I. Abstract

This project studies how technology affects industrial designers’ works. There are

multiple stages in the design process. Industrial designers need a wealth of knowledge

to talk to engineers and manufacturers. More work needs to be done to integrate

fixture design into CAD and CIM manufacturing methods. Designers need to be

working closely with technology better understand and explain to IT how technology

needs to be designed. Designers have to balance design requirements with their own

ideas on how to improve a products form, function, etc. When User Interface

designers and Industrial Designers work together from the onset there are less

mistakes further along in the design process and their outcomes are more successful

than if UI and ID work separately. Fixture design can slow down the design process

and be costly when not integrated into the design process well. When technology is

too complicated for industrial designers it takes away from their cognitive processes

used in design stages. Some technology allows prototypes to be created remotely.

Other parameters need to be considered beyond just design such as cost, ease of

manufacturing and target audience. A new kind of analogtivity should be built into

products that’s culturally driven in order to strike a balance between too much and too

little in everyday life. The role of the industrial designer is always evolving and they

have to find a balance between the skills they no longer need vs. ones they need to

acquire. The design process needs flexibility at all stages in order to evolve. The

industrial designer needs to be able to determine when to use technology and when

not to when communicating various stages of the design process with eachother and

the client. Software and other technologies needs to spend more time as opensource

so they are easier to troubleshoot and get the bugs out.

II. Introductory Paragraph

Technological advances of the times affect industrial designers’ works. According to the

research paper “Some Kind of Analogtivity: anti-simulation through design” technology is

recharacterizing the role and responsibilities of industrial designers (101). Computers

revolutionized industrial designers’ ways of solving design dilemmas. They were able to create

drawings and models quickly in a matter of hours instead of days or weeks. Now they can create

more complex products with computer-aided manufacturing. The speed that computers provide

allows designs to be modified, enabling multiple versions to be developed to refine the end

product faster. Computer aided manufacturing is when computers are used to control machine

tools. Computer aided manufacturing is important because you can create products with greater

accuracy and faster than if done by hand. This project analyzes how technology’s evolution has

improved industrial designers’ works.

III. Literature Review

There are many opinions on how technology affects industrial designers’ works. “The Art

and Science of Industrial Design” was written in 2007 and “The Wizards of Industrial Design”

was written in 1992. Both James Braham and Charles Floyd have similar and different views on

technology and its effect on industrial designers’ and their works. They both wrote articles in the

same trade magazine and point out that engineering is involved in the design of a product despite

their different approaches. In “The Art and Science of Industrial Design” Floyd talks about value

engineering as a function to cost ratio in order to improve a product without decreasing its

quality (46). In “The Wizards of Industrial Design” Braham discusses how engineers deal with

physical forces and industrial designers deal with a product’s form and function (39). Both

articles say industrial designers are not autonomous and their designs have to be communicated

with engineers and manufacturers. Floyd discusses how industrial designers have to know about

draft angles and materials. Braham discusses how each group has a different way of thinking.

For the most part engineers are left-brain thinkers and industrial designers are right brain

thinkers. Both articles talk about how the design process considers ergonomics and ease of

manufacturing. Braham says technology is helping to improve the relationship between industrial

designers and engineers. His view of the design process involves concept, development,

refinement and implementation. Floyd says a product goes through several steps (46). The

original design is analyzed to examine how it is designed and what needs to be changed to

improve the product. The product is then redesigned which eliminates unnecessary part, changes

the product’s appearance through color and gives the product a clean look. Next materials are

selected that are strong, flexible and easy to manufacture. Then finishing is considered in terms

of specifications that go to the manufacturer, the type of finish and how easy a product is to

clean. Despite the differences between Floyd and Barham, they both agree technology’s

evolution has improved industrial designers’ works.

While some of technology’s evolution has improved designers’ works, some technology

has hindered it. Cecil wrote an article Computer-Aided Fixture Design – A Review and Future

Trends that describes fixture design and how it can be improved. This article explains how the

fixture design process is not fully integrated with other product and process design activities,

which can delay the overall design process. A fixture is a device used in manufacturing to hold

a workpiece, position it correctly in relation to a machine tool, and support it during machining.

