable energy, fossil fuels, etc but still far behind from the very high human development countries regarding GNI per capita, life expectancy and so on. But it has possessed the worst position among the ASEAN because of producing highest emission of carbon dioxide and green house gas. Malaysia is very positive due to its strong economic growth and relatively lower poverty. But it is really alarming that though Malaysia is one of the dominant countries in the ASEAN but it is fail to achieve best position among the South East Asian countries. This country is also far away from the developed country‘s position. So Malaysia needs to gear up the performance of human development indicators for getting a very good position in the ASEAN and global level. There is also need further research regarding the human development scenario because Malaysia is currently lacking prior research on this issue.



Followings are the major recommendations for Malaysia:

Proper actions need to be taken to reduce emission of carbon dioxide and green house gas.

Steps should be taken to increase income and income generating activities for the people in a way to reducing the gap between rich and poor

Natural resources depletion should be reduced to achieve environmental sustainability

Public expenditure on education and health should be increased for accelerating quality education and good health

Further research need to conduct for evaluating the Malaysia‘s position time to time.

REFERENCES

ADB. 2011. Asian Development Outlook 2011. Manila.

Anand S. and Sen A. 2000. Human development and economic sustainability. World Development.28(12):2029-49.

Costantini V. and Monni S. 2008. Environment, human development and econometric growth. Ecological Economics. 64(2):867-880.

EPI, 2010. Environmental Performance Index 2010, Estimated by Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States.

HDR, 2010. Human Development Report 2010: The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development. Published by United Nations Development Programme, 1 UN Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA.

HDR, 2011. Human Development Report 2011: Sustainability and Equity: A Better Future for All, Published by United Nations Development Programme, 1 UN Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA.

Moran, D.D., Wackernagel, M., Kitzes, J.A. Goldfinger S.H. and Boutaud, A. 2008. Measuring sustainable development-Nation by nation. Ecological Economics, 64: 470 – 474.

National Green technology Policy 2009. Ministry of energy, green technology and water. Federal government of Malaysia, Putrajaya.

Ranis, G., Stewart F. and Ramirez A. 2000. Economic growth and human development. World Development. 28(2):197-219.

Shweta, P. 2012. Singapore Poverty Inquiary http://13pangsh.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/singapore-poverty-inquiry.pdf

United Nations Development Program (UNDP) 2001. Human Development Report: Making new technologies work for human development. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ülengin, F., Kabak, O., Önsel, S., Aktas, E. and Parker, B. R. 2011. The competitiveness of nations and implications for human development. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences 45 (2011) 16-27

World Bank, 2011.World Hunger and Poverty Facts and Statistics,Washington D.C. USA.http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/Learn/world%20hunger%20facts%202002

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Performance of south facing windows for indoor

ventilation & thermal comfort at Dhaka

Mahbuba Afroz Jinia & Saiful Hasan Tariq

Lecturer, Department of Architecture, Stamford University Bangladesh

ABSTRACT

The way we think of Nature, thus ventilation, especially air flow greatly influences the form and substance of our daily lives, the buildings we design and therefore how they sustain the nature of place. Flow of air is one of the most important natural features available to architects to enhance the physical quality of interior spaces. Cross ventilation and wind flow is the major issue for thermal comfort of an interior space. Effect of ventilation is necessary for a residential building as it gives the users a comfortable and soothing environment. In residential buildings artificial ventilation is expensive to some extent. Maintaining natural air flow in the interior spaces is the only way for good health and healthy ventilation in a cost efficient way. In Bangladesh, it is preferred to provide openings at south because most of the time of the year southern wind flows over the country due to climatic situation. It is well known that a building having openings at south and at opposite or oblique corners is better ventilated. Placing the window is oblique (at 45°) to the inlet opening of the same room is the best solution for cross ventilation at Bangladesh. But a different scenario has been observed in south facing east-west elongated building. There are some openings which remains in wind shadow and failed to provide enough wind flow to the interior space although is placed in south facade. This paper focuses on discussing this factor affecting good ventilation, air flow and thermal comfort for the south facing opening position of a building. A horizontally elongated south facing residential building at Dhaka has been taken for the case study and analysis has been done on the basis of literature review, field survey and questionnaire survey. Key words: Ventilation, thermal comfort, Wind pressure, windward & leeward side, window position.

INTRODUCTION

The way we think of Nature thus ventilation, especially air flow greatly influences the form and substance of our daily lives, the buildings we design and therefore how they sustain the nature of place. Flow of air is one of the most important natural features available to architects to enhance the physical quality of interior spaces. It is a resource in the tropics which the architects can use without any cost. In residential buildings artificial ventilation, that is, air condition is expensive in some extend. It is also not for good health to remain



under artificial ventilation even at home. So, maintaining natural air flow in the interior spaces is the only way for good health and health ventilation. Bangladesh is a tropical country and most of the time of the year we get southern wind because of our geographic location on the world. It is a common solution for the buildings of our country to provide windows facing south to receive the blessing of nature, southern wind and enough sunlight. It is well known that a building having openings at south and at opposite or oblique corners is better ventilated. But a different scenario is observed in south facing east-west elongated building. Air flow and ventilation differ for the south facing windows at different position of the façade. Therefore, placing windows at south is not the only solution, the window position in a long façade is also important in design to receive the southern wind.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

In many cases it has been observed that the comfortable condition due to ventilation and air flow is not always same in all the living areas in the same building, especially an elongated building. The study intends to find the ventilation and thermal comfort situation of different indoor spaces having windows in different position of an east-west elongated south facing residential buildings in Dhaka city. The research also search the answer, whether all the south facing windows get positive wind pressure or not for good ventilation properties.

METHODOLOGY

To conduct the research, a literature review has been made on wind flow and ventilation properties. A south facing east-west elongated residential building having open spaces at south has been fundamentally selected for the study. As the direction of wind flow in Bangladesh changes due to season change and the wind flow is not constant all of the year, it is difficult to measure the wind speed in a short time span to conduct a specific research. A detail field survey has been conducted by questionnaire of the occupants. The basis of questionnaire is based on thermal comfort and ventilation condition of different spaces. Finally, different living spaces have been named into some study areas to analysis and summarize the findings of the research.

CLIMATE OF BANGLADESH

Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate characterized by seasonal variations in rainfall, high temperatures, and high humidity. Regional climatic differences in this flat country are minor. Three seasons are generally recognized: a hot, muggy summer from March to June; a hot, humid and rainy monsoon season from June to November; and a warm-hot, dry winter from December to February. In general, maximum summer temperatures range between 38°C. and 41°C. April is the hottest month in most parts of the country. January is the coolest (but still hot) month, when the average temperature for most of the country is 16-20°C during the day and around 10°C at night.



Fig-01: Global wind pattern Fig-02: Wind flow pattern in Bangladesh Winds are mostly from the north and northwest in the winter, blowing gently at one to three kilometers per hour in northern and central areas and three to six kilometers per hour near the coast. Because of its location just south of the foothills of the Himalayas, where monsoon winds turn west and northwest, the region of Sylhet in northeastern Bangladesh receives the greatest average precipitation. About 80% of Bangladesh's rain falls during the monsoon season. The monsoons result from the contrasts between low and high air pressure areas that result from differential heating of land and water. The southwest monsoon, commence in June and usually last through September. Dividing against the Indian landmass, the monsoon flows in two branches, one of which strikes western India. The other travels up the Bay of Bengal and over eastern India and Bangladesh, crossing the plane to the north and northeast before being turned to the west and northwest by the foothills of the Himalayas.

LOCATION AND CLIMATE OF DHAKA

Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh. It is located at 23°45´N and 90°25´E, with an average surface elevation of 9m. Its three sides bounded by river Buriganga in the south, Tongi Khal (canal) in the north and the Turag River in the west. Dhaka belongs to the south-central climatic zone of the country, which can be characterized as a transitional zone between extreme climatic conditions of the north and milder conditions of the south.

- Monthly maximum temperature recorded in summer was 35.4°c (April)

- Monthly minimum temperature was 11°C (January) in winter

- The mean air temperature in the monsoon is at 28°C while it drops down to 20° C in

the winter.

Steady cloud cover, mostly during hot summer, impedes long wave terrestrial radiation in

to the space and reduces the nocturnal cooling potential of the night sky as a thermal sink.

The diurnal range of temperature change remains narrow. Wind speed is relatively high in



monsoon (max4.1m/sec in July) and the direction is predominantly from south and

southeast. In winter wind direction becomes north and northwest. Mean average annual

humidity is 77% (varies between 60% -90%). The city has a significant amount of rainfall

(above190mm/month in average) and 70.8% of the total yearly rainfall occurs in monsoon,

(max400mm in July and minimum7mm in January).