According to Cecil fixture design created a major bottleneck in the integration of CAD

(Computer Aided Design) and CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) activities. Approaches

were developed but not fully integrated with other products and process design activities. Little

work was done on developing methods that support the design of fixtures in a concurrent

engineering (CE) based team-oriented environment. (791)The future of fixture design

approaches has some challenges ahead. Fixture design needs to focus on methods that serve as a

connection between CAD and CAM. Fixture design also needs to seek to support cross-

functional participation and concurrent engineering approaches that will help other members of

CE teams understand problems associated with potential fixture solutions when evaluated in

context of the overall design/manufacturing cycle involving other specialists (product designers,

managers, assembly specialists, shop floor planners).

Whether technology has improved or impaired industrial designers’ works, a balance has

to be struck between the 2. Usage-Based Platform Design: Case Studies in Thermal Design,

Enterprise Manageability, and Information Access was written by Debes et al. that describes 3

case studies with the usage of a model-driven platform. Technology can help designers find the

balance between the overall product and while recognizing the details specified by the client. It is

also important for designers to involve the client in the design process to make sure there aren’t

any misunderstandings at critical stages of the design process. According to Debs et al., vectors

of mobility include performance, battery life, form factor and wireless connectivity (36). There is

a highly correlated interdependency between vectors that must be balanced to produce a system

capable of providing the best user experience possible. Without knowing how much power will

be consumed by a given system & its components, it’s impossible to create a well-designed

system to handle the user’s computing needs. An over designed system ends up being physically

larger than necessary. It may have a cooling system that’s capable of handling workloads much

more active (greater power consumption) than intended in the usage models for the system. This

in turn increases the total cost of materials and manufacturing. Ecosystem analysis and enabling

occurs when working with an entire value chain of computing infrastructure to develop standards

and solutions to better serve customers. Along with understanding the IT end users’ needs and

desires, there needs to be a determination of business priorities and hurdles along entire supply

chain to best position platforms and related enabling programs to deliver the desired end user

experience. It’s important for IT end users to understand the progression of turning usage models

into platform capabilities so they can validate the usage model, usage assumptions and details of

use case interaction. This is all part of the feedback loop where usage is taken back to selected

end users for verification and refinement. Organizations are constantly searching for ways to

innovate and improve business processes and performance. Without the right information at the

right time and place, companies can’t manage businesses effectively and proactively. Ample

information provided on demand becomes a competitive differentiator because it can

significantly improve customer orientation, reduce costs, improve a company’s product roadmap,

mitigate risks and enable compliance with regulatory policies. Interviews with business decision

makers, IT and end users had several results. The number of users and their needs for business

intelligence are increasing substantially. Knowledge workers and business decision makers are

calling for immediate access to real time information with high expectations for machine

automation of high density and low value tasks and activities. Some significant challenges

include data integration, performance, latency, total cost of ownership, scalability, compliance,

data and content security.

While some design firms struggle to balance overall product design and incorporating

client-specified details, others have found a way to balance what the client wants with what they

can deliver. Turpault and Tannen who work for Bresslergroup wrote an article Emerging

Interaction Design Tools that describes new technologies and the development of new

techniques, how the design process needs to change while leveraging User Interface and

Industrial Design and how a hybrid process is used. UI comes from software development &

processes that are based on multiple short subsets of functionality or design story development.

Each story has to be defined, designed and implemented rapidly while not seeking perfection but

going for functionality and then evolving over time. The high speed of process requires effective

collaboration to succeed. ID is grounded in the more traditional waterfall or stage process which

factors in set requirements that include research and planning, concept generation, engineering

development, prototyping, detail design, beta prototyping and final documentation. According to

Turpault and Tannen a “… hybrid process leverages agile spirits and grounds everything in

developing combined UI/ID demonstration models at each decision making gate” (20). This

forces the delivery of some level of functional user interface and physical model in the same

demonstration or presentation format, which led to better results for clients. This also led to more

logical user workflows, richer experiences and more efficient use of components, controls and

materials. The spot vision-screening device is a good example of this modified process in action.

A vision-screening device named Spot by pediaVision evaluates the patient for near-sightedness,

far-sightedness and identifies possible amblyopic precursors, which if left untreated can lead to

blindness. The device utilizes high-end optics, infrared light scanning and sophisticated software

algorithms. The vision-screening device’s sophisticated engineering is masked by very user-

friendly interface and product design so it looks and feels like camera. Ease of use was key since

the adult using the device is often a volunteer at a school or community center tasked with

screening about 60 kids an hour. Product development is an iterative process consisting of

multiple sprints with UI and ID working together from the beginning.

While some design firms have streamlined their design process, others have areas of their

design process that can be improved. Applying RBR and CBR to Develop a VR Based Integrated

System for Machining Fixture Design was written by Peng et al. that describes Computer-Aided

Design’s role in machine fixture design. Rule-based reasoning (RBR) and case-based reasoning

(CBR) are both used in fixture design. RBR uses induction rules to determine whether a new

problem should be inspected further or not. CBR preforms similarly based matching to find the

most similar case in a case database to the new problem. Fixtures have a direct effect on

machining quality, productivity and the cost of products. Suitable fixture design is crucial to

product quality (precision, accuracy, finishing of machined part). Traditionally machining

fixtures are designed and manufactured through trial –and –error which can be expensive and

time consuming. To ensure that a workpiece is manufactured according to specified dimensions

and tolerances it must be located and clamped correctly, making it imperative to develop tools

eliminating costly and time-consuming trial-and-error designs. According to Peng et al. CAD

technology plays a vital role in a fixture’s geometrical modeling and graphical rendering of

design solutions (27). Finding a set of locating modes involves many factors such as part type,

machine tool, process reference, existence of locating reference, and degrees of freedom that

need to be constrained. A methodology for automated reasoning of locating method with hybrid

use of RBR and fuzzy comprehensive judgment method was proposed. This provided a new

method to solve automated selection of feasible locating schemes and locating features with

input of information from a database and a 3D workpiece model. With the similarity measure,

the useful fixture case could be retrieved quickly and accurately. Integration of CBR into

computer-aided fixture design has to be studied in the future.

Bonnardel and Zenasni wrote an article The Impact of Technology on Creativity in

Design: An Enhancement? that describes how technology enhances creativity in design and how

designers have their own cognitive processes. Technology is the interface between designers and

the products they create and has to consider if it effectively enhances designer’s creative design.

This article used a cognitive process-centered approach where CAD and systems were assessed

based on a deep understanding of designers’ cognitive processes. It may seem attractive to use

new technology for performing tasks that otherwise would be difficult or impossible with

classical technologies. The use of new technologies may require a period of familiarization

before allowing users to benefit from new functionalities offered by such systems. Participants

were given short training prior to using a computational system that didn’t allow them to be

familiarized enough with the use of system for developing creative thinking. This means that

evaluating the impact of new techniques on creative activities should be performed only after the

participants are fully familiarized with use of new technology. According to Bonnardel and

Zenasni New technologies are helping designers easily express their creativity as well as assess

their own ideas and solutions. Technologies are contributing to divergent and convergent

processes that underlie creativity (183). Users’ characteristics are taken into account in order to

allow a system to support more efficiently specific stages of the creative process.

While some technology enhances creativity, other technology can shorten the time it

takes to complete a step in the design process. Kaur wrote an article How Is "Internet Of The 3D

Printed Products" Going To Affect Our Lives? which describes how 3D printing changes that

can design products and what impact it has on the healthcare industry. 3D Printing is the creation

of physical objects out of digital data by way of 3D modeling and scanning. Layers of materials

like plastics and rubber are printed one on top of the other to create an object.

According to Kaur

The real life collaboration enabled by Internet of People has been brought to us with

various social networking technologies. The real life monitoring and managing enabled

by Internet of people has been brought to us by various Machine to Machine (M2M)

technologies. Now, we are looking at a third kind emerging future I am coining as:

“Internet of 3D Printed Products” (360).

The internet of 3D products is made up of intangible services and tangible goods that can be sent

to computers over the internet. 3D printing can be used in the healthcare industry to print things

like drugs and tactile aids for the visually impaired. 3D printing can be used during multiple

stages: pre-production for rapid prototyping, production for rapid manufacturing and as a tool for

post-production customization. Personal factories in which consumers have control over the

shape and properties of the objects they are creating will replace the mass pre-production of

objects. Some of the challenges of 3D printing include load bearing or heavy products can‘t be

manufactured easily at home. Intellectual property issues can arise in the replication or creation

of an object scanned at home.