LITERATURE REVIEW ON AIR FLOW AND VENTILATION

FUNCTION OF VENTILATION:

Ventilation serves three distinct functions.

Maintains the quality of the air in the building above a certain minimum level by replacing indoor air vitiated in the process of living and occupancy, by fresh outdoor air.

Provides thermal comfort by increasing the heat loss from the body and preventing discomfort due to moist skin, this may be termed thermal comfort ventilation.

Keeps the structure of the building cool when the indoor temperature is above that out-of-door, and this may be termed as structural cooling ventilation.

AIR FLOW DUE TO WIND PRESSURE

When the wind is blowing against a building, the straight motion of the air is distributed and deflected around and above the building. The air pressure on the sides facing the wind is elevated above atmospheric pressure (pressure zone) and on the leeward sides it is reduced (suction zone). In this way pressure differences are created over the building. When wind blows perpendicularly on a rectangular building, the front wall is subject to pressure while the sides and rear are under suction. If the wind direction is oblique, the

Fig-03: Effect of wind direction on a building, Source: (Koenigsberger et al, 1973)

Two upwind sides are under pressure and the others under suction. The roof is subject to suction in all cases. Pressure is not uniformly distributed over the windward surfaces of the building but diminishes outwards from the center of the pressure zone. Variations in pressure over the wall subject to a perpendicular wind are small, but when the wind flow is oblique there is a sharp drop in pressure from the windward to the leeward corners. When the angle of incidence is about 45°, the pressure at downwind corners almost disappears and at smaller angles suction develops there. The pressure distribution on the windward walls can be utilized to induce cross-ventilation even in rooms with one external wall.



DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING VENTILATION

The pattern of air flow in a room is affected by two factors.

The pressure distribution around the building

Inertia of moving air When the windows are provided in the windward wall of a room, the indoor pressure rises to equal the high external pressure on the wall. If the windows are in leeward side, the indoor pressure falls to the level of lower external pressure. When windows are opened in both the windward and leeward sides of the building, a flow of air induced through the building from the high to the low pressure regions.

Fig-04: Air flow around a building, Source: (Koenigsberger et al, 1973)

WINDOW ORIENTATION AND THE WIND DIRECTION

It is generally believed that to give optimum ventilation conditions the inlet windows should directly face the wind, any deviation from this direction reducing the indoor air speed. In some recent cases, it is found that better conditions can be achieved when the wind is oblique to the inlet windows, particularly when good ventilation conditions are required in the whole area of a room. In a room with two windows in opposite walls, where the inlet directly faces the external wind, the main air stream flows straight from inlet to outlet and apart from local turbulence at the corners of the outlet wall, the rest of the room is only slightly affected. Air flow is slight along the side walls, particularly so at the corners of the inlet window wall. When the wind is oblique (at 45°) to the inlet opening of the same room, most of the air volume takes up a turbulent, circling motion around the room, increasing the air flow along the side walls and in the corners. On the other hand, if two windows are located in adjacent walls, better ventilation is obtained with the wind perpendicular to the inlet window than when it is oblique, following the inlet-outlet direction.



CASE STUDY: STUDY OF AN EAST-WEST ELONGATED SOUTH FACING RESIDENTIAL

BUILDING

The study building is situated in Malibagh, one of the densely populated areas of Dhaka city. It is a government colony for Rajuk officers. As like as the other government colony in Dhaka city, this building is also east-west elongated and this is an important reason for choosing this case for the study. This building is constructed on 1962-1964 and the area of per floor is around 3000 square feet. 3rd floor is selected for the study of wind flow to get optimum result. At present here lives a family having 10 permanent members.

Fig-05: existing condition of the study area, Source: Author

Fig-06: Existing plan of the building, Source: Author

At present there is an open space in front of the building (at south). At north there is two

no‘s seven storied buildings. There is 25‘ wide road at east and a 4 storied building at west.

The building has enough chance to get plenty of southern wind and day light at south.

Initially the building was 3 storied; the 3rd floor was an additional floor. The building has

load bearing brick wall structure and concrete slabs.



ANALYSIS OF AIR MOTION DUE TO WIND PRESSURE

Fig-07: Air flow in the indoor spaces, Source: Author The study is based on the effect of wind flow through the southern windows and finding the real scenario of the spaces having southern exposure. For the research, the south facing spaces are divided into four areas, they are: study area 01, study area 02, study area 03 and study area 04. Detail field survey to find responses of the users of the residence has been done and the wind pattern that has found shown in fig: 07.

SUMMARY OF AIR FLOW AND VENTILATION CONDITION

Chart-01: Occupants responses about ventilation and thermal comfort in different study area

Study area Ventilation

condition

Thermal

condition

User

satisfaction

Study area 01 M VG VG E – excellent

VG – Very good

M – Moderate

NG – Not good

VB – Very Bad

Study area 02 E E E

Study area 03 E VG VG

Study area 04 NG M NG

From the above chart, it is found that good thermal and ventilation condition is found at study area 02 and 03, that means the middle spaces of the total elevation getting the good situation but the spaces having windows at the end points are getting worse situation than the others. At study area 01 there is little chance of having cross ventilation because the 2nd window at west of the room remain closed for privacy concern. As the east and west are blocked, thermal comfort is good at study area 01. At study area 02 there is enough cross ventilation and also thermal comfort. So the user satisfaction is highest here. At study area 03 there is enough cross ventilation but thermal comfort hampers at afternoon due to



having window at west. This space has a large opening at south so it gets enough wind flow almost all day around. The worse situation is arriving at study area 04. Though it has a great chance for cross ventilation because of having window at corner position (at south and east), which is the best position for internal cross ventilation, is suffering much. There is not enough wind flow. Thermal comfort is also not so good because the room get heated at morning because of having an opening at east. As there is less wind cross-flow, the heat does not come out from the room and gets trapped and resulting warmer summer nights.

Fig-08: Indoor spaces of study areas, Source: Author

FINDINGS ON THE BASIS OF LITERATURE REVIEW AND CASE STUDY



Fig-09: Positive and negative wind pressure zone around the study building, Source: Author The reason of having less ventilation of the study area 01 and 04 can be explained by the theory of wind pressure zone and wind suction zone. The both spaces are in negative wind pressure zone and the openings are in wind shadow and getting less wind flow, as it has been found in the literature review. Therefore it is found that all the south facing windows do not get positive wind pressure and good ventilation properties in indoor area unless it is positioned in positive wind pressure zone.

CONCLUSIVE REMARKS

From the case study in this research, the building seemed to be well ventilated but from a detail field survey and study on the occupants it is found that the entire south facing spaces is not getting the blessing of natural wind at a same rate just because of placement of windows and building orientation. The positioning of an opening at south is not the only solution for good ventilation of an interior space, Even when the window is oblique (at 45°) to the inlet opening of the same room (study area 04), ventilation condition may be not good. The position of the room along with openings is very important for comfort situation. Architects or designers should keep it in mind while designing a building to provide special kind of design solution for the openings placed at negative wind pressure zone. Environment friendly design solution is the basic need at present world. For designing a sustainable building, proper ventilation and natural lighting gets the first priority. Therefore, to design a well ventilated residence, each and every factors affecting ventilation should get equal importance to consider.

REFERENCES

Linda G. and Wang D. (2002), Architectural Research Methods. Ahmed, Zebun Nasreen (1994), Assessment of Residential Sites in Dhaka with respect to

Solar Radiation Gains; thesis submitted for Doctor of Philosophy; B. Givoni (1969), Man, Climate and Architecture Koenigsberber O. H. (1973), Manual of Tropical housing and Building Markus T. A., Morris E. N., Buildings, Climate and Energy

Important!!!

If the responses and the revised manuscript are not

submitted by the deadline, submission is deemed to have

been abandoned. The rejection of the manuscript will be

conveyed to the Authors. AJASE



Impact of Environmental Education

Technology in Secondary Educational

Institutions: A Study in Chittagong City Area

Md. Rahimullah Miah1 & Mir Abu Saleh Shamsuddin

2

1Lecturer in MIS, Leading University, Sylhet, Bangladesh 2Lecturer in Education, Govt. Teachers Training College, Chittagong, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT

An exploitative field study to determine the environmental education technology among teachers and learners in secondary levels among the government, autonomous and private educational institutions in Chittagong urban area of Bangladesh was conducted in 40 schools. The study details the standards established, the results measured, and the successes achieved since the new direction passages mentioning the current status of environmental education technology in the mentioned schools to look as an overview study in regional issue with pragmatic reasons. Uniqueness of environmental education‘s technology was identified based on relevant tools to enhance teachers and learners on their teaching-learning with exploring and understanding the world around them through literature review, observations and interviews with teachers and relevant bodies. The 40% schools were out of frequent technology which is maximum percentage while 2.5% schools were used laptop- minimally percentages. The 51% of respondents showed interest and attention in class when teachers incorporated environmental education technology into their lessons. Overall, it was concluded that environmental education in the urban schools needs some enhancement to the training curricula with technological arena. The study focused the concept and overview about the environmental education and gave steps required for augmentation with techniques and tactics of these effective institutions. Finally, we focus future research trajectories of the co-managed approaches and recommendations for how to further develop the demanding environmental education technology among biologists, engineers and other relevant professionals. Keywords: Environmental Education, Technology, Learners and Professionals.

1. INTRODUCTION

Education is the modern technological arena for present and upcoming generations which ties within propinquity among teachers, learners and motivated people. They are accustomed to incorporate environmental concerns. Consciousness of environmental concerns has grown tremendously over the last decade as modern science and a more



globally cognizant population continues to enlighten to the connection between a healthy planet and living status of people ubiquitously. For decades that connection has questionably been undermined by population growth, urbanization and land area loss, creating a potential divide between people and the natural environment. Environmental education (EE) has the potential to make easy experiences that escort to this connection. Exposure to nature, either through structured EE programs or unstructured play, has many benefits. Yet despite these benefits, many barriers exist for integrating EE into formal and informal educational settings remain. Research has recently suggested that a trend is emerging in which barriers are more prevalent and therefore fewer children experience nature directly [1, 2]. With an increasing need for after school care, there is an unprecedented opportunity for educators in these settings to integrate EE and reach vast numbers of children annually. With a greater portion of the population living in urban environments, experiences in natural areas are limited due to the lack of green and natural spaces in many cities. Although substantial challenges can arise to expose urban youth to the natural environment, many innovative and plausible methods have been and continue to be developed as a means to overcome these barriers. All models of programmed instruction kept as a goal, the motivation, pacing, mastery and interactivity of individual learning [3]. Any technology for education is a device to enhance the learning opportunity. Whether threw games that model what is being taught; tools for organizing; recording; and visualizing information; or the creation of experiences, ―micro-worlds‖ for example, allow the engagement in play and exploration of realms otherwise not accessible, technologies can be invaluable in a wide array of settings and forms [4]. Consider the technologies we have available starting from the printed book to the multiple copies in color; pictures to overheads; chalkboard to electronic blackboards; slates to computer notepads; stories to virtual realities. Videos, computers, educational TV (or ITV), CD-ROMS, laser discs, communications satellites and a host of other tools are all considered part of educational technology[5;6]. The integration of environmental education technology implies pedagogical development, technological improvement and environmental awareness on the priority of rules and regulations, standards and implementation patterns which is shown in the figure 1. Environmental education, whether in formal, non-formal, or informal settings must also adapt to technological change in order to maintain societal relevance. Modern technology uses immensely complicated machines requiring little of what is traditionally considered hands-on or even minds-on engagement [7]. The challenge must be to identify the capacity of the learner to use the technology to expand rather than restrict their experiences with the real world interlinked with government, autonomous and private educational institutions in Chittagong Urban Areas in Bangladesh.

Figure 1: Integration of Environmental Education Technology



ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY

Incorporating technology into our educational curricula provides students with additional tools to enhance their learning. Environmental Education Technology is the multidimensional phases and models. Out of them, the TPCK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) model provides a clear look at the need to ensure that the technology, content, and teaching practice are not separated, but rather considered simultaneously when planning the integration of a new technology which is shown in the figure 3 [8]. Research shows that students who are exposed to EE perform at higher levels on standardized tests as well as in regular classroom activities in all subjects [9; 10; 11]. An additional benefit of EE is increased student engagement, enthusiasm, interest, and knowledge [12; 13]. According to [14] found that in schools that integrated EE, students gained knowledge more effectively, retained it longer, showed increased critical thinking and problem solving skills and became enthusiastic, self-motivated learners. Another outcome of EE is its positive effect on environmental stewardship. Research has consistently shown that positive experiences in nature as a child help foster a connection to the natural world and lead to environmental stewardship as adults [15; 16; 17] study revealed that direct experience with nature as a child

through lessons passed on by a prominent adult, inspiring teachers, and memorable field trips can have a significant influence on an

individual‘s environmental

attitudes and behaviors as well which is showed in the figure 2.

Figure 2: Impact of Environmental Education Technology

Figure 3: Combination of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) [8].



METHODS OF THE STUDY

In this study mainly social science and historical methodology has been pursued. Moreover systematically aspects of natural environment with distinguished features of its makeup, curriculum shall be analyzed and reviewed. In respect of resource materials of research in this paper mainly measured the references in the personnel and demo-official proceedings, published reports, newspapers, magazine, bulletin, souvenir, journals and various relevant institutions‘ reports to be related in environmental education technology. Secondly, some of the helpful literatures related to environmental education technology in Chittagong Metropolitan areas written by well-known researchers have been taken to compare, cross and justify against the objectives. The above mentioned source-materials have been collected in governmental, non-governmental and different libraries etc in Bangladesh. We have also utilized modern technologies like internet, websites, email, mobile & telephone, Skype, conferencing and relevant network etc. to collect facts and information about our research field which was help us to reach a further more accurate decisions and opinions. Feedback meeting carried out in order to share the research findings with the respondents and staffs to get their feedback suggestions and comments of environmental education technology during the organized interview through questionnaires.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Assessment of Environmental Education in the Classroom As a result, Environmental Concepts in the Classroom for Teachers introduces six principles for integrating environmental education into the classroom setting in the Table 1. Principles for Integrating Environmental Concepts in the Classroom

Sl. no. Principles for Integrating Environmental Concepts

1. Direct experience is the basis of learning

2. Responsible action is integral to, and a consequence of, environmental education

3. Life on Earth depends on, and is part of, complex systems

4. Human decisions and actions have environmental consequences

5. Environmental awareness enables students to develop an aesthetic appreciation of the environment.

6. The study of the environment enables students to develop an environmental ethic.

Table 1: The six concepts that the Environmental Concepts in the Classroom documents seen as the basis of environmental education.

The suggested guidelines are followed with modern technology accordingly (i) Integration of traditional subjects or multidisciplinary approaches, (ii) Presentation of a range of perspectives,(iii) Currency, (iv) Multicultural perspectives, (v) The place of action specially national park, (vi) Both local and global perspectives, (vii) Hopefulness, (viii) Humility where the 44% respondents are shown for strongly agree for the use of EE technology. On the other hand, agree 38%, neutral 13%, disagree 4% and strongly disagree only 1% respondents of the use of environmental education technology in the studied classrooms which is shown in the figure 4.



Figure 4: The use of Environmental Education Technology in classroom has a reflective impact on students‘ motivation and relevant behavior. Integrated Environmental Education Technology in Teachers’ Lesson Plans The means for this data was also monthly. Ideally, as has been suggested throughout the literature review, environmental education technology should be integrated into the classroom daily. However, it is heartening to note that the next major proportion of the respondents said they integrated environmental education technology "weekly", which is significantly more frequent than "Monthly". The general consensus among all the interview contributors was that environmental education technology should be interdisciplinary, recurrent, pertinent and the interview participants undergone they were ensuing at this where 51% respondents are shown as strongly agree for augmenting interest and attention in class due to integrate Environmental Education Technology. The far above the ground levels of interest in teaching about the natural and technological world among instructors and parents had a strong root in the culture and origin of the community in Chittagong Metropolitan Areas with a significant portion of the school society, and abundance of hilly areas and natural beauty indicating amelioration; this had an obvious force on the participants‘ attitude toward nature and is a unique finding in this study in terms of instructors‘ and parental motivation for Environmental Education Technology while 40% used none of technology at different educational institutions. The integration of environmental education technology is more essential in teachers‘ lesson plans tremendously which was shown in the figure 5 accordingly.

Agree

38%

Disagree

4%

Strongly

Agree

44%

Strongly

Disagree

1%Neutral

13%

The use of EE technology in classroom has a reflective

impact on students' motivation and relevant behavior



Figure 5: Incorporation Environmental Education Technology into teacher-learners in lessons.