3D printing is just 1 of many ways to create a prototype. Rational Embracing of Modern

Prototyping Capable Design Technologies into the Tools Pool of Product Design Teams was

written by Polydoras et al. that describes modern prototyping and that there are 5 types of

prototyping. It also mentions alternatives in the 80s in the history of prototyping and the design

process. The problem is that design target is based on embracing available prototyping

alternatives into a tools pool of design teams in an integrated way. The solution to this problem is

to consider cost-time benefits, reducing production risks and design repeatability and

independence. According to Polydoras et al., a prototype is defined as a model of an object that

incorporates characteristics of new product under development that allows designers to test

various aspects of ideas before committing to the costs and risks of producing commercial

quantities (2). This means that design teams must be given information and insight to a variety of

product technical attributes of form, fit and function. Until the1980s, the full range of

prototyping alternatives included sketches, blueprints, handcrafted and conventionally machined

models. During the 1980s and 1990s Information Technology and Computer-Aided applications

created prototypes that were defined as either physical (tangible objects) or virtual (computer-

generated digital representation or simulation).Currently, in addition to established conventional

prototyping methods (wood sculpted models, hand drafted sketches) Information Technologies

support numerous alternatives that can be considered time and cost effective prototype solutions

like Virtual Reality, 3D CAD Models & Virtual Prototyping as well as tangible object solutions

like High Speed CNC Machine parts and Rapid Prototypes. A possible additional solution could

be the integration of models with relational databases that contain actual vendors, bureaus,

technologies, machines and software to preform prototyping tasks. A 2nd Decision Step could be

that the user is then assisted to select families or classes of prototyping solutions as well as

specific machines and systems in place or at a service bureau that are based on actual values of

product parameters such as overall dimensions, tolerances on specific critical dimensions and

surface quality and engineering materials.

While some say there’s a complicated way to decide what prototyping method to use

others say products should be more simplified. Billing and Cordingley wrote an article Some

Kind of Analogtivity: Anti-Simulation through Design that describes how a product designer’s

role & responsibilities have been redefined. It also mentions how new design approaches have

reshaped the tech-minded environment and discusses analogtivity. Internet, wireless

communications and software developments are enabling today’s products to exist as many

different forms, spaces and markets. The boundary between what’s seen as a product has become

distorted. Technological products exist as mediators of a variety of new virtual spaces and

experiences that go into complex information systems and physical environments. The

connection between objects, information and space is evolving and traditional static isolated

design views need to be abandoned for more fluid multidisciplinary approaches. New approaches

to design are now needed to create products that will help reshape our technologically mediated

environment into an environment that fosters social enrichment and quality experiences. User-

friendly design approaches pioneered by the human factors community are a strong influence

today. According to Billing and Cordingley, Theorist Paul Virilio believes the way to close the

gap between people and technology is to design user-friendly interfaces by humanizing

technology is problematic (102). Cultural problems from current methods of user-friendly

interaction design are complicated. The rapid miniaturization of technology has resulted in tiny

computers in every object. Computing and telecommunications have given rise to a new breed of

intelligent and incomprehensible or multi-faceted social organizational mechanisms. Technology

is full of ironies: people want to be able to use, sell and harness technology with immediate

benefits because technological products useful, yet without it business would collapse and most

organizations and institutions would not be able to function. Designers need to find new ways of

developing technological products that allow for an advanced dialogue with people encouraging

a type of “active interaction” that will enable individual expression and enhance human

experiences. Some kind of analogtivity needs to be developed with a new design aesthetic that’s

critical, reflective and realistic. It also needs to acknowledge and embrace the social, cultural and

economic relevance of design. New forms of analogtivity should be culturally driven by

combining practice and theory by imagining potential of experiences that new technologies

might mediate and then questioning and exploring the role new technological products might

play in people’s lives by defining the raw qualities of technology by 1st understanding how it

works.

A designer’s role & responsibilities have been redefined as they continue to evolve. Good

Design is Good Business was written by Kuang that describes how innovation and design are

linked. It also discusses the symbiosis that exists between design and business. It also says good

design is profitable. Innovation goes through phases of technical inventiveness and packaging it

for mass acceptance. In personal technology the integration phase is on the heels of fundamental

advances like the Internet. The backend magic is becoming a cheap utility user interfaces have

become a startups’ best chance for a breakout. Because innovation is today is linked with design,

design has become a distinct advantage in numerous industries as well as being an all too

important tool to ward off commoditization. According to Kuang Apple’s rise gives important

lessons about today’s connection between design and business: design gives a company the

opportunity to stroke the customer’s lust and demand higher prices for it (82). Whirlpool is

changing from being a manufacturing-based company to being product company because the

Vice Presidents believes it’s not just about cost cutting because good design very profitable.