The surveyed schools were indicated with different types of technologies as the use of environmental education technology which is augmented the update environmental education technology in urban educational institutions in Chittagong City Areas. The 40% schools were out of frequent technology which is maximum percentage while 2.5% schools were used laptop- minimally percentages. Others were 25% of student per computer, 15% wireless network, 12.5% high speed internet and 5% of video streaming respectively in the studied schools with these types of technologies which were shown in the figure 6 accordingly.

Figure 6: Different Types of Technologies used studied schools for environmental education.

CONCLUSION

The technology of environmental education has obtained momentum but has not been able to make the quantum leap towards preventing, stopping and reversing environmental degradation although some of the reasons focused secondary levels at the educational

Agree

35%

Disagree

3%

Strongly

Agree

51%

Strongly

Disagree

1%

Neutral

10%

Students show augmented interest and attention in

class when teachers incorporated EE technology into

their lessons



institutions in Chittagong City Areas (CCA). This study showed that although impact of environmental education is included in CCA curricula and classrooms, it is not necessarily taught frequently or effectively except modern technology viz. computer, laptop and internet including field trip and video streaming. For environmental topics at secondary level schools are only included in the science and social studies mentioning slightly others relevant courses. Teachers who are inexperienced in environmental education lack guidance and could most benefit from the existing policy with new technological arena. Teachers identified a number of obstacles to environmental education in CCA including insufficient teacher training, scarce teaching resources, inadequate funding and lack of time. Based on the information we have gathered, we would like to put forth some suggestions for the improvement of environmental education technology in CCA schools. We are paying attention future research trajectories of the co-managed approaches and recommendations to the government and existing institutions for how to further develop the demanding environmental education technology among biologists, engineers and other relevant professionals which is affected to the society positively.

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E-Commerce of undergraduate’s perspective:

The conceptual framework

Mohd. Nizam Bin A. Baharuddin1, Dr Lawrence Arokiasamy

2,

Dr Huam Hon Tat3, Rani Ann Balaraman

4

1PhD Research Fellow, Department of Accounting, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Malaysia 2Assistant Professor, Department of Business and Management, Quest International University Perak

(QIUP), Malaysia 3Department of Business and Management, Quest International University Perak (QIUP), Malaysia 4PhD Research Fellow, School of Communication, University Science Malaysia (USM), Malaysia

ABSTRACT

This study was undertaken following the Online shopping behaviour is turning inevitably in this modern life due to the increase of globalization. Online shopping behavior is influence by perceived usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use (PE), trust (TS) and perceived enjoyment (PJ) which is adopted from Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). In a nutshell, the findings in this study concur with that of Davis (1986) that technology acceptance will bring effect on consumer‘s intend to purchase via internet. Keywords: Online shopping behavior, undergraduate and institutions of higher learning.

INTRODUCTION

Electronic commerce also known as (e-commerce) is turning inevitably in this modern life due to the increase of globalization. Thus, the trend of online retail is more popular and widely used by many businessmen. According to Global Consumer Report (2010), reported by Nielsen Company on the trend of online shopping showed that more than two thirds of the world‘s online users have made online shopping to purchase products and their needs. In 2010, Malaysians spent RM1.8 billion on online shopping and this figure is expected to increase dramatically in 3 years‘ time (Nielsen, 2010). In fact, eBay is one of the famous online auction and shopping website in the world stated that the Gross Merchandise Sales (GMS) in year 2003 estimated total $24 billion of items sold which have increase 60% compare to year 2002 which reported $15 billion of items sold (Steiner, 2004). In year 2008, eBay marketplace contain 78 million transactions which involving 82.5% of buyers and 5.76% of sellers among 14.5 million users (Shen&Sundaresan, 2011). With this trend university students have become the most important online consumer group and main users of internet. According toXu and Paulins (2005) have reported that 90% of the university students have access to the internet in every day. Furthermore, university students have huge potential consumption via Internet and more economic autonomy compared to other groups of consumers (Hu, Sun, Zhang, Zhang, Luo, & Huang, 2009). Therefore, automatically the online retailers have targeted university students as a group of



their customer. The online retailers must fully understand the behavior of university students from public and private universities towards the online shopping. Although there are many researchers studied the online shopping behaviour, most of the past studies carried out in developed countries, such as Australia (Cass &Fenech, 2003), United States (Taylor &Strutton, 2010), South Korea (Kim, Kim, & Shin, 2009) and China (Dai &Zheng, 2010). Studies on e-shopping behaviour in Malaysia are limited.Kwek, Lau, and Tan (2010) conducted a research on the effects of shopping orientations, online trust and prior online purchase experience toward customers‘ online purchase intention. Besides, study on online shopping behavior done by Osman et al. (2010) was only focused on the undergraduates from public university. There is no study done on the comparison of differences online shopping behavior between undergraduates from public and private universities in Malaysia. The problem of the research is whether there is a difference in online shopping behavior between public and private universities in Malaysia.

ONLINE SHOPPING BEHAVIOUR

After reviewed numerous past studies relating to the online shopping behavior/intention, most of the researcher applied Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) in their research. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) was first introduced by Davis (1986). This model was expanded from classic Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Fishbein&Ajzen, 1975). It consists of 2 factors: perceive ease of use and perceive usefulness which replaced the factors introduced in the TRA. Perceived usefulness refers to the degree of a user who believes that using the system will enhance his or her performance; while perceived ease of use refers to the degree of the user believes that using the system will be free from effort (Davis, 1989). Both of the factors are specific perceptions and are anchored to specific beliefs users hold about the system (Dillon & Morris, 1996). TAM describes how the user behaviour come to accept and used a technology. This theory is one of the most widely used and influential models in the field of information systems, technology and services. It has been fully validated to be powerful as a framework to predict user acceptance of new technology (Li, 2009). TAM has been applied in many past studies to study on the website quality and consumer online purchasing intention of air ticket (Fazli&Tahir, 2009), University Student Behavioral Intention Model of Online Shopping (Hu et al., 2009), Consumer e-shopping acceptance: Antecedents in a technology acceptance model (Ha &Stoel, 2009), Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of information Technology (Davis, 1989), The Role of Trust in Customer Online Shopping Behavior: Perspective of Technology Acceptance Model (Chi & Tang, 2005), Extending the technology acceptance model for adoption of E-shopping by consumers in Turkey (Celik&Yilmaz, 2011), and Modeling roles of subjective norms and eTrust in customers‘ acceptance of airline B2C eCommercewebsities (Kim, Kim, & Shin, 2009). This model focuses on intention of using information technology and demonstrates how these acceptance will bring effect on consumer‘s intend to purchase via internet. Therefore, technology acceptance model is applied in this research to give an explanation on public and private university students‘ behaviour of online shopping.

PERCEIVED USEFULNESS AND PERCEIVED EASE OF USE

According to Hu et al. (2009), perceived usefulness is used to examine the online shopping behavior in the study and it has positive relationship to the attitude to buy online. Besides



that, Celik et al. (2011) revealed that perceived usefulness has significant relationship towards attitude of online shopping for consumers in Turkey by obtaining data from the 606 internet users in Turkey through online survey. Kim et al. (2009) indicated that the perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and eTrust have significant relationship to the attitude toward use and intention to reuse. A study of investigate online shopping behavior done by Liao & Hsieh (2010) has determined perceived usefulness has a positive relationship towards the attitude of 600 respondents in Taiwan to buy online. The relationship between the perceived ease of use and the online shopping behavior was examined in Ha et al. (2009). The result has indicated that perceived ease of use was significant to the acceptance of customer to buy apparel product online. On the other hand, perceived ease of use is tested in a study whether it has significant relationship towards attitude of online purchasing through online stores, (Chi et al., 2005). The result has indicated that perceived ease of use of consumer to buy online has significant relationship to his or her attitude by using online stores. Hu et al. (2009) revealed that perceived ease of use was positively related to attitude towards using online shopping. The study was done by distributed 208 online questionnaires.

TRUST

Trust is identified as a psychological state that people have the intention to accept vulnerability based on their beliefs that transactions with sellers will meet their confident transactions expectations due to the sellers‘ competence, integrity, benevolence, and predictability (Zhu et al., 2009; Paul, Pavlou, Liang, &Xue, 2007; Gefen, Karahanna, & Straub, 2003; McKnight &Chervany, 2001). Zhu et al. (2009) indicated that the perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, the perceived risk and trust have significant relationship with the intention to purchase online. However, trust significantly reduced perceived risk in the proposed model of the study. The researcher has found that perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and trust has positive relationship with the consumer attitudes. Consumer‘s intention to buy air ticket online with low-cost carrier airline service was examined by using website quality: usability, empathy, perceived risk, trust, website design and information quality (Fazli et al., 2009). The result revealed that usability, empathy, perceived risk, trust, website design and information quality have significantly affecting the intention of buying air ticket online. Trust to the system was tested whether it influence the behavior of the people towards web information system (Du et al., 2009). The result described the PEOU and PU had positive effects on the establishment of trust. Therefore, trust has a positive relationship towards the user intention of using the web information system.

PERCEIVED ENJOYMENT

Perceived enjoyment is defined as ‗the extent to which the activity of using the system is to be perceived enjoyable in its own right, apart from any performance consequences that may be anticipated‘ (Davis, Bagozzi, &Warshaw, 1992). Shopping enjoyment was investigated to study the shopping orientations and gender differences on online information searches and purchase behavior (Seock& Bailey, 2008) and they found that shopping enjoyment significantly affecting to respondent‘s online information searches. In m-commerce, enjoyment was tested towards the m-loyalty and the result revealed that it was an important factor in investigation of m-loyalty (Cyr, Head, &Ivanov, 2006). Enjoyment was significantly predicted the intention to buy online (Broekhuizen&Huizingh, 2006).



COMPARISON OF ONLINE SHOPPING BEHAVIOR BETWEEN TWO GROUPS

Difference in online shopping behavior was tested by indicate students from two country and different country have different in online shopping behavior (Yang, Lester, & James, 2007; Park & Jun, 2003; Hirst&Ashwin, 2009). According to Yang et al. (2007), they studied on the attitudes toward buying online as predictors of shopping online for British and American university students. The outcome has revealed that British respondents were less favorable attitude towards online shopping while American respondents were more favorable attitude towards online shopping. Park et al. (2003) studied on the difference between Korea and American in term of internet usage, internet innovativeness, perceived risks of internet buying and internet buying behaviors. The result indicated that no significant difference in Korea and American consumers for internet buying intentions or online buying experience. However, it shown that there were significant differences between both country in internet usage and the perceived risks of internet buying. Comparison of online shopping behavior between online shoppers in London and Bangkok was examined and the researcher found that there was significant difference in online shopping behavior between online shoppers in London and Bangkok (Hirst et al., 2009).

CONCEPTUAL MODEL

The research model to examine the public and private university online shopping behavior is depicted in Figure 1. There are two types of variables in this model: Independent variable and Dependent variable. The independent variables will affect the dependent variable. Independent variable consists of four elements which are perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, trust and perceived enjoyment while dependent variable is online shopping behavior.

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of online shopping behavior

CONCLUSIONS

This research only concern on four variables, this is consider no sufficient to obtain better understanding on the behavior of the undergraduates in online shopping. The future research is recommended to take more variables into consideration such as perceived risk, consumer satisfaction and consumer preferences which may change over time in relation to



changing of economy and trends. Thus, the reliability of information will be boosted and more reliable to current online market demand from time to time. Besides that, the characteristics of respondents such as age, race, gender and level of income may become a main source to contribute the different online shopping behavior. All this factors are not been pointing out on this study, hence future research should more concern all of it. On the other hand, factor such as characteristics of online product may also result the change of online shoppers behavior. For that reason, future researchers may consider this factor which truly reveals the demand of online shoppers on their research. The researchers should consider adding space for comments in the questionnaires design. This improvement increase responses from respondents as it gives an opportunity to voice but not to exercise force choosing in questionnaires. Besides, the statement in each constructs should be consistent by standardize all the constructs with same amount of statement. This enhances the comparability among constructs. For example, it will enhance the result in Pearson Correlation. The researcher is recommended to produce a timeline for the research before the research start. This helps researcher to conduct research according to time and able to produce high quality of work as there will be more idle time for questionnaires distribution. The questionnaires distribution helps researcher to obtain more accurate and reliable data for the research. It is highly recommended that to distribute questionnaires in more geographical area of university to study the online shopping behavior among undergraduates. In conclusion, this study is discussedthe connections between the independent variables (IV) and the dependent variable (DV) whichare perceived usefulness, trust, perceived ease to use, and perceived enjoyment are relating to the online shopping behavior between public and private universities undergraduate students.

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(ELG) using VECM model with reference to

India

Dr. Amitabh Joshi

Professor, Department of Applied Mathematics & Dean Academic, Raj Kumar Goel Engineering

College, Ghaziabad, U.P., INDIA

ABSTRACT

The aim of this paper is to study the long term and short term relationship between Export and GDP. Various statistically tests like Johansen Cointegration Test, Vector Error Correction Estimates, Wald test, ARCH Test and Serial Correlation Test have been performed. The data was collected from the website of World Bank for a period of 41 years i.e. 1970 to 2011. It was observed that the data shows cointegration between the variables but long term association was not found. Keywords: GDP, Export, Cointegration, VEC Method, ARCH Test, Serial Correlation, Wald Test.

INTRODUCTION

A country should be concerned about improving the quality of life of its citizens overall,

and this involves macroeconomic development in a highly competitive and globalised

world. Thus, creating wealth and/or increasing Gross Domestic Product (GDP) are of

prime importance for any economy. There are two approaches to achieve this goal. One

possibility is to find new export markets and provide an important engine for development.

This strategy, second possibility is that it should primarily focus on economic growth to

generate international trade? Exports are believed to be crucial in providing the impetus for

economic growth in developing countries. Consequently, the export-led growth (ELG)

strategy has been put forward as an alternative to the inward oriented strategy of

development. In the literature there has been a considerable debate on the ELG and growth-

driven export (GDE) hypotheses to decide the development policies and, of course, their

implications for international trade.

After Independence India had an inward-looking trade and investment policy, which

included import substitution. This allowed the country to be self-sufficient but the costs of

many goods for consumers were high because the industries did not face competition from

abroad and multinational companies (MNCs). In 1990s, India began to follow economic

liberalization approach wherein tariffs and import and export controls were relaxed. This

reduced the costs to import inputs and further reduced the costs of some consumer goods.

Thus the economic reforms resulted into real GDP growth, export growth, productivity

increases, along with increased government borrowing and spending and an ever-



expanding fiscal deficit. The paper is divided in three sections: first one is review of

literature, second is research methodology and third section is result and conclusion.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Ghosh and Ostry( 1995) has argued that using vector auto-regression analysis current

account in developing countries acts as a buffer to smooth consumption in the face of

shocks and capital mobility may after all be quite high in this group of countries. Jansen, K.

(1995) tried to assess the channels of macroeconomic impact and their intensity and

suggested that export-oriented DFI is likely to have a positive effect on private investment

and growth, but can have adverse balance-of-payments consequences using Thailand as

example.

Kónya and Singh (2006) reviewed close to thirty export-growth time-series studies

published etween 1978 and 2005. Based on various time-series techniques (unit-root and

cointegration tests; singleequation, vector autoregressive (VAR) and vector error-correction

(VEC) models), they focus exclusively either on India or on a group of countries that

includes India. Though the results are sometimes controversial and sensitive to model

specification, four studies found support for a significant positive correlation between

exports and economic growth; eight for the ELG hypothesis; seven for the GDE hypothesis;

and two for two-way causality between exports and growth.

It is Adam Smith who first studies the relationship between international trade and

economic growth. In his view, the development of division is the principal factor to

improve the long-time growth of productivity, and the degree of division is constrained by

the scope of market. Expansion of market will naturally deepen the division and improve

the productivity, and then improve economic growth; The engine theory causes

controversial disputes, many economists suggest that trade growth of developing countries

is correlated to their own economic growth, their export growths are constrained by the

economic growth of developed countries. William. Lewis is the representative personage of

such economists. Irving Kravis (1970) puts forward new viewpoint, which is later accepted

by lots of western economists, that foreign trade is a maid of economic growth rather than

an engine. Classical school, Marxian school and New classical school all suggest that

foreign trade has just indirect impact on accumulation and economic growth, in fact,

foreign trade impacts on them through profit margin. Further, some Latin American

economists have completely negative attitude on engine theory, they suggest that ,in

modern global economy regime, developed capitalism countries are the core which is

regulating the outer consisting of developing countries, the outer countries must comply

with the core countries. This kind of depending relation makes foreign trade the reason of

weakening the economy of the developing countries rather than the reason of improving

the economy of the developing countries.

Li Yuhong et. Al. (2010) did co-integration analyses with the data of import, export and

economic, and the results suggests that growth of import greatly promotes economic

growth of China, while that of export performs an opposite one.