During the first dotcom rush online enterprises had to build infrastructure from scratch so

engineers were vital. Now you don’t need infrastructure to be successful. Bump had 1 million

users before spending $4,000. They didn’t need infrastructure due to Amazon’s server-hosting

service or advertising due to social media. They didn’t have to worry about problems with

distribution due to the App store or development issues because of Apple’s software developer

kit. Work is only possible when designers are reporting directly to chairman of the board because

design has to be insulated at a high level. Any maturing industry no longer has back end details

as an advantage with manufacturing outsourced to China and distribution channels via the

Internet. Fundamental design improvements prove a company’s worth to its customers with

every use.

A designer’s role & responsibilities continue to evolve both in America and abroad.

Using Collaborative Technology For Triz Innovation Methodology was written by Liou and

Minder that describes using technology to collaborate and creative problem solving. According

to Liou and Minder TRIZ (Theoria Resheneyva Isobretatelskehuh Zadach) was created by a

former member of the Russian Navy and was based on innovation patterns and principles

according to the analysis of the evolution of successful products (14). It offers a way to

overcome psychological barriers and generic process to find innovative ways to improve product

design. TeamSpirit is a web based group design system based on the group problem solving

process. It supports the creative problem solving and encourages group participation in idea

generation, consolidation and evaluation. The authors propose an improved product innovation

framework based on TRIZ and augmented with collaborative technology. TRIZ and TeamSpirit

reduce the randomness of traditional brainstorming while preserving the natural creative process.

Refinement is needed to map various group tools in TeamSpirit to various activities in TRIZ

methodology. Those who support TRIZ criticize brainstorming and generic creative problem

solving techniques as too broad and random, while TRIZ is criticized for being too strict and

may stifle innovation. TeamSpirit is defined as an online meeting platform that can be

customized to support the TRIZ process as a multi aspect-brainstorming tool that uses design

parameters or inventive principles to guide idea generation activities in the design process. This

in turn reduces the randomness of traditional brainstorming while preserving the creative nature

of the process. Multi criteria decision-making tools are used in evaluating the appropriateness of

problem definitions and feasibility of design alternatives or creative solution ideas. Tools when

properly used can support the building of a contradiction matrix and double loop learning part of

proposed framework. Refinement of the proposed framework is needed to map various group

tools in TeamSpirit to various activities in TRIZ methodology.

This research is different from other studies because the articles go into varying depths

into the design process. Some articles discuss the overall design process and how it should

change in order to evolve. Other articles go into specific processes that make up the design

process, describe how they aren’t working, and need to be improved. I hypothesized that

technology’s evolution has improved industrial designers’ works.

IV. Methodology

The research methodology I chose was a mixed methods approach involving qualitative

research and descriptive quantitative research because there are different opinions on how

technology has improved the works of industrial designers. I used the purposive sampling

method by asking questions to those within the field of industrial design. My questionnaire

contained both open-ended and specific questions. I posted a link to a survey on a forum I am a

member of on LinkedIn, a page on Facebook as well as emailed my professors with a

questionnaire. The limitations of my research methodology are the quality of my questions and

interpreting the answers.

V. Results

The participants were professors, students and other professionals I am connected with

via LinkedIn, LinkedIn groups and the Robert Busch School of Design Facebook Page. I

received 27 responses over the course of a week. The participants had from May 8th until May

11th to complete the survey. The survey results only recorded IP Addresses.

Frequency, Collaboration, Research, Future

When asked about the frequency in which technology is used to create sketches vs.

creating sketches by hand 40% of the responders said sometimes, while 4% said never. When

asked how often collaboration is used through technology to communicate ideas with others in-

person vs. in other places 36.36% of the responders said sometimes, 40.91% said most of the

time and 0% said never. When asked how routinely technology is used for research vs. trial and

error with prototypes 54.55% of the responders said sometimes and 0% said never. When asked

about the regularly with which concepts and problem-solving was explored with technology vs.

manually 31.82% of the responders said sometimes and 0% said never. When asked what

technology will look like in the future respondents said programs and machinery will become

more sophisticated and hopefully easier to navigate and machines reducing in cost/scale while

increasing the amount of detailing that can be achieved. When asked for additional comments

respondents said artistic appearance us useful for marketing and sallies, but math-based technical

development and analysis should always lead when it comes to true design. CAD/CIM/CAE can

be very useful in streamlining technical design.