Giles & Williams (1999) they contributed to this literature in two ways. First, they provided

a comprehensive survey of more than one hundred and fifty ELG applied papers. They

described the changes that have occurred, over the last two decades, in the methodologies

used to empirically examine for relationships between exports and economic Growth, and

provide information on the current findings. The last decade has seen an abundance of time



series studies which focus on examining for causality via exclusions restrictions tests,

impulse response function analysis and forecast error variance decompositions. Their

second contribution is to examine some of these time series methods. They showed that

ELG results based on standard causality techniques are not typically robust to specification

or method. Their results suggest that extreme care should be exercised when interpreting

much of the applied research on the ELG hypothesis.

Konya (2000) This paper investigates the possibility of Granger causality between the

logarithms of real exports and real GDP in twenty-five OECD countries, between 1960 and

1998. Two complementary testing strategies are applied. First, depending on th e time series

properties of the data, causality is tested with Wald tests within finite-order vector

autoregressive (VAR) models in levels and/or in first-differences. Then, with no need for

pre-testing, a modified Wald procedure is used in augmented level VAR systems. In both

cases we experiment with alter native deterministic trend degrees. Our study illustrates

how sensitive the Granger causality test results can be to different methods and model

specifications. This fact should warn applied researchers to take extreme care when

interpreting such results. With this limitation in mind, upon our analysis we are confident

to claim that there is no causality (NC) between exports and growth in the Netherlands,

export causes growth (ECG) in Belgium and Iceland, growth causes export (GCE) in

Canada and Japan, and there is two-way causality (TWC) in Sweden and in the UK.

Although with less certainty, we also suspect that there is NC in Hungary, France, Greece

and Luxembourg, ECG in Australia, Austria, Denmark, Ireland, Spain and Switzerland,

GCE in Finland and Korea. However, in the case of Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway,

Portugal and the USA the results are too controversial to make a simple choice.

Altaf et al. (2012) The main purpose of this article is to determine the significance of

macroeconomic variables on Pakistan‘s economic growth with the application of vector

autoregression (VAR) modelling using annual time series data. The quantitative evidence

shows that real per-capita income growth is caused by money-supply. Exchange rate

policies, government spending and money supply are significant in the regression of

Investment. Similarly, exports and exchange rate policies affect the growth of real per-

capita money supply. Forecast errors have been generated for both models using Variance

Decomposition (VDC) analysis.

Feasel et al. (2001) used the impulse response analysis and variance decomposition and

suggested that the investment rates and growth rates of exports had significant short run

effect on the growth rate of per capita output. They employed Vector auto-regression

(VAR) analysis on the data of Korea for the period 1956-1994 and found the dynamic

relationships among investment rates, output growth and export growth. To examine the

impact of financial development on economic growth in china, Shan (2003) used Vector

Auto-Regression technique. He found that after contribution of labor input financial

development came as the second force in leading economic growth in China.

Kandil and Mirzaile (2004) used the data of nine developing countries in the Middle East

and applied the empirical model include three policy variables: government spending, the

money supply and the exchange rate. They found that there is asymmetry in the cyclical

behavior of private consumption. The stabilizing function of policy shock appeared to

asymmetric within countries and varied across countries. To maximize the policy effect on

desired private consumption, the policy stance carefully designed which is the largest

growing component of aggregate demand in many developing countries. They highlighted

importance of country specific studies and argued that the result obtained from cross



country were not able to address this issue. They used time series data from 1960 to 2001 to

assess the finance growth link by taking investment, trade, saving and real interest rate into

account. Their result supported the view that output growth caused financial depth in long

run in contrary to conventional findings.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The primary objective of this paper is to study the long term an short term relationship

between Growth in economy and Export. The secondary objectives are as:

Whether any long term association is there between Export and GDP.

Whether any shot term association is there between Export and GDP.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The Study

Co-integration analysis, which is mentioned above, with time-series is adopted in this

paper for testing whether there exists long term or short term stationary causality between

foreign trade and GDP growth, and for testing the unit root of each variable to confirm their

stationarities. The following would be the desired time-sequence data model,

yit =ρi yi,t - 1 + Xitδi +εit

where i = 1,…, N represent the number of time-series data; t = 1,…,T represents time span;

xit are the exogenous variables in the model including fixed effect or time trend of each

time-series unit; ρi is autoregressive coefficient, suppose that disturbance terms εit are

mutual independence.

If | ρi | < 1, yit represents the stationary process;

if | ρi | = 1, yit represents the process of unit root.

Take the logarithms of the gross domestic products (GDP) & total export value (EXP), and

they are LnGDP, & LnEXP. Then test their logarithm values and first difference values

through time series unit root. Logarithm cited here is for convenience to get stationarity

more easily, and is helpful to eliminate the heteroscedasticity of time series and the

characteristics of time series and relationships would not be changed.

The relationships between relevant indexes would be tested in this paper by three steps.

First of all, test through unit root using time-series data[8]; then, use two-step method put

forward by Engle and Granger (1987) to test the mutual long term causalities of relevant

indexes; if the long term causality exists, then further test their short term causalities.

Co-Integration Analysis of Time-Series Data and Long Term Causality Test

In order to test the long term cassations between variables, two-step test method put

forward by Engle and Granger (1987) is used. When measuring the long term causalities

between GDP and relevant indexes of foreign trade, the measured variables are mutually

simple integrated, and then the regression through the following time-series Equation (1)

can be processed. Further, residual errors Eit comes out and it‘s tested through unit root to

determine their stabilities. If Eit is stationary, the mutual long term causalities are proved to

exist.

Ln (*) = α + β Ln (**) + εit (1)

where (*) and (**) separately represent GDP, IE, EXP and IMP.

Time-Series Data Error Correcting Model and Short Term Causality Test

Co-integration relationships just reflect the long term balanced relations between relevant

variables. In order to cover the shortage, correcting mechanism of short term deviation



from long term balance could be cited. At the same time, as the limited number of years, the

above test result may cause disputes. Therefore, under the circumstance of long term

causalities, short term causalities should be further tested as well. The error correcting

models could be built as,

d LnGDPit = ηi + Σα1d LnGDPi, t – 1+ Σβ1d LnEXPi, t-1 + λ ECMit + εit (1)

where t represents year, d represents first difference calculation, ECMit represents the errors

of long term balance. If λ = 0 is rejected, error correcting mechanism happens, and the tested

long term causality is reliable, it could be unreliable. If β1 = 0 is rejected, and then the short

term causality is not proved to exist.

The Sample

The data was collected for a period of 41 years i.e. 1970 – 2011. The Indian GDP value is

taken at USD rate and Indian Export value is also taken at USD rate. The data is time series

in nature and hence we need to check the stationarity of data. Johansen Cointegration Test

has been applied.

RESULT AND ANALYSIS

Null Hypothesis: There is No Cointegration Between the variables.

The null hypothesis is rejected because the probability is less than 5 percent. It means there

is cointegration between the variables.

Alternative Hypothesis: There is atleast one cointegrating variables. The alternative

hypothesis is accepted at 5 percent probability.

Johansen Cointegration Test

Date: 10/03/12 Time: 23:54

Sample (adjusted): 3 42

Included observations: 40 after adjustments

Trend assumption: Linear deterministic trend

Series: GDP EXP01

Lags interval (in first differences): 1 to 1

Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Trace)

Hypothesized Trace 0.05

No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue Statistic Critical Value Prob.**

None * 0.541824 33.28390 15.49471 0.0000

At most 1 0.050286 2.063795 3.841466 0.1508

Trace test indicates 1 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level

* denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level

**MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values

Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Maximum Eigenvalue)

Hypothesized Max-Eigen 0.05



No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue Statistic Critical Value Prob.**

None * 0.541824 31.22011 14.26460 0.0001

At most 1 0.050286 2.063795 3.841466 0.1508

Max-eigenvalue test indicates 1 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level

* denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level

**MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values

Unrestricted Cointegrating Coefficients (normalized by b'*S11*b=I):

GDP EXP01

1.83E-12 -2.73E-11

1.72E-11 -6.91E-11

Unrestricted Adjustment Coefficients (alpha):

D(GDP) -4.81E+10 1.69E+09

D(EXP01) -8.57E+09 1.65E+09

1 Cointegrating Equation(s): Log likelihood -1994.731

Normalized cointegrating coefficients (standard error in parentheses)

GDP EXP01

1.000000 -14.90328

(1.66044)

Adjustment coefficients (standard error in parentheses)

D(GDP) -0.088194

(0.01371)

D(EXP01) -0.015728

(0.00330)

Vector Error Correction Estimates

Date: 10/03/12 Time: 23:55



Standard errors in ( ) & t-statistics in [ ]



Cointegrating Eq: CointEq1

GDP(-1) 1.000000

EXP01(-1) 316.8386

(52.3709)

[ 6.04990]

C -2.09E+13

Error Correction: D(GDP) D(EXP01)

CointEq1 0.003402 0.000841

(0.00067) (0.00014)

[ 5.04027] [ 6.12336]

D(GDP(-1)) -0.607263 0.062156

(0.31502) (0.06414)

[-1.92771] [ 0.96905]

D(GDP(-2)) -0.840578 -0.311778

(0.42471) (0.08648)

[-1.97919] [-3.60535]

D(EXP01(-1)) 0.597009 -0.057030

(1.38754) (0.28252)

[ 0.43026] [-0.20186]

D(EXP01(-2)) 1.481283 0.301538

(1.23061) (0.25057)

[ 1.20369] [ 1.20341]

C 8.25E+10 1.79E+10

(1.6E+10) (3.3E+09)

[ 5.13057] [ 5.45359]

R-squared 0.665672 0.857146

Adj. R-squared 0.615016 0.835501

Sum sq. resids 7.20E+22 2.99E+21

S.E. equation 4.67E+10 9.51E+09

F-statistic 13.14109 39.60097



Log likelihood -1010.209 -948.1394

Akaike AIC 52.11329 48.93023

Schwarz SC 52.36922 49.18616

Mean dependent 4.55E+10 1.16E+10

S.D. dependent 7.53E+10 2.35E+10

Determinant resid covariance (dof adj.) 5.52E+40

Determinant resid covariance 3.95E+40

Log likelihood -1933.495

Akaike information criterion 99.87153

Schwarz criterion 100.4687

The Equation for Dependent Variable will be: D(GDP) = C(1)*( GDP(-1) +

316.838576*EXP01(-1) - 2.089460373e+013 ) + C(2)*D(GDP(-1)) + C(3)*D(GDP(-2)) +

C(4)*D(EXP01(-1)) + C(5)*D(EXP01(-2)) + C(6)

This equation will be our Error Correction Model and export will be dependable variable.

C(1) is the coefficient of the integrating equation. 316.838576*EXP01(-1) -

2.089460373e+013 ) this will be cointegrating equation.

For Short term causality, the equation will be: C(4)*D(EXP01(-1)) + C(5)*D(EXP01(-2))

The equation for Independent variable will be: D(EXP01) = C(7)*( GDP(-1) +

316.838576*EXP01(-1) - 2.089460373e+013 ) + C(8)*D(GDP(-1)) + C(9)*D(GDP(-2)) +

C(10)*D(EXP01(-1)) + C(11)*D(EXP01(-2)) + C(12)

Dependent Variable: D(GDP)

Method: Least Squares

Date: 10/03/12 Time: 23:58



D(GDP) = C(1)*( GDP(-1) + 316.838576*EXP01(-1) - 2.089460373E

+013 ) + C(2)*D(GDP(-1)) + C(3)*D(GDP(-2)) + C(4)*D(EXP01(

-1)) + C(5)*D(EXP01(-2)) + C(6)

Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.

C(1) 0.003402 0.000675 5.040274 0.0000

C(2) -0.607263 0.315017 -1.927713 0.0625

C(3) -0.840578 0.424709 -1.979187 0.0562

C(4) 0.597009 1.387542 0.430263 0.6698

C(5) 1.481283 1.230614 1.203694 0.2373

C(6) 8.25E+10 1.61E+10 5.130573 0.0000



R-squared 0.665672 Mean dependent var 4.55E+10

Adjusted R-squared 0.615016 S.D. dependent var 7.53E+10

S.E. of regression 4.67E+10 Akaike info criterion 52.11329

Sum squared resid 7.20E+22 Schwarz criterion 52.36922

Log likelihood -1010.209 Durbin-Watson stat 1.960480

Wald Test:

Equation: Untitled

Test Statistic Value df Probability

F-statistic 1.016277 (2, 33) 0.3730

Chi-square 2.032553 2 0.3619

Null Hypothesis Summary:

Normalized Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err.

C(4) 0.597009 1.387542

C(5) 1.481283 1.230614

Restrictions are linear in coefficients.

The coefficient at lag 1 is .003402 at 5 percent probability. It means there is no long term

causality between GDP and Export.

Null Hypothesis: There is no long term causality between GDP and Export.

The probability is 0 percent which means the hypothesis is rejected but since the value of

coefficient is positive, we can say that there is no long term causality.

Wald Test:

Equation: Untitled

Test Statistic Value df Probability

F-statistic 1.016277 (2, 33) 0.3730

Chi-square 2.032553 2 0.3619

Null Hypothesis Summary:

Normalized Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err.

C(4) 0.597009 1.387542

C(5) 1.481283 1.230614

Restrictions are linear in coefficients.

Null Hypothesis H0: Export of Lag 4 & 5 cannot jointly influence GDP. Probability of Chi

square statistic is more than 5% which means null hypothesis is accepted. Thus it can be

Export cannot affect the GDP in short run.

Histogram

Null Hypothesis H0: Residual is normally distributed. Results shows that probability of

Jarque – Bera test statistic is less than 5 percent. It means the null hypothesis is accepted.

Thus we can say that the data is normally distributed.



ARCH Test:

F-statistic 6.228804 Probability 0.017289

Obs*R-squared 5.605050 Probability 0.017909

Test Equation:

Dependent Variable: RESID^2


Date: 10/04/12 Time: 00:00



Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.

C 1.17E+21 7.24E+20 1.611191 0.1159

RESID^2(-1) 0.384093 0.153898 2.495757 0.0173

R-squared 0.147501 Mean dependent var 1.89E+21




Log likelihood -1943.830 F-statistic 6.228804

Durbin-Watson stat 1.977164 Prob(F-statistic) 0.017289

Null hypothesis H0: There is no ARCH effect. The Probability value of observed R square

0

4

8

12

16

20

-1.0e+11 0.00000 1.0e+11

Series: Residuals

Sample 4 42

Observations 39

Mean 2.70e-06

Median 3.01e+09

Maximum 1.50e+11

Minimum -1.20e+11

Std. Dev. 4.35e+10

Skewness 0.207341

Kurtosis 6.322422

Jarque-Bera 18.21698

Probability 0.000111



is 2.38 percent which is below 5 percent. Hence null hypothesis is rejected. It means there

is ARCH effect among variables.

Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM Test:

F-statistic 34.61605 Probability 0.000000

Obs*R-squared 26.93800 Probability 0.000001

Test Equation:

Dependent Variable: RESID


Date: 10/04/12 Time: 00:00

Presample missing value lagged residuals set to zero.

Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.

C(1) -1.77E-06 0.000435 -0.004056 0.9968

C(2) 0.226313 0.182516 1.239963 0.2243

C(3) -0.233969 0.245101 -0.954581 0.3472

C(4) -1.690533 0.796923 -2.121325 0.0420

C(5) 2.472789 0.743882 3.324169 0.0023

C(6) -3.53E+09 9.70E+09 -0.363383 0.7188

RESID(-1) 0.391802 0.124755 3.140566 0.0037

RESID(-2) -0.061723 0.106064 -0.581937 0.5648

R-squared 0.690718 Mean dependent var 2.70E-06




Log likelihood -987.3259 Durbin-Watson stat 1.939475

Null hypothesis H0: There is no Serial Correlation Effect. The Probability value of

observed R square is 0.000 percent which is below 5 percent. Hence null hypothesis is

rejected. It means there is Serial Correlation effect among variables.

CONCLUSION

The results showed that there is no long term causality between Export and GDP. The

result of Wald test also showed that short term causality is also not there between GDP

and Export. The simple reason for this is that the total weightage of Export in GDP is

minimal i.e. the volume of export is insufficient to affect overall value of GDP either in

long term or in short term.