How routinely technology is used for research vs. trial and error with prototypes

Ranking Statements

Respondents were asked to rank 5 statements in order of importance. When discussing

the impact of technology on developing relationship with potential clients & maintaining

relationships with current clients 35% of the respondents ranked it #3. When talking about the

ability to select right technology for the job when compatibility amongst different

platforms/types of technology a factor (CAD rendering, testing, etc.) 29.4% ranked it #1. When

considering sufficient access to needed technology (3D Printer, 3D scanner, etc.) 33% of the

respondents ranked it #2 and 33% of respondents ranked it #5. When considering satisfaction

with how your company uses technology to communicate within the company and with other

companies 36.8% ranked it #4. When discussing technology’s future role in supporting business

growth 45% ranked it #5.

Evolution of Technology

Respondents were asked to describe how the evolution of technology has improved

industrial designer's works in 5 categories. When discussing CAD software the respondents said

that in terms of 3D solid modeling, it allows them to explore prototypes without material or labor

costs and it lets them get accurate bids from outside. When talking about 3D printers respondents

said it allows for a faster turnaround to prototypes and gives the ability to test concepts without

thinking it through at the CAD stage but experiencing it through handling the physical prototype.

When considering Adobe (Photoshop, Illustrator, InDesign) respondents said the interface

changes in the Adobe suite makes the programs easier to navigate and easier on the eyes

reducing eye fatigue/strain. When discussing Wacom tablets respondents said, it’s easier to

commit than pen to paper and its ability to modify/tweak/undo/improve hand eye coordination.

When talking about other technologies respondents said Sketchbook pro/ designer is a great

program to digitally draw with vectors rather than pixels and it feels more natural than drawing

out designs in Illustrator because you don’t need to use the “pen” tool. When asked what can be

done to improve technology's utilization across different platforms within a company and

between companies respondents said make technology an open platform to promote

collaboration with the design/marketing business and manufacturing groups.

VI. Discussion

This paper analyzed how technology’s evolution has improved industrial designers’

works. Some say online meeting platforms with a brainstorming tool helps designers come up

with the best ideas. Others say 3D printing useful in pre-production, production, post production

customization. In addition, some say technology is contributing to convergent and divergent

processes underlying creativity. In contrast, there are those who say early studies showed CAD

having negative influence on creative design. Others in contrast have criticized TRIZ (Russian

acronym for Theory of Inventive Problem Solving) for being too strict & stifling innovation.

Technology can be an issue if a designers’ client has different CAD platform than the designer,

which results in drawings being distorted or not understood by the client’s software. According

to Professor Martins “Hand sketching is the best way to convey spontaneity and fluid ideation

however technology when used appropriately can convey a more realistic rendition when an idea

relies upon a very specific element i.e. a tangent arc for a specific manufacturing process is best

conveyed with CAD technology for accuracy”. In other words, there is a balancing act between

when to use technology and when not to. There is still room for improvement. Technology is

affected by management’s willingness to adopt the latest software or way of doing business to

set them apart from other companies. More study is needed on emerging technologies or

developments within technology for example, where 3D printing is headed in the future in terms

of materials used and applications. Some of the challenges with this project included recognizing

the depth into the articles vs. audience (industrial design vs. public). Another challenge was

being able to focus long enough to type vs. mental fatigue. Yet another challenge was knowing

what I think about what I was reading because some of the articles’ writing styles were dry. Next

time I would do some things differently. I would work on my project every weekend during

semester, test the survey beforehand, publish the survey with deadline and start survey sooner. I

hypothesized that technology’s evolution has improved industrial designers’ works. The results

of my survey supported my hypothesis.

VII. Conclusions

My intentions with study were to find out how technology has affected industrial

designers’ works and see what others thought. I found out technology can help or hinder a

designer as they go through the design process. I also discovered that there are still areas that

need improvement, like having software that can work with the clients’ software easily so it

doesn’t slow down the design process.

VIII. References

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