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Root, Franklin, R., & Ahmed. (1979). Empirical Determinants of DFI in Developing

Countries. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 27(4).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/451139

AJASE? www.ajase.weebly.com

High quality editorial board

Rigorous and rapid peer review

Open Access & high citation rate

Will apply for ISI track in the near future



Why Work with ABC

1. Voluntary reviewers have complete authority to set the standards for the acceptance of manuscripts;

2. Voluntary reviewers have complete authority to determine whether a manuscript is accepted or not;

3. Voluntary reviewers have the right to revise the scope and policies of their journals;

4. Voluntary reviewers pay a reduced fee for ABC publication;

5. ABC has its own marketing team. Editorial board/Voluntary review board members are not required to solicit papers.



Asian Journal of Applied Science and Technology

(Peer reviewed international journal) ISSN 2305-915X

Open Access Philosophy Under Open Access Philosophy, AJASE will not charge for the access

of its journals. This will ensure that a large percentage of students,

scholars, researchers and practitioners will be able to benefit from the

research published through ABC journals. Moreover, this process will

also enable authors’ papers to receive a higher ranking. A greater

number of people being able to access and consequently refer to

papers will mean a higher citations and Impact Factor for ABC

journals. Following are advantages of Open Access Philosophy:

1. The full text of all issues of AJASE is freely available to anyone, online.

2. Your research work will be indexed and abstracted in the

internationally reputed databases and search engines immediately

after publication.

3. Open Access increases the number of downloads, page views,

citations etc. increasing the rate of

dissemination of your research

work manifold.

4. It is inferred from past

researches that the papers published under "Open Access Philosophy" are four

times more likely to be cited than the papers published under "Non-Open

Access Philosophy"

Peer Review Policy

Paperless, web-based peer review system, professional and helpful suggestions from reviewers. Articles in this

journal have undergone a rigorous blind peer review system, based on initial editor screening and involving in-

country and international refereeing, ensures that articles meet the highest standards of quality. Most ABC

journals have ISSN with IMPACT FACTORS. It facilitates our scholars, researchers, scientists, professors,

corporates, governmental research agencies, librarians etc., in a more positive way in their research proceedings.

Faster Turnaround Time

Many journals take many months, even years to publish research. By the time papers are published, often they become

outdated. AJASE publishes papers in the shortest possible time, without compromising on quality. This will ensure that

the latest research is published, allowing readers to gain maximum benefit. We provide feedback instantaneously and

furnish details of the outcome within about 5 - 6 working days of submission of your research paper. This enables

research scholars to use their time effectively on the actual research rather than on the follow ups.

Strong International network & Collaboration

We have exposure to wide range of industries across geographies and worldwide connect through international

colleagues and thereby the recognition. We work in collaboration with extremely creditable companies, academic

institutions, reputed publication units, government bodies and research firms. By publishing with us, you join ABC

Global Research Community of 50,000 scientists / researchers.

For Details- go through the link: www.ajase.weebly.com

http://ajase.weebly.com/



Global Disclosure of Economics and Business (Peer reviewed international journal)

ISSN 2305-9168

Why Publish on GDEB

1. Open Access Have you ever been frustrated to find that it costs $30 to download the full text file of an article you wish to read? The full text version of all papers published at GDEB is freely available online to anybody. 2. Affordable Most open-access journals charge more than a thousand dollars per accepted manuscript. From ABC’s perspective, that means, access to publication for authors is not truly open. ABC’s

publication fee is affordable, at $60 per accepted paper. ABC aims to encourage all scientists to work together to share knowledge. 3. High-quality editorial board ABC is very careful in its selection of editorial board members. All ABC Journals board members are experts in their respective fields. 4. Rigorous peer review Acceptance of a submission is solely based on recommendations by editors and peer reviewers. 5. Rapid review process Paper less & web based review system. Typically, the review period is complete within 4 weeks. 6. High citation rate Our open-access policy guarantees that anyone can read an author’s papers online. ABC plans to have ABC journals included in all major databases, and indexed by Thomson Reuters (ISI). 7. Authors retain copyright All papers published on GDEB are open–access. Under this system, authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but they allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute, and/or copy the content, as long as the original authors and source are cited properly.

Faster Turnaround Time

Many journals take many months, even years to publish

research. By the time papers are published, often they become

outdated. GDEB publishes papers in the shortest possible

time, without compromising on quality. This will ensure that

the latest research is published, allowing readers to gain

maximum benefit. We provide feedback instantaneously and

furnish details of the outcome within about 5 - 6 working days of submission of your research paper. This enables research scholars to use their time effectively on the

actual research rather than on the follow ups.

Strong International network

By publishing with us, you join ABC Global Research Community of 50,000 scientists / researchers.

For Details- go through the link: www.gdeb.weebly.com

GDEB Publish

Online and Print

Version Both

http://gdeb.weebly.com/

http://gdeb.weebly.com/



It gives us immense pleasure to forward the link of the current issue of our Journal Asian Accounting and Auditing Advancement (4A Journal) circulated all over the world 141 countries/territories (Japan; United Kingdom; United

States; Russia; Australia; China; Canada; France; Germany; Hong Kong; Italy; Mexico; New Zealand; Singapore; Spain;

Swaziland; Switzerland; Taiwan; Afghanistan; Albania; Algeria; Argentina; Armenia; Austria; Bahrain; Bangladesh;

Barbados; Belgium; Benin; Bhutan; Bolivia; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Botswana; Brazil; Brunei; Bulgaria; Cameroon; Chile;

Colombia; Congo [DRC]; Costa Rica; Côte d’Ivoire; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Djibouti; Egypt; Eritrea; Ethiopia; Fiji; Finland; Gambia; Georgia; Ghana; Greece; Guatemala; Guyana; Hungary; Iceland; India; Indonesia; Iran;

Iraq; Ireland; Israel; Jamaica; Jersey; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Kenya; Kuwait; Kyrgyzstan; Laos; Latvia; Lebanon; Lesotho;

Liberia; Libya; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macau; Macedonia [FYROM]; Malawi; Malaysia; Maldives; Malta; Mauritius; Moldova;

Morocco; Mozambique; Myanmar [Burma]; Namibia; Nepal; Netherlands; Nicaragua; Nigeria; Norway; Oman; Pakistan; Palestinian Territories; Panama; Papua New Guinea; Paraguay; Peru; Philippines; Poland; Portugal; Qatar; Romania;

Rwanda; Saudi Arabia; Senegal; Serbia; Sierra Leone; Slovakia; Slovenia; South Africa; South Korea; Sri Lanka; Sudan;

Suriname; Sweden; Syria; Tanzania; Thailand; Togo; Trinidad and Tobago; Tunisia; Turkey; Uganda; Ukraine; United Arab

Emirates; Uruguay; Uzbekistan; Venezuela; Vietnam; Yemen; Zambia; Zimbabwe), for your kind reference and record.



Asian Business Review ISSN: 2304-2613 (Print)

ISSN: 2305-8730 (Online) Email: [email protected]

Call for Papers

Asian Business Review www.abrjournal.weebly.com

Peer Review Policy Open Access Policy Well Indexed Online Submission Online Archives Global Circulation Free ABC Membership Call for Board Member

Respected Author Asian Business Consortium believes that a standard, well indexed and worldwide circulated

Journal can be an effective agent of sharing beliefs, values and research deeds. We are pleased to inform you that Asian Business Consortium is going to publish Vol. 2, No.1 (2013) Issue of its International Peer Reviewed Journal Asian Business Review {International Standard Serial Number: 2304-2613(p); 2305-8730(e)}.

Through this letter we are inviting articles from interested faculty members, scholars, and writers of the universities and other educational institutions for this 2nd Issue, which is expected to be in the press by the 1st week of March, 2013 or in any of the forthcoming issue of the journal. We also invite articles from foreign authors. We hope you will find ABR to be of international standard.

ABR will contain research-based articles on Business, Technology and Social Sciences and such other subjects which are significantly related to the religion of Asia. We will appreciate your cooperation in this regard and request you to kindly circulate this invitation letter to your faculty/department members so that they can avail this opportunity.

Submission of Papers: Full papers written in English and not submitted elsewhere,

should be submitted in MS WORD format through the website (online submission) http://abrjournal.weebly.com/submission.html.

Important Deadlines for the Inaugural Issue a) Submission of Full Paper 10th February 2013 b) Reviewer’s Feedback and Notification of Full Acceptance 15th February 2013 c) Registration Deadline 20th February 2013 d) Expected to be in the press by the 1st week of March, 2013

Processing Fee for Regular Issue US$ 80 (Outside Bangladesh Author, except shipping) BDT 6000 (Bangladeshi Resident Author)

The journal is patronized by Asian Business Consortium (ABC). All authors of the ABR will be considered as ABC member. With regards, Editor, Asian Business Review

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.abrjournal.weebly.com/

http://abrjournal.weebly.com/

http://abrjournal.weebly.com/submission.html

http://abcreorg.weebly.com/

http://abcreorg.weebly.com/membership.html

Human Development Scenarion of Malaysia: ASEAN and Global Perspective

